AGR1C. LIBWWT INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR TROPICAL AGRICULTURE (L'ASSOCIATION SCIENTIFIQUE INTERNATIONALE D'AGRONOMIE COLON IALE ET TROPICALE) Transactions of the Third International Congress of Tropical Agriculture HELD AT THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE, LONDON, S.W. JUNE 23RD TO 30TH, 1914 Papers communicated to the Congress VOL. II Xondon JOHN BALE, SONS & DANIELSSON, LTD. OXFORD HOUSE 83-91, GREAT TITCHFIELD STREET, OXFORD STREET, W i. 1917 AGR1C. LIBRARY PREFACE. THE first volume of Transactions of the Third Inter- national Congress of Tropical Agriculture contains the papers presented to the Congress on the following subjects : Technical Education in Tropical Agriculture ; Organization of Agricultural Departments in Relation to Research; Agricultural Credit Banks and Co-operative Societies; Sanitation and Hygiene on Tropical Estates; Legislation against Plant Diseases and Pests; Cotton; Fibres; Rubber. The present volume contains the remainder of the papers selected for publication. As in the case o»f Vol. I, the papers contributed by the Portuguese Section of the International Association for Tropical Agriculture in Lisbon are not included, as they have been printed separately and distributed to members of the Congress. The papers from Portugal relating to the subjects included in the present volume are as follows: — " Monographic de la Societe du Madal, Chr. Thams et Cie." Par Theophile Bonnet. " La Guinee Portugaise." Par Carlos Pereira. " La Terre, le Capital et le Travail dans ITnde Portu- gaise." Par Dr. Caetano Gongalves. " La Main-d'ceuvre aux lies de Cabo Verde." Par Francisco de Paula Cid. " Organisation et Recrutement de la Main-d'oeuvre dans la Province de St. Thome et Prince." Par Jose Joaquim Xavia de Brito. " La Main-d'oeuvre indigene a Angola." Par J. A. Alves Rogadas. " Organisation du Travail et Fournissement de la Main-d'oeuvre dans la Colonie Portugaise de Timor." Par Jay me Augusto Vieira da Rocha. " Contribution pour 1'Etude des Herbages d'Angola." Par Joaquim Pratas. 534127 CONTENTS. PAGE PREFACE ... iii CEREALS THE PRODUCTION OF WHEAT IN THE TROPICS. By A. E. Humphries ...• i RECENT WORK IN AUSTRALIA ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF WHEAT. By F. B. Guthrie, F.I.C., F.C.S. With an Appendix on the Possible Extension of Wheat Production in Australia 20 L' AMELIORATION DE LA CULTURE DU BLE EN ALGERIE ET EN TUNISIE. Par fimile Baillaud 48 THE INDIAN CEREAL TRADE. By Frederick Noe'l- Paton 62 BURMA RICE. By A. McKerral, M.A., B.Sc. ... 93 THE PRODUCTION OF MAIZE, WITH SPECIAL REFER- ENCE TO SOUTH AFRICA. By Joseph Burtt- Davy, F.L.S. 103 SUGAR. THE SUGAR-CANE IN INDIA. By C. A. Barber, Sc.D. Cantab., F.L.S. 118 THE CLASSIFICATION OF INDIAN SUGAR-CANES. By C. A. Barber, Sc.D. Cantab., F.L.S 131 VI CONTENTS PAGE SUGAR PRODUCTION IN THE NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE, INDIA. By W. Robertson Brown and J. Walter Leather, Ph.D., F.I.C 146 THE SUGAR INDUSTRY OF QUEENSLAND. By Harry T. Easterby ... ... ... ... ... ... 150 LA PRODUCTION SUCRIERE A L'!LE DE CUBA. Par Rafael Martinez Ortez 157 SUGAR-CANE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN BRITISH GUIANA. By G. E. Bodkin, B.A., Dip.Agric. Cantab., F.Z.S., F.E.S 160 PALMS AS A COMMERCIAL SOURCE OF SUGAR. By H. E. Annett, B.Sc.Lond., F.I.C., F.C.S. ... 165 COCOA. THE QUALITIES IN CACAO DESIRED BY MANU- FACTURERS. By N. P. Booth and A. W. Knapp 169 THE GOLD COAST COCOA INDUSTRY. By W. S. D. Tudhope 176 COCOA IN THE SOUTHERN PROVINCES AND COLONY OF NIGERIA. By W. H. Johnson, F.L.S 189 NOTES ON CACAO CULTIVATION EXPERIMENTS. By Professor P. Carmody, F.I.C., F.C.S 200 LA CULTURE DU CACAOYER AU MAYUMBE (CONGO BELGE). Par J. Claessens 214 ESTUDIOS SOBRE EL CULTIVO DEL CACAO EN FERNANDO Poo. Por Emilio Gomez Florez 224 TOBACCO. THE PRODUCTION OF TOBACCO IN NYASALAND. By J. Stewart J. McCall, P. A.S.I., C.D.A.Glas. ... 236 CONTENTS Vll PAGE THE CULTIVATION AND FERTILIZATION OF TOBACCO IN THE UNITED STATES. By William S. Myers, D.Sc. 248 THE CULTIVATION OF TOBACCO IN THE VORSTEN- LANDEN OF JAVA. By Dr. H. Jensen 259 A SHORT SURVEY OF THE WORK OF THE TOBACCO- TESTING STATION IN DELI. By Dr. L. P. de Bussy 268 A SHORT SURVEY OF THE TOBACCO CULTIVATION IN BESOCKI, JAVA. By Dr. A. J. Ultee 278 OILS AND OIL SEEDS. PALMOL IN DEN DEUTSCHEN KOLONIEN. Von Direktor Fr. Hupfeld 281 CONTRIBUTION AU PROBLEME DU BUDGET ALIMEN- TAIRE DE L'ELAEIS : CALCUL DES ELEMENTS NUTRITIFS ENLEVES PAR LES PLANTATIONS DE PALMIERS A HUILE. Par Gaston Williame ... 301 COCONUT PLANTATIONS IN THE INTERIOR OF AFRICA. By Professor Edm. Leplae 311 RlCERCHE SULLE FORME COLTURALI DI OLIVO DELLA TRIPOLITANIA. Per il Dott. Oberto Manetti ... 315 RlSULTATI ANALITICI DELLE RlCERCHE SU ALCUNI OLII DELLA TRIPOLITANIA. Per il Dott. Alessandro Moreschini 327 THE FIXED OILS OF CEYLON. By Alfred Lewis, F.L.S. ... ... 33i SUR LA COMPOSITION DE DIVERSES GRAINES OLEA- GINEUSES DE L'AFRIQUE FRANCAISE. Par M. Alexandre Hebert 343 Vlll CONTENTS PAGE LES EXIGENCES DE L' INDUSTRIE METROPOLITAINE EN MATIERES GRASSES DES COLONIES ET PAYS TROPICAUX. Par M. Alexandra Hebert ... 354 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS. SOME NOTES ON CERTAIN POINTS IN RELATION TO THE PROBLEM OF SOIL FERTILITY IN THE TROPICS. By H. A. Tempany, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S. ... 360 FERTILITY SURVEY OF THE EGYPTIAN DELTA. By B. F. E. Keeling, M.A 366 THE WATER SUPPLY OF EGYPT, 1913-14. By B. F. E. Keeling, M.A. ... 370 I TERRENI AGRARI DELLE COLONIE ITALIANS. Per il Dott. Armando Maugini 381 COSTITUZIONE GEOLOGICA E REGIME IDROGRAFICO BELLA SOMALIA ITALIANA MERIDIONALS. Per il Professore Giuseppe Stefanini ... ... 397 NOTE SUR LA FERTILITE NATURELLE DES TERRES DE LA VALLEE DU Mo YEN-NIGER. Par M. J. Lemmet 403 MALAYAN RUBBER AND COCONUT SOILS. By M. Barrowcliff 410 THE MANURING OF BANANAS. By J. C. Briinnich, F.I.C ... 422 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS. THE KARAKUL SHEEP, THE PRODUCER OF " PERSIAN LAMB " AND OTHER FURS OF OVINE ORIGIN. By Robert Wallace, F.R.S.E. 435 CONTENTS IX PAGE THE UTILIZATION OF SUN POWER FOR IRRIGATION AND OTHER PURPOSES IN TROPICAL AGRICULTURE. By Frank Shuman 462 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS IN THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN. By H. P. Hewins 473 THE ECONOMIC RESOURCES OF BRITISH SOMALILAND. By R. E. Drake-Brockman, M.R.C.S.Eng., L.R.C.P.Lond 488 INTORNO ALLA FLORA DELLA SOMALIA ITALIANA MERI- DIONALE. Per il Professore Guido Paoli ... 501 THE ECONOMIC RESOURCES OF THE TERRITORIES OF THE COMPANHIA DO NvASSA. By Vicente Almeida d'Eca ... ... 504 L'ALTIPIANO DI BENGUELLA IN RAPPORTO ALLA COLONIZZAZIONE BIANCA. Per il Professore Dino Taruffi 526 THE PROGRESS OF NATIVE AGRICULTURE IN CEYLON. By C. Drieberg, B.A., F.H.A.S 534 THE PROSPECTS OF DRY FARMING IN CEYLON. By C. Drieberg, B.A., F.H.A.S 539 PRESENTATION DES STATISTIQUES DU COMMERCE DES COLONIES FRA^AISES. APERCU STATISTIQUE DU MOUVEMENT D'EXPORTATION DES PRINCIPAUX PRODUITS DES COLONIES FRANCAISES PENDANT LA PERIODE DECENNALE, 1904-1913. Par Ch. Vergnes 543 SOME NEW OR LITTLE-KNOWN PHILIPPINE PRODUCTS. By O. W. Barrett ... 586 A SHORT REVIEW OF THE LABOUR CONDITIONS AND THE PROVISION OF LABOUR ON THE AGRICUL- TURAL, MINING AND OTHER ESTATES IN THE NETHERLAND EAST INDIES. By P. A. Moofrrees 601 CONTENTS PAGF SGUARDO COMPARITIVO DEI SISTEMI DI CONCESSIONE BELLA TERRA NELLA COLONIZZAZIONE CON BIANCHI. Per il Professore Dino Taruffi ... 618 NOTE ON THE MANGROVE FORESTS OF BRITISH INDIA. By R. S. Pearson, F.L.S 625 FRUIT CULTURE IN THE TROPICS. By H. F. Macmillan 634 AGRICULTURAL SANITATION IN THE GOLD COAST. By W. H. Patterson ... 645 COFFEE-LEAF DISEASE (HEMILEIA VASTATRIX, B. ET BR.) IN UGANDA. By S. Simpson, B.Sc. WITH A NOTE ON THE PRESENT POSITION. By W Small, M.A., B.Sc .' 652 IL R. GlARDINO COLONIALE DI PALERMO E LA SUA ATTIVITA. Per il Professore A. Borzi 655 DELL'USO DELL'ACIDO CLORIDICO, o DI ALTRE SOSTANZE ACIDE MlNERALI, E DI SOSTANZE SPECIALI, PER LA CONSERVAZIONE E BUONA MATURAZIONE DEI FORAGGI IN SILO, NEI CLIMI CALDI. Per il Professore Italo Giglioli ... 662 LE LANE DELLA TRIPOLITANIA E MEZZI PER MIGLIOR- ARLE. Per il Dott. Alberto Caselli 691 PUBLICATIONS DEVOTED TO TROPICAL AGRICULTURE AND RESEARCH. By W. R. Dunlop 700 CEREALS. THE PRODUCTION OF WHEAT IN THE TROPICS. By A. E. HUMPHRIES. Past President of the National Association of British and Irish Millers. THE quantity of wheat produced in tropical countries is relatively unimportant. In some it is indigenous, and in those cases interest centres on the efforts of scientists to supplement the empirical knowledge acquired by many generations of growers; in others it is exotic, and the story of the difficulties encountered, the efforts made, and the success achieved in introducing and adapting wheat to entirely new environments is full of interest. Wheat flourishes in temperate climes, and is regarded as a most important product of the temperate zones, but it must not be forgotten that temperate climes exist also in the tropics; altitude may be as important as latitude, so we find that an appreciable quantity is already produced there. Let me briefly review the position from that point of view. America. — Although Mexico does not produce enough for her own requirements, she does, nevertheless, grow about 2,000,000 quarters per annum, almost entirely in the torrid zone, but on the central tableland, at an altitude of 6,000 to 10,000 ft. The Central American States produce moderate quan- tities of wheat, though not enough for their own require- ments, and comprise districts in which the climate and soil are favourable to wheat production. Indeed, it is said that in the provinces of Copan and Intibuca, in Honduras, and on the highlands of Guatemala, the conditions are favourable, or very favourable, for that purpose. I •*l»l ••*,*£ 2 CEREALS The W>J2 Indies appear to depend wholly on outside sources for their cereal supplies. In Venezuela the production of wheat is very small, but "fine crops" are produced in the high tablelands and valleys of the mountainous districts of Western Venezuela. In Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia a small quantity of wheat is produced, quite insufficient for local demands; but Ecuador, situated though it is on the Equator, pro- duces enough for its own requirements, and in some years exports small quantities to Peru. An encyclopaedia says that wheat is grown in Guiana, but I have never seen a reference to it in corn trade literature. Brazil has an experimental farm at Victoria Espiritu Santos, and has succeeded in growing there annually a small quantity of wheat, but the results up to now appear to be poor. Wheat has been grown in Minas Geraes. Other experiments have been made, and some are now being made near San Paulo, but, substantially, no wheat is produced in tropical Brazil. A little is grown in the State of Rio Grande do Sul, but that is in the temperate zone. Large quantities of wheat are imported into Brazil from the Argentine. Sudan. — In recent years a good deal of attention has been given to wheat growing in the Sudan, and I will later on refer in some detail to the results obtained, but .at this juncture all I need say is that substantial quantities are being produced in the province of Dongola, and that in 1912-13 the total area under wheat in the Sudan was returned as 30,000 acres. Abyssinia. — In Abyssinia wheat appears to have been for a long time one of the staple crops, and bread one of the regular articles of diet. Wheat can be grown at low altitudes as well as on the higher lands; but, so far .as I am aware, no attempt has been made to state in figures the quantity produced in the country, none is exported, and small quantities of wheat and wheaten flour are imported. To me the most interesting point concerning Abyssinian wheat is the 'existence of a purple skinned variety. It is used especially in the manufacture of a bread known as Dabo, which resembles rye bread. CEREALS %5 British East Africa. — I have not seen any figures giving the total quantity of wheat produced in the East African Protectorate and Uganda, but a report on agricultural matters says that 3,000 to 4,000 acres were sown in one recent season on the " plains of Njoro." The natives appear to prefer maize, beans, millet, sesame, sweet and English potatoes, yams, bananas, etc., all of which can readily be grown in the country. White people want wheaten products, and there is a large demand for them, but Mr. Macdonald, the Director of Agriculture, E.A.P., in a letter which I have received from him, says that " with the better control of stock diseases, cattle raising, dairying, and pig breeding are being given more atten- tion than in the past, and are likely to become more important branches of farming than wheat growing." However, certain varieties of wheat appear to thrive on the highlands of the interior, and I will refer to the matter later on. Belgian Congo. — I have seen some interesting records of wheat growing in the Katanga district of the Belgian Congo, but the quantity produced appears to be very small. Rhodesia. — The white man needs wheaten products, and the natives " who have come in contact with civilization prefer wheaten or Boer-meal bread to their ordinary diet, while Cape boys and natives of a more advanced type from the South African Union, and employed in Rhodesia as transport drivers, usually receive a daily ration of unsifted wheat meal (Boer meal), which they make into bread. There thus already exists in Rhodesia a considerable demand for wheaten products, but this is mainly met by the importation of flour from Canada and Australia, and Boer meal grown in the South African Union . . . ." " There is no variety of wheat indigenous to Rhodesia, or, indeed, to any other part of South Africa, nor is the crop ever grown by the Rhodesian natives," but a great deal of experimental work has been done by the Rhodesian Department of Agriculture, and the results obtained indicate that Rhodesia in time will produce enough wheat to satisfy its own requirements, and be able to export some into the Belgian Congo State. 4 CEREALS Madagascar.— Small quantities of wheat have been produced on the higher lands in the interior of Madagascar, and flour of good quality has been produced from it, but difficulties in transport and the lack of a market for the by-products of milling prevent the profit- able production of wheat, and the flour required is imported from France. India. — The man in the street probably regards India as a tropical country, but only a moderate proportion cf her wheat crop is grown actually in the tropics. The wheat-growing districts of Bengal are situated in the north of that province, and are, therefore, not in the tropics. Excluding Bengal, Central India and Sind, and the great wheat fields north of those provinces, I find that about 6,000,000 of India's 30,000,000 acres, or. say, 20 per cent, of the whole area under wheat, is within the tropics. The total crop of India is about 45,000,000 quarters per annum, and of that quantity about 6,000,000 quarters are produced actually within the tropics. The yield per acre for the whole of India is about 12 bushels, and for tropical India about 6J bushels per acre. The smaller crop in the latter may be largely due to the fact that the great and beneficent work of irrigation is per- formed principally north of Cancer, but to some extent it is due to the fact that in tropical India the wheat has specially little time to tiller. Burma has about 40,000 acres under wheat. The advent of British troops seems to have been the immediate reason for the introduction of the white man's cereal into that country. Australia. — I shall be referring later on to investigations which have recently been made into the possibilities of tropical Australia (Northern Queensland, Northern Terri- tory, and Northern West Australia) as producers of wheat, but at this juncture I may dismiss them with the remark that substantially no wheat is produced there. The Commonwealth Year-book says there were 2 acres under wheat in the Northern Territory in 1911-12. For the purposes of the foregoing summary I have searched a good deal of literature, but beyond mention of the facts that some wheat is grown in Nigeria and German South- West Africa, I have seen nothing calling CEREALS 5 for recital herein concerning the parts of tropical Africa to which I have not referred. I wish now to direct your attention specially to the work concerning wheat accomplished and progressing in Rhodesia, British East Africa and tropical Australia, where it is exotic, and in India and the Sudan, where it is indigenous. RHODESIA. The distinction I have drawn -between the countries where wheat is exotic and indigenous is important. Empirical information, if it be derived from sufficiently long experience, is valuable. A modern investigator may encounter great difficulty in convincing growers of indigenous plants that their methods are capable of improvement, but he does at least start his work as to possibilities upon a basis of results already obtained, whereas the introducer of an exotic has little or nothing to guide him in his operations. This was the case in Rhodesia. Until quite recently no one had grown wheat there. Starting apparently on the assumption that it was likely to be a summer crop, it was grown during the rainy season (October to April), but the attempts were rendered unsuccessful by rust. Thus it came to be regarded as a crop for the dry winter months (May to September), and irrigation seemed to be essential. The next stage was the discovery of the fact that considerable areas of low- lying land, particularly in the granite formation, retained sufficient moisture throughout the winter months for the growing of winter crops without irrigation, so it is being grown as a winter crop both under irrigation and as an unirrigated crop on moisture-retaining soils. Even so, however, the production is still far below the require- ments of the country, and the Department of Agriculture has, therefore, devoted much attention to the creation of rust-resistant varieties which can be grown during the rainy season and be rotated with maize. It is very interesting to note that, although several varieties, in- cluding 2vjedeah, Belaturka, and Zwaartbaard, failed entirely owing to rust, some varieties were found which 0 CEREALS behaved satisfactorily. The Report of the Government Agriculturist and Botanist for the year 1912 contains the following reference to wheat: " The great problem . . . . is the prevalence of rust, and the attempt to solve this by the creation of hybrids has yielded promising results. Fifteen cross-bred strains of wheat, of which in most cases a variety known as Victoria was one of the parents, were grown as summer crops, and were resistant to rust and yielded well. . . . The grain of the hybrid shows a great improvement in quality as compared with that of Victoria wheat, and several strains promise greater rust resistance. ... In all fifty-two different strains of wheat were under trial." Last month I received information that most satisfactory progress has been made with this work, and that " the Department pos- sesses several varieties which have been grown success- fully as summer crops for the last three to five years." 1 am indebted to Dr. Eric Nobbs, the Director of Agriculture, and to Mr. Godfrey Mundy, the Govern- ment Agriculturist and Botanist, for the information upon which my remarks are founded, and the former includes a memorandum he kindly sent me as follows: " There thus appear reasonably good prospects of summer wheat becoming a staple Rhodesian crop in the not- distant future, and if this can be achieved the country will well be able to supply its own needs in regard to wheaten products. " The type of wheat found most suitable to Rhodesia is the common wheat (Triticum sativum), but European varieties have not been successful. Durum wheats have been discarded, and quick maturing varieties alone are now being grown. " Rust and smut are the only diseases by which the crop is as yet attacked. " The average yield under present methods of farming, and whether as a summer or a winter crop, is about 14 to 15 bushels per acre." As a commercial proposition wheat has had to compete principally with oat-hay and maize. The latter is the standard summer crop, and has predominated to such an extent that Southern Rhodesia was described a few years CEREALS 7 ago as " practically a one crop country." Now, owing to the success of scientific work, wheat growing has advanced in Rhodesia from the category of possibilities to that of probabilities. BRITISH EAST AFRICA. A good deal of experimental work has been done with wheat. In one year 200 different varieties were tested at one experimental station, the Kabete Government Farm. Experiments have also been made at other centres, and in this way information has been gained as to the districts which are suitable for wheat growing, and as to the varieties which do well/ in them. For instance, the loose friable soils of the highlands appear to be more adapted to the raising of barley than of wheat. Where the latter has often failed to produce a yield through the ravages of rust, barley has given good returns. Even in those districts where wheat is likely to be grown most of the varieties tried have been found to be useless, or relatively unfit, killed or damaged by rust. But there are notable exceptions. For instance, Rieti, grown on a fairly large scale, has for several successive seasons proved itself to be a fair yielder and only moderately susceptible to rust. Its disadvantages are that its straw is weak and does not stand up well, its ears are bearded and very lax, and the flour it yields is not highly esteemed. Bo'bs yields more grain per acre, and it is af superior quality; Gluyas, when first introduced, also did well, but both these Australian varieties have since become most susceptible to the attacks of rust, and cannot now be relied upon. Federation Thew and an Egyptian wheat also appear in the category of apparently satisfactory varieties, but Durums were very susceptible to rust, and some Indian and North Russian wheats tried failed to give satisfaction. In view of such results hybridizing and Mendeliati selection were adopted, and the results so far recorded are most interesting and satisfactory. At the outset of such work it was thought that only 8 CEREALS two forms of rust occurred in the country, viz., black rust (Puccinia graminis) and yellow rust (P. glumarum). Mr. Evans, the Government Botanist, having noted that certain varieties were susceptible to one of these rusts, and apparently immune or highly resistant to the other, proceeded to make crosses in the hope and expectation that among the progeny he would find one or more forms immune or highly resistant to both. It is recorded at a later stage that orange rust (P. triticina) has been found, and Mr. Evans proposes to proceed on the same lines to seek for a variety which is immune to all three. I need hardly say that the work will command a great amount of interest and sincere hopes for success. Up to now I have seen no announcement of the complete story, but in the Annual Report for 1912 of the Department of Agriculture, British East Africa, it is recorded that some of the new types produced by hybridizing and selection have for the past two generations resisted the " black stem rust " (P. graminis), the worst fungoid enemy to wheat in the country. A most encouraging result. I note in this connection that rust has been known to appear in wheat grown for the first time on virgin soil when no other wheat was growing within a thousand miles of it. Other wheat pests have been encountered, e.g., green fly (Toxoptera graminum) and two species of beetle {Phrynocolus crispatus, Fairm., and Gonocephalum, con- tractum, Gerst.), but the outstanding fact is that good yields, ranging from 20 to 36 bushels per acre, have been obtained. There are two distinct rainy seasons in the country, and it is possible to obtain two crops of wheat in one year. For instance, Rieti was sown in May, 1905, and harvested in the following September. It was then sown again at the same station, and harvested in March, 1906. I have seen other records showing the possibility of getting two crops in twelve or fourteen months; the one I have used shows they have been secured within ten or eleven months. This rapidity of reproduction is very useful to the breeder, but it does not appear to be good for commercial purposes. A constant succession of wheat CEREALS 9 crops appears to encourage pests, and a rotation of crops is recommended. One that is being tested is maize, wheat, beans, linseed. Manurial tests are being made, and, in spite of the apparent richness of the soil, an application of dung or compost seems to give greatly increased yields. The addition of phosphatic manure has a wholly beneficial effect on the wheat crop, for it strengthens the straw and renders it less liable to rust. No doubt the trials will be repeated on rust-resistant varieties. The environments required for successful commercial production are large, slightly undulating, open spaces at a considerable altitude where implements and machinery can be used to advantage. These are found near Njoro. Already some thousands of acres are producing wheat in that neighbourhood, and the employment of the modern machinery now available makes it possible to produce a crop at a low cost and without the employment of many farm hands. One of the Reports I have read says: " The impetus given by wheat growers in the Njoro district and the probable profits should induce others in the vicinity to take up wheat growing, and it is probable that the whole district between Njoro and Naivasha may in the near future be under this cereal. The vast plains stretching from Machakos to Nairobi, especially con- sidering the flatness of the land and its freedom from timber, offer every facility for growing wheat on a large scale." TROPICAL AUSTRALIA. Queensland. — From publications whkh the Official Secretary to the High Commissioner for Australia has sent me, I find that the 100,000 acres under wheat in Queensland are situated wholly in the temperate zone, and I may add in passing that only about 16 per cent, of the total area under cultivation in that State is situated in the tropics. I would also like to add that at the State Farm, Roma, which is about 200 miles south of Capricorn, Campbell's system of dry soil farming has been tried, and that in a dry season on land so treated about 19 bushels of wheat per acre had been obtained. The manager 10 CEREALS records that the rainfall in the four months, May, June, July, and August, which covers the period from sowing to earing, was 1*55 in., and that from the end of August till October, when the crop was harvested, it was 2*18 in. Detailed figures as to soil moisture are also recorded. For the four months the average figures for the top 6 in. are : Ordinary cultivation, 675 per cent. ; Campbell's farming, 10*07 Per cent.; for the following six weeks the figures are 9*83 and 14*61 per cent, respectively. The records I have seen do not say what yield was obtained from the same variety grown by ordinary methods, but the manager writes as follows: "So far the results do not point in favour of the Campbell's system as advocated, as the annual yields have been equal to, and in some instances better, than the biennial yields off the Campbell block for half the labour expended in preparation." The verdict so far appears to be unfavourable, but I have thought it desirable to mention the record, because it is the first I have seen referring to such tests made almost within the tropics, and labour in some parts of them is cheap . Northern Territory. — Mr. F. B. Guthrie, of Sydney, from whom at intervals I receive appreciated letters, tells me that the late Director of Agriculture for New South Wales, who recently returned from a trip in the Northern Territory, found (i) that a " Swedish farmer ninety miles inland from Port Darwin obtained some seed from India, and got good grain on light sandy soil and without rain for six months. " (2) That he saw some wheats grown on the Roper River about 300 miles further inland, results satisfactory, but only experimental. " (3) That lie considers there is plenty of good wheat land in the Territory, especially further south in the Barkley Tablelands." Western Australia. — The Commissioner for Tropical Agriculture, Mr. A. Despeissis, made in 1909 and 1910 an overland tour through tropical Australia to examine at first hand the conditions prevailing there. He writes that " wheat promises in an average season to be a profit- able crop as far north as the Gascoyne, and sheaves of CEREALS I I wheat I have brought back from gardens along that river stood 4 ft. high, grown without irrigation. Sown on carefully prepared fallow, it should in a fair season yield a heavy crop of grain. The problem of extending our wheat fields as far as the Gascoyne is one deserving serious attention. I entertain no doubt whatever that the prospect is a sound one, as far at least as Hamelin Pool and Sharks Bay, provided wheat growing is com- bined with sheep grazing. In a bad season the sheep could be turned into the failing crops, while, on the other hand, in unfavourable years yields as good as, if not superior to, those obtained in the most favoured localities of our wheat areas would be secured." I ought to point out that the Gascoyne is almost but not quite in the tropics. There is an " immense area of rich land " situated in these drier zones, and the discovery or production by hybridizing of varieties of wheat which will thrive on a very small rainfall would enormously increase the output of Western Australian wheat, and very appreciably increase the quantity available for the importing coun- tries. INDIA. Most valuable literature has been published concerning the production of wheat in India, therefore I need only deal with the more recent work accomplished in that country, and emphasize a few points which are in my opinion specially important. Wheat growing appears to be one of India's ancient industries, and the indigenous varieties have character- istics specially their own. In most countries wheat is matured and harvested in a period of decreasing tem- perature; in India those stages are passed in a time of rapidly increasing temperatures, and most varieties of great repute and value elsewhere are useless there. Should wheat grow slowly and the stage of grain forma- tion be two or three weeks late, the plant will probably shrivel and be fruitless. For instance, Canadian Red Fife, which grows rapidly in England and Canada, is useless to Indian farmers, because it does not grow rapidly enough there. 12 CEREALS Wheat straw in most countries is used for litter or is useless, -but in India it has to become, as bhusa (chaff), food for cattle. Hybridizers in many countries might do worse than use some Indian varieties in an attempt to impart to their wheats a straw which can be freely used as cattle food, but it must not be forgotten that varieties of great value in India may be useless elsewhere. And the converse is true, for we find Howard saying that " the introduction of exotic wheats into India has been a long record of failure." Indeed, one is driven to the conclusion that in countries where wheat has been grown for centuries it is wise to esteem highly the empirical knowledge acquired by generations of growers, and to be slow in discarding existing methods of cultivation. European methods have been tried in India and discarded; it has been found, on most points of agricultural practice, better to supplement and adapt rather than to discard native customs in this connection. These considerations have a bearing on the choice of varieties. For instance, threshing can best be done by bullocks; the wheat must therefore be allowed to become fully ripe, and as a consequence varieties are specially wanted which will hold their grain with a minimum of shedding when dead ripe. Nor must the breeder, in attempting to stiffen the straw, overlook the fact that it has to become food for cattle. Again, dung is used as fuel; but in India nitrogen is a ''limiting factor" as to yield, and farmyard manure appears to be the best fertilizer which can be added to the soil; so the problem on this point is to find a substitute for dung as fuel. The native, however, discovered long ago that leguminous plants acted as fertilizers, and it is a common practice to grow leguminous plants in rotation or actually mixed with wheat itself. In the Nanbada Valley, situated in the tropics, it is customary to grow wheat year after year without rotation, manure, or irrigation, but the natives almost invariably mix a proportion of gram with the wheat, and the soil appears to be more fertile now than it was in 1864. Even the leguminous weeds which grow freely in the wheat fields of the Punjab are credited with improving the crops by means of the nitrogen which they add to the soil. CEREALS J 3 At this point one of the very latest scientific discoveries comes in. The native usually allows his land to remain unploughed for a considerable time after the wheat has been removed, but it was noted at Pusa that if the soil were ploughed soon after harvest and exposed to the sun and wind during the intensely dry, hot weather of April, May, and June an astonishing effect was produced on the succeeding wheat crop, which appeared to have been manured with some nitrogenous fertilizer. The key to this riddle was subsequently supplied by Rothamsted. Apparently the sun in India supplies sufficient heat to kill off or diminish harmful soil organisms, and in that way adds to the supply of available nitrogen. One wonders to what extent the growers and consumers of wheat can benefit by this application of modern science — in other words, to what extent can sunshine replace the dung cart in hot countries. Does it provide one explanation for the benefits of fallowing in temperate climes ? Be that as it may, the variation of native practice as to the time of ploughing led at Pusa to a notable increase in the follow- ing crops. In India, and especially tropical India, the rust problem is of the greatest importance. In 1896 Watt estimated the annual loss from rust in India at upwards of 10 per cent. It varies from season to season, and is much greater in some districts than in others. For instance, " the damage done in the great wheat-growing tracts of the North- West is generally slight, while in Bombay, the Central Provinces, and in parts of the United Provinces and Bengal the crop may be reduced 50 per cent, or even more." Nor is the prevalence of rust a modern occur- rence, for in 1839 Sleeman, referring to rust in the tropical Central Provinces, wrote: "I have seen rich sheets of uninterrupted wheat cultivation for twenty miles by ten in the valley of the Narbada so entirely destroyed by this disease that the people would not go to the cost of gathering one field in four," and further: " I believe that the total amount of the wheat gathered in the harvest of 1827 in the district of Jubbulpore was not equal to the total quantity of seed that had been sown." I need not go on piling up evidence of the harm done 14 CEREALS .by rust. Everywhere it is the enemy, and more than usually dangerous in tropical India. Nor have I the time or inclination to review the botanical side of the rust problem. At one time I felt inclined to draw a moral from what I had read concerning it, but discretion came with increased knowledge, and I will leave the botany of rust to specialists, including the physiological problems .concerned with it. I may, however, refer to the latest work done in India to combat this pest. The first stage in the most modern attack on this enemy was to sort out the native varieties and note with precision how each was affected by rust in a succession of seasons. Working in the Central Provinces, G. Evans, of Hoshangabad, noted that some of the varieties commonly grown in that part of the tropics, such as White Pissi and Jalalia, were very susceptible to rust, whereas some little known varieties, such as Soharia. were highly resistant. The Howards, further north, not only sorted out the native wheats, but introduced some kinds which had in Europe been found to be immune or highly resistant to rust, such .as Einkorm, Emmer, and a variety known in England as American Club, found at Weybridge growing in a plot raised from seed taken from a commercial grade of United .States wheat. These wheats were grown with a measure of success, and crosses were made at Lyallpur between several varieties of Emmer and some native wheats which, .apart from rust, were otherwise desirable. But the Howards went still further. They found when crosses between these exotics and native wheats had been made that the progeny of the first generation did not thrive in India, so they enlisted the help of Professor Biffen, and in 1910 crosses were made at Cambridge between the rust- resistant wheat and some Indian varieties. This arrange- ment worked successfully, and the progeny sent to India .after the Fx stage (first generation) had been passed have thrived in India. I need not recite to this audience the methods and principles of hybridizing and Mendelian selection. Suffice it to say, that selected strains found in the progeny of the crosses have inherited and retained, when propagated in India, the desired characteristic of -rust resistance; and the Imperial Economic Botanist, in CEREALS 15 his last published Report, after mentioning that two series of these hybrids were then in the fourth generation, says that it " is by far the most promising material yet obtained at Pusa, and it is more than probable that the strong straw, rust resistance, and general vigour and hardiness of the English parent has been, as it were, introduced into Indian wheat." That immunity and susceptibility to rust is a Mendelian unit, and that by the application of Mendelism the rust problem is likely to be solved seems to me one of the most important discoveries of modern times, and I am exceedingly pleased that the first public announcement of it was made at a meeting of British and Irish millers over which I had the honour of presiding. Another important application of Mendelism concerns the milling and baking qualities of wheat. The theory is that "quality of endosperm" can be handled in hybridizing as a separate Mendelian unit, and therefore can be transmitted from an otherwise undesirable parent to an otherwise highly desirable child. Of course, I know that the theory has been attacked; but India, including tropical India, has provided the best proof on a large scale of its soundness. The theory was first enunciated in England, and was first applied to English wheat, but India has achieved a great and important result in applying this point more rapidly than we have been able to do at home. The reason for that is interest- ing. To obtain new varieties possessing the quality of endosperm we desire in England, one of the parents has to be an exotic wheat, and we do not know until it has been grown for several or many successive seasons how it will behave in its new environment, or whether the variety itself is homogeneous as to " quality of endo- sperm." The wheats hitherto exported from India have good points of milling and baking quality, but on the whole are relatively inferior according to* European or American standards of excellence. But the Howards and Leake, in sorting out the botanical jumble of Indian wheats, found that some indigenous varieties were of first-class quality, and they proceeded to apply the Mendelian theory. I have for several successive seasons tested the parents and the progeny, and I can, without l6 CEREALS the slightest hesitation, say that the new varieties are of the highest class, much superior to the Indian wheats of commerce hitherto exported. Up to now the natives for their own consumption did not like the varieties grown for export, but the new varieties are acceptable for both purposes. This is important, seeing that only 15 per cent, of the Indian wheat crop is exported. Furthermore, the quality remains first-class when the wheat has been grown on properly irrigated land. Best of all, the new varieties give the quietus to the criticism that it is impossible to combine fine quality and high yielding capacity in any one variety, for not only is their quality first-class, but the yields are most satisfactory. For lack of time I must refer inquirers to official publications for detailed information concerning various parts of India, but I must mention the following facts concerning tropical India. On the black soils of the Central Provinces the yield per acre very rarely exceeds 600 Ib. English, whereas recently yields very greatly in excess of this have been obtained with the new varieties. At Tharsa last year, one known as Pusa 7 yielded 1,240 Ib. per acre. The finest Indian wheat I have ever seen was grown at Raipur in 1911, and other samples grown then and in other seasons at Tharsa and Hoshangabad are of first-class quality. I must leave this most interesting part of my subject by saying that the prospects of successful wheat production in India have been very greatly improved in recent years, that the successes already achieved are substantial, and still greater ones are in sight. SUDAN. The principal food of the Sudanese is dura, and as yet the natives show no preference for wheat. They eat wheaten products when for some reason or another the supply of dura is small. To a very large extent agricul- tural production in the Sudan depends on irrigation, and on irrigated estates a three-course rotation is usually followed: cotton, wheat, and some leguminous crop. Of these three cotton is regarded as the important revenue-producing crop, and is preferred to wheat for CEREALS 17 two principal reasons : one, that it can be transported more easily; the other, that wheat land must be prepared and sown in November or early December in the begin- ning or middle of the busy cotton-picking season. !< For such reasons the Sudan Plantations Syndicate, Ltd., who cultivates 10,000 feddans (about 10,000 acres) in Berber Province, the largest single block of cultivation in the Northern Sudan, are abandoning wheat cultivation entirely, and it is probable that the same thing will happen in the large area to be brought under the Gezira Irriga- tion Works/' However, the recent history of wheat production in the Sudan is as follows: — The total area under wheat in 1909-10 was 19,681 feddans „ „ 1910-11 „ 26,972 1911-12 „ 29,193 i9I2-!3 » 3°>°39 a record which shows a substantial and progressive increase. The area for 1912-13 was distributed as follows: — In the Haifa Province ... ... ... 2,563 feddans Dongola Berber Khartoum White Nile Blue Nile 16,300 8,550 1,366 686 217 The Director of Agriculture and Forests, to whom I am indebted for much valuable information, tells me that wheat cultivation may increase somewhat in the North on the riverain estates of Khartoum, Berber, Dongola, and Haifa Provinces, and will certainly do so to some extent, as the basin irrigation schemes are perfected in Dongola, but that owing to distance of transport and the cost of production the important irrigation scheme south of Khartoum is not likely to lead to an export trade in wheat. But good crops can be grown there. For instance, I find in the records mention of yields ranging from 14 to 38 bushels per acre, the 38 bushel one produced under irrigation in the Gezira (" that vast plain now to be brought under irrigation in Blue Nile Pro- vince "). Rust and smut frequently occur, " but not to 2 1 8 CEREALS such an extent as to be a serious hindrance/' Wheat must be grown under irrigation, either artificial or by the rise of the Nile in flood. It cannot be grown as a rain crop, for the rainfall is restricted to the summer months, when wheat is unable to withstand the extreme heat. In 1909 I made milling and baking tests of six sample lots of wheats grown in the Sudan. I found some serious blemishes in them, such as excessive dirt and irregularity of type, but they possessed good points, and were similar to the Indian wheats of commerce. I was much interested in learning subsequently that I had placed at the head of my list "a sample of the wheat grown all over the Dongola Province " by the native cultivators. It was very far from being true to any one type, but some of the varieties it comprised must have possessed fine quality of endosperm, although I suppose they were indigenous. We see, therefore, from this brief summary of Sudanese wheat production, that the results are not unfavourable, and that under certain conditions wheat may become a much more important crop than it is at present or that it is likely to be in the near future. The Government of the country appears to have these possibilities in mind, and is carrying on much experimental work. GENERAL. When I began to prepare this paper I was afraid lest it would be profitless and uninteresting* to all concerned, a case of " trying to make bricks without straw," for corn trade literature is, apart from India, almost silent concerning the " Production of Wheat in the Tropics." But as I searched through much literature, a work in which I was greatly assisted by Dr. Henry and other officials of the Imperial Institute, and received the replies to my inquiries from the authorities whose names I have mentioned in the course of this paper, I began to realize that, in fact, my subject was interesting, and that its poten- tialities are important. From time to time we are told that the world will soon be producing an insufficient supply of wheat. In one celebrated case the fear was stated to be immediately allayed by the consideration that CEREALS 19 a large and relatively cheap supply of nitrogenous fertilizer can be obtained from the atmosphere. Incident- ally, I have to-day reminded you that scorching sunshine producing the same effect may also increase the supply of wheat. We have also seen how in large areas success- ful wheat production is prevented by rust and other plant diseases, and I have shown how the scientist appears to be overcoming this serious hindrance to profitable wheat production. Lack of moisture is another of these serious hindrances; and I have indicated how the engineer with his schemes of irrigation, and the agriculturist by con- serving soil moisture, and the botanist by providing varieties which will thrive on an exceedingly small rain- fall, all have a hand in the work. In short, how, by providing varieties, each one in the highest degree suitable for a given environment, and by providing environments each one optimum for given varieties, wheat growing may be made more profitable in existing wheat fields, and possible as a commercial proposition in enormous areas yet untilled. If the world's yield per acre were large the optimist had need be careful in his prophecies; but it is small, so even the pessimist may prophesy " smooth things " as to the future of wheat production when he contemplates the work in progress. The problem is not how to produce a quantity of wheat sufficient for the world's requirements, but how to do it profitably at the low prices which have been current for years. I cannot conceive reasons for anxiety in this matter. An increase of 20 per cent., or even 40 per cent, in the average yield per acre, may well be brought about by methods I have indicated; it may become possible to grow wheat profitably on large new areas at current prices; it certainly can be done if those prices advance, so that as regards the production of wheat in the world I am an optimist, and I invite you all to be so, too, not only on that point, but also as to the prospects of wheat pro- duction in the tropics. RECENT WORK IN AUSTRALIA ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF WHEAT. By F. B. GUTHRIE, F.I.C., F.C.S. Chemist, Department of Agriculture, New South Wales; Lecturer in Technology of Commercial Products, Sydney University. AT the meeting of the International Congress of Tropical Agriculture, held at Brussels in 1910, two papers were read dealing with wheat improvement in Australia, the one entitled " Work Done in the Testing of Wheat and Flour in New South Wales," and the other, " The Work of the late W. J. Farrer." In the present contribution it is proposed to review shortly the work done in the different States of the Commonwealth, and particularly during the past four or five years, towards the improvement of wheat, both by individual workers and as a result of departmental action. As was pointed out in the first of the papers re- ferred to above, the first concerted official action in the direction of studying and improving locally grown wheats was made in 1890, when an Interstate Conference was called to deal specifically with the question of com- bating rust, which was at that time very prevalent in all the States. In South Australia alone it was estimated that the damage due to this cause in 1899 amounted to £1,500,000. The result of these Conferences, at which the Agri- cultural Departments of all the States were represented, was to give an impetus to the systematic study of the wheat plant, with the special object of improving the grain itself, and the methods of soil treatment and crop production. Wheat-breeding stations were established by the various State Departments and systematic experi- ments were carried out at the farms and stations under Government control, in order to determine the best varieties for different districts, the most suitable manures, CEREALS 21 the best treatment of the soil, methods of combating disease, etc. Farmers were supplied with seed wheat, pure and true to name, advised as to their special requirements, and encouraged to experiment on their own account. The present paper will be confined to a review of the work done in the improvement of the grain itself, either by selection from types already established, or by the creation of new varieties by cross-fertilization. CHARACTERISTICS SPECIALLY SOUGHT FOR IN IMPROVED VARIETIES. The specific points to which attention has been more particularly directed in the production of improved types of wheat have been the following : — (1) Immunity against rust and other diseases. (2) Prolificness. (3) Drought resistance. (4) Improvement of milling qualities. (5) Creation of wheats for hay. (6) Creation of wheats for different districts. As the conditions of wheat growing in Australia differ in many material points from those prevailing in other countries, most of the above terms possess a significance different from that which attaches to them elsewhere. It must also be borne in mind that wheats which are pre-eminent locally on account of special characteristics are often failures, even as regards such characteristics, when grown abroad, and vice versa. The following short notes on the significance of the above terms as applied to Australian conditions may assist in a better understanding of the problems which confront local wheat growers. Rust Resistance. The qualities which confer rust resistance locally are by no means identical with those which are required in other countries. The disease itself exhibits certain characteristics which differentiate it from European or American rusts. Mr. D. McAlpine, Pathologist to the Department of Agriculture, Victoria, who is the Austra- lian authority on the subject, finds that of the three kinds 22 CEREALS of rust which attack the wheat plant, namely, Puccinia graminis, or black rust (summer), P. triticina, or brown rust (spring), and P. glumarum, or yellow rust (spring), the only one that is destructive in Australia is P. graminis; of the others, P. glumarum does not occur in Australia, and P. triticina does little or no damage. Mr. McAlpine has further shown that the life history of the black rust in Australia differs from its life history in Europe and America. A notable instance is the fact established by him that the barberry, which is said to act as intermediary host for this fungus in Europe, does not function in this capacity in Australia. Prolificness. In discussing the question of prolificness it is important to remember that this term also possesses a significance very different to that which it has in Europe. Harvests of fifty to sixty bushels to the acre are unknown on the Australian continent. The highest individual yield of which I can find any record as being obtained from a reasonable area is one of forty-three bushels given by a new Victorian variety, Common- wealth (see p. 32). The average yields per acre in bushels for the past five harvests in the individual States are as follows : — 1908-9 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 New South Wales ... 1 1 -i I 14-34 .. 13-11 10-54 .. 14-6 Victoria ... 13*12 1372 .. 14-52 9-65 •• 12-6 South Australia n'45 13-26 •• n'57 . 9'29 -. 10-3 Western Australia 8'63 12-48 .. 10-14 7-12 .. 11-6 Queensland 14-87 I3'4i •• 9-58 6-64 .. 15-8 Tasmania ... 24-08 21-41 .. 21-45 I7-73 •• 25-0 Commonwealth 11-89 13-73 12-90 9-64 12-5 It is to be noted that the Australian harvest is gathered between November and January, so that the figures for 1908-1909 give the harvest of November or December, 1908, and January, 1909, and represent the grain avail- able for 1909. Drought Resistance. The characteristics to be looked for in wheats for dry districts a're summarized as follows by Mr. McAlpine, who has made a special and extended study of the wheats CEREALS 23 suitable to the so-called Mallee district of Victoria : ' They must be early maturing to escape the hot winds, drought resisting, holding the grain well (since the grain must be dead ripe for harvesting with the stripper). They must, in addition, be good milling wheats, prolific, and fairly rust resistant." Milling Quality. Even with regard to the requirements of a good milling wheat there is a difference between Australian conditions and those obtaining elsewhere. In the first place, the Australian miller produces practically only one grade of flour — straight grade. Grades such as bakers', patents, households, etc., are hardly known, and only a small proportion of flour is exported. It is true that in the last few years an export flour trade is establishing itself, but the trade is not yet sufficiently extensive to modify existing methods to any extent. Moreover, the Aus- tralian miller deals only with locally grown wheats which are fairly uniform in character, so that blending as under- stood in other countries is unknown. The only modifications consist in the production of more or less offal, according to the state of the market. Consequently the characteristics of a wheat to be accept- able to the Australian miller are that it shall not differ greatly from the prevalent type, and that it shall yield a good quantity of straight grade flour of good colour and baking quality. WORK DONE IN THE IMPROVEMENT OF WHEATS IN THE DIFFERENT STATES. (i) NEW SOUTH WALES. Departmental Action. Wheat experiments are conducted at Cowra (the head- quarters for wheat breeding), Hawkesbury Agricultural College (representing the coastal districts), Wagga (representing the Riverina, the principal wheat producing district of the State), Bathurst (western Tablelands), Glen Innes (northern Tablelands), Nyngan and Coonamble (dry western country), and Yanco (under irrigation). It will thus be seen that the varying conditions as to 24 CEREALS climate, rainfall, etc., are represented at the different stations. At these stations the work includes: — (a) Pedigree plots of the main varieties grown on the farm. (b) Cross-bred varieties in course of fixation for local conditions. (c) Seed variety trials, including standard varieties, newly introduced wheats, and samples sent for identifica- tion. (d) Stud bulk plots to provide seed for planting the (e) Farm areas, which in their turn supply seed wheat to the farmers. In addition to the above colleges and farms there are seven or eight more, at all of which (except those specially established for viticulture, dairying, etc.) wheat growing is carried on. At Cowra, where the wheat breeding is carried on under the direction of Mr. J. T. Pridham (Mr. Farrer's successor), the principal work now being done is the cross-breeding and selection of wheats for special pur- poses and different districts. Mr. Pridham was an assistant to Mr. Farrer for three years, and has been in his present position of plant breeder since 1911. During the past season he has rejected a large number of crosses of inferior value, and has paid more attention to selection from existing crosses than to the creation of new ones. Attempts to secure varieties which are immune from bunt have been discontinued, as it was found that though highly resistant varieties had been produced, complete immunity was never secured, and it has been decided to rely on pickling seed-wheat, which has been found to be an absolutely reliable preventive. Mr. Pridham is of the opinion that with systematic selection plots and the use of clean machinery the farmer will be able to dispense with even this precaution. The elimination of the above work has made it possible to extend the area devoted to selections from crqss-breds. Fewer new crosses are made, but the number of selections from each cross has been increased. Selections are also made from field crops, for although their pedigrees are unknown, they often include useful CEREALS 25 material. These new wheats are presumably the result of natural cross-fertilization, a phenomenon which Mr. Pridham thinks occurs more frequently than is generally supposed. With regard to drought resistant wheats, several of the new varieties are extremely promising. It cannot, how- ever, be said of any of them that they are of such general value as Federation. Among these Mr. Pridham regards Sunset as the most promising. It is not, strictly speak- ing, a new wheat, as it is one of Mr. Farrer's original crosses, and had been rejected on account of its low flour strength. It is, however, likely to prove a very valuable variety, as it matures very quickly and possesses other characteristics which render it admirably suited to dry country conditions. It is being distributed this season. It is a cross between a sport from Blount's Lambrigg and a cross between White Fife and Summer Club. It is one of the earliest ripening kinds and amongst the most prolific in dry districts. Other new wheats which are being distributed this season are : — Bomen, one of whose parents is Red Potocka, and the other a cross-bred wheat containing Fife and Indian blood. It was first made in 1901 and proved bunt resistant. It ripens a little later than Federation, is a rather weak flour, prolific variety with good straw. Canberra, a cross between Federation and Volga barley (a two-row sort contained as an impurity in a sample of wheat received from Russia). Canberra is an early ripening prolific wheat, its defects being that it is rather weak in the straw and has a slight tendency to shell. It yields a high percentage of flour of first-rate colour and good strength. Nardoo is another promising cross containing Fife and White Naples amongst its parentage. It is a smut resistant variety and a particularly promising hay wheat, though good for grain also, yielding a flour of medium strength. At the other farms the wheats produced at Cowra are tested for their suitability for different districts and grown in the variety trial plots. The ones that prove 26 CEREALS valuable are grown on a larger scale in the stud plots and distributed to farmers. The following list, which gives the varieties recom- mended by the Department for the present season's sowing (1914-15), represents the final stage of the Depart- ment's action in this direction. The wheats marked with an asterisk are Farrer wheats : — WHEATS RECOMMENDED FOR CULTIVATION IN THE DIFFERENT DISTRICTS OF NEW SOUTH WALES. A. — Dual Pur-pose Wheats. Recommended for both Grain and Hay. Variety Bobs*... Cleveland * Comeback * » Firbank * Florence * Haynes Blue-stem Marshall's No. 3 Rymer * )> Thew * Warren * 5> Yandilla King*. Period of Sowing Districts Mid-season and late Early and mid-season Late ... Mid-season and late Mid-season and late Mid-season and late Very early Early ... Early and mid-season Mid-season Early and mid-season Mid-season and late Early, mid -season and late Mid-season Early ... Early and mid-season Central tableland ; central- western slopes Central tableland ; cooler por- tions of north-western slopes, central- western slopes, and south-western slopes South-western slopes and Riverina Central-western slopes ; west- ern plains Central-western slopes ; west- ern plains Central-western slopes ; south- western slopes and River- ina ; north-western slopes ; central tableland ; northern tableland ; western plains Northern tableland South-western slopes and Riverina Central tableland ; central- western slopes ; north-west- ern slopes Central tableland South-western slopes and Riverina ; central-western slopes ; north-western slopes Northern tableland ; central- western slopes Coastal Northern tableland ; central- western slopes ; north- western slopes ; western plains South-western slopes and Riverina Central tableland ; north- western slopes ; central- western slopes CEREALS B. — Wheats for Grain only. Not recommended for Hay. Variety Period of Sowing Districts Bunyip * ...{ Mid-season and late Late 1 Federation * ... Mid-season 1 South-western slopes and Riverina ; central-western slopes North-western slopes; western plains Central tableland ; south- western slopes and River- ina ; central-western slopes ; north-western slopes C. — Wheats for Hay only. Not recommended for Grain. Variety Firbank Huguenot John Brown Steinwedel Thew* Zealand Period of Sowing Districts Mid-season and late ...| South-western slopes and Riverina ; north - western slopes Early, mid-season and late j Coastal Early, mid-season and late j Coastal Early and mid -season ... Western plains ; central- west- ern slopes and drier portions of south-western slopes and Riverina Mid-season and late ...; Coastal ; south-western slopes and Riverina ; north-western slopes Early... ... ... Central tableland; south- western slopes and Riverina ; central-western slopes D. — Wheats suitable for Green Feed and Soiling. Variety Period of Sowing Districts John Brown* Huguenot Thew*... Florence* Early and mid-season Early and mid-season Early, mid-season and late Early, mid-season and late Coastal Coastal Coastal ; northern tableland ; north-western slopes Coastal 28 CEREALS E.— Wheats for further trial. Variety Cedar * Sunset Bom en Genoa * Canberra * Nardoo * Period of Sowing Early and mid -season Late ... Mid-season Early and mid-season Mid-season and late Mid-season Districts North-western slopes Western plains Central- western slopes ; south- western slopes and River- ina ; north-western slopes Northern tableland Central- western slopes ; south- western slopes and Riverina Central tableland ; northern tableland ; north-western slopes F. — Wheats to be Grown under Irrigation. In experiments carried out by the Department, the following wheats have given the best results when grown under irrigation for hay and green fodder : — (1) Zealand. (2) Marshall's No. 3. (3) Florence (late sowing). It will be noticed that of the twenty-three separate varieties recommended no less than eighteen are Farrer wheats. Another way in which the New South Wales Depart- ment encourages the study of wheat improvement, and, incidentally, the improvement of other crops, is by means of Farmers' Experiment Plots. These were introduced by Mr. G. Valder (Under-Secretary and Director of Agriculture) some years ago. As far as wheat is con- cerned, these include variety trials and manure experi- ments carried out by the farmers themselves under the supervision of an officer of the Department. The scheme has worked admirably in encouraging' farmers to take an interest in improved methods of cultivation and in select- ing the most suitable varieties of crops, and particularly in bringing them into close touch with the Department. These plots are now under the direction of Mr. Hugh Ross, Chief Inspector of Agriculture. No better proof could be afforded of the value of these plots as object lessons to farmers, and as factors in CEREALS 29 encouraging improved methods of cultivation, than a comparison of the average bushel yields of the experiment plots devoted to wheat with those of farmers working their land under ordinary conditions. The following table shows the average annual yield per acre for the State (New South Wales) for the past five years, together with the yields obtained from the Farmers' Experiment Plots. AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE IN BUSHELS 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 New South Wales ... ... 14-3 13-1 10-5 14-6 12-0 Farmers' Experiment Plots ... 24*0 1875 20*25 24'° 2I'° It is to be noted that the usual size of these plots is 10 acres, only a few being below this area and others running up to 25 acres, and that the increased yields are due to improved farming, such as selection of suitable seed, proper manuring, and particularly fallowing with subsequent cultivation to conserve moisture. The Agricultural Bureau system which has been intro- duced recently, and which originated in South Australia (see p. 37) must also be mentioned as one of the means by which the farmer is encouraged by the Department to im- prove his working conditions, and one which assists inci- dentally in wheat improvement. Some of these Bureaus have instituted what are known as " Seed- wheat growing competitions," which also originated in South Australia. These competitions extend over a number of years, the seed used each year being hand selected from the plot of the preceding year. The area is five acres; the ground must be clean or after long fallow, the seed graded and of a variety selected by the Department. The standing crop is cleaned as far as possible by hand-picking of wild oats, strange heads, etc. The award is made according to a scale of marks given for yield, purity of type, freedom from disease, bushel-weight, and general appearance. This scheme offers a strong incentive to the farmer to improve the quality of his seed wheat, and helps him to do so by systematic methods. The selection of seed to raise " stud plots " for the coming season by individual farmers, as distinguished 30 CEREALS from the above-mentioned bureau scheme, is also encouraged by the Department. The milling of wheats on a small mill and the testing of flour has been carried on in New South Wales since 1885. This has also been a factor in the improvement of wheat, in that it has enabled the breeder and grower to avoid the propagation of inferior grain and to improve local wheats in respect to milling excellence. The Depart- ment is also represented on the Grain Trade Section of the Sydney Chamber of Commerce, part of the activity of which body is to strike the standard of quality for shipping (the F.A.Q., or Fair Average Quality standard,). For many years the Department's mill has been utilized for the purpose of awarding the prizes in the wheat section of the Royal Agricultural Society's Show, the prizes being finally awarded to those wheats which give the best milling results. (2) VICTORIA. Departmental Action. Systematic work in the improvement of wheats by selection, combined with cross breeding, is carried out at the Government Experiment Farms and Stations at Dookie, Longernong, Rutherglen, Wyuna, and more recently at Werribee Research Station. Standard varieties are also grown for seed purposes in " stud plots " for distribution as seed wheat to farmers. An experimental flour mill is in operation on which new varieties can be tested for their milling qualities, and the flour tested and baked into loaves. This is under the charge of Mr. A. E. Richardson, Superintendent of Agriculture. The mill is also made use of in judging the wheats competing at the Melbourne Royal Agricultural Show. The work at Dookie has been the most prolific of results in the production of improved varieties, and a short description of some of the wheats created by Mr. Pye will serve to show the nature of the work accom- plished. Mr. Hugh Pye, now Principal of Dookie Agricultural College, Victoria, was among the first to take up the systematic study of wheat with a view to its improvement. CEREALS 31 Mr. Pye was associated with Mr. Farrer since 1888, when the work of this investigator first came under his notice. They worked in co-operation, since that time exchanging new varieties and ideas. At first Mr. Pye's work was chiefly confined to perfecting Mr. Farrer's wheats and selecting them to suit Victorian conditions. Most of the Federation wheat now grown in Victoria is from the original cross. It developed somewhat differently from the same wheat grown in New South Wales, and is a specially prolific strain. In his most recent report (vide Report of Principal, Dookie Agricultural College for 1913-14) Mr. Pye laments the fact that he had been handicapped in the early days by not being able to avail himself of the services of a testing mill, so that he was unable to breed for milling excellence, and had to devote himself more particularly to increasing prolificness in conjunction with other qualities. Now that a small testing mill is in operation he has the results of twenty years' work to test. How well he has succeeded in producing good yielding wheats is shown in the following short notes on some of his more successful creations. Improved Steinwedel was the first new wheat to be distributed for general cultivation. It is a cross between Steinwedel and Purple Straw, two weak-flour wheats which were very popular all over Australia at that time. The cross proved to be a drought-resistant, prolific, early mid-season variety, and had the merit of holding its grain well. The original Steinwedel, though one of the best drought-resistant wheats we have, has the defect of shell- ing badly. This is a very serious drawback in Australia, where the almost universal use of the stripper requires the wheat to be dead-ripe before harvesting. Improved Steinwedel is still largely grown in Victoria. Warden was the second variety introduced by Mr. Pye. Its pedigree is (Quartz x Ward's White) x Red Bor- deaux. This variety was specially selected for its hay- producing qualities, and is still the most popular hay wheat in Victoria. It took the first prize at the last Melbourne Agricultural Show for wheaten hay. 32 CEREALS In addition to its qualities as a hay wheat, it is a prolific, drought-resisting variety, and has done well in the other States. In the drought year of 1902 (when the average yield per acre for the Commonwealth was 2*4 bushels), Warden was the only variety that returned over 10 bushels. College Purple and Wallace are other popular cross- breds, the latter being specially suited to the cooler districts. Of Mr. Pye's more recent creations, the following are particularly promising : — Commonwealth is a cross between Federation and (Queen's Jubilee x Australian Talavera). In his Annual Report for Dookie, July 31, 1913, Mr. Pye reports that this wheat has given excellent results in South Australia and New South Wales, as well as in Victoria. Yields as high as 43 bushels to the acre have been reported, and in several instances it has beaten Federation by 8 bushels. In a dry district in South Australia, where other varieties yielded only 8 to 9 bushels per acre, this wheat gave 15 bushels. Currawa, a cross between Little Club and (Cretan [a durum] x Northern Champion) is another variety recently distributed. In the first year of its distribution it won first prize in a crop competition. Yields of 30 bushels to the acre and over are common. This season the highest yield recorded is 42 bushels in the north-east of Victoria. Major is a Federation x Wallace (see above) cross, and is to be distributed next season, a bushel being sent to €ach of the agricultural societies for distribution to selected farmers who report on its behaviour in the field. It is a weak-flour variety, and has been twelve years under observation. Yandilla x Red Bordeaux is another very promising variety, which will be distributed in the same way the season after next. It has given very high yields in the farm plots for several seasons. This year it yielded in the farm plots at the rate of 47 bushels to the acre. Moira is a weak-flour wheat of high promise as a prolific yielder. CEREALS 33 (3) SOUTH AUSTRALIA. South Australia was the first of the States to under- take the systematic improvement of wheats, and the first Australian wheat breeders belong to this State. In 1881 the late Dr. Schomburg, Director of the Botanic Gardens, Adelaide, supplied a few farmers in South Australia with samples of Du Toits, a variety of wheat grown in South Africa. One of these farmers, Mr. Ward (now resident at Port Pirie), observed a single rust-free plant in a crop that was otherwise eaten up with rust. From this plant was produced the wheat known as Ward's Rust-proof, or Ward's Prolific, a variety which has probably played a more important part than any other single variety in the improvement of wheat in Australia. For Ward's Prolific is not only a rust- resistant and highly prolific variety, thus enabling many farmers to carry on wheat growing at a time when the prevalence of rust threatened to destroy the industry, but it is the parent of all the principal varieties that made wheat growing profitable in South Australia, many of which have proved of even greater value than the parent wheat, and are strong favourites in the other States. Even more successful as a wheat breeder was Mr. Richard Marshall, who suffered severely from the depredation of rust and other cereal diseases. He set himself to study the disease, and systematically experi- mented with a large number of varieties obtained from different parts of the world, and by cross breeding and selection succeeded in producing- a considerable number of varieties which completely replaced the wheats hitherto in cultivation. Some of the best-known varieties we owe to this investigator are Marshall's No. 3, Marshall's Prolific, Silver King and Majestic, and the great popularity of these wheats affords ample testimony to his success. A new era may be said to have been introduced in South Australian wheat growing by these creations of Mr. Marshall, and the older varieties of the Purple Straw, Tuscan, and Lammas type almost disappeared to make place for wheats with harder grain and stiffer straw. 3 34 CEREALS Moreover, their cultivation enabled the farmer to compete with some measure of success against the ravages of rust. Their high yielding power helped to make them popular favourites from the start. Of the wheats we owe to Mr. Marshall, Marshall's No. 3, Silver King, and Majestic (all extensively grown all over Australia) are derived from Ward's Prolific, being either selected sports from that variety or cross breds. Yandilla King, another very favourite wheat, is a cross between Yandilla (Farrer's) and Silver King (Marshall's), and hence a lineal descendant of Ward's Prolific. It will be seen what an immense debt Australian wheat growers are under to the two South Australian farmers, Messrs. Ward and Marshall. Other notable varieties obtained by selection from Ward's wheat are Gluyas, Carmichael's Eclipse, and Buckl's Early, and these have proved to be of even greater value than the original. Probably the most extensively cultivated of all is the selection known as Stein wjdel, named after a farmer in Balaklava, South Australia, who originated it. This wheat is an extremely prolific and drought-resistant one, and has been for many years by far the most popular grain-wheat for the drier districts. It is still one of the few non-Farrer wheats recommended for cultivation by the New South Wales Department, though it is now giving place to stronger flour varieties and to wheats less liable to shell. Other South Australian wheat breeders who devoted their energy to the production of improved varieties suitable to South Australian conditions are Mr. Inglis, who is the creator of the rust-resistant variety that bears his name, and Mr. Leak, the originator of another " rust- proof wheat." Both these wheats are still widely grown. These are the principal varieties we owe to Soutli Australia, and before Mr. Farrer's wheats were created these wheats were grown practically all over Australia. It is no disparagement to them that they are being* gradually replaced by varieties which have been more systematically and scientifically bred for special purposes. Many of Farrer's crosses are descendants of one or other of these wheats, and the names of Ward and Marshall CEREALS 35 are entitled to a high place in the history of the develop- ment of wheat in Australia. Departmental Action. Systematic attempts to improve wheats have been carried on by the South Australian Department for many years past. The most complete scheme is that introduced by Professor A. J. Perkins, Principal of Roseworthy Agricultural College. Professor Perkins bases his method on the assumption that selection, to be effective, must be continuous and uninterrupted. The broad principle underlying the method is that the best ears are selected from the " selection plots," and are used for the following season's selection plot. The process thus con- tinues indefinitely and automatically, those ears possess- ing in the highest degree the qualities sought for being alone selected for further propagation in the selection plots. These -plots have now been in existence since 1904, so that with some of the original wheats the ninth consecutive selection has been reached. Professor Perkins has very kindly supplied the subjoined descrip- tion, which will make his method readily understood : — " We start with a limited number of good ears selected from well-grown plants in a standing crop, let us say King's White. The immediate progeny of these ears, with the exception of the best picked out from them in the following season, I call King's White (first selection). The best ears picked from the best plants become King's White (second selection), and so on indefinitely, the very best ears always becoming one selection in advance of their immediate parents. At the present time we have reached our ninth selection with some of the earliest wheats handled. " In any given year the picked ears are sown in what I term ' Selection Plots,' i.e., in rows 24 in. apart, each grain being dibbled in one link apart. Each ear is main- tained separate under a number or letter, so that I always have several strains of the same variety, many of which are discarded in the course of time if they do not come up .to expectations. In the same way all our wheats are 36 CEREALS strictly pedigreed in that I can trace them all back, strain by strain, to the individual original selections. 44 In picking out the best ears attention is paid to the usual points : (i) The plants must be thoroughly satis- factory, well grown, stooling normally, and not lodged in any way. (2) The largest and best-formed ears are roughly picked in the field from the selection plots, and are subsequently handled in the laboratory. (3) As much as possible we give preference to perfect ears, i.e., those carrying no empty shells. (4) Ears are measured indivi- dually and the number of spikelets counted; a record of this is kept throughout; only those most satisfactory in this direction are retained. ^5) The ears are hand- threshed, and the grain examined and counted; the best again are retained. (6) Finally, the grain of individual ears is always hand-graded before sowing. " After picking out the best heads for next year's selection plots we run a stripper over the remaining plants, the grain from which goes into what I have called ' Seed Plots,' extending over \ acre, i acre, or even at times 2 or 3 acres, according to the area occupied by individual varieties in the selection plots. In the year following these seed plots supply our farm seed; and in the year after that the grain is available for seed to outsiders. " By these means our farm seed supply is constantly being renewed by more recent selections. The result has been most satisfactory; all our wheat is sold for seed purposes, and we are never in a position to meet all demands The seed has gone all over Australia, and varieties which have been grown without change on the farm for between seventeen and eighteen years are still some of the best on the farm." There is also a wheat research station at Parafield. At this station a large and constantly increasing number of cross-bred wheats are made and kept under observation in what are known as " Cross-bred Plots." Last season sixty-eight new crosses were made. In addition to this are the " Breeding Plots," in which hand-selected seed of local and foreign wheats are grown in small plots and made use of for crossing purposes. CEREALS 37 Mention has just been made of the nature of the work carried out at Rose worthy Agricultural College. This institution deserves mention as being the first of its kind in Australia, being opened in 1882. In addition to the selection plots already described by the Principal, the College encourages wheat cultivation by carrying out experiments in improved methods of cultivation and in the use of manures. Other departmental farms which are particularly devoted to wheat are (besides Parafield) Kybobolite, Loxton and Veitch's Well, and Turretfield. The Agricultural Bureau system, which originated in South Australia and has been introduced into New South Wales and referred to above, has also been an important factor in the improvement of wheat. The Bureau consists of a central advisory body with branches in country districts where meetings are held at regular intervals, papers read, ideas exchanged, and discussions held. Officers of the Department attend these meetings and discuss their special lines of work with the farmers, and the system provides an admirable opportunity for keeping farmers in touch with the Department. (4) WESTERN AUSTRALIA. In this State until recent years the most prominent wheat-breeder who sought to improve wheat by cross- fertilization was Mr. G. F. Berthotid. He was also in correspondence with Mr. Farrer, and in the earlier days did a great deal of work in the selection of this investi- gator's wheats and in acclimatizing them both in New South Wales and in Western Australia. Mr. Berthoud, after leaving New South Wales, started wheat experiment plots at Hamel, in Western Australia, about fourteen years ago, where he worked on the selection and cross- breeding of wheats, both his own and Mr. Farrer's. The outcome was the establishment of a State Experiment Farm at Hamel under Mr. Berthoud's direction. The district was, however, found to be unsuitable for successful wheat growing, the season being late and wet, and Mr. Berthoud abandoned his experiments. 3 CEREALS He was successful in producing several new and valuable varieties of grain which are still popular in Western Australia, the best known of which are : — Alpha and Cross-bred No. 73. — These wheats are of the same parentage, namely, crosses between Steinwedel and King's Jubilee, and are similar types of grain. They are early wheats, specially adapted to the drier districts. Zealand is another very valuable variety which we owe to Mr. Berthoud. It was originally imported from France by him in 1888, and grown in the Corowa district of New South Wales. It is essentially a hay-wheat, and has held the position of first favourite for hay in New South Wales for many years, and is still the most reliable hay-wheat we possess for the Riverina and South-western and Western Slopes and Central Tableland. It is not a good variety for grain, the flour being of low colour. Of the other more commonly grown varieties in Western Australia are: — • Lett's or Gregson's. — This belongs to the English Square Head type, and originated with a Mr. Gregson, of York, Western Australia, from a single selected ear. A neighbour, Mr. Lott, was also instrumental in dis- tributing it, so that it is known under both names. It is one of the most prolific of late mid-season soft wheats, and in Western Australia rivals Federation in this respect. Penny's is another selection from Square Head wheat, and is also the produce of a single ear. It originated with Mr. Penny, of Green Hills, Western Australia, and is a similar grain to Lott's. It also is very popular in Western Australia. Mr. Joseph Correll, of the Arthur River, Western Australia, who has made a close study of wheat for the past thirty-nine years, has recently succeeded in raising- several new varieties, some of which are already deservedly popular and increasing in public estimation, as well as several others which Mr. Correll expects will prove even more satisfactory. The best known of these outside Western Australia is Le Huguenot. This variety originated from a single plant with two CEREALS 39 beardless heads in a crop of Medeah (a bearded wheat of the Macaroni or Durum type). This plant was harvested separately and sown in the following season, 1898, and has now been fixed for some years. This variety appears to be the result of accidental cross-fertilization. It is particularly valuable as a hay-wheat, as it possesses all the qualities of the best of the Durum wheats, and has the advantage of being beardless. It is one of the varieties recom- mended for cultivation for this purpose in the coastal districts of New South Wales. It is also a good grain producer, but it is as an improved hay-wheat that Mr. Correll created it, and it now rivals Baroota, the principal wheat grown for hay in Western Australia. Mr. Correll has also been successful in fixing a number of promising varieties by the same process of the selection of single plants, apparently produced by natural cross- fertilization. Of these Correll's No. 5 is among the best of the early or mid-season varieties. He has two varieties with solid straws and beardless, of similar parentage to Le Huguenot, which he will shortly distribute, and which he considers will be even more generally useful than Le Huguenot, in that they tiller better, hold in the ground better when ripe, and can consequently be better stripped. They are more readily threshed, and produce better and more abundant grain. These varieties he calls La Rochelle and De Conde, and they appear to be the result of natural cross-fertilization between Medeah and a wheat called Hawkes Club, a field of which was growing alongside. Other varieties (Correll's No. 7 and No. 8) are also hay-wheats and bunt and smut proof and will probably be found to be rust-resistant. Of the grain wheats, the one which Mr. Correll con- siders most promising is No. 10, which will shortly be available for distribution. This has long square heads free from tip beards with purple, comparatively short straw and very shotty grain. Mr. Correll's wheats, as will be seen, are all the products of selection of two or three natural crosses, with Medeah for one of the parents. Among the more recent enthusiasts to take up the matter of wheat breeding in Western Australia is Mr. 40 CEREALS W. Catton Grasby, of the Perth Technical College and the West Australian newspaper. Mr. Grasby was for some years in communication with Mr. Farrer and Mr. Richard Marshall, of South Australia. He carried on wheat experimental plots in Western Australia in co-operation with the late Mr. Charles Harper, and since Mr. Harper's death has continued this work alone. Mr. Grasby has been successful both in selecting special wheats and in cross-breeding. The principal objects at present aimed at by him are the creation of early maturing varieties possessing stiff straw and the production of hay- wheats. In this latter respect very promising results have been obtained by using Le Huguenot as a parent. Tall, well-stooled wheats result, and there is every like- lihood of one or more of these wheats taking the place of Baroota, the present favourite. Crosses between Alpha (Berthoud's) and Federation (Farrers), and also between Federation and Rerraf (two Farrer wheats) give considerable promise, being notably early maturing varieties and escaping mildew, which did a great deal of damage in Western Australia last season. Some of these crosses will be ready for distribution in a couple of years' time. Departmental Action. Largely through the instrumentality of Mr. Grasby, the Education Department has introduced wheat growing as a subject for nature study in schools. Mr. Grasby has placed at the disposal of the Department the produce of his own experiment plots, including a number of cross- bred varieties of his own creation. It is anticipated that the work will prove of great commercial value to the State, although the plots are intended primarily to be educational. During recent years a small wheat-testing mill has been installed which will enable new crosses to be tested for their milling qualities, as was done by Mr. Farrer, and so prevent the waste of time in cultivating varieties which later are found to be useless on account of their poor milling quality. An interesting investigation has been CEREALS 41 recently carried out by Mr. E. A. Mann, the Government Analyst (who is in charge of the testing mill), in con- junction with Mr. Grasby, on the effect of manuring on the milling quality of the wheat. The results obtained would seem to indicate that the addition of potash and, in a lesser degree, of lime to the crop increases both the gluten content and also the water-absorbing power of the flour obtained. Of the experiment farms under the control of the Department of Agriculture, those at Nangeenen, Chap- man, Narrogin, and Merridin are especially devoted to wheat culture. (5) QUEENSLAND. The Agricultural College at Gatton and the State Farms at Roma, Hermitage, and Gindie are all engaged in wheat culture, the farms at Roma and Hermitage being more particularly devoted to wheat production. At these farms variety tests, manurial trials, and seed-wheat plots are all in operation, and seed-wheat true to type is grown to supply farmers. The late manager of the Roma State Farm, Mr. R. Soutter, now devotes himself exclusively to work in cross-fertilizing. In all the wheat-growing districts of Queensland farmers' experiment plots have been estab- lished, in which variety tests and manurial trials are carried on. There is also a small model wheat-testing mill in operation under the charge of the chemist, Mr. J. C. Briinnich, on which small parcels of wheat can be milled and the flour tested and baked. It will thus be seen that Queensland, though not a wheat State, has not neglected to provide facilities for the improvement of this cereal. Of individual wheat breeders who have produced wheats of lasting value I am unable to find any record. The names of Dr. Bancroft, Mr. F. M. Bailey (the Queensland Government Botanist), and Mr. Steiger are well known for their work on wheat diseases (particularly rust) in the late 'seventies and early 'eighties. Dr. Bancroft in particular imported and tested a great variety of wheats from other countries with the 42 CEREALS object of acclimatizing- them to Queensland conditions, especially in regard to their resistance to disease. From the above it will be apparent that a considerable amount of attention is being devoted to wheat improve- ment in Australia, and that the several State Departments are fully seized with the importance of the subject and afford ample encouragement to its prosecution. The subject of wheat improvement in Australia is so large that I am very conscious of not having been able to do full justice to it. Numbers of improved varieties are brought forward from time to time as the result of selection, and names are often given to them in order to distinguish them from the original variety. These, however, do not usually enjoy a lasting vogue, and as it would be invidious to mention one or two without men- tioning all, I have confined myself to speaking of those varieties that are well established favourites, or which, being the result of scientific selection or cross-breeding, give promise of playing an important part in the future. In dealing with a subject in which four or five States are in friendly rivalry, it is not an easy matter to appor- tion fairly the work done by each, and to avoid giving undue prominence to any particular State or to any special line of work. I am conscious that New South Wales bulks rather largely in the foregoing paper. If an apology is needed for this, it must be found in the fact that I am personally very much better acquainted with what is being done in this State than in the others. Further, New South Wales really has done more than the other States in the matter of wheat improvement. Apart from Mr. Farrer's work, which every one will admit overshadows that hitherto done by any individual in Australia, and apart from the incen- tive given locally to wheat improvement by that work, the New South Wales Department has a larger and better equipped organization, a greater number of experiment farms, plots, etc., than is the case with the other States. If I have done any injustice it has been unintentional, and due to ignorance and not to prejudice. I have received a great deal of valuable information CEREALS 43 from individual workers in all the States, both as regards their own work and that of others. Of those not specifically referred to in the text, I would like to thank the officers of the New South Wales Department for much information, both given verbally and taken from their writings; to Mr. M. Kahlbaum, manager of the Adelaide Milling Co., one of our highest authorities in Australia on scientific wheat milling; to Mr. H. W. Potts, Principal of the Hawkesbury Agricultural College ; and to Mr. J. B. Trivett, Government Statistician for New South Wales, for figures in connection with acre yields. APPENDIX. Possible Extension of Wheat Production in Australia. On the assumption that a rainfall of 10 in. during the growing season (April to October inclusive) may be regarded as the present limit of profitable wheat pro- duction, we have in the four principal wheat-producing States the following areas above that limit : — New South Wales ... ... 163,772 square miles Victoria ... ... ... 74,6i6 ,, South Australia ... ... ... 46,980 ,, Western Australia ... ... 93>5oo ,, The whole of this area is, of course, not suitable for wheat growing. In New South Wales, for example, it is calculated that out of the 105,000,000 acres receiving over 10 in. during the growing season, only about one quarter, or about 26,000,000 acres, can be profitably cultivated for wheat. At the present time, and for the past ten years, the area harvested for grain has represented about 80 per cent, of the total area under wheat, the remainder being cut for hay and green feed. We must assume that this proportion will continue, so that of this 26,000,000 acres it may be assumed that a little under 21,000,000 acres will be the maximum area harvested for grain. At present only about 3,000,000 acres (3,140,000) are under culti- vation for wrheat. It is therefore possible even under existing conditions to increase the area of wheat pro- duction by over 17,750,000 acres in New South Wales. If the average yield per acre of the past ten years (i2'i bushels) is maintained, this would mean a total 44 CEREALS harvest of over 252,000,000 bushels, as against the 1912-13 harvest of 32,500,000 bushels, and the estimated one of 36,860,000 for the present season. Figures for the other States regarding the proportion of the area outside the 10 in. isohyetal during crop growth are not available, as far as I am aware, but we may fairly assume that this proportion is much the same as in New South Wales, and that one quarter of the area given in the preceding table can be made available. We shall then get the following figures for possible acreages and yields : — • d) (2) (3) (4) (5) Area with over 10 in. rain during growing season Area available for wheat growing. One-quarter of column (i) Acres 26,203,520 11,938,560 7,516,800 14,960,000 Area available for grain 80 per cent, of column (a) Average yield lor last 6 years, 1907-8 to 1912-13 Bushels per acre I2'O-l 1 1 -8l 1 1 'OS IOT3 Total yield New South Wales ... Victoria South Australia Western Australia ... Acres 104,814,080 47,754,240 30,067,200 59,840,000 Acres 20,962,816 9,550,848 6,013,440 11,968,000 Bushels 252,392,305 112,795,515 66,628,915 121,235,840 Total for four States. . . 242,475,520 60,618,880 48,495,104 553,052,575 The following table gives the area actually under crop and the production for the past two seasons for all the States of the Commonwealth : — 1912-1913 1913-1914 Area under wheat Production Area under wheat Production (estimated) New South Wales Victoria South Australia Western Australia Queensland ... Tasmania Acres 2,231,514 2,085,216 2,079-633 793.096 124,963 25,226 Bushels 32,487,336 26,223,104 21,496,216 9,168,594 1,975.505 630,315 Acres 3,141,316 2.565,861 2,054,364 I 068,553 Bushels 36,860,000 32 936,245 16,805,945 13,069.000 2,053,000 42I,OOO Commonwealth 7,339,648 91.981,070 — 103,045,190 CEREALS 45 It is to be noted that the Australian harvest is reaped between November and January. Thus the figures for, say, 1912-13. give the harvest from November, 1912, to January, 1913, and represent the grain available for 1913. The possible extension of the area under wheat, and the increase of production from the present 103,000,000 bushels for the Commonwealth to about 550,000,000 bushels for the four principal wheat States will be found to be a low estimate when the data on which it is based are examined more closely. The assumptions are : — • (1) That wheat cannot be grown profitably with less than 10 in. of rain during the period of growth. (2) That the proportion of land suitable to or available for wheat production is about one-quarter of the total area within this isohyetal. (3) That the average yields per acre for the past six years will be maintained. (4) That only four States take part in this expansion. With regard to (i), it may quite reasonably be expected that improved methods of cultivation and improvements in drought-resisting wheats may make it possible to extend the area of profitable wheat growing into even drier districts than are now considered safe. In addition, there is the possibility of growing wheat in the dry areas under irrigation, a subject that is now being pushed forward energetically in all the States. A very considerable change has taken place within the last few years in our ideas as to what constitutes a safe rainfall for wheat growing. In 1904 the late Government Statistician for New" South Wales (Sir T. A. Coghlan, now Agent-General for New South Wales in London) placed on the map a "wheat- experience line " which defined the extreme western boundary of profitable wheat growing at the time. Since that time, however, the causes mentioned above — im- proved methods of cultivation and improved wheats — have caused this line to be extended westwards to such an extent that the present Government Statistician (Mr. J. B. Trivett) has been able to put a new wheat-experience line on a map issued by him in 1912, showing the inclusion 46 CEREALS of an additional 13,500,000 acres on which wheat is being profitably cultivated. With regard to (2) the proportion of suitable land, I can only find that this has been estimated with any accuracy in the case of New South Wales. This estimate leaves out of account all the coastal districts and the northern districts where wheat is now grown only for hay. It also excludes the mountainous country and all country which under present conditions is unsuited to wheat. The late Director of Agriculture for Victoria (Professor Cherry) estimated the area available for wheat production in that State at 28,000,000 acres. If this estimate is correct, the total production of wheat in Victoria would be capable of being increased to 264,500,000 bushels, and that for the four States to over 705,000,000 bushels. The estimate appears, however, to be high, as it assumes that considerably more than half the area receiving 10 in. of rain from April to October is suitable and available for wheat growing. (3) The average yields per acre for the separate States has been maintained fairly at this level for the past ten or eleven years. We experienced one exceptionally droughty season as late as 1902, when the yield per acre for the Commonwealth was only 2*4 bushels, but the succeeding harvest yielded an average of 13*32 bushels. The average for the past six seasons (1907-08 to 1912-13) is n'59 bushels. Last harvest (1912-13) yielded an average of 12-5 bushels. (4) No account is taken of expansion in other States than the four present wheat States. Tasmania is not likely ever to develop to any extent as a wheat producing country; but, on the other hand, Queensland has enormous areas suitable for wheat production, which will undoubtedly be cultivated as the country develops. The Northern Territory is another unknown quantity. Wheat, in common with other crops, has only been experiment- ally tried, and the Commonwealth Year Book gives the area under cultivation as 2 acres. From the reports of those who have been there, there is no doubt that there is an enormous area, both within and outside the tropics. CEREALS 47 where climate and soil are quite suitable for wheat growing, and we are justified in looking forward to a very considerable addition to our wheat growing area when the Territory becomes developed. Taking all these points into consideration, I feel con- vinced that the estimate given is a low one, and may be regarded as a quite legitimate forecast of the expansion to be expected under present conditions, and at the present rate of expansion of the industry. For the data on which this estimate is based I am indebted to the Government Statistician (Mr. J. B. Trivett), who has kindly placed all available information at my disposal. Purely economic considerations have not been taken into account in the foregoing discussion. The con- tinually increased cost of farm operations and labour troubles in connection with harvesting, sowing, etc., have to be reckoned with; further, the present want of railway facilities and the absence of bulk handling are factors which will be particularly discouraging when the question arises of developing such large areas. Bulk handling is a subject that is being much discussed at present, and it would seem to be fairly certain that some system will come into operation within the next few years. Even with the present expansion the railway authorities find great difficulty in handling the harvest, and some improvement on the present system becomes more and more imperative every year. ^AMELIORATION DE LA CULTURE DU BLE EN ALGERIE ET EN TUNISIE. Par EMILE BAILLAUD. Secretaire General dc I'lnstitut Colonial de Marseille. LA production du ble en Algerie-Tunisie est d'environ, 12 millions de quintanx dont les trois quarts sont des bles durs. Ces chiffres correspondent a une moyenne car les rendements varient considerablement d'annee en annee suivant les periodes de pluies ou de secheresse. En outre ces rendements varient egalement suivant qu'il s'agit des cultures des colons europeens ou de celles des indigenes. La moyenne obtenue par les indigenes ne depasse guere trois a quatre quintaux a 1'hectare tandis que les Europeens obtiennent au moins en general 12 quintaux. Or les quantites obtenues par les indigenes sont beaucoup plus importantes que celles des Europeens pour les bles durs tout au moins qui forment la principale partie de la production du ble en Algeria : les bles tendres sont surtout cultives par les europeens. On voit done le tres grand interet qu'il y a a ameliorer ces rendements. Cela peut etre fait en introduisant les nouvelles raethodes de culture comme celles qui sont comprises dans la denomination de '' Dry-Farming " mais aussi en ameliorant les varietes cultivees. Jusqu'ici les efforts qui ont ete fait dans cet ordre d'idee ont porte surtout sur la selection des varietes locales. Sous la feconde direction de M. Boeuf d'abord comme chef de la Station Experimentale de 1'Ecole Coloniale d'Agriculture de Tunis puis actuellement comme chef du Service botanique de la "Regence, on a applique les prin- cipes de selection Svaloff a plusieurs milliers de variete de cereales recueillies dans la region. Un petit nombre de sortes reproduites par voies pedigrees ont ete CEREALS 49 retenues en raison de leur merite; elles ont ete multi- pliees a la fpis dans les Champs de la Station Experi- mentale de 1'Ecole d'Agriculture et dans deux stations confiees a deux colons de grand merite MM. Louis Boutet et Faucon et mises a 1'essai dans un grand nombre de champs d'experience reparties dans tonte la Tunisie. L'on devait ainsi se rendre compte de leur faculte d'adaptation dans les differents milieux et de la transformation suivant les conditions dans lesquelles elles se trouveraient. Malheureusement la secheresse de ces dernieres annees a pour ainsi dire interrompu cette multiplication et Ton en est simplement encore a la periode experimentale. Cependant M. Boeuf a pu preciser ses methodes et obtenir des resultats de la plus haute importance an point de vue de leur application et toutes les dispositions sont prises pour commencer en plus grand des reproductions. En Algerie les essais ont ete poursuivis a 1'Ecole d'Agriculture de Maison Carree sous 1'experte direction de M. Ducellier et dans un certain nombre de champs d'experience situes dans les differentes regions de T Algerie. Sans s'attacher exactement a Fobtention de semences pures, les principaux colons algeriens et tunisiens se sont preoccupes depuis longtemps de ramelioration des semences et on peut des maintenant proceder a une premiere classification des bles d'Algerie Tunisie. L'Institut Colonial de Marseille s'est adonne tout particulierement a Tetude de ces bles qui sont un des principaux aliments de la minoterie et de la semoulerie de ce port. En 1910 il leur a consacre une de ses Expositions speciales et depuis cette epoque il n'a cesse de rechercher de quelle maniere il pourrait mieux seconder les travaux de selection fait en Algerie et en Tunisie et nous donnons ci-desso>us une enumeration succinte des principaux types stir lesquels a porte jusqu'ici cette enquete. Les formes de ble algerien, soit durs, soit tendres, sont fort nombreuses et de valeur inegale pour 1'agriculteur et le commercant. Sauf la tuzelle de Sidi Bel-Abbes ou ble d'Odessa sans barbes, aucune de ces formes n'est cultivee a un degre de purete suffisant et les cas ou le melange 4 5O CEREALS des semences est compose des deux varietes sont rares. On trouve frequemment cinq ou six varietes bien differentes comme vegetation, production, qualite de grain en etudiant les bles sur pied dans un meme champ. Les efforts combines de Tlnstitut Colonial de Marseille et du Syndicat des Minotiers et Fabricants de Semoules de Marseille ont conduit a une amelioration de la situation passee en ce sens que les cultivateurs de nos possessions mediterraneennes savent quelle est la plus value qu'ils peuvent retirer de la vente de leurs bles, si elle a lieu de telle maniere que le melange des differentes varietes soit evite, mais cette amelioration ne sera generale que le jour ou le commerce des gTains algeriens et tunisiens sera organise sur des bases nouvelles et tel qu'il se pratique dans les pays grands exportateurs de bles. Un premier point cependant a ete acquis definitivement celui de la repression des fraudes. Ces travaux preliminaires ont montre la necessite de s'organiser specialement pour determiner, parmi les varietes selectionnees dans nos Colonies Franchises, celles qui seraient les plus interessantes au point de vue industriel. A la suite d'enquete eifectuee par son Secre- taire General, M. Emile Baillaud, et des rapports de M. Arnaud, President de la Chambre Syndicate des Minotiers et Fabricants de Semoules de Marseille et de M. le Pro- fesseur Jumelle, 1'Institut Colonial a decide d'adjoindre a ses services un Laboratoire specialement destine a 1'etude des cereales et plantes feculentes des possessions frangaises et muni des machines de meunerie et de rizerie (en reduction) qui permettent de faire 1'essai industriel des bles (meunerie, semoulerie, boulangerie) des riz (decortication, blanchissage, glagage) et des plantes feculentes autres que les cereales (preparation et extrac- tion des amidons, fecules, alcools, etc.). Les etudes industrielles faites dans ce Laboratoire seront completees par la determination botanique et les analyses chimiques necessaires. Lorsque ces etudes auront ete entreprises dans les Colonies, ce Laboratoire se bornera a en centraliser les resultats. Lorsque au contraire, les Stations locales manqueront de Toutillage et des elements necessaires, le Laboratoire se mettra a CEREALS 51 leur disposition pour effectuer les etudes qu'elles lui demanderont; dans tous les cas, la centralisation qu'il exercera permettra a nos diverses Possessions de profiter des resultats obtenus dans chacune d'elles ou a 1'Etranger; elle aura ainsi pour but de faire connaitre a 1'industrie metropolitaine les nouvelles varietes selectionnees et de permettre la determination de celles qui seront plus particulierement inter essantes au point de vue industriel. Ces travaux contribueront en outre a elucider les problemes si complexes que se posent la Minoterie, la Rizerie et les industries qui utilisent les plantes a fecules. PRINCIPAUX BLES ALGERIENS-TUNISIENS. (i) BLES DURS. Adheba. Variete dominant dans le Sud de Tarrondissement de Setif vient assez bien dans les terres maigres ou il murit de bonne heure. Inferieur au Mahmoudi, au Mohamed- el-Bachir et a TAdjini au point de vue semoulier. Adjml. Epi blanc velu, compact, court, large de 15 a 18 milli- metres, long de 5 a 6 centimetres. Rachis decouvert d'un cote. Epillets tres serre a 4 fleurs, 3 fertiles; glumes f ortesi, longues : glumelles inferieures munies d'une barbe noire. Grain rougeatre, gros, court bossu pesant (Ducillier).1 Ce ble est repute comme etant le ble semoulier par excellence. Ajili. Epi court a 4 rangs, glumes blanches presque glabres, barbes longues, noires en faisceau effile. Grains de grosseur moyenne blond ovale legerement bossu. Faille 1 " Culture et vente des cereales en Algerie," Bulletin de la Societe des Agriculteurs d' Algerie f 15 aout, 1909. 52 CEREALS atteignant i m. 60 dans les meilleures conditions (Minangoin).1 Ce ble qui resiste bien a la rouille est le plus repandu dans les environs de Sfax ou il donne un grain tres estime. La Station Experimental de 1'Ecole Coloniale d'Agricul- ture de Tunis 1'indique comme convenant .aux terres sablonneuses legeres. Asizi. Epi de sept a huit centimetres, glumes a peu pres glabres d'un brun fonce rougeatres par place. Barbes brunes, longues, formant un faisceau cylindrique. Son grain est tres beau, tres recherche par la meunerie. A le defaut de rouiller. II est cultive dans le Nord. On le rencontre principalement dans le Centre de Sousse a Kalrouan. A M'Saken les indigenes le vendent comme ble de semences apres lui avoir fait subir tin triage a la main (Minangoin). D'apres Scofield, cette variete serait originaire de Tunisie et bien quelle soit connue en Algerie, elle n'a pas pris une granda extension. Beliouni. Epi rouge, lisse, long, de meme largeur de la base au sommet. Epillets rapproches, 5 fleurs dont 3 ou 4 fer- tiles; glumes et glumelles fortes, barbes noires tres fortes, longues. Grain glace, jaune, gros (Ducellier). Cette variete parait etre celle qui est la plus appreciee au point de vue de la rusticite et des rendements. Apres des essais de plusieurs annees, beaucoup de colons 1'ont adopte dans le departement de Constantine comme bon ble semoulier, resistant a la chaleur, ayant une paille moins cassante que celle du Mahmoudi, ce qui est gros avantage pour la moisson et un bon rendement, meilleur que 1'Adjini qui pourtant est le ble semoulier par excellence. 1 " La culture des cereales en Tunisie," Bulletin de la Direc- tion de V Agriculture de la Tunisie, ire trimestre, 1908. CEREALS 53 Bidi ou Bihedi. Epi court (4 a 5 centimetres), tres trapti, a rachis apparent, legerement recourbe, gros, blond, clair. Faille atteignant i m. 75 a 2 metres dans les bonnes terres et les meilleures conditions (Minangoin). Ce hie originaire de Setif a donne des resultats superieurs dans les parcelles bien cultivees en Tunisie. La plante qui est vigoureuse semble plutot se plaire dans les coteaux eleves. Blskri ou Beskrl. Nom donne dans la region de Teboursouk a un ble qui ressemble beaucoup au Mahoumi. D'apres MM. Perriquet et Nancy qui ont commence a la cultiver dans la plaine du Krib, il y a quatre ans ce ble est tres vigoureux et, devant les resultats obtenus, sa culture s'est etendue chez leurs voisins qui en sort fort satisfaits. II donnerait en effet de meilleurs rendements que 1'Adjini et le Souri precedemment cultives. La plante est forte et de belle venue, la couleur d'un vert tirant sur le bleu et des feuilles tres larges. Si la plante n'a pas souffert des la maturite, les barbes sont bien noires. Le grain est gros. II semble resister assez bien a la secheresse et la verse. Ble Chalvln. Ce ble est un ble Pelissier que M. Chalvin cultive a Vesoul-Beniam pour Tobtention de semences. Les colons de la region de Boufarik, Blidah, ont adopte sous son noni la semence qu'ils lui demandent. II resiste bien a la secheresse. Genah-el-khetifa (aile d'hirondelle), Epi de 8 a 9 centimetres, glumes et barbes d'un beau noir, rachis teinte de noir avec un anneau de meme couleur a la naissance de 1'epi (Minangoin). M. Paul Deligne a cultive ce ble en partant d'un epi trouve dans un champ en 1903 et il est parvenu a obtenir en 1910 132 quintaux. D'apres lui cette espece semble 54 CEREALS ne pas craindre les maladies et ne pas etre tres difficile au point de vue culture. Ce ble fait tres peu de dechets (4 pour cent), poids a 1'hectolitre 83 kilos, paille dure et tres rigide. Son grain est beau; il est tres precoce et resiste par consequent au siroco. II est peu sujet a la verse et a la rouille. Hache ou Hechede. Epi blanc quelquefois teinte de rose, lisse dr-oit, court, 6 a 7 centimetres de longueur. Epillets peu serres 3 a 4 fleurs dont 2 a 3 fertiles, glume forte a pointe un peu arrondie; glumelle portant une barbe blanche, fine. Grain rouge, petit court. Paille fine tres blanche, peu sensible aux maladies (Ducellier). M. Ducellier 1'indique comme peu sensible aux maladies. Cette variete rustique tres repandue dans toute 1'Algerie n'est jamais cultivee en grand. On en rencontre quelques epis a Tlencem, Mascara, Tiaret, Bordj bou Arreridj, Batna, Setif. * Hamira. Epi carre a six rang de 7 a 9 centimetres; a glumes brunes violacees, a barbe s rouges de longueur moyenne et disposees en faisceau cylindrique, le grain est gros, long, a sillon profond. La paille est courte (Minangoin). Cette variete est cultivee par les Arabes de preference au Mahmoudi dans le Nord de TAlgerie parque qu'il est moins exigeant que ce dernier, mais etant tres sujet a la rouille, il reussit dans les terres qui s'egouttent facile- ment. Mahmoudi. Epi blanc aplati, large de 15 a 18 millimetres velu, long de 5 a 6 centimetres. Epillets tres rapproches, recouvrant tres completement 1'axe de 1'epi, cinq fleurs dont quatre fertiles; glumes fortes de 14 a 15 millimetres, quelquefois colorees en noir sur la carene; glumelles inferieures longues, prolongees par une forte barbe noire tres longue depassant la somme de 1'epi de 15 a 16 centimetres. Grains allonges, tres gros, un peu courbes, ambres, tres bel aspect (Ducellier). CEREALE 55 Cette variete parait etre la plus appreciee dans le departement de Constantine ou elle est connue sous le nom de Nab-el-Bel Richi et ou elle est souvent cultivee en melange avec le Beliouni et I'Hamira, dont les grains sont de la meme couleur. Elle est adoptee egalement en Tunisie et dans 1'Est du departement d'Alger (Ain- Bessem, Aumale, Thiers et Medeah). Le type le plus connu au point de vue commercial est celui obtenu par la Compagnie genevoise des colonies suisses de Setif qui, grace a la maniere dont elle le selectionne depuis de longues annees, est arrivee a lui faire faire prime sur le marche. Ble de Mahon. Epi blanc, lisse, long, 8 a 10 centimetres, un peu courbe a la maturite. Epillets sees espaces sur le rachis 4 fleurs dont 2 a 3 fertiles; glumes portant une courte arete carenees a la partie superieure seulement, glumelles inferieures prolongees par ufie barbe blanche ecartee de Taxe de 1'epi qu'elle depasse de 7 a 8 centimetres, les balles s'entrouvent a la maturite et le grain tombe au moindre coup de vent. Grain jaune pale de bonne qualite surtout dans la plaine de Cheliff. Faille demipleine, blanche, tres resistante a la rouille (Ducellier). L'echantillon selectionne par TEcole d'agriculture algerienne de Maison-Carree provient d'un sol argilo- siliceux calcaire et a donne un rendement a Thectare de 14 quintaux avec un poids a 1'hectolitre de 80 kilos. Dur de Medeah. Epi tres colore, rouge tirant sur le noir, droit, un peu plus mince au sommet. Epillets tres rapproches, 5 fleurs, 3 a 4 fertiles enveloppees par 2 glumes fortes, tres carenees, glumelles inferieures fortes prolongees par une arete noire cassante a la maturite, depassant 1'epi de 13 a 15 centi- metres. Faille blanche forte resistante a la verse et aux maladies (Ducellier). Grain bossu, concave du cote du sillon, rappelant un peu celui de certains poulards, riche en gluten. Ce ble est un des bles durs que Vilmorin cite dans son ouvrage : "Les meilleurs bles" comme susceptibles 56 CEREALS d'etre cultive en France. D'apres lui le ble de Medeah est une forme tout a fait meridionale qui reussit surtout an sud de la Mediterranee. II y a une quinzaine d'annee environ que cette variete est cultivee en Egypte, ou elle est particulierement estimee a cause de la richesse de son grain en gluten. Mo h amed-el-Bachir. Ce ble selectionne par le Syndicat Agricole de Setif et repandu dans la region Nord de Constantine en terres riches et profondes, est un peu plus tardif que le Mahmoudi. Grain clair allonge, bon semoulier. Ble Pelissier. Tres voisin du ble de Seville a barbes noires dont il derive par selection, appele encore Hebda. Bel epi carre, g'ros, long de 8 a 10 centimetres, de coloration variable, plus ou moins velu, suivant les regions. Sur le littoral d'Alger, 1'epi devient completement lisse et blanc, ainsi que ses barbes. Epillets serres composes de 5 fleurs dont 4 fertiles; glumes tres fortes, noiratres sur la carene; glumelles inferieures munies d'une barbe forte et longue, ordinairement noire. Grain long, glace, jaune, tirant sur le blanc, tres estime (Ducellier). Ce ble a pris une grande extension dans le departement d'Oran en raison de ses bons rendements. Dans le departement d'Alger il est egalement cultive depuis quelques annees a. la suite des essais faits a la Station Botanique de Bou'iba oil apres selection il a ete classe en premiere ligne par ses rendements et la qualite de son grain. Ce ble, qui est probablement d'origine espagnole, doit son nom a un cultivateur des environs de Pont des Issers dans la vallee de la Tafna, qui 1'a selectionne. Real forte. Epi de 8 a 9 centimetres absolument carre, a six rangs. Glumes et barbes d'un beau jaune dore. Grains gros, peu allonges (Minangoin). Ce ble, d'introduction recente dans le Nord de I'Afrique CEREALS 57 est originaire de Sicile. Cette variete semee en Tunisia dans les environs de Mateur, donne des rendements bien superieurs a ceux obtenus avec les autres varietes. Ble rouge de Tlencem. Epi rouge, lisse, allonge, atteignant dans les bonnes terres n a 12 centimetres, o-rdinairement 8 a 9; aussi large a la base qu'au sommet. Epillets moins rapproches que dans les autres bles durs a 3 a 4 fleurs dont 2 a 3 fertiles; glumes fortes termiinees par une pointe aigue, glumelles inferieures munies d'une forte barbe noire tres longue, depassant le sommet de 1'epi de 14 a 15 centimetres. La couleur des barbes varie et devient quelquefois identique a celle des balles. On trouve cette variete a Tlencem, Mercier-Lacombe et dans le Nord du Sersou. Quoique son epi soit tres beau, elle n'est pas tres cultivee, car elle craint les coups de chaleur et son grain est plus petit que celui des bles durs en general. Cette variete ressemble beaucoup au ble Paris introduit de Grece il y a quelques annees (Ducellier). Grain mince, pointu, amfore, de bonne qualite. Ble de Seville a barbes noire s. Epi blanc, glabre ou un peu velu teinte de noir sur les glumes, long de 5 a 6 centimetres droit, un peu effile a la partie superieure. Epillets tres rapproches, formes de 3 ou 4 fleurs fertiles; glumes prolongees par une pointe cotirte de 2 ou 3 millimetres, glumelles inferieures portant une barbe noire depassant 1'epi de 2 a 3 centi- metres, ecarte de Taxe. Grain allonge, glace, jaune blanchatre (Ducellier). D'apres M. Ducellier, cette variete rustique est cultivee dans 1'Ouest de TAlgerie, seule ou en melange. Dans le departement cTOran on la trouve a Ain-Temouchant, dans la vallee de la Tafna, a Tlencem ou elle constitue a peu pres la moitie des emblavures du ble dur : a Mascara dans la plaine des Eghrus, a Tiaref. Elle est aussi cultivee dans le Sersou, a Ain Bessem et Bordj bou Arreridj ou les indigenes Tappellent Djoul a cause de sa bonne qualite. Elle a ete introduite d'Espagne depuis tres longtemps. 50 CEREALS Sbai on Souaba-el-Aldjia (doigt ou doigt de Ves clave). Epi court, 4 a 5 centimetres, glumes blanches, legere- ment velues, barbes noires, jaune dore a leur extremite. Grain jaune, transparent, tres gros et tres allonge. Ne reussit que dans le Nord ou dans les terres tres fertiles (Minang'oin). La Station Experimentale de 1'Ecole C. d'A. de Tunis indique comme lui convenant les plaines a sol argileux frais. Souri. Epi long, de 9 a 10 centimetres, glume jaune, doree, glabres. Barbes tres longues de meme couleur. Donne une paille blanche, longue, plus estimee que celle de Mahmoudi et de 1'Hamira. Ce ble est cultive dans le Nord de 1'Algerie surtout dans les terres fraiches et riches, il se seme souvent en melange avec le Mahmoudi et 1'Hamira. D'apres M. P. Deligne il a peut-etre le defaut d'etre tin pen exuberant comme vegetation, mais cela lui permet mieux de se defendre centre les mauvaises herbes, il resiste bien aux maladies et donne un beau grain. Le rendement est de 12 a 15 quintaux en belle culture, comme dechets moyens que Ton pent facilement reduite au battage, il donne de 4 a 6 pour cent. (2) BLES TENDRES. Allorah. Ble tendre a epi rouge barbu, introduit tres recemment dans la Vallee de la Medjerda. Ble dc Bordeaux on B\c rouge inversable. Epi rouge brim, souvent courbe, ressemblant a celui du ble rouge d'Ecosse, mais presentant souvent sur 1'axe et sur les glumes une teinte glauque, que n'a jamais celui- ci. Paille moyenne forte et souple, demi pleine. Grain rouge, gros, assez court, lourd et bien plein (Vilmorin). Les bles rouges de Bordeaux ont ete introduits dans la region de Saida, mais, d'apres M. Van Eyll, ils s'y cultivent peu et, bien que donnant de tres bons rende CEREALS 59 ments certaines annces ils semblent plus sensibles au froid et surtout au siroco que les Tuzelles de Provence ou les Richelles de Naples. Leur maturite est un peu plus tardive et c'est la aussi un defaut important dans une region ou 1'hiver est souvent assez rigoureux. Richelle blanche d'Alger. Epi blanc, tres long, 12 a 13 centimetres, lisse, brillant, faisant le cou d'oie a la maturite. Ce dernier caractere permet de distinguer facilement les champs de Richelle. Epillets bien separes, regulierement disposes, trois a quatre fleurs, glumes et glumelles munies d'une courte arete recourbee (Ducellier). Grain blanc, court, tres farineux. Variete tres productive, introduite par le Service Botanique qui a obtenu par selection la variete designee ci-dessus cultivee dans la Mitidja, stir le littoral, dans la plaine des Eghrus, a Mascara. Ble de Rietl Epi blanc, glabre brillant, courbe a la maturite. Epillets tres eloignes les uns des autres et de plus en plus petits vers le sommet de Tepi; quatre fleurs dont trois fertiles; glumelles inferieures munie d'une barbe noire, disposee comme celle du ble de Mahon. Grain tres colore, presque brun, peu apprecie en Algerie a cause de sa couleur malgre sa richesse en gluten. Faille creuse, faible, peu sensible a la rouille (Ducellier). Cette variete originaire de 1'Italie centrale, est cultivee sur le littoral de r Algerie, mais elle est encore peu repandue. Richelle blanche de Naples ou Grano carosella. Epi blanc assez effile, demi-long, souvent courbe, tres peu elargi, muni de quelques aretes courtes vers le sommet. Grain blanc, beau et gros, assez allonge, bien plein, de tres belle qualite. Faille tres blanche assez haute, abondante. C'est une des varietes les plus faciles a reconnaitre. II iren est a peu pres aucune dont 1'epi se rapproche plus completement par 1'aspect de 1'epeautre blanche sans barbe (Vilmorin). 60 CEREALS M. Van Eyll, qui la cultive dans son domaine de Fenouane aux environs de Saida, trouve que comme pre- cocite, la Richelle de Naples est superieure a la Tuzelle de Provence, mais elle semble moins resistante au froid. Elle est egalement moins riche en gluten. En annee favorable, son rendement est superieur a celui de la Tuzelle et 1'ideal serait de semer ces deux sortes en melange, mais en raison de leur difference d'epoque de maturite, la chose n'est pas possible. II lui semble prudent avant d'accorder une trop grande place a cette variete, d'attendre un acclimatement plus complet. Tuzelle dc Bel-Abbes ou d'Odes'sa. Epi rouge irregulierement colore, lisse, brillant, long de 9 a n centimetres, plus gros au milieu qu'aux ex- tremites. Epillets allonges, rapproches au centre de 1'epi, avortes quelque fois a la base, diriges a droite et a gauche de Taxe de Tepi. Ce caractere permet de dis- tinguer facilement cette variete. Epillets a 6 fleurs don: 4 a 5 fertiles, glumelles inferieures munies au sommet de 1'epi d'une arete rouge de 2 ou 3 centimetres. Grain blanc, long, un peu corne a la peripherie. Tres bonne qualite commerciale (Ducellier). Cette variete est tres repandue a Bel-Abbes, Mercier- Lacombe, Mascara, Sersou, Tiaret, Bordj bou Arreridj. M. Ducellier indique que cette variete qui reussit si bien dans la plaine de Sidi Bel Abbes, dans le Sersou aux environs de Tiaret, et aussi dans la region de Setif ou elle donne des bles si remarquables et si apprecies par le commerce, craint sur le littoral d'Alger la rouille et les in- temperies. Son grain au lieu d'etre d'un blanc uniforme se parseme de graines foncees qui le deprecie. II n'est done plus cultive dans la Mitidja pour cette raison. Tuzelle barbue ou barbue de Bel-Abbes. Epi rouge, long de 10 a 12 centimetres, lisse. Epillets a 4 fleurs, 3 fertiles, glumes aristees, glumelles inferieures munies d'une barbe rouge, ecartee du rachis. Grain blanc allonge de meme qualite que le Mahon. Faille demi pleine, blanche, resistante a la rouille (Ducellier). Ce ble est surtout cultive dans le departement d'Oran CEREALS 6 I a Bel-Abbes, Mascara et dans le cheliff en melange avec le ble de Mahon. En Tunisie il est introduit egalement depuis quelques annees ou il parait preferable a la Tuzelle de Provence (ou d'Oran) comme etant plus resistant aux maladies, moins sujet a la verse, s'egrenant moins et donnant de meilleurs rendements (cette Tuzelle est appelee en Tunisie egale- ment Tuzelle barbue d'Oran). Tuzelle rouge de Provence. Epi rouge violace, lisse, long de 9 a 10 centimetres, grele effile. Epillets regulierement disposes a 3 a 4 fleurs, glumes sans arete, glumelles sans barbe sauf au sommet de 1'epi ou elles sont munies d'une arete d'un ou deux centimetres (Ducellier). Grain rouge, un pen corne, de bonne qualite. THE INDIAN CEREAL TRADE. By FREDERICK NOEL-PATON. Director-General of Commercial Intelligence, India. I HAVE been asked to read a paper on the Indian Cereal Trade, and the point to which I wish to give the greatest prominence from the outset is that India only exports about 6 per cent, of her cereals. The rest is wanted for home consumption, and it is not possible to discuss even the export trade without regard to that fact. For an expansion of consumption by I per cent, (or a corre- sponding contraction in yield) would presumably reduce the theoretically exportable surplus by 16 per cent., while the said surplus would disappear altogether if the internal consumption grew by 6J per cent. The subject given me has many branches and aspects, on any one of which one might write a volume. I can, therefore, only run over them superficially. The popula- tion of India is distinguished from that of any European country, not only by its magnitude, but by its diversity in respect of races, and of the customs and diets peculiar to the several tracts. Throughout the greater part of the United Kingdom one rarely finds any food-grain but wheat, oats, and barley in common use, and these are grown at one season, so it is easy to establish the total area covered by them. But in India there are many food-gTains — rice, wheat, maize, jowar (Sorghum vu-lgare), bajra (Pennisetum typhoideum), ragi (Eleusine coracana), and a variety of other secondary millets and grains which there is no time to describe. These cereals, moreover, are grown, one as a rain crop and another as a cold weather crop, while some are grown in both seasons. And the seasons themselves are not by any means in unison throughout India. CEREALS 63 These circumstances greatly complicate the preparation of- crop returns in India; and another difficulty consists in the smallness and multitude of agricultural holdings. The crops are grown mainly for internal consumption, and are cultivated broadcast throughout a vast sub- continent. Some of the patches lurk in remote recesses of the jungle, and others perch on inaccessible ridges of great mountains. In the Himalayan tracts one looks sheer down from the pine-clad heights, and through rifts in a shifting veil of clouds, upon dwarfed and sun- dappled mountain ranges, thousands of feet below, which in any other part of the world would themselves seem stupendous; and one sees that all their sides and buttresses are scored and contoured with a thousand narrow terraces built by successive generations to preserve the soil from being washed away. At the end of the rains the spectacle is astonishing in the vividness of the colour, for here some of the crops are of a uniform blazing crimson or scarlet or gold, and the flat roofs are covered with the orange and saffron of drying maize. The villages and farms and fields appear so near and yet so infinitely small that it is difficult to believe them real. And when one considers what must be the task of the officer who should attempt to estimate the aggregate area of all those snippets of land, cut and carved into a thousand diverse forms and sizes to suit the contours of the hills, one becomes tolerant of some inexactness. Another spectacle which to the pure statistician has some of the horror of a nightmare, and which a visitor to India might regard as an hallucination, is that of two bullocks and a man (all nearly submerged) who move to and fro in the middle of one of India's vast rivers swollen by the monsoon rains. One passes the strange team in a launch, and there is not a speck of solid ground apparent within a quarter of a mile of them. But they are ploughing the bed of the subsiding river in order that seed may be sown as soon as the mud bank begins to show. They have waded out by a long diagonal spit not visible to us; and in the evening we may see the man stumbling homewards through the water, driving before him his pair of bullocks with the inverted wooden plough 64 CEREALS towing astern of them. But, as mud banks often change greatly in size and form from year to year, one may congratulate the local statistician on the comparative rarity of posers of this particular kind. There are large tracts where the food of the people may almost be said to consist of " rice with variations." In the north there are others where wheat predominates, and where rice is scarcely more familiar than in European households. Elsewhere the staple food of the poorer classes may be millets of various kinds ; and in Himalayan tracts one sees food crops not recognized in the plains. Throughout the country considerable reliance is placed on pulses as a supplement to the inadequate proteins of the cereals proper, but these pulses do not fall within the scope of this paper. I refrain from quoting a number of bare statistics relating to the area and out-turn of Indian food-grains. It is practically impossible to memorize figures so large as to convey to the mind no visual image or conception. When one discusses crop areas in India, one speaks in figures in which an error of a million acres one way or another might not be noticed, so I will try to make them intelligible by correlating' them with a set of dimensions that are known to most of my hearers. In certain of the principal food-grains, like rice and wheat, there is a large export trade. India exports about one-sixteenth of her rice and •one-eighth of her wheat. This trade is mainly in the hands of European merchants, though it is served by legions of Indians as cultivators, labourers, carriers, middlemen, brokers, and bag merchants. Successive crop reports, provincial and " Imperial," are published during the growth and garner- ing of these crops. The provincial reports are known as the provincial forecasts; and an Imperial report, though commonly spoken of as a forecast, is officially designated a " General Memorandum " upon such and such a crop. It is an important part of the functions of these forecasts that they should inform the Government and the public regarding the general material welfare of the country; but the fact that they relate only to those crops in which a large export trade is done suggests that this con- CEREALS 65 sideration must have weighed heavily in the successive decisions regarding their institution. Except in Bengal, where the permanent settlement makes it unnecessary to maintain a regular revenue staff, these forecasts are compiled by that staff. The statistics for each minor tract are reported to the officer of the Administrative District in which it is situated. He pre- pares a return for the district, and reports it to the Director of Agriculture in his particular province; and the Director in turn reviews and, if necessary, modifies the district returns in the light of such special knowledge as he may possess, and then publishes the provincial total, which he further reports for incorporation in the General Memorandum. General Memoranda bring together the figures for all India. Not only do the crop seasons vary somewhat as between province and province, but the systems of land tenure and revenue practice differ in a manner that imposes diversity of practice in the preparation of agricultural statistics. It thus happens that, although an attempt is made to time the issue of the Memoranda with regard to these diversities of conditions, the data brought together in a single General Memorandum are not strictly homogeneous either in nature or in respect of time. Madras may be unable at first to report regard- ing any but the tracts held under a particular form of tenure. Agra and Oudh may be unable to make any estimate of out-turn at a date when all the other provinces do so. Some one or other tract may already have com- pleted the reaping of a crop about whose yield certain others are as yet able to make only a tentative conjecture. These points are sufficient to indicate that the so-called forecasts have defects that are due primarily to the wide diversity of conditions to be faced. They will explain also why, in the earlier forecasts relating to a given crop, comparison is made between the figure now estimated and that which was estimated in the previous year and group of years at the same stage of the crop. It has sometimes been suggested that the new figure should be compared with the complete and rectified figure for the previous year; but it is obvious that comparison of 5 66 CEREALS a part of this year's crop with the whole of last year's would be either meaningless or misleading. The crop areas and out-turns are verified and adjusted subsequently, and the corrected figures appear in the volume of Agricultural Statistics. These, however, appear too late to be of any use as a guide in the marketing of the crops. In any case, the prime crops referred to form the subject of special care on the part of the statistician; but even as regards them his task is complicated by the fact that in one part of the country the harvest may be complete and a rotation crop may already be in the ground before, in another part of the country, the reap- ing has even begun. Some idea of the extent of this multiple cropping may be gathered from the following- figures. The total area of land cropped in India (in- cluding Native States so far as reported) is about 390,000 square miles, each containing 640 acres, but the total area of the crops grown on that land is about 444,000 isquare miles. In other words, the area of the crops is greater by some 14 per cent, than the area of the land that produces them, though we must, of course, remember the fallows in rotation. If we examine the food-grain areas we find that they amount to about 351,000 square miles. And much of the land that bears a food-grain crop at one season bears jute, cotton, or oil seeds at another .season. Before I proceed to analyse these figures in any way I must try to give some concrete idea of their magnitude. So greatly do the areas exceed the widest stretch of country that we have ever seen that the figures remain nothing but an arithmetical expression. I propose, therefore, to compare them with something of which we have acquired a visual impression, even if it be only a relative one derived from a map. Great Britain is bad for this purpose, for its straggling form and indented coast prevent us from conceiving what its dimensions would be if it were compact and rectilinear. But Spain stands out well as a unit on a map, so I will compare Indian agricultural areas with the total superficies of Spain as you see it on the map — that is to say, including CEREALS 67 all its mountains, forests, and waste spaces. Its whole ^superficies is about 190,000 square miles, and this would contain 1,624 Counties of London. Parenthetically, the United Kingdom has an area of about 121,142 square miles. Now the area of recorded cultivation alone in India amounts to 444,000 square miles, and this is more than two and one-third times the area of all Spain as you see it on the map. The food-grains, with which we are primarily concerned at the moment, occupy an area of 351,000 square miles, which is about one and four-fifths as big as Spain. India exports the produce of only about one-tenth of her cultivated acreage, and of her food-grains she exports only a'bout 6 per cent. Yet what we may call her export acreage alone is consider- ably larger than one quarter of Spain, and it would require an acreage equal to about one-ninth of Spain to produce (independent of fallows) the food-grains alone which India sends abroad. I shall probably be asked on what grounds I state that India exports about one-tenth of her agricultural produce. The difficulty of making such an estimate will certainly not escape the notice of so redoubtable an audience. It would not be permissible to lump hundredweights of jute or of cotton or of cotton seed with hundredweights of rice or wheat, for the unit of quantity in each of these commodities has a different value, and represents the produce of different quantities of land. Nor — for the purpose now in view — can we reduce them all to a common term of value, firstly, because many of them are virtually not exported, and export values are not in any case applicable to produce used in the country; secondly, because export values are often rather vaguely ascertained where there are no export duties ; and thirdly, because there are no up-country statistics about some of the minor articles. The only common term to which we can reduce all descriptions of agricultural produce, exported and unexported, is that of the area of ground required to produce a stated measure. We have such data about yield per acre as enable us to do this with some approach to accuracy. So, when I say that India 68 CEREALS exports about one-tenth of her agricultural produce, I really mean that she exports the produce of one-tenth of her cultivated acreage. It is, of course, desirable to form some idea of the total value of India's produce; and, having regard to those considerations about price records which I have already stated, we see that it is only by employing the common term of acreage as an intermediate step that we can arrive at a computation of the value. As regards those crops in respect of which we have reliable data about areas, about yield per acre, and about price per measure, the matter is simple. As regards those crops or tracts in respect of which our out-turn figures are imperfect, we are sometimes able to base a fair estimate on crop-cutting experiments or on ascertained out-turns in adjoining and similar tracts. Analogous methods are followed in respect of prices or values; and to those un- important areas that bear minor food-grains unspecified we apply, faute de mieux, the average produce value per acre deduced from the other food-grains. This average produce value per acre is arrived at by dividing the sum of the values of those several products in respect of which we have data by the sum of the acreages under the same products. It seems to be about Rs. 36 8a., or, say, 483. 6d. Before stating some of the figures that issue from the calculation here outlined, it is well to say that, while they must be accepted with reserve, there is no reason to suppose that they are much more inaccurate than the similar calculations made in other countries. It appears, then, that India's agricultural produce has an aggregate value of some £787,500,000, while her food-grains alone are worth about £495,000,000. Now the total revenue of the United Kingdom is, I under- stand, about £186,000,000, so India's food-grains alone are worth some two and two-thirds times the revenue of the United Kingdom. Years ago I published a paper in which I examined the proposition, sometimes advanced, that it should be possible to deduce from food-crop estimates some con- clusion as to the quantities that would be in a sense CEREALS 69 available for export. This might be possible if there were only one food-grain, and if the inducements to exportation "were constant in successive years. But external demand varies greatly, and there are many food-grains. When the supply of one is in defect, this defect may be made good by drafts on another kind of grain of which the exports may thereby be restricted. And, in respect of either of the two grains here spoken of, considerable and seem- ingly unaccountable exports may take place, later on in the season, when the prospects regarding the next crop in one or other of them or in a third grain that can be substituted for them are seen to be good. Another obstacle to such a calculation as we are discussing is that internal consumption in India is not constant. Many of the people are, and more of them were till recently, so poor that they were usually underfed. A rise in price could not very greatly reduce consumption, but it led to resort to cheaper forms of food. A fall in price, on the other hand, induces a more liberal diet; and if every person in Bengal alone were to increase by only i per cent, the average daily ration of a little more than i Ib. of rice per head, the increased consumption in a year would represent an aggregate of no less than 84,500 tons. When we consider that India has a population of some 315,000,000, and that 94 per cent, of her food-grains are required for internal consumption, it will be understood that an increase of 6 per cent, in the production of rice might — with a constant internal consumption — bring about a cent, per cent, increase in its exports, and that, conversely, a contraction of production on the same scale might wipe the exports out altogether but for the financial exigencies of the cultivator. These facts account in great measure for the violent fluctuations that occur in the foreign trade in Indian grain. Although Burma rice is the standard rice of the world, and although India has in several years supplied the United Kingdom more largely with wheat than any of her competitors, people outside India forget her relative importance in the world's grain trade. The ruling factor in the Indian exports is the internal 70 CEREALS price not only of the single grain, but of those that can be substituted for it; and a somewhat elaborate study of prices which I carried out in my books on " Burma Rice " and on " Indian Wheat and Grain Elevators " leaves no doubt that at seasons other than that of the ''knock- down " harvest sales, the foreign prices for Indian wheat, say, have little to do with the smallness of the trade done. India as a whole, excluding Burma, cannot be said to produce grain for the purpose of exportation, though certain irrigation tracts already do so, and others will no doubt follow. There are tracts where irrigation or alluvium renders production so cheap that the mass of the wheat or rice can still be sold to a profit at the knock-down prices that are current at harvest time. But India as a whole parts only with so much of her food as can or must be sacrificed to liquidate certain agrarian charges ; and when she has a superfluity she releases it, because it would go bad on her hands. As the Indian population grows the exporters will have to conform to methods that give the cultivator a better return for his exported produce, or they will find those methods adopted to keep the grain in the country. At present the volume of the exports of food- grains from India at harvest time is mainly determined by the exigencies of the cultivator. He has, as I have said, to sell a quantity of his produce at -harvest time because he requires ready money for his land revenue, his irrigation charges, interest on borrowed money, etc. What he requires at that season is a definite sum of money. When prices are low he has to sell a greater quantity to the exporter to raise that sum. Hence the anomaly that, given a fair crop, we sometimes — though rarely — find early exports to be largest in quantity in those seasons in which prices are low. This is a point I shall have occasion to revert to. I allude to it here merely as a step in the exposition of the fact that no useful estimate of so-called " exportable surplus " can be made in respect of a single grain. The question arises whether it is possible to make an estimate of exportable surplus with reference to food- grains as a whole. If this is to be done we must find' CEREALS 71 some common term in which to express all food-grains, and we must include those pulses, etc., which are used to supplement the grain diet. Since the exportable surplus is that which under a given set of conditions can be spared from the food supply of the Indian people, the term selected must be one that expresses the relation of the products to the people, or, in other words, the food values of the several grains and pulses. These food values are known. In these food-grains the importance of the nitrogen is so predominant that, for our purpose, we sufficiently measure the food value of any one of them if we measure its nitrogen content and ignore the carbohydrates and the fats. In other words, we sufficiently represent the total food value of a given crop if we show what is the aggregate nitrogen content of that crop. This we can do in respect of each of the foods in question; and it follows that we can estimate the total food value of all such foods taken together. This I found in 1908 to be about 6,105,000 metric tons of nitrogen. A similar calculation as regards that portion of the food-grains which is retained for consumption in India appears to give a figure of about 4,830,000 metric tons of nitrogen. We can further say approximately what is the daily nitrogen requirement of the average native of India. On this physiological side of my subject I am indebted to Dr. McCay, of the Indian Medical Service and Professor of Physiology in the Medical College, Calcutta. The sum of his information is this — and we cannot pause to discuss Professor Hindhede's criticisms — that with a population composed of men, women, and children in the proportions found at the last census of India, the nitrogen requirements of the people would, upon the total of all India, including native States, be 5,024,000 metric tons. It is interesting to find that there is some approximation between this figure and that of 4,830,000 metric tons which I mentioned above as representing the total nitrogen content of that quantity of food-grains which is usually retained in this country for internal consumption. The difference is about 4 per cent., and this may well be accounted for by pulses and other 72 CEREALS supplementary foods. It is therefore quite probable that one might arrive at some approximate estimate of India's ability to export foodstuffs in general at a given time. But that by itself would not enable us to say which grain would be most readily exported, and this is precisely the point on which a shipper of Rangoon rice or of Karachi wheat requires enlightenment. We know what is the average fuel value or energy contained in a stated quantity of Indian food-grain, and we know what is the average cost of that quantity. It is therefore permissible to speak of the said sum of money as being the price of so much energy. And when we ascertain this in respect of that quantity of energy which is required to carry the average Indian through a day's or a year's work, we have, in fact, ascertained something that might be called a unit of value. And this has great importance in the economic study of any country. All value in the economic sense ultimately reposes on such energy, retrospective or prospective, as is represented by a commodity. If energy costs little in a country, that country is in a position to produce cheaply. If, on the contrary, the unit of value be high, the cost of living will be high; and, as a producer, the country will be at a disadvantage. On these lines we find that the cost of the average Indian's aliment alone, when derived from grain, is about Rs. n (145. 8d.) for one year, and less than six pies or one halfpenny per -diem. In all countries the cultivator wants ready money after harvest time. He tends to sell at once, and is deterred only by the fear that he may depress the market. Prospect of a gain in price may induce him to postpone sale, but in proportion as storage is costly or inefficient prompt sale is stimulated. In India the cultivator knows well enough that by throwing much of his produce on the market at harvest time he depresses prices, often below cost; but, on the other hand, he knows that, with such storage accommodation as is at his disposal, any attempt to hold a large proportion of a good crop would entail on him a loss heavier than is involved in his cheap sales. The storage is primitive. Rice is largely stored CEREALS 73 in granaries of wood and matting, or of beam and plaster, or of corrugated iron, raised on piles above the damp ground. Wheat is stored either in granaries of rough brickwork or sun-baked mud, or in receptacles of wattle- and-daub, or it is buried in pits. The granaries are usually on ground level, with an earthen floor slightly raised. In other words, the storage is about as rough as it can be; and when regard is had to the torrential character of the rains that in many tracts set in not long after harvest, and to the attendant high humidity, it is not surprising that the damage to grain so held is great. In India all forms of life grow rankly, and a heavy toll is levied on stored grain by insects, rats, thieves, mildew, heating and other agents of decomposition. These enemies are common to all grain, and any sale- able surplus of India's principal export grains (namely, rice and wheat) is rushed out of the country and dumped on the foreign markets with reckless disregard of the usual consequences of a glut. Not only does this system compel the cultivator to accept, up to the limit of his immediate cash requirements, any price that the exporter may offer him, but the absence of storage determines such a spate of shipment when the crop is good that the exporter's prices are forced lower than they need be. I present two charts (pp. 74, 75) that show the effect of the system in respect of rice and of wheat. The one with the most marked peak relates to Burma rice (Chart I) ; that with the flattened peak relates to Indian wheat (Chart II). The Burma season for the export of new-crop rice begins in January, while the Karachi season for the export of wheat begins in April. The charts, therefore, start respectively with January and with April. Both repre- sent the averages of a series of years, and they present data in percentages of the mean. The equator or 100 represents the mean monthly figure for the whole period; and the curve shows in percentages how far the figure for each successive month usually exceeds or falls short of that mean. The solid line represent the exports; the dotted line represents the prices at the ports. These charts repay exhaustive study, and have indeed disposed of the most time-honoured legend about the India export grain trade. 74 CEREALS eao 2TO aeo £60 840 CSO ISO «'0 «00 190 (SO 170 too 800 140 iso (£0 IIO 100 90 eo 70 00 00 40 3O 20 10 I. — BURMA RICE. EXPORTS AND PRICKS. I ? I I I I I ! S § ! § MONTHLY II7.I«O TOMI CSO 270 260 8.80 240 £30 £20 210 200 ISO iao 170 ieo IBO 140 130 tlO MO too 90 60 70 60 80 40 30 £0 10 H > o 8 § 8 Variations in average monthly levels. ,in exports ^ in prices Average of monthly shipments in 5 years, 1906 to 1910. ,, ,, quotations for paddy at Rangoon (Jan. to Mar.) in 10 years, 1901 to 1910. CEREALS 75 II.— INDIAN WHEAT. EXPORTS AND PRICES. 220 i I 30 20 8-i I § i 5 1 220 210 30 20 10 i i * I 1 i i i Variations in average monthly levels. In exports In prices 76 CEREALS It will be seen that in the first month of the rice season the shipments are only about 69 per cent, of the mean, but that in the next month they leap to 225 per cent, of the mean, and in March go to 274 per cent., dropping thereafter in three months to the point from which they started, and then tailing away to 14 per cent, of the mean. In the three months February to April (or in 25 per cent, of the whole period) some 58 per cent, of the €ntire shipments are exported. In the first six months the shipments represent nearly 80 per cent, of the whole; and in September, when prices are best, only 3^ per cent, of the total quantity is shipped. The dotted price-curve shows not only — as was to be expected — that prices were lowest at harvest time, but that in September, or seven months after the middle of the harvest season, a rise of 20 per cent, has taken place, and this, it must be noted, not for sound grain, but for average of the grain avail- able at the time, which contains a proportion of damage. The peak in the wheat curve is truncated; but in its main character the chart presents a striking resemblance to that relating to rice. In each case there is a rush up to the maximum, and then a rapid decline synchronizing with a rise in price. But the nature of the two problems is different in several respects. In rice India is the largest and cheapest producer and shipper in the world, and her prices rule the world. In wheat India only comes third as a producer, and seventh as an exporter; so, great as may be the effect produced by her heavy dumping at one season, the seasonal demand is limited, as is shown by the truncation of the curves. But we find that, in fact, the internal prices of both grains are markedly lowest at harvest time, and that, while the price of rice rises by 20 per cent, in seven months, that of wheat rises by 21 per cent, in eight months. Another point of difference between the problems relating to rice and to wheat is that, while the wheat is exported after being merely threshed, the rice is for the most part milled before shipment. And the milling of rice involves processes in which it is important that the grain should be uniform in size and homogeneous in character. Lack of uniformity in these respects results CEREALS 77 in imperfect husking of the lesser grains and heavy breakage among the larger and more valuable grains. But under the existing system the diverse kinds of rice inevitably get mixed during the frantic rush of the short rice season. So this rush, besides involving reckless buying, in which the middleman is master, besides enhancing ruinously the cost of labour, of cartage, of railway freights, and of transport by country boat, by river steamer, and by export shipping, leads to most wasteful milling, and keeps Burma's product in a position of inferiority which it need not occupy. And there is no truth in the ancient legend that these evils are compensated for by a supposed elevation of price at harvest time. Both in rice and in wheat the rush is due to the existence of a comparatively wide margin between European prices and produce prices. This wideness of margin is due in the main to the low- ness of the Indian producer's price, and the lowness of that price is due to the facts already stated — that he must realize a part of his crop, and that he has no means of storing a large surplus in safety. Later on the Western prices of wheat drop a little under the influence of supplies from Canada, America, and Eastern Europe; and the exporter in India used to imagine that if his "limit" had not been lowered he might have gone on shipping. Only in recent years has it been pointed out that, as a rule, the internal prices rise so greatly that four months after harvest the exporter is entirely " out of it." In some years the rise has been so great that grain shipped to Europe has very nearly been reimported. These facts have in the last seven years been established on the basis of ten years' averages, and some years have passed since any attempt was made to controvert them publicly. They are not affected by the circumstance that in some single years abnormal conditions may have put initial prices at so high a level that later prices showed a decline. The established facts have been made the ground of proposals for the institution of such a system of modern bins, silos, or elevators throughout the country as would serve the purpose of a reservoir, would 78 CEREALS avoid the necessity for throwing the bulk of the export grain upon the market within a short time, and would enable a merchant to hold grain in security or to borrow on good terms on a rising market. Another factor that has stimulated interest in elevators has been railway congestion. India has had a succes- sion of most prosperous years. The congestion on the railways has at times been very great indeed, and it has been greatest in the season for the movement of wheat and seeds. It has been injurious not only to the trade in these articles, but to every trade that had goods to be moved; and the proposal for the adoption of grain elevators has found many converts among the general merchants, whose business is disorganized by the spate of wheat and seeds. Now that they understand the matter these merchants are beginning to resent having their trade injured, because in India, as in Argentina, the vested interest in the wheat export trade deprecates the adoption of a system which they fear might at once make the seller somewhat independent and facilitate the entry of competitors into a close preserve. Among the converts are also many railway men. Formerly they feared that elevators might put an end to the export trade by facilitating retention of the grain in the country, and might so deprive the northern rail- ways of a great deal of traffic. But the conviction has gained ground that the present system of recurring congestion, with redoubled clamour for more rolling stock and track and crossing stations, is not business, .and that working will be much more profitable if the grain should go forward as it is wanted in consumption. The admission is also now made that when the large new irrigation tracts in the wheat regions are ready wheat will probably not be grown on them, and the railways will have no additional wheat to carry from them, unless such arrangements be made as will enable the cultivator to hold his produce in safety till it can be carried and until he can command a price that covers cost. If these conditions can be secured, it seems probable that an additional 2,900,000 acres may be put under wheat, and .an additional 1,283,000 tons of that grain will be avail- CEREALS 79 able. And it must be remembered that in irrigation colonies the sparseness of the population and the tendency to produce only the great staple products cause exportation of an exceptionally large proportion of the out-turn. It seems evident that any such additional quantity thrown on the market at harvest time must crush it as well as the railway organization. In a year of good crops much of it would be available for export. But in a year of good crops prices are low, such portion of the wheat as is sold for home consumption is sold cheap, and if the cultivator finds himself still unable to hold his surplus in safety, and obliged to let it go at such knock- down prices as a gorged export trade can offer, he will not put his land under wheat again. These considera- tions are gradually making their little impression; and, to cap them all, comes the accumulating evidence that European ports are rapidly completing their equipment for the handling of bulk wheat, and will, before long, require India either to supply in bulk or to knock some- thing off her prices. All these considerations have a special interest for Bombay, which twenty years ago was the chief port for Indian wheat. Karachi has in recent years spent large sums on facilities for handling grain in bags, and some of the local opponents of the elevator proposals argue that this expenditure obliges Karachi to continue on the old lines. Bombay, on the other hand, having ceded the premier place in the wheat trade to Karachi, and finding herself already obliged to contemplate further port equip- ment for the handling of produce, is disposed to think that she might get back a little of her own if she were able to come forward with an offer of sound bulk wheat brought in by the two great railways that serve her. While this question of elevators relates most evidently to wheat, it remains to be seen whether it may not also affect rice. This is my reason for disposing of it before proceeding to discuss these two crops separately. I can find no record of storage of rice in bins in any country. If any of my hearers can refer me to such experience I shall be grateful. Rice — more particularly rice in the husk — 8o CEREALS mildews and heats very readily. It is probable that Burma rice in the husk (which contains about nj per cent, moisture) would go wrong if stored in bins in the condition in which it reaches Rangoon, and in the presence of the high humidity and temperature there encountered. But research work and some interesting experience acquired with rape seed in recent years have shown that the organisms that cause this form of trouble are inhibited by drying. It remains to be seen whether great masses of rice could be profitably treated with modern drying appliances, and whether dehydrated air should be employed in view of the high temperatures and humidities encountered at some times and places in India. At all events, the chart I have given (Chart 3) leaves no doubt that the present system must glut the market. Rice, like all similar materials, is wanted in constant volume in the consuming markets. But not only does Burma throw the bulk of her rice on the markets at one time, but her doing so synchronizes with the arrivals of the mass of the rice from the other principal sources. The principal sources lie north of the Equator. The Dutch East Indies lie south of the Equator, and the rice harvest there is some six months later than in India, Saigon, etc. Java rice, therefore, comes on the European markets when they are bare, and it consequently sells at a premium very much greater than can be accounted for by its superiority. It remains for merchants and millers in Burma to consider whether it would pay to dry rice to safety point, to hold it in bins, and to send it forward when the glut of other rices was over. This operation would appear to offer the advantage that before the time for export had arrived the "rains" would have defined themselves for good or ill, and the holder would be able to choose between the foreign and the Indian markets. There is no time at present to go at length into the engaging habits of that prolific and pervasive insect called the weevil, or to describe the devices that we are adopting to circumvent him. No food-grain seems to be immune to his activities ; and if only 5 per cent, of India's food-grains are destroyed by him, the total loss CEREALS 8l III. —IMPORTS OF RICE INTO UNITED KINGDOM. CENTESIMAL VARIA- TIONS IN THE MONTHLY IMPORTS ON THE AVERAGE OF FIVE YEAKS, 1906 TO IQIO; THE AVERAGE FOR THE SIXTY MONTHS BEING TAKEN AS 100. I § I I I M I 5 I 1 § i § I I I I < I 5 g I § Imports of Rice into United Kingdom. Mean 245,058 cwt. from India — ,, .220,722 ,, from other sources *~ 779 ,, total _ 82 CEREALS must approach £25,000,000 sterling. He thrives in the bland or sweltering airs of the great sub-continent. He lurks amid the dust and detritus of last year's crop, in every crevice of the sun-baked brickwork or the bamboo matwork of the granaries, and when the new-crop grain is brought in, fresh and clean and succulent, he sallies forth in his (and her) myriads, and performs prodigies of reproduction. The destruction of grain is enormous, but it has never been properly ascertained in India, although in some laboratory experiments conducted by Mr. David Hooper, of the India Museum, some 65 per cent, of the grain was found to be destroyed in three months. In a recent Nyasaland publication the average loss by weevil in that country is put at about 25 to 30 per cent. In places one finds among the people an extraordinary delusion that the weevil does no harm. A Burman advanced this theory to me some years ago, and when he had at my instance fetched a sample of his last year's rice and had been shown a very large number of hollow grains, he said: "Oh, yes, no doubt; but the rice is always win- nowed before it is used, and all these hollow grains go away." The idea that their departure represented loss eventually dawned upon him and set him grinning. A parcel of grain which has once been " infected " by weevil may " break out " at any time. In other countries the weevil is occasionally dealt with by means of fumes and gases; but in India we are at present trying the effect of simple drying, and the results, so far as arrived at, are very encouraging. Gases have the disadvantage that, though they may kill the parent weevil, they do not readily penetrate to the interior of the grain where the larva is feeding; nor is it at all likely that they will sterilize the eggs. But it appears that not only does the weevil die when a certain point of dryness is reached, but the larva is unable to feed or even to come into existence. There are many points to be cleared up, but the study of the question is being prosecuted at the Agricultural Research Institute in Pusa and in the Punjab; and there is some expectation that drying may be found to afford protection against weevil as well as against mildew. The work of Mr. Fletcher and Dr. Leather points to 8 per cent, as CEREALS 83 about the safety point in wheat. It is suggested by some merchants that since drying involves loss of weight it would not pay. But all users of grain will pay for assured dryness, not only because of the greater security of their stock, but because it gives them a potential gain of weight during the conduct of their industrial processes. All that is necessary is that they should be sure that they will get dry grain, and I understand that this consideration is the basis of the new terms of business in respect of maize shipments. Another example is afforded by the description of Indian rape seed called toria. Up to two- years ago toria stood at a heavy discount as compared with what was called ''brown Cawnpore." It now commands a premium, and it is asserted by some shippers that this fact is — not entirely, but to a considerable extent — due to the more thorough drying instituted after very heavy losses had been made as a result of damp in 1911. I have already said that I aim in this paper not at imparting statistics, which can be better mastered by eye, but at giving you some idea of the magnitude, the characteristics, and" the main problems of the several grain trades. I take rice first, as it is by far the greatest. The rice crop of British India alone occupies 123,017 square miles, whereas the entire area of the United Kingdom, including all its waste spaces, is only 121,142 square miles. The average out-turn is about 29,488,000 tons. I confess that the figure conveyed very little to me even when I adopted the expedients of the popular magazine, and told myself that to transport this quantity I should have to employ more than 29,000 trains, each consisting of fifty 20-ton wagons, or a fleet of 4,900 large steamers. But I began to understand when I visited Burma in the height of its rice season. Then I travelled day after day through countries clothed with a mantle of rice which reached to the horizon on every side. All the land was alive with little people reaping, carrying, moving to and fro like ants on festival; and the landscape twinkled continually with a myriad golden jets of chaff and grain thrown into the air for winnowing. The whole landscape rustled and flickered with rice. By paths and roads the 84 CEREALS i driblets of India's greatest product were beginning to move, carried in baskets by countless Burmans and immigrant Indians, or by legions of bullocks in picturesque carts lined with matting to contain the grain in bulk. By creek and ditch and backwater moved thousands of boats of every size and shape, and their sails could be seen flitting deliriously through fields and by bamboo clumps and groves of hardwood. As the streams and waterways spread out, the craft seemed to multiply and spawn upon their surface until, in the great canals by which they reached the Rangoon River, they created such a spectacle of progression in a state of deadlock as only the East can present. The spate of grain submerges the railways, submerges Rangoon and Moulmein and Bassein and Akyab, and chokes the mills and rears great billows of golden grain on every vacant space, and then pours out across the sea in scores of ships, feeding the further East and swamping the markets of Europe. And in everything that the Burman does he is a person by himself. A most untimely rainfall set in during the rice harvest of 1912. Early one morning I saw a Burman perched precariously on the slope of a great hill of sodden sheaves which he was trying to save. Anyone but a Burman would have taken his clothes off to a job of that kind, especially as it was pouring cats and dogs. But the Burman was clothed in variegated silks, and with his right hand he held an umbrella over his head, while with his left he threw one little sheaf after another up into shelter. India supplies about 68 £ per cent, of the Western world's imported rice. Burma supplies about 63^ per cent, of it. Burma also sends some 837,000 tons of rice to India proper, so that her whole shipments amount to something like 2,250,000 tons. The respective systems on which rice and wheat are usually bought from the cultivator for export differ a good deal. Whether there would have been roads in Lower Burma and the Delta if there had been fewer waterways it is impossible to say. Certain it is that roads are almost non-existent, and that, but for the large CEREALS 05 number of waterways that thrid the land, the rice trade as it now exists could not have come into existence. It is the growth of about fifty years; and the system of local markets has not advanced as in the Punjab wheat tracts. Many months before harvest the country is alive with so-called brokers, who receive money from the millers and make advances against the next crop. When the harvest is at hand they distribute bags on a variety of terms, and then they buy all they can at prices that leave them a profit on the rates given them by the millers. But most of the transactions are carried out on the cultivators' own premises,' whereas in the Punjab the cultivator with wheat to sell usually brings it to a common market, where it is exposed for sale or made over to the agent to whom it has been hypothecated. In these local markets the wheat is either displayed in bulk on matting spread in the open, or is represented by samples. In the central part of the Punjab the wheat is carted to the market in bulk. In other places much of it is brought from field to market in bags, is unbagged for inspection at the market, and is then by the owner rebagged for storage or for despatch by rail. In the north-west tract there are no carts, and the grain conies in on pack animals — bullocks, asses, and camels. Looking back over the last ten years, we see that there have been some big events in the Indian wheat trade. The most important have certainly been the growth in irrigation, the creation of vast wheat colonies where there was desert before, and the inception of still further irrigation measures. Then there were the enormous shipments in 1904, when India exported 2,150,000 tons, and the United Kingdom took more wheat from India than from any other single source; and the striking con- trast of the exports in 1908-09, which amounted to about 5 per cent, of that figure. More potent as factors in the future have been the alteration in 1907 of the terms of the Indian contract reducing percentage of admixture, and the increasing tendency to ship cleaner wheat, until it becomes evident that India could work on a perfectly clean basis. Associated with these is the appearance of a large export trade in barley cleaned out of the wheat. 86 CEREALS The wheat area of India is about 42,822 square miles, and its out-turn about 8,400,000 tons. The area seems small beside the rice area of 123,000 square miles, and yet it represents something like a quarter of all Spain. The irrigated area under wheat averages about 8,547,300 acres, or 13,355 square miles, and to this is to be added the 2,900,000 acres, or 4,511 square miles, expected to be put under wheat in those irrigation tracts that are about to be created. This will make in all some 17,800 square miles of irrigated wheat. In certain recent years India has exported large quantities of barley. The average quantity exported in the five years ending 1910-11 was about 29,500 tons. In the year 1911-12 it went to< 292,500 tons, while the figures for 1912-13 touched 615,200 tons. That for 1913-14 has gone back to 190,400 tons; but I find it to be agreed that the demand for Indian barley will persist. There is a difference of opinion as to whether most of the Indian barley is used for malting or for feeding. I understand it to be a fact that East Indian barley is bought under the Feeding Stuffs Contract of the London Corn Trade Association. The main interest of the barley figures is less obvious than their magnitude. In the first place, the comparison of the earlier with the later years is probably illusory to some extent. In the second place, the development illustrates one step in the evolution of a trade specialized on modern lines, and it shows how improved organization in one branch of trade may entail changes in another. The figures I have quoted understate India's real exports of barley, and such understatement is more marked as regards the years anterior to 1911-12. For- merly the barley was exported in the wheat and swelled the figures relating to that higher-priced grain. Up to 1907 the proportion of barley permitted under the Indian wheat contract was 5 per cent., and in many shipments this was considerably exceeded. Even if it had been strictly adhered to a very large quantity of barley must have gone forward. For 5 per cent, on 1,000,000 tons of wheat is 50,000 tons of barley; and India's average exportation of wheat used to be not far short of that. CEREALS 87 In large tracts of India barley is sown and grown mixed with wheat. The operation of separating the barley from the wheat takes time, and it is unprofitable if the outlet for the separated barley is bad. Dealers and shippers of wheat alike found it more profitable, and more convenient in a spasmodic trade like theirs, to ship the barley in the wheat, and to take the risk of allowances than to separate it out and sell it on a narrow local market. Millers at home were equipped for separating the two kinds of grain, and were prepared to accept a little extra barley without great complaint, so long as they got a reasonable price for it on the home market. The barley, after being separated by the millers, was often mixed with barley from other sources; and even when it was not so mixed there was probably no gratuitous advertising of its origin. It was bought and used by stock-feeders, brewers, and others who did not concern themselves about its source, and wrho tolerated as customary a certain proportion of dead grain. In 1907 the terms of the Indian wheat contract were so altered as to limit to 2 per cent, the admixture of barley in wheat cargoes. For some years this was not strictly adhered to. It took time to get the new system into working order. There was no large local market for barley, and Indian barley as such was little known on the European markets. Consequently, there was for some time a persistent disposition to ship excess barley and to meet such allowances as might be due. But the tendency was towards elimination of barley. The supply of barley separated in India increased in that country, and there was a corresponding decrease in the supply in Europe of barley derived from Indian wheat cargoes. In the Indian market barley in the harvest season became relatively cheap. Conversely, in those months in which Indian supplies had formerly come forward, the price of barley in the United Kingdom hardened. A margin appeared. Experimental shipments were made. The business was found relatively profitable. The separation of barley was therefore carried further, and it became the general practice to ship Indian wheat without any excess barlev. 88 CEREALS The supply of barley in the United Kingdom was still further curtailed, and the home market became sensitive to any actual shortage. Such a shortage appeared in 1911, when it was found that drought had affected certain European crops, that England's crop showed a large reduction, that America had little barley to spare, and that other sources in the Near East (with the exception of Tunis and Algeria) were not sellers. Whereas the price of barley was to the price of wheat in the two years 1909-10 and 1910-11 as 72 is to 100, in 1911 the ratio rose to 82 per cent. Such an approximation of price reduces considerably the temptation to ship excess barley in Indian wheat. It is not surprising that Indian barley has found a ready market and that her exports have increased. But it is to be noted that India would probably not have been able to cut into this trade if she had not adopted the new form of wheat contract in 1907. And it is probable that the establishment of Indian barley on the home markets, in so far as it affords a regular outlet, will definitely fix the practice of shipping" wheat free from barley. How far it may abate the practice of sowing the two grains together remains to be seen. But in January, 1914, I was present at a Conference which the Director of Agriculture in the Punjab had with the Indian wheat merchants at Lyallpur on the subject of their using the elevator at that place, and I was greatly surprised to hear them, express perfect willingness to work on only two grades — one white and one red — both free from barley. There have been complaints about the presence of perished grains in the barley shipments. Such a con- dition in barley is usually the result of fermentation caused by excessive moisture. The fact that Indian barley is grown along with a more valuable crop whose condition decrees the time of cutting may possibly lead to premature harvesting of the barley. But I doubt whether there is much in this, for the barley tends to mature earlier than wheat. It is, in fact, probable that some perished grain has always been present in Indian barley, but that the complaint now finds voice for the CEREALS 89 first time largely because, under the old conditions, consumers did not know whence the barley had come. There can, I think, be little doubt that during the time of strong demand and high prices old stocks were pro- duced and mixed with barley of later date. Much of this old stock had been for years in pits and in other receptacles where damage was incurred, and it is probable that the exhaustion of these old stocks is sufficient to account for the improvement in the quality of shipments. At the same time, any marked and protracted restriction of the shipments, with consequent reaccumulation of stocks, might bring about a recurrence of the trouble. For while grain that is stored in pits is comparatively free from weevil there is usually a good deal of rot. It is believed that the decomposition of a certain amount of the grain generates carbonic acid gas in sufficient quantity to prevent the breeding of weevil. But I am informed that in the course of experiments made in recent years in treating grain with carbon dioxide for the prevention of weevil, curious results have been encountered which suggest that protracted treatment with the gas may sterilize the grain in the sense of rendering it incapable of germination. Neither in wheat nor in feeding barley does such sterility matter, but to brewing it is fatal. It is evident from the interest taken by maltsters in these problems that the discovery of India as a source of malting barley is more than an incident, and may prove to be an event. Proposals have already been made for the establishment of such a system of storage and handling as would secure all those conditions that else- where are believed to guarantee uniform germination. But such a system would cost money; and unless there were perfectly unequivocal assurance that the expenditure would be recouped by better prices the system would not be adopted. For there will always be a market for India's barley for feeding purposes. And India, in spite of her amenability to philosophical -sophistry, is sin- gularly sceptical about new propositions of a practical kind. There has been some discussion as to whether the condition of Indian barley could be improved by storage 9O CEREALS and handling in elevators. One of the objections most promptly brought against this suggestion is that uniform germination is so important that every maltster's lot must be homogeneous, not only in condition, but in respect of percentage of nitrogen content, and therefore in respect of source. I cannot say whether, in fact, such Indian barleys as are at all likely to become mixed in transit from their respective sources to the coast show a really pernicious divergency in nitrogen content, and whether — seeing that barley is likely to be more cultivated in the future un- mixed with wheat — it would not be possible to introduce greater uniformity in kind. Stagnation is very often the result of stickling for such a counsel of perfection as is involved in the keeping separate of all the barleys from different tracts, and it must be admitted that there is something attractive in the idea that barley might be made to profit by, and also to contribute to that adoption of grain elevators which many persons in India foresee. Barley has not as yet been made the subject of a crop forecast, though a proposal to this end has been for some time before the Government of India, and has been approved by the Indian Chambers of Commerce. The percentage of admixture of barley as grown along with wheat varies so widely that any estimate of the out-turn and of the equivalent in acreage must, in the absence of a forecast, be very conjectural. At present the crop is believed to cover about 8,882,000 acres, or 13,880 square miles, to amount to about 3,889,000 tons, and to have a value of more than £15,000,000. I will not attempt an analysis of such export trade in maize as exists. The grain was not distinguished in the Indian trade statistics before April, 1912, and in the agricultural statistics it is not distinguished now, so there is no record on which to found conclusions or even inferences. Some 21,000 tons of maize were sent abroad in the calendar year 1912, but in the official year 1913-14 the shipments amounted to only about 2,900 tons. The only head under secondary food-grains that shows an increase of exportation in 1913, as compared with 1912, is that of " Jowar and Bajra," which are millets. The exports of these in 1913-14 had a total of 84,000 tons; CEREALS 91 but since the area under these two crops is very great, amounting to 42,551,000 acres, or 66,500 square miles, the -exports probably represent less than 0*3 per cent, of the production. The area under these two crops, whose very existence is scarcely recognized outside of India, is considerably greater than one-third of all Spain, or more than half of the United Kingdom, is greater by 23,700 square miles than the area under wheat, and largely exceeds one half of the Indian rice acreage. But in some ways the most impressive food-grain areas we see in India are those where irrigation assures the crops. The total irrigated area runs to some 44,460,000 acres, or getting on for 70,000 square miles, which is much more than one-third of all Spain. Under irrigated food-grains and pulses alone there are some 33,787,000 acres, or 52,800 square miles. There are in this world few spectacles more striking than that presented by some great irrigation " colony " which a few years ago was a desert garnished only by thorn bushes and a few emaciated camels. Now one steams for hours across a country that in the cold weather spreads to the circular horizon in a sea of green splashed with the gamboge of mustard in flower, or later on ripples, as ;far as the eye can reach, with tawny oil seed crops and ripening grain, while the Himalayan snows peer and shimmer through the haze. In Burma in the rice season, or in Eastern Bengal when the jute is up, one may see a stretch as wide and homogeneous. But in Burma or Bengal the scenery is broken by masses of giant trees, whereas here, in the Punjab colonies, one can mark the progress of the saplings year by year and almost month by month as they break up across the horizon. When the wheat crop comes to harvest here, as in Burma, the whole land rustles with golden grain and chaff and straw; and as the boats pour down the waterways of the Burmese delta, so the lumbering Punjab carts with their teams of ante- diluvian buffaloes plough through the ruts of the dusty tracks, while goods trains hurry the wheat to the coast and crowded passenger trains bring over larger hordes of labourers, with their families and household goods, drawn from other districts by the high harvest wages. 92 CEREALS And I do not know that there is any more striking contrast between the two countries than that presented by the genial, friendly Burman, on the one hand, plying his business with little official aid beyond that afforded by the pax Britannica, and, on the other hand, the sour ungraciousness with which many of the peoples of Upper India seem to enter into ownership of the new world that irrigation has created for them. The fact is that they do not understand. They are immigrants. They have left their traditions behind them, and are " on the make." They did not know the country as it was, and they do not really conceive the wealth of crops to be a gift of their rulers. That, of course, is perhaps the most tiresome part of an official's life in India, that the good folk who profit by his effort very often remain uncon- scious even of the very fact that it has been made. BURMA RICE. By A. MCKERRAL, M.A., B.Sc. Deputy Director of Agriculture, Southern Circle, Burma. IN the present paper it is not intended to enter largely into the commercial aspects of the Burma rice trade, but to deal more particularly with methods of cultivation and with the nature of the rice plant as cultivated in Burma. Those who are interested in the strictly economic aspect of the matter may be referred to a paper entitled tk Burma Rice," recently written by Mr. F. Noel-Paton, Director- General of Commercial Intelligence, India.1 In that paper a very full account is given of the methods of buying, storing, transporting, milling, and exporting of the product, and many important problems of the future, such as the use of elevators, are discussed in detail. Statistical Aspect. As a preliminary to the present paper, the salient statistical aspects of the trade may be briefly recapitulated. In rice-producing area Burma ranks only fifth among the great Provinces of India, Bengal being first with some 50,000,000 acres, while Burma, during the season ending June 30, 1913, had only some 10,000,000 under cultivation. Despite this fact, Burma accounts for 75 per cent, of the total exports of rice from the Indian Empire, and contributes 63 per cent, of the Western World's imports, while India proper contributes 1*3 per cent. only. The reason for this apparent anomaly is that in Burma the population is small in proportion to the area under rice, the acreage per head being 0*832 for Burma, as against 1 Calcutta, Superintendent of Government Printing, India, IQI2. 94 CEREALS 0*496 for Bengal and 0*250 for Madras. Accordingly, a large surplus is available for export. Paddy (the name usually applied in India and Burma to the unhusked grain of the rice plant) destined for export finds its way to one or other of the principal sea- ports of Rangoon, Bassein, Moulmein, and Akyab, where the principal rice mills of the province, which are mainly in the hands of European firms, are found. There the rice is partially husked and exported as " cargo " rice. The increase in the acreage and in the amount exported has been continuous up to the present year (1914), when the record total of 2,944,000 tons of cargo rice left the province. Of this 1,292,000 tons were shipped to Europe, 895,000 tons to India, and 705,000 tons to the Straits. The remainder went to Japan, Ceylon, Mauritius, Zanzibar, and Reunion. A fact which must be borne in mind, however, is that the rice acreage of Burma, in the main tracts at least, has now practically reached its natural limit, and that future extension can only be the result of irrigation and of more intensive cultivation. On the other hand, it is to be borne in mind that over all of the great rice-producing area of Lower Burma and the Irrawaddy delta the crop is not at present competing, nor is it likely in the near future to compete, with any other crop. The most probable development of agricul- ture in these parts is second cropping by means of well or other irrigation, and the adoption of such a system, owing to the improvement which dry working and leguminous crops, such as beans, would produce on the paddy soils, would tend to increase rather than diminish the total yield. We have the further fact that at present Burma has few great non-agricultural industries, so that a very large internal demand from a rapidly increasing urban population is not likely to arise in the near future. In certain tracts of Upper Burma, notably in the Mon- Canal area of theyMinbu District, paddy is likely very soon to meet with a competitor in sugar-cane, but over the main rice areas of the province neither sugar-cane nor jute is likely to oust the crop from its present position of importance. Hence we may conclude that Burma's rice trade, if it does not show a marked increase, CEREALS 95 is not likely to dimmish much in volume in the near future. The diminution when it does occur will probably be slow. Cultivation in the Deltaic Region. Burma may be divided into three great climatic tracts : (i) A southern tract of high rainfall ranging from 70 to 200 in., including the Arakan and Tenasserim, Pegu, and Irrawaddy Divisions; (2) a central tract of low rainfall averaging from 25 to 35 in., and including the Mag we, Meiktila, and part of the Sagaing and Mandalay Divisions; and (3) a northern high rainfall tract, embracing mainly the Districts of Katha, Ruby Mines, Myitkyina, and Bhamo, where the rainfall ranges from 60 to 100 in. In the first of these tracts, the deltaic region, the main rice crop of the province is grown. Except for the Arakan and Pegu Yomas and their off-shoots, the country presents the appearance of a gTeat flat plain of alluvial origin and watered by the Irrawaddy, Rangoon, and Salween rivers. The soil of the region is lateritic in origin, and varies from a sandy loam to a darkish clay. The surface soil is in all cases characterized by the extreme rapidity with which it loses water as soon as the rains are over, so that attempts at cultivation without irrigation can only end in failure. On this great plain paddy cultivation begins in June, when the nurseries are made, for the great bulk of the paddy grown is trans- planted. Cattle manure is usually applied to the nurseries in May before the rains break, but hardly ever to the transplanted fields. Manuring of the latter is a much to be desired improvement as experiments at the Govern- ment Agricultural Station of Hmawbi have shown that a very considerable increase in yield can be got by manuring poor soils in this way. At present cattle manure is neither economically stored nor applied to the soil, and the whole system of cultivation is to be considered exten- sive rather than intensive. It is at present in the same stage as wheat cultivation in Canada, where the rough cultivation of large areas rather than the careful culti- vation of small is the practice in vogue. On these same soils experiment has also shown the efficacy of oil cake 96 CEREALS (cotton), cyanamide, and phosphate as manures for paddy, but their use would depend on their price, which is at present too high. The practice of green manuring has been found to be attended with difficulty, for the reason that the monsoon breaks with great abruptness, so that the soils are either as hard as brick or are soft mud. Hence proper cultivation of green manure plants cannot be effected. There is, however, a very great natural growth of grass and sedges in the early rains of May, June, and July, and this growth is ploughed into the soil in August. Its presence probably tends to main- tain fertility owing to its providing a suitable mechanical texture. Burman cultivators usually recognize four main kinds of crop : (i) Kaukyin, or very early maturing varieties, having a growth period of about 75 days; (2) Kauklat, or medium varieties, with a period of 75 to 100 days; (3) Kaukgyi, or long-lived rices, of which the period extends up to 120 days; and (4) Kauknyin, or glutinous rices. The latter are a class apart and are never exported, but used for particular purposes at pagoda festivals and the like. The distinction into the three grades of ordinary rices mentioned above is one that is necessitated by differences in the water supply. The short-lived varieties are grown on the higher fields, which lose their water first, and the long-lived varieties on the lowest lying- fields. The ordinary seed rate for paddy is about one basket of seed per acre of transplanted field. This could probably be lessened, as experiment has shown that in certain cases the usual practice of planting two or three plants together is wasteful and unnecessary. Reaping of the main crop is done in December and January, in which two months large contingents of labourers from Madras and Bengal visit the province, returning to their own country when the harvest is over. In Lower Burma wages are high, and R. i a day is a usual coolie rate at busy times. The yield on these Lower Burma soils varies from 1,500 to 4,000 Ib. of unhusked rice per acre. Cropping is con- tinuous, no manure is used except on the nurseries, and CEREALS 97 no rotations are practised, hence it is a common com- plaint in many places that yields are declining, a complaint which indicates the present time as one of necessary transition from extensive to intensive methods of cultivation. Cultivation in the Dry Zone. The central or dry tract of Burma is a climatic island, which owes its peculiar weather conditions partly to the presence of the Arakan Mountains, and partly to its inland position. The mountains not only rob the mon- soon of its moisture, but deflect its course, so that in all parts of the dry tract the prevailing monsoon wind is south-east instead of south-west. This is the region of dry crops of sesame (of which Burma possesses the largest acreage in India), sorghum, maize, beans, and cotton. Here, except in the irrigated areas, which the British Government has been sedulously extending since the annexation, rice is a crop of secondary importance. The country is one of broken uplands, with small valleys in which the monsoon water collects. On the higher grounds sesame, jowar, and cotton are planted. Hence in this central tract it is in the irrigated areas that we must look for extensive acreage under rice, and these areas, in which the cultivation is mostly all of recent date, are now helping considerably to swell the export trade. The main irrigation systems instituted or maintained by the British Government are as follows : — Mandalay... ... ... 77,955 acres. Shwebo ... ... ... 158,292 ,, Minbu ... ... ... 91,186 ,, Kyaukse ... ... ... 136,568 ,, The first three have all been formed since the British occupation, but much of the irrigation in Kyaukse owes its inception to the Burmese kings. Cultivation of paddy on these areas is practically similar to that in the non-irrigated tracts of Lower Burma, but in Kyaukse two crops per annum are often taken, or the crop is rotated with sugar-cane or sesame. Most of the soils 7 9 CEREALS in the Mandalay and Shwebo tracts consist of intensely stiff clay, which cracks into large and deep fissures in the hot weather. In Kyaukse and Minbu more variety is found, and especially in the Mon-Canal area in Minbu large stretches of friable loam resembling the Gangetic soil in texture are found. It is on these latter that the rice crop may expect to find a competitor in sugar- cane as time goes on. Quality and Defects of the Grain. The quality of Burma rice does not come up to that of the best of other countries. Many of its defects are due to premature harvesting, faulty storage, damage from insects, and other causes. From the miller's point of view it is defective in three particular ways : — (1) It contains a large percentage of red grains. Apparently the redness is objected to by the consumer, and must be got rid of in the mill as far as possible. To •do so means setting the hullers so closely that white grains are smashed, and a large percentage of broken grains seriously lowers the value of a sample. (2) A considerable number of the varieties grown are possessed of awns, and these latter have a similar effect, viz., they increase the amount of break. Unevenness of grain, a result mainly of mixing different varieties on the threshing floor, produces the same result. (3) Samples usually contain a considerable amount of stones and dirt, which have found their way into the stocks either by accident or design. Accordingly, the desire of millers is for a bold grain, i.e., a grain which in shape approximates to the spheroidal rather than to the cylindrical form, of uniform size, not possessed of awns, and which on husking presents a vitreous appearance, with no trace of red. At a recent Agricultural and Co-operative Conference held in Man- dalay, the representative of the Rangoon Chamber of Commerce, in a paper read by him on this subject, remarked as follows : — • " Every rice-consuming market in the world is protest- ing against receiving either rough or cleaned rice which contains more than an extremely small proportion of red CEREALS 99 grains. No amount of milling will eradicate the red tinge from even the better qualities of cleaned rice, while in rough rice and the lower grades of cleaned rice the red colour is only too obvious." Improvement of the Crop. To bring about the desired improvement in the quality of paddy grown, the Government of Burma have estab- lished two large Experimental Stations of about 400 acres each, one at Mandalay, which includes irrigated rice among other subjects of its programme, and one at Hmawbi, near Rangoon, which deals entirely with the non-irrigated rice crop of the great deltaic region. The latter station has only completed the third year of its existence, but even already some interesting and impor- tant results have been obtained. The work at these stations is to consist of (i) the improvement of rice varieties by selection or hybridiza- tion, with the special purpose of meeting the exporters' requirements ; (2) the institution of experiments to test improved methods of tillage and the introduction of improved implements; and (3) manurial experiments. In connection with (i), a collection of over 300 varieties of the kinds likely to suit millers has been made at Hmawbi from all the Lower Burma rice districts. These are now being growrn in single-ear cultures, and will be maintained as a permanent collection for purposes of reference. From this collection a number of specially suitable types were chosen last year and subjected to intra-varietal selection by the pure line method. The adoption of this method with certainty and success involves practical self- fertilization on the part of the crop being improved, and this question has been studied by using the colour of the husked grain as an index. The results, of several trials with red and white paddies from different parts of the -province, and containing different proportions of red and white grain, indicate that 2 per cent, is the probable maximum of crossing. By this is meant that if two pure lines of red and white paddy are sown together mixed in •equal quantities, the maximum percentage of plants which IOO CEREALS will be heterozygotes in the next generation will be 2 per cent, of the whole. Incidentally, it was ascertained that the red coloration of the grain is a simple Mendelian dominant to white, the offspring of the Fl generation, giving reds to whites in the ratio 3 to i. Such a small crossing percentage indicates that the pure line method may be adopted without any hesitancy. Cultivators' varieties are so mixed that a large basis for choice and selection is provided by a single field, and hybridization by artificial means need only be resorted to in very special cases, and for the solution of very particular problems. As indicated above, the desire of the miller is for a bold round grain possessing a high degree of resistance to breakage tn the milling process. On the other hand, the finest edible rices in India and Burma are those possessing a long, thin, cylindrical grain. Hence culti- vators frequently divide their crop into " Wun-Sa " and sale paddy. The frequent mixing of these two types of grain constitutes a serious grievance to the merchant. The number of types is, as in other countries, exces- sively large. They are distinguished by different shapes of grain, of the empty glumes, of the glume tip and awns, and by differences depending on colour combinations in sheathing leaf, stigma, glumes, and seed. Striking types are the handsome purple-leaved, glutinous rices with their long, thin, opaque grain; the so-called winged varieties, in which the outer glumes, usually minute, are prolonged beyond the inner; and the floating rices with bent stems, which are suitable for growing in regions where flooding is common. The variation is also as great in physio- logical as in morphological characters. Such are earli- ness of flowering, susceptibility to insect attack, tillering power, standing power, and yield. It is clear that all efforts at improvement must be strictly based on the demands of millers, and must accord- ingly aim at the production of pure lines characterized by a small breakage percentage and an absence of coloured grain. At the same time, however, the demand of the agriculturist must be kept clearly in mind, and the above qualities must be combined with heavy yielding- capacity, resistance to disease, and adaptation to the CEREALS 101 available water supply. It is fortunate that the crop does not suffer from any serious fungus attack. Dr. Butler, Imperial Mycolo>gist to the Government of India, has reported1 rice bunt (Tilletia horrida, Tak.), Cercospora oryzse, Miyake, (?) Entyloma sp., Eplcoccum hyalopes, Miyake, Fusarium sp., Metaspkseria albescens, v. Thuem., Nectria bolbophylli, P. Henn., Phoma gluma- rum, Ell. and Trac., Pyrenochsete oryzse, Shirai, and Septoria sp., as commonly found in the ears, stalks, or leaves of rice in Lower Burma, but in no case doing any material damage, being chiefly present on plants weakened by insect attack. The latter constitutes the most serious source of damage, and the various attacks of insects are known collectively to Burmans as " gwabo." They are mainly due to boring and cutting grubs of species of Schoenobius and Nonagria. This insect attack, which manifests itself in sterility and emptiness of the glumes, is kept in check to a certain extent by the practice of burning the stubble which is common in Lower Burma. On only one occasion has the present writer seen a crop completely destroyed by this cause, and that occurred in the newly opened Mon-Canal area in Upper Burma. So far attempts to obtain insect-resistant lines by selection have not given any positive results. The very serious eel-worm disease of Bengal, known as ufra, and due to a species of Tylenchus, has, for- tunately, not yet made its appearance in Burma. The intra-varietal selection for "yield" forms one of the most interesting and important aspects of rice im- provement. At the Hmawbi Station the Svalof method of comparing a large number of pure lines taken at random, and selecting the heaviest yielding of these, has been adopted. In the case of each variety to be improved it was determined to begin the first year with 1,000 parent ears selected at random, and planted out widely enough to enable the habit of each individual plant to be seen. At harvest a few of the largest and most vigorous plants were first singled out, and then every tenth plant at 1 " Diseases of Rice," Bulletin No. 34 of the Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, 1013. IO2 CEREALS random, thus giving in all about 100 cultures to compare in the second season. The object of this was to deter- mine whether by so spacing the plants " yield " quality in a parent plant could be detected by the eye. The results have been negative. Many of the apparently superior plants of the first year have proved in the second year to be splitting cultures due to natural cross-fertilization, their exuberance of growth and tillering in the first season being simply the well-known phenomenon associated with all first crosses. Hence this preliminary work has been abandoned, and in future comparison will be made directly between the lines. At the moment of writing the results are not available, nor has the soil error been determined. The determination of the latter for both nursery and transplanted field is an essential to accurate work of this kind, but is only made possible when a sufficiently large stock of a single pure line culture has been obtained. It is hoped that this determination will be completed during the present season. When the degree of probable error has been determined it will be possible to say whether intra-varietal selection for "yield" is an easy possibility or not. So far as is known, the literature of rice cultivation gives no definite data on this question. It abounds in varietal tests and trials in which the variety is taken as the unit and com- pared with other varieties. The question, however, which concerns us at present is whether a variety which is specially adapted to the trade requirements in the character and quality of its grain, but of low yielding- power, can by selection among its lines be transformed into a type which will satisfy the demands of the agricul- turist as well. THE PRODUCTION OF MAIZE, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO SOUTH AFRICA. By JOSEPH BURTT-DAVY, F.L.S. Botanist, Transvaal Maize-breeding Station, Vereeniging; lately Government Agrostologist and Botanist, Union of South Africa. Importance of the Maize Crop. — It is perhaps not generally realized that the world's consumption of maize is greater than that of wheat, actually 447,000,000 bushels more, while it takes only one-half of the acreage laid down to wheat to produce the same yield of maize. At the same time the foliage and stalks of the crop yield a large quantity of highly nutritious stock food; it is claimed that there is no farm crop grown which produces a heavier yield per acre of stock food than maize. The importance of this crop as a source of food for man and his domestic animals, and also as a source of supply of alcohol, starch, glucose, dextrine, corn oilr glycerine, cellulose, and other commercial products can scarcely be over-estimated. The world's annual con- sumption of maize is about 1,100,237,180 muids (of 200 lb.), i.e., 3,928,947,000 bushels; of this the European Continent absorbs something- like 43,200,000 muids, and the demand is constantly increasing, as new uses for this cereal are being found. The European markets are at present supplied chiefly from the United States, Argen- tina, and South-east Europe. The local consumption of the first-named country is steadily increasing, and its surplus is decreasing (it has lately been a large buyer from the Argentine), while the European markets are looking out for fresh sources of supply. The climatic conditions which control the distribution of the maize crop are such that there is no unbroken area of suitable land of any size left in the United States and Canada fitted for maize growing. At present the whole of the African Continent produces. IO4 CEREALS only about i per cent, of the total world's production, while the United States of America contributes 75 per cent. But there is no reason why South Africa 'should not contribute a much larger percentage; in fact, as a field for maize growing, British South Africa is the most suitable and most promising undeveloped area of equal size in the whole world. We have an ample average rainfall, at the right season of the year, and phenomenally favourable winter weather for the natural production of the quality of grain most suitable for shipment, whereas Argentina is always hampered by her autumn rains, which often seriously damage the crop. Owing to the dryness of the winter over the greater part of South Africa, the farmer is able to continue harvesting and shelling in the field up to the very day when he starts planting the new crop; in this respect he has an enormous advantage over the farmer in either North or South America. The percentage of grain which is damaged by the weather is exceedingly small; the moisture-content of the grain exported (with- out artificial drying) is some 4 per cent, lower than that of the American-grown article. South Africa has, and is likely to have for many years, an excellent local market for a large part of her crop, the Rand mines alone taking over 75,000 tons (Colonial) per annum. Because she owns her own railroads she can carry her surplus to the coast ports at cost. With this great advantage in her favour, South Africa has gobd reason for optimism as to the future of her maize industry; there is good ground for the prophecy that she is to become the maize granary of Europe. Our present average yield is low (not over 4 muids — 14 bushels — per acre), but good farmers are pro- ducing an average of 20 muids (72 bushels) of maize per acre. I expect to see still better yields as our maize lands get into better " heart " with more humus in the soil; in fact, one crop of the present season is reported to average 28 muids (100 bushels). The present low average yield is considered just about to cover expenses of production; if the yield were more than doubled, there- fore, maize growing should pay handsomely. CEREALS IO5 We exported 1,750,000 muids of maize grain in 1910. I believe that the Transvaal alone will be able to produce without difficulty, and will produce in the near future 35,000,000 muids per annum. Maize will always be the staple cash crop of South Africa. As its value for stock food becomes better appreciated the local demand will increase, and in this connection Earl Grey's recent prophecy (at the " South African Dinner," 1913) of a coming shortage of the world's beef supply is suggestive. Maize and cattle farming go hand in hand. Distribution and Climatic Requirements. — Though the maize plant is not known in a truly wild state, i.e., re- producing itself spontaneously from self-sown seed, it appears to have originated on the tropical table-lands of northern South America, probably New Granada, at a considerable altitude (probably above 4,500 ft.). It is now grown as a staple grain crop in the following countries : — North America: United States. Mexico. Canada (Ontario and Quebec). South America : Argentina. Uruguay. Chile. Europe : Austria. Hungary. Croatia-Slavonia . Bosnia-Herzegovina . Roumania. Italy. Russia. Northern Caucasia Serbia. Bulgaria. Spain. Portugal. France. IO6 CEREALS Asia : British India. Africa : Egypt. Sudan. Algeria. British South Africa. Australasia : New South Wales. Queensland. Victoria. Western Australia. New Zealand. Maize is also grown, but to a lesser extent, in Central America, the West Indies, Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, Uganda, British East Africa, Nyasaland, Mada- gascar, Mesopotamia, Ceylon, China, Japan, the Malay Archipelago, and New Caledonia. The geograpical distribution of maize as a profitable farm crop is very markedly restricted by climatic con- ditions, e.g., temperature, sunshine, amount and incidence of rainfall, and the length of the growing season. Topo- graphy and the character oif the soil, latitude and altitude, are also important factors. Only where these several factors are suitably combined does the culture of maize become commercially successful; the absence of any one of them may limit production on a large scale. It is important that we should understand the relation of these several factors of the maize crop. Speaking broadly, the most favourable conditions are long humid summers, hot days and warm nights during the growing' season, comparatively heavy, intermittent rains, with abundance of clear sunshiny weather between. Maize is essentially a tropical and sub-tropical crop, being an annual, summer-growing plant, sensitive to frost. But within the limits of the tropics and sub-tropical zones its distribution is also limited. The desert and the tropical jungle are alike unsuited to its commercial production, the former from lack of moisture, and the latter from lack of sunshine; maize is essentially a crop of the open grass-steppe country at comparatively high altitudes. But CEREALS ID/ here again we find its distribution limited ; in South Africa it does better on the uplands above 3,000 ft. than at or near sea-level, where the growth of rank weeds which over-top the maize plant interferes with the development of the grain. Altitude affects the growth of crops indirectly, as it influences length of season, temperature, precipitation of moisture, depth and richness of -soil, etc. The altitude at which the maize crop can be grown successfully varies from sea-level to 10,000 ft., or possibly more, latitude compensating altitude. In the United States 82 per cent, of the crop is produced between 500 and 1,500 ft. altitude. Temperature. — Eighty-eight per cent, of the United States crop is grown between the July isotherms 70° and 80° F., whilst the actual highest yields have been o'btained between July isotherms 75° and 80° F. The average temperature of the maize belt of Argentina is 62'3° F., and the belt lies between summer isotherms 71 '6° and 78-8° F., and annual isotherms 59° and 68° F. The average mean monthly temperatures for the four growing months (November to February inclusive) in the Transvaal over a period of seven years are : Pretoria (4,500 ft.), 70-28°; Vereeniging (4,7°° ft.), 69-29°; Bethal (5,580 ft.), 64-68° F. Though we have abundant proof that good maize crops can be grown where the nights are uniformly cool, as in the Transvaal, it is probable that warm nights tend to heavier yields per acre. Low soil temperature retards germination and subse- quent growth. Maize lands should be well drained in sub-tropical climates, for wet soils are usually cold. Rainfall. — As compared with many — I think we may safely say, most — farm crops maize requires very little moisture, especially when we consider the weight of green material produced by it; King, of Wisconsin, found that it required only about half the rainfall necessary for a crop of oats or clover. But the maize plant requires a considerable amount of water at certain stages of growth, especially up to a height of about 6 in., and again at the time of flower production. At the Illinois Experimental Station a rainfall of 13 in. IO8 CEREALS during the five growing months produced 9 muids (1,792 Ib.) of dry maize grain per acre; the following year 2.2,' 5 in. during the same period produced 26 muids (5,264 Ib.); the results indicate that the increase of 17 muids per acre was due to the additional 9*5 in. of rain, or i '8 muids increase for every additional inch increase of rainfall. American investigators consider that a rainfall of 1 1 '5 to I2'o in. in the three summer months — June, July and August — or 15 in. during the four growing months, is adequate. During the season just over I have success- fully grown about 400 acres of maize with the following rainfall : — In. In. In. November . ... 0*55 0-55 \ 171 2-58 8-04 I = 11-86 375 ) December January February March The crop is light — possibly not more than 5 muids (18 bushels) per acre — but the quality is excellent. Improvement by Breeding. — The maize plant is monoe- cious and anemophilous. As is to be expected, therefore, existing strains are extremely heterozygous. It there- fore lends itself readily to improvement by (i) selection of improved cross-bred strains, and (2) further crossing. Great improvement has been effected in the United States and in South Africa, both in yield and quality, by these means. Much remains to be done, especially in increasing the world's total production, by developing new breeds adapted to regions which are not yet producers of maize on a commercial scale. By the development of earlier maturing strains the United States has pushed maize growing northward into the States of North Dakota and Minnesota, and it does not seem impossible that a breed might be raised which would produce a commercial crop of grain in the South of England. Miller (" Gardener's Dictionary ") mentions a variety of maize cultivated in 1562, which " ripens its grain perfectly well in England in as little time as barley." Soils. — Maize can be grown on almost any kind of soil suited to the production of other farm crops; it need not be as rich as the soils required for some crops, but to CEREALS IO9 secure the best results the soil should be moist, but well drained. It should also be of good depth. Maize is sensitive to variations in soil, but perhaps mainly as these affect soil moisture. A crop which gives such a heavy yield as maize must necessarily reduce rapidly the fertility of the soil. The problem of the maintenance of soil fertility is therefore one of the most important for the maize grower. South Africa must avoid the mistakes made by the farmers of the Southern States, where, Hopkins tells us, thousands of acres of land are practically ruined from an agricultural point of view after but 200 years of farming. Contrast the condition of England to-day, where we are told " the older England grows, the richer become the average soils; cases of impoverishment are few and far between." If proper steps are taken to maintain the crop-producing power of the soil, maize does not prove an exhaustive crop. The amount of soil elements removed is small in proportion to the amount of foodstuff produced; large quantities of organic matter are produced which, when fed to live stock, make large quantities of organic manure to return to the soil; the intercultural tillage required by the maize crop is beneficial to the soil. Soil fertility is maintained, and even improved, by (i) green manuring; (2) use of farmyard manure; (3) use of artificial fertilizers. As one of our practical maize growers says: "It pays, and pays handsomely, to fertilize," and this I can confirm by actual proof. Treatment of the Crop. — Broadly speaking, we obtain the best results by the following methods, altered to suit varying conditions, viz.: — • Ploughing fallow or new lands in summer as soon as possible after the work of planting the new crop has been completed. This ground is reploughed in March or April. New ground is ploughed first to a depth of 6 in. ; the second ploughing is made as deep as the plough will go (9 to IT in.). The disc-cultivator or Martin's cultivator is used to reduce the surface, and the latter to clean out quick grass (Cynodon dactylori). Weeds are fatal to successful maize growing, and the aim in 1 10 CEREALS all our operations is to reduce the weed crop as economi- cally as possible. The zigzag harrow is used after every considerable rain to break the soil crust or kill ger- minating weeds. Two or, if possible, three crops of weeds should be killed in this way before planting. Maize seed is drilled in with a two-row American " planter," which places the grain in rows 2 ft. 6 in. to 3 ft. 6 in. apart, and drops the seed at varying distances of 12 to 18 in. In the Transvaal we find that 3 ft. 6 in. between rows and i ft. 6 in. to 2 ft. in the rows is a suit- able distance for the ordinary breeds. Time of planting is regulated by altitude and time of arrival of spring rains. On the high veld (5,000 to 6,500 ft.) October is the safe month for most breeds; in the middle veld (4,000 to 5,000 ft.) Novem'ber to middle December is, broadly speaking, more suitable; in the upper and lower bush veld (below 4,000 ft.) December to middle of January is the usual time for planting, because the rains usually begin later. Immediately after planting we harrow with the zigzag- harrow, and try to harrow off two crops of weeds before the maize plants get too large; the harrow can be used until the crop is 6 in. high. Then we begin to cultivate, using one of the numerous American walking cultivators which straddle the row, drawn by two muzzled oxen or mules. I find the duck-foot type of cultivator superior to the disc type for this purpose. Our object is to keep on with this cultivation continuously until the plants are too tall to be straddled safely. Then we begin with adjustable tooth cultivators between the rows, drawn by a single ox or mule. This work is maintained con- tinuously until the ears on the stalk become so large that there is danger of their being broken off by the animals in passing. The object of this constant cultivation is : (i) The retention of soil moisture and proper aeration of the surface soil, and (2) the destruction of weeds. It is this constant cultivation which is the secret of success in maize growing. As a Yankee farmer once quaintly but very truly remarked: "There ar'nt but one way o' raisin' corn: cultivate, and cultivate, and keep on cultivatinV CEREALS III Harvesting. — Harvesting is usually done by hand in South Africa owing to the abundance of cheap native labour. Most of the crop is left to ripen and dry off on the stalk; the ears are then pulled by hand, the husk being" left on the stalk; or the ear and husk are taken off together, the husk being removed with a combined busker and sheller. The grain is then bagged for milling or export, in bags of 203 Ib. gross, the standard weight being a muid of 200 Ib. net. A few farmers have adopted the plan of cutting and stocking the stalks before the ears are dry, and this method will doubtless be increasingly practised, as it results in a higher feeding value for the stover. Diseases. — Broadly speaking, the South African maize crop has comparatively few diseases and pests. The principal diseases are: brown rust (Puccinia maydis, Bereng), r^d rust (Puccinia purpurea, Cooke), maize smut (Sorosporium Yeilianum (Kuhn), McAlp.), dry rot (Diplo- dia zex (Schw.), Lev.), and leaf scorch (Helmintho- sporium turciciim, Pas.). Weed Pes'ts. — The most pernicious non-parasitic weed pests with which wre have to contend are : Bermuda quick-grass (Cynodon dactylon) and uintjes (Cy perns esculentus and C. rotundis). We have a parasitic weed pest peculiar to South Africa: Striga lutea. Lour., called witch weed, because it is supposed by the natives to bewitch the maize fields. It is a troublesome and danger- ous pest in the warmer parts of the country, and seriously reduces yields. We are learning how to deal with it. Animal Pests. — The Chacma baboon (Papio porcarius), monkeys (Cerco pith ecus pygerythrus), the jumping hare (Pedetes caffer), the reed rat (Thryonomys swinderen- ianus), a small jumping rat (not identified), the porcupine (Hystrix africx-australis), the African rook (Heterocorax capensis), the blue crane (Anthropoides paradisea), and the guinea fowl (Numidia coronata), all do some damage to the crop and tend to reduce yields. Insect Pests. — More damage is done by certain insect pests; of these the most troublesome are: (i) The cut worms, larvae of several species of Agrotis; (2) the stalk borers, top grubs or tassel worms, larvae of Sesamia 112 CEREALS fusca, Hampson, and of another moth; (3) the striped beard-grub or ear worm, the larva of the moth Heliothis armiger, Hubn. With good farming (*•£., good cultivation, winter ploughing, rotation of crops, and fallowing) these pests are not proving a serious menace. The stalk borers are perhaps giving most trouble, but the use of trap crops is proving a useful preventive. Weevils, the angoumois grain moth, and rats and mice give the usual amount of trouble with grain stored in bags. Varieties and Breeds. — The varieties indentata (dent maize) and indurata (flint maize) are most largely grown in South Africa, with a tendency to discontinue the flints owing to lower yield. The varieties prsecox (popcorn), crythrolepis (flour corn), tunicata (pod corn), and rugosa (sugar maize) are also grown to a limited extent. Of dent maize Hickory King is the breed most exten- sively grown in South Africa. It is a white dent. Other white dents grown are : Louisiana or lo-row Hickory, Hickory Horsetooth or 12-row Hickory, Iowa Silver Mine, Ladysmith, Natal White Horsetooth, Boon County, and Salisbury White. The principal yellow dents are : Yellow Horsetooth, Chester County, Eureka, Yellow Hogan, Golden Beauty, Golden Eagle, Reid, Minnesota Early, and Learning. Of flint breeds 8-row Botman, Cango, Wills Jehu, and North Dakota are principally grown. Repatriation and Bushman are rarely met with. Commerce. — It is, unfortunately, impossible to give the present South African production of maize owing to the absence of reliable statistics. We have exported as much as one and a half million muids (5,350,000 bushels), and local consumption is large : some three-quarter million muids (2,670,000 bushels) are consumed on the Witwatersrand for feeding the natives employed on the mines. The production of the Transvaal in 1908-9 was 1,437,834 muids (5,133,067 bushels). The Union Government has wisely fostered the export of maize by providing cheap rates from inland centres to the coast (los. per Colonial ton), and by arranging with the steamship companies to carry the grain to CEREALS 113 European ports for about us. 6~d. per ton, or 2s. 6d. per muid from inland station delivered on the wharves at London. From time to time the policy of the Govern- ment in fostering the export trade has been criticized on the ground, sound in itself, that it is better to feed our maize crop than to export a raw product. But this objection is based on less than a half truth; while admit- ting that it is better to feed the crop locally than to export, one must not forget that the export trade has done more than anything else to develop the maize industry of South Africa by (i) steadying the local market and thus preventing prices from dropping below payable figures ; (2) encouraging the greater production of maize ; (3) bringing capital into the country at a time when we could not produce enough beef, mutton, or wool for export. The rapid development of the industry may be gauged by the fact that whereas in the year 1904-5 the Transvaal alone imported maize to the extent of 375,147 muids (valued at £218,659), m I9°6 she exported 3,716 muids and in 1910 exported 759,830 muids, while all the time her local consumption was rapidly increasing. Maize for Stock Food. — Valuable as is the maize grain in the arts and manufactures, and important as an export trade is, it must not be forgotten that the primary value of the crop is as a source of food for stock. Not only is the grain a valuable stock food, but the stalks and leaves make a most palatable and nutritious stock food, either as silage, hay, or stover. With a threatened shortage of meat in the more densely populated parts of the world people are seeking new countries of supply, and those countries which can produce good maize crops are likely to come to the fore as beef producers. In the United States, the home of maize, the chief use of this crop is as food for domestic animals. " In connection with grass, it is the meat-producing material of the United States. The wonderful development of our pork industry is directly related to our maize crop. . . . .The ears of maize are the natural food of the civilized hog." (Hunt). Machinery. — There is a good and rapidly growing 8 114 CEREALS market in South Africa for maize-growing implements, such as are manufactured in the United States and Canada. Also for shellers, nearly all of which come from England. Reapers, shockers, and binders are not yet in demand, but the demand is growing as the farmers get more capital to spend on implements. Nearly all our maize planters and cultivators are made in the United States. Every year the merchants underestimate the demand for planters owing to the astonishing increase in their use and in the acreage planted. At the be- ginning of the planting season it happens, year after year, that one cannot get a single planter of certain favourite makes at any place in South Africa. I know one small country firm which sold fifty-two maize planters in one season, which was more than they had sold in the preceding seven years ! This will give some idea of the rapid progress being made. There is great need for a smaller and cheaper husker and shelter. The preparation of maize silage is steadily on the increase, and the demand for silage cutters and for shredders is keeping pace with it. These facts should be brought to the notice of the English, Canadian, and Australian manufacturers. Bulk Handling. — If the Government would take its courage in both hands and adopt the bulk handling of maize, as so ably recommended by Sir Thomas Price in his Report of 1911, it would give a great impetus to the export trade. We use 2j Ib. "A " twill jute grain bags, imported from India, for the export trade, and " B " twill for the local trade. The cost of these bags to the farmer has increased 100 per cent, in the last five years, and this fact may force us to adopt bulk handling. Indian grain bag manufacturers would be well advised to consider this point and to try to keep our grain bag trade. It is claimed that this increase is due to the shortage in the supply of jute, a point which should be considered by planters in regions where jute can be grown profitably. I am fully alive to the fact that it is better to make our maize walk to market on four legs than to export it in the form of the raw article. This, however, must come CEREALS 115 naturally with increase of immigration, smaller holdings and increase in dairying, cattle fattening, and pig raising. In the meantime, and for some years to come, local pro- duction will be greater than consumption, and the export trade will benefit the agricultural community by bringing capital into the country. Direct Shipment. — Our maize trade would be in a much better position if we had direct shipment to Liverpool, Manchester, Waterford, and Glasgow; at present nearly all our grain is sold through London, and transhipment to those ports adds to our cost what might otherwise be gained by the competition of these markets to secure our grain. The merchants at the ports named are very anxious to handle our maize. With the ports competing, it seems to me probable that our trade would be diverted from the Continent, which now consumes more than Great Britain. London brokers admit that theirs is the cheapest grain market in the world, and as long as we are solely dependent upon them we cannot secure such good prices as would be the case if we could ship direct to other ports. It would be greatly to the advantage of both South Africa and the other Dominions of the Empire if the commercial bodies of the latter could be made aware of the fact that South African maize is the best in quality and condition of any produced in the world. An export trade with Australia has already commenced. India might take large quantities of our maize in exchange for the more expensive articles of commerce which she pro- duces and we do not. The climatic conditions of Canada do not allow her to produce more than a fraction of the maize which she requires for manufacture and stock food, and I understand that the direct lines of steamers between Cape Town and New York and Canadian ports could carry our maize for less than the tariff charge on some 1,500 miles of rail, over which United States maize is carried from the " Corn Belt " to Toronto*, Montreal, or Quebec. Egypt also, though a producer of maize to some extent, is also a buyer, and we might perhaps secure .her trade if she knew what we produce. We can produce maize probably more cheaply than Il6 CEREALS Australia, India, or Egypt, because it is grown on relatively cheaper land — land which is at present much cheaper than that in the " Corn Belt" of the United States of America. Land in India and Australia suitable 'for maize growing is too valuable, because it can produce other and more expensive crops, which we cannot produce profitably on our maize lands. Need for More Farmers. — The land is crying out for men — capable, trained farmers with £1,000 to £1,500 capital. Opposition to immigration is passing away. At the Transvaal Agricultural Union Congress, a resolution favouring immigration was passed on the evening of April 2, 1914, the first time in the history of the Union that such a resolution could be passed, though frequently tried. We need good formers of the yeoman type — from England and Scotland. For the development of the Low Country, where cotton, tobacco, and sugar-cane can be grown, we need a few hard-working settlers from the United States, accustomed to deal with malarial fever, and therefore not afraid of it. Profits in Farming in the Transvaal. — I doubt whether there is at the present moment any country in the world where capital put into the development of agriculture can be so rapidly doubled as in the Transvaal. I know a case where a young man cleared £1,500 the second year of farming on the Transvaal High Veld. I know other cases where farmers have bought their farms out- right after paying rent for six years, and in the meantime have completely fenced, camped, built farm buildings and houses, and got together herds and flocks, besides plant- ing shade trees, wind-breaks, and orchards, and have lived plainly but comfortably on the proceeds of their farms. In three such cases the men started with only £1,500 capital, and paid £90 per annum rent. Their crops were maize (the staple), potatoes, and teff grass, and they supplied milk to Johannesburg, about 100 miles distant. We have excellent land, as cheap for its potential value as any in any other healthy part of the world; as fine a climate as any in the world, where our men and our stock can wo>rk on the land from one year's end to the other; we have an excellent railroad service, low export rates, CEREALS 1 1/ and an assured and growing market for all the maize, meat, and wool we can produce. For further information on the subject of maize growing I must refer my readers to my recently published book, "Maize: its History, Cultivation, Handling, and Uses" (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1914). SUGAR. THE SUGAR-CANE IN INDIA. By C. A. BARBER, Sc. D.Cantab., F.L.S. Government Sugar-cane Expert in India. THE indigenous canes of India differ so greatly from those usually met with in the tropics that a competent observer has suggested that they are of different descent, and have arisen from separate species of wild Saccharum. It is certainly a matter of small difficulty to distinguish between the native canes and such introductions as are occasionally met with throughout the country. Prac- tically, the whole of the thicker canes of North India, termed locally " Paunda," are foreign, being only grown under special conditions near large towns, heavily manured, carefully tended, and used only as a fruit, pieces of them being sold in the bazaars at a small price for chew- ing. Here and there records survive of their introduction into the country by some enterprising officer, in other cases the names by which they are known indicate a foreign origin, while, in many, all traces of their importation have disappeared, and we are dependent on their morphological characters and obvious unsuitability for general culti- vation as proofs of their foreign character. In the present note I propose to leave out these introduced canes altogether and deal exclusively with the native canes of India, with the object of impressing their characters upon those who have not had the opportunity of seeing them. As regards the growth of the sugar-cane, India may be divided roughly into two great regions : Peninsular India and the sugar-cane tract of North India. Not that sugar-cane cannot be grown in India wherever water and SUGAR 119 warmth are available, but these two great divisions account for 99 per cent, of the crop. (i) Peninsular India. — The Tropic of Cancer crosses India between the mouths of the Ganges and Brahma- putra and that of the Indus; south of this line you have Peninsular India, which is thus wholly within the tropics. Sugar-cane in this region is grown chiefly in Madras, Mysore, and Bombay. With few exceptions thick canes predominate, many of them having been introduced recently by the Agricultural Department; but there are also a number which have been in the country for many years. Some of the latter have undoubtedly degenerated in the course of years, and it is thus more difficult some- times to distinguish them from the local " desi " canes than is the case in North India, especially as the latter are naturally thicker in the south. The yields in the field are often large, not far, indeed, behind those in most sugar- cane growing countries. Occasionally great care is taken in the cultivation, and comparatively heavy doses of manure are given in the form of oil-cake, with very satis- factory results. But, taking the whole region together, it is comparatively unimportant, and the acreage, possibly reaching 250,000, does not constitute one-tenth of that under this crop in India. A little of the cane grown in the Peninsula is manufactured into sugar; a larger quantity is used for chewing in the towns and more populous country districts; while the great bulk is crushed locally in bullock-driven mills and made up into jaggery, an impure, soft-brown sugar, with much glucose and impurities of various kinds, used as food by the people all over the country. The growing of sugar-cane in this southern region is limited by the amount of water available and the quantity of paddy grown. The fields are small and isolated, often less than an acre in extent, and the crop is usually planted in rotation with wet paddy — that is, rice grown in mud and constantly immersed during the greater part of its life — a rotation which always appears to me to be of a very unsatisfactory character. The difficulty of obtaining land in a compact block among a number of small holders is one great bar to any extension, from the factory point 120 SUGAK of view, of sugar-cane growing in this region, and, added to this, it must be remembered that paddy is a necessary food, is extremely easy to grow, and is practically un- affected by disease, and, at present prices, the crop is a very profitable one. The ryot naturally prefers the small expense and labour needed in growing paddy during part of the year to the greater cost and constant labour for the whole twelve months for sugar-cane, especially when there is some doubt in the latter case as to the success of the crop reaped. The need of capital and the uncertainty of the outturn, because of possible drought or disease, make sugar-cane cultivation more of a venture. When any cultivator decides to embark on this enterprise he is regarded by his neighbours as a man of substance, with sufficient means to indulge in a certain amount of speculation. (2) The North Indian Sugar-cane Tract. — This is not in the tropics. It consists mainly of a stretch of 1,000 miles of country south of the Himalayas, varying from 100 to 300 miles in width, extending' from the Brahma- putra to the tributaries of the Indus, from Bihar and Assam on the south-east to the Punjab on the north-west, constantly becoming colder in the winter as one proceeds, until the incidence of frost is a regular thing. The region includes the whole of the northern part of the Gangetic plain. The soil is fine, soft, stoneless alluvium, uniform to a great depth, there being practically no distinction between soil and subsoil. It is very easily permeable by water, and, near the Himalayas, is well supplied with water at no great depth, the water table sinking steadily as we leave the mountains. The submontane tract thus needs little irrigation, but further south there is a vast network of canals, the crop is always irrigated, and the sugar-cane occupies the lower portions and wheat the higher. This North Indian tract accounts for from two to three million acres of sugar-cane; thus far exceeding the Peninsula in importance. The climate is, however, better suited for wheat grow- ing than for sugar-cane, and it is with an undoubted shock that a traveller, accustomed to the cane-growing countries of the tropics, views the first cane field in North SUGAR 121 India, the crop being stunted and grass-like in comparison with those of Java, the West Indies, and Mauritius. It is, in fact, extremely unlikely that our traveller would recognize the crop at all. The canes are thin, short, or moderately tall, but never equalling the tropical luxuri- ance; they are hardy against drought or waterlogging, and are consequently often grown in unsuitable places; the juice is fairly rich and contains little glucose at ripeness, but it is scanty, and much of it is absorbed at the mill by the mass of fibre which the stalks contain; the rind is hard and the leaves are narrow, often being less than an inch across at the widest place. The limiting factor in cane-growing in South India is water; in North India warmth. The latter is insufficient for tropical canes to ripen, and those that are grown, being merely used for chewing, cannot hold their own in purity with the local cane. The latter have for centuries been adapting themselves to the local conditions and make the most of their opportunities, as will be seen from the following : While the growing period in South India is twelve months of the year, provided canal, well, or river water is available, that in North India is strictly limited. Irrigation or a large quantity of rain or water in the soil is necessary for sugar-cane growing in India, for, in place of the rains which give showers every month in the West Indies, there are four or five months during which no rain falls, and without artificial watering the cane would inevitably die. In North India there is often a considerable period of time between reaping and sowing, and various methods are adopted to keep the seed. In the Punjab it is stored in great mounds of earth, very like the similar mounds used in Europe for storing mangolds. Rain is usually absent from India during the first half of the year, so that, although the canes are sown as soon as there is warmth enough for germination, growth during the earlier period is very slow. The temperature, however, rises rapidly until it far exceeds anything experienced in South India or any other part of the inhabited tropics. For weeks it is above 100° F. in the shade, and, towards the end of this period, may reach anything up to the maximum of 125° F. The 122 SUGAR young plants lead a struggling existence during this period. The inrush of moist air with the monsoon, which reaches North India early in July, changes these con- ditions almost dramatically. The period of rains which follows is one of more moderate temperature, abundant water, and rapid, forced growth. The water level rises all over the country until large stretches become prac- tically waterlogged. Sugar-cane, as a plant, is remark- ably sensitive to lack of drainage, and most of the better canes of North India have been wiped out during recent years by disease arising from this cause. The thinner canes are, however, very hardy, and commence growing with great rapidity. So rapid does this growth appear to be that I believe that there is nothing equal to it in the sugar-cane of tropical countries. It is specially noticeable in August and September, when the water level begins to fall again, the canes simply shooting up, so as to complete their growth while the temperature is favourable. But in October the rains have largely ceased and the sun has passed the Equator southwards. The air becomes cool rapidly, and soon the temperature sinks so low that further growth practically ceases. Canes measured at reaping time, which occurs from December to March, according to locality, show little difference from those examined in August to September. The canes mature during this period. At harvest the fields are sometimes white and dried up; in the Punjab because of the destruction of the leaves by frost, and in dry places, such as Aligarh, because of increasing drought. The local canes of North India have adapted themselves to these conditions in a remarkable degree, some of them being even able to resist some degrees of frost; they have the power of growing with great rapidity in an almost waterlogged but permeable soil, and maturing during the cold days between October and December. It will be apparent to all sugar-cane growers in the tropics that their rich, thick, juicy canes with compara- tively broad, tender leaves are hopelessly handicapped, and they will not be surprised to learn that such canes do not usually ripen sufficiently for factory use in SUGAR 123 Northern India. They are sweet and pleasant for chew- ing", but the proportion of glucose remains high to the end. And, considering the disadvantages under which even the local canes labour, we are justified, I think, in asserting that the North of India is hardly a suitable climate for the growth of the sugar-cane at all. The ideal climate for sugar-cane is moist, steamy, and, as has been pointed out by someone, generally unfit for the white man to live in. In view of these adverse conditions, the question naturally arises: "How is it that sugar-cane is grown to such an enormous extent in Northern India? " This question is not very easy to answer. In the first place, jaggery, or gur, as it is termed in North India, is a necessary food, and although sugar can now be brought into the country easily and cheaply, this has not been so always. The sugar-cane has thus become an established crop which it would take many years to eradicate, if one were desirous to do so. In the next place, the cultivation as carried on in North India is extremely simple and inexpensive. While it is not unusual for £10 or even £20 to be spent on an acre in Madras, many of the fields in North India are planted, reaped, and the produce made into gur for £3 to £4; and this figure does not indicate capital locked up, but largely represents the labour of the family and their cattle at a time when they would not otherwise be employed. Sugar-cane in North India is rarely manured. At first sight this would appear to be a direction in which improvement might easily be introduced, but a little thought will show that any attempt to apply the heavy nitrogenous manuring usual in other places would probably prevent the canes from ripening at all in the limited time at their disposal. This fact also sharply limits the possibility of introducing such canes as require this treatment for their growth and maturing. Another inducement to the cultivator of North India to grow this crop is undoubtedly the fact that sugar-cane is almost universally recognized as a crop on which money can be raised on loan. In a way this seriously interferes with good cultivation, because, once the loan is secured, it is obviously not to the advantage 124 SUGAR of the cultivator to spend any more money on the crop than is necessary to bring' it to maturity. And such is the wonderful fertility of this great alluvial tract and the inherent hardiness of the canes that the plants, once fairly started, can fairly well look after themselves, provided their irrigation turn is not neglected. Lastly, it is possible that, as will be mentioned later, the cultivated sugar-cane first arose by selection from wild species growing in North India, and that the improvements noted in the canes of tropical regions are simply due to the greater warmth and moisture obtainable there. Many efforts have been made in the past to exploit this obvious wealth by starting sugar factories. But in almost every case, until recently, this has been done without due recognition of the peculiar difficulties of the case. Experienced planters have been brought over from the West Indies who have exhausted their energies in a vain effort to force the West Indian practice upon the local canes, often bringing with them favourite tropical canes. Manag'ers have been put in charge with no knowledge of the crop at all. In some cases factories have been started without a sufficiently careful study of the local supply and demand, and have failed because they have been literally starved of canes, unless by paying prices incompatible with successful working. But, with the general improvement in tropical agriculture all over the world, things are* commencing to move in the right direction in India. Government is keenly interested in assisting enterprise in sugar-making, and a number of factories have lately sprung into existence with better* prospects of success than ever before. Looking at the matter all round, and considering that India has far more land under this crop than any other country, and is also probably the greatest sugar consumer in the world, it appears to be incontestable that a great sugar-making industry may be confidently expected. Besides a very careful study of the local conditions in each case, there are two directions in which improvements may be reason- ably anticipated. The class of factory and the kind of machinery used in the tropics may very possibly not be those best suited for the thin North India canes and the SUGAR 125 local conditions of land tenure, and there is room for considerable research in this direction, as well as in thoroughly investigating the existing native methods of making gur. Secondly, the canes are very inferior in many respects, there being, indeed, indications that they are inferior to those grown a few generations ago, many better class canes having disappeared through red rot. A wide field is opened for research in this direction also, and, of the two, I consider it the more immediately promising of useful results. The vast bulk of the sugar-cane in India is made into jaggery or gur, but a taste for white sugar appears to be arising. During recent years increasing quantities of white sugar have been imported annually, until the figure is at present not far off 1,000,000 tons. This rising import may be due to the general increase in population, the area under cane not having increased in any- thing like the same degree, to the greater prosperity throughout the country and its increasing wealth, and to a gradual change of taste, especially in large towns, with a desire for a purer product. It has, I think, been rightly contended that India should produce its own sugar, while optimists have prophesied a time when sugar may be added to the list of Indian exports, such as wheat, cotton, jute, and rice. With an idea of assisting in this direction Government has recently entertained two specialists, one in the United Provinces, to study the question of sugar manufacture and machinery, and the other in Madras to try and improve the canes grown. With the latter of these I am at present concerned. There are three ways in which the problem of im- proving North Indian canes can be approached. New and better kinds may be imported from abroad, the local canes may be improved by careful selection, and new canes can be produced as seedlings. I have said enough to show that the introduction of canes from other countries is not a very promising direction of energy. Selection, on the other hand, will be a very slow and tedious process in a plant always propagated in a vegetative manner, and in any case this method would be too slow to meet the present crisis. This leaves us with the third method only. 126 SUGAR Raising cane seedlings is not in itself a matter of much difficulty. But, in spite of many attempts in the past, this has never been accomplished in India. The reason for this non-success is not far to seek. It has been unfortunate that almost all the experiments have been tried in North India. Flowering of the sugar-cane is comparatively rare in North India; indeed, it is so un- common in certain tracts that, when it occurs, it arrests the attention of the cultivators, and they are said to view it as a dire portent. We are informed that instances have occurred where the ryots have left their villages on the appearance of flowers on the cane plants, just as they do when there is a scourge of small-pox, plague, or cholera. Every local superstition in agriculture is worthy of careful sifting, for there is generally a kernel of truth and experience in the most extravagant clothing of imagina- tion. While flowering in the sugar-cane is in many cases undoubtedly a varietal character, it seems to me that it is also largely influenced by climate and surroundings, and there is some reason to assume that it occurs in North India chiefly in dry years. In a country where every year passes with a series o>f dry months during which not a drop of rain falls, the partial failure of the normal rains is a matter of very serious moment, some- times spelling disaster. A couple of years ago there was quite a phenomenal flowering of the sugar-cane over the eastern districts of the United Provinces, and it is an interesting circumstance Jhat, but for unexpected rains in November after a prolonged drought, the situation would have been very serious throughout the sugar-cane tract. But even when the canes flower in North India it transpires that the stamens do not open, and even if they did the pollen inside is ill-formed and immature. The climate of the Gangetic plain is too cold apparently for the full formation of the parts of the flower, hence the ovules cannot be fertilized and seed cannot be formed. In South India the frequency of flowering varies a good deal in different places, but around Coimbatore (a very dry locality) it is a constant feature of the cane fields. A short examination of the cane arrows or tassels in this locality showed that the anthers of many kinds were open, SUGAR 127 and well-formed pollen grains were seen upon the stigmas of the flowers. A cane-breeding station was accordingly opened at Coinrbatore in March, 1913, and a large number of seedlings have been raised there already, besides some in the previous year at the Botanic Garden of the Agricultural College. And the parents included some of the North Indian canes which, it is interesting to note, although barren in North India, produce fertile pollen at Coimbatore. The first piece of work of the cane-breeding station, that of raising cane seedlings, has thus been successfully accomplished. But the bulk of these (30,000 to 40,000 in number) are from thick tropical parents, and are less de-sirable for North India on that account. The problem is now reducing itself to a control of the flowering, so that North and South Indian canes can be induced to flower together and crosses obtained between hardy, thin, rapidly maturing canes and rich, juicy ones. Some sixty to seventy varieties of native or desi Indian canes have already been collected at Coimbatore, and series of experiments are being conducted to induce flowering at will, and thus to control parentage on the lines laid down. The bulk of the varieties of the canes thus far collected fall into a series of four natural groups with a number of characters in common, and some progress has been made in linking up these groups. There are, of course, also a number of isolated canes whose systematic position is doubtful, but large areas in India are still unexplored by the farm officers, and many varieties have still to be collected. These four main groups may be termed Rheora, Pansahi, Nargori, and Chin, after prominent members, and their relative importance differs in the different parts of the cane-growing tract. In Bihar and adjoining parts of the United Provinces the Rheora group is perhaps most widely grown, but a primitive series (Nargori) comes into evidence in poor, unirrigated land towards the hills. In the Punjab, at the other end of the tract, both of these classes are absent, and perhaps 90 per cent, of all the canes grown belong to the Chin group, which, extending into the western parts of the 128 SUGAR United Provinces, appears to be unrepresented in the east of these provinces and in Bihar. The Pansahi group extends throughout the cane-growing region, being perhaps at its best in Bihar, and becoming less abundant towards the north-west, until it leads a struggling exist- ence in the Punjab, occasionally being wiped out by frost there and reintroduced with difficulty. The canes of this group are thicker than the others, and its members are more or less intermediate between the thinner, indigenous canes and the thick, introduced ones. They are delicate, require plenty of water, and are liable to attacks of red rot. It would be interesting, if time permitted, to trace the changes in the size and luxuriance of the canes as we pass from Madras to Calcutta, and along the sugar-cane tract of North India to the Punjab. The canes of Bengal, Assam, and Bihar are often not far behind those of Madras in thickness, and large crops are sometimes reaped. As we proceed north-west the luxuriance con- stantly diminishes until, in the frost-visited region of the Punjab, the canes are probably the thinnest and hardiest in the world, often under j in. in diameter. The rind of these canes is extremely tough and the proportion of fibre very high. In certain districts of the Punjab this is taken into account for the manufacture of ropes and mats, and the prices obtained for these is sufficiently high to make the extraction of fibre of equal or greater import- ance to the cultivator than that of gur. As the modern iron mill breaks up the fibre very effectively, we have in these districts the survival of one of the primitive mills of India, called the " belna." The thin canes are tied together into bundles of about 100 each, and are then passed backwards and forwards between wooden rollers, by men on each side, for the best part of an hour. The residual bundles of coarse fibre find a ready market for the manufacture of ropes for mhotes for lifting water, and their price has risen considerably during recent years. The canes of the Punjab are of special interest because of their primitive character, and show very clear relation- ship with one of the wild Saccharums of the neighbour- hood. Most of these canes are of the Katha variety, a SUGAR 129 diminutive frost-resistant member of the Chin group, and the resemblance of the Katha to the Kahi grass (Saccharum spontaneum) is sufficiently close for the cultivators to assert that Katha originally sprang from that grass. Seedlings of S. spontaneum selected and raised at Coimbatore have yielded 3 to 5 per cent, of sucrO'Se in the juice. They are perfectly fertile when crossed with North Indian canes, and a number of hybrids have been obtained with 7 to 12 per cent, of sucrose. These facts seem to lend support to the belief of the Punjab ryots, but it is full early for us to frame theories as to the origin of the Indian canes, as there are many more to be collected and studied, and we have little knowledge of the wild Saccharums of the Malay Peninsula. Considering the variability of the North Indian canes according to locality, it will be obvious that seedlings suitable for o.ne part will not be likely to do equally well in others. The ideal would be to cross local canes with South Indian ones, so that in every case one of the parents would have adapted itself by long acclimatization to the peculiarities of the tract. And the immediate- problem is to induce the desired parents to flower at the same time. But even if they do it is by no means certain that crosses can be effected. The flowers are so numerous and small that it is practically impossible to emasculate them, at any rate in sufficient numbers to be economically useful. And we prefer for the present simply to bring the arrows together and then to examine the seedlings for parental characters. And for this to be done effectively we shall have to make a very much more complete morphological study of the sugar-cane than has ever been attempted before. Many kinds of cane have steadily refused to flower at all. Some produce infertile flowers, and even those which flower do not so do every year. There will thus be small chance of applying Mendelian methods on the new farm. Where possible this line will not be lost sight of, and the main line of work will be to collect parents of known useful properties and attempt to accumulate these properties in individuals by crossing whenever we 9 130 SUGAR can induce parents with complementary characters to flower together. In such work any cane with known partial infertility, whether it be of male or female organ, will be of special service. For instance, the Vellai cane, the best Coimbatore variety, introduced many years ago from abroad, has poorly developed stamens and little good pollen. Advantage has been taken of this during the past year, and the flowers have been dusted with pollen of a number of different varieties which happened .to be in flower at the same time. We cannot assume that .the offsprings are hybrids, however, because Vellai has some fertile pollen; we must wait and watch the develop- ment of any known peculiarity of the supposed male parent. Such being the present state of affairs, and it being highly desirable to obtain results of some sort as -early as possible, crossing, selfing, and all Mendelian work are at present kept in the background; and the old chance method of raising as many seedlings as possible from arrows of good parents and selecting the most healthy of these for further trial and weeding out the undesirables, is being constantly pushed forwards. We are not without encouragement, even thus early, for some seedlings analysed have surprisingly good juice, at least fifty this last year having over 17 per cent, of sucrose and half a dozen over 19 per cent. But we must wait and see whether these good characters remain constant, and we labour under the additional disadvantage that seed- lings which give good>results at Coimbatore have to be tested further in North India. An exhaustive study has, therefore, been commenced as to the relative behaviour of various canes and seedlings in Coimbatore and in various parts of North India. There is every convenience for this study, because all along the sugar tract a chain of local farms has been opened, part of whose work will toe the testing of such varieties as are sent up from the cane-breeding station in Madras. THE CLASSIFICATION OP INDIAN SUGAR-CANES. By C. A. BARBER, Sc. D.Cantab., F.L.S. Government Sugar-cane Expert in India. ANY attempt to improve the indigenous canes of India must be prefaced by a thorough knowledge of their characters and the reasons why they vary so much from place to place. Lists have been published from time to time of the varieties inhabiting different tracts or Pro- vinces, but most of these are far from complete, and no attempt has been made to work out their synonymy and the variations of the same cane under different conditions. In this respect, however, the United Provinces stand out from the rest in that, in Hadi's survey of the canes of this region, the distribution of the various kinds has been tabulated in great detail, and valuable notes as to their relationship have been recorded. The canes of certain parts of Bengal, and especially Bihar, have been collected and studied in recent years at the Agricultural College at Sabour, and a partial survey of the Punjab canes has just been completed. In the two last-named cases collec- tions of the different varieties have been maintained on Government farms, and these have proved to be of the utmost value in the attempts at classification detailed below. But a very brief study of these collections and those at Aligarh, Pusa, the Central Provinces, and elsewhere has shown that many canes, almost identical in character, bear entirely different names, while the same name is sometimes attached to canes of entirely different character. And the various attempts at classification, although often on right lines, have paid little attention to morphological differences, have, in fact, been agricultural rather than scientific, have dealt rather with the general behaviour and appearance of the cane in the field than with definite botanical characters. 132 SUGAR Classifications of sugar-canes in other parts of the world with which I am acquainted are of little use intrinsically, and the canes dealt with in them, being thick, juicy, tropical ones, are on a different plane from those growing in India. The classification of Indian canes may thus be regarded as entirely new work. And it has this difficulty about it, that no starting-point has been indicated, and no one has as yet made any careful morphological study of the sugar-cane. In these circum- stances, the only method which has suggested itself to me has been to make an exhaustive study of each cane as it has come into my hands, which has naturally resulted in a constantly expanding series of characters, each new cane providing one or two in which it differs from others previously examined. Many of these characters, at first of apparent value, have broken down after the study of further specimens, while others of great use in distin- guishing closely allied forms have no general application. Added to this, there is the constant fear that some of the characters are unstable, and will vary according to the treatment of the cane and the locality in which it is grown. Most of the canes thus far studied have been grown under like conditions of soil and climate, and this question of permanence of characters has still to be studied. The results here recorded will, therefore, have to be considered to a certain extent as preliminary and tentative. The series of Bihar and Bengal canes collected at Sabour have been classified according to their habit and appearance, and this method of grouping them appears to be an excellent one. It is, in fact, a curious circum- stance that such features as erectness, the bending of the leaves, the thickness of the stems and length of the individual joints, tillering, the colour of the leaves, the arrangement of the leaves at the ends of the shoots, all of which can be observed in the field in moderately large plots, appear to be among the most constant for the variety. I have been debarred from much study in this direction because of the wideness of the field covered and the shortness of my stay in any one place, and also because the North Indian canes collected on my farm at SUGAR 133 Coimbatore do not appear to be at home in their new surroundings. The examination which I have thus far been able to make has chiefly resulted in noting minute differences in the cut canes and series of measurements of the length and thickness of the joints and the size of leaves and leaf sheaths — that is, such characters as can best be observed in the laboratory. About sixty varieties of canes have been passed in review, some proving to be duplicates under distinct names from different places. It has been possible to separate four main groups very clearly, as they have a number of common characters, while differing from other groups in their distribution and agricultural qualities. These may be called, after their most prominent members, Chin, Nargori, Rheora, and Pansahi. I propose to deal seriatim, with some of the characters upon which I have been led to lay stress, using these groups chiefly for illustration, and, later on, to give a brief synopsis of the characters of some of them, in order to indicate the lines on which I am working. I have selected for brief mention the following : habit, colour, joint, bud; and it will become easy to read between the lines and see how complicated and detailed the study may easily become. The difficulty has not been so much to find differences as to select among them those that are likely to be of general use in classification. HABIT. — I have chosen erectness, leaf-endings, and tillering for discussion here. (i) Erectness. — Upon examining the first seedlings obtained (some forty or fifty) it was noted that compara- tively few were quite erect, many were oblique, and some were so depressed as to lie flat on the ground. This habit is naturally to be deprecated because, although subsequent shoots become ascending, the plant takes up too much room from the crop point of view. Attention having been thus drawn to this character, it was found that the first shoots of many of the Indian canes are oblique, as in the Cheni and Saretha varieties, while members of the Nargori group are perfectly erect. This character appears to be inherent and permanent as long as the canes are propagated in a vegetative manner — that is, by 134 SUGAR cuttings, as is usually the case. When reproduced by seed, however, the matter is entirely different. In seventy seedlings of Saretha, all stages were seen between upright and depressed ones, just as we saw to occur in those mentioned above, which were largely the progeny of Cheni. This oblique character of the seedlings appears to be much rarer among the descendants of the thicker tropical canes, and the parents are usually more upright from the start than Indian canes. The degree of erect- ness thus seems to be a matter of some importance from the systematic point of view. (2) Leaf-endings. — The youngest leaf or two of a cane shoot are vertical, but they soon bend outwards, and the manner and suddenness of this bending is a useful distin- guishing character in the field. Thus, all the members of the Chin group appear to have a sharp, right- angle bend as they pass from the erect position to the broad curve common to all mature cane leaves. By this character you can readily separate Katha, a Chin cane, from Dhaulu of Gurdaspur, to which it is closely allied. In Khari and a number of others the leaves remain straight and erect for a considerable time, giving the whole field the appearance of a mass of bayonets. In Pansahi and many broad-leafed canes the bend is a curve from the start, and it is very quickly realized. Besides these and other main forms there is an infinity of graduations, so that with a little practice it becomes possible to name the cane within a short distance, and in a field of mixed canes to separate the different com- ponents. (3) Tillering. — The number of canes arising from one stool is a matter of considerable importance agricul- turally, largely determining the closeness of planting and being correlated with the number and thickness of the canes at harvest. Great tillering power, doubtless corre- lated with the thinness of the canes, is one of the most marked characters of North Indian canes as a whole. In the thinnest canes of the Punjab it is not infrequent for as many as fifty shoots to arise from one system of roots. The thicker canes of the tropics, tillering far less, more than make nr> for this by the size and weight of the SUGAR 135 individual canes, and perhaps no figures or illustrations will bring home the innate differences between these two series of canes better than the following : Calculations made at Samalkota on whole fields gave four canes to each stool of Red Mauritius and only two and a half to Striped Mauritius, 'but the canes in this part of India are dften of an enormous size. One field of vertical canes produced a specimen nearly 30 ft. in length. And yet, compared with the out-turn of the North Indian canes referred to, which possess great tillering powers, the average crop from the tropical canes in the neighboiir- hood of Samalkota is about four times as large. Three characters dealing with habit have been men- tioned which may be used in classification. There are a great many others which it is not necessary to discuss in this place. COLOUR. — Former systems of classification of the sugar- cane have laid considerable stress upon colour of the stem as a character, sometimes dividing the varieties into main groups according as they were green or yellow, red, striped, ashy, etc. But, although colour is of undoubted importance and fairly characteristic, there are insuperable objections to using it as the basis of a main classification. The frequent appearance of colour sports, especially in striped canes, is against it. I have figured a striped cane stool with red, green, and striped canes springing together from it. Then change of colour on transference of a cane from one place to another is not at all uncommon. Some of the local Coimbatore canes, recently transferred to Pusa, in Bihar, have developed a marked claret in place of the normal greenish-yellow. These facts account for numerous cases of canes being met with which are entirely similar to one another except in regard to their colour. But, in spite of this, the colour of the cane and of the different regions of the joint is of great taxonomic value, and should always be carefully noted. This is also true of blushing on exposure; not only do varieties differ in the degree to which they may be tinged by sun or wind or frost, but the actual colours vary from faint pink or bright cerise to dark, dull green, or purple. And there 136 SUGAR would appear to be different kinds of blushing. Some canes show delicate shades of pink after being cut, which are not seen in the living canes. The colour of the young stem still enclosed in the leaf-sheaths of the bud is frequently characteristic and different from older parts of the same cane. Arid the buds, root-zone, growth rings, etc., often show characteristic tinges which help to distinguish varieties. The leaf-sheaths also appear to be peculiarly sensitive to light and other influences, and assume different colours accordingly. Thus, the Pansahi group always has dark purple blotches on its leaf-sheaths. This is possibly due to the attacks of a definite fungus, for there is no doubt that there is a specific relation between canes and fungi growing on them. Red rot, smut, Cercospora, and many unnamed leaf fungi will attack certain varieties heavily, leaving others growing in contact with them perfectly untouched. The presence of fungi and the coloration caused by them thus becomes a varietal character. The leaf-sheaths of Dhaulu of Gurdaspur turn a clear crushed strawberry on drying which I have not noted in any other variety, and this coloration is only present in young canes, and disappears in the withering sheaths of older canes. There is a fine field for observations here, and I have only mentioned a few of the differences which can be noted in .any field. THE JOINT. — The most striking part of the sugar-cane plant is its stem. This is the part which has received most attention in the slow selection of the past ages, and it is therefore to be expected that it should vary markedly in the different groups. I have found it convenient to use the term " joint " for the portion of a cane between two leaf-scars or nodes, thus including in each joint one node and the internode above it. The cane is made up of a series of similar joints placed one above another, those at the base being the oldest and passing upwards into successively younger ones until the vegetative apex is reached. These joints vary in character according to their state of maturity, and also with regard to their position on the stem, but we may leave these differences out of consideration here. SUGAR 137 The following are the parts of a mature joint in succession upwards : — Leaf-scar. — The leaves are arranged in two opposite ranks, each joint bearing one leaf. In North Indian canes these leaves usually remain attached after they have withered, but if pulled off leave a scar behind them which extends completely round the stem. Bud. — In the axil of each leaf there is one bud, so that the buds are found alternating in two opposite rows. Root-zone. — This is a distinct band above the leaf-scar and partly covered by the bud, from which adventitious roots will be developed if the cane is cut into pieces and planted. The incipient roots are shown as round dots or eyes of a slightly different shade of colour. Growth Ring. — This is a narrow band immediately above the root-zone, generally distinguished by the total absence of bloom, and often of a special shade of colour. It corresponds with the ring of tissue, frequently swollen, which in wheat enables fallen stems to rise by the one- sided growth of the external tissues. These parts are all practically at the node. Then follows the main portion of the joint, or the Internode, more or lesss covered by bloom, an incrustation or layer of waxy hairs, which plays an important part in the coloration of the cane. The bloom is often present over the root-zone, is absent at the growth ring, and from that point increases in quantity and thickness upwards until, just under the leaf-scar of the joint above, it is condensed into a regular band of white colour termed the Bloom Band. These parts, leaf-scar, bud, root-zone, growth ring, internode, and bloom band, show a number of differences in colour and development in different canes, so that it will be readily understood that a fairly complete classi- fication may be developed from a study of the joint alone. I propose to select the first two alone for detailed remarks. Leaf-scar. — This is readily distinguishable as a dark line round the cane. It may be accurately horizontal, as in Katha, or descending towards the bud, or the front of the joint, as in Pansahi. In Rheora and its allies it I3 SUGAR is frequently alternately horizontal and descending in successive joints. The leaf-scar may project as a shelf under the bud, and this part of it is termed the lip. In certain forms it is furnished with a close, regular circlet of hairs, which form a very marked character. On examining young lateral shoots of any variety, these hairs are seen to be constantly present as a glistening sheath on all the lower joints. In mature canes they vary very greatly according to the variety; most of them have some hairs on the first formed older joints, but they vary very greatly as to the continuance of the hairs upwards on the cane. They are typically present all the way up the stem in all the members of the Chin group. In the Rheora group they are usually present in the basal joints, but soon disappear under the bud as we proceed upwards. In the Pansahi group, on the other hand, they are very poorly represented, and only survive as a few bristles under the bud, rapidly disappearing at the back of the joint. This circlet of hairs is rather characteristic of Indian canes as a whole, comparatively few traces of it being found in the tropical canes I have examined. I have, however, seen it well developed in at least one Barbados seedling. For these and other reasons I have been led to consider the circlet of hairs a primitive character, still appearing in the most primitive forms and on the lower joints of the more advanced, and I have compared it with the divided leaves seen in the seedlings and new branches of Australian acacias and leafless Leguminosae. It is, in fact, a marked " youth character " and of considerable importance in classification. The leaf more than completely embraces the stem, and sometimes the ending of the leaf-scar is decurrent for some distance. This ending is shown as a short, dark line obliquely across the node, even passing for some distance into the bloom band below. This decurrence was first noted in a cane called Sonabile, and by its means all canes of this variety were readily picked out at the mill, and a case of wrong labelling was quickly rectified. The leaf-scar is usually sharply defined below, and is immediately above the bloom band. Occasionally, how- ever, there is a narrow dull zone between the leaf-scar SUGAR 139 and the white bloom. On examination this zone is found to be pubescent; there are a set of minute hairs which probably prevent the deposition of wax. I have termed this zone the scar-band, and it is characteristic of the Chin group. In most cases, however, the bloom passes right up to the leaf-scar, which is then completely devoid of hairs and dark coloured. In the Rheora group this darkening in the region of the leaf-scar is very marked, and a series of dark brown lines is seen drawn across the stem at the nodes; these lines I have termed scar-lines. There appears to be some correlation between the circlet of hairs and the scar-band; the two are usually found in company, and where there is a circlet the scar-line is not often sharp or distinct. I have dealt rather fully with the leaf-scar, perhaps, and do not propose to develop the characters of the other parts of the joint excepting the bud, merely stating that some of them are quite as marked as those mentioned above. I wish, however, to emphasize the fact that, here as elsewhere, the differences are often extremely minute, and it is a source of wonderment to me that they are so constant. Nothing of the kind, I take it, would be found in any series of plants raised from seed. The joint as a whole also varies in almost every con- ceivable direction : thickness, shape, ovalness, colour, hardness; the whole cane varies as to the number of joints, their arrangement, the thickness or length of the joints in different parts, top, middle, bottom, and so forth, and the study of these characters connotes an infinity of detailed observation. The Bud. — Of all the parts of the sugar-cane plant, perhaps the bud is likely to be of most use from a systematic point of view. One is deprived in this plant of the natural resource of the taxonomist, the flower, although, from observations as have thus far been possible, it appears to be certain that the different canes vary both in the form of their inflorescence and the relative development of their male and female parts. Flowering is rare in the sugar-cane, and we are forced to turn our attention to the much less striking variations in the vegetative organs. The bud contains, so to speak, 140 SUGAR an epitome of the full-grown cane plant, and it is, there- fore, natural to look for variation in this part : and this expectation appears to be justified to a considerable degree. The amount of shooting in buds often helps to distin- guish different but closely allied varieties. It has even been asserted that the part of the mature cane, whether the base, middle, or top, where shooting occurs can be used as a distinguishing feature. But here, as in all directions, climatic conditions play an important part, and the subject at present requires further study. The mode of bursting of the bud, correlated apparently with its shape, is an important character. It is com- paratively easy to determine the point at which the shoot will arise in quite young buds, because of the arrange- ment of the veins on the scales. Bursting is usually apical in elongated buds, whilst it is dorsal, that is to say, in the middle of the back, in rounded or short ones. In the Pansahi group it is almost always apical, whilst in the Chin group it is typically dorsal. The matter is, however, somewhat complicated by the fact that, in all canes, the lower joints tend more to dorsal and the upper to apical bursting. The size of a resting bud is a fairly constant character for each variety of cane. Those of Pansahi are large, extending even in the resting condition some way beyond the growth ring, while in the Rheora group they are so small that they do not reach half-way across the root- zone. In Chin they are of moderate size, usually cover the root-zone, and reach the growth ring. The shape of the bud also varies a good deal. In some canes they are flat and round, in others bulged and elongated, in some hemispherical and rounded, and, again, in others scale-like and very long, truncated or rhomboid, emarginate or apiculate, that is, indented at the top or extending into a long beak, arrow-shaped or lance-like — in fact, a considerable repertory of botanical terms is needed to describe the various forms of the bud. The bud may arise in close contact with the leaf-scar, or it may have its base separated from it by a consider- able space. If this occurs the part of the root-zone below SUGAR 141 the bud is usually without eyes or hairs, and often raised as a swelling. This is termed the cushion of the bud, and is a marked feature of the Pansahi group, but absent in the others which we are using as illustrations. Taking a dominant part in the shape of the bud are the flanges. I have applied this term to scarious expansions of the two lowest scales of the bud, seated as these are on the right and le'ft sides, and completely covering the other parts. The flanges may be extremely narrow, hardly visible borders, or large auricled expansions; they may rise near the top, in the middle, or at the lower part of the bud; they may hardly project beyond the apex or form a broad platform as big or bigger than the bud itself; they may be rounded above so as to leave a deep cleft between them or united to form a long beak-like process. And these forms are usually more or less constant for the variety, with the proviso that there are minor variations in the different parts of the cane, as in the bud itself. They may, lastly, be inconspicuous as to colour, or dark and shining like the backs of beetles, when they can be seen at a considerable distance. The vestiturc of hairs on the bud is of considerable interest. I have divided the hairs into three main classes : bristles, basal patches, and minute black hairs. The former are confined to the flanges and add to the variability of these parts; they are usually long and straight, and generally determine whether the bud may be called hairy or smooth. Their position and relative abundance in different parts of the flanges appear to be more or less definite. The basal patches clothe the lower end of the bud on each side below the origin of the flanges. Typically developed, they consist of a series, on each side, of short, glistening, often curled hairs arranged close together like the teeth of a comb. From their position and appearance, I am inclined to regard them as homologous with the circlet of hairs already mentioned, and their presence or absence and their degree of development generally differs in the different canes. In some canes they are sharply circumscribed, while in others they extend upwards on the veins irregularly, or even pass along the edges, and become continuous with 142 SUGAR the bristles on the flanges. The minute black hairs are found on the buds of many varieties, and can only be seen with a moderately powerful lens. Sometimes present only about the apex, they are on other buds seen among the hairs composing the basal patches, in extreme cases replacing the latter entirely. Or they may occur all over the base, between the basal patches, in a position where hairs are usually not present. Their presence or absence has been used as a distinguishing character in at least one case of closely allied forms; in Katha they are hardly ever seen, while in Dhaulu of Gurdaspur they are constantly present. Doubtless other characters of the bud will come to light which may be of use in classification as more canes are studied; but enough have been mentioned to vindicate the assertion that the study of the bud is of considerable utility in separating the different canes. The leaf, its sheath, and lamina, and especially the various processes which arise at the point of junction .of these latter, have produced a considerably larger number of characters than those mentioned for the bud, but to give them in detail would be wearisome in this place. I would, however, point out that all these observations are necessary in a pioneer study of this kind, because one can never tell which character is likely to prove fixed and of systematic value, and which varies under different con- ditions. With this latter possibility in mind, it will be seen at once that the classification of closely allied forms purely by their vegetative characters is a work of con- siderable magnitude. These observations merely form the basis on which the scheme of classification is to be raised. It does not seem likely that any one character, or set of characters, can be used in the form of a key for analysing the different varieties. The method of grouping the canes according to a natural system, in which the sections have the greatest possible number of characters in common, appears rather to be indicated. Such a method will also have the advantage of throwing light upon the origin of the different forms and on the gradual changes which have occurred as the sugar-cane has passed from place to place as cultivation has spread. SUGAR 143 Let me conclude with a brief summary of the characters of three of the classes of Indian sugar-canes thus far separated out : — • The Chin Group (seven to eight canes noted). — Canes of the Punjab and neighbouring parts of the United Provinces. Very thin and comparatively tall; bending outwards and ascending; with narrow leaves, charac- terized by a sharp angular bend at the tip when young; rind very hard, canes fibrous, with a small quantity of rich juice; markedly frost-resistant, but affected as a class by smut; circlet of hairs well developed, present more or less all the way up the cane; scar band present; joints cylindrical and uniform, becoming red-brown when mature; root-zone narrow, with two or three rows of regularly placed eyes, flat or thickening upwards; growth ring very distinct, becoming a rich dark brown and very striking in older parts; buds small, rounded, or pointed, reaching the growth ring, often with dark-coloured flanges, bursting dorsally; ligular processes present, short or long. The Rheora Group (about twenty canes noted). — Canes of Bihar and the western parts of the United Provinces, passing through an intermediate stage to Dhaulu, and thence perhaps to Chin. Not usually present in Chin regions. Canes thick, short, bunched; leaves moderately narrow, curving broadly outwards in a symmetrical bush ; less fibrous and more juicy than Chin, and with softer rind; not frost-resistant, and not affected by smtit; circlet of hairs soon disappearing, especially under the bud ; scar lines very distinct and marked as dark brown lines across the nodes; joints cylindrical and uniform, but becoming bulged above; often mottled red, brown, or pink when mature; root-zone very broad, with widely separated small eyes, the lower row of which often larger, and the upper massed together, flat or thickening upwards; growth ring practically absent, or only faintly discernible by change of colour; buds very small and rounded, usually reaching about half-way up the root-zone, often dark coloured; ligular processes usually present and often long; leaf-sheaths sometimes very long. The Pansahi Group (eight to ten canes noted). — Delicate 144 SUGAR canes, widely distributed between Bihar and the Punjab, but chiefly in the western portion of the cane tract. Thicker than the others, belonging to " ganna " class, between the canes of North India and those of Madras, erect, bunched; leaves much broader, bending over in thick masses of foliage; rind soft, cane juicy, and with less fibre; not frost-resistant, and liable to the attacks of red rot; circlet of hairs soon disappearing, excepting a few bristles under the bud; joints zigzag and curved, becoming dark green on exposure; swollen at nodes, ovate-campanulate above the root-zone; root-zone moderately broad, swollen, and often tubercled, thicken- ing bell-like downwards, with two to three rows of large eyes; growth ring narrow and barely marked, except as a constriction of the cane; buds large, swollen, curved, ovate pointed, considerably exceeding the growth ring; bursting apically and with well-marked cushion; leaf- sheaths short and with dark purple blotches; ligular processes absent, as also splits and ivory markings. These three groups form natural classes, and are very clearly marked off from one another. A relationship may perhaps be traced between Rheora and Chin as mentioned, but Pansahi seems to have no point of contact with either of the others. Similar summaries of characters have been prepared of many other forms. Among these there are smaller groups and a number of isolated varieties, such as Kanara, Sonabile, Cheni, Naanal, Khari. Missing links will have to be foimd in order to trace the relationship of these canes, and large tracts of country have still to be explored for this purpose. When this classification of the North Indian canes has been worked out more completely, I propose to turn to the thicker ones scattered over the country and introduced at various periods from tropical countries, but there will be in that case the dis- advantage that they cannot be studied in the place where they have been evolved, and, from a cursory view, they appear to differ far less markedly among themselves than do the canes indigenous to India. The suggestion has been made in another place that the cultivated cane of North India may have arisen from SUGAR 145 Saccharum spontaneum, which grows all over the country. There is this interesting fact to record : The wild Saccharum is not constant in minute details of morphology, but varies a great deal, and some of these variations are such as to place it in relation first with one group of cultivated sugar-canes and then with .another. These variations in S. spontaneum will there- fore be carefully studied. The morphology of a number of seedlings of known parents has been noted, and it will form an interesting inquiry as to how much and in what direction the fixed characters of the cultivated canes vary in their seedlings, and it is hoped that by this study we shall be in a still better position to choose systematic characters of import- ance and trace the relationship of the different groups. SUGAR PRODUCTION IN THE NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE, INDIA. By W. ROBERTSON BROWN. Superintendent of Agriculture, North-West Frontier Province. AND J. WALTER LEATHER, Ph.D., F.I.C. Imperial Agricultural Chemist, India. AT the present time the sugar supply of this Province is derived from locally grown cane and imported sugar. The former crop ripens in December, and is crushed during December and January in the villages, and the juice is boiled down to the crude sugar called gur. The season over which the standing crop is available is less than two months, which is too short a period to admit of a factory paying. Three years ago several varieties of sugar-beets were sown, and of these several specimens were found on maturity to furnish upwards of 20 per cent, of sucrose. The experiments have been -extended somewhat during the past two years, and these have shown that the crop grows well and is of fairfy good quality. In 1913 the average samples of two crops furnished 147 and 14*2 per cent, of sucrose respectively, expressed on the root; the glucose was 0*07 per cent, in each case. Individual roots con- tained as much as 18 per cent, of sucrose. The present year's crops have been grown from both German and French seed, and average samples of the roots have contained 16 and 14 per cent, of sucrose respectively. The weight of the crops has varied from 10 to> nearly 20 tons per acre. Thus the experiments have demonstrated that the crop will grow well, and there is a considerable prospect that an average quantity of 15 per cent, of sucrose might be obtained on the large scale, especially SUGAR 147 when more experience has been gained as to the best time to sow the seed. There seems to be no doubt that the weight per acre would be equivalent to the European standard. As regards the length of season over which roots suitable for manufacture can be grown> this is the first year in which an attempt has been made to obtain information. Seed was sown fortnightly, commencing on September 20, 1913, and by March 15 the average weight of the roots was about i lb., the sucrose was 14*2 per cent, expressed on the root, and the coefficient of purity \vas 89. Other plots which were sown later will come to perfection late in May. It may be said, therefore, that sugar-beet suitable for the manufacture of sugar can be grown in this part of India — the Peshawar valley — certainly over the period March 15 to the end of May — that is, two and a half months. Whether this period can be extended either earlier in the year or later remains to be seen. The life-history of the sugar-beet seems to differ here from that in Europe. Whilst in Europe the plant terminates its first vegetative period in the autumn with a yellowing of the leaf and cessation of growth, to be followed in the following year, if replanted, with a development of the flowering and fruiting stage, here in the Peshawar valley the second stage follows the first without any break, and some of the beets which were sown in September, 1913, have already flowered and " set " their seed. It remains to be seen whether by sowing in June and July the root will develop by December in the same way that it does in Europe, cease its vegetative growth temporarily, and then develop its fruiting stage when replanted in the following year. Whilst the investigation into the possibilities of the sugar-beet crop have been in progress, the local sugar- cane crop has been examined. This is a thick cane, possessing* a high proportion of juice, and yielding con- siderably more heavily per acre than most Indian canes; the general yield in the district is not less than 30 or 40 tons of stripped cane. Samples of canes brought from villages near the Government farm last December yielded from 70 to 75 per cent, of juice at the mill (a smalJ 14& SUGAR bullock power iron mill is commonly used); the per- centage of sugar in the juice was IT to 12, and the co- efficient of purity was about 80. In January the purity had risen to about 85, and the sucrose to 13 per cent. Thus the quality of the local cane is rather low from the manufacturing point of view, but the weight per acre and the proportion of juice extractable are high. It is the practice in this Province to preserve cane from November, the beginning of the harvesting season, until the planting season in March, by placing the cane in " clamps," in manner somewhat similar to the " clamp- ing " of root crops in Great Britain. Here the whole canes, with the leaf and the upper root, are laid on the ground parallel to one another and formed into a heap, which is then covered with earth. The cane remains perfectly sound in these heaps so far as the vitality of the buds is concerned. But it seemed of importance to ascertain whether the cane remains sound from the manufacturer's standpoint. The general experience in cane-growing countries is that sugar-cane depreciates very rapidly after it has been cut from the field; the sucrose decreasing and the glucose increasing. The temperature conditions in the Peshawar valley differ, however, from those of most cane-producing countries; the mean temperature in December is 51° F., in January 52° F., in February 53° F., and in March 63° F., and with such low temperatures it was an open question whether the usual depreciatory changes in the cane would occur. Experiments rt^ade in December, 1913, and in January, 1914, have shown that harvested sugar-cane keeps per- fectly well here in clamps. Thus four lots of different cane which were clamped in early December showed practically no depreciation when examined three weeks later. Variety I )ate Juice °Bn X Sucrose Glucose Coefficient per cent. per cent. per cent. of purity Striped J Nov. 24, 1913 ... 65-8 .. 14- 3 • . I0'9 2'2 .. 76-I Mauritius 1 Dec. I5» 1913 ... 67-3 .. 14- i . . IO'6 1-9 .- 75'2 Striped f Nov. 26, 1913 ... 72*O •• IS* i . . I2'I 1-6 .. 80'3 Mauritius 1 Dec. 17, 1913 ... 69-1 .. 14- 7 • . 11-3 1-8 .. 77'3 Local j Nov. 28, 1913 .- 767 .. 14- 9 • . I2'0 1-9 .. 80'9 Pounda I Dec. 19, 1913 ... 717 •• 15 i I2'I 1-9 .. 80-1 Local J Dec. 2, 1 913 ... 747 •• IS' 4 • . I2'2 2-3 .. 79'5 Pounda I Dec. 21, 1913 ... 67-8 •• IS' I . I2'I 2'I 80-0 SUGAR 149 Date Juice °Brix Sucrose. Glucose Coefficient per cent. per cent. per cent. of purity Jan. 15. • 76-9 • I5'6 . I3-I . . 17 84-0 Feb. 1 6. . 76'< • !5'i I2'2 . 1'^ 80'4 Mar. 24. • 72'S • 15*4 . 12-8 . 2'O 83-2 April 24. . 707 . 14-9 12-6 . I'5 84-9 Jan. 15. . 767 • I5-9 • 13-6 - i "5 85-8 Feb. 1 6. • 73'2 16-0 . I3-0 . 1 7 81-1 Mar. 24. .. 72-4 • IS'1 I2'I . 2'0 80-2 April 24. .. 71-6 . 14-8 12*2 . 1 7 . 82-1 Thus after being in clamps for three weeks there was found generally somewhat less juice (though this may have been partly due to the setting of the mill;), but practically no change in the percentage of sugar or the coefficient of purity. Again in January another two lots of cane were clamped and were tested at intervals, with the following results : — Lot A. Lot B. So far, then, as these results can answer the question, there seems no doubt as to the possibility of being able to preserve sugar-cane perfectly well from the time when, owing to frosts, the crop must be harvested, to about the end of March. All the experiments have hitherto been on a small scale, but they lead to the conclusion that a factory suitable for dealing with both cane and beet could be provided with material over a period of six months in the year, which iS very considerably longer than the usual cane period in other parts of India. The suggestion for joint working is, moreover, free from the initial difficulty which would be met by a factory working only beet. If beet were the only crop, it would have to be established before a factory could start properly. Under conditions of joint working, however, the present crop of cane would supply a factory with material for certainly four months during the initial stages, and the beet supply could be added as the beet crop became established. THE SU6AB INDUSTRY OP By HARXY T. EASTERBY. HffrintfKdfKt. Bureau of Sugcr Experiment Stations. Queensland. THE cane sugar industry in Queensland began, like many ;:her industries, en a very small scale early in the settlement ci the Colony. To-day Queensland practically produces almost all the sugar made in Australia, and it is esr'rr.atec that last year the supply reached the sugar needs of the people of Australia. In the "ferries and "n fries of last century sugar-cane was grown in many private gardens in Queensland: a considerable amount was also grown in the Government Botanical Gardens, and it is stated there was a small sugar rnfil in existence on the Brisbane River in 1650. lut it appears doubtful if any sugar was ever made. The £rst sugar from Queensland-grown cane, of which there is any cfncial record, was made by Mr. John Bnhot in 1*62. In 1863 Captain the Hon. Louis Hope had 20 acres under cane on Ormiston Plantation, near Brisbane, and that gentleman is generally conceded to be the father of the Queensland industry. In 1863 the London Society <-_: Arts crered z medal for the first ton of sugar made in the Colony. The first sugar-cane plants were most probably imported from Mauritius, but at this time the Acclimatization. Society took active steps in bringing over z large number of varieties. Land was made available for some years by the Government on remarkably easy terms, and in 1865 over 1.800 acres were taken up for cane growing. By the end of 1867 there were about 2.ocx> acres under cultivation and six mills, which manu- factured between them 168 tons of sugar. Up to this time the industry had been carried on entirely in southern Queensland, but it now began to spread to Bundaberg. SUGAR 151 Mackay, the Herbert, Johnstone River, and Cairns. It is in these places to-day that almost tTie entire output is manufactured, the extreme southern districts making- very little. From this period the industry commenced to expand till 1875, when a disease termed " rust," combined with an excessive rainfall, ruined nearly all the cane, and a good many of the cane farmers with it. The financial institutions became alarmed and refused to render further aid. The variety most affected was the Bourbon cane, but it was noticed that small patches of Rappoe or Rose Bamboo were not touched. Those who survived the blow commenced the cultivation of this variety, and con- fidence was soon restored, though many plantations changed hands. During 1879 and 1880 a rush set in for Queensland sugar lands, and plenty of capital was made available. The production of sugar in tons from 1870 to 1880 is given as follows : — Year Tons Year Tons 1870 ... 2,854 1876 . 8,214 1871 ... 3,762 1877 1872 ... 6,266 1878 1873 ••• 7,987 1879 1874 ... 12,108 1880 1875 ••• 6,322 13,784 ^'5o5 18,982 15.681 During the next decade, 1881 to 1890, the production in tons varied from 16,660 to 68,924; 1891 to 1900, 51,219 to T 63, 734; and 1901 to 1910, 76,626 to 210,756; while last year (1913) it reached 241,496 tons. The cane manu- factured into sugar for this record crop was 2,065,144 tons produced on 103,090 acres. From 1863 to the advent of Federation in 1901, the sugar industry was almost entirely carried on by South Sea Islanders. This class of labour, while eminently serviceable and of the greatest use in opening up the country, was always distasteful to the majority of Australians, and when Federation took place steps were taken to make the industry entirely a " White " one. This was accomplished by passing a measure prohibiting Kanakas entering' Australia after 1904, and providing' for the deportation of those who had been engaged within a certain period. This only left some 2,000 Kanakas in Queensland, the majority of whom had resided for years I52 SUGAR in the State and had married. About the same time the Federal Excise Act came into operation, which provided for a protective duty of £6 per ton on all foreign sugar. An Excise duty was collected on sugar manufactured in Australia, and a rebate was given to that in which white labour was used. The final Act provided for an Excise of £4 on manufactured sugar, and a rebate or bounty of £3 per ton to the white grower. Growers employing black labour were thus penalised to this extent. This state of affairs continued practically till last year, 1913, when the percentage of aliens employed in the industry was almost negligible. The Commonwealth, therefore, rescinded the Excis>e and Bounty Acts, and maintained the protective tariff of £6 per ton on condition that the payment of the old bounty of £3 plus £i hitherto retained by the Commonwealth for revenue purposes was ensured to the growers by the State Parliament. This has since been done, wrhile steps have also been taken to secure the maintenance of the white labour ideal. The sugar industry of Queensland, as in most other countries, seems to be the favourite ground for politicians; from 1872 to 1913 no less than twenty-six Acts have been passed in relation thereto. Sugar is grown in Queensland from 28° to 16° of latitude, the bulk being produced within the tropics. No difficulty is now experienced in securing white men to undertake the work in field and mills. During harvest time, June to December, hundreds of men from the southern States come to Queensland for the cane cutting. This work is usually done at contract rates, anything from 35. 6d. to 6s. per ton being paid, and good cutters can average £5 per week. Adult labour employed in other field operations now receives £2 8s. per week without keep. Although conditions are somewhat trying in the north during the last two months of the year, yet the men are healthy, the death-rate is low, and sunstroke rare. The general standard of the health of school children is considered good, and epidemics are stated by medical men to be attended by a lower mortality than in the southern portion of Australia, and that with proper care the probability of children born in the north living SUGAR 153 to adult age was greater than in the southern portion of Australia, and, further, that the most prevalent cases of tropical complaints were preventible. The industry may now fairly be said to be on its feet, provided no further adverse legislative interference takes place. The average price paid to growers of cane in Queensland may be stated as 235. per ton, and the value of the industry to the State last year may be summarized as under : — Cane growers received 235. per ton on 2,065,144 tons of cane .£2,374,915 Raw sugar produced 241,496 tons at £16 per ton ... ... 3,863,936 Refined sugar made from above, say 227,000 tons at £22 ... 4,994,000 Cane cutters paid 53. per ton on 2,065,144 tons of cane ... 516,286 Field labour paid ... ... ... ... ... 500,000 There are now fifty-one sugar mills and two refineries in Queensland, and it is estimated that £406,936 was paid in 1912 to the 4,282 hands employed therein. The amount invested in the industry is estimated at between £7,000,000 and £8,000,000, made up as under: — Machinery, premises, etc. ... .. ... £2,462,266 Farms, etc. ... ... ... ... 5,oco,ooo The Government of Queensland have naturally always taken a warm interest in its sugar industry, and they have at different times advanced £500,000. This was used in the building of central mills of a co-operative character, thirteen of these being erected. Four of these are run directly by the Government. Of the remainder, four have paid their entire liabilities to the State and manage their own affairs, and the balance, while not clear, have paid their interest and redemptions to date. Two fine up-to-date mills are to be erected in North Queensland by the State during the next three years, each to be capable of manufacturing upwards of 10,000 tons of sugar. Six of the fifty-one mills are owned by the Colonial Sugar Refinery Company, a wealthy cor- poration having vast interests in Australia and Fiji; the remaining mills are owned by private companies and financial institutions. The future of the sugar industry in Queensland can, therefore, be said to be a promising one, offering ample scope for emigrants. The Government some thirteen years ago also formed a Bureau of Sugar Experiment Stations in order to 154 SUGAR assist the industry. This institution conducts soil investi- gation and classification, experiments in cultivation, rotation and manuring, and the introduction and testing of new varieties of cane. Many of the latter have been brought over from the adjacent island of Papua, or New Guinea, where there are stated to be immense numbers of sugar-cane varieties being grown in the gardens of the natives. The best variety of cane grown in Queensland at the present moment is a New Guinea cane called Badila. It is an exceedingly rich cane with a small percentage of fibre. The following is an analysis of the Badila cane: — Sucrose Glucose Sucrose Available °Brix in juice in juice in cane Quotient sugar total solids per cent. per cent. per cent. of purity per cent. 22-6 ... 2i'4 ... 0-21 ... 18*6 ... 95*0 ... 17*85 A large number of varieties are grown in different parts of the State, and, in comparison with other sugar- producing countries, Queensland is well to the front in the growth of canes of good sugar content. In the north, i ton of sugar is made from 6 to 8 tons of cane accord- ing to the condition of the mill treating the cane. The central district takes usually from 8 to 9 tons, while in the southern districts, which are out of the tropics, from 9 to 12 tons are used in manufacture. Many of the mills, more particularly those belonging to the Colonial Sugar Refmery Company, are thoroughly up-to-date and under skilled technical management. Cultivation is also steadily improving, and fertilizers are being used to a much greater extent than hitherto. Cane soils vary considerably in type and colour, from rich red, volcanic, and deep sandy alluvial to shallow soils of a gravelly nature. The following analyses are the averages of each of three sugar districts in Queens- land in the north, central, and southern districts : — jy . Lime Potash Phosphoric acid Nitrogen per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. Cairns ... ... 0*292 ... 0*310 ... 0*141 ... 0*122 Mackay ... ... 0*829 ... 0*223 ... 0*165 ... 0*122 Bundaberg ... 0-636 ... 0*144 ... 0*404 ... 0*220 The Cairns soils are both alluvial and volcanic, the Mackay soils all alluvial, and the Bundaberg soils all volcanic. SUGAR 155 The rainfall on the coast in Queensland where cane is grown ranges from 130 in. at Innisfail to 40 in. at Bunda- berg. Irrigation is only used in one district, viz., the Lower Burdekin, where the rainfall is small. Good results are obtained. Cane land varies in price from £5 to £60 per acre. The sugar-cane plant in Queensland is subject to many pests and diseases. The most serious of these at the present time is the grub pest. The larvae of Lepidiota and other scarabseid beetles attack the roots of the cane, causing the stool ultimately to fall and perish. Thousands of tons o'f cane, particularly in the north, have been destroyed, and a high price per Ib. is now paid for the beetle. In Mackay over 15 tons of beetles have been captured within so short a time as two months and destroyed. The weevil borer (Sphenopherus obscurus) and the moth borer (Diatrxa saccharalis) do a certain amount of damage, but have not so far called for urgent repressive measures. The gumming disease of the cane caused by Bacillus vascularum, Cobb, is at times a very serious trouble, both in the field and in the mill, but, so far as the writer's experience goes, gumming of the cane is not found to any extent north of Mackay, and appears most prevalent in cooler climates. Certain varieties of cane, particularly the older sorts, such as Rose Bamboo and Striped Singapore, are particularly liable to the disease, while in the best of the New Guinea canes no traces of it have been found, though the poorer kinds are far from immune. Apart from its great economical importance, however, the sugar industry in Queensland possesses a phase of far higher significance. In 1911 a Royal Commission on the industry was appointed by the Federal Government. This body sat for upwards of twelve months, and collected a mine of evidence in all parts of Australia. Their report was finally handed in at the end of 1911. That report stated emphatically that the Queensland sugar industry was one of national importance, the maintenance of which vitally affects every citizen of the Commonwealth. By no other means at present visible can our vast Northern littoral be peopled and defended, and for this reason alone, apart 156 SUGAR from its enormous economic importance, it deserves the utmost encouragement and support that our Federal and State Legislatures can give it. The Commission have put this view in the strongest terms when they say : — ' The problem of the sugar industry to-day is not, save in subordinate respects, a problem of industry, of wealth, or of production; it is primarily and essentially a problem of settlement and defence. No nation can afford to regard lightly the development of its industries, the progress of its wealth, or the economic efficiency of its productive machinery. But, important as these things undoubtedly are, they rank, as regards the sugar industry, on an inferior plane. The Commonwealth to-day is brought face to face with one of the gravest problems that has ever taxed the ingenuity of statesmanship — that of the settlement of tropical and semi-tropical areas by a white population living under standard conditions of life. And intimately associated with this problem is the question of national defence. " If the ideal of a White Australia is to become an enduring actuality some means must be discovered of establishing industries within the tropical regions. So long as these regions are unoccupied they are an invitation to invasion as well as a source of strategic weakness. Granted so much, it follows that the supreme justification for the protection of the sugar industry is the part that the industry has contributed, and will, we hope, continue to contribute to the problems of the settle- ment and defence of the Northern portion of the Aus- tralian continent4 The recognition of the nature of this supreme justification is the first condition of a sound public policy in relation to the sugar industry. Relating to it all other issues are of minor importance." LA PRODUCTION SUCRIERE A L'lLE DE CUBA. Par RAFAEL MARTINEZ ORTEZ. LA canne a sucre, introduite dans les Antilles par Cristophe Colomb des iles Canaries pendant son second voyage, y prit bientot un grand developpement. Elle trouva un terrain et des conditions atmospheriques extremement favorables. On peut assurer qu'elle ne les rencontre pas superieures dans aucune autre region de notre planete. Elle fut importee a Cuba par Diego Velazquez de Cuellar et ses compagnons, les premiers colonisateurs de Tile. Celle-ci a une superficie de 120,000 kilometres carres. Presque tous ses terrains sont adaptables a la culture de cette graminee; mais la production n'eut pas d'importance dans les premiers siecles qui suivirent la decouverte et la conquete. Elle etait alors tres peu peuplee et malgre sa merveil- leuse fertilite elle fut presque exclusivement consacree a 1'elevage de troupeaux, a Texploitation de ses bois precieux. principalement Tacajou, d'une renommee univer- selle, et a la culture du tabac. Cette plante fut trouvee la premiere fois par les Espagnols dans la Grande Antille ou on Temployait de la meme faqon qu'on le fait aujourd'hui. Pendant 1'occupation de Cuba par les Anglais Tile fit de notables progres dans sa production, par les dis- positions de liberte commerciale adoptees, et ces progres continuerent apres que 1'Espagne cut repris sa domina- tion. Elle maintint en vigueur quelques-unes de ces mesures. Au commencement du XIX siecle la culture de la canne a sncre avait augmente notablement. En 1850 Cuba exportait deja 223,145 tonnes de sucre. Dix-huit ans plus tard, en 1868, an commencement de la premiere 158 SUGAR guerre pour 1'independance, elle avait augmente jusqu'a 749,000 tonnes sa production. Mais elle resta stationnaire pendant toute la duree de cette guerre. La plus grande partie des centres de production, specialement Matanzas, Havane et Pinar-del-Rio, souffrirent peu pendant cette periode. Seule la region orientals fut totalement devastee. A ce moment commenga le developpement de la pro- duction europeenne du sucre de betterave. Jusqu'a 1889 la production cubaine se maintient entre 500,000 et 700,000 tonnes. Elle monta a un peu plus d'un million par 1'augmentation du prix qui suivit le traite Foster- Albacete de 1892 entre les gouvernements de 1'Espagne et des Etats-Unis d'Amerique. Ce traite fut denonce le i° aout, 1894. Quelques mois plus tard, en 1895, la seconde guerre pour l'independance eclata. Celle-ci detruisit totalement la richesse de rile. La production de sucre descendit enormement; elle n'atteignit pas 300,000 tonnes en 1900. Avec la paix elle augmenta de nouveau; atteignit le million en 1903, depassa le million et demi en 1909, et arriva a deux millions et demi en 1913 et dans 1'annee courante; c'est a dire, plus d'une tonne par habitant, la population totale ne depassant pas deux millions et un quart. Le prix d'une tonne de canne a sucre peut etre inferieur a douze francs avec utilite pour le cultivateur, dans ce prix tous les frais sont compris jusqu'a 1'entree dans les moulins. Les operations les plus couteuses sont la coupe et la mise des Cannes stir les camions et le trans- port jusqu'a 1'usiHe. Ces travaux sont payes de 5 a 8 francs, quelquefois un peu plus selon les distances a parcourir et les con- ditions 011 se trouvent les Cannes. Les frais industriels, 1'envoi aux ports d'embarquement, les degats des machines, etc., varient beaucoup, mais ne depassent jamais 60 francs la tonne de sucre. Dans les usines situees pres de la mer ils sont notablement moins eleves, ce rendement peut se fixer entre 11 et 12 pour cent. Si 1'Europe consommait le sucre dans la meme pro- portion que le fait I'Angleterre, ou meme dans celle des Etats-Unis, qui est de beaucoup inferieure, cette partie SUGAR 159 du monde absorberait la totalite de la production mon- diale, on a peu pres. On seme toujours la canne a sucre par des trongons. Cette pratique, continuee pendant des siecles, a determine une veritable et presque complete sterilite de la plante. II est tres difficile maintenant d'obtenir des graines fecondes en epis de la canne a sucre, mais Mr. E. Atkins, dans sa merveilleuse plantation " Soledad," pres de Cienfuegos, soutient a ses frais une Station agronomique speciale, oil depuis quelques annees deja on travaille a la reproduction de la canne a sucre par ses graines. Dans 1'Exposition agricole generale de Cuba de 1912 cette Station presenta un grand nombre de varietes de cannes obtenues par des graines. Les etudes continuent encore, et peuvent aboutir a des resultats ires importants pour Taugmentation de la quantite de sucre dans les cannes. Toutes les personnes desirant des renseigne- ments precis pourraient se diriger directement a la Station experimentale de Mr. E. Atkins, ou bien a la Legation de Cuba a Paris. Le sucre etant un produit alimentaire d'une tres grande importance il serait tres utile d'arriver a des solutions fiscales en tous les pays qui rendissent possible Taccroisse- ment de la consommation et principalement qui empechas- sent la substitution du sucre par des produits chimiques qui n'offrent pas ses excellentes qualites alimentaires. SUGAR-CANE INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN BRITISH GUIANA. By G. E. BODKIN, B.A., Dip. Agric. (Cantab.), F.Z.S.. F.E.S. Government Economic Biologist, British Guiana. INSECT pests of sugar-cane have been known in British Guiana for at least the last quarter of a century, but it is only during more recent years that they have received any serious attention or combined efforts been made for their control. To-day the injury and financial losses caused by such insects is fully realized, and the control of insect pests on a sugar estate in British Guiana is now a recognized part of the routine. Owing to the somewhat peculiar conditions of cropping which are closely connected with the marketing of the product, cane at various stages of growth is to be found throughout the year, there being no recognized regular harvest. This renders the control of pests a particularly difficult matter, for as one area is cut these insects simply migrate to another adjoining area in a younger stage of growth. The most injurious pests are those known collectively as "borers," whicfi consist of three species of lepido- pterous larvae, namely, Castnia licus, Fab., a member of the exotic family Castniiadge, which is popularly called the giant moth borer, Diatrsea saccharalis, a member of the Pyralidae, and well known in most of the sugar- growing areas of the world, which is termed locally the small moth borer, and D. canella, Hamps., which is much like D. saccharalis in all its stages, though described by Hampson as a distinct species. These three pests pass their larval and pupal periods within the cane itself, thus weakening it and causing a SUGAR l6 I material deterioration in the juice. Their attacks are often followed by a complete destruction by Termites or wood ants, whose function in the insect world is to entirely demolish all decaying or diseased vegetable matter. Giant Moth Borer. The giant moth borer confines its attack more to the stool or rooting system of the cane. It is a compara- tively recent pest, as it appears to have been unknown twenty years ago. Since its first appearance it has multiplied at an exceedingly rapid rate, and during 1912 296,214 moths were destroyed, and 672,104 caterpillars and chrysalides. During 1913, 597oO3 moths were destroyed, and 1,374,878 caterpillars and chrysalides. Like many of the injurious insects of this part of Tropical America, Castnia has invaded the cultivated areas from the forest region, the original habitat of its larva being either orchids or the roots of wild plantains. It will also breed in the roots of cultivated plantains and bananas. The larva attains a length of 2 to 2\ in. No known true parasites of this pest have ever been dis- covered. This is due to the concealed habit of the larva and chrysalis, which is often some considerable distance beneath the surface of the soil, and the eggs are deposited in the most haphazard manner by the female moth, never being laid in any particular spot, but dropped one or two at a time about the cane plants. This, of course, excludes the possibility of egg parasites and reduces their chances to a minimum. Birds are the most important enemies of Castnia, especially the so- called .kiskadee (Pitangus sulphuratus) and the old witch (Crotophaga ani), both of which are particularly fond of the adult moth. On all sugar estates organized gangs, principally composed of native-born East Indian children (known as Creoles), are employed in the destruction of this pest. The gangs vary in size from thirty to as many as 100 individuals on some estates. These children have grown remarkably astute at this work, and many of them now earn comparatively large sums of money. The most effective control method employed is to send ii I 62 SUGAR a gang of these children through a field of canes that has recently been cut. They search the stools of cane for traces of the borer, and wherever frass or an open boring is observed in the stumps a long hooked wire is introduced therein, and after some manipulation the larva, if present, is impaled and dragged to the surface. If this is not successful, the stump is partially dug up and the larva or chrysalis thus secured. This method gives excellent results. The caterpillars and chrysalides are kept by each individual in an old tobacco tin, and at the end of the day the contents are carefully counted and checked. A halfpenny apiece is paid for the caterpillars or chrysalides when they are scarce, but the price fluctuates. Boys provided with nets are also employed to catch the adult moths. A higher price is paid for the moths, which only fly during certain parts of the day. Small Moth Borer. The small moth borer has been known in the cane fields for many years, and much has been written con- cerning its life-history and habits. This small insect has been receiving considerable attention recently in Louisiana, where it has become a serious pest. It is capable of completing its life-history in other plants than cane, such as several species of grasses and Indian corn. It confines its attacks more to the cane itself, and more especially during the first three months of the plant's existence. The eggs are deposited by the female moth on the young leaves as soon as they appear, and the resulting larva bores its way gradually down into the centre of the plant, thus destroying the growing point and causing" the central shoot to wither and die. Older canes, especially those with a hard epidermis, ire not so frequently attacked owing to the difficulty of gaining an entrance into the cane. This pest is principally destroyed by the method popularly known as cutting out. Gangs of East Indian children are sent through the fields of young cane, and wherever a dead central shoot is observed it is cut off close to the ground, split open. SUGAR 163 and the contained larva or chrysalis secured and placed in a tin. Fourpence a hundred is generally paid for the grubs and chrysalides, though this price, of course, fluctuates according to the abundance of the pest. Three hundred are usually collected by one individual during the day. Cutting out cannot be employed after the canes are four months of age. During 1913, 25,583,987 caterpillars and chrysalides were thus destroyed. The collection of the egg masses of this pest has recently been commenced on some estates. The eggs are light yellow in colour, oval in shape, and are deposited overlapping one another in the mass. Though somewhat difficult to discern at first, with practice it is possible to collect quite a fair number during the course of the day. A small gang of specially trained children are employed in the work, and are well paid. Two species of egg parasite of the small moth borer are commonly met with, and one T rich o gramma minutum, Riley, has a world-wide reputation, as it is known to- parasitize the ova of many species of Lepidoptera in many parts of the world. Several species of external Hymenopterous parasites occur, one Dipterous parasite, and a fungus parasite, a species of Cordyceps. The larva of an Elaterid beetle also preys on the early stages. These parasites, especially the egg parasites, perform excellent work in the control of this pest, and lines of investigation have recently been commenced with a view to increasing, if possible, their utility. Other Pests. Other more important pests include the so-called weevil borer (Meiamasius hemipterus), which at times damages the stools and rooting system of the cane. The larvae of two Noctuid moths, Remigia repanda and Laphygma frugiperda (known in the United States as the fall dung worm), feed on the leaf-blades of the cane, and at times occur in enormous numbers, stripping whole fields of their foliage, and leaving nothing but the hard midribs. These are destroyed by collecting the cater- pillars in buckets containing paraffin and water. They 164 SUGAR become most numerous on the advent of rains after prolonged drought. Two species of Termites occur frequently, and their characteristically constructed nests may be seen in all parts of the fields. They destroy all canes which have been previously weakened by borer attacks, the tunnel of the borer often serving as an entrance. They will at times attack a healthy cane, though this seldom occurs. These pests have received attention recently, and the w-eeding gangs on all estates have orders to remove every nest which they meet with. These are collected in sacks, taken out of the field, and burnt. A species of mealy bug occurs at times in large numbers beneath the sheathing bases oi the leaf. When large numlbers are present they undoubtedly weaken the vitality of the cane. These insects are destroyed in damp weather by fungus. In dry weather they multiply rapidly and remain healthy. Two species of Cercopidae, known throughout the West Indies as frog-hoppers, occur at times in small numbers, and their damage is negligible. Owing to the clean weeding invariably indulged in, the numbers of these pests never become a menace to the industry as they have in Trinidad. This paper cannot be terminated without some refer- ence to the splendid control work carried on by most of the sugar estates through the instrumentality of their managers. Although the pests have by no means yet been controlled, combined efforts are being put forth to this end, involving considerable inconvenience and expense to ea,ch estate, which is accentuated by the poor prices obtainable for Demerara sugar during recent times. Efforts such as these on the part of the practical man are exceedingly encouraging, and serve as an example to agriculturists in other parts of the world, who at times are inclined to consider economic entomology more in the light of an interesting hobby than a serious practice which will very handsomely repay the necessary initial expenditure. PALMS AS A COMMERCIAL SOURCE OF SUGAR. By H. E. ANNETT, B.Sc.Lond., F.I.C., F.C.S. Agricultural Chemist to the Government of Bengal. IT' is not generally known that the world's produce of palm sugar approaches half a million tons. Most of this is produced in India, and a small proportion in the Philippine Islands, the Dutch East Indies, etc.1 H. D. Gibbs2 has recently published a full account of the industry as carried on in the Philippine Islands, and he seems favourably impressed with the commercial possibilities of the Nipa palm (Nipa fruticans) for sugar production. I have recently taken up a study of the palm sugar industry as it exists in Bengal. The results obtained to date have been published as a Memoir of the Imperial Department of Agriculture in India.3 Here it is intended mainly to outline the case for and against the production of sugar from palms, as compared with other sources of sugar. Kinds of Sugar-producing Palms. Large numbers of palms are known to produce sugar, but the following only, as far as I am aware, have been recommended for sugar production on a commercial scale. Phoenix sylvestris, the wild date palm, is by far the commonest sugar producer among the palms in India. Borassus flabelliformis, the fan, or common toddy palm, is used for sugar production in Madras and Burma. Co cos nucifera, the coconut palm, is used fairly largely in Madras for the same purpose. 1 Journal Royal Society of Arts, April 21, ign. 2 Philip-pine Journal of Science, April, ign, vol. vi, No. 2. 3 Memoirs Imperial De-partment of Agriculture in India. Chemical Series, vol. ii, No. 6. 1 66 SUGAR Nipa fruticans has already been mentioned. This is a swamp palm growing almost tip to its crown in water, in marshy places by the sea. Caryota urens, the Indian sago palm, is used to a small extent in Madras, and on the Malabar Coast has been credited with enormous sugar yields. Arenga saccharifera seems to be commonly used in the Dutch East Indies for sugar production. Method of Sugar Production. » The sugary juice is obtained from the young in- florescence in the case of the above palms, with the exception of Phoenix sylvestris, whose stem is tapped just below the crown of leaves. Fuller details of the tapping process are given in my Memoir. Amount and Nature of Sugars in the Juice. With the exception of Gibbs's work on Nipa, and my own work on Phoenix sylvestris, very little reliable data as to the sugar content of the juices of various palms is on record. The Nipa contains 16 to 17 grams of cane sugar per 100 c.c. of juice, and Phoenix sylvestris only contains 10 to 12 grams of cane sugar per 100 c.c. of juice as a rule. If the juice of Phoenix sylvestris be obtained under sterile conditions, I have shown that the only sugar present is cane sugar. As drawn by the natives, Phoenix sylvestris juice con- tains many yeasts and bacteria, and inversion rapidly takes place. It is interesting to note the Phcenix juice is distinctly alkaline to litmus, and Gibbs has observed the same fact in the case of the Nipa. A few odd analyses I have made of Borassus juice would seem to indicate that the sugar content is about 14 to 16 grams of cane sugar per 100 c.c. of juice. Yield of Sugar per Tree and per Acre. Work carried on throughout the palm sugar season in Jessore District, Bengal, shows that the cultivator, by his crude methods, obtains an average of about 23 Ib. of raw sugar per tree per season in the case of Phoenix SUGAR 167 sylvestris. At 350 trees per acre, a fair estimate, this would yield 3*6 tons of raw sugar per acre. From information I have been able to gather, the yield of sugar from Borassus would considerably surpass the yields from Phoenix, and Gibbs's figure for Nipa would seem t-> promise large acreage yields of sugar in the case of that plant. It must be noted that the figures I have quoted for Phoenix are figures actually being obtained by a most wasteful process. Advantages of Production of Sugar from Palms. The following are the chief advantages which palms offer as. a source of sugar supply. (ij The certainty of the yield from year to year. One need have no fear of drought or flood. These phenomena are practically without effect on the yield. (2) Small annual cost of upkeep of plantation, (3) No outlay is necessary for crushing machinery, which is a large item in cane sugar factories. (4) The long season possible, owing to the fact that different palms yield sugar at different seasons of the year, e.g., Phoenix from November to beginning of March, and Borassus from March to August. (5) Easy Factory Treatment of Juice. — The juice, when fresh, can be read direct in the polariscope. This gives a rough idea of its cleanliness. It would require much less defecation than cane or beet juice. Owing to the reaction of the juice, even liming would be unnecessary. (6) Yield per Acre. — It would seem possible, by better cultivation and plant selection, to increase largely the yield per acre and thus obtain larger yields than from cane. Disadvantages of Palms as a Commercial Source of Sugar. (i) Lack of Fuel. — In the cane sugar industry the dried bagasse, obtained after extracting juice from the cane, supplies sufficient fuel for the factory's need. We have no such fuel in the case of palm trees. l68 SUGAR (2) Time of Establishment of Gardens-. — A period of six years elapses from time of seed planting until the trees can be tapped for sugar. During this time, how- ever, crops of early rice and of pigeon pea can be grown on the land. Further, when once established the garden needs very little annual upkeep, and each tree, in the case of Phoenix at least, will bear for twenty-five years. (3) Difficulty of Juice Collection. — At present this would seem to be one of the chief drawbacks, but it might be possible to develop a system of pipe lines from the gardens to the factory. (4) Concentration of Sugar in Juice. — In the case of Phoenix, with only 10 to 12 grams of sugar per 100 c.c. of juice, the work of evaporation would be much more tedious than in the case of cane juice. Nipa, and perhaps other palms, would be better than Phcenix in this respect. Conclusions and Suggestions. (1) It would seem that much higher yields of sugar per acre could be obtained from palms than from sugar- cane, and the advantage of palms, as a source of sugar, seem to outweigh the disadvantages. (2) A small factory has been at work in the Jessore District on palm juice during the past cold weather, and has produced some very high quality white sugars from the juice. These sugars found a ready sale locally. In the process no special treatment of any kind was given. After a small amount of preliminary heating the juice was concentrated in a vacuum pan. (3) It would seem to me that a factory dealing with palm juice would be best run in conjunction with a distillery, so that it would not be dependent on a fluctuating market for the sale of its molasses. COCOA. THE QUALITIES IN CACAO DESIRED BY MANUFACTURERS. By N. P. BOOTH AND A. W. KNAPP, of Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd. HAVING been approached by the Organizing Committee of the International Congress of Tropical Agriculture to discuss before an audience interested in cacao planting the qualities in cacao regarded as most desirable from the manufacturer's point of view, we take this oppor- tunity of expressing our thanks for the occasion so afforded. It will give us pleasure if by this short paper, and any discussion it may evoke, we can be of some help to the planting community. We believe that there are many planters who would be glad to know exactly what qualities in cacao are con- sidered desirable by manufacturers of cocoa and chocolate. Unfortunately, it is by no means possible to make a definite statement which is generally applicable, because the various manufacturers look for different qualities, and cacaos from certain districts are prized for special purposes. There is, further, some danger in describing a desirable appearance, for it is not the appearance that is wanted, but the qualities that are associated with it. In general, we believe that if the planter only allows ripe pods to be gathered, ferments for a reasonable period, cures with care, and keeps the beans dry, they will have the right appearance to satisfy the manu- facturers, and he will be producing the best that the type of tree on his plantation will produce. In many places 170 COCOA the individual who does better work than his fellow- planter does not directly reap his reward in higher prices. This is to be regretted. Indeed, we have been told by planters that it does not pay to take more than a certain amount of trouble in fermenting and curing their cacao, as they obtain the same price any way, but if all planters worked down to the minimum quality, the price obtained for beans from that district would fall, and all would suffer. At present the planter who produces above the average is a benefactor to his fellow-planters, and he who produces below the average quality lowers the price of the whole production of that district. Any district which could establish and successfully maintain a standard which prohibited the presence of un- ferm-ented, diseased, germinated, or grubby beans, and which fixed a maximum percentage for rubbish and shrivelled beans, and could at the same time put on the market large consignments of such beans, suitably marked, would be sure of establishing a reputation in the London market, and as a result obtain high prices. Unripe Cacao. — In gathering the pods the planter should take care that only the ripe ones are picked.1 If the pods are gathered before they are ripe, a poor yield is obtained and the cacao is of low quality — the beans being small, flat, and tough, with a whitish break. And, further, the shell is very difficult to remove. Unripe beans do not undergo the normal fermentation. In an experiment on our own estate in Trinidad unripe pods were purposely picked. In fermenting, the temperature never rose above 95° F. (i.e., 15° F. below the tempera- ture of a heap of the same size of ripe beans), and the beans appeare4 gummy and slimy. With ripe cacao the average yield of dry cured cacao is about 36 per cent, of the wet cacao put in the sweat-box. With this unripe cacao the yield was only half that usually obtained. Over-ripe Cacao. — It must naturally happen on estates which have insufficient labour that the pods are often left on the tree after they have become ripe. As an 1 The planting of a single variety on a plantation, as Mr. W. H. Johnson has pointed out, would greatly facilitate this. COCOA I/I experiment, pods were allowed to stay on the tree six weeks after they were ripe. When placed in the sweat- box the beans rapidly started to ferment, and after twenty-four hours were at least 10° F. warmer than the normal. After this the temperature was normal. The beans produced were large and plump, but the shells were crisp and fragile. When roasted the product was inferior to ordinary cacao. The friability of the shell is also an objection to over-ripe cacao. The danger with over-ripe pods is that the beans may have commenced to germinate. One objectionable result of this is that when they are dried the germ frequently produces a hole in the shell, which opens a way for attack by mould and grubs. Germinated Beans. — Beans which have germinated (whether by being left in the pods till very much over- ripe or scattered on the ground by squirrels that have attacked the pods) give on roasting a very inferior product, with a herbal odour and an astringent taste. The product is so unlike cocoa that the presence of even a small percentage of germinated beans exercises a marked deteriorating effect on the quality of any goods in which such cacao is used, hence we regard the presence of germinated beans as particularly objectionable. Unfermented Cacao. — We understand that unfermented cacao finds purchasers, but fermented cacao always obtains a higher price (usually about 45. per cwt. more than the unfermented). The reason for this is that unfermented beans produce a cocoa inferior in colour, odour, and flavour. Partially fermented beans suffer from the same defects. On some plantations one day's picking is put on the top of the previous day's picking, and uneven fermentation is the result. In some cacaos one finds "cobs" (two or more beans stuck together); their presence is regarded as an indication of careless preparation, and certainly such beans cannot be pro- perly fermented. We think there is usually little danger of over- fermentation, but where this occurs the shell may get so loose that it becomes broken in carriage and handling. In particular we would point out that cacao can be I?2 COCOA spoiled by lack of attention to conditions of cleanliness during fermentation, or by exposing" to bad odours. On curing these defects may be hidden, only to be revealed again on roasting, when the objectionable " hammy " or other flavour is developed. Fermentation: New Methods. — Whilst at present we are very well satisfied with the standard methods of fermentation practised in the tropics, we look forward in the future to interesting developments. But as yet we are not prepared to recommend any radical changes. For example, the very interesting method of removing the pulp recently put forward by M.» Perrot, which consists of treatment with alkali, does not appear very promising from the commercial standpoint. It is clear that such methods would not decrease the cost of pro- duction in the country of origin, and the manufacturer would have the extra expense of treating such cacao before roasting. Further, considering that on the vast majority of plantations several botanical varieties of cacao grow up side by side and that these are never sorted according to their kind, there is very little prospect of a uniform product such as manufacturers desire — and M. Perrot promises. Washing. — After fermenting it is usual in some countries to remove the pulp by washing. This process slightly reduces the weight and improves the appearance of the bean. It has the disadvantage, however, that it leaves the shell thin and breakable, and renders the cacao more liable to attack by grubs ; it is also probable that when such cacao is placed along with other cargo having a strong smell, it more easily takes up such flavours than the unwashed cacao. On the whole we recommend that (save in those countries where washing is considered essential to satis- factory sun-drying) the beans be not washed. The planter obtains a bigger yield, which fetches in England practically the same price per cwt.,1 because the unwashed product is considered to have better keeping properties. Drying. — It is essential that beans should be thoroughly 1 Dr. Fickendey, Cameroons. The loss amounted to 8 to 10 per cent, without adding to the price realized by the product. COCOA 173 dry before being bagged. Care must be taken not to over-heat the cacao or to break the shells. In some countries the climate necessitates artificial drying. But in places where the sun's heat can be used, it is always to be preferred, because there is a tendency with the use of artificial heat to speed up the drying process, and our opinion is that such rapidly dried beans are not so well cured as those dried slowly in the sun. Cleaning. — From a manufacturer's point of view, the freer the beans are from dried placenta, flat beans, and rubbish, the better. Recently the planters on a certain West Indian island have been sending so large a per- centage of shrivelled beans and waste to New York that there seemed some risk of the American market being closed against them. Happily, they have mended their ways, and are now delivering cacao satisfying contracts in which the waste must not exceed J per cent. Claying. — Claying makes beans look pretty; it is said to materially assist in the drying, and it is generally held that the film of clay protects the beans from attacks of mould, and also strengthens the shell for handling. Personally, we question the last two advantages, and would point out that from the manufacturer's point of view claying increases the cost of production, and that the buyer pays for cacao and obtains clay. However, we do not think that objection would have been raised to claying if the process had not been abused in recent years. One abuse is using above i per cent, of clay. A more serious abuse is the taking of black cacao from diseased pods, and claying this so as to give it the appearance of good estate cacao. This use of claying is sufficient to condemn the practice from the manu- facturer's point of view, more particularly if merchants mix this diseased cacao of deceitful appearance with fine cacao. Dancing and Polishing. — Where dancing is used, not as a method of breaking apart those beans which are stuck together, but simply as a method of applying clay and producing a polish, it has little to recommend it. Dancing improves the appearance of the beans and gives them a very pleasant gloss, but from a manufacturer's point of view we have no evidence that this process is 174 COCOA of any advantage. We consider that the 2d. per cwt. spent on this is wasted. There are mechanical polishers which give the beans a bright and uniform appearance. Such beans fetch a slightly higher price, but manufacturers will in future value beans more and more on their internal qualities alone. Size. — Large beans are preferred because they have a lower percentage of shell than small beans, and cacao carefully graded to size is more appreciated because it affords greater facility for uniform roasting. Flat Beans. — Manufacturers object to flat beans be- cause : — • (1) Flat beans shell less easily. In the rounder bean the shells are more free. (2) Flat beans have a greater percentage of shell. (3) Flat beans do not roast so evenly. (4) Flat beans are generally evidence of unripeness, insufficient fermentation, or careless drying. Good curing of ripe cacao produces a round bean, and, as is well known, Criollo give the roundest or boldest, and Cala- bacillo the flattest bean. Grubby Beans. — Cacao sometimes arrives in England much eaten by grubs. The cacao moths should be kept away from the beans during drying as much as possible. They deposit their eggs on the beans, and the grubs which hatch out eat their way into the beans with broken shells. The trouble does not always end here, as the moths may migrate in the stores to other bags of cacao. Beans with the minimum of broken shells best withstand their attacks. Aroma and Break. — The beans should have a clean, pleasant, faintly acid odour; the presence of the slightest foreign odour is objectionable. Beans should break readily into small crisp nibs. Any show of hardness or cheesiness lowers their value. Constancy of Quality. — Probably the most highly appreciated character is constancy or reliability of quality. Cacao which varies from bag to bag or from time to time will get little appreciation. Under ideal conditions standard qualities would be put on the market — Criollo, Forastero, and Calabacillo would be fermented separately, COCOA 1/5 and the beans graded according to size. Such a procedure would only be practicable where the cacao from several plantations was taken to a central fermentary. At the present time we are far from this; indeed, instead of a careful grading of good qualities there is in practice a mixing of good and bad. We have good reason to believe that some merchants buy cacao which they know to be diseased or unfermented or mouldy, and deliberately mix it with good cacao. Such an action may not seriously affect the price of that particular lot, but it affects detrimentally the reputation of the cacao from that district, and the manufacturer comes to regard it as less desirable. It is sometimes stated that cacao is valued largely according to its geographical origin, but we would point out that this value is the resultant of the value of the type of bean grown in that district and the amount of care given to the curing — thus a reputation is established for that district. It is also sometimes contended that the value of cacao depends almost entirely on its botanical variety. It is the old problem of heredity and environ- ment. Criollo obtains a higher price than Forastero and Calabacillo because it is the rarest. But the planter's problem in most parts of the world is how to produce the best cacao from the mixed breed which his plantation produces. This is done by providing a suitable environ- ment, i.e., keeping the trees under healthy conditions and curing the cacao with the greatest care. In Ceylon, since rubber became of such great importance, less care has been taken in the cultivation of cacao, and a deterioration of breed has resulted. It should be pointed out that the manufacturer does not make a final judgment of the bean in its raw state. It is only when it is roasted that he is able to determine its exact value for his purpose. It is to be regretted that in some places cacao is still taken to the steamer in surf boats. Well-prepared cacao then becomes wet with sea water, and as a result may later be spoiled by mould. We would like to emphasize the necessity for piers and jetties to enable beans to be shipped in all weathers without getting wet. THE GOLD COAST COCOA INDUSTRY. By W. S. D. TUDHOPE. Director of Agriculture, Gold Coast. THE Gold Coast commenced to export cocoa in 1891. The official figures for that year gave the quantity exported as 80 Ib. in weight, valued at £4. The export of the past year was 113,239,980 Ib., valued at £2,489,218. The growth of the industry can best be ascertained by a glance at the following table. The figures in every case are obtained from official sources : — • Value of increase Year Quantity Value in five years 1891 1896 1901 1906 1911 1913 Soil 86,754 2,195,571 .. 20,104,504 .. 88,987,324 £ ). ... 4 ... 2,276 ... 42,837 ... ... 336,269 ... ... 1,613,468 ... ... 2,489,218 ... £ 2,272 40,561 293,432 1,277,199 875,750 * Increase in two years. The Gold Coast is now the largest cocoa-producing country in the world, and the industry is exclusively a native one. It was in 1911 that the Gold Coast first attained the distinction of being the largest cocoa-producing country, and it is evident from subsequent returns that she has not yet reached her maximum production, as the exports for the past year (1913) are almost one-third more than that of any previous year. Figures available for the first quarter of the current year also show an increased pro- duction of over £200,000 worth on the previous year's record for the same period. For the purpose of this paper I propose to give a few facts concerning the present condition and affecting the future development of the industry; and for a more COCOA 177 -detailed history of development I would refer members of the Congress to an article contributed by me and published in the Journal of the African Society in 1909. The Gold Coast has never been looked upon as a white man's country (I mean as a residential country), and this has, to a large extent, restricted the introduction of European capital in the development of agriculture under the system of European-owned plantations. All such ventures, too, in the past have left cocoa culture almost severely alone, so, contrary to the experience of most other countries, the cocoa industry of the Gold Coast owes nothing to the European planter. The Gold Coast is typical of the West African tropical bush. The greater part of the country is covered by tall forest growth. The contour of the land is undulating, containing low ranges of hills, and probably there are fewer swamps than in any other West African Territory, and decidedly less than the preconceived ideas at home of the West African Coast. Some of the low-lying land adjoining rivers is, however, liable to flood during the rains. Extensive belts of oil palms are met with, which owe their initial formation to past generations of the native inhabitants. Palm oil and palm kernel production was at one time an important native industry, but the tendency now is to neglect the palms for the more lucra- tive and less laborious cocoa crop; nevertheless, they still remain, and constitute a crop of considerable potential value to the colony. The country is far from being densely populated, but the population seems to be increasing annually, due in large measure to an influx of native races from adjoin- ing territory. These people come, in the first instance, as labourers or carriers, and many of them in time become cocoa farmers. The population of the country, within the cocoa-growing areas of the Gold Coast and Ashanti, at the last census, taken in 1911, approaches 1,000,000 of all ages spread over an area of approximately 45,000 square miles. The density of the population in the different Provinces is shown in the following state- ment : — 12 I7 COCOA Population per Province or locality square mile Western Province ... ... ... 16*7 Central ,, ... ... ... 53-4 Eastern ,, ... ... ... 44-3 Ashanti ... ... ... ir6 These figures, however, may be taken as a conservative estimate, as there are many difficulties in the way of an accurate census being obtained. The cocoa-growing area extends from 15 to 20 miles from the sea coast to about 180 to 200 miles inland, across almost the entire breadth of the colony, with the excep- tion of areas of dry savannah or open grass country found chiefly in the eastern extremity of the colony. The area of the cocoa-growing belt is approximately 24,000 square miles; and when due allowance is made for rivers, swamps, wind belts, native food cultivation, and forest reservation, a conservative estimate of one-fourth this area, or 6,000 square miles, may be taken as the area available for cocoa culture. The total production of 113,239,980 Ib. in 1913 is, therefore, equivalent to an average yield of 18,873 ^- per square mile, or about 29 Ib. per acre from this area. The present conditions of the country render it almost impossible to procure reliable statistics of the area under crop, and no attempt has yet been made by Government in this direction; but the foregoing estimate, based as it is, I must admit, on a somewhat haphazard principle, gives in figures a comparative estimate of the present production, and indicates the possible limitations of the industry. All other conditions being favourable, it is clear that the industry is capable of very considerable extension, and an annual increase in production is sure to continue for some years to come. Indeed, I am convinced that production will be limited first by the capacity of the native farmers rather than by the extent of suitable land available. The yields per acre obtained over a series of years at the Government Agricultural Stations prove that the soil and meteorological conditions are very "favourable for this crop. At the Agricultural Station, Aburi, an average yield COCOA 179 of about 8 Ib. of cured cocoa per tree has been obtained during the past five years (1909 to 1913) from trees now over twenty years old, and though we have few accurate returns to guide us, from observation I should say that these yields are equalled, if not exceeded, on some of the best cared-for native cocoa farms in the more fertile districts. I should here state that these figures cannot be taken as anything like average returns for the colony, as on many farms and in some districts owing to neglect the yields are very low indeed. The Aburi yields, how- ever, have been carefully computed, and prove that high yields can be obtained. Indeed, I might go further and say that I question if better yields of cocoa can be obtained in any other country in the world. The cocoa trees yield a fair crop in the Gold Coast in the third and fourth years after planting, and, as showing their fecundity, I may mention that young trees were seen bearing fruits in less than a year after planting on one of the Agricultural Stations recently opened by Government. The soil does not appear particularly rich, although over certain areas it is deeper and better than in others. Generally speaking, however, it is lacking in organic matter. It is to its climate, more than its soil, that the Gold Coast owes its wealth in vegetation. The air is humid, and although the rainfall is not excessive — from 50 to 70 in. per annum in the cocoa-producing districts — it is fairly evenly distributed. The humidity is in large measure due to the wealth of forest growth and ever- green vegetation, and this is its primary feature as a cocoa-growing country. The rainfall is lower than in nearly every other cocoa-growing country, and a reduc- tion of the humidity, it is feared, would have disastrous consequences to the cocoa industry. The natives of the country are not fully alive to the seriousness of the position, as the destruction of forest in making new clear- ings is being somewhat ruthlessly undertaken all over the country, and a Bill recently introduced by Govern- ment for the regulation and preservation of the forests is 'being rigorously opposed by the native owners of the land, who, I fear, are not consulting their own better judgment in this matter. i8o COCOA The system of cocoa cultivation evolved by the natives represents a minimum of labour and expense. The forest is only partly felled, all large trees being left standing. Seedlings are raised on nursery beds on low- lying moist land adjoining streams, and they are generally planted out along with native food crops, such as plan- tains (Musa) and coco yams (Colocasia). In this way they are generally fortunate in getting a good start, as these crops afford a delightful cooling shade very neces- sary for the young seedlings. The cultivation given to these crops, which consists of a periodical weeding with a cutlass or hoe, is also beneficial to the cocoa trees, and tides them over the first two or three years. The temporary shade crop is, however, frequently allowed to remain too long, and tall trees with small crowns are the result. This, however, is the form of cocoa plantation favoured by the natives, viz., trees with clean stems 8 ft. or more long, the branches forming a thick canopy over- head. The principal reason why this form of plantation is favoured is because it allows the free progress of carriers throughout the plantation in collecting the crop, and from this standpoint it has a good deal to commend it. On the other hand, the trees are generally planted very closely together, and a corresponding overlapping or matting of the roots in the soil must be taking place which will sooner or later decrease the yield of the trees. It is when the plantation is coming into bearing for the first time that it receives its first thorough clean up. The natives generally have not yet awakened to the fact that the trees require other than the most meagre attention. The result is that weeding is seldom practised except for an occasional brushing with cutlasses, usually just before the crop is ready to be gathered. Pruning consists of the mere lopping off of branches in any hap- hazard fashion. The harvesting of the crop and the preparation of the beans is done in the crudest manner possible, and the necessity for manuring the trees has not yet occurred to the majority, and, worse still, the appearance of diseases is not yet viewed with any appre- hension, and seldom is any action taken to guard against their inroads. All these matters, however, have been receiving the COCOA 181 attention of Government, and considerable progress has been made in instructing the native farmers in more rational practice. Every year shows a marked improve- ment in the management of the farms and in the quality of the product. It has not to be forgotten that cocoa is a crop which was quite unknown to the natives, and had never been seen growing elsewhere except by a very few whose duties as artisans had taken them to Fernando Po and St. Thome. They have had everything to learn, there- fore, for themselves, and the way many of them have taken advantage of every facility for instruction afforded and are endeavouring to improve their methods reflects considerable credit on themselves and augurs well for the industry as a whole. The cultivation and preparation of cocoa calls for more care and attention than the Gold Coast native has been accustomed to with any crop he has hitherto grown. Indeed, the production of a high-grade quality cocoa partakes of the nature of a scientific achievement, and is not yet even thoroughly understood by many Euro- peans engaged in cocoa planting. The question of fermentation is imperfectly understood, and the best methods by which this may be achieved are still a matter of considerable discussion. No hard-and-fast rule can be laid down with regard to the period of fermentation required to produce thoroughly fermented beans, since a great deal depends on the state of the seeds when they are first put to ferment, the ripeness of the pods, the length of time that has elapsed since they have been collected, the state of the weather at the time, and the receptacle in which fermentation is brought about. How- ever, in dealing with a native community we must advocate some definite period, and our experience on the Gold Coast has shown us that fermentation for a period of six days invariably gives the best results. A few days longer does not appear materially to affect the quality if the fermenting mass is frequently stirred or turned. The variety of cocoa grown almost exclusively is the oval-shaped Forastero type, " Amelonado " variety, the beans of which require a longer fermentation than almost l82 COCOA any other variety known, and because of this, and the fact that this variety is both hardy and prolific, I think it is peculiarly suited to the conditions prevailing on the Gold Coast, and I consider it a lucky coincidence that this should have been the variety first introduced. Other types or varieties are under experimental cultivation on the Government Agricultural Stations, but with the exception of one — a spontaneously produced hybrid — none of them seem to be so prolific or as profitable as the ordinary type. The new variety, which I have called " Cundeamor " because of its resemblance in outward appearance to a Ceylon type of that name, seems to be prolific and produces very much larger beans, which have been pronounced of superior quality. This variety is being largely sought after by the natives, and in time considerable areas should be planted with it. On the Gold Coast, fermentation, although causing additional labour, is in many ways a convenience to the native. He prefers to go leisurely about his work, thus fermentation is often unintentionally allowed to suit his convenience. The process of fermentation originally adopted was to spread plantain leaves on the ground in the plantation, heap the cocoa beans thereon, and cover up the mass with similar leaves. Many use large baskets in which the fresh beans are placed. Wooden, and in some cases concrete, chambers have been adopted latterly by not a few. The cocoa is left for about a week, and the common error is made not to turn the mass, which results in unequal fermentation. The cocoa is dried on mats made of the mid-ribs of palm leaves placed on a platform usually a few feet above the ground. As the industry develops, however, a ten- dency to spread the cocoa on the hard sun-baked roadway becomes more apparent. This is a practice that has many objections. Some of the larger farmers have latterly constructed concrete drying yards in imitation of those adopted by the merchants, thus showing a laudable desire to follow an example which appeals to them, often regardless of expense. COCOA 183 European and trained native officers attached to the Government Agricultural Department are constantly employed travelling throughout the cocoa-growing dis- tricts delivering lectures and making farm to farm visitations, advising the farmers at their farms on more up-to-date methods. Instructions are in the majority of cases accompanied by practical demonstrations. Pamphlets giving hints on the various phases of the subject written in simple language have been published in English and several of the vernacular languages and distributed throughout the country. Youths are being constantly trained on the Government Agricultural Stations, and every year a six weeks' course in agriculture is given to school teachers, who in turn impart information thus gained to the children at school. School gardens have also been established. Through all these agencies there is no gainsaying the fact that much good has accrued. An excellent scheme of local instruction was in- augurated by His Excellency Sir Hugh Clifford, K.C.M.G., last year, whereby representative men are selected by the Head Chiefs, and after undergoing a course of training in cocoa culture at an Agricultural Station they return to their homes, and act as Instructors or Advisers in the division of which they are members, receiving periodical supervision from Agricultural Officers. It is hoped that in time this scheme may be brought into operation all over the colony, and with a sufficiency of supervising and advising officers, I feel sure the expenditure will be amply repaid in results. His Excellency will pardon me for saying that the staff at my disposal has hitherto been far short of the requirements of the colony. It is generally easier to prevent initial blunders in cocoa culture, than to correct them after they have got thoroughly inured in a system, and with a comparatively small staff that has not been possible. Native suspicion of the object of Government in assisting them with their crops has also retarded better results, but I am glad to say this is gradually being overcome. A matter of grave importance, so far as the Gold Coast 184 COCOA is concerned, is the presence in the colony of cocoa diseases and pests. Natives are difficult to move in such matters. They seem to view any such appearance as a dispensation of Providence, against which they are power- less, and they as often as not put forth no exertion to prevent or destroy them. Cocoa plantations have suffered considerable damage (for the most part in the young state) from both insect and fungoid attacks. In the majority of cases, however, these have been associated with lax methods of husbandry, and in others with un- suitable soil or climatic conditions, or both, and no real serious pest has yet been found in the colony which could not be successfully controlled with display of a little additional care and energy on the part of the native owner. The Officers of the Agricultural Department are ever on the alert for any new disease, and no opportunity is lost of impressing the natives with the importance of doing everything possible to prevent the appearance or spread of any pest. As a precautionary measure, legis- lation has been passed prohibiting importation from any other country of cocoa seeds or seedlings. Knapsack sprayers and syringes have been introduced for the use of native farmers, and they are constantly being trained in their use. It must be admitted, however, that in a country like the Gold Coast we are faced with a serious problem in the event of a destructive epidemic break- ing out. The commercial aspect of the industry is one of no mean importance. There is no gainsaying the fact that development has been fostered to a very considerable extent by the large trading firms in the colony. Indeed, I might go further and say that the development already attained has only been possible through their agency. The natives prefer to dispose of their cocoa at or near their farms; the transport of the material to the port of shipment is, therefore, very largely in the hands of the mercantile firms who have penetrated the bush, and erected large stores or buying depots wherever and as soon as production warranted such a course. Money is frequently advanced by them on prospective crops, but COCOA 185 this practice, I believe, is now less common, and is not encouraged. The system is liable to abuse, and is not conducive to the production of the best grade of cocoa. Keen rivalry is displayed by the different firms in purchasing the cocoa, and we have little ground for thinking that the native is not receiving fair value for his crop as a whole. We have reason, however, for thinking that sufficient encouragement is not being offered to prepare only the best quality. It is admitted there are many obstacles to be overcome before a perfect system of purchasing can be instituted, and some progress in recent years is apparent. We are indebted to Messrs. Cadbury Bros., of Bournville, for a lead in this direction. They have several agents in the colony who* purchase on their behalf only the best qualities at an -enhanced price, and reject all that falls below the standard of their requirements. A study of the European market, however, reveals the fact that the difference in the price of the best and worst qualities of Gold Coast cocoa does not offer sufficient inducement either to the producer or the middleman to improve their grades. The highest grade is not more than 35. to 55. per cwt. above the worst grade of common cocoa. Viewed from a commercial point of view, there- fore, when the relative cost of grading, packing, etc., is taken into consideration, it seems simpler and less ex- pensive to buy, mix, and sell (all but the very worst) at a uniform price. That is the position of the market at present, and I fear, unless the manufacturer comes to our assistance with the offer of a relatively better price for the best quality, the native will become discouraged, and the quality of Gold Coast cocoa will recede. Who can blame the native for losing heart when he can sell unfermented, indifferently prepared, cocoa at the same price as he obtains for good carefully prepared material ? The quality of Gold Coast cocoa has very much improved within the last few years, especially in the older producing districts, showing that more care is annually being taken in its preparation. It would be unfortunate, therefore, if the quality should be allowed to revert to the low grade originally exported, more especially, since 186 COCOA with the world's ever-increasing production, it stands to reason that the worst qualities must sooner or later be neglected. The position at present, I must admit, is one of some perplexity. But I repeat again that if better quality cocoa is wanted from the Gold Coast more encouragement should be offered in a greater differen- tiation in price between the best and the worst qualities. The present price is a fairly lucrative one for the native, and even although cocoa should yet reach a lower level, that would not in itself, I feel certain, greatly affect supplies from the Gold Coast, although it would certainly affect those remote districts where already a considerable proportion of the price is spent in costly transport to the port of shipment. With the advent of railways, however, this contingency would to some extent be averted. So far as the world's production of cocoa is concerned, I believe the Gold Coast is in as favourable a pO'sition as any other country for maintaining its supplies in future. One of the chief obstacles in the way of the agricultural development of the colony as a whole is the great lack of suitable and cheap transport. Oxen or pack animals do not live except in a few isolated districts where the tsetse fly is not prevalent. They, therefore, are not available. The construction of roads suitable for motor traction has only been completed in a few districts, and the total length of railway within the colony is little over 200 miles. Motor lorries, cask rolling and man carts are used wherever the state of the roads will allow. The bulk of the transport, however, has to be accom- plished by men or women carriers in headloads. During the height of the cocoa season the scene presented at the various railway stations, central collect- ing depots, or shipping ports is one of animated bustle. Carriers are both expensive and scarce, and the cocoa is often detained for several months at the bush stations before it can be brought to the coast. The relative cost of transport is also often so high that the price payable to the actual cultivator is frequently less than half the value of the cocoa at the port of shipment. Needless to say, such conditions seriously affect the quality of the product and tend to discourage the native cultivator. COCOA 187 Indeed, I believe in some cases the natives have allowed the crop to rot on the trees rather than go to the trouble of collecting it. The farms thus situated are generally receiving less attention, thereby encouraging diseases. To alleviate these conditions an extension of the rail- way system is necessary and is being pushed forward. Much of the labour now employed on arduous transport work when set free for employment in other channels will have a greater potential value to the colony. Needed reforms in the buying and grading of cocoa can then be more easily introduced, and the cocoa industry generally placed in a more satisfactory condition. It might be suggested by the casual observer that the cultivators could co-operate in the matter of providing for themselves light railways for the transport of their produce, but at the present stage of development of the native such a scheme is hardly within the bounds of practical politics. The formation of local Cocoa Associations for mutual benefit is at present receiving attention, and when a proper understanding has been created something on a more comprehensive scale may be attempted, and the provision of light local trolly rails, in addition to roads as feeders of the central railway, is worthy of con- sideration. The native farmers own their lands, which they have either inherited or bought from other tribes. The bulk of the land appears to have belonged originally to the several tribes, and was vested in the separate " stools " for the use of the tribe as a whole. But the extension of the cultivation of permanent crops would appear to have altered the condition of land tenure, and each family now appears to be possessed of its own lands. The area of the cocoa farms planted by individual families is small. A rough estimate of the average annual production of a cocoa farm in the older cocoa- producing districts might put the quantity at about 2 tons. Individual owners possess farms yielding as much as 25 tons, but the great majority of the farms are small, and their production does not exceed the former figure. The tendency, however, is to extend the areas, as i88 COCOA profits or production are erroneously based on the number of trees planted without any regard to the state in which they may be able to maintain them, and there are grave fears that farms are being extended beyond the limits the farmers are capable of maintaining in a satisfactory condition. This is a serious phase of the question over which we have little control, and friendly counsel frequently falls on deaf ears. All sections of the community are now interested in cocoa. The Coast natives have penetrated the bush to prosecute the art of cocoa cultivation. The wealthy natives who have made money as brokers or as artisans, and even those who have been educated in a profession, have become imbued with the spirit of cocoa planting, and are nearly all directly or indirectly interested. Indeed, we might say that cocoa production has become a part of the very existence of the Gold Coast native. Ashanti and the Western Province of the colony were somewhat slower in taking up the cultivation, but every year shows a larger production in those regions, which a few years hence should be very much greater. We may truly say of the Ashantis, who were formerly a war- like race, that they have "turned their swords into pruning hooks." Cocoa has indeed had a great civilizing influence. In conclusion, I would add that while one cannot but view with feelings of anxiety certain phases of the industry, we are all proud of our achievement as the largest producer of one of the world's important staple products — an achievement accomplished under many adverse circumstances — and I see no reason why we should not in future considerably improve our position. COCOA IN THE SOUTHERN PROVINCES AND COLONY OF NIGERIA. By W. H. JOHNSON, F.L.S. Director of Agriculture, Southern Provinces, Nigeria. UNTIL the amalgamation of the Nigerias at the begin- ning of 1914, the Southern Provinces and Colony of Nigeria were known as the Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria. This territory is situated on the West Coast of Africa, some 5° north of the Equator, and comprises an area of approximately 80,000 square miles, or about two-thirds that of the United Kingdom. Introduction of Cocoa. So far as I have been able to ascertain, cocoa was first introduced some thirty-four years ago by means of seeds brought by David Henshaw, a native chief, from Fernando Po. The original trees raised from seeds are still growing vigorously and yielding well at a plantation near Calabar. In 1887 the Lagos (Ebute Metta) Botanic Station was established, and from there the distribution of plants and seeds to the Lagos district commenced a few years later. The cultivation and distribution of cocoa at the Calabar Botanic Station commenced in 1893. Three years later there were well-established cocoa plantations, owned by the African Association, at Eket, near Calabar, and some of these trees are still in existence. About the same time the Oil Rivers Company started plantations at New Calabar. In 1899 the Royal Niger Company formed plantations at Onitsha and Abutshi, on the banks of the Niger. A few of the oldest trees at Onitsha still remain in what is now a Government Agricultural Experiment Station. IQO COCOA Progress of the Industry. The first shipments of cocoa were made in 1891. In 1900 the exports had risen to 4,042 cwts., valued at £8,622. Since that date they have steadily increased, and last year they amounted to 72,428 cwts., valued at £157,480. The exports, year by year, during the last ten years were as follows : — Year Quantity Value cwts. £ 1904 10,602 ... 18,873 1905 9,405 ... 16,922 1906 ... 14,464 ... 27,054 1907 ... 18,654 ... 47,840 1908 ... 27,327 ... 50,587 1909 ... 44,814 ... 71,916 1910 ... 58,636 ... 101,150 1911 ... 88,025 ... 164,664 1912 ... 67,801 ... 130,542 1913 72,428 ... 157,480 Considerable interest attaches to this development, in view of the enormous progress made in cocoa cultivation in the neighbouring colony of the Gold Coast. At first sight it is somewhat difficult to understand why this in- dustry should have developed so much more rapidly in one colony than in the other, considering that the conditions in each as regards soil, climate, and people are so similar. In the Southern Provinces of Nigeria, however, more attention has been devoted to the cultivation of cotton and maize and to the exploitation of products of the oil palm. The result is that Nigeria's exports of cotton and maize are considerably in advance of those of the Gold Coast, while her exports of palm oil and kernels are far greater, and have increased more rapidly than those of the Gold Coast. Cultivation. The principal cocoa-growing districts are Ibadan, Abeokuta, and Agege, which are respectively situated 122, 60, and 12 miles distant by railway from Lagos. All the plantations are owned by natives; those which were established by Europeans have been abandoned for various reasons. Except on the comparatively small number of plantations managed by educated natives the cultural methods in vogue are extremely crude. COCOA IQI When clearing land for a plantation, the large trees and oil palms are rarely cut down, and stumps are not extracted. The felled trees and bush are rired as soon as they have dried sufficiently. The land is then planted up with such temporary crops as maize, cassava, and tania (coco). These serve to assist in keeping down weeds, and to provide shade for the young cocoa trees. Seeds from the November crop are sown in nursery beds made in a sheltered situation, and, if possible, near a good water supply. As they are generally sown too thickly, and seedlings are not thinned out, the latter become crowded together and develop into weak, straggly plants. A very large number, therefore, succumb when they are transplanted to the open field. Transplanting usually takes place during" the early rains in April and May, by which time the plants are about a foot high, but lining is not attempted. The plants are put in far too closely together, often as close as 4 or 5 ft. apart. The excuse for this procedure is that so many failures occur. On the other hand, where all the plants in a particular area survive thinning out is not practised. The plantations, therefore, present a most irregular appearance. In some areas the trees are suffering from undue exposure, while in others growth and fruit pro- duction are interfered with through overcrowding. Shade trees and wind breaks are not planted, nor is mulch applied, so that tlie trees often suffer severely during the dry season. Especially was this the case during the last two years, when an unusually protracted dry season obtained, and numerous trees, both young and old, succumbed. Little is done in the way of cultivation besides weed- ing, which is generally carried out at far too lengthy intervals. Pruning is not understood; what is attempted in this direction is restricted to the removal, by means of a cutlass, of dead branches and gormandizing suckers which develop from the main stem. Under these con- ditions it is not surprising that diseases are rife, crops are small and of poor quality, and the life of the tree is 19-2 COCOA Diseases and Pests. So far as it is possible to judge at present, Nigerian cocoa growers are not troubled with more fungoid and insect diseases than those of other countries. It is probable that many of the diseases which exist could be kept in check or even eradicated by the adoption of better cultural and sanitary methods. Fungoid Diseases. — The brown-rot disease of fruits, Thyridaria tarda, Bancroft, in its conidial form Diplodia cacaoicola, Henn., is ubiquitous, but does not do so much damage as one would expect, considering that no com- bative measures are employed. The non-employment of shade trees is undoubtedly an important factor in check- ing this pest, though, of course, this procedure is not conducive to the general health and prolificacy of the trees. An anthracnose disease of fruits, due to a species of Colletotrichum, is also frequently met with. A stem disease, caused by a fungus new to science, determined at Kew as Melanconium theobromse, probably an imperfect stage of a Trichosphxria, is also fairly common. But the etiology of this disease has not yet been fully worked out. Thread blight, which is common in low-lying districts, is considered to be identical with the one found in Java. The pink disease, Corticium salmonicolor, B. and Br., has also been found in one district. The most serious root-disease is Hymenochsste noxia, Berk., and this occurs in every district where cocoa is cultivated. There appears to be little doubt that this disease can be kept in check by isolating infected areas with trenches and applying liberal dressings of lime. Poly poms lignosus, Kl., formerly believed to be Pomes semitostus, Berk., has also been observed attacking the roots of cocoa trees. Insect Pests. — The most troublesome insect pest of cocoa is the Melolonthid beetle, Adoretus hirtellus, Lap. This insect attacks the leaves of young plants ; the portions of the leaf between the larger veins are eaten COCOA 193 away, producing a characteristic lace-like effect. The beetle works by night, and hides itself by day, usually in the soil around the roots of the plant. Dusting the leaves with a mixture of Paris green and lime checked the attack, but as it scorched the leaves, spraying with chromate of lead solution was substituted and with good results. Black aphis attack young leaves, but as they in turn are preyed upon by hover and lacewing flies no great damage is done. The larvae of two moths, Eulophonotus myrmeleon, Feld., and an ^Egeriid, as yet unidentified, bore into medium-sized branches and destroy them. Fruits are commonly attacked by two scale insects, Dactylopius longispinus, Targ. Tozz., and Stictococcus svostedti, Newst. Fortunately, the first is held in check by the larvae of a butterfly, Spalgis lemolea, H. H. Druce, and the second by the larvae of a moth, Eublemma ochro- chroa, Hamps., and the Tortricid, Tortrix callopista, Durrant. The fruit fly, Ceratitis nigra, has also been recently observed in cocoa plantations, and probably oviposits in the fruits. The only two Lepidopterous larvae of any importance which attack cocoa are the " woolly bear " caterpillar of the Lymantrid moth, Diacrisia maculosa, and a species of basket worm, the caterpillar of the Psychid moth, Metlsa sierricola, White. Preparation. Although in many districts no attempt is made to ferment the seeds, this process is much more generally adopted than hitherto, but it is not carried out for a sufficiently long period. Amelonado is the variety usually grown, and its seeds require to be fermented for six or seven days, but the native rarely allows this process to extend for more than three days. It is a common practice to collect half-ripened fruits. To extract the seeds, the fruits are beaten on the ground until the shell is sufficiently fractured to permit of its being readily 13 194 COCOA opened. The seeds are placed in heaps on mats or banana leaves spread upon the ground, or upon wooden platforms raised about 3 ft. from the ground. These heaps are covered up with banana leaves, matting, or some similar material. Here they are left for about three days. As the heaps are rarely turned, fermentation is not regular throughout the mass. The process of wash- ing the seeds after fermentation is losing favour. Curing is carried out by spreading the fermented seeds thinly in the sun on mats placed upon the ground or upon raised wooden platforms. This process also is too restricted. From the preceding remarks it will be apparent that the product is frequently offered for sale in a half-dried condition, and contains many shrivelled, immature seeds, as well as seeds which have been subjected to different degrees of fermentation. In outlying districts the bulk of the crop is purchased by native middlemen, who, on behalf of their European employers, pay a uniform price for all grades of cocoa offered for sale. As there appears to be a constant and large demand for low-grade cocoa, at prices remunerative to the grower, there is little incentive to him to raise the standard of his product. As already mentioned, the variety grown is that known as Amelonado, and its seeds, however well grown and prepared, are inferior in quality to those of Criollo and other varieties which produce seeds with light-coloured cotyledons that are less stringent in flavour. That cocoa superior to that usually exported from Nigeria can be produced by more careful cultivation and preparation is shown by the fact that, on the better managed plantations in the Agege district, the crops realize prices equal to those obtained for the best Gold Coast cocoa. Cocoa from one of these plantations, which was pre- pared by the Department of Agriculture, has been valued at as high as 6is. per cwt., when ordinary West African cocoa was only fetching from 485. to 565. per cwt. The cocoa in question was fermented for six days and then sun dried. COCOA 195 Artificial Drying Experiments. As regards climatic conditions for drying his crop, the cocoa farmer in Nigeria is particularly well favoured. The principal cocoa harvest is coincident with the dry season, November-December, when very little rain falls. During the rainy season a great deal of difficulty is often experi- enced in getting the crop dried without mould appearing. The Department of Agriculture has therefore considered the question of introducing some form of artificial drier. As the bulk of the crop is produced by quite small planters, who have not a large amount of capital at their disposal, and have little or no experience of machinery,, it is obvious that a cocoa-drying machine, to be effective, must be inexpensive, easy to manipulate, and be " fool- proof." The Hamel Smith rotary drier appeared to satisfy these requirements, and the manufacturers, Messrs. Bridge and Company, very kindly provided one for experimental purposes. This was tested at the Government Experimental Station, Agege, last year. This machine comprises a revolving iron frame, to which are attached six perforated aluminium sheets, receiving* cylinders enclosed in a metal chamber. Beneath the metal chamber is a furnace which supplies the necessary heat. Connected with the furnace is a chimney of sheet iron. The axle of the iron frame is fitted with a cog- wheel, which is connected by a chain with the cogs on a driving wheel. When the latter is turned, the metal frame, with the cylinders attached, revolves. The moisture driven off the material under treatment is drawn out of the chamber by means of a fan placed at the top oSO4 and (NH4)2S04 9 500 9-8 7*4 5 '2 Control Rainfall > 1910 1911 1912 1913 Jan. -Dec. J 74'86 62*04 62-03 65-77 inches TABLE I.— TRINIDAD ESTATES. Number of pods per Ib. of commercially dry cacao. District Total Number of pods Lb. dry cacao Number of pods per Ib. of dry cacao Tamana 10,312 834 12-36 California 23,668 1,812 13-06 Princes Town 29,342 2,259 1 2 '99 Talparo 35,826 I,9OI 18-84 Arima 26,184 2,054 12-75 Chaguanas 16,045 1,174 13-67 Brasso 48,961 4,475 10-94 Santa Cruz 58,337 4,172 13-98 Diego Martin... 35,596 2,779 I2'8l Sangre Grande 68,26l 5.520 12-37 COCOA 2I3 TABLE J. — RIVER ESTATE. Number of bags (of 165 Ib.) per 1,000 full-bearing trees obtained from different fields during the five years 1910 to 1914 (ending March 31). Rainfall(to December 31) 1909 = 79-07 in. ; 1910 = 74-86 in. ; 191 1 =62-04 in. : 1912 = 62-03 in. ; 1913 = 65-77 in. Field Field Field Field Field Field Field i 2 3 4 5 6 7 Age of trees, years 12 30 30 30 30 30 8 to 80 Yield per 1,000 trees in bags of 165 Ib., 1910 ... ii75 15*37 19-41 I7'43 I9-29 5-58 8-00 „ „ 1911 ... 12-86 2I-O3 23-09 I7-57 20-85 10*65 7'99 ,, 1912 ... iQ'45 I3-07 13-16 2O'OO I9-I9 12-18 4-93 „ 1913 ••• 11-18 7-07 7'93 I3'94 I5-I6 9'3! 5-01 „ ,, 1914 ... 11-52 "'35 II'Sl 17-47 18-48 n-66 5-28 i Field Field Field Field Field Field 8 9 10 ii 12 13 Age of trees, years ... Yield per 1,000 trees in bags 8 to 80 8 to 10 8 to 10 7 to 9 7 to 9 7 to 9 of 165 Ib., 1910 10-74 — — — — — 1911 16-33 — — — — — 1912 14-77 5'55 6-38 — — — 1913 11-65 6-72 4-19 4-19 479 275 1914 13-69 ~ ~ LA CULTURE DU CACAOYER AU MAYUMBE (CONGO BELGE). Par J. CLAESSENS. Chef de Division au Ministere des Colonies de Belgique. LA Mayumbe est une region tres accidentee et forte- ment boisee, coupee par de nombreux cours d'eau a courant generalement rapide. II est separe de 1' ocean par une zone cotiere de 50 a 70 kilometres de largeur, caracterisee par une vegetation herbacee, a laquelle succede une zone de transition precedant la foret. L'altitude des terrains actuellement en culture varie entre 150 et 350 metres, mais a Test de la station de Ganda-Sundi se trouve un massif ou nous avons constate des altitudes de plus de 800 metres. La superficie utilisable pour des cultures est de plus de 5,000 kilometres carres. Sa population peut etre evaluee a environ 180,000 habitants. La main-d'ceuvre, sans etre tres abondante, a jusqu'a present largement suffi a tous les besoins des planteurs. Les diverses plantations de cacao occupent approximativement une superficie de 3,500 hectares, comprenant des cacaoyeres de i a 16 ans, pour lesquelles il est employe environ 3,000 travailleurs, coutant, tous frais compris, de 70 a 90 centimes par jour. Le cacaoyer a la reputation d'etre une plante tres exigeante quant a la nature du climat. En dehors de 1'Afrique, les grands centres de production du cacao jouissent d'un climat special, caracterise par une tem- perature elevee et par des chutes de pluie allant de 1,300 a i, 600 millimetres au minimum, regulierement distribuees sur tous les mois de 1'anne.e. La moyenne des temperatures maxima pbservees a la station agricole de Ganda-Sundi (Mayumbe) est de 29*47° C., tandis que la moyenne des minima est de 19-68° C. COCOA 215 L'experience a demontre que Faction excessive de la chaleur sur les jeunes cacaoyers sans ombrage leur est nuisible, meme pendant la saison des pluies. On a con- state, dans ces conditions, des mortalites atteignant jusqu'a 80 et meme 90 pour cent. D'autre part, pendant les nuits parfois tres fraiches des mois de la saison seche, juillet, aout, et septembre, pendant lesquels nous avons releve des minima de 8 et meme 7 degres, les cacaoyers non proteges sont soumis a des rayonnements nocturnes intenses qui, sans etre mortels, leur causent cependant un prejudice serieux. La caracteristique du regime des pluies au Mayumbe est 1'existence de trois, quatre, parfois cinq mois de secheresse. II est des mois pendant lesquels il ne pleut pas du tout; pour d'autres mois on ne peut guere tenir compte des quelques rares petites pluies, dont 1'ensemble mensuel ne depasse pas 2 a 3 centimetres de hauteur. Ces pluies n'ont, en pleine saison seche, qu'un effet direct pen marque sur la vegetation. Elles ont cependant 1'avantage — et cela est tres important — de maintenir tres haut ie degre hygrometrique de 1'air. La quantite d'eau tomb'ee annuellement a Ganda-Sundi oscille entre 1,193 et 1,827 millimetres. II existe au Mayumbe une grande et une petite saison seche. La premiere, tres irreguliere et de duree variable, commence generalement vers la mi-mai, pour prendre fin vers la mi-septembre. La petite saison seche, ou plutot la saison de moindres pluies, d'une duree de quinze jours a trois semaines, se place entre decembre et fevrier; elle est, comme la premiere, d'une tres grande irregularite. Pendant la grande saison seche, il tombe frequemment des pluies tres fines, appelees par les indigenes " lisala." Ce sont des especes d'epais brouillards qui deposent une rosee si abondante que parfois elle decoule des feuilles et des toits. Les vents sont parfois assez violents, surtout pendant la periode des tornades, qui se place generalement en fevrier-mars. Les grands arbres conserves par les planteurs comme porte-ombre sont assez souvent ren- verses et les degats qu'ils causent par leur chute sont parfois tres importants. Le degre hygrometrique de Fair oscille entre 64 et 94. 216 COCOA C'est grace a cette atmosphere humide que les cacaoyers parviennent a supporter au Mayumbe les quatre ou cinq mois de la saison seche. Pendant cette epoque le ciel est presque toujours convert et les brouillards sont tres intenses, a tel point que le soleil arrive tres difficilement a les percer. La consequence la plus remarquable est que les cacaoyers ne perdent jamais leurs feuilles par suite de secheresse. Le grand nombre de roches qui se rencontrent au Mayumbe ont fourni par leur decomposition et leur remaniement par les eaux pluviales des sols de com- position chimique et de constitution physique tres differ- entes. Nous donnons ci-apres trois analyses d'echan- tillons de terres preleves dans une cacaoyere du Mayumbe agee de 15 ans (methode Woltman). Cent parties de terre passees a travers le tamis de millimetre ont donne : No. des <§chantil- lons Sable Argile Silice soluble Si02 Oxyde de fer et d'alumine Fe2O3 + Als 03 Azote total Acide phosphor- ique P205 Chaux CaO Potasse K20 I 80-03 14-03 O'O5 3*93 0*140 0-030 2-62 O*202 2 8l'32 I4'97 0-06 9-25 O'OSO 0-038 2-17 0-259 3 34*19 59-20 0-05 3'37 O'OSO 0038 0-97 0-3I5 L'echantillon n° i a ete preleve dans la vallee; le n° 2 au bas des collines et le n° 3 au sommet des collines, dans des endroits pierreux a 30 ou 40 centimetres de pro- fondeur. Les deux premieres terres situees en contre- bas sont de bonnes terres a cacao, dont la composition physique est favorable. La troiseme est trop argileuse. La composition chimique est deficitaire en acide phos- phorique. Les proportions de chaux et de potasse sont particulierement remarquables, en egard surtout a la culture prolongee qu'on a faite sur le terrain. Au debut, les planteurs choisissaient presque toujours les terrains des vallees, les replis des collines et les terres colluviales situees au bas de celles-ci, plus rarement les terrains fortement en pente et les sommets des mon- COCOA 217 tagnes. Us recherchaient, avant tout, une belle foret, sans se soucier de la constitution physique du sol. La presence de vigoureux arbres etait, pour eux, une indication certaine de fertilite. Us se contentaient d'abattre la foret en reservant, comme porte-ombre, un certain n ombre d'arbres choisis parmi les plus gros et ayant une couronne tres elevee (Chlorophora, Erioden- dron, Limba). Us reservaient egalement des arbres utiles tels que : palmiers a huile, safoutiers, manguiers, kolatiers, Irvingia, etc. Le cout d'un hectare de defrichement, opere de cette fagon, varie entre 250 et 400 francs, suivant la densite de la foret, le cout et 1'habilete de la main-d'oeuvre. Par la suite, certains planteurs constaterent que les cacaoyers trop ombrages, tout en etant vigoureux, ne produisaient que tres peu de fruits. C'est alors que les plus entreprenants commencerent a enlever une partie des arbres d'ombrage, non sans endommager, ou detruire meme completement, bon nombre de cacaoyers. Ces planteurs avaient en partie raison, car rombrage trop intense est plutot nuisible a la croissance normale des cacaoyers et surtout a la floraison et a la fructification; de plus il favorise le developpement des maladies crypto- gamiques. D'autre part, les cacaoyers se rejoignant par leur couronne couvraient completement le sol et 1'ombrage n'etait plus, des lors, absolument indispensable pour la protection de celui-ci. Nous sommes cependant d'avis, comme nous le verrons plus loin, qu'il est des plus utile de conserver un ombrage permanent judicieuse- ment regie. La variete de cacao cultivee au Mayumbe est I'Amelonado ou Amelouado, originaire de San Thome, qui parait etre celle la plus generalement cultivee a la cote occidentale d'Afrique. Elle n'atteint pas un fort developpement et lorsqu'on la laisse croitre librement elle forme sa couronne entre im. 20 et im. 60 de hauteur moyenne. Elle est tres productive et resiste assez bien aux ennemis et aux maladies assez frequents au Mayumbe. Le semis en place est peu usite. Les jeunes plants sont le plus generalement eleves en pepiniere, puis 2l8 COCOA repiques en paniers. Ce dernier precede a donne de bons resultats. Au debut, les cacaoyers etaient places a 3m. 50 et 4m. Aujourd'hui les planteurs ont une tendance a planter plus serre, ce qui semble preferable. Les trous sont presqu'invariablement creuses a 60 ou 70 centimetres de profondeur, ce qui, dans bien des cas, est absolument insuffisant. Pour des raisons d'economie, les soins d'entretien accordes aux plantations sont tres sommaires. Les herbes sont coupees frois ou quatre fois et eparpillees sur le sol. La taille se resume generalement a enlever le bois mort et a eclaircir les couronnes trop touffues. La recolte ne presente rien de particulier. Elle est faite le plus souvent a 1'aide d'une serpette bien aiguisee, attachee a une gaule de bois leger. La fermentation du cacao du Mayumbe dure de quatre a huit jours, rarement davantage. Au sortir des bacs* de fermentation, les graines sont mises directement au sechoir. Le lavage des feves a ete essaye, puis aban- donne. Parfois les graines sont frottees entre de vieux sacs pour leur enlever 1'exces de mucilage encore adherent, mais la perte de poids ne semble pas etre com- pensee par le gain de la qualite. Les planteurs du Mayumbe utilisent plusieurs precedes de sechage : (a) Le sechage au soleil, sur des aires cimentees, abritees en cas de pluies par des toits roulants ou des baches impermeables, ou encore des plateaux roulants, ou des claies qui sont rentrees dans des bati- ments ad hoc. (b) Le sechage artificiel par des fours speciaux qui, a notre connaissance, ne sont utilises qu'au Mayumbe. Ce systeme de fours, invente par le R. P. De Cleene, pro- vincial des Missions de Scheut au Congo, consiste essentiellement en une voute romane sur laquelle repose une aire cimentee ou Ton place le cacao a secher. La voute est percee, sur les cotes et sur le dessus, d'une quantite de trous ingenieusement combines, qui amenent la chaleur sous 1'aire de sechage ou le cacao est con- tinuellement remue. Parmi les principaux ennemis du cacaoyer au Mayumbe, COCOA 2IQ il convient de citer notamment le Sahib ergella singularis ou punaise du cacao, qui occasionne des degats im- portants. Ce dangeretix ennemi peut, si Ton n'y prend garde, faire perir des milliers d'arbres en tres pen de temps. Dans certaines plantations, les rats occasionnent egalement des degats appreciables. Parmi les maladies cryptogamiques, la maladie du tronc ou " Dieback," cause parfois des pertes tres im- portantes. Bon nombre de mortalites constatees dans les plantations sans ombrage doivent etre mises sur le compte du Ccphaleuros virescens. Les maladies des fruits, Phytophthora Faberi et C olletotrichum sp. sont aussi des ennemis dangereux, qui enlevent parfois au planteur une partie de ses benefices. Une etude sur ces divers ennemis et maladies des cacaoyers du Mayumbe a ete faite par MM. Vermoesen, mycologiste, directeur du Jardin botanique d'Eala, et Mayne, entomologiste. La culture du cacaoyer au Mayumbe est entre les mains des societes et des particuliers ; les indigenes ne s'en occupent pas. Les premiers plants ont ete mis en en terre vers 1895. L'etendue actuellement en culture peut etre evaluee a environ 3,500 hectares, dont 1'entierete n'est pas encore en rapport. Plusieurs societes ont obtenu des resultats tres encourageants, certaines annees meme tres satisfaisants. Le rendement moyen par arbre varie entre 500 et 1,200 grammes de cacao com- merc,able. Des arbres produisant 2, 3 et meme 4 kg. ne sont pas rares. La quantite de produits exportes du Mayumbe etait de 14,400 kg. en 1902 et elle atteignit 967,800 kg. en 1913. Pour reussir au Mayumbe, la culture du cacao exige des soins et' certaines precautions que nous enumerons ci-apres : (1) II faut planter de preference dans les vallees et dans les terres colluviales, situees a la partie superieure des collines. La partie inferieure de celles-ci est souvent inutilisable a cause de son exces d'argile et de sa faible teneur en elements utiles. En tous cas de nombreux sondages s'imposent dans les recherches de terrains. (2) Lors du deboisement du sommet des collines, il 220 COCOA faut avoir soin de conserver un manteau de forets debordant des deux cotes de la crete. Dans les bas- fonds, a sous-sols impermeables, il faut maintenir la foret. II est tres utile de reserver de distances en dis- tances des bandes de foret en guise de brise-vent. Ces divers noyaux de forets provoquent la chute des pluies, favorisent les brouillards et conservent a 1'atmosphere ambiante riiumidite si utile au cacaoyer. (3) II importe beaucoup au Mayumbe de proteger le sol le plus tot possible apres la derniere incineration de la foret, en semant une pi ante de couverture a croissance rapide, de preference une legumineuse. Le Leucsena glauca possede Tavantage de croitre sous un demi- ombrage. (4) Une plantation serree couvrant le sol tres rapide- ment, il est necessaire de ne pas trop ecarter les plants. Une bonne distance a observer pour la variete Amelonado est 3m. ou 3m. ^o maximum dans les vallees fertiles. Dans les terres meubles legeres des trous de om. 60 x om. 60 sont amplement suffisants. Par centre dans les terres tres fortes ces dimensio'ns sont insuffisantes et des fosses d'un metre cube sont necessaires, sinon les racines atteignent tres rapidement les parties de terres non remuees et la plante metirt. Des plantations faites de la sorte coutent cher, mais, par la suite, elles compensent largement les sacrifices consentis. Si les conditions de transport le permettent, Tusage d'une certaine quantite d'engrais appropries est a con- seiller, pour pousser les jeunes cacaoyers a ombrager le sol le plus rapidement possible. La mise en place des plants doit etre surveillee de tres pres, si Ton veut eviter les pertes parfois tres importantes provenant (Tun enfouissement trop profond des jeunes cacaoyers. Les plants ne doivent pas etre enterres plus profondement dans le sol qu'elles ne 1'etaient dans la pepiniere. (5) Pour ce qui est de la question de Tombrage, nous ne nous refusons pas a admettre que la culture du cacaoyer soit possible sans ombrage definitif au Mayumbe, dans des conditions determinees et par des precedes culturaux appropries ; nous pensons meme que ee systeme COCOA 221 merite de retenir 1'attention et devrait etre experimente, mais, et nous insistons sur ce point, c'est une erreur profonde de priver les plantations d'ombrage dans leur jeune age. Get ombrage indispensable aux jeunes cacaoyers est plus necessaire encore au debut de la plantation, pour proteger le sol, depourvu de toute vegetation, contre les rayons ardents du soleil et 1'action plus nefaste encore des eaux pluviales. Ces dernieres entrainent vers les bas-fonds le peu d'humus qui recouvre les sols du Mayumbe et constitue leur principale richesse. Lorsque les cacaoyers auront fourni par eux-memes le couvert complet du sol, 1' ombrage pourra ne plus etre absolument indispensable, mais nous sommes entierement convaincus qu'un ombrage artificial bien regie sera toujours, au point de vue economique, des plus utile pour les plantations du Mayumbe, qui ont a supporter 4 a 5 mois de saison seche. II est reconnu que les plantations sans ombrage per- manent rapportent plus vite et plus, mais aussi qu'elles s'epuisent plus rapidement. II appartient aux planteurs et aux directeurs de societes d'examiner quel est le systeme le plus avantageux. Le bananier plantain convient tres bien pour remplir I'office de porte-ombre pendant les premieres annees. II appauvrit un peu les couches superieures du sol, mais en retour il procure un ombrage tres salutaire aux jeunes cacaoyers. Une bonne pratique consiste a planter les bananiers au debut de la saison des pluies en meme temps que Ton seme la plante de couverture dont il a etc question plus haut. De cette fac,on le cacaoyer peut etre plante immediatement apres la petite saison seche, alors que les bananiers, dans les bons terrains, ont deja atteint un developpement sufftsant pour proteger efficacement les jeunes plants. Dans les cacaoyeres ou Ton ne reserve pas les arbres de la foret comme ombrage permanent, il ne sera pas exagere de planter au moins un bananier par quatre cacaoyers. Quand on ne peut se procurer les bananiers en nombre suffisant, on peut partiellement les remplacer par des pois cajan, qui procurent aussi un abri convenable. Si le sol est suffisamment riche, il y aurait lieu de planter 222 COCOA des bananiers produisant des fruits de dessert propres a 1'exportation. L''0mbrage permanent peut ne pas etre indispensable, mais nous sommes entierement convaincus qu'il est tres utile et plus economique sous un climat a saison seche comme celui du Mayumbe, ou il est des plus difficile de se procurer des engrais et d'executer des fagons de culture nombreuses qui sont fort couteuses. Nous ne sommes pas partisans de conserver comme ombrage les arbres de la foret. Mais si le planteur prefere adopter ce systeme, qui est pratique a San Thome, nous croyons qu'il vaut mieux ne pas maintenir les plus grands speci- mens et donner la preference a des arbres de dimensions moyennes, ou meme a des balivaux peu developpes, et parmi eux de choisir ceux qui, lors d'un abatage eventuel, occasionneraient le moins de degats par leur chute. II va de soi que les arbres utiles, Elaeis, safoutiers, kolatiers, Irvingia, et autres encore, seront conserves. Les arbres geants, qui sont habituellement maintenus dans ce but, outre les degats qu'ils occasionnent par leur chute, pro- duisent des racines generalement tragantes et pourvues d'un chevelu abondant, qui enlevent au sol, au detriment du cacaoyer, une quantite importante de matieres nutri- tives et de plus epuisent la reserve d'eau si necessaire cependant en saison seche. II est preferable, a notre avis, d'abattre completement la foret et de replanter des arbres d'ombrage appropries. Nous preferons 1'ombrage bas a r ombrage eleve qui fait filer les jeunes cacaoyers. Jusqu'a present, aucune experience serieuse n'a ete faite pour rechercher les arbres d'ombrage auxquels il convient d'accorder la preference. On pourrait essayer au Mayumbe les especes suivantes : Inga Saman, Albizzia stipulata et A. molhic- cana en donnant la preference aux derniers. Une com- binaison qui nous parait devoir etre recommandee consiste a faire des plantations mixtes de cacaoyers et de palmiers a huile ou de cocotiers. (6) Le planteur du Mayumbe se preoccupe peu de la taille du cacaoyer, qui cependant, si elle est judicieusement faite, peut avoir les plus heureux resultats sur la pro- duction et la longevite des arbres. Elle doit se limiter COCOA 223 a 1'enlevement des gourmands et a la formation d'une couronne reguliere et aux branches bien equilibrees et bien aerees. Nous avons vu mutiler des champs entiers de cacaoyers par renlevement inconsidere d'un trop grand nombre de branches de tous genres. Outre le danger que presente cette pratique defectueuse, en propageant les maladies par les nombreuses plaies occasionnees, elle a pour resultat de retarder et de reduire la production des cacaoyers qui souffrent de 1'amputation brusque d'une partie de leurs organes actifs. (7) A part quelques pulverisations de bouillie bordelaise et de badigeonnages a 1'aide d'un antiseptique des plaies occasionnees par la taille, la lutte contre les ennemis du cacaoyer est pour ainsi dire nulle. Ce n'est que depuis ces derniers temps que les enveloppes de cabosses sont assez regulierement incinerees : elles etaient autrefois abandonnees dans les plantations, sans traitement special pour prevenir la propagation des maladies contagieuses; celles-ci existent dans presque toutes les plantations. La culture du cacaoyer bien comprise peut etre remuneratrice au Mayumbe, ainsi que 1'ont d'ailleurs prouve plusieurs societes qui distribuent des dividendes parfois tres satisfaisants. ESTUDIOS SOBRE EL CULTIVO DEL CACAO EN FERNANDO POO. For EMILIO GOMEZ FLORES. Ingenicro J efe del Servicio Agronomico do Las Palmas. INTRODUCCION. Los datos recogidos durante el viaje de estudio agro- nomico realizado en la Guinea Espanola por iniciativa del Jefe de la Seccion Colonial del Ministerio de Estado; nos permitio recoger meustras de tierras y frutos, cuyos analisis practicados en el Laboratorio del Servicio Agro- nomico de Las Palmas (Gran Canaria) consignamos a continuacion; aportando este modesto concurso al tercer Congreso de Agronomia Tropical. La estructura geologica de Fernando Poo; acusa sin genero de duda el predominio de rocas de naturaleza basaltica, que facilmente piteden clasificarse en dos graphs; Basalto de olivina normal y basalto sin olivina o labradorita augitica. Con ellos aparecen; fonolitas, felde- spaticas, confirmando la hipotesis de Mr. Lowthian Green, ligando la cadena de las Islas Azores, Canarias, Cabo Verde, Fernando Poo, Principe, Santo Thome, Annabon y Santa Elena. Y en eiecto : Situadas en alineacion que difiere poco de la recta y que visiblemente corresponde a una para- clasa o linea de fractura; forma esta un arco de circulo maximo que corta al ecuador bajo un angulo de 60 grados, comprobando la deformacion tetraedrica de la corteza terrestre primitivamente esferica. A mayor abundamiento no faltan en las islas citadas, asi como en Fernando Poo : ejemplares similares de traquitas, doleritas, augitas, feldespato, granito, plagia- clasa, mica, gneis, talcocita, cuarcitas pizarrosas clori- ticas, maclas de la periclina, magnetita en cubos y octaedros bien determinados de extructura afaniticar COCOA 225 apitita, piroxeno, labradorita carecterizada por su dicroismo, lavas, tobas y lapillis. El producto de la descomposicion de estas rocas primordiales, constituidas por productos del tipo basal- tico o por tobas formadas de materiales detriticos de las mismas; conduce a establecer el predominio de las tierras fuertemente arcillosas en los territorios de la Guinea Espanola; abundantes oxidos de hierro, acido fosforico, poca potasa y escasisima proporcion de cal. Y esto es lo que confirman los analisis que transcribimos a con- tinuacion : — FINCA " LA BARCELONESA," SAN CARLOS, FERNANDO Po6 DE LOS SRS. Ris Y TORRES. Analisis de una Muestra de Tierra. MECANICO. Elementos gruesos ... ... ... ... 23*00 Id. finos ... ... ... ... 977-00 1,000-00 FISICO. Arena gruesa Id. fina Arcilla Caliza Materia organica Humedad .. ,000-00 QUIMICO. Nitrdgeno ... ... ... .., 1-32 por 1,000 Acido fosfdrico ... ... ... ... 174 ,, Potasa ... ... ... ... ... 0*80 ,, Cal ... ... ... ... ... 0-76 " MlSION DE BANAPA," MlSIONEROS DEL INMACULADO CORAZON DE MARIA. Analisis de una Muestra de Tierra. MECANICO. Elementos gruesos ... ... ... ... iS'Co Id. finos ... ... ... ... 982-00 1,000-00 226 COCOA FISICO. Arena gruesa ... ... ... ... 34*20 Id. fina ... ... ... ... 234-30 Arcilla ... ... ... ... ... 55870 Caliza ... ... ... ... ., 770 Materia organica ... ... ... ... 100-50 Humedad ... ... ... ... 64*60 1,000-00 QUIMICO. Nitrogeno ... ... ... ... ... 2-27 por i,coo Acido fosforico ... ... ... 8-32 ,, Potasa ... ... ... ... ... 0-88 ,, Cal 4-56 " MlSION DE LA CONCEPCION," MlSIONEROS DEL INMACULADO CORAZON DE MARIA. Analisis de una Muestra de Tierra del Suelo. MKCANICO. Elementos gruesos ... ... ... ... 2'OO Id. fmos ... ... ... ... 998*00 1,000*00 FlSICO. Arena gruesa ... ... ... .., o'oo Id. fina ... ... ... ... 326*80 Arcilla ... ... .. ... ... 509*30 Caliza ... .. ... ... ... 7-20 Materia organica ... ... ... ... 109*00 Humedad ... ... ... ... ... 4770 I,OOO'OO QUIMICO. Nitrdgeno ... ... ... ... ... 2*21 por 1,000 Acido fosf6rico ... ... ... ... 6*80 ,, Potasa ... ... ,.. ... ... 0*23 ,, Cal ... ... ... ... ... '22 " MISION DE LA CONCEPCION," MISIONEROS DEL INMACULADO CORAZON DE MARIA. Analisis de una Muestra de Tierra del Subsuelo. MECANICO. Elementos gruesos ... ... ... 0*00 Id. finos ... ... ... ...i,oco*oo 1,000-00 COCOA 227 FISICO. Arena gruesa ... ... ... ... o'co Id. fina ... ... ... ... 260-60 Arcilla ... ... .. ... ... 587-40 Caliza ... ... .. ... ... 1-50 Materia organica ... ... ... ... 104*00 Humedad ... ... ... ... 46*50 QUIMICO. Nitrogeno ... ... ... ... ... r89pori,ooo Acido fosforico ... ... ... ... 6-23 ,, Potasa ... ... ... ... ... 0-25 „ Cal ... ... ... ... ... 0-99 ,, FINCA DE DON MAXIMILIANO JONES, SAN CARLOS. Analisis de una Muestra de Tierra. MECANICO. Elementos gruesos ... ... ... ... 19*00 Id. finos ... ... ... ... 981*00 1,000*00 FISICO. Arena gruesa ... ... ... ... 30*30 Id. fina... ... ... ... ... 242*20 Arcilla ... ... ... ... ... 621*00 Caliza ... ... ... ... ... 0*98 Materia organica ... ... ... ... 64*00 Humedad ... ... ... ... ... 41*52 1,000-00 QUIMICO. Nitrogeno... ... ... ... ... ro6 por 1,000 Acido fosforico ... ... ... ... 2*04 ,, Potasa ... ... ... ... ... 1*10 ,, Cal ... 3-24 FINCA " ANGELA," SAN CARLOS, FERNANDO Pod Analisis de una Muestra de Tierra del Suelo. MECANICO. Elementos gruesos ... ... ... ... 25*00 Id. finos ... ... ... ... 975*00 FISICO. Arena gruesa ... ... ... ... 9-00 Id. fina ... .. ... ... 445*00 Arcilla ... ... ... ... ... 367*00 Caliza ... ... ... ... ... 9*00 Materia organica ... ... ... ... 126*00 Humedad ... ... ... ... ... 53*oo 1,000*00 228 COCOA QUIMICO. Nitrogeno... ... ... ... ... 2*34 por 1,000 Acido fosforico ... ... ... ... 378 ,, Potasa ... ... ... ... ... i' 12 ,, Cal 5-31 FINCA " ANGELA," SAN CARLOS, FERNANDO Po<5. Analisis de una Muestra de T terra del Subsuelo. MECANICO. Elementos gruesos ... ... ... ... o-oo Id. finos ... ... ... 1,000-00 1,000-00 Frsico. Arena gruesa ... ... ... ... 0*00 Id. fina ... ... ... ... 292 '80 Arcilla ... ... ... ... ... 537-oo Caliza ... ... ... ... ... 370 Materia organica ... ... . . . 93 -oo Humedad ... ... ... ... ... 73'5o I,OCO'00 QUIMICO. Nitrogeno ... ... ... ... 1-56 porii,ooo Acido fosfdrico ... ... ... ... 174 ,, Potasa ... ... ... ... ... indicios Cal ... ... ... ... ... 2-25 por i, coo FINCA " MERCEDES," FERNANDO Po6 DE LOS SRS. MONTEIRO Y COMPANIA. Analisis de una Muestra de Tierra. MECANICO. Elementos gruesos ... ... ... ... 11*00 Id. finos ... ... 989-00 1,000-00 Fisico. Arena gruesa ... ... ... ... 7°'5° Id. fina ... ... ... ... 445'20 Arcilla ... ... ... ... ... 347*5° Caliza ... ... ... ... 5-70 Materia organica ... ... ... ... 79"5o Humedad ... ... ... ... ... 51-60 1,000-00 QUIMICO. Nitrdgeno ... ... .. ... ... 2-17 por 1,000 Acido fosfdrico ... ... ... ... 8*69 ,, Potasa ... ... ... ... ... 0-55 ,, Cal 3'33 COCOA 229 FlNCA " CONCEPCION," FERNANDO Po6, DE LA COMPANIA TRASATLANTICA. Analisis de una Muestra de Tierra del Suelo. Elementos gruesos Id. finos MECANICO. Arena gruesa Id. fina ... Arcilla Caliza Materia organica Humedad .. FISICO. 1,000'OQ o-oo 325'50 520-40 3-50 107-60 43-00 Nitrogeno ... Acido fosforico Potasa Cal QUIMICO. i'39por 1,000 1-61 ,, 1-67 2-02 FlNCA " CONCEPCION," FERNANDO PO(5, DE LA COMPANIA TRASATLANTICA. Analisis de una Muestra de Tierra del Subsuelo. Elementos gruesos Id. finos Arena gruesa Id. fina Arcilla Caliza Materia organica Humedad ... Nitrogeno ... Acido fosfdrico Potasa Cal MECANICO. FISICO. QUIMICO. O'OO 1,000-00 1,000-00 o-oo 192-20 653-20 2-40 96-00 56-20 1,000-00 1-57 por 1,000 3'4i 0-19 i '43 230 COCOA FINCA DE " SAN ANTONIO " FERNANDO Po6, DE LA COMPANIA TRASATLANTICA. Analisis de una Muestra de Tierra del Suelo. MECANICO. Elementos gruesos ... ... ... ... 74'OO Id. fines ... ... ... ... 926-00 1,000-00 FISICO. Arena fruesa ... ... ... ... 102-20 Id. fina ... ... ... ... 452-60 Arcilla ... ... ... ... ... 234-30 Caliza ... ... ... ... ... 12-30 Materia organica ... ... ... ... 134-50 Humedad... ... ... ... ... 64-10 1,000-00 QUIMICO. Nitrdgeno ... ... ... ... 2-29 por 1,000 Acido fosforico ... ... ... ... 4-02 Potasa ... ... ... ... ... 1-33 Cal 674 FINCA DE " SAN ANTONIO " FERNANDO Po6, DE LA COMPANIA TRASATLANTICA. Analisis de una Muestra de Tierra del Subsuelo. MECANICO. Elementos gruesos ... ... ... ... 133*00 Id finos ... ... ... ... 867-00 1,000-00 FISICO. Arena gruesa ... ... ... ... no'oo Id. fina ... ... ... ... 443 '80 Arcilla ... ... ... ... ... 264-50 Caliza ... ... ... ... ... 8-50 Materia organica ... ... ... ... 101-50 Humedad... ... .., ... ... 71-70 1,000-00 QUIMICO. Nitrdgeno... ... ... ... ... 1-70 por I, coo Acido fosforico ... ... ... ... 3-29 ,, Potasa ... ... ... ... ... i'Q2 ,, Cal 4-43 COCOA 231 FlNCA DE " NUESTRA SENORA DE LA PAZ," FERNANDO PO<5 DE LA COMPANIA TRASATLANTICA. Analisis de una Muestra de Tierra del Suelo. MECANICO. Elementos gruesos ... ... ... ... 2*00 Id. fines ... ... ... ... 998-00 1,000-00 FISICO. Arena gruesa Id. fina Arcilla Caliza ... Materia organica ... Humedad... 1,000-00 QUIMICO. Nitrdgeno... ... ... ... ... 2-32 por 1,000 Acido fosforico ... ... ... ... $'77 ,, Potasa ... .. ... ... ... I '26 ,, Cal 1-62 FINCA DE " NUESTRA SENORA DE LA PAZ," FERNANDO Po6 DE LA COMPANIA TRASATLANTICA. Analisis de una Muestra de Tierra del Subsuelo. MECANICO. Elementos gruesos ... ... ... 0*00 Id. finos ... ... ... i,coo-oo 1,000-00 FISICO. Arena gruesa ... ... ... ... 47-50 Id. fina ... ... ... ...337-00 Arcilla ... ... ... ... ...4i4'io Caliza ... ... ... ... ... 1*40 Materia organica ... ... ... ... 121-00 Humedad... ... ... ... ... 79-00 1,000-00 QUIMICO. Nitrdgeno ... ... ... ... 2-25 por 1,000 Acido fosfdrico ... ... ... ... 5-44 ,, Potasa ... ... .. ... ... 0-65 „ Cal ... ... 0-82 FINCA DE " CASTELL," BASILE", FERNANDO Pod. Analisis de una Muestra de Tierra del Subsuelo. MECANICO. Elementos gruesos ... ... ... 94*00 Id. finos ... ... ... 906-00 1,000-00 232 COCOA FISICO. Arena gruesa ... ... ... ... 0*00 Id. fina ... ... ... ... 219-20 Arcilla ... ... ... ... .., 627*40 Caliza ... ... ... ... ... 2-80 Materia organica ... ... ... ... 86'io Humedad ... ... ... ... 64*50 i ,000-00 QUIMICO. Nitrogeno ... ... ... ... i'4Opori,ooo Acido fosfdrico ... ... ... .. 2*42 ,, Potasa ... ... ... ... ... 0-24 ,, Cal 2-15 FINCA DE " CASTELL," BASILE, FERNANDO Po6. Analisis de una Muestra de T terra del Suelo. MECANICO. Elementos gruesos ... ... ... 20*00 Id. finos ... ... ... ... 980*00 1,000-00 FISICO. Arena gruesa ... ... ... ... 0*00 Id. fina ... ... .. ... 293-50 Arcilla ... ... ... ... ... 54080 Caliza ... ... ... ... ... 3-10 Materia organica ... ... ... ... 104-00 Humedad ... ... ... ... 58-60 I,OOO'OO QUIMICO. Nitrogeno... ... ... ... ... 2-15 por 1,000 Acido fosforico ... ... ... ... 4*21 ,, Potasa ... ... ... ... ... 1-49 Cal 2-96 "MISION FRANCESA DE BATA," GUINEA ESPANOLA. Analisis de una Muestra de T terra. MECANICO. Elementos gruesos ... ... ... ... 86-00 Id. finos ... ... ... ... 914-00 1,000-00 FISICO. Arena gruesa ... ... ... ... 59°'4° Id. fina ... ... ... ... 124-40 Arcilla ... ... ... ... ... 220-30 Caliza ... ... ... ... ... i'4O Materia organica ... ... ... ... 52*50 Humedad... ... ... iroo 1,000-00 COCOA 233 QUIMICO. Nitrogeno... ... ... ... ... 078 por 1,000 Acido fosforico ... ... ... ... 0*16 ,, Potasa ... ... ... ... ... 0*18 ,, Cal ... ... ... 0.76 "MlSION DE B ANAPA," FERNANDO PO<5. Analisis de una Muestra de Cacao. Celulosa bruta ... ... ... ... ... 175 Materia mineral ... ... ... ... 3*21 Id. grasa ... ... .. ... 39*00 Id. proteica ... ... ... 13-26 Id. hidrocarbonada ... ... ... ... 35*56 Humedad ... ... ... ... ... 7-22 Total ... 100-00 Riqueza en teobromina ... .. ... i73porioo FINCA " MERCEDES," DE LOS SRS. MONTEIRO Y CA. Analisis de una Muestra de Cacao. Celulosa bruta ... ... ... ... ... 1-92 Materia mineral ... ... ... ... 3*10 „ grasa ... ... ... ... ... 33-00 ,, proteica ... ... ... ... 11*19 ,, hidrocarbonada ... ... ... ... 44*54 Humedad ... .. ... ... ... 6-25 Total ... loo'oo Riqueza en teobromina ... ... ... 1*55 por 100 FINCA " SAN ANTONIO," DE FERNANDO Poo, PROPIEDAD DE LA COMPANIA TRASATLANTICA DE BARCELONA. Analisis de una Muestra de Cacao. Celulosa bruta ... ... ... ... ... 2-o6 Materia mineral .. ... ... ... 3-oo ,, grasa ... ... ... ... ... 31*50 ,, proteica ... ... ... .. 10-56 ,, hidrocarbonada ... .. ... ... 46*88 Humedad 6-oo Total ... loo'oo Riqueza en teobromina ... ... ... 1*39 por 100 FINCA " CONCEPCION," DE FERNANDO Po6, PROPIEDAD DE LA COMPANIA TRASATLANTICA DE BARCELONA. Analisis de una Muestra de Cacao. Celulosa bruta ... ... ... ... ... 1*84 Materia mineral .., ... ... ... 3*25 ,, grasa ... ... ... ... ... 35'*° ,, proteica ... ... ... ... 11*81 ,, hidrocarbonada ... . ... ... 41*70 Humedad 6'OO Total ... 100-00 Riqueza en teobromina ... ... ... 1*59 por 100 234 COCOA FlNCA " NUESTRA SENORA DE LA PAZ," DE FERNANDO Po6, PROPIEDAD DE LA COMPANIA TRASATLANTICA DE BARCELONA. Analisis de una Mnestra de Cacao. Celulosa bruta ... ... ... ... ... 1-90 Ma teria mineral ... ... .. ... 2*91 ,, proteica ... ... ... ... 1075 ,, hidrocarbonada ... ... ... ... 47*47 Humedad ... ... ... ... ... 5-85 Total .., icxvoo Riqueza en teobromina ... ... ... 1-42 por 100 " MISION FRANCESA DE BATA," GUINEA ESPANOLA. Analisis de una Muestra de Cacao. Celulosa bruta ... Materia mineral Id. grasa ... Id. proteica Id. hidrocarbonada... Humedad Total ... 10-000 Riqueza en teobromina ... ... ... i'6i por 100 COMPOSICION MEDIA DEL FRUTO PRODUCIDO POR 625 PLANTAS PRODUCIENDO I,OOO KlLOS DE CACAO COMERCIAL. Capsulas r Fruto o pinas completo Potasa ... ... 55-35 ... 11-22 ... 66-57 Nitrogeno ... 1370 ... 19-65 ... 33-36 Acido fosforico ... 4-00 ... 8*54 .. 1273 Magnesia ... 6-58 ... 4-48 ... 11-42 Cal ... ... 7-59 ... 1-65 ... 9-25 CONSUMO ANUAL MEDIO POR HECTAREA DE 625 PLANTAS PRODUCIENDO I,OOO KlLOS DE CACAO COMERCIAL. Potasa ... ... ... ... ... 107-24 kil"s Cal 55-52 „ Nitrdgeno... ... ... ... ... 51*52 ,, Magnesia ... ... ... ... ... 24-15 ,, Acido fosfdrico ... ... ... ... 19-29 ,, CONCLUSIONES. De los datos que anteceden puede establecerse sin temor alguno, que la caracteristica de la composicion de las tierras de ctiltivo de Fernando Poo; esta determinada por falta de cal y siendo elemento indispensable para las necesidades de la produccion del cacao; es necesario COCOA 235 suplirla directamente, para evitar la degeneracion de las plantas y disminucion gradual de las cosechas. Ademas la carencia de cal, predispone al cacao a ser atacado por el ascomyceto, Botryodiplodia theo- bromse que ocasiona la terrible enfermedad conocida por " pifia negra " cada dia mas extendida en el cultivo en la isla de Fernando Poo. La practica de depositar los pedazos de pina o envolvente del cacao, en montones que facilmente entran en fermentacion; es forzoso desterrarla en absolute y proceder a enterrar las pinas, despues de haberlas adicionado con una espesa lechada de cal. Al S.O. de la isla de Corisco, existen grandes canteras de rocas calizas con una riqueza de 70 por 100 de car- bonato de cal. Este yacimiento unico en el Africa ecuatorial; permitiria la exportacion de la piedra de cal, tal como sale de la cantera propiedad de los Misioneros del Corazon de Maria y resolveria el problema de trans- portarla a las fincas de cultivo, en las cuales y en hornos apropiados, se produciria facilemente la cal viva; sin los riesgos y perdidas que hoy ocasiona la rotura de los envases de articulo tan delicado. TOBACCO. THE PRODUCTION OP TOBACCO IN NYASALAND. By J. STEWART J. McCALL, P.A.S.I., C.D.A.Glas. Director of Agriculture, Nyasaland. THE culture of " bright " tobacco in Nyasaland is a comparatively new industry, and the first exports of locally grown tobacco are recorded in the returns of the Customs Department for the financial year 1899, when the total export amounted to 2,240 Ib. of cured tobacco, valued locally at £47 sterling. During the years 1900 to 1904 there was a steady increase both in acreage and export, the former increas- ing from 69 to 944, and the latter from 4,480 Ib. to 28,754 Ib. of cured tobacco, valued locally at £479. From the commencement of our export until the year 1904 (1899-1904) Nyasaland tobacco found a ready market in South Africa, and no serious attempt was made to gain a footing in the London market, but at this juncture re- arrangement of Customs regulations in South Africa and the application of an import duty on Nyasaland tobacco by the South African Customs authorities soon placed our tobacco at such a disadvantage against the South African product that we had to seek a footing on the home market, with the result that during this temporary set-back our acreage rapidly fell from 944 in 1904 to 421 in 1905. In April, 1908, the Imperial Tobacco Company, after examining samples of our crop, took such interest in the product that they established a factory at Limbe, near Blantyre, and a considerable tobacco industry rapidly developed throughout the Shire Highlands, the acreage increasing from 421 in 1905 to 10,496 in 1913, and the TOBACCO 237 export for the corresponding period from 56,826 lb., valued locally at £945, to the substantial figures of 3,763,014 lb., valued at £94,167 153. 6d., and equal in weight to nearly 4 per cent, of the average annual con- sumption of tobacco in Great Britain. Climate. In Nyasaland the cultivation of tobacco is confined to the uplands, and the crop grows luxuriantly at elevations varying between 1,000 ft. and 3,500 ft. above sea-level, and can be grown at altitudes too high for cotton, but, unlike the latter, it suffers more from drought than from excessive rain in the growing priod. For a tropical or sub-tropical crop tobacco has justly proved itself to be hardy, and, apart from hail or ex- cessive rain towards harvest, is able to withstand wide ranges of temperature. The two most important climatic factors for a success- ful tobacco season in Nyasaland are : firstly, a period of steady rain and cloud during planting; and, secondly, a quick termination of the rains when the crop is ready to harvest. In the absence of typical planting weather, it is practically impossible to get a stand of young plants in the fields when transplanting from the nurseries'; the hot tropical sun quickly dries up the young plants before they can fix their roots, even although the activity of young tobacco roots is so remarkable as to make them capable of withstanding a whole week's drought after less than twenty-four hours of dull weather. The second climatic factor already referred to may render a splendid crop valueless by encouraging mildew and secondary growth, and a week of cold, wet, and cloudy weather after the leaves have been partly ripened by sunshine is always fatal to good results. The following table shows the Zomba rainfall in inches during the tobacco-growing seasons of 1908-09 to 1911-12; this rainfall may be taken as slightly in excess of the average of most tobacco-growing districts of the Shire Highlands, but is quite suitable for the production of " bright " tobacco, which is actually grown with success 238 TOBACCO in the immediate vicinity of Zomba at an elevation of approximately 3,000 ft. above sea-level. December January February March April May 1908-1909 ... 4-27 ... 9-64 ... 10-86 ... 5'6l ... 4-67 ... 0*99 1909-1910 ... 2I'l8 ... 10-77 ... I3'4i ... 6-i3 ... 3-97 ... 4'50 I9IO-I9II ... 10-45 ••• H'79 ••• 10-14 ... 2-27 ... O'OI O'6i I9II-I9I2 ... I9-86 ... 8-87 ... 6 '04 ... 13-24 ... 4-67 - 2-66 From May to September the rainfall rapidly diminishes to nil, and in late October or early November the little rains set in, gradually leading up to the heavy rains of December- January. During the period in which tobacco is cultivated the shade temperature fluctuates between 55° and 90° F. ; but, on the average, warmer weather and more sunshine is experienced in December, January, and February than in March, April, and May, the major portion of the crop ripening in the dry, cold, bright weather of April and May. Soils. The tobacco soils of the Shire Highlands vary from light sandy loams to stiff red clays, and are characterized by being comparatively rich in potash, normal to slightly deficient in phosphates, and poor in nitrogen. Two analyses conducted by the Imperial Institute of what the writer considers to be typical tobacco or cotton soils of the Zomba District are herewith appended. SAMPLE A. Soluble in "Available" constituents, Total. hydrochloric i.e., soluble in i per cent. acid cftric acid solution Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Ib. per acre Lime .. CaO — 0-3I Magnesia .. MgO — 0-31 — — Potash . K,0 I'O4 o'33 0-036 936 Soda . Na,O O'll 0-08 0-033 856 Phosphoric acid . PaOa 0-25 — 0-012 312 Nitrogen . N 0-066* — Carbon dioxide . C02 0'02 — Loss on ignition 9'55 _ * Equivalent to 1,716 Ib. of nitrogen per acre. TOBACCO SAMPLE B. 239 Soluble in "Available" constituents, Total hydrochloric z.i?., soluble in i percent. acid citric acid solution Per cent. Per cent. i 1 Per cent. Ib. per acre Lime . CaO — 0'19 — — Magnesia . MgO — 0'34 — — Potash Soda . X20 . Na20 0-68 O'lO 0'08 0-062 0*023 1,488 552 Phosphoric acid • P205 0-27 — 0-023 552 Nitrogen . N 0-05* — — — Carbon dioxide . C02 O'OI — — — Loss on ignition 1070 * Equivalent to 1,200 Ib. of nitrogen per acre. The yield per acre and quality of the crop depend very largely on the nitrogen content of the soil, and the heaviest crops are generally reaped off virgin land, but the tobacco plant is such a voracious feeder that four years' continuous tobacco cultivation practically reduces all Nyasaland soils, except the heaviest clays, to such a state of poverty as to render them useless for tobacco growing until they have been green manured for a year, or allowed to revert to natural grass and weed for not less than two years. The percentage of bright leaf in a crop is usually in adverse proportion to its luxuriance, and the brightest tobacco is produced on the lightest soil or loams deficient in nitrogen; but this class of bright, small yellow leaf, without body and specially suitable for cigarettes, is never profitable to the planter, the yield per acre seldom exceeding 300 Ib. A golden leaf with body and a light ripe mahogany leaf might be called the planter's ideals, and are unquestion- ably the two most profitable classes of leaf to grow; a crop with a high proportion of these grades is generally the product of a medium soil, and although the crop may only weigh 450 to 550 Ib. per acre, it is always more profitable than a heavier crop of 600 Ib. to 700 Ib. of coarse rank tobacco, which, on curing, produces a high percentage of dark mahogany and 1-ow-class green leaf. As the percentage of dark leaf rapidly increases with 240 TOBACCO the nitrogen content of the soil, the practice of attempt- ing to grow bright tobacco directly after green manuring on medium or heavier soils is justly unpopular. Crops of much better quality are produced on virgin and grass lands, and it is not unnatural therefore that planters in Nyasaland (where land is comparatively cheap) open up new land rather than maintain their tobacco lands in a high state of fertility by using green manures. More- over, the rapid growth of weed soon kills out the green manure crop unless reasonably cultivated, and there being no possibility of profitably exporting low-valued legumes to meet the expense of cultivation and a general shortage of labour in the planting and growing season, local con- ditions largely nullify the profits of green manuring for tobacco. Tobacco growing in Nyasaland is a good example of the exhaustive nature of annual as against perennial crops, and the world-wide application of extensive rather than intensive cultivation by European settlers in new countries. It will be noticed that the writer has refrained from mentioning the use of artificial manures in this con- nection, but the omission may be explained by simply stating that the cost of artificials, on account of present transport conditions, is 200 per cent, greater than in England. Cotton seed is sometimes used for manuring tobacco lands, but on the stronger lands it has to be used sparingly, as it has a tendency on such lands to increase the percentage of coarse tobacco and delay ripening. Before leaving this question, it should be stated that continuous tobacco- growing for a period of four years on the same soil is not advocated, but present local con- ditions frequently make such practice the most profitable, and, therefore, the one most generally followed, although a system of rotation with cotton has many advantages. Nurseries and Transplanting. The preparation of nurseries commences in early October, when a suitable site with a dark-coloured friable TOBACCO 241 soil near a running stream is selected, levelled, trenched, and all roots and vegetation removed. Level beds are then made 3 ft. 6 in. wide and raised 6 in. above the general level; the surface soil is carefully prepared to produce a fine seed bed, and a few days before sowing the beds are covered with a layer of dry grass and small brushwood, and thoroughly burned to aid disintegration and 'sterilization of the soil. After burning, the larger pieces of unburnt wood are removed and the fine wood ashes worked into the surface by hand or with an ordinary iron garden rake; the beds are then re-shaped and finally firmed down and sown. About 20 to 25 lineal yards of bed are allowed for each acre. Tobacco seed is very small, and one heaped teaspoonful of good seed mixed with dry, fine wood ash and sand is sufficient to sow 70 square feet of bed. After sowing, a thin layer of grass is again spread over the beds and the whole thoroughly saturated with water, the seed bed receiving sufficient water to keep it moist but not wet, frequent light applications being preferable to heavy applications at long intervals. The tobacco beds require daily attention, and imme- diately the seed begins to germinate weeds must be removed, and the covering grass fixed on supports a few inches above the beds. As the seedlings grow the beds should receive diminish- ing shade by raising the grass cover until it is some 3 ft. above the ground, and, before planting out, the seedlings should be gradually hardened to stand the full effect of sunlight and heat. There is great diversity of opinion as to the size the plants should be before planting out, but anything with leaves between 2 in. and 4 in. in length is quite suitable, the age varying from six to ten weeks. In a country with a fluctuating local rainfall like Nyasaland, and especially with a crop requiring consider- able harvesting accommodation, it is all-important to have nurseries and growing fields at various ages throughout the planting season, which normally extends from the end of November to the middle of February. 16 242 TOBACCO In the higher uplands of Blantyre (3,000 ft.) tobacco is planted from late November to the middle of January; later planting is not a success. In South-east Mlanje, however, at an elevation of 1,000 ft. to 1,500 ft. and with heavier rainfall, the most successful plantings are obtained in February and March. It is evident, therefore, that local conditions, ascertained by experiment, alone deter- mine the planting season for any given locality, and in this respect tobacco is extremely particular. Field Management. Prior to planting out, the land is made into low ridges or small hills 3 ft. apart and the necessary surface drains cut. Every opportunity is taken to replace as expeditiously as possible seedlings which do not take root or become destroyed by cut worms, and care should be 'exercised to avoid breaking the roots of the seedlings; this is best assured by saturating the nurseries prior to removing the young plants. An ordinary planting requires at Least 10 to 15 per cent, of supplies, and a day of bright sunshine immediately after transplanting may necessitate as high as 75 per cent, of supplies. After the young plants are established they require frequent shallow hoeing, gradually working the soil to the base of the stem, and continual destruction of leaf caterpillars, stem^borers, etc. Until the crop is half- grown plants which show signs of " Frenching " must be replaced, whilst from the time the plants are half- grown until they reach full size, such operations as suckering, budding, and removal of ground leaves (priming) require daily attention. The labour entailed in the cultivation of tobacco is at least double that needed for crops such as cotton or coffee, and where all work is done by the hoe, as on most Nyasaland estates, a permanent staff of labourers approximating two men per acre is required to cultivate thoroughly and harvest the crop. The period for which the crop occupies the land largely TOBACCO 243 depends on the rainfall, temperature, and cultivation, the earlier plantings of late November and first week of December maturing more rapidly than the later plantings of January and February. Tobacco curing generally commences from the middle to the end of February, and continues to the middle of July; the average time from transplanting to beginning of harvest is twelve to fifteen weeks. Harvesting. The terminal bud should always be allowed to grow until it is clear of the small top leaves, but it must be broken off prior to opening into flower, leaving from ten to fourteen leaves to mature. After topping, the leaves grow larger, provided the sucker buds in the leaf angles are regularly removed, and two or three weeks later the lower leaves begin to mottle and yellow, and as this ripening condition moves up- wards, the leaves are removed singly by hand and con- veyed to the curing barns in baskets. Tobacco should never be harvested when the dew is on it, and great care must always be exercised to handle the leaf as carefully as passible, every injury diminishing the value of the finished product by increasing the per- centage of scrap. Curing. In the first place, the acreage planted on any estate must not exceed the barn accommodation, and every season sees many acres actually lost, or the value of the leaf reduced by 50 per cent, through lack of foresight in this direction. It is well to keep the barns fully occupied during the curing season, but it is madness to grow tobacco and leave it rotting in the fields through deficient barn accom- modation, and a small acreage well cultivated and properly harvested is always more profitable than a larger acreage rushed through the curing barns, imperfectly cured and partially wasted in the fields. Nyasaland planters as a whole are inclined to plant a larger acreage of tobacco than they can properly handle, 244 TOBACCO especially as climatic conditions interfere with the normal ripening of their various plantings. Where the motive power is the African native, under the supervision of a single white man, 100 acres should be the maximum planted, and to ensure good curing six to seven large burnt-brick barns 20 ft. square and 22 ft. to the wall plate, with thickly thatched roofs, are required for every 100 acres cultivated, and if properly worked each barn is capable of producing four to five tons of cured tobacco in a season. The capital outlay on barns, grading, and bulking sheds is considerable, each barn costing from £30 to £35 to erect, and the total expenditure on buildings to handle 100 acres of tobacco would not be over-estimated at £350. Before proceeding to the actual process of curing, a word with regard to fuel will not be out of place, as the value of any estate for tobacco growing largely depends on the fuel supply for curing. Each barn of the dimen- sions already mentioned is capable of turning out at a single curing 1,200 Ib. to 2,000 Ib. of tobacco, depending on the quality and body or solidity of the leaf; the amount of fuel required for the production of this quantity oi tobacco varies between 8 to 14 cubic yards, depending on the class, age, and size of the timber used. It is therefore obvious that re-afforestation must go hand-in- hand with tobacco cultivation if the industry is to be placed on a permanent footing. As soon as the leaves are brought in from the fields they are fastened in pairs stem to stem on bamboos some 4 ft. in length, which are placed on the barn tiers 6 in. to 8 in. apart, according to the size of the leaf, com- mencing the barn filling from above downwards. This work should be carried through as expeditiously as possible, the best results being obtained by filling each barn in a single day. Considerable care and judg- ment are necessary not to overload by placing the bam- boos so close as to interfere with the free circulation of air and control of temperature. The actual process of flue-curing consists of the follow- ing three distinct operations, viz.: — TOBACCO 245 (a) Sweating the leaf to obtain the yellow colour and fixing same. (b) Drying the leaf. (c) Drying the stein and sterilising the tobacco. (a) Sweating the leaf to obtain the yelloiv colour and fixing same. — It is impossible to set down any fixed temperatures for curing tobacco, as the raising of the temperature for stages (b) and (c) largely depends on the behaviour of the leaf in stage (a). Some tobacco sweats freely and turns yellow twelve to thirty hours after it is placed in the barns and subjected to temperatures between 85° and 90° F., whilst other tobacco refuses to sweat and remains green until water is spread on the barn floor and the temperature is kept at 100° to 105° F. for ten to fifteen hours, when the desired colour may appear. It is a good sign when tobacco becomes yellow early in the first stage of curing, and it is important to see that the leaf blade is uniformly yellow to the mid-rib before raising the temperature above no°F., when drying sets in, as once the leaf becomes dry it is dead, and the colour cannot then be altered by subsequent manipulation of temperature and ventilation of the barn. Green-cured leaf can be improved to a certain extent by bulking, but it never produces such high-class tobacco as when the colour comes naturally in the first stage of curing, and for this reason it is important to see? that once the desired colour is obtained it is fixed, and this is accomplished by raising the temperature in four to eight hours from 110° to 120° F. The range of temperature to complete the yellowing of th-e leaf may be anything between 90° and 110° F.r and 110° to 120° F. fixes the leaf colour. This first stage may occupy on an average two and a half days. (6) Drying the leaf. — Now that the tobacco is of the desired colour, the aim is to stop leaf-sweat and dry out the leaf by raising the temperature slowly by 5° at a time from 120° to 135° F. The duration of this stage is from twenty-eight to thirty-six hours, but considerable manipulation of ventilators and heat is necessary to prevent leaf splotch. (c) Drying the stems and sterilising the tobacco. — 246 TOBACCO The temperature is now raised to 140° F. and main- tained at this level for five hours, when it is raised in a further period of three to four hours to 145° F., when the tobacco should appear dry and curled at the tips. In order to dry the stems thoroughly and sterilize the tobacco the temperature is further rapidly advanced to 170° F., and kept at that temperature for from ten to twenty hours until the whole leaf, including the stalk, is dry and brittle; when curing is finished the fires are drawn, and as the temperature falls to 120° F. doors and venti- lators are thrown open, and the tobacco left until it has absorbed sufficient moisture to enable it to be handled without breaking. Before leaving curing one word is necessary, viz., to see that mats are always in position half-way between the lowest tier and the flues, as any dry leaf falling on the red-hot iron flues will set the whole barn in flames. Several barns are destroyed every year for lack of this simple precaution. Bulking. If the weather is exceptionally dry the conditioning of the tobacco can be hastened by sprinkling water on the floor when the inside temperature has cooled down to below 120° F., but under ordinary conditions this is seldom necessary. The barn is then emptied from below upwards, the tobacco removed from the bamboos, and each curing bulked separately, butts outwards, but never left loosely exposed to the air. The bulks require a little attention to see that they do not become mildewed or heated, and in a few days they may be graded, and the leaves tied into hands and re- bulked or sold to the local factory. In conclusion, the wrriter would state that the main obstacle to the further extension of the tobacco industry in Nyasaland is the difficulty planters are experiencing in obtaining a quick market at remunerative prices for our rapidly increasing tobacco crop. The length of time it TOBACCO 247 takes brokers to realize the crop on the home market and the heavy charges for storage and cash advances to carry on in Nyasaland forces a large percentage of our smaller planters to sell locally for cash at lower prices than can be realized on the home market. The home tobacco market is a difficult one for a new country to get a footing in, and although the writer is proud to state that Nyasaland tobacco is the only serious and successful competitor that has ever competed with American-grown " bright " tobacco, yet he fully realizes that many obstacles have to be 'overcome before our new industry is on an equal footing with the long-established tobacco industry of America, and our watchword for the present should be " steady progress, based on sound quality rather than excessive tonnage," increasing our output as our product becomes appreciated by the British public, and on no account overstocking the market before it can be absorbed. We have the patronage of the Imperial Tobacco Com- pany for the larger part of our present crop, and what is good enough for a company with their experience should rapidly become good enough for other manu- facturers, who no doubt will give the tobacco a fair trial, now that the production is beyond the experimental stage and showing signs of permanent establishment. THE CULTIVATION AND FERTILIZATION OF TOBACCO IN THE UNITED STATES. By WILLIAM S. MYERS, D.Sc., New York. THE medicinal properties and modes of preparation of tobacco have been the subjects of many authors, and this " queen of plants " has, within a few hundred years, risen to the position of a wonderful article of com- merce and a source of great fortunes, as well as a source of pleasure to thousands of people. The North Ameri- can Indians, who first used it, called the plant " Uppo- woc." They were said by the earlier Spanish writers to have smoked themselves into insensibility, and appa- rently the Indians obtained more violent and peculiar effects than Europeans usually find from its use. John Rolfe, who married Princess Pocahontas, was the pioneer English tobacco planter of Virginia, and it is stated that he began to grow the plant about the year 1606 in the " Old Dominion," but in 1639 the Grand Assembly of Virginia passed a law restricting the amount of tobacco which might be grown in the Commonwealth. In the early days of the Colony tobacco was frequently used as legal currency. From that time onwards the cultivation of tobacco spread throughout the world, and soon the use of snuff and other modes of consuming it became almost universal. Areas of Production. The principal areas of tobacco production in the United States are in Kentucky, North Carolina, Vir- ginia, Ohio, Tennessee, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, Con- necticut, South Carolina, Indiana, Maryland, West Virginia, and Massachusetts. TOBACCO 249 Character of Lands. In Virginia planters formerly did not plant tobacco on old lands, and kept moving their tobacco field to new soils. A dark-coloured loam was selected for dark tobacco, and if a light-coloured wrapper were desired, a light loam was selected. In Connecticut a light, moist loam was most desired, and in Maryland a light, pliable, sandy loam was generally selected. Tobacco in many districts of Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina is planted on a sandy or sandy loam soil, with a yellow or red clay subsoil. Where a bright yellow tobacco is specially desired, the yellow clay sub- soil is preferred. Preparation and Fertilising of the Seed Bed. The time of preparing the tobacco seed bed varies from February, in South Carolina, to April, in New England. Without doubt, every step in the preparation of the soil is of importance. The seed ground should be well sheltered, weed seeds should be avoided, and the more level the ground the better. When the soil is prepared in drying weather it should be done quickly to prevent its setting like cement. Overworking is bad, for it frequently reduces some soils to a paste into which the roots of the tobacco plants penetrate only with diffi- culty. However, the soil must be well drained and worked to a fine tilth to a good depth. The plants should not be subjected to too much watering, especially in the earlier stages, for its evaporation would chill the ground too rapidly. It was frequently customary in the early days to burn off a piece of forest land for a seed bed. The sterilization of the ground by heating aided in promoting a healthy growth, but this practice has been almost completely abandoned. A pint of corn meal and a pint of land plaster for each square rod were formerly used to advantage to help start the plants. If the bed is not too broad, the neces- sary weeding can be done by hand without damaging the plants. Generally 5,000 to 6rooo plants per acre are 250 TOBACCO sufficient, and these may be grown on a seed bed of 22j square yards. In order to save time, growers occasionally sprout the seed rapidly prior to planting, by spreading the seed thinly on a cotton cloth, and rolling- it up inside a woollen cloth, then dipping in warm water every day and keeping in a warm place. Nitrate of soda is now used almost everywhere in our tobacco belt in the fertilization of tobacco seed beds, it being ploughed or worked into the soil at the time of sowing at the rate of 2 Ib. to 20 square yards, which is equal to 200 Ib. per acre. The result is almost in- variably to produce fine plants for setting out. An interesting feature of late in the fertilization of tobacco has been the application of a solution of nitrate of soda to the early seed bed, the latter being covered by cheese-cloth for the purpose of keeping off frost and protecting it from a very hot sun. The North Carolina planter who tried the experiment poured a comparatively strong solution of nitrate — I Ib. of nitrate to 3 gallons of water (some use only one tablespoonful of nitrate to the gallon) — on the cheese-cloth and allowed the solution to drip on the seed bed. Of course, this method allowed the cheese-cloth to absorb a certain amount of the nitrate from the solution and doubtless weakened it. The possibility is here suggested of new investigations along the line of applying nitrate of soda in solution, since it has been so successful on deciduous fruit trees, and at least it may be well worth trying on some of the more tender crops, but in very weak solutions. Transplanting. In the old belt, which includes the Piedmont section of North Carolina and a few of the Middle Southern Counties of Virginia, tobacco is transplanted in 3^ ft. to 4 ft. rows, 2j ft. to 3! ft. in the drill, from the first of May to the first of June. In the new belt, which includes Eastern North Carolina and all the tobacco district of South Carolina, tobacco is transplanted in 3^ ft. to 4 ft. rows, the same as in the old belt, but it is planted thicker, most of it from about 2 ft. to 2| ft. apart in the drill. TOBACCO 251 The tobacco plant requires careful transplanting and the unremitting attention of the planter afterwards. It has thick, fleshy roots, scantily furnished with root hairs, and its foraging powers for food and water are small com- pared with ordinary field crops. Hence, comparatively shallow but continuous and thorough cultivation, and readily available forms of plant food are needed. Tobacco plants are transplanted when four or five leaves have appeared and this is sometimes done by a machine called the " Bemis transplanter," which has been well spoken of by many growers. It is better not to set out too large plants, since the tendency will be to make the subsequent growth too stocky. This is an important point, since it is frequently inferred that over-cultivation or over-fertilization makes too stocky a plant growth. Cultivation. Since tobacco plants grow and ripen in a few weeks from the time of transplanting, it is very important that they get a good start. Under ordinary cultivation plants will be ready to harvest from eight to ten weeks after setting out. Cultivation should begin soon after transplanting, as otherwise the plants are certain to become stunted and dwarfed, and should be kept up every week oir ten days until the plants have grown large enough to be topped. Thorough cultivation as well as proper fertilization will nearly always bring stunted plants forward. Variations in cultivation are just as responsible for falling off in quality, and even more so, as unintelligent fertilization. Fertilising. Plants need the proper kind of fertilizing at the right time, and fertilizers are especially effective if the ground be cultivated after applying them, or if a rain follow the application. The texture of the leaf and burning quality of tobacco 252 TOBACCO are frequently injured by certain coarse animal forms of nitrogenous fertilizers, and the presence of chlorine in fertilizers is to be avoided. Objections have been raised against such coarse animal matters as slaughter-house waste, coarse meat scraps, and the like. In humid weather very active fermentation and putrefaction will sometimes accompany the nitration of the coarser forms of nitrogen, and hence the desira- bility of having a nitrogenous fertilizer which is under perfect control. Many materials are in a coarse con- dition and cannot be properly used. Tobacco is a very strong feeder and requires heavy fertilization. The most important of all fertilizers for tobacco is nitrogen, and the choice and management of this particular fertilizer frequently will determine, more than any other single factor, the final quality of the leaf. Success, the art of taking pains, always means doing things the best way. We know that tobacco needs a steady supply of available nitrogen. Nitrate of soda will supply this, but many other forms of plant food nitrogen will not, except indirectly and with irregularity. Unquestioned authorities in experimental agriculture have shown that i Ib. of nitrogen in various forms has also a varying power of ability to make vegetable growth. On the basis of scientific plant feeding, it takes, for example, 312 Ib. of barnyard manure nitrogen, or 185 Ib. of coarse tankage nitrogen, or 149 Ib. of nitrogen of cotton-seed meal, or 145 Ib. of nitrogen of dried blood, or 114 Ib. of sulphate of ammonia nitrogen, to equal loo Ib. of nitrate of soda nitrogen. These figures have been substantially confirmed by different leading experi- ment authorities in North America and Europe. Chilean nitrate is the form in which plants make the best use of nitrogen. None of the other commercial fertilizer materials in America holds its nitrogen in this form. The other nitrogens, however, are converted into the nitrate form in the soil, through the action of certain soil micro-organisms. Now there are certain soil and weather conditions favourable to this change of form, others distinctly unfavourable, and conditions under which soil organisms cause the actual loss of TOBACCO 253 nitrogen. It is evident, therefore, that in Nature's making nitrate from non-nitrate nitrogenous materials there are certain losses of this valuable element, hence the different efficiency values of the various nitrogen fertilizer materials above quoted. The mere loss of a certain amount of nitrogen does not represent all the evil. In the use of various low- grade nitrogen fertilizers the speed with which the nitrogen is made available depends almost entirely upon weather conditions. At times, therefore, the supply of nitrate nitrogen may be ample, but at other times it may be almost absent, hence the plant food is supplied irregularly and plant growth is accordingly irregular. While with some crops this means no more than a short crop, with tobacco it may mean not only a short crop, but also a low grade of thickened leaf or too heavy ribs and veins. Whilst nitrate of soda is the most efficient form of nitrogenous fertilizer for tobacco, it must be used with intelligence and care, just as high-powered locomotives and all highly efficient things in the world require in- telligent brains to handle them. Frequently special fertilizers are used for tobacco, and in our Connecticut Valley all kinds of domestic and com- mercial fertilizers are used. Peruvian guano, when it could be secured pure, was doubtless one of the best, since it imparted a remarkable fineness and colour to the leaf. Saltpetre waste and ground bone have given good results. All the natural or humus-carrying manures should be thoroughly covered over, but it should be remembered, however, that they provide only incomplete plant food. Linseed and cotton-seed meals are in such demand for feeding cattle that it is getting more and more diffi- cult each season for tobacco planters to secure such materials in quantity. Dried fish, being a coarse source of nitrogen, is less used, being open to objection as above indicated. On a very poor, sandy soil near Blackstone, Virginia, where minimum crops of all kinds had been grown for years, an experiment was carried on in growing tobacco 254 TOBACCO on two plots of one acre each. On the " no nitrate " plot only 225 Ib. of low-grade tobacco were produced; on the other 100 Ib. of nitrate only were used, and a crop of 425 Ib. of fine quality leaf tobacco was produced. The Kentucky Experiment Station, when experiment- ing with one unfertilized acre of Burley tobacco, secured a product valued at $67.20. On another acre 160 Ib. of nitrate of soda alone was used, and the tobacco crop increased in value to $138.40, largely consequent upon improved quality of the crop. On another acre fertilized with an application of 160 Ib. nitrate of soda, 320 Ib. acid phosphate, and 160 Ib. sulphate of potash, the value of the crop was increased to $201.30. The fertilizer for tobacco recommended by that station is an application per acre of : — Nitrate of soda ... ... ... 300 Ib. Sulphate of potash ... ... ... 200 ,, Acid phosphate (16 per cent.) ... 100 ,, One-third, viz., 100 Ib., of the nitrate of soda is to be mixed with the potash and phosphate and applied between the rows, and then thoroughly cultivated into the soil just before setting out the plants. As soon as the young plants are thoroughly established and just in advance of the first hoeing, a second 100 Ib. of nitrate of soda alone should be applied per acre, dis- tributed along the rows. The third application of nitrate, viz., 100 Ib., should follow about three weeks after the second, and should be applied in the same manner. Accurate and timely application of nitrate of soda is the secret to tobacco success, and careless growers had better not use ferti- lizers at all. A crop producing 1,000 Ib. of dried leaf per acre will actually require 67 Ib. of nitrogen and 85 Ib. of potash. It is not reasonable to expect every pound of the plant food to reappear in the crop, for this particular crop, as above stated, has but a narrow range of foraging power as to soil plant food. Therefore, the application above recommended by the Kentucky Experiment TOBACCO 255 Station is not regarded as too heavy for Kentucky conditions, and is well within the bounds of " taking- pains." The a'bove mixture may be applied in the drill, or half in the drill and half broadcast, and the land ridged up, before the tobacco is transplanted. According to the United States Bureau of Plant Indus- try, from 800 to 1,000 Ib. of a complete fertilizer per acre should contain from 3 to 4 per cent, nitrogen, 6 to 10 per cent, potash (always as sulphate), and 8 per cent, phosphoric acid. In North Carolina a fertilizer is used on the field at the time of transplanting containing 3 per cent, nitrogen, 8 per cent, phosphoric acid, and 3 per cent, potash. This fertilizer contains nearly one-third of its nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda, that is to say, about 125 Ib. in each ton of the mixture is Chilean nitrate. This is also the practice now recommended by the United States Bureau of Plant Industry for the North Carolina tobacco- growing areas. The balance of the nitrogen is in the organic form and of the highest grade organic material in a very fine state of division. One grower in North Carolina used nitrate at the rate of 100 Ib. to the acre alone, and sold his crop at 17 cents a pound, and where he used no nitrate he was obliged to sell the crop for 9 cents a pound. Chilean nitrate is also used in North Carolina as a side dressing and followed by cultivation about June 15, when the crop is half-grown. It makes more weight and does not make the fibre heavier. The average yield of tobacco in North Carolina is 670 Ib. to the acre. The soils, however, are, as a rule, rather light and low in fertility. When nitrate is applied in solution, £ oz. is dissolved in a gallon of water, for the double purpose of watering and feeding the tobacco plants. Nitrate solution may be applied at the rate of about half a gallon of water to each tobacco plant subsequent to transplanting. This would amount to a little less than an application of 100 Ib. per acre. The use of commercial fertilizers, generally speaking. 256 TOBACCO improves the quality of the tobacco. They give the plant an early start, mature it earlier, make a better manu- facturing tobacco, and also increase the yield. It is possible that extremely weak solutions of nitrate, say a quarter of an ounce to a gallon, would be most effective. Although the skilful use of available nitrogen is the key to financial success in tobacco growing, many large growers moderately successful have no idea of the quality or nature of the nitrogenous fertilizers which they are using when they use mere brands of ready mixed goods. Certain American tobacco growers who are most given to criticizing nitrate fertilizers have been found upon investigation to be wholly unacquainted with the com- position of the particular fertilizers they happened to be using, and had no idea whether such fertilizers contained nitrate of soda or not. In a fertilizer, containing 2\ per cent, nitrogen, 8 per cent, phosphoric acid, and 3 per cent, potash, in use this very season on tobacco in North Carolina by growers condemning the use of nitrate, a trifle less than one-quarter of its nitrogen was found to be nitrate of soda, and this was sold to tobacco growers for the avowed purpose of avoiding the use of nitrate. Nowhere in agriculture does accurate knowledge repay its possessor more abundantly than in tobacco growing. Since conditions vary in different countries, no attempt is made here to suggest specific formulas for tropical countries. It is believed that Chilean nitrate, however, is worthy of a place in any fertilizer formula for tobacco. The total tobacco area in the United States is 1,294,911 acres and the production is 1,055,764,806 lb., making the average yield 815 lb. per acre for the whole country, whilst Germany, with about 38,975 acres in tobacco, has a total production of 62,933,016 lb., making an average yield of 1,615 1°- Per acre. This difference is due substantially to the well-known higher content of available nitrogen in all German commercial fertilizers and also the more rational and intelligent use of the higher-powered nitrated German fertilizers. It would be well for our American planters to imitate their German brethren in this respect. TOBACCO 257 Topping and Suckering. Topping is done to prevent the plant from going to flower and seed. The leaves ripen sooner if the plant be topped. Some growers top the plants as soon as the buds appear, while others wait until full blossom. From nine to twelve leaves should be left on each plant if leaves of nearly uniform size are desired. Some growers top the plant by pinching the leading stem, which will prevent the formation of buds or flowers. Whenever shoots or suckers appear at the base of the leaves where they join the parent stalk, they should be removed. If they are allowed to grow longer than 2 or 3 inches there will be a tendency to the production of a thin, poor leaf. Harvesting. From three to five weeks after tobacco has been topped it should begin to ripen, and just as fast as it ripens it should be harvested. The wise grower should fertilize carefully but heavily, thus insuring a good tonnage, and by good attention secure big yields of prize quality. The stalk is either split and hung on a stick or the leaves are stripped off the stalk, tied up in bundles and hung up in the curing barn. In districts where tobacco is primed or stripped off the stalk, harvesting can begin very soon after topping; in fact, farmers sometimes begin priming off the bottom leaves the same week they begin topping, but in the old belt harvesting has to be post- poned until most of the leaves are ripe. Frequently bottom leaves are lost in the field, however, through waiting for the top leaves to ripen. Much practice is necessary to determine the precise time for cutting the tobacco plant, and personal experi- ence of the grower is important in this respect. Curing. It takes about four days and nights continuous firing to flue-cure a barn of tobacco. The temperature varies from 95° up to 200° F. at the finish. 17 258 TOBACCO Steam curing is now coming rapidly into use and is giving the greatest satisfaction. Perhaps no other field crop is so dependent upon quality for its market value. Export tobacco may be permitted a somewhat rank growth, but the maturing must be thorough, for the curing of the crop promptly reveals growth defects. Wrapper tobacco, and the higher grades generally, distinctly show the effects of careful attention to crop needs. Pests. There are two kinds of worms that are very trouble- some to tobacco, namely, the cut worm and the horn worm. The latter feeds upon the finest and largest leaves. In Virginia and North Carolina a flock of turkeys put in the field generally devours these pests promptly. THE CULTIVATION OF TOBACCO IN THE VORSTENLANDEN OF JAVA. By DR. H. JENSEN. THE area under tobacco in the Vorstenlanden is small; in the year 1913 it amounted to only about 10,000 hectares. As the estates only grow tobacco annually on two-fifths of their grounds — on the remaining three-fifths rice or other native crops are cultivated — the total area of the tobacco estates in the Vorstenlanden amounts to about 25,000 hectares, or rather less than the area covered by London. In the course of the five years 1907-1911 the exports from the Vorstenlanden to Europe amounted to : — In 1907 ... 9,285,040 kilograms of a value of 10,213,544 florins In 1908 ... 9,255,120 ,, ,, 9,023,742 „ In 1909 ... 8,406,000 ,, ,, 8,321,940 ,, In 1910 ... 7,643,76o ,, „ 7,643,760 „ In 1911 ... 13,125,680 ,, ,, 12,600,652 ,, 47,715,600 „ „ 47,803,638 „ This large yield was obtained, as mentioned above, from an area of about 10,000 hectares, or about 1,000 kilograms per hectare annually. The yields from the different estates vary. The largest average yield of one estate during the above quinquennial period was 1,655 kilograms per hectare. The smallest yield of another estate, being the average of the same quinquennial period, was 583 kilograms per hectare. A single estate once produced about 2,800 kilograms per hectare, a truly enormous production compared with other tobacco- producing countries. These high crop figures are still more striking when it is considered that such a crop is taken out of the ground every two years, and very different from Deli (Sumatra), which produces the finest wrapper leaf of the whole 260 TOBACCO world. There tobacco is only cultivated on the same ground every seven or eight to ten years, and yet the yield there is considerably less than in the Vorstenlanden. How, then, is it possible for the Vorstenlanden planter to obtain such large crops from his land ? It is not by the us-e of enormous quantities of manure, for many estates, including the best and most productive, use no artificial manures at all, and stable manure is rarely used. As a matter of fact, the number of cattle kept on the estates is seldom very great. On one estate of about 1,200 hectares, which is one of the richest in cattle, there .are only about 250 kerbouws and 750 sapies, or together, about 1,000 head of cattle. Further, only a small portion of the dung is preserved as manure, as the people have no actual stables. This is also evident from a con- sideration of the figures showing the quantity of so-called stable manure purchased by the estates from the natives. The percentage of nitrog'en this contains varies enor- mously. Very good manure may contain up to 1*29 per cent, of nitrogen, but this is exceptional, most of it only containing about 0*5 per cent, and often not above 0*2 per cent. ; one sample only showed 0*06 per cent, of nitrogen. The principal cause of the exceptional yields is to be found in the method of cultivation, viz., the growing of tobacco and rice alternately. The rice crop does not exhaust the soil; but, on the contrary, through the wet sawah cultivation the land is undoubtedly immensely improved, in spite of the fact that large crops of rice are taken out of the ground. On good estates in the Vorstenlanden, each rice crop may be relied on to produce on an average about 3,500 kilograms per hectare. On very good land the yield in the rainy season may be much in excess of this figure, and may even be as much as 5,500 kilograms per hectare. These enormous crops are not obtained just once a year. On a certain piece of ground the planting during a period of two years consists of: once tobacco, and three times rice, about five months being taken up by the very intensive preparation of the soil which precedes the cultivation of tobacco. Of an actual " break," during TOBACCO 26l which the soil is resting, as is usual in Europe, there is no question here. The division according to the seasons is as follows : — January-May: Sawah (wet rice fields). June-October: Sawah (w>et rice fiel'ds). November-March: Sawah (wet rice fields). April-July : Preparation of the soil. August-December : Tobacco. The real cause of the favourable influence on the fertility of the soil of the wet dee cultivation (sawahs) has never been quite clear. It is true tHat the water conveys large quantities of plant food to the rice fields in the slime which it carries with it, and much more is dissolved in the water itself; but, on the other hand, the water, running from one estate to the other before it finally reaches the sea, also carries off large quantities of plant food from the sawahs, which leaves the balance rather in doubt. Of greater importance probably is the fact that through the water remaining stagnant on the sawahs it gets heated to such an extent by the tropical sun that the processes of dissolution in the soil are thereby much accelerated. And, finally, it is far from imaginary that the biological processes in the soil may be favourably affected by the supply of water. Whatever may be the cause of the favourable influence on the soil of the wet sawah cultivation, with- out it the enormously intensive use of the land in the Vorstenlanden would be impossible. Now the Vorsten- landen have from the remotest Hindoo times been sub- jected to intensive cultivation, and the Javanese coolie from the Vorstenlanden, having from one generation to another worked with wet sawahs, has become naturally a born- waterworks engineer. The irrigation works established by the natives are indeed admirable, but they are, of course, capable of enormous improvement and moire rational construction at the hands of European technical engineers. In this respect the tobacco culti- vation in the Vorstenlanden has of late years made enormous progress. As an illustration we may mention the magnificent " van der Wyck aqueduct," which has a water capacity of 300 cubic metres per minute and a 262 TOBACCO length of 6J kilometres, and which is capable of irrigating more than 1,500 hectares. So many questions are bound up with the actual cultivation of the tobacco plant from beginning to end, from the collection of the seed to the gathering of the leaf, the drying of the picked leaf, the fermenting, the sorting, etc., that it is easily understood that tobacco planters have felt the necessity of establishing a testing station. As a consequence, a " Testing Station for Vor- stenlanden tobacco " was established at Klaten on a fairly extensive basis — in 1913 it was estimated to cost 75,000 florins — and to which nearly all the tobacco estates in the Vorstenlanden are affiliated. The testing station is closely connected with the Department of Agriculture at Buitenzorg, whose director has the power of appoint- ment and dismissal of the scientific staff of the testing station and has a casting vote in the arrangements concerning the working programme, etc. The testing station is not an analytical control depot, but its object is to examine all doubtful questions touching tobacco cultivation in the Voirstenlanden by making careful tests, and by rendering the results thereof and of experiments made elsewhere of practical use in tobacco cultivation. Quite naturally, therefore, the work of the testing station is illustrative of the changes and improvements which have taken place in the cultivation itself, although, of course, only part of the researches of the testing station have resulted in such improvements. Amongst the improvements in cultivation introduced during late years the very deep tilling of the soil practised at the present time is of enormous significance. Through the persistence of the very energetic planters in the Vorstenlanden such intensive tilling is now applied as is not exceeded in any part of the world. By means of the " Patjoel " the soil is turned to a depth of 18 in., a tilling fully equal to the intensive tilling of a kitchen garden of a European villa, and it must not be overlooked that we are dealing here with large estates, often of more than 400 hectares, planted with tobacco. This, of course, is only possible where there is a large population, and it is calculated that at least 400 coolies are required for every 100 hectares, at all events on the good estates. Different TOBACCO 263 systems of deep tillage have been invented and applied by the planters. Strict tests to ascertain the several advantages and disadvantages thereof have been initiated by the testing station. Closely connected with the tilling of the soil is the manuring of the gardens. This is generally done with stable manure purchased from the natives. The value thereof varies immensely, as already mentioned. It may be assumed that this purchased " stable manure" has at least as great a fertilizing effect on the soil by the intro- duction of bacteria as by the amount of nitrogen it con- tains, which is often very low. Artificial manure was never employed formerly. It was feared that by its use the tobacco leaf would suffer as regards fineness and colour. Very extensive manurial trials carried out by the testing station have shown that very many of the estates possess such good soil that artificial manure would be quite superfluous there. On other estates, on the con- trary, an important increase in production is obtained by the introduction of artificial manure, which increase fully makes up for the extra cost involved. It is very remarkable that this influence of artificial manure only affects nitrogen, and perhaps on a few estates also phosphoiric acid, but on not a single tobacco estate in the Vorstenlanden potassium, a fact which is, of course, closely connected with the formation of the soils which all have their origin in the crater of the great volcano Merapi. It is also a noticeable fact, which is confirmed by the many experiments giving perfectly similar results, that the quality and colour of the leaf do not deteriorate by the addition of artificial manures, such, for example, as sulphate of ammonia, of which Europe is afraid. In some cases, indeed, an improvement was shown through the use of artificial manure. As regards harvesting, the so-called "tree gathering" was the universal custom in former times. The entire tobacco plant was cut down, and with the leaves on it suspended in the hanging sheds to dry. Later on all tobacco estates in the Vorstenlanden resorted to " leaf gathering, i.e., each leaf is gathered separately from below upwards according to its ripeness. The leaves are 264 TOBACCO subsequently strung on thin bamboo sticks and suspended in the drying -sheds until they are sufficiently dry. Here they assume a brown colour, Which is of great importance to the value of the tobacco after fermentation. Of late years 'the testing station has started to examine the con- ditions which influence the colouring of the leaf. Such researches are necessary in order to work out an efficient method of picking and drying, tending to promote the development of certain desirable qualities and to guard against undesirable ones. Unfortunately, such researches are very difficult, and the results so far have been in- significant. Various 'indications have, however, been obtained showing in what direction this work should be conducted. Of very great importance, especially as regards the top-leaf, is the change which of late years has been made in " topping." Formerly it was customary to top very strongly; now hardly any topping is done, and on many estates it has quite ceased. This gives a somewhat smaller, but at the same time much thinner, top-leaf. Fermentation is conducted quite as primitively as dry- ing. Experiments have therefore been started with a view to guiding fermentation along fixed and desirable channels. The object aimed at is to devise a process in which it will be possible to regulate thoroughly the rate of increase in temperature, the degree of moisture in the piles, and the quantity of oxygen, and in which the piles are so arranged -that they can be submitted to preliminary artificial heating without having to resort to re-piling, which absorbs a lot of time and money, and so that it will be possible to exercise a certain influence over the appearance of the fermented tobacco leaf. It has been shown with absolute certainty that the fermentation of tobacco may be effected independently of micro-organisms, from which it naturally follows that the search for the bacteria which bring about first-class fermentation has been eliminated from the programme of experiments. One of the greatest improvements of late years in the cultivation of tobacco in the Vorstenlanden is the intro- duction of " pure strains." The tobacco testing station started these selection trials in 1901, and the first selected TOBACCO 265 seed of a pure strain was supplied to the estates in 1904. At the present time all estates, with the exception of two, employ seed of selected pure strains. On all seed plants the corollas are surrounded by klamboe bags to prevent pollen entering from outside, so that nearly all plantations in the Vorstenlanden are derived from self-fertilized seed. If at first some planters were afraid of " degeneration " through continued self-fertilization, they never refer to it now, and the estates now provide all their seed plants with klamboe bags. One result of the cultivation of pure strains is that any sound plant in the planta- tion may be selected as a seed plant, so that one may often see a collection of many hundreds of seed plants close together with the peculiar and very striking white klamboe bags, whilst formerly a selection had to be made from seed plants spread over the whole of the estate. As the testing station, in making a selection, had to observe the wishes of the planters with regard to the requirements of a good strain, the result has been that nearly the whole of the Vorstenlanden now only use two strains, which are of almost identical type. This has caused the European market to complain of late years of too much homogeneity in the Vorstenlanden tobacco brands. This is truly a great triumph for the selection method, and happily it is an evil which can very easily be remedied by isolating new strains possessing different properties. This work has already commenced, so that the ideal of the testing station will probably be realized within a few years, viz., that each estate shall cultivate a pure strain of its own, suitable as to soil, elevation, etc., which will again supply the European market with different varieties o is very often present in the seedlings, and as a consequence the latter are now submitted to a very careful examina- tion before they are planted out. Owing to its frequent appearance in well water, the latter is now disinfected with permanganate of potash ( fa per cent.), of which in 1914 not less than 25,000 kilograms were used for that purpose. The application of various disinfectants to the soil in many cases caused the tobacco plants to remain alive for a longer period and to produce a larger crop- TOBACCO 275 of marketable leaves than they otherwise would have done, but they finally succumbed to the disease. The ways in which infection is produced were carefully studied, as a result of which it was possible to issue a number of instructions for use in actual practice. A broadly conceived bacteriological investigation of the soil is now proceeding, from which it ds hoped to obtain a clearer comprehension of the differences between healthy and slime-diseas'ed lands, the appearance and the virulence of the bacteria, etc. An immune variety is being sought for by obtaining at a number of affected places selfjfertilized seed from plants which have remained healthy. As it was thought possible that a cross capable of resisting the slime-disease bacteria might be obtainable, a large number of foreign tobaccos have been tested with regard to their fitness in this respect. All these appeared to be just as little or even less proof against it as the Deli tobacco. This disease has been found in a number of native plants, both cultivated and wild. Another bacterial disease is the black rust, caused by Bacterium pseudoglocse, a treatise on which by Dr. Honing appeared recently in the Bulletin of the Deli Testing Station. Phytophthora nicotians? chiefly attacks the seed-beds in Deli ; on growing tobacco it is of little or no import- ance, with the exception of some isolated cases, when it may appear on the ripening leaves. It has been the general practice for the last twenty years to water the nursery beds with bouillie bordelaise ; lately it has been usual to dissolve the lime and the sulphate of copper in water, and to keep each separately in tightly closed bottles to prevent mistakes being made by the coolies in slaking the lime, etc. Mosaic disease, which is chiefly spread by direct transfer from one plant to another, is being fought by omitting o>n the threatened estates the planting out of the seedlings, by protecting the seed-beds against the attacks of caterpillars by means of klamboes, which obviates the necessity of examining and touching the seedlings, and by keeping the caterpillars under control by the application of the above-mentioned insecticides. 276 TOBACCO Since 1906 the Deli Testing Station has been occupied with the isolation of pure strains -of tobacco, the study of their behaviour, and the following up of this method in practice. Several strains have been successfully isolated, which has convinced planters of the advantage of this method of working, and at the present time many companies are >in the habit -of collecting self-fertilized seed from the best plants and sowing this separately later on. The study of this subject is still in its infancy, and this year at a number of places comparative speci- mens have been planted between tobaccos derived from the seed of various estates. In addition to an altogether excellent and pure strain —which has naturally to be sought for separately for each soil and for each climate — selection is also carried on with a view to obtaining immune varieties, especially in con- nection with the slime disease. For crossing trials a very large number of foreign kinds of tobacco have been collected during the last few years from all parts of the world and planted out in the trial grounds. Presumably some of these will prove to be of valu-e; a Japanese kind has already been planted out on one estate on a small scale, whilst the same kind is much appreciated at Djember in Java. A study of the germinating power of tobacco seed has led to the following conclusions : — (1) The germinating energy of tobacco seeds from large brown pods is higher than that from small dark brown seeds pods, but the difference is a small one. (2) The germinating energy of large seeds is generally, but not always, greater than that of small seeds, and the difference is even smaller than the preceding. (3) The germinating energy of heavy seeds is greater than that of light seeds, and this difference is much in excess of the two preceding ones. The practical conclusion is that by the blowing out and removal of the lightest seed the germinating power (i.£., germinating percentage after seven days) is increased to a greater extent than by selecting the seed pods or sifting the seed. TOBACCO 277 (4) Chemical Department. The chemical section has just started a new method of soil examination, in order to obtain a better insight auto the differences between the various kinds of soil and between healthy and diseased lands. Previously to this a study of tobacco fermentation had been made by Dr. Tymstra. The results of this inquiry, including a study of various enzymes (oxydase, peroxy- dase, alpha- and beta-katalase), antioxydine, the destruc- tive action of acids on peroxydase and the zymogen of the tobacco peroxydase, have been published in the organ of the Deli Testing Station. Researches have likewise been conducted by Dr. Tymstra regarding the combustibility of tobacco, and a new method for determining this has been discovered. Samples of soils obtained from the whole of the tobacco region have in course of time been physically and chemically examined; the percentages of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, lime, chlorine, and fine earth were determined, as well as the absorption coefficient, the water capacity, volume, and specific gravity. The data obtained have been embodied in a study by Dr. Vriens and Dr. Tymstra, whilst the analyses have been conducted by the chemical assistant, Dr. Remmert. Researches have also been made on the subject of the preparation of tobacco ash, which is valuable as potash manure, and is now being fairly generally prepared by planters from the tobacco stalks. Attention must finally be drawn to the important part taken by the Deli Testing Station in the making of com- mercial analyses, the exercise of control over artificial manures, which are imported to the value of several hundred thousand guilders annually, the control of tobacco ash, of insecticides and fungicides, feeding stuffs, water samples, the testing of fermentation ther- mometers, the examination of suspected plant material, etc., etc. A SHORT SURVEY OF THE TOBACCO CULTIVATION IN BESOCKI, JAVA. By Dr. A. J. ULTEE. Director, Besocki Testing Station. AMONGST the various residencies of Java, where the cultivation of tobacco is carried on, Besocki occupies an important place. The crop of 1912-13, the latest year for which complete statistical details are available, amounted to no less than 41 million half kilograms, and was sold for more than 13^ million guilders; the corre- sponding figures for the whole of Java in that year were rather more than 121 and 30 million respectively. In spite of the great importance of the industry it was not until 1912 that the Besocki planters followed the example of their colleagues of Deli and the Vorsten- landen and decided to obtain scientific guidance by establishing a local testing station. Want of harmony between the various estates was chiefly responsible for this delay, whilst some of the principal planters, more- over, could not agree with the manner in which, at that time, the Department of Agriculture co-operated with the existing testing stations. It follows, therefore, that nearly the whole of the scientific work done in the Besocki residency on behalf of the tobacco industry is of very recent date, and only forms part of the working programme drawn up in the beginning of 1912 in conjunction with the Director of Agriculture. Two varieties of tobacco are chiefly cultivated in Besocki; in the plains (up to about 600 ft.), the Deli variety is grown, the seed of which was originally im- ported, from the East Coast of Sumatra; whilst in the higher regions (up to about 1,500 ft.) the Kedal variety is cultivated. The origin of the latter can no longer be TOBACCO 279 traced, although there seems no doubt that it belongs to the Manila type and probably came from the Philip- pines. These two varieties have now been cultivated for years in the midst of inferior native tobacco, and as sufficient precautions against cross-fertilization have not always been taken, it need scarcely be wondered at that planta- tions are far from regular and that fine plants are seen in the fields side by side with inferior sorts. It will be possible, therefore, to obtain a great improvement both as regards quantity and quality 'by selection, and this point has naturally been placed at the head of the work- ing programme of the testing station. In the 1912 campaign, with the aid of the administra- tors, a large number of fine tobacco plants were selected on the different estates with a view to studying their progeny in the following year in the experimental gardens of the testing station. The seed of each mother plant was obtained with due precautions against cross- fertilization and was sown separately in 1913. It will be the task of the testing station to choose from amongst the succeeding generations of the best strains the finest plant and to multiply the seed thereof for the estates. As so many factors have to be taken into account in dealing with tobacco (sucn as burning quality, colour of the ash, taste, aroma, fineness of leaf, correct proportion of length to breadth, nervature and number of leaves), the work connected with the selection of these plants takes up much time, and other important questions will therefore, provisionally, have to receive less attention. Hybrids also, which for some years past have been experimented with on one of the estates, may become of great importance in the cultivation of tobacco. There is this difficulty that, as the progeny naturally becomes diffused, it is necessary to cross each year afresh, which apart from the possibility of making mistakes, causes an expense in labour which cannot be overlooked. The testing station has consequently devoted its atten- tion also to crosses and will experiment with a view to finding hybrids which come true to seed. With this 280 TOBACCO object several new kinds of tobacco have been imported from other countries, such as Japan, Hungary, North America, Brazil, etc. The seeds of Grecian and Turkish tobaccos, likewise imported, are being tested, however, with other objects. It is well known that the consumption of cigars is increasing only slightly, whilst, on the contrary, the consumption of cigarettes increases enormously. It is necessary, therefore, for our tobacco planters to ascertain whether tobacco suitable for cigarettes can also be pro- duced in this region. Experiments have not been car- ried on long enough to enable a definite opinion to be pronounced, but the first results are decidedly not dis- couraging. Amongst the experiments of a chemical nature those made with -fertilizers occupy a foremost place. As important advantages have often been obtained in other centres of tobacco cultivation by fertilizing, it was desirable to commence similar experiments in Besocki. It was, no doubt, to be expected that in East Java, with its younger soil, which has moreover been a shorter time under cultivation, the need of ferti- lizers would not be so great as in many other parts of Java, but only practical tests could furnish a decisive answer. It has been shown that a potassium or phosphoric acid fertilizer produces little effect, but that, on the other hand, nitrogen exercises a favourable influence on the plants on many estates; not only is a larger production obtained, but the leaves are of greater dimensions, which, especially as regards wrappers and covers, offers a great advantage. OILS AND OIL SEEDS. PALMOL IN DEN DEUTSCHEN KOLONIEN. Von DIREKTOR FR. HUPFELD. Deutsche Togo-Gesellschaft. (I) VERBREITUNG DER OELPALME. (a) im allgemeinen. IN der Beschreibung der sagenhaften Atlantis findet sich 'bei alten griechischen Schriftstellern die Angabe, dort wachse eine baumartige Pflanze, die den Einge- borenen Speise, Trank und Salbol liefere. Diese An- gaben passen durchaus auf die Oelpalme; und wenn man bedenkt, dass schon die alten Karthager um 470 v. Chr. unter Hanno dem Aelteren auf dem Seewege bis nach Sierra Leone vorgedrungen sind, so wird es recht wahrscheinlich, dass tatsachlich die Oelpalme gemeint ist. Sie war sicherlich schon damals eine der wichtigsten Pflanzen Westafrikas und ist auch heute fiir eine Reihe von Kolonien vom Senegal angefangen bis hinunter nach Angola die Lieferantin wertvoller Ausfuhrprodukte, des Palmols und der Palmkerne. Sie ist aber beschriinkt auf die engste Tropenzone etwa zwischen dem 16. Grad nordlicher und dem 10. Grad siidlicher Breite. Nach Osten dringt sie bis an die grossen Seeen in Centralafrika vor, dariiber hinaus findet sie sich nur vereinzelt und zwar offenbar angepflanzt. (b) in Deutsch-Ostafrika. Fiir Deutsch-Ostafrika hat sie also, abgesehen von der Deckung des Eingeborenenbedarfs an Speisefett und Salbol an den grossen Seeen, vorlaufig keine wirtschaft- liche Bedeutung. Ob ihre Anpflanzung, die jetzt mehr- fach versucht wird, sich bewahren wird, bleibt abzu- warten. 282 OILS AND OIL SEEDS (c) in Togo. Anders in den westafrikanischen Tropenkolonien Togo und Kamerun. Hier sind die Produkte cler Oelpalme die weitaus wichtigsten Handelsartikel, ja — abgesehen von dem Kautschuk Siidkameruns — das Ruckgrat des gesamten Ausfuhrhandels und damit naturgemass in- direkt auch massgebend fiir Urn-fang und Prosperitat des Einfuhrhandels. Allerdings findet sich die Oelpalme auch in diesen Kolonien keineswegs uberall. Die Hohe von 1,000 m, die freilich in Togo nur an wenigen Punkten erreicht, in Kamerun aber auf grosse Gebiete iiberschritten wird, kann praktisch annahernd als obere Grenze ihres Gedeihens bezeichnet werden. Sie verlangt ferner gewisse Niederschlagsmengen in nicht zu ungiinstiger Verteilung; gegen langere Trockenheit ist sie recht empfindlich. So wachst sie in der nordlichen Halfte der Togokolonie nur an besonders gtinstigen Orten mit Grundfeuchtigkeit, weil die an sich wohl ausreichenden Niederschlagsmengen von 1,200-1,600 mm. sich dort auf eine Hauptregenzeit beschranken, der eine ausserordent- lich scharfe Trockenzeit von 4-6 Monaten Dauer folgt. Ebenso fehlt die Oelpalme an der Kiiste von Togo, deren jahrliche Regenmenge von 700-800 mm. fiir sie um so weniger ausreicht, als hier zeitweise Jahre mit abnorm langer Trockenzeit oder mit besonders niedrigen Regen- mengen auftreten. Dieser niederschlagsarme Kiisten- streifen ist aber nur 10-15 km. breit, dann folgt eine Zone von etwa 1,000 mm. Regenmenge in verhaltnis- massig viel besserer Verteilung : hier zieht sich ein breiter Streifen, die sog. Oelpalmenzone, quer durch die Kolonie mit zahlreichen Oelpalmen, die zum grossen Teil von den Eingeborenen angepflanzt sind, aber freilich nicht durchweg unter Kultur gehalten werden. Weiter im Innern in den Bezirken Misahohe und Atakpame sind grossere Oelpalmenbestande vor allem am Fusse der Gebirge und in feuchten Talern, auch entlang den Wasserlaufen. Ferner findet sich die Oel- palme recht zahlreich in den meist auf die Gebirge Mitteltoeos beschrankten Urwaldern dagegen tritt sie OILS AND OIL SEEDS 283 in der Steppe, die ja jahrlich in der Trockenzeit abge- brannt wird, ganz zuriick. Trotz des ausgedehnten Vorkommens der Oelpalme in Siid- und Mitteltogo muss man sich doch daruber klafr sein, dass sie das optimum ihrer Lebensbedingungen in der Togokolonie nieht findet. Inwieweit die Qualitat des Bodens, der in Togo im allgemeinen nicht besonders gut ist und speziell Mangel an Kali, Phosphorsaure und Kalk zeigt, dabei mitspricht, ist noch unsicher, da iiber die Anforderungen, die die Oelpalme an den Boden stellt, noch keine einwandfreien Untersuchungen vorliegen. Sicher ist aber, dass die durchschnittliche Gesamtregen- menge von 1,000 mm. in der sog.Oelpalmenzone und die bis unter diesen Betrag in manchen Jahren her- untergehende Niederschlagsmenge der an sich regen- reicheren Gebiete am und im Gebirge der unteren zulassigen Grenze recht nahe kommen, sicher ist auch, dass die in Togo doch re^ht scharf ausgepragte Trocken- zeit mit ihrem ausdorrenden- Harmattanwinde der Oel- palme nicht zusagt. So kann es denn nicht wunder nehmen, dass die Ertrage der Oelpalme in Togo keineswegs stetige, son- dern je nach den Witterungsverhaltnissen iiberaus schwankende sind. (d) in Kamerun. Das liegt in K a m e r u n ganz anders. Hier findet die Oelpalme in den regenreichen Urwaldern der ausgedehnt- en Tieflander ausserordentlich giinstige Lebensbeding- ungen, und wenn sie auch vielleicht von den Einge- borenen nicht so viel angepflanzt worden ist wie in Togo,, so findet sie sich doch schon wild in sehr grossen Mengen. Ihre Verbreitung macht mur halt da, wo das Land sich zu hoch iiber das Meer erhebt, und da, wo an die Stelle des Waldes die Steppe mit ihren jahrlichen Grasbranden tritt. Dem entspricht es denn auch, dass die Oelpalmen in Kamerun rascher wachsen, kraftiger aussehen? grossere Friichte geben als in Togo, und dass auch die Ausfuhr an Palmol und Palmkernen in Kamerun einen viel stetig- eren Charakter hat als dort. 284 OILS AND OIL SEEDS (II) DIE PRODUKTE DER OELPALME. Die Oelpalme liefert den Eingeborenen eine Reihe von Ptodukten, von denen die fiir sie wichtigsten das Palmol, die Palmkerne und der Palmwein sind. Letzterer spielte vor Einfiihrung europaischer Spirituosen eine recht wichtige Rolle im taglichen Leben der Eingeborenen und tut das bis zu gewissem Grade noch heute. Zu seiner Gewinnung wird die Palme gefallt, und so werden zehntausende von Oelpalmen jahrlich lediglich der Palmweingewinnung wegen vernichtet, wobei aller- dings zu beriicksichtigen bleibt, dass die Oelpalmen in wilden wie in angepflanzten Bestanden im allgemeinen viel zu dicht stehen, so dass eine Durchlichtung nur von Vorteil ist. Die Palmkerne werden von den Eingeborenen zur Gewinnung des Palmkernols benutzt, das zum Backen verwendet wird. Doch hat diese Ausnutzung in Togo und Kamerun einen so geringen Umfang, dass sie ziffern- massig kattm in's Gewicht fallt. Wohl aber sind fur den europaischen Handel die Palmkerne von grosster Bedeutung. Das Palmol endlich ist eines der wichtigsten Lebens- mittel fiir den Eingeborenen, sein Hauptlieferant fur Fett; denn die tierischen Fette, besonders Butter, kom- men fiir ihn nicht in Betracht, da ihm das Melken im allgemeinen ganz unbekannt ist und der Milch-, also auch Butterertrag da, wo man das Melken kennt, wie bei den nomadisierenden Viehzucht treibenden Fulbestam- men, doch nur sehr gering ist. Da die iiblichen Nah- rungsmittel des Eingeborenen, wie Yams, Bananen, Kassada u. dgl. kein Fett enthalten, ist sein Bedarf an Palmol schon fiir Speisezwecke ausserordentlich hoch. Ausserdem braucht er es aber auch zum Einsalben des Korpers und z4.tr Herstellung von Seife. Fiir den Europaer ist das Palmol ein ebenfalls recht wertvoliler Handelsartikel, dessen Wert ,in Europa etwa die Halite holier ist als derjenige einer gleichen Menge von Palmkernen; wobei allerdings Palmol wesentlich hohere Spesen verursacht. OILS AND OIL SEEDS 285 (III) DIE BISHERIGE GEWINNUNG DES PALMOLS. Die Gewinnung des Palmols war bis vor kurzem aus- schliesslich Sache der Eingeborenen, ihre Methode ist naturgemass eine verhaltnismassig primitive. Die aus den Fruchtbiindeln ausgelesenen Friichte werden in trichterformigen mit Steinen ausgelegten Gruben mit heissem Wasser ubergossen und mit holzernen Stangen zerstampft. Das Oel schwimmt dann oben, zum Teil wird es auch ausgepresst und dann noch durch Kochen gereinigt. Die Palmniisse werden von Hand mit Stein auf Stein aufgeschlagen, um die Palmkerne zu gewinnen, eine an sich recht miihsame Arbeit, die aber von dem Neger nicht so hoch veranschlagt wird, weil sie jederzeit und auch durch Weiber, Kinder und Greise vorgenommen werden kann. Die Leute sitzen dann plaudernd zusam- men und das Palmkerneknacken hat fur sie etwa dieselbe Bedeutung wie sie bei unsern Muttern und Grossmuttern der Strickstrumpf besass. Die Palmolgewinnung nach Eingeborenenart liefert bei entsprechender Vorsicht ein recht gutes Oel, im all- gemeinen wird aber doch ein Palmol von hohem Fett- sauregehalt (meist iiber 20 Prozent) und mit reichlichem Schmutz- und Wassergehalt erzeugt. Es ist in europaischen Fabrikbetrieben daher praktisch nicht fur Speisefettfabrikation verwendbar, sondern wird uber- wiegend in der Seifenindustrie verbraucht. (IV) BISHERIGE PRODUKTIONSMENGEN. Von besonderem Interesse ware es naturlich, wenn man einen Anhalt dafiir bekommen konnte, wie viel Palmol die Eingeborenen ubefhaupt zur Zeit herstellen. Wir haben keine Moglichkeit diese Ziffer fiir die dem Handel noch nicht erschlossenen Gebiete zu schatzen. Wohl aber gibt uns bei den dem Handel erschlossenen Bezirken die Menge der Ausfuhr an Palmkernen einen Fingerzeig. Wir erwah".ten bereits, dass der Eigenverbrauch an Palmkernen unberucksichtigt bleiben kann. Es ist ferner bekannt, dass im allgemeinen wohl nicht viele Palmkerne 286 OILS AND OIL SEEDS gewonnen warden, ohne dass aus den entsprechenden Friichten attch das Palmol hergestellt wurde. Wir wissen I. — TOGO. 1892 1893 1694 1895 1996 1897 (698 1899 1900 Wf 1902 I9Q3 J90* 190S 1906 >907 1909 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 20000 19000 18000 17000 16000 15000 14000 13000 12000 11000 10000 9000 eooo 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 \ vermutliche Gesamtproduktion an Palmol (in den fiir Ausfuhr in Betracht kommenden Bezirken). davon Ausfuhr. Selbstverbrauch an Palmol. ferner, dass die Eingeborenen aus den Palmfriichten zwiischen 10 bis 16 Prozent Palmol und 10 Prozent Palm- OILS AND OIL SEEDS 287 kerne erzielen. Man wird daher annehmen diirfen, dass auf 10 kg. Palmkernausfuhr zwischen 10 bis 16 kg. Palmol hergestellt worden sind. Nehmen wir dieses Ver- haltnis mit 10:15 an, so gibt uns die Palmkernausfuhr einen ungefahren Anhalt dafiir, wie viel Palmol in den dem Palmkernhandel erschlossenen Gebieten, sei es fur eigenen Verbrauch, sei es zur Ausfuhr mindestens her- gestellt worden ist, wobei allerdings dasjenige Palmol ausser Rechnung bleibt, bei dem die entsprechenden Palmkerne nicht gewonnen worden sind. Auf dieser Grundlage sind die beiden anliegenden grafischen Dar- stellungen berechnet, welche fiir Togo und fur Kamerun angeben : — (1) Wie viel Palmol in den denr Palmkernhandel erschlossenen Gebieten vermutlich insgesamt mindestens produziert worden ist. (2) Wie viel davon vermutlich von den Eingeborenen selbst verbraucht worden ist. (3) Wie viel nach den statistischen Ausweisen tatsach- lich ausgefiihrt worden ist. Diese Ziffern sind selbstverstandlich nicht exakt, man wird gegen sie manche Einwendungen erheben konnen, sie werden aber als erster Versuch der Schatzung der Gesamtproduktion eines Verbrauchsartikels der Einge- borenen immerhin ein gewisses Interesse bieten. Es lassen sich aus ihnen nachstehende Folgerungen ziehen : — (1) Der weitaus grosste Teil des von den Eingeborenen gewonnenen Palmols wird von ihnen selbst verbraucht, nur ein recht kleiner Teil wird von ihnen an den Europaer verkauft und von diesem exportiert. (2) Berechnet man den Durchschnitt der Jahre 1901 bis 1912, so erhalt man folfende Ziffern: T o g" o exportierte jahrHch ... 7,079 t. Palmkerne. die jahrliche Palmolgewinnung in den fiir Ausfuhr in Betracht kommenden Gebieten war ver- mutlich mindestens ... ... 10,619 t. tatsachlich wurden ausgefiihrt 2,043 t- = = X9% mithin im Lande verbraucht ... 8,576 t. = 81% 288 OILS AND OIL SEEDS K a m e r u 11 exportierte jahrlich ... 11,684 t. Palmkerne. vermutl'iche Palmolgewinnung mindestens ... ... ... 17,526 t. davon tatsachlich ausgefuhrt 3,115 t. = 18% mithin im Lande verbraucht ... 14,411 t. = 82% In beiden Kolonien warden also mehr als j- des Palmols von den Eingeborenen selbst verbraucht, knapp V kommt ztir Ausfuhr. II.— KAMERUN. 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 ISO? 1908 1309 1910 I9M I9IZ I30CO JOOCO 9000 8000 €000 3000 s \ \ vermutliche Gesamtproduktion an Palmol (in den ftir Ausfuhr in Betracht kommenden Bezirken). davon Ausfuhr. Selbstverbrauch an Palmol. (3) Eine Zunahme der Produktion an Palmol hat in erster Linie eine Steigerung des eigenen Verbrauchs zur Folge, eine gleichzeitige Steigerung der Ausfuhr ist in Kamerun uberhaupt nicht festzustellen, in Togo zeigt sie sich zwar, aber doch bei weitem nicht in dem Umfange, den man eigentlich vermuten sollte. Dabei ist aber zu beriicksichtigen, dass die Ziffern in den einzelnen Jahren sich nicht auf dieselben Gebiete erstrecken, sondern jeweils diejenigen Teile der beiden OILS AND OIL SEEDS 289 Kolonien umfassen, aus denen nach Lage der Verkehrs- wege und Transportkosten die Ausfuhr an Palmkernen und Palmol iiberhaupt moglich ist. Die sehr starke Zunahme in Kamerun seit 1909 ist also nicht eine tatsach- liche Mehrproduktion, sondern entspricht infolge des Baues der Nordbahn und anderer Verkehrswege der Ausdehnung des fur Ausfuhr in Betracht kommenden Gebietes und der infolgedessen tatsachlich erzielten Mehrausfuhr an Kernen. Sehr auffallend ist es, dass in Kamerun seit 12 Jahren keine Steigerung der Palmolausfuhr zu beobachten ist, ja der Anteil des tatsachlich ausgefiihrten Palmols an dem im ausfuhrfahigen Gebiete insgesamt erzeugten Palmol ist sogar in dem Jahrsechst 1907-1912 auf 16 Pro- zent gegen 20 Prozent in 1901-1906 zurikkgegangen. Dabei spricht sicherlich die Ernahrung der steigenden Mengen von Arbeitern im Plantagenbau und beim Bahn bau der Kiistennahen Bezirke mit, welche ansehnliche Mengen von Palmol in Anspruch nimmt, ausserdem diirfte aber der Verbrauch an Palmol auch bei den iibrigen Eingeborenen der Kiistengebiete, besonders der Stadt Duala zugenommen haben. Die Kurve fiir Kamerun lasst gleichzeitig bei Beriick- sichtigung der Vergrosserung der Verkehrswege erken- nen, dass die Ernten an sich keinen sehr erheblichen Schwankungen ausgesetzt sind, eine Folge der fiir die Oelpalme ausserordentlich giinstigen natiirlichen Beding- ungen der fiir Ausfuhr in Betracht kommenden Teile der Kolonie. Wesentlich anders ist in dieser Beziehung das Bild in Togo. Hier wechseln erfahrungsgemass Perioden von regenreichen und regenarmen Jahren ab, und da die Niiederschlagsmengen an sich nicht hoch siind, sinken sie in den Diirreperioden tief unter das fiir die Oelpalme erforderliche Mass. Demgemass sinkt in diesen Zeiten die Erntemenge und zwar aussert sich der Riickgang statistisch in der Regel in dem auf das betreifende Diir- rejahr folgenden Jahre. Die weitere Riickwirkung auf die Einfuhrstatistik zeigt sich dann in der Regel noch ein Jahr spater. In den armen Jahren sinkt naturgemass die Palmol- 19 290 OILS AND OIL SEEDS ausfuhr auf ein Minimum, zugleich aber auch sehr stark der Eigenverbrauch, ja man wird annehmen diirfen, dass die Eingeborenen in solchen Zeiten an Fett geradezu Mangel leiden; dafur halten sie sich in guten Jahren durch einen auf das Doppelte des Durchschnitts gesteiger- ten Verbrauch schadlos. Die Wirkung des Eisenbahnbaus macht sich statistisch auch in Togo bemerkbar. Die im Jahre 1907 eroffnete Palimebahn hat betrachtliche Gebiete mit Oelpalmen erschlossen, und auch die in den folgenden Jahren erbatite Atakpamebahn hat das ausfuhrfahige Gebiet stark ver- grossert, wenn auch hier grosse Strecken fiir Oelpalmen- kultur nicht in Frage kommen. Besonders wichtig ist es, dass die Gebirgslandschaften an sich hohere Regen- mengen und auch geringere Schwankungen in der Regen- verteilung aufweisen als Siidtogo. Dem Bahnbau ist es daher in der Hauptsache zuzuschreiben, dass die Kurve der Palmkernausfuhr in 1911 sehr viel hoder hinauffiihrt als in den friiheren Rekordjahren 1895 mid I9O-2, und seiner Einwirkung wird es zu verdanken sein, wenn sie bei dem jetzigen Riickgang nicht wieder so tief sinkt wie 1897 un-d 1905. Trotzdem werden aber sehr grosse Schwankungen im Wirtschaftsleben dieser Kolonie bestehen bleiben, solange es sich in der Hauptsache auf der Oelpalme auf bant. (V) BlSHERIGE AUSFUHRWERTE. Wie der Menge so auch dem Werte nach fallen in Togo wie in Kamerun Palmkerne und Palmol stark ins Gewicht. Die Ziffern stellen sich nach der amtlichen Ausfuhrstatistik, wie folgt : — Im Jahresdurchschnitt. 1901 — 1906. M 1907—1912. M. 1901 — 1912. M Togo Kamerun ... Palmkerne fiir Palmol fiir 1,114,000 603,000 2,094,000 1,0^7,000 1,604,000 815,000 1,717,000 3,121,000 2,419,000 Palmkerne fiir ... Palmol fiir 1,865,000 949,000 3,299,000 1,287,000 2,582,000 i,ii8,coo 2,814,000 4,586,000 3,700,000 OILS AND OIL SCEDS 2pl Demgegeniiber betrug der Gesamtwert der Ausfuhr : — Im Jahresdurchschnitt. 1901 — 1906. 1907 — 1912 IQOI — I9T2 In Togo (ohne Geld) ... Palmkerne -f Palmol also 2,995, oooM 57% 6, 1 74,000 M 5°% 4, 585, ooo M 54% r 3, 003, ooo M 28% In Kamerun (einschl. Geld) ... Palmkerne + Palmol also 7,96i,oooM 35% 18,045,000 M 25 Aus obig'en amtlichen Ziffern ergibt sich ferner, dass man als Durchschnittswert im Ausfuhrhafen der Kolonie zu Gr'unde gelegt hat : — Togo Kamerun ... Fur i t. ! IQOI — 1906. M 1907—1912. M 1901—1912. M 226 399 Palmkerne Palmol 195 ••• i 405 248 396 Palmkerne Palmol ... ! 194 ... | 328 255 386 221 359 Die Ziffern spiegeln die Wertsteigerung wieder, die Palmkerne im Latife der Jahre erfahren haben, seit sie in Europa in steigendem Masse in der Speisefettindustrie Verwendung finden. Im ubrigen sind aber die den Aus- fuhrwerten amtlich zu Grunde gelegten Ziffern derartigen Zufalligkeiten unterworfen, dass es sich nicht lohnt, sie einer naheren Kritik zu unterziehen. Wesentlich einwandsfreier sind die auf den etiropaischen Markten notierten Preise. Sie stellten sich wie folgt: — Bei Palm kernen betrug der Preis fur Togokerne je 50 kg. in Hamburg im Jahre 1901 durchschnittlich 11.50 M, stieg 1902 auf 13 M, um 1903 auf n M zuriick- ztigehen. Er stieg dann wiieder auf 12.50 M in 1904, 13.50 M in 1905, fast 15 M in 1906 und 16.30 M in 1907. Das Jahr 1908 brachte einen Riickgang auf 13.25 M, die folgenden Jahre aber stetige Zunahme auf 15 M, 18 M, 18 M und 19 M. Bei Palmol bewegte sich der Preis fur 50 kg. im Jahresdurchschnitt von 1901 bis 1905 zwischen 23.25 M und 25 M, das Jahr 1906 brachte eine Steigerung auf OILS AND OIL SEEDS 26 M, 1907 auf 29.50 M, wahrend der Preis 1908 auf 24.25 M zuriickging und auch 1909 nur i M mehr betrug. Im folgenden Jahre aber folgte eine scharfe Erhohung auf 31.25 M, von der der Preis im Jahre 1911 auf 30 M, 1912 auf 28.50 M zuriickging, dabei aber doch noch einen fecht hohen Stand behaltend. Man kann ohne weiteres annehmen, dass im allge- meinen die von den Kaufleuten beim Produkteneinkauf driiben den Eingeborenen bezahlten Preise diesen Schwankungen der heimischen Marktpreise gefolgt sind. Vergleicht man letztere nun mit den tatsachlichen Ausfuhrziffern wie attch mit dem Prozentsatze des aus- geiiihrten Palmols, so wird man keinerlei nachweisbaren Einfluss erkennen konnen. Wohl wird selbstverstandlich bei hohen Preisen das Gebiet, aus welchem man noch exportieren kann, entsprechend grosser, allein das fallt nicht derart ins Gewicht, als dass man es in den obigen Gesamtziffern nachweisen konnte. Von diesem beson- deren Falle aibgesehen i-st es aber innerhalb gewisser Grenzen ohne jeden Einfluss auf die Ausfuhr, ob die Preise hoch oder niedrig sind. Die Ausfuhr an Palmkernen aus den ausfuhrfahigen Gehieten ist in der Hauptsache 'bedingt durch die Gesamt- Produktion an Palmol, und diese wiederum hangt ab von den Witterungsverhaltnissen (besonders in Togo) und dem Eigenverbrauch. Witterung und Eigenverbrauch sind also fast ausschliesslich massgebend fiir den Umfang der Oelpalmenkultur, soweit man von einer solchen reden kann, und der Palmfruchtnutzung. Ferner ist der Pro- zentsatz an Palmol, der zur Ausfuhr gebracht wird, nicht nachweislich abhangig von den erzielten Preisen. Innerhalb verniinftiger Grenzen, fiir deren Einhaltung erfahrungsgemass ja schon die Konkurrenz der kaufman- nischen Firmen unter einander sorgt, ist es ganz gleich- giiltig, ob der Kaufmann etwas hohere oder niedrigere Preise bezahlt, und es liegt nicht in der Macht des Kaufmanns, durch Preisgestaltung, ja selbst durch Ver- zicht auf jeden Gewinn die tatsachliche Ausfuhrmenge nennenswert zu beeinflussen. Fiir denjenigen, der den Charakter des gewohnlichen Negers in Togo und Kamerun kennt, bietet diese Folge- OILS AND OIL SEEDS 293 rung aus der Statistik nichts Neues. Sie muss hier aber hervorgehoben werden, weil vielfach — nicht ztim wenig- sten bei der Regierung, aber auch in kau'fmannischen Kreisen — diese Fragenlediglich nach heimischem Mass- stabe gemessen und daher vollig verkannt werden. (VI) MOGLICHKEITEN DER AuSFUHRSTEIGERUNG. Dass cine Steigerung der bisherigen Ausfuhrmengen im Interesse der heimischen Volkswirtschaft dringend zu wunschen 1st, zeigt ein Blick auf die enorme Steigerung des Bedarfs vegetabilischer Fette in den Kulturstaaten. Dass sie moglich ist, steht ohne weiteres ausser Zweifel. Erzielen lasst sie sich theoretisch durch folgende gege- benenfalls naturlich zu vereinigende Moglichkeiten : — (a) Ausdehnung des ausfuhrfahigen Gebietes durch Verbesserung der Verkehrswege, {b) intensivere Ausnutzung der vorhandenen Bestande durch bessere Kulturmethoden, (c) bessere Ausnutzung der erbielten Ernten durch bessere Aufbereitungsmethoden, (d) Vergrosserung der vorhandenen Bestande durch vermehrte Tatigkeit der bisherigen oder Heranziehung" neuer Produzenten. (a) Ban von Vcrkchrswcgen. Der Ban von Verkehrswegen, insbesondere von Eisen- bahnen, ist selbstverstandlich eine der wichtigsten, zugleich aber auch in gewissem Sinne einfachsten Mass- nahmen zur Hebung kolonialer Produktion. Was speziell die Oelpalme anbetriift, so sind nach- weislich im Innern von Kamerun in den riesi'gen Ur- waldgebieten sehr grosse, auch nicht annahernd zu schatzende Bestande von Oelpalmen vorhanden, deren wirtschaftliche Ausnutzung fiir Ausfuhrzwecke zur Zeit ganz unmoglich ist, aber sofort einsetzen wiirde, wenn entsprechende Verkehrswege vorhanden waren. In dieser Richtung bietet die Kamerunkolonie noch Zukunftsauf- ga'ben, die weder unsere noch die nachste Generation voll wird erfullen konnen, an deren Losung aber jetzt mit Energie und Aufwendung grosser Mittel gearbeitet wird. Die sofortige voile Nutzbarmachung der durch den 294 OILS AND OIL SEEDS Eisenbahnbau geschaffenen Entwicklungsmoglichkeiten wird freilich durch den Mangel geniigend zahlreicher Arbeitskrafte, niederen Kulturstand und Bediirfnislosig- keit, daher Mangel an Arbeitslust sehr vieler Volks- stamme, endlich durch Seuchen und andere weitver- breitet Krankheiten stark beeintrachtigt warden. In Togo liegen die Verhaltnisse anders. Da Nordtogo keine nennenswerten grosseren Oelpalmenbestande besiitzt und Slid- und Mitteltogo schon ziemlich gut durch Bahnen und Wasserwege erschlossen sind, wiirde der Bau von Eisenbahnen das ausfuhrfahige Gebiet an sich nicht mehr viel vergrossern konnen. Auch die sog. Oelbahn in das Hinterland von Anecho wird das nicht tun, da man Palmol und Palmkerne von dort schon heute exportieren kann. Wohl aber wiirde diese Bahn ein wichtiger Schachzug gegeniiber den Eisenbahnplanen in Dahomey sein, indem sie die deutschen Produkte dem deutschen Verschiffungsplatze zufiihrte, und zugleich wtirde sie wie jede andere Eisenbahn in Afrika durch Ersetzung des Tragerverkehrs Arbeitskrafte fiir produk- tive Tati'gkeit frei machen. Aehnliches gilt von der von den kaufmannischen Kreisen vorgeschlagenen Verlangerung der Palimebahn uber das Hauptgebirge hinweg in den Kpandubezirk. (b) Bessere Kulturmcthoden. ])ie Ausnutzung der vorhandenen Oelpalmenbestande in den erschlossenen Gebieten ist bisher durchaus mangel- haft. Grosse Mengen von Oelpalmen selbst in nachster Nahe von Eisenbahnen werden noch so gut wie gar nicht ausgenutzt. Vor allem stehen die Palmen viel zu dicht bei einander, oder sie sind im Urwald von anderen Bau- men eingeengt. Die Oelpalme verlangt aber Licht und Luft, sonst tragt sie uberhaupt fast gar nichts. Und auch bei denjenigen Bestanden, die von den Eingeborenen in eine Art Kultur genommen werden, findet man durch- weg' eine viel zu geringe Standweite. Dazu kommen andere Fehler, so die Gewohnheit der Eingeborenen, beiin Reinigen ihrer Farmen zwischen den stehen gelassenen Oelpalmen ruhig zu brennen, wodtirch letztere fiir Jahre hinaus geschadigt werden. OILS AND OIL SEEDS 295 Darin Wandel zu schaffen, wird eine der wichtigsten landwirtschaftslichen Aufgaben der Regierung sein. Sie wird auch darauf zu dringen haben, dass das Palmen- fallen zur Palmweinbereitung in gewissen Grenzen bleibt, dass ferner gutes Saatgut zum Auspflanzen genommen wird, dass man die Eingeborenen allmahlich anlernt zu diingen u. s. w. Zugleich wird sie die bisher noch nicht ganz geklarten Kulturbedingungen der Oelpalme zu studieren und die Ergebnisse des Studiums in die Praxis umzusetzen haben. Ohne einen gewissen Zwang wird man dabei nicht durchkommen. Das hat das Gouvernement von Togo auch bereits erkannt, denn es will den Dorfschaften in den Oelpalmenbezirken die Inkulturnahme bestimmter Flachen vorschreiben. Das alles lasst sich aber nur mit ausreichendem Per- sonal durchfuhren, und es ist durchaus anzuerkennen, dass die Regierung in dieser Beziehung seit einigen Jahren recht grossziigig und systematisch vorgeht. , Recht wertvoll fur die Erziehung der Eingeborenen ware es naturlich, wenn sie die verbesserten Kultur- methoden auf europaischen Plantagen sehen und sich so von ihrer Zweckmassigkeit iiberzeugen konnten. (c) Bessere Aufbereitungsmethoden. Die Aufbereitungsmethode der Eingeborenen hat den Vorteil sehr einfach und iiberall, wo man nur Wasser hat, anwendbar zu sein. Dem stehen aber schwer- wiegende Nachteile geg'e.niiber. Die Methode verlangt unverhaltnismassig viel Arbeitskrafte, und wenn auch die Palmolgewinnung noch rentabel bliebe, so ware doch an eine Verwertung der Palmniisse nicht zu denken, wenn man die verwendete Arbeitskraft auch nur annahernd nach den iiblichen Lohnsatzen bezahlen miisste. Eine Verwertung von Palmfriichten durch Europaer und demgemass die Kultur der Oelpalme durch Europaer war und ist ausgeschlossen, wenn man die Friichte nach Eingeborenenart durch bezahlte Arbeiter verarbeiten lassen will. Dazu kommt, dass das auf diese Weise gewonnene Palmol meist einen recht hohen Fettsauregehait (iiber 296 OILS AND OIL SEEDS 20 Prozent) besitzt und durch Schmutz und Wasser verunreinigt ist, und dass auch der Wert der Palmkerne durch hineingeratene Schalenreste beeintrachtigt wird. Seit etwa 12 Jahren wird nun in deutschen, fran- zosischen und englischen Kolonien das Problem einer verbesserten Methode der Palmfruchtverarbeitung studiert; in jenen gab das Kolonialwirtschaftliche Komitee die Anregung. Als erster baute Fr. Haake in Berlin eine Anlage, welche auf dem sog. nassen Wege arbeitete; bald darauf suchte Fournier in Cotonou durch sein sog. trockenes Verfahren dasselbe Ziel zu erreichen. Andere Fabrikanten folgten, wie Krupp Grusonwerk in Magdeburg-Buckau, Behnisch in Luckenwalde, M. Mar- tin in Bitterfeld, Humboldt in Coln-Kalk, Luther in Braunschweig. So entstanden eine Reihe verschiedener Konstruk- tionen und Verfahren, die zum grossen Teil noch standigen Veranderungen unterworfen sind. Es wird schwer sein. schon heute zu entscheiden, wem endgiiltig der Vorzug zu geben sein wird, so viel aber lasst sich sagen, dass die von der Agupflanzung in Togo im regel- massigen Betriebe nun schon seit langerer Zeit erzielten Ergebnisse zur Zeit die giinstigsten sind, soweit die Resultate der in verschiedenen Kolonien bestehenden Palmolwerke bekannt sind. Es sei daher gestattet, im nachfolgenden dieses sog.Aguverfahren zu schildern. Die reifen Fruchtbiindel werden von den Palmen abgeschlagen, wobei es wichtig ist, den richtigen Reife- grad abzupassen, da unreife Fruchte ein ungunstiges Ausbringen haben, in iiberreifen aber sich bereits Fett- saure entwickelt hat. Die Fruchtbiindel werden sofort auf Wagen (Feldbahn) zur Fabrik gebracht und dort unverziiglich verarbeitet; jeder Aufschub erhoht den Fettsauregehalt. Von dem Fruchtbundel werden die Rispen, in denen die Fruchte sitzen, mit diesen abgesch- lagen und in grossen Pfannen durch Einstromen von heissem Dampf eine Stunde lang auf etwa 100° C. erhitzt. Dadurch werden alle Keime getotet und so das Entstehen weiterer Fettsaure verhindert. Die heisse Masse kommt dann in das Stampfwerk. Dieses von Humboldt nach den Vorschlagen des Unter- OILS AND OIL SEEDS 297 zeichneten gebante Stampfwerk ist der charakteiistische Teil der Fabrik der Agupflanzung. Es besteht aus einer Anzahl schwerer in einer Reihe neben einander stehender Po'Chstempel, wekhe in einen schwach geneigten lang- lichen Trog hinunterf alien ; doch konnen sie nicht bis atif den Boden des Troges fallen, weil sie durch eine auf ein Gummipolster aufschlagende Nase arretiert werden. Der Trog, an dessen oberem Ende die Frtichtmasse ein- geschiittet wird, besteht aus doppelwandigem Eisen und wird mit Dampf erhitzt. Durch das Stampfen werden die Friichte aus den Rispen herausgeschlagen und zugleich ganz zerquetscht, so dass die Zellen zersprengt werden. Dabei bleiben die Palmniisse unversehrt, weil der Zwischenraum zwischen dem herabfallenden Pochstempel und dem Boden des Troges entsprechend berechnet ist. Das Stampfen im Stampfwerk ermoglicht es, spater mit einmaliger Pressung auszukommen, wahrend alle anderen trockenen Verfahren zweimalige Pressung vorsehen. Die gestampfte Masse, welche Rispen, Fruchtfleisch und Palmniisse enthalt, fallt in eine mit Dampf geheizte Auffangpfanne und kommt sodann in eine hydraulische Presse, in welcher mit 250 Atmospharen gearbeitet wird. Das ausgepresste Oel lauft ab und trennt sich in einem entsprechend emgerichteten Bassin von dem meisten aus den Friichten stammenden Wasser. Es wird sodann durch Sieden in grossen Dampfkochkesseln von dem Reste des Wassers und zugleich von Schmutz befreit. Die Pressriickstande, bestehend aus Rispen, Fasern und Niissen, gehen zunachst uber ein Sieb, welches die Rispen zuriickhalt. Die Fasern und Nusse gelangen sodann in eine von Luther gebaute rotierende Siebtrommel, durch welche die Fasern hindurchfallen, wahrend die Nusse am Ende der Trommel hinauskommen. Die Fasern enthalten noch viel Oel, allein ihre Menge ist so gering, dass sich die weitere Verarbeitung bei dem bisherigen Umfange eines Palmolwerke unter keinen Umstanden lohnen wiirde. Die Gewinnung dieser absolut genommen nur geringen Mengen von Palmol kann nur bei ganz grossen Betrieben in Frage kommen und wird dann wahrscheinlich am besten durch ein chemisches Extraktionsverfahren zu losen sein. 298 OILS AND OIL SEEDS Aus der Entfaserungstrommel kommen die Niisse in die von aussen geheizte Trockentrommel, welche an die Stelle der friiher geiibten Trocknung auf einer Zement- tenne in der Sonne getreten ist und den Vorzug hat, von der Witterung unabhangig zu sein. Die Trocknung selbst ist unbedingt erforderlich, wenn die Knackmaschine gut arbeiten soil. Auf dieser von Haake gebauten Maschine werden die Niisse nunmehr durch Zentrifugalkraft gegen eine guss- eiserne runde Wand geschleudert und so geknackt. Schalen und Kerne passieren eine rotierende Siebtrommel, welche die kleinsten Teile entfernt, und fallen dann in ein Salzwasserbad, in welchem die Schalen untersinken, wahrend die Kerne oben schwimmen. Sie werden abgeschopft und an der Sonne getrocknet. Neuerdings schlagt die Maschinenfabrik Humboldt vor, dieses Salzwasserbad durch eine sog.Setzmaschine, wie sie im Bergbau iiblich ist, zu ersetzen. Die bisherigen Versuche in dieser Richtung sind giinstig ausgef alien. Ein Palmolwerk nach diesem Aguverfahren kostet einschliesslich Lokomobile rund 70,000 M, es verarbeitet bei 10 stiindiger Arbeit taglich 8 t. Friichte in Rispen oder 10 t. ausgelesene Friichte. Man gewinnt auf aus- gelesene Friichte 'bezogen in Togo 16 Prozent Palmol und 10 Prozent Kerne. Das Palmol hat 5-6 Prozent Fettsaure, hochstens J Prozent Schmutz und nur Spuren von Wasser. Die Betriebskosten lassen sich noch nicht genau uber- blicken, weil die Fabrik bisher nicht annahernd voll beschaftigt ist, es empfiehlt sich aber nicht, kleinere Typen der einzelnen Maschinen zu nehmen, weil dann die Arbeitsleistung zu gering und daher zu teuer wiirde. Man wird aber annehmen konnen, dass das Palmolwerk als solches — also ohne Ernten und Heranbringen der Friichte — mit einer Zahl von i Weissen, i schwarzen Maschinisten und 15-20 schwarzen Arbeitern im Voll- betriebe auskommt. Ein Palmol, wie es die Agupflanzung liefert, ist ohne Zweifel in der Speisefettindustrie, insbesondere der Mar- garinefabrikation verwendbar, und damit offnet sich dem Pailimol eine bisher nicht gekannte Verwerttingsmoglich- OILS AND OIL SEEDS 299 keit grosster Bedeutung. Derartiges Palmol erzielt schon heute Preise, die 40-50 M liber dem aus denselben Friichten gewinnbaren gewohnlkhen Paknol liegen. Wenn man aber beruchsichtigt, dass bisher nur wenige Fabriken sich fur dies Pailmol interes- sieren, weil es bisher nur in geringen Mengen produziert wird — die Agupflanzung lieferte im letzten Jahre run-d 40 t. — so ist wohl mit Sicherheit auf einen wesentlich hoheren Mehrpreis in absehbarer Zeit zu rechnen. Diese Zeit wiirde um so rascher kommen, je grossere Mengen derartigen Palmols erzeugt werden. (of) Vermehrung des Anbaus. Die nunmehr gefundene Losung der Aufgabe einer rentablen maschinellen Verarbeitung der Palmfriichte hat auch die wichtigste Vorbedingung fiir eine Vermehrung des Anbaus der Oelpalme geschaffen. Soweit die Eingeborenen in Betracht kommen, ist jetzt clie Moglichkeit gegeben, ihnen die Aufbereitung der Friichte abzunehmen, mid dadurch zahlreiche Arbeits- krafte frei zu machen, die dann sich produktiver Tatig- keit, insbesondere auch der Anpflanzung von Oelpalmen, zuwenden konnten. Man sollte ja meinen, dass die Leute sich geradezu dazu drangen miissten, nur die Palmfriichte abzuernten und zu verkaufen statt die ganze muhsame Aufbereitung nach ihrer alten Methode durchzufuhren. Aber diese Annahme triigt. Der Neger ist viel zu konservativ, er rechnet sich den Preis der in seinem eigenen Betriebe geleisteten Arbeit sehr niedrig oder auch gar nicht, kann man doch z. B. immer wieder beobachten, dass Maismehl nicht teurer ist als die entsprechende Menge von Mais. So ist es fiir den Europaer auffallend, aber der Denk- weise des Negers vollkommen entsprechend, dass die Versuche, Palmfriichte zu kaufen bisher einen fast vol- ligen Misserfolg bedeuten. Die Anlegung eines Palmol- werkes lediiglich zur Verarbeitung aufgekaufter Friichte ist daher vorlaufig — wenigstens in Togo und Kamerun- nicht zu empfehlen, es wiirde auch kein Oualitatspalmol liefern konnen, weil man nicht daran denken konnte, Friichte nicht nur in ausreichender Menge, sondern auch 30O OILS AND OIL SEEDS von richtigem Reifegrade und sofort nach der Aberntung zu bekommen. Und doch wird man es anstreben miissen, nach und nach auch die Fruchte der Eingeborenen in Palmolwerken zu verarbeiten. Den Uebergang dazu werden diejenigen Palmolwerke bilden, die uber so viel eigene Fruchte verfiigen, um daraus allein rentabel zu sein, deren Leistungsfahigkeit und Verkehrslage ihnen aber zugleich den Ankauf und die Verarbeitung fremder Friichte ermoglicht. So bildet der e u r o p a i s € h e P 1 a n t a g e n b e t r i e b der Oelpalmenkultur eine einstweilen geradezu unerlass- liche Vorbedingung der Einrichtung von Palmolwerken und damit der wichtig'sten Massnahme zur Ausdehnung auch der Eingefoorenenkultur. Er scheint aber auch an sich recht aussichtsreich, falls er mit ausreichenden Mitteln in geeignetem Klima unter- nommen wird. Wohl fehlt es noch an exakten Ziffern, wie wir sie fur Kokospalmen, Kakao und andere Kul- turen haben, dafiir bietet sich aber auch noch vielfach die Moglichkeit vorhandene Oelpalmenbestande zu erwer- ben und in Kultur zu nehmen. Der europaische Plantagenbau wird dabei die Ausfnhr von Palmol neben Palmkernen um so wirksamer steigern als bei ihm das gesamte Palmol-allenfalls bis auf einen kleinen zur Verpflegung der Arbeiter dienenden Teil — zur Ausfuhr gebracht wird. Nimmt man an, dass eine voll tragende Oelpalme jahrlich 25 kg. Fruchte (auf ausgelesene Fruchte umgerechnet) liefert, und dass i ha. mit 200 Palmen bepflanzt wird, so erhalt man pro ha. 5,000 kg. Fruchte oder bei 16 Prozent Ausbringen 800 kg. Palmol. Demnach wiirde eine Plantage von 2,600 ha. die bisherige durchschnittliche Ausfuhr von ganz Togo an Palmol, eine solche von 4,000 ha. diejenige von Kamerun liefern. Man sieht, wie leicht der europaische Plantagenbau eine sehr bedeutende Vermehrung der Palmolausfuhr herbeifuhren konnte. CONTRIBUTION AU PROBLEME DU BUDGET ALIMEN- TAIRE DE L'ELJSIS. CALCUL DES ELEMENTS NUTRITIFS ENLEVES PAR LES PLANTATIONS DE PALMIERS A HUILE. Par GASTON WILLIAME. CE premier essai n'est donne qu'a titre d'indication, vu qu'il ne repose que sur une seule analyse complete d'Elaeis, celle de Zeller, le seul auteur qui se soit essaye a la tache delicate et fatalement imprecise de fixer le bilan des matieres nutritives enlevees par Elseis. Un travail analogue, etabli d'apres une methode sensiblement dif- ferente, a ete fait par Lepine pour un palmier tres voisin, le Cocotier. Sans vouloir discuter a fond les deux methodes, il y a lieu de remarquer que Lepine, contraire- ment a Zeller, ne tient pas compte, dans ses calculs, du bouquet de feuilles terminal qui, constamment entretenu par la foirmation de feuilles nouvelles, immobilise d'une fagon permanente, comme le tronc et les racines, une certaine quantite de matieres nutritives — et que de son cote Zeller ne tient pas compte de 1'age de Tarbre, et par suite ne fait pas le calcul des matieres totales enlevees annuellement et delaisse la question des quantites a restituer chaque annee pour 1'entretien et le developpe- ment du tronc, des racines et du bouquet permanent de feuilles (calculs qui sont donnes en detail pour le cocotier d'apres les analyses de Lepine dans " Le Cocotier " de Prudhomme). II y aurait un grand interet a ce que le travail de Mr. Zeller fut repete en Afrique occidentale et en Malaisie, avec certaines precisions complementaires. Au lieu de moyennes prises entre des resultats obtenus sur des sols qui, selon le hasard, peuvent etre egaux ou differents, et qui ne representent que des valeurs conventionnelles, 3°2 OILS AND OIL SEEDS il vaudrait mieux donner une analyse aussi complete que possible « = £J3 ll 1 "I ' § !"! "sN c •*•• si P 7 g, -rS J I?i| &J _: 3 ^ 5 ^-rt'T' ^g^S g s K 1 ^ .s r^oo w ^ ^S c£ M ^ v tj | S|| 'UjIfS M I : S B, Si ? "b H commune.) 11 P r "i o i ||g :-?^:;-'o 1 1 1 S S o H erf Nff su S5 M^r^_ ^u^ioS" 8 5 < CM 1 : : : : en A 1 1 1 " 1 1 td 'rt 3 J 3 ' 5 c I : : I | I c 1 b ; ; T-7~":~: : ^ V 1 • fed > 0 s K pj .pportant ^ ? ."2 ; •« 0 1 1. i I , ^!l : ec 55 « o. . N cn m Tf ; 0 K^ " \ • • , *S m c 5L.X_V O PLi 111 J^ : 7^7^^4^-r^ 52 J ^ -^ jQjS2:<2wu *% ^ rr 3X7 >-< ^^ — N r^ *• M J91 D II' § 8 ? Jvp? P>8 §v&j?v§ O O fO O O O O < 63 £ I"8 "§ " ^211^ "^ N O N rn bbb < H : : ; : : i C J2 a : : : : : : V i . . g in w M * = ° — 1 « - J*" o '3 ^5j ^ *3 H fe 04 e< £ 1 « c c i-i ^ 2 d .ISg -^8 a CO^HESS, u-> p m c* e* I** mt_, <« -— - r^op •% .*} o t> a i j ex a, 2 2 M LOvoO tO-2 LOMOO OOQ-iO •-" •^-<^)O OX O\ — L^'* ONOO O OO N ro t^ t^ «oo -~-^ o oo ^*- >-H vo i-i ^o inoo c "c III i § 8 ^ScN _ "^ "^ "s -2 N ^ "S,*" ^ c^ Hi 18 2.5 III "* -^ ^ 3 O .S s "a. 3 a* '-a e w w •» 8>3 S g| :vc> f O 3 OT — g O 3 "* 3 "8 a w — ui & -SN? i S S !££ 306 OILS AND OIL SEEDS Origine des Observations du Tableau II (Auteurs ou Rapporteurs). (1) (A.). — Adam, dans " La Palmier a Huile " (Paris, 1910, Challamel), paragraphe sur les rendements, page 116, et sur la composition des fruits, page 125. (2) (C.).— Camayenne (observations faites au Jardin d'Essais de Camay- enne, Guinee, et rapportees dans J. Adam). (3) (D.). — Daniel, du Dahomey (observations rapportees dans J. Adam). (4) (E.). — Esteve, du Dahomey (observations rapportees dans J. Adam). (5) (Fe.). — Fendler (observations sur 1'ELeis du Togo, rapportees dans le Bull, of the Imperial Institute, 1909, No. 4, page 375, d'apres Arbeiten aus den Ph. Inst. Berlin, 1904, page 189). (6) (Fr.). — Freyburges, du Togoland (observations rapportees dans J. Adam). (7) (Ha.).— Hallet, Administrateur-Delegue de Plantations d'Eloeis en Extreme-Orient, dans " Note sur la Question du Palmier a Huile " (Bruxelles, 1912). (8) (Ho.). — Houard, de la Station de Hann, Senegal (observations rapportees dans J. Adam). (9) (Hu.).— Hubert, dans " Le Palmier a Huile" (Paris, 1911, Dunod and Pinat). (10) (Lm.). — Lemoigne, chimiste du Jardin Colonial de Nogent-sur-Marne (observations rapportees dans J. Adam). (n) (L.). — Lepine, pharmacien de marine: observations et calculs rap- portees dans "All about the Coconut Palm," by Ferguson (Colombo, 1907), et dans " Le Cocotier," par Prudhomme (Paris, 1906, Challamel). (12) (Lr.). — Leroide, de la Mellacoree, Guinee (observations rapportees dans J. Adam). (13) (M.). — Maillard (observations rapportees dans J. Adam). (14) (P.). — Poisson (observations rapportees dans " Le Palmier a Huile," de P. Hubert, page 101). (15) (Pr.). — Preuss (id., page 101). (16) (S.). — Savariau, du Dahomey (observations rapportees dans J. Adam). (17) (T.). — Teissonnier, directeur du Jardin d'Essais de Camayenne, Guinee (observations rapportees dans P. Hubert, page 66). (18) (Z.). — Zeller, du Kamerun, dans "Die Dungungsfrage fiir die Kultur des Kakao und der Oelpalme in Kamerun " (Der Tropenpflanzer, 191 1, No. 7, Page 345)- TABLEAU III. — QUANTITES DE MATIERES ENLEVEES PAR UN PALMIER A HUILE (les unes annuellement, les autres en immobilisations per- manentes et sans cesse accrues). Ce Tableati et les suivants ont ct& itablis d'aprts les Analyses de Zeller et de Lepine. Parties de la plante Azote Acide phosphorique Potasse Chaux Kilos Kilos Kilos Kilos Racines (calcul sur 9 kg. 2) ... ©'038 0*0098 0-047 0-0009 Tronc (calcul sur 100 kg.) O'SSI 0-224 0-249 0-309 Feuilles (calcul sur 120 kg., i'6n 0-169 0-699 0*089 20 x 6 kg.) Rafles (calcul sur 7 kg. 59, 0-031 0*007 0-066 0-008 3 x 2-53 kg.) Pulpes (calcul sur 6 kg. 72, 0*060 0'027 0-029 0-043 2,400 x 2 gm. 80) Coques des Amandes (calcul sur 0-037 O'OII O'OII 0-009 10 kg. 32, 2,400 X 4 gm. 30) Amandes (calcul sur 3 kg. 12, 0-035 O-O24 0-014 0-0007 2,400 X I gm. 30) OILS AND OIL SEEDS 307 TABLEAU IV.— QUANTITES DE MATIERES ENLEVEES PAR HECTARE (A RAISON DE 125 ARBRES) (les unes annuellement, les autres en immobilisations permanentes et sans cesse accrues). Parties de la plante Azote Acide phosphorique Potasse Chaux Kilos Kilos Kilos Kilos Racines 4750 1-225 5-875 0*1225 Tronc 66-375 28-OOO 31^25 38-625 Feuilles 201-375 21-125 87-375 11-125 Rafles 3^75 0-875 8-250 I OOO Pulpes 3-125 1-375 1-375 2-125 Coques des Amandes 4-625 1-375 i'375 1-125 Amandes 4'375 3-000 1750 0-0875 Total 288-500 56-975 137-125 53-210 TABLEAU V. — QUANTITES A RENDRE AU SOL PAR AN ET PAR HECTARE EN RAISON DES IMMOBILISATIONS PERMANENTES (en plus de tOUS les dechets et residus de la plantation et des recoltes). Parties de la plante Azote Acide phos- phorique Potasse Chaux Kilos Kilos Kilos Kilos Racines 4750 1-225 5^75 0-1225 Tronc 66-375 28-OOO 3I-I25 38-625 Feuilles (20 en permanence 201-375 2I'I25 87-375 II'I25 dans le bouquet terminal) Total 272-500 50-360 I24-375 49-872 Meme total divise par 15, nombre d'annees du 18-166 3*357 8-292 3-325 palmier Meme total rectifie selon — x 5=16-785 x 3 = 24-876 les idees de Zeller and de Fesca ' Meme total plus un supple- 22-708 20-981 31-095 4-156 ment d'un quart pour accroitre les rendements 1 Les quantites de matieres nutritives doivent etre, d'apres les idees de Fesca et de Zeller, triplees pour la potasse et quintuplees pour 1'acide phos- phorique, vu ^les difficultes d'absorption de ces elements (sous la forme qu'ils aflfectent generalement dans le sol). 3o8 OILS AND OIL SEEDS TABLEAU VI.— QUANTITES ENLEVEES PAR LES RECOLTES PAR AN ET PAR HECTARE (et qu'il faudrait rendre sous forme d'engrais, si Ton negligeait de restituer au sol les feuilles et les dechets de fabrication de 1'huile de palme : rafles, coques, tourteaux). Parties de la plante Azote Acide phos- phorique Potasse Chaux Kilos Kilos Kilos Kilos Rafles ... 3'875 0-875 8-250 I'OOO Pulpes ... 3-125 i '375 !'375 2-125 Coques des 4-625 i'375 1*375 I-I25 amandes Amandes... 4'375 3-000 1-75° 0-0875 Total 16-000 6-625 12-750 4-3375 (correspondant, (correspondant, (correspondant, (correspondant, par arbre, a par arbre, a par arbre, a par arbre, a 0-128) 0-053) 0*102) 0-035) Meme total x 5 = 33-125 x 3 = 38'250 rectifie (correspondant, (correspondant, selon 1 e s par arbre, a par arbre, a idees de 0-265) 0-306) Zeller et de Fesca TABLEAU VII. — QUANTITES TOTALES A RENDRE AU SOL PAR AN ET PAR HECTARE (en raison des immobilisations et des enlevements totaux). Parties de la plante Azote Acide phos- phorique Potasse Chaux Kilos Kilos Kilos Kilos Tronc et racines 7I-I25 29-225 37-000 387475 Meme quantite divisee par 4741 1-948 2-466 2-583 15, age de 1'arbre ; pour avoir le chiffre annuel Feuilles1 120-96 1278 52-56 6-66 Regimes totaux 1 6 -oo 6-625 12-750 4-3375 Total 141-701 21-353 67-776 13-5805 Meme total rectifie selon les — x 5 = 106-765 x 3 -203 -328 idees de Zeller et de Fesca Meme total, plus un supple- 177-126 133-446 254-160 I6-9755 ment d'un quart pour ac- croitre les rendements 1 Calcul base sur 9,060 kilos de feuilles par hectare et par an a raison d'une feuille par mois et 6 kilos par arbre. Pour le calcul total annuel des elements enleves par les feuilles, la methode de Lepine, qui table sur I feuille par mois et par arbre, m'a semble plus rationnelle que celle qui tablerait sur le nombre de feuilles permanentes et diviserait les quantites trouvees par 1'age des arbres. Par centre, pour calculer dans le Tableau V les immobilisations par les feuilles, la meihode de Zeller m'a paru la seule convenable. .S c c a 1/5 ^" II fc. 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II II II II 10 10 10 LO X X X X b b b b i >o vo ?N VO & 810 to o N ^ VO n oo t^ X X X X O ro ONVO N Cs rooo 7!- « O O O O O O W P r p r O O O O 00 W VO VO ,-.!/-._ M ' II II II II age par nu see divi hiffre 8^-513 O ° "» '- oo o w tN.CS I— pNOO VO vb V oo \o m - o» ^ c 4» p s r •8 ^ c u S ees supp ment x. 1 « c — § is «•!» rt O ^ X4J _ ?§• If >-, ed m c 8 re et par an Adam pou de Melaisie . - ^? c S Pl- O t" a|g ign sur 9,00 fonction able II) ; §'3 COCONUT PLANTATIONS IN THE INTERIOR OF AFRICA. By Professor EDM. LEPLAE. Director-General of Agriculture, Colonial Office, Brussels. IT is a common belief that the coconut palm flourishes only in close proximity to the sea-shore. From particu- lars gathered in Central Africa and Brazil, it appears that this tree thrives quite as well, if planted in suitable soils and climates, even at a very great distance from the sea, and in continental situations. Coconut plantations in the interior of Belgian Congo are as yet represented only by small clumps or avenues of coconut palms in a few places on the river in Central Congo. The growth of these palms, however, although planted at a distance of 550 miles from the sea, as at the Eala Botanical Gardens, and at 970 miles, as at Stanley- ville, is quite satisfactory on account, no doubt, of the permanent and warm moisture and the regularly misty nights. The annual rainfall on the northern reach of the river varies between 52 and 80 in.? the average being about 64 in. (1,600 mm.-). On the lower Aruwimi River the average is near 80 in. AVERAGE RAINFALL IN UPPER CONGO. Eala Botanical Gardens ... Average of 2 years 1961-9 m/m. 77-13 in. Barumbu cocoa plantation 2 ,, i6qo-o 66-35 » Yangambi rubber plantation 2 ,, I4I7-5 5575 ,. Gazi 3 » i 960*0 77'i6 „ Stanleyville 2 ,, 1674-0 65'2i „ Lula coffee plantation » 2 „ 1807-5 71-16 ,, The rainfall in these places is fairly well distributed throughout the year, as is indicated in the following table, and there are no real dry seasons. 312 OILS AND OIL SEEDS EALA. YANGAMBI. LULA. M/m. Inches. M/m. Inches. M/m. Inches. January ... 70-95 279 68-7 2-70 61-6 2'42 February 217-8 8'57 80-5 3-17 128-0 5-04 March 1387 5-46 97'IS 3-82 I5I75 5-98 April 1 00- 1 3-94 I72-0 6-77 247*9 9-76 May I77'5 6-99 I52-5 6*00 121-45 478 June I28-9 5-07 84-95 3'34 10775 4*24 July I04-95 4T3 71-35 H5-I5 5-71 August ... I24-2 4-89 67-20 2-64 185-45 7-30 September 23I-6 9-11 I69-45 6-67 185-65 7-3I October November ...»• 285-1 258-95 11-22 lO'II I95'40 183-80 7-70 7-20 200*15 202-15 7-88 7-96 December I23-I5 4-85 74'55 2*93 70-55 2-78 I,96l-90 77*13 I.4I7-55 55-75 1,807-55 71*16 The average temperature is 25*20° C. (77*36° F.), the lowest temperature on record being 20*25° C. (68*45° F.), and the highest 387° C. (ioi'66° F.); the average humidity of the air is 85 per cent. Heavy mists occur nearly every night and the dew drips freely from leaves and twigs every morning. Several varieties of coconut palms were imported from Java, Singapore and Colombo, and show excellent growth at the Eala Botanical Gardens. The following are some of the varieties which are cultivated : — Planted in 1900 : i Co cos nucifera var. incarnata. 1 C. nucifera var. macro car pa. 7 C. nucifera var. viridis. Planted in 1903 : 200 Cocos from Boma. Planted in 1910 : 4 Cocos nucifera var. Ambon. 3 C. nucifera diolca var. Aren Idjo. 3 C. nucifera var. Aren Merah. 2 C. nucifera macrocarpa Klappa Bali. 2 C. nucifera micro car pa var. Ginja. OILS AND OIL SEEDS 313 2 C. nucifera oblonga Klappa Gohtjoh. 1 C. nucifera pub esc ens Klappa Merah. 2 C. nucifera stuposa Klappa Bool. 1 C. nucifera eburnea Klappa Gadiang. 2 C. nucifera subglobosa Klappa Djepoen. 2 C. nucifera subglobosa Klappa Besar. 2 C. nucifera viridis Klappa Idjo. 3 C. nucifera Klappa Matahari Besar. i C. nucifera Klappa Parang Idjo. 1 C. nucifera an gusti folia Klappa Pinang. 2 C. nucifera Klappa Tandoek. 2 C. nucifera Klappa Tikeh Merah. 3 C. nucifera Klappa Tikeh Idjo. 2 C. nucifera Klappa Parang. Planted in 1913 : 5 Cocos nucifera Klappa Merah. 4 C. nucifera Klappa Idjo. 8 C. nucifera Klappa King coconut. The results of the experiments show that the pro- duction of copra is possible in the central part of the Belgian Congo, and the Government is about to start a plantation of a few hundred acres near Yangambi. A well-known copra expert, who travelled recently through Central Congo, considers that there is a great future for coconut plantation in the Equatorial part of Congo. Extensive tracts of suitable land occur which may be leased or bought cheaply from the Government, whilst plenty of native labour is to be found at about 2^d. a day. Large coconut plantations could also be established, combined with cattle raising, round the Tumba or Leopold Lakes and on the natural meadow land extending between the Kasai and N'Fini Rivers, opposite the Government Rubber Plantations of Bokala. The rainfall is neither so heavy nor so regular here as on the Equator, but it averages 52 in. and plenty of land can be selected where underground moisture is always abundant, with- out any excess. The rainfall at Bokala throughout the year is shown in the following table : — OILS AND OIL SEEDS M/m. Inches. January ... February 47'8 225-0 1-88 8-86 March ... 90-5 3-56 April May 93'5 150-3 3'68 5 '92 June July .. 30-6 O'O 1-20 O'O August . . September 24'5 82-6 0-96 3-21 October... November 267-4 1357 10-52 5'34 December 62-6 2-46 1 We have received from the White Fathers at Antwerp photographs taken recently in the Mission Gardens at Beatiduinville and Mpala, on Lake Tanganyika and at Tabora (German East Africa). These pictures show young and full-grown coconut palms that are in the most excellent conditions of growth. Those at Tabora yield heavily. RICERCHE SULLE FORME COLTURALI DI OLIVO BELLA TRIPOLITANIA. Per il Dott. OBERTO MANETTI. Vice Dlrettore dell'Istituto Agricolo Coloniale Itallano di Firenze. LA Tripolitania e il paese dove 1'olivo cresce rigo- gliosamente dovunque e dove la coltura dell'albero sacro a Minerva e tenuta dagli indigeni ancora oggi in altissimo conto. Si puo anzi dire che in Tripolitania 1'olivo e la specie -arborea piu coltivata, dopo la palma da datteri. Ma dove la mancanza e la deficenza di acqua irrigua impedisce la coltivazione della palma, 1'olivo acquista una importanza grandissima, essendo coltivato su larga scala (gran coltura asciutta) sia in boschi di olivi specializ- zati, sia consociato alle cereali, specialmente coll'orzo. Nelle associazioni dei giardini ed orti irrigui della costa (le cosiddette oasi di Tripoli, Tagiura, Zanzur, Sliten, €cc.) 1'olivo si trova coltivato promiscuamente alle palme ed a numero'si altri alberi da frutto ; le cure che si hanno all'olivo in quest e regioni sono pero minori ed inferiori a quelle che invece si praticano per gli olivi dell'altopiano retrostante (gebel), dove le olivete pros- perano con la sola coltura asciutta. Sono note le foreste di olivi (gaba zeitun) dello Msellata e del Carian, dove le piante, spesso secolari, raggiungoino delle proporzioni gigantesche e danno prodotti veramente ragguardevoli. Nelle due regiond soprannominate, e che appartengono all'altipiano Tripoli- tano, il sottoscritto ha raccolto i campioni delle forme colturali di olivo coltivate dagli indigeni ed 'il presente lavoro e una breve esposizione delle ricerche effettuate nei campioni stessi nel Laboratorioi Chimico Agrario dell'Istituto Agricolo Coloniale Italiano di Firenze.1 1 Le olive studiate facevano parte del materiale raccolto dalla Missione Franchetti in Tripolitania, inviata nella nuova colonia Mediterranea Italiana dalla Societa per lo Studio della Libia a compiervi ricerche di tecnica e di economia agraria. v. " Missione Franchetti in Tripolitania," Fratelli Treves editori Milano, 1914, Vol. I. 3l6 OILS AND OIL SEEDS Le forme colturali che sono state studiate sono le seguenti, che riportiamo secondo la denominazione originate degli indigeni. Msellata. (i) Bed hamam, (2) Besri, (3) Enduri, (4) Faggusi, (5) Farcuti, (6) Gheddani, (7) Ghelb sarduc, (8) Giabbugi, (9) Ghergasci, (10) ludi, (n) Limi, (12) Mammudi, (13) Marrari, (14) Mongar agel, (15) Nbuti, (16) Neb gemel, (17) Rasli, (18) Rumi, (19) Safrani, (20) Scemlali, (21) Srasi, (22) Suaba aruss, (23) Tual malig. G.arian. (i) Gherrasi, (2) Crusd, (3) Ghanimi. Naturalmente le denominazioni riportate possono benissimo non corrispondere ad altrettante varieta, ma essere piuttosto forme diverse delle stesse razze colti- vate. E noto infatti che anche in Tunisia il Minangoin, il Kearney ed il Marcille nei loro noti lavori hanno trovato omonimie e sinonimie nelle razze coltivate nel Sahel di Sfax, che non sempre possono essere da noi accettate. Nella presente comunicazione, dato lo scar so materiale che abbiamo potttto fino ad oggi studiare, non si e neppure tentato un lavoro di sintesi e di critica per quello che riguarda la speoificazione delle razze di olive coltivate neH'altipiano della Tripolitania. Abbiamo invece esaminate le forme coltivate, analiz- zandole soprattutto rispetto a tre caratteri fondamentali; il portamento delle piante, la lunghezza delle foglie, e le caratteristiche morfologiche e chimiche principali del frutti. I dati che seguono sono infatti esclnsivamente riferiti ai caratteri sopraindicati. Gli studi ulteriod, sia che siano effettuati con piii lunghi sopraluaghi, sia con ricerche di laboratorio su campioni piu abbondanti e con vero " materiale critico," potranno condurre a delle piu precise nozioni circa la caratterizzazione delle varieta di olivo indigene, coltivate in Tripolitania. Fino a che questi studi non saranno seriamente eseguiti, crediamo che le ricerche da noi effettuate ed i OILS AND OIL SEEDS 317 dati che riportiamo potranno pero costituire un primo contribute alia conoscenza della olivicoltura Tripolitania. Portamento delle piante. Una classificazione anche provvisoria basata sul porta- mento, deirapparecchio vegetative degli olivi non puo certamente essere presa in seria considerazione. Tutti gli olivi dello Msellata, come portamento generate della pianta, si rassomigliano estremamente; solo una grande pratica, come la possono avere i coltivatori indigeni, puo servire a distinguere una forma dall'altra. Ed anzi spesso avviene che anche i piu pratici dei nativisiano incerti a stabilire quale denominazione precisa dare ad un olivo, senza che questo non abbia foglie giovani e frutti. Ad ogni modo abbiamo trovato esemplaro di un portamento maestoso, che fa rammentare quello delle nostre grosse quercie, in molti individui delle forme denominate nbuti, rumi, srasi, scemlali, marrari, neb gemel, rasli, gkerrasi e crusi. Pare invece che siano riconoscibili al portamento sensibilmente meno imponente e piu rassomigliante a quello degli olivi comuni della Liguria e della Toscana le forme dette iudi, faggusi, ghanlmi. Gli stessi indigeni pero non danno alcuna importanza al portamento della pianta, dichiarando essi che la stessa razza o meglio gli olivi della stessa denominazione sogliono cambiare portamento a seconda del luogo, piu o meno favorevole, in cui sono stati piantati. L'acqua di scorrimento degli impluvi (largamente adoperata dai coltivatori indigeni) e Tumidita del suolo, specialm'ente contribuiscono a dare alle piante un portamento piu rigoglioso ed una statura piu grande. Dimensioni delle foglie. Nella tabella seguente abbiamo ottenuti stii resultati di misurazioni eseguite sui picciuoli e sulle lamine delle foglie medie dei rami piu giovani. Le ricerche sono state eseguite su campioni da erbario di olivi raccolti nello Msellata. Le foglie di maggiore dimensione e che anche a prima OILS AND OIL SEEDS TABELLA I. LAMINE FOGLIE MEDIE Nome della forma coltivata Lunghezze medie dei piccioli m/m Lunghezza lungo la nervatura Lunghezza principale m/m massima m/m Msellata. i. Bed hamam — — — 2. Besri 5-8 50-60 12-13 3. Enduri 3-5 50-55 8-10 4. Faggusi ... 3-4 45-55 8-9 5. Farcuti 4-5 45 IO-II 6. Gheddani 3-4 55-65 12-13 7. Ghelb sarduc 2-3 40-45 7-8 8. Giabbugi ... 3-4 45-5° 8-9 9. Ghergasci 3 40-45 7-8 10. ludi 3-4 40-45 9-10 II. Limi 3-4 55-65 10-13 12. Mammudi 4-5 45-50 9-1 1 13. Marrari ... 5 50-65 11-12 14. Mongar agel 5-6 55-6o 9-10 15. Nbuti 5-6 50-70 13-20 16. Neb gemel 6-8 60-65 9-10 17. Rasli 3-5 45-5° IO-II 18. Rumi 5 60-65 14-15 19. Safrani 3 45-50 9-10 20. Scemlali ... 3-4 40-50 8-9 21. Srasi 3 40-50 8-9 22. Suaba aruss 4-5 55-6o 8-9 23. Tual malig 4-5 40-50 8-10 Gar tan . i. Gherrasi ... — 2. Crusi 3. Ghanimi ... — — — vista appaionoi cali — sono quelle degli olivi rumi e nbuti; quelle invece che sono evidentemente piu piccole appar- tengono agli ulivi tipo neb gemel ghelb, sarduc e ghergasci. Si puo dire ad ogni modo che le foglie di olivo raggi- ungono in media una lunghezza lungo 1'asse (escluso il picciolo) di 45-50 mm., ed una larghezza massima di circa 9-10 mm. Le pagine fogliari delle foglie degli olivi Tdpolini non sono quindi sensiibilmente minori in dimen- sioni di quelle degli olivi dell'Europa Meridionale ; cio che sta quindi a denotarci il fatto che gli olivi coltivati localmente non hanno avuto affatto bisogno< di adottare delle disposizioni morfologiche, atte a resistere in OILS AND OIL SEEDS 3*9 modo particolare aH'ambiente spiccatamente piu secco dell'altopiano Tripolitano. E per converse cio dimostra anche che I'olavo in Tripolitania non ha bisogno di special! adattamenti per prosperare. Ricerche sui frutti. Le ricerche sulle olive sono le piu importanti, non solo perche queste rappresentano il prodotto prin- cipale per cui la pianta e coltivata; ma anche perche oggi tende realmente a prevalere tra gli studiosi di olivicoltura 1'idea che le razze di olivo debbono essere classificate, sotto il punto di vista economico, specialmente a seconda dei caratteri morfologici e chimici delle olive.1 Un interessante contribute allo studio delle forme colturali dell' olivo in Tripolitania sarebbe stato fornito dalla conoscenza del raccolto medio in olive per piede, in fas>e di regime della pianta, prendendo a considerare i piedi di ciascuna forma colturale separatamente. Allo stato attuale delle nostre conoscenze agricole sulla Tripolitania, non potremmo peraltro seriamente concludere in pro^ posito, mancandoci non solo i dati sperimentalm€nte rigorosi (che sono I'unica fonte scientifica di tali ricerche), ma risultando contradditorie anche le stesse informazioni degli indigeni; i quali non si danno certo a cercare quale carica precisa o mediamente costante possa raggiungere una forma colturale piuttosto che un'altra. Dati sul raccolto degli olivi tripolitani sono stati radunati dalle .recenti Commissioni Tecniche2 che hanno percorso il paese € lo hanno esplorato dal punto di vista agricolo; ma i risultati delle inchieste sono troppo vaghi perche si possano ritenere come definitivi. Ad ogni modo trattasi isiempre di notizie fornite dagli indigeni e mai di esperienze dirette, anche di semplici coltivatori europei. Cio posto, le nostre indagini si sono applicate special- mente alia ricerca : — i° del peso assoluto e relativo delle olive. 1 V. ad es. I. Ruby, " Contribution a 1'^tude de varietes d'olives tunisiennes," in L1 Agriculture Pratique des Pays Chauds, No. 124, I3me annee, Juillet, 1913. 2V. Missions Agrologica Governativa del Ministero delle Colonie, vol. II, pag. 213, c Missione Franchttti in Tripolitania, vol. I, pag. 442. 32O OILS AND OIL SEEDS 2° del rapporto in peso tra la polpa e il nocciolo delle olive. 3° del diametri (maggiore = D, e minor e = d) delle olive e del rapporto D /d, per ogni forma coltivata. 4° delVumidita c della sostansa grassa greggia delle olive. Nella seguente tabella No. 2 isono riferiti i resultati di ciii al comma i e 2, chie precedono; nella tabella No. 3 sono riportati i dati relativi alle indagini indicate nel comma No. 3; e finalmente nell'nltima tabella No. 4 sono segnate le oifre che riguardano le ricerche di ordine chimico nella polpa delle olive ed elencate nel comma 4. II non abbondante materiale a disposizione ha impedito di estrarre la materia grassa delle olive col comune torchio da laboratoi-io, il ctti uso certo piu che ogni altro apparecchio analitico si sarebbe avvicinato alia pressa da olio, usata anche dai coltivatori arabi (benche in modo assai primitivoi) per otteniere Tolio detto zeit masri; che cotstituisce poi la qualita d'olio principale e piu comune in Tripolitania. Abbiamo quindi sottoposto la polpa secca di olive all'estrattore di Soxlet, togliendo poi air" estratto etereo greggio " le " sostanze non saponi- ficabili " per ottenere quello che abbiamo precedentemente chiamato " sostanza grassa greggia " delle olive. DaU'esame delle tabelle sopra riportate risulta evidente che non poche delle forme colturali degli olivi indigeni coltivati in Tripolitania hanno certam^ente una im- portantanza notevole rispetto al loro prodotto e possono essere suscettibili di un avvenire sicuro. Anche in confronto colle nostre piu comuni razze coltivate in Italia, alcune delle forme colturali Tripolitane studiate rappre&entano sempre un considerevole valore, tale per lo meno da potersi fino ad oggi affermare la necessita di es-eguire sperimentalmente delle prove razionali di coltura colle migliori varieta coltivate indigene.1 Si noti anche che i valori relativi airumidita delle polpe di oliva variano moltissimo. e cioe da un minimo del 1 Le razze indigene di olivo sono anche precocissime per il loro prodotto rispetto alle forme di olivo coltivate in Italia : questo vantaggio notevole non dovra certamente essere trascurato. f]|fi I C « ^ "TOO T rn ON T O ^ ^ M I 0s? TOO 04 *O cs OO vovO T T f^ ^O ON ro ON ON *-« t^» ON O vo ON ON t^ T Ol j; a. 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N to r^ CO fO rt N O OO 00 CO CNmtoOO ON toO ^OO N •<*• O to O O ONOO OO ON ro N t^OO WVOM WOO»-i rht^ro t^OO vo OO Tf -^-OO « O tot^O W »H CO i i OO O -^- O vO ON Tf t^OO r^. O vo ON ON ON r^OO O 00 m >-> to M co oo oo oo oo i^ t^oo *>- too o oo r^.o oo t^ ^oo to to t^oo 3-^ ;3 •3 OOONMNi-tt^iOf^i-cio 'i-O 'NOOOO'OO •<*• <-> N N O t^* t^ M « *>. fOOO t^MOO «ONO N '-i •^-•^OtO'-'OO ON to fO rf- r^ooo g 0 M ONtoONtOO toN 1-1 N ONtOO O O -ii-ii-ir4cl>-iWTftotO>-'WrO»->Mto>-i^-^-Ni^ ON fOI-^ to to to Forme cultural 1 Ij . . ../I _ . ... I..5J 1^. fi 2 W ^ pS O O b O ^1 3 S S S S5 S5 « « «% W crt w H Garian. Gherrasi Crusi ... Ghanlmi >-• N co 4- LOVO t^.00 d\ CD « N to 'i- too r^.00 ON O « N to <-i N fO 324 OILS AND OIL SEEDS 10*26 pOO OO O Jj — £ I H-oc>i-'OO^"|-ipc. ^oo "VrON N M O\ ONOO 00 OO i^vb ioTf 1-1 CO ^- M t^vO O OO VO 00 VO lOfOPJ rt-vo CNOO O OO OO ro oo x1 x- .^ ."• r° i" t° r* ^P P'P i^0^ i0^5 r1 ^ ^" -^ ^° ^>>v? ^^ ^ ^ k. Q. Q\ f^cO N rfvO io fO t^ io\O N OOOOOOO •^••^•^'l-1 N CO « OO >-i\O p**3 o i'l i ; : ij | :_j_ ;| i i : 1^0 1 ;- i ; : i isiliiHillililliliiilli^l roOOONOOOOOOOOOOOOOOvoOO^OOQOOO O N ^* cs *-* ^ ^t" O "^" ^O HH i^ w O"\ i^x ro ^ t^>»vo OO QNOO ^~ O f^^O a u-i Ttoo ^P^P^^P^^PT^" ^'^ ^ M P^ '^ p y^ p* r° ?^ r^~ *O CJvoW'NlO^loro^1- f^CC r^ M OO I^»\O 'O t*^ I^OO O t>* N ^^ O-i i-O'O vO c^ ro LO to cs vO *^ ^™* O ^ O^ ON r^-O *O *-O c** t^vo ^ VO I -2 OOOO QOOOOOOOOOOOOQOOOOOOOOO j^ T^- t^*, ONOO O *O W t^. O NH •"•* ^ hH ^" f^ C^ O O t^^'O ^O *O *O OO O 8 r^vO^-OCNOfO^Tl-NNvOOOO^^^OiOtn^-ovONvO ^ M *. o O <^oo oo r^ r^vo ^O'OLO^-NI-I — wi-cOOO ^ WN«tS«WM«»-ll-IH4l-H»WW«l-IIHM«MSw VO o = S :'3 I ' "1l "" o I,2 " c^ t^ O TT- N ^ovo O <^~> -<4-oo N r» vo LOOO oo r^r^r-^i^iofot^i*. rooo •- O O\ N ro p\ T^^O ?^^ N P^^P ^9/300 t^rt-r^t^O O O *** Tj-OO I rOOO N LO 10 O U • 2 'a W)^ • tjo : .^ • • • «-t»*e *s >• ss 'S «J T3 o S cjs rt S .- * rt S ^s .- — w -5; *2 ' ~ N ro ^ »0\0 txOO 0> ° £ 2 £? 5" t?"2 ET'S 2" S N N C? w" OILS AND OIL SEEDS Spetta alia sperimentazione avvenire, fatta sul posto con materiali seriamente raccolti successivamente per piu anni, e per k stesse piante studiati, a dire Tultima e decisiva parola sul valore delle olive coltivate dagli indigeni in Tripolitania. Si potra allora anche prendere in conscderazione i caratteri morfologici del nocciolo e quelli deH'oliva nel loro complesso, nonche ricercare con la mass'ima approssimazione il rendimento medio in olio clie i prodotti delle diverse razze coltivate possono dare neH'oleificio razionale. Detti stud*, per la scarsezza del materiale, per la mancanza del tempo e dei mezzi nec^s- sari ed infine per la non perfetta conservazione delle olive studiate, non e stato possibile e&eguire per ora. Cio detto esponiamo nella tabella che segue la gradu- atoria delle forme colturali di oMvo tripolitano in ordine alia maggiore evidenza ed importanza dei caratteri mor- fologici >e chimici, da noi presi in considerazione. Da quanto brevemente abbiamo esposto crediamo di poter dedurre quanto segue : — i° La Tripolitania ha molteplici forme coltivate di olivo, che uno studio piu dettagliato potra ridurre ad un numero di razze forse piu piccolo. 2° Alcune delle forme coltivate dimostrano di essere stpecdalmente adatte a dare un prodotto ottimo per lo meno in quantita percentuale ; dette forme debbono essere prese in seria considerazione dai coltivatori e dagli esperimentatori Italiani nella Colonia. 3° Tra le fonne colturali esaminate specialmente quelle denominate : Safrdni, Mongar a gel, Giabbugi, Enduri, Rasli, Suabd aruss si dimostrano particolarmente degne di -essere in avvenire studiate ed estese nella grande col- tura asciutta Tripolitana. 4° Sara sommamente importante intraprendere uno studio dettagliato e continuato degli olivi tropolitani da parte delk Autorita Agronomiche della Colonia, potendo la coltura deH'olivo seriamente contribuire alia razionale e rapida messa in valore agraria della Tripolitania. RISULTATI ANALITICI DELLE RICERCHE SU ALCUNI OLII BELLA TRIPOLITANIA. Per il Dott. ALESSANDRO MORESCHINI. AVENDO avuto occasione di esaminare in questo Laboratorio gli estratti eterei di 23 varieta di olive (polpe) provenienti dalla Msellata trovai tin contenuto elevatis- simo in sostanze non saponificabili: Da 1*57 ad 8*69 per cento, quindi sempre in dose molto maggiore della massima, che sulla fede del Dott. F. Czapek (confronta Biochemic der Pflanzer, pag. 713) sarebbe, per quanto si sappia, del 3 per cento. Credetti di poter spiegare il fatto con la presenza di sostanze coloranti (non sempre possibili a separarsi senza grandi perdite dall'esigua quantita di estratto che avea a mia disposizione), colla constatata presenza di gliceridi assai refrattari, e quindi facili a sfuggire, alia saponificazione (cio che potrebbe •interpetrarsi con la presenza di trioleina) e fors'anche con qualche alterazione dovuta alia lunga permanenza dei campioni nel liquido conservatore (alcool). Avendo potuto piu tardi disporre di altri campioni di olive piu coltivate nel Garian e di olii provenienti da Zanzur e dalla Msellata, mi proposi di determinate : — i° La quantita di soistanze non saponificabili sugli estratti eterei di olive conservate a secco. 2° La proporzione degli acidi grassi solidi e liquid! alia temperatura ordinaria (sapendosi gia che molti olii Tunisini e Libici sono assai ricchi in acidi grassi solidi in confronto di olii Europei) allo scopo finale di vedere quale delle varieta di olive possedesse in minor grado il lamentato inconveniente e fosse quindi da preferirsi per le piantagioni avvenire. 3° La eventuale influenza del metodo di preparazione deH'olio (p>ressione o sbattimento nell'acqua; separazione delle pople dal nocciolo). 4° Verificare 1'eventuale reazione d'Alphen e di Beau- doin (modificata da Villavecchia e Fabris) lamentato da . Si ?iS J "? E O •-« oo '-o oo VO Ji p ON ON 8 < 0 a S g s"« ? "vN 2" °° ° 8 §1? PS'< 1 = = o| u^ — tN O O 8 U OO IJ") vO J^. rO Q 'S £ ^" N M rt O a O vO V vO TJ- LO CM OO OO >J^ 8 o H4 1-1 Tt- f-x IN «r> IO CM HH 8 • o ^ o : .j, "o "3 'w ' c 0 S.O 0 O f» O* c .-, cr •T3 —i 13 o c.2 e prime rieerche mi propongo di indagare sotto quali condizioni intrinseche od estrinseche di vegetazione possa variare la composizione degli olii. THE FIXED OILS OF CEYLON. By ALFRED LEWIS, F.L.S. Late Conservator of Forests, Ceylon. THE natural oils of Ceylon may be classed under two heads — Fixed and Essential — both of which are obtained from trees and plants common to, or introduced into, the Island. So far, no mineral oils have been obtained. Of the vegetable oils we have two classes, viz. (a) those used by the rural inhabitants for domestic pur- poses confined to home use, either medicinal or other- wise, and (b) those entering into commercial use or trade. Of the former, with a few exceptions, the quantity is generally restricted to the specific wants that call them into use, so that while the source of supply is not specially limited, the demand is. It may therefore be desirable to refer to this section as oils of minor import- ance, leaving all the others under the head of commercial fixed oils. Section i. — Fixed Oils of Minor Importance. (1) Trichadcnia seylanica, Thw. (1855) (" Tolol," or " Thitta-etta," Sing.). The oil from this rather scarce wet-zone tree, is obtained by first bruising the seeds by pounding them, and then compressing the meal so obtained in a rough lever-press, acting on the envelope containing the crushed seeds. A small quantity of thick oil is thus obtained and used for skin diseases. It is supposed to be efficacious in forms of ecthyma. (2) Plydno carpus venenata, Gaertn. (1788) (" Makulu," Sing.). — An oil is obtained from the seed of this plant that is alleged by the natives to be of use in leprosy. Little is known of the method of obtaining the oil, but it is believed to be by first crushing the seeds and then boiling, the oil being skimmed off after. The " Makulu " tree is fairly abundant in Ceylon as 332 OILS AND OIL SEEDS a riverside tree, and is found from sea-level to about 2,000 ft. altitude. The fruits are narcotic and are used as a fish poison. It is alleged, and with good grounds for belief, that during the season when this plant is in ripe fruit, it is unsafe to eat fish or crayfish caught in the streams where the " Makulu " trees are very abundant, as the flesh of these animals becomes poisoned while they have been feeding on the decomposed seeds. This plant, like the last-mentioned species, belongs to the Bixaceae. (3) Garcinia cchinocarpa, Thw. (1854) (" Madol," Sing.). — One of the Guttiferse, a widely distributed endemic tree, found chiefly in the wet parts of the island up to high altitudes. In many parts of the country it is particularly plentiful, as is indicated by the place- name, Madolkelle (i.e., the forest of " Madol "). The oil obtained from the seed was at one time commonly used as an illuminant by the poorest classes, but it has been almost entirely superseded by kerosene . The oil was extracted by first pounding the kernels, and then exposing the pounded mass, spread thinly over a mat, to the sun, till the required degree of rancidity was obtained, and finally compressing the material in a wedge or lever-press. The crude oil so obtained is thick and of a dark brown colour. It burns moderately well. (4) Calophyllum Inophyllum, Linn. (1753) " Tel- domba," Sing., " Punnai," Tamil). — Known to early writers as the " Punnai-nut," in which at one time there was some considerable trade. The seeds possess a high percentage of oil, which is obtained by crushing and pressure. This oil is known in Europe as Domba-oil, and is valued as an external application in rheumatism and in itch. The oil is thick and dense, and when fresh is yellowish in colour and fragrant. This species is also one of the Guttiferae. It is chiefly confined to the low-country, and is found both in the wet and dry zones. It is frequently found in comparative abundance on the sea-coast, but it is not a forest tree. The export of " Punnai " nuts from Ceylon at one time showed a value, according to the Customs figures, of Rs. 12,300, but the trade in this commodity is now very restricted. OILS AND OIL SEEDS 333 (5) Calophyllum tomentosum, Wight (1843) (" Kina "). — The oil obtained from the seed of this species by expression is dense, sticky, and fragrant. It is highly valued by natives for scabies, but its use is purely local. The " Kina " tree is moderately abundant throughout the western forests of the island above 2,000 ft. altitude, but becomes rare at 4,000 ft. It affords an excellent timber for house-building purposes. (6) Mesua ferrea, Linn. (1753) ("Na," Sing.; "Iron- wood "). — This guttiferous tree affords one of our most valuable building woods, the timber being both hard and very durable. The " Iron-wood " tree is found widely distributed throughout the island, and occurs both as a purely forest tree and as an introduction in those localities where from its great beauty and fragrant flowers it has special use as a " Sacred tree." In this way the " Iron-wood " tree has been introduced into many parts of the dry zone, though its natural localities are in the wet forests. It is common in India, Burma, and in the Andamans. In Ceylon it is found at 200 ft. to 4,000 ft. altitude in the western side of the island. The fixed oil is obtained from the seeds by bruising and expressing. It is valued in native medicine for external application in cutaneous diseases, and is also used as an embrocation in rheumatic complaints. (7) Asadirachta indica, A. Juss. (1830) (" Margosa " tree, or "Nim"; " Kohomba," Sing.; "Vempu," or " Veppanai," Tamil). — This handsome tree, belonging to the Meliaceae, is chiefly confined to the dry country. It is abundant near the coast, especially in districts where the Tamil population preponderates, and who probably introduced it. The seed yields a most cherished oil, obtained by crushing and expressing. The oil is in high favour, owing to its antiseptic pro- perties, hence its use in dressing all manner of foul ulcers in animals as well as human beings. It is used alone, or in conjunction with other oils, in eczema, scrofula, and other skin diseases, and its application in a crude form to the body is alleged to be stimulating. The Tamils also eat the oil mixed with boiled rice as a remedy for intestinal worms. Applied to the hair, 334 OILS AND OIL SEEDS Margosa oil is used for the destruction of lice, and it is applied as a dressing in sores on cattle to prevent flies from affecting the wound or ulcer. To the European, however, the odour of Margosa oil is intolerable, as its smell is like rotten garlic. It is believed that this tree, planted near villages, acts as a prophylactic against malaria. It is nowhere found as a forest tree in Ceylon, but its occurrence in abandoned villages has sometimes led to the erroneous idea that it is a wild species here. (8) Kokoona seylanica, Thw. (1853) (" Kokun," Sing.). — One of the Celastracese, and chiefly confined to the wet forests, and occasionally found in some abundance. In the large Gillimale village, through which the Pilgrims' path from Ratnapura to Adam's Peak passes, a small local trade is carried on during the pilgrim season in the oil obtained from the seed of this plant. The oil is a thick, dark, tar-like liquid, obtained by expression from the pounded seeds, and is used entirely for removing or keeping off leeches from the feet and legs of the pilgrims. By smearing- the oil over the feet, the leeches are destroyed, the effect being to cause the animal to fall off and die, much in the same manner as follows from the application of strong tobacco juice. The oil is sold for as much as Rs. 8 per pint, and is locally known as " Pottu-eta-tel." It is said to be highly poisonous and intensely bitter, but its use appears to be very little known outside the village named, where the writer first found it in use in 1890. (9) Bassia longifolia, Linn. (1771) ("Mi," Sing.; "Illupai," Tamil). — A very magnificent deciduous tree, generally found in the low-country, where it has been introduced and to a great extent become naturalized. It is, however, rarely found above 2,000 ft. altitude, except under very favourable conditions. This sapotaceous tree affords abundant crops of seed, which are pounded, and the fixed oil is obtained by ex- pression; various methods are in use for that purpose, such as lever-presses, wedge-presses, and rope compres- sion. The oil is used as an illuminant, and at one time was OILS AND OIL SEEDS 335 in considerable demand for this purpose, till the more useful and cheaper kerosene displaced it. It is, however, still valued as a specific for skin diseases, and is applied in swellings as an embrocation. The oil-cake is exported from Jaffna, and appears under the title of " Arrapo." (10) Alenrites triloba, Forst. (1771) (" Tel-kekuna," Sing.; " Candle-nut"; " Otaheite walnut").— One of the Euphorbiaceae and introduced into Ceylon probably from the South Pacific or Moluccas where it is natural. In Ceylon it is cultivated, and becomes a large handsome tree, found in some abundance in the Central Province and again in the Sabaragamuwa Province up to about 3,000 ft. altitude. Its value in Ceylon as an oil-producing plant has not received much attention, notwithstanding the high oil content of the seeds, probably owing to the exceedingly hard shell enclosing the kernel, for the rapid and cheap treatment of which no machine has, so far, been intro- duced. The fact that about 10,000 gallons of oil are annually produced in the Sandwich Islands should warrant its better attention in Ceylon, where, however, so little value is attached to it that the " Kekuna " trees are frequently felled and the timber used for making very inferior packing-cases. In parts of the country, however, where the seeds can be obtained in considerable quantity, the oil is used as an illuminant. It burns with a bright clear light, and is free from smell. (n) Croton Tigliwm, Lirin. (" Jaya-pala," Sing.; " Cro- ton "). — An introduced plant, probably brought to Ceylon previous to the occupation of the country by the Dutch, but at no time has it attracted much native attention, probably owing to its poisonous nature. After the disaster which overtook the coffee enterprise, a little attention was paid by Europeans to this product, result- ing in the export in 1893 reaching as much as 262 cwts., valued at about Rs. n per cwt. The demand, however, at no time justified any serious attention being devoted to Croton as a commercial enterprise. In native medicine the oil is valued, not only as a drastic purgative, but, in association with coconut and OILS AND OIL SEEDS other oils, as a liniment. The fumes from roasting Croton seeds, inhaled through the nose, are alleged to relieve asthma. In Indian native medicine Croton enters frequently, in connection with other oils, juices, or pulps. The local methods of preparation of the oil vary generally with the specific purpose to which it has to be applied; thus, in some cases, it is obtained by expression, and in others, by boiling with milk. (12) Ricinus communis, Linn. (" Endaru," Sing.; the castor oil of medicine). — The date of the introduction of this well-known plant into Ceylon is uncertain, but probably it was first brought from India. It is found over nearly the whole island, both in wet and dry dis- tricts alike, but except as " escapes " it is nowhere actually wild. The oil is obtained both by expression and by boiling, and is in very large demand for medicinal purposes, and as a machine o>il or lubricant. Among the Tamils, who call the oil " Velakennai," it is particularly popular, especially for local application, it being no uncommon sight to find a Tamil wroman smear- ing the body of her infant with it till the child looks as if it was bathed in this uninviting substance. Apart from its known value as a purgative, other parts of the plant are reputed to be important in native medicine, a decoction of the root being used, for example, in pleurodynia. The leaves are esteemed as of value for affections of the eye. The meal, or " poonac," as it is called, which is left after the oil has been expressed from the seeds, con- stitutes a most valuable manure, very large quantities being imported into the island from India and elsewhere for this purpose. The cultivation of the castor oil plant in areas not adapted to permanent cultures is worthy of serious atten- tion, both in view of the demand for the product and the ease with which it can be raised. Section 2. — Fixed Oils of Major Importance. (i) Coeds nucifera. Linn. (1753) ("Pol," Sing.; " Ten- nai," Tamil; the coconut of the European). — The intro- duction of the coconut into Ceylon is a matter of much OILS AND OIL SEEDS 337 academic interest, but it is inappropriate here to deal with this particular question. It is, however, significant that the historical work — the Mahawanso — does not refer to it before the reign of Parakarama the First, that is, about 1153 A.D., nor does it speak of the coconut as an article of food. Since its introduction, however, it has been systema- tically cultivated throughout the greater part .of the island, except where arid conditions on the one hand, or altitude on the other, precluded its successful rearing. The trade in coconut oil and copra alone has for the last fifty years formed a prominent item in the commerce of this island, and in recent years has attracted much capital from outside the colony. It is noteworthy of remark, that writing in 1817, Dr. Davy refers to an extensive plantation of coconut trees situated about i£ miles from Ruwanwella, as being the property of Government. In 1839 the value of the coconut oil exported amounted to £26,597, increasing in 1859 to £118,864. In 1841, systematic coconut cultivation by Europeans, on an ex- tensive scale, was first commenced. In 1861, in the Northern Province, thirty estates were in European hands, while twenty were owned in the Eastern, and some thirteen in the Western Province. From that time the development of the enterprise grew steadily and became more and more in the hands of the natives. Our exports now extend practically to all the chief markets of the world. The exports of copra and coconut oil from Ceylon in the years 1840 to 1910 are shown in the tables on pages 338 and 339 : - The old methods of oil extraction, with the aid of the cattle mill or " Chekku," are still followed in many parts of the country, but modern machinery has largely re- placed these romantic methods of two centuries ago. The sound of the creaking mill is still heard in the wilder parts of Ceylon, where modern ways and means have not entered and destroyed the rustic simplicity of the people or their quaint tools of trade. Ceylon coconut oil has always stood high in the estimation of merchants, owing to its purity and clear- ness, and it is probably due to this factor that it has 22 OILS AND OIL SEEDS EXPORTS OF COPRA AND COCONUT OIL FROM CEYLON, 1840 TO 1888.' Year COPRA COCONUT On. Quantity Value Quantity Value Cwts. £ Gallons £ 1840 6,605 2,507 475,742 32,481 1840-1 3»639 1,458 321,965 24,061 1841-2 8,419 3,020 475,967 34,242 1843) no records 1844} available 1845 1846 10,562 13,829 3,175 5,506 282,186 123,980 15,944 7,938 1847 14,811 6,503 197,849 18,541 1848 33.535 12,638 311,526 and 8 pkgs. 24,838 1849 29,360 7,819 513,278 34,831 1850 11,305 4,165 407,959 35,035 1851 27,026 9,678 443,698 and 22 jars 31,444 1852 39,173 13,325 749,028 and 4 pkgs. 58,045 1853 37,577 16,183 1,033.973 95,990 1854 52,841 30,200 1,059,272 121,297 1855 27,296 16,586 908,742 108,913 l856 29,910 16,446 1,046,326 and i case 101,590 1857 19,554 11,627 1,679,258 212,184 Cwts. 1858 32,609 19,565 62,450 77,716 1859 10, 08 1 6,049 95,515 118,864 1860 13,766 8,260 124,480 154,909 1861 27,279 16,368 83,605 104,043 1862 19,595 ",757 H4,873 142,953 1863 33,723 20,234 150,967 187,853 1864 29,326 17,795 180,755 224,947 1865 11,998 7,199 94,563 120,678 1866 55,569 33,032 83,800 104,400 1867 23,302 i3,98i 108,119 134,548 1868 5,338 3,203 114,416 142,385 1869 17,648 10,589 103,826 129,200 1870 40,638 31,678 135,658 170,211 1871 50,573 44,625 207,136 257,519 Rs. Rs. 1872 4i,75i 277,389 278,216 3,306,891 1873 34,46i 190,868 113,871 1,418,183 1874 29,362 188,417 145,078 and 21 pkgs. 1,806,629 1875 8,021 50,264 1 23,854 and 9 pkgs. 1,541,722 1876 28,115 174,196 212,971 and 32 pkgs. 2,653,162 1877 19,593 158,637 132,740 1,651,880 1878 45,705 398,592 175,423 2,183,052 1879 64,862 529,651 218,389 2,717,739 1880 92,761 912,489 352,479 4,386,414 1881 54,139 365 , 474 201,566 2,508,378 l8«2 95,837 716,834 210,954 2,625,207 1883 171,049 ,496,239 348,381 4,335,420 1884 202,203 ,644,332 383,955 ! 4,778,H5 1885 161,710 ,277,003 265,183 3,300,065 1886 156,519 ,377,401 277,3H 3.450,985 1887 136,346 ,070,561 323,445 4,025,098 1888 147,355 ,254,904 364,116 4,531,222 1 Figures not available separately for Colombo and Galle for these years. OILS AND OIL SEEDS 339 00 *O »-" r»- O )-'*>»<* m O N O oo -• ONVO O t^O inOMOi-i N O O tOl^ ro O -sf LOVO VO OOf>»'-'t^O t^DO Os (^OOO *-O N ^t" N *O l>* f^) "^"VO T? T? ^vrT lOVCf 10 ^O ^ ^O LO lOvcT ON &QQVQQQ O O ** ^O t>.O ONI-< t^ONfO^N ^^O to ON t^OO t-i ro to 1-1 t^ t-^vO "4-O row voro^> rj-O "-> ON'-'OOOO ONQO *O OO ON vO'-ifO Tf rt-^O •* to rr ••*• to to to 1 w ONOOOOOOto QOOQtoOQ fOfO ^xOO to to HH M ON r^.OO tooo VO PO fOOO PO »-H \O ONOO vO O N "**• N to r^oo NmONi M«tooNfOf5'-i i O tot^oovo O ^^•«^».M L « «K*> •*!_•*_»..-.** mm HH M HH N ON to tovO t^OO O T O N to O ONVO t** *O ro\O to ON to oo **• "-i 1-1 ^00 t^ t^ rovO t^vO ON to w OO t^ N ro r>. ^i-vO ON t^ fi fO \O ONI-I M *-> >-< t^ N ONrhOOO N ^00 M tot^i^ONNOO^O ON Tt- 500 VD « to ro ^- -. OM-, OO O OO.OO ^-r^.oo O mvb N T? d" ON O >-< N ro ^ «ovo r^oo ON O "-1 N ^^ ^ "-^^Q r^OO ON O OO ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON OOOOOOQOOO*— ' OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ONONONONONO^ONONONONON 34O OILS AND OIL SEEDS always been in steady demand, and, unlike other Ceylon- grown products, has been free from violent and sudden fluctuations in price, "to the danger of trade. (2) Sesamum indicum, Linn. (1753) (" Tala," or " Tel- tala," Sing.; "Ella/' Tamil).— This plant is one of the Pedaliacese, and affords the " gingelly oil " of commerce. Two varieties exist in Ceylon, one with pale pinkish- purple flowers, and the other white. It is practically a weed, and is often found growing wild in waste ground, but it probably was at once time introduced into the country. It is planted as a " Chena " crop in the dry districts, but authorities vary greatly as to the yield per acre. In parts of the Southern Province it produces very large crops, but that notwithstanding, its systematic cultiva- tion is not followed. In the North-Central Province it is more regularly cultivated than in the South, and forms an important element in the trade of the poorer classes, the price obtained for the oil being about Rs. 3 per gallon. Three varieties of the seed are found, known as black, white and red. Of these, black is the most common, and produces the best quality of oil. The oil is of medicinal value, in addition to its use as an illu- minant, being used in native medicine as a demulcent and laxative. A poultice made from the seed is frequently a favourite for sores. The meal is in large demand for manurial purposes, and is largely imported for that purpose into the island. The local trade in gingelly seed is considerable, and large quantities are exported to India and elsewhere, where its value as a commercial commodity is appreciated much in the same way as rape seed in Europe and for like uses. Wood Oils. A passing reference to wood oils may not be out of place, though practically one kind alone is worthy of note. This is a thick, turgid, sub-resinous fluid, obtained from a gigantic Dipterocarp, known as " Dorana " (Diptero carpus glandulosus, Thw.). The oil is obtained by first excavating a deep notch OILS AND OIL SEEDS 341 in the stem of the tree and Lighting, within the cavity so formed, a small fire from broken coconut shells or wood chips. The heat from the flame draws the wood oil down, which trickles into the back or apex of the cavity cut into the wood, from which it is removed later. This crude process of extraction is both wasteful and destructive to the tree, and many splendid " Dorana " trees are completely destroyed thereby. This is the more deplorable as the tree is by no means abundantly dis- tributed in our forests, and where it occurs it is usually confined to restricted gregarious clumps or clusters of no great extent. " Dorana " oil is one of the ingredients used in the preparation of pigments for Kandyan paintings. It is generally used mixed with the resin of the " Hal " tree (Valeria indlca. Linn.), the combination making an ex- cellent varnish. The oil is also employed in a native method of catching the rice-bug (Leptocorisa varicornis\ which is often very plentiful and exceedingly disastrous to the rice crop. In this process, known in Singhalese as " Bokkugewima," the wood oil is added to the latex of a species of Wil- lughbeia, or a Palaquium, and mixed into a viscous mass. This fluid is then placed in a shallow scoop, or boat- shaped vessel, made from closely plaited bamboo, that is sufficiently porous to allow the mixture to ooze through slowly so as to cover the lower sides of the apparatus with a thick, gummy slime. The scoop is attached to a light frame that in turn is attached to a long slender pole by means of which the scoop is swept over the rice fields, just at the time the young ears of rice are beginning to ripen, the rice-bugs being caught on the sticky slime. In parts of the Ratnapura District of the Sabaragamuwa Province this form of "bug-liming" is much in vogue, but where the fields are very large there are obvious practical objections to its general application. ' Dorana " oil is believed to be of value as a remedy for rheumatic affections. Another wood oil obtained from an allied tree (Dip- terocarpus zeylanicus, Thw.) is used for caulking cracks in boats or canoes. It is more resinous than the last, and 342 OILS AND OIL SEEDS when dry forms a thick, water-tight paste. This wood oil, known as " Hora-itti," is obtained either by cutting the tree down and allowing the oil to flow naturally, or by cutting deep notches into the stem of the tree, into which the liquid exudes without heating. Mixed with beeswax, the wood oil of D. zeylanicus affords a rough varnish, but this is not much used. Its medicinal value does not appear to be high. SUE LA COMPOSITION DE DIVERSES GRAINES OLEAGINEUSES DE L'AFRIQUE FRANCAISE. Par M. ALEXANDRE HEBERT. Nous avons eu occasion, dans ces derniers temps, d'etudier diverges graines oleaguneuses provenant des possessions africaines franchises, et qui n'avaient pas encore etc examinees au point de vue chimique. De ces graines, les unes sont originaires de 1'Afrique occidentale : Soudan et Gabon; les autres proviennent de Madagascar. Nous donnons ci-apres I'etude particuliere de chacune d'elles. FRUITS DE Sorindeia oleosa. i° La matiere premiere de cette etude consistait en fruits iseches au sole'il de Sorindeia oleosa. A. Chev., qui nous avaient ete adresses par M. Auguste Chevalier et qui provenaient d'un arbre commun au Soudan. Ce sont des fruits a noyau entoure de pulpe et de la grosseur d'une cerise; ils ont deux usages et ont ete examine a deux points de vue : — (i) La pulpe ou pericarpe du fruit est tres sucree; dans le pays d'origine, on fait fermenter ces fruits pour en obtenir une boisson analogue au cidre; (2) 1'amande de la graine proprement dite, qui forme le noyau du fruit, est tres oleagineuse; on en extrait de Thuile et on en prepare du savon. II convenait done de verifier, d'une part, la nature et la proportion du sucre existant dans la pulpe du fruit; d'autre part, la quantite et les proprietes de la matiere grasse contenue dans les amandes. 2° Pour effectuer Tetude chimique de ces fruits aux points de vue qui nous interessaient, nous avons com- mence par separer les pulpes et les noyaux. A oet effet, 500 grammes de ces fruits seches ont ete mis en contact avec une quantite d'eau froide suffisante pour les re- couvrir; apres 24 heures de sejour, ils s'etaient gonfles et etaient d'une consistance telle qu'ils pouvaient etre 344 °ILS AND OIL SEEDS malaxes dans 1'eau sans risquer d'ecraser les noyaux. Ceux-ci, separes ainsi des pulpes, ont ete desseches a Tair et mis de cote pour un examen ulterieur. On les a trouves en proportion de 40 pour 100 des fruits, accusant ainsi 60 pour 100 de pulpes. Les pulpes gonflees ont ete epuiseesi a trois reprises par 1'eau froide pour dissoudre toutes les matieres solubles et notamment les sucres qua s'y trouvaient. Finalement le residu a ete presse et le liquide provenant de ce pres- surage a ete joint aux liqueurs d'epuisement. Celles-ci ont ete defequees par le sous-acetate de plomb et le liquide filtre a ete debarrasse de 1'exces de plomb par Thydrogene sulfure. La solution incolore ainsi obtenue a ete concen- tree dans le vide au bain-marie a tres ba&Sie temperature jusqu'a consistance sirupeuse, puis abandonnee a elle- meme. Elle a refuse de cristalliser, malgre tous les subterfuges habituels employes dans ce but : concen- trations divenses, reprises par Talcool traitement au noir animal, etc. Le sir op reduisait energiquement la liqueur de Fehling, donnait avec Tacetate de phenyl-hydrazine une osazone cristallisee en aiguilles groupees en forme d'eventail, fusibles a 200° et correspondant aux pro- prietes de la phenyl-glucosazone, deviait enfin a gauche le plan de polarisation de la lumiere, mais cette deviation co-rrespondait a une quantite de sucre reducteur bien plus faible que celle indiquee par le titrage a la liqueur de Fehling. Somme toute, ces caracteres repondaient au sucre interverti. D'autre part, on a trouve dans une quantite donnee des fruits sees, epuises par Teau froide comme nous 1'avons indique, et par titrage a la liqueur de Fehling, une pro- portion de 22 pour 100 de sucres reducteurs et une quantite nulle de sucres non reducteurs. Si nous ad- mettons dans ces fruits, a Petat frais, une teneur en eau egale a 90 ou 95 pour 100, teneur qu'on retrouve general- ment dans les fruits de ce genre, la proportion de sucres reducteurs correspondrait a i : 10 ou 2 : 20 pour 100 des memes fruits a Tetat frais. II resulterait de ces experiences que les matieres sucrees des fruits de Sorindeia oleosa, A. Chev., seraient constituees par du sucre interverti, melange de glucose OILS AND OIL SEEDS 345 et de levulos>e, ce qui justifierait leur emploi indigene pour la preparation d'une boisson plus ou moins alcoolique, et du genre du cidre, mais qui, en tous cas, ne peut certainement etre que tres peu riche en alcool. 3° Les noyaux, obtenus comme nous 1' avoirs dit, et qui constituaient 40 pour 100 des frudts sees, renferment 24 pour 100 de ces memes fruits sees en amandes. Celles- ci, apres broyage et extraction a la benzine, lui abandon- nent une matdere grasse dont la proportion atteint 25 pour 100 des fruits sees. La matiere grasse obtenue est solide a la temperature ordinaire, de couleur brunatre et presente les constantes suivantes : — • Densitea 17° ... Point de fusion Point de congelation Indice d'acidite ,, de saponification ,, de Reichert ,, d'Hehner d'iode .. 0-889 16-17° 12-13° 4-90 185-00 7-92 9175 132-00 La graisse de Sorindeia oleosa, A. Chev., isapondfiee par la soude alcoolique et acidifiee, fournit 92 pour 100 environ d'acides gras, jaunatres, solides a la temperature ordinaire, fusibles a 39°-4O°. La separation des acides gras satures et incomplets effectuee par Tepuisement a Tether des sels de plomb, a donne 24 pour 100 d'acides incomplets, liquddes, de couleur jaune brunatre, et 76 pour 100 d'acides satures, solides, colores en jaune brun, fondant a 44°-45°. Ce point de fusion assez bas indique 1'existence, dans la graisse etudiee, d'acides gras relative- ment inferieurs. L'usage de la graisse de Sorindeia oleova, A. Chev., pour la preparation du savon se com- prend ains-i parfaitement, cette substance grasse d'une part ne paraissant pas comestible, :et d'autre part don- nant des acides gras a point de fusion trop bas pour servir a la fabrication de bougies >oiu meme de chandelles. GRAINES DE Chrysopkyllum congoense.1 i° Ces graines constituent les fruits d'une sapotacee provenant d'un tres grand arbre qui croit dans la foret 1 Par MM. Alexandra Hebert et Auguste Moog. 346 OILS AND OIL SEEDS vierge du Gabon et qua ressemblent absolument aux graines du Gambeya congoensis, Pierre (ined. in Herb. Mus. Paris).2 Ces graines ont ete recueillies au Gabon, a Agonen- zorck, sur le Komo, dans la foret vierge; elles ont ete sechees a Tair avant leur 'expedition. A cet etat, tel qu'elles nouis ont ete remises, elks pesaient individuelle- ment 4 gr. 75 en moyenne; apres decorticage, les amandes formaient 175 pour 1,000 de leur poids, 1'enveloppe ligneuse formant le complement, soit 825 pour 1,000. La matiere grasse a ete obtenue en epuisant les graines moulues a la benzine qui, apres evaporation, a founni 14 pour 100 des amandes (soit 2*4 pour 100 des fruits com- plets) d'une huile semi-solide a la temperature ordinaire, assez fortement coloree en rouge-brun acajou et qui presentait les constantes suivantes : — Densite^ 15° ... Point de fusion complete Indice d'acidite , , de saponification ,, de Reichert „ d'Hehner „ d'lode ... Point de fusion des acides gras . 0-870 3ic 68-5 1757 176 95 49 '9 40° On remarquera que Tindice d'acidite de cette huile est extremement eleve; diverses verifications nous ont con- duits au meme chiffre. II semblerait done au premier abord que la graine en question renferme une lipase, capable de isaponifier la matiere grasse et de la dedoubler en glycerine et acides grasi; c'est la un point que nous £tudions plus loin. La matiere grasse, apres saponification par la soude alcoolique et niise en liberte par 1'acide sulfurique des acides gras du savon forme, en a donne un rendement approximatif de 95 pour 100. Ces acides grais totaux ont ete separes en acideis satures solides et en acides non satures liquides de la fagon suivante : Us ont ete trans- formes en sels d'ammonium par solution dans 2 Ces graines seront etudiees botaniquement dans le fascicule des Vegetaux utiles de V Afrique tro-picale fran^aisCj consacre au Gabon et qui paraitra prochainement chez Challamel, editeur, Paris. OILS AND OIL SEEDS 347 rammoniaque etendue, puis en sels de plomb par addition d'acetate de plomb. Ces sels plombiques out etc filtres, seches dans le vide et epuises par Tether dissolvant settlement les sels des acides gras non satures. Des deux parties ainsi separees, on a regenere les acides gra's par traitement a 1'acide chlorhydrique etendu; ces acides gras ont etc recueillis, seches et peses. On a trouve poids egal des deux sortes d'acides : satures solides et non satureis liquides. Les acides non satures liquides1 etadent jaunes; traites par le nitrate acidic de mercure, ils ont pu etre transformes en acide elaidique, cristallise, fusible a 42°; ce qui corre- spond aux caracteres de Tacidie oleique. Les acides satures solides ont ete transformes en sels d'ammonium par dissolution dans rammoniaque etendue et sur cette solution on a effectue trois precipitations fractionnees a Tetat de sels de magnesium, par additions successives d'acetate de magnesium. Les precipites partiels, obtenus, traitesi par 1'acide chlorhydrique etendu, ont regenere trois fractions d'acides gras qui fondaient aux temperatures suivantes : — ie fraction ... ... ... ... . 49° 2e „ ... ... ... ... ... 40° 3e ,, ... ... 40° Ces trois fractions ont ete transformes en sels d'ammo- nium, puis en sels de baryum par addition de chlorure de baryum, et ces sels barytiques ont ete filtres et seches a froiid dans le vide sec; on y a dose le baryum par calcina- tion d'un poids connu de ces sels, qui laissait comme residu du carbonate de baryum, d'ou Ton deduisait la proportion de baryum. On a trouve: — i e fraction ... ... ... 2270 pour cent de baryum 2e „ ... ... 25-48 36 „ ... ... ... 25-53 Si Ton calcule le baryum coirrespondant aux sels de baryum des acides gras se rapprochant le plus de ces temeurs, on trouve, en baryum pour cent: — • Pour (C]6H3,O2)2Ba (acide palmitique) ... ... 21*2 !> (CuHayOzJzRa (acide myristique) ... ... 23*3 ,, (Ci2H23Oa)oBa (acide laurique) ... ... ... 25*7 OILS AND OIL SEEDS D'apres ces chiffres, la premiere fraction se montrerait intermediaire entre Taoide palmitique, fondant a 62°, et 1'acide myristique fondant a 53*8°; mais .son point de fusion, 49°, le rapprocherait davantage de ce dernier; les 2e et 36 fractions, qui fondent a la meme temperature et dont les sels barytiques presentent la meme teneur en baryum, paraissent identiques et se rapprocheraient de 1'acide launique, fondant a 43*6°. La matiere grassie des graines du Chrysophyllum congoense doit done etre forme par des glycerides de 1'acide oleique, d'une part, et des acides laurique, myristique et peut-etre palmitique, d'autre part. 2° Quant au tourteau qui reste comme residu, apres repuisement des graines moulues par la .benzine, il se presente sous la foirme habituelle de ces produits; il possede un gout un peu amer. Etant donne qu'il provient d'une graine de sapotacee, nous y avons recherche la presence de saponine. Pour cela, une certaine quantite de ce tourteau seche a ete epuisee par ralcoiol bouillant qui a laisse deposer une poudre jaunatre qu'on a recueillie et qui a ete purifiee par redissolutions successives dans Talcool bouillant et reprecipiitations par refroidissement. On a obtenu ainsi, par dessiccation finale a froid dans le vide, une poudre blanche, douee de proprietes stimu- latoires, dont les solutions aqueuses moussent abondam- ment, ne reduisent pas directement la liqueur de Fehling, mais la reduisent au contraire apres interversion par ebullition avec les acides dilues. Ces proprietes re- pondaient a celles de la saponine, dont on peut evaluer la proportion a 0*5 pour 1,000 parties du tourteau. On a recherche egalement dans le tourteau la presence d'alcaloides pour etre fixe de suite, sur la po&sibilite de le faire entrer dans ralimentation du betail. A cet effet, oil a fait digerer 500 gr. de tourteau seche avec de 1'eau aiguisee de 5 pour cent d'acide sulfurique; apres nitration et lessor age du tourteau, le liquide acide a ete alcalinise par la soude et epuise a Tetheir, devant dissoudre dans ces conditions les matieres alcaloidiques miises en liberte. LJextrait ethere etait peu soluble dans 1'eau, soluble dans les solvants organiques, presentait une reaction alcaline, etait soluble dans les acides etendus, et ses solutions OILS AND OIL SEEDS 349 aqueuses precipitaient par les reactifs generaux des alcalo'ides : Bouchardat, Tauret, acide picnique, ferro- cyanure de potassium acetique, chlorure mercurique. Bien qu'on n'ait pas eu assez de matiere pour chercher a deter- miner la nature de 1'acaloide existant dans le tourteau, il semble qu'on puisse en estimer la quantite a 0*1 pour 1,000 environ, et qu'il conviendrait d'eloigner ce tourteau de ralimentation des animaux. En dehors de ces substances, 1' analyse a indique pour ce tourteau la composition immediate suivante : — Matieres minerales Matieres azotees Sucres reducteurs Sucres non reducteurs Acides vegetaux, gomtnes tannins Cellulose Gomtnes hydrolysables, xylane Amidon Vasculose etc. Total 1 00 '00 Ce tourteau pourrait done servir d'engrais malgre sa teneur moyenme en substances azotees e't sa faible pro- portion de matieres minerales. D'ailleurs, les graines de Chrysophyllum congoense ne paraissent pas devoir etre recommandes pour 1'extraction de leur matiere grasse, a cause du faible rendement et de la concurrence avantageuse que leur font d'autres graines exotiques. 3° Nous avons fait remarquer plus haut que Tindice d'acidite de Thuile de Chrysophyllum congoense etait extremement eleve et pourrait peut-etre faire prevoir dans cette graine rexistence djune lipase saponifiante, sus- ceptible de dedoubler la graisse en glycerine et acides gras, en augmientant ainsi son acidite. Pour verifier ce point, nous avons employe le mode d'operation recommande par Nicloux3 et nous avons agi simultanement sur les graines ci-dessus, en meme temps que sur des graines de ricin pour avoir un point de com- paraison au sujet de rexistence d'une lipase. 3 " Contribution a TEtude de la saponification des corps gras. Hermann, editeur, Paris, 10,06. 350 OILS AND OIL SEEDS Les essais etaient effectues en mettant dans un verre de montre o'5 gr. d'amandes a experimenter, broyees au mortier aussi finement que possible, 0*9 gr. d'huile de coton et 0*4 c.c. d'acide acetique decinormal. On obtenait et on maintenait Temulsion du melange par son agitation frequente avec une petite baguette be verre, agitation identique, de meme duree et aux memes intervalles de temps pour les divers essais -et lets differents echantillons. Apres les laps de temps que nous nous etions fixes suivant les experiences, on faisait tomber le eointenu du verre de montre dans un verre a experiences avec de 1'alcool ethere, contenant volumtes egaux d'alcool et d'ether; on ajoutait a ce Tiquide quelques gouttes de phenol-phtaleine et on titrait 1'acidite du melange avec une solution de soude au cinquieme normale et non carbonatee (preparee avec du sodium). Le tableau suivant indique les resultats obtenus : — • Chrysophyllum congoense Ricinus communis major C.C. C.C. o-sNaOHN/5 ... 0-6 0-8 NaOH N/s 3-0 0-5 0-6 4'9 8-0 Acidite initiale ... ,, apres 15 minutes... ,, 30 „ ... „ i heure ... Le mode operatoire employe etait correct, puisque la graine de ricin manifeste son pouvoir saponifiant habituel; mais on voit que Tacidite du melange n'a pas varie sen- siblement par addition des graines broyees du Chryso- phyllum congoense. On ne peut done caracteriser ainsi Texistence de lipase dans ces graines, ou tout au moins de lipase analogue a celle du ricin. GRAINES DE DEUX ESPECES DE Symphonia. i° Sur le versant oriental de Madagascar, les indigenes utilisent, pour Textraction de Thuile, les graines de divers arbres, notamment de plusieurs especes de Symphonia, plantes de la famille des Clusiacees. Parmi celles-ci, dans la foret d'Analamazaotra, il en est une que les habitants de la region appellent Kizalahy et que MM. Jumelle et Peirrier de la Bathie, qui Tont etudiee botanique- ment, out denominee Symphonia l&vis. Elle est con- stituee par un arbre de 10 a 15 metres de haut, exsudant OILS AND OIL SEEDS 351 une resine jaune d'or brunissant a 1'air, possedant des feuilles persistantes, a fleurs rouges, a fruits de surface lisse affectant la forme de petites pokes renversees de 6 cent, de hauteur sur 6 de largeur maxima, renfermant de 4 a 6 graines polyedriques. Une autre espece, denommee Kisavavy dans le pays, signalee par M. Louvel, directeur du service forestier a Madagascar et appelee Symphonia Louveli par les memes botanistes, Jumelle et Perrier de la Bathie,4 est constitute par un arbre de 20 a 25 metres de hauteur, a tronc droit, dont la resine, d'abord jaune, devient brune, a feuilles petites et coriaces, a fruits volumineux (16 centim. sur 10) presentant cinq cotes arrondieis et renferment environ quatre graines. Ce sont les graines de ces deux especes de Symphonia qui nous ont ete communiquees par M. Jumelle, pour en faire 1'etude chimique. 2° Ces graines ont ete broyees au moulin et epuisees par la benzine; par evaporation de ce solvant, on a obtenu : — Pour le Symphonia lavis Pour le Symphonia Louveli 35 '2 p. cent de matiere grasse 4°'° » >• »» Les tourteaux restants apres dessiccation, possedaient, dans les deux cas, une texture fibreuse qui doit les rendre desagreables a manger pour les animaux; ils presentaient les compositions centesimales suivantes : — Cendres ... Matieres azotees Sucres re*ducteurs ... Sucres non reducteurs Tannins, asides vegetaux, etc. Cellulose ... Gommes hydrolysables, xylane Amidon ... Vasculose... Total S. laevis. S. Louveli. 5'5° 4-50 8*73 10-50 9'o6 4'43 0*91 1-27 2-62 . 32*00 . 27-65 26-18 . . 28*80 neant neant 15-00 . 18-00 lOO'OO Ces tourteaux, de composition assez voisine, sont, 4 " Symphonia a graines grasses de 1'Est de Madagascar," H. Jumelle et H. Perrier de la Bathie, U Agriculture pratique des Pays chauds, Challamel, editeur, 1913. 352 OILS AND OIL SEEDS somme toute, peu riches en matieres azotees et meme en hydrates de carbone assimilables ; ils pourraient en tons cas servir d'engrais. Les matieres grasses obtenues avec les deux especes de Symphonia sont de consistance pateusie, jaune fonce, presentant 1'odeur habituelle des substances grasises; elles possedent les constantes suivarites : — S. laevis. S. Louveli. Densite a 20° ... ... ... 0-872 ... 0*879 Point de fusion ... ... ... 15-16° ... 15-16° Indice d'acidite ... ... ... 8*4 ... 8*4 „ de saponification ... ... 189 ... 189 ,, de Reichert (ac. gras volatils) ... 1*65 ... 1^65 ,, d'Hehner (ac. gras insolubles)... 94-3 ... 94-1 „ d'iode (ac. gras non satures) ... 66 7 ... 67-6 Point de fusion des acides gras ... 42-5° ... 43° L'identite de ces resultats permettrait de conclure a celle des huiles obtenues avec les deux especes de Sym- phonic, que nous avons examinees. En tous cas, pour confirmer ce point et pour chercher a determiner la com- position immediate d-e ces matieres grasses, nous avons effectue la separation de leurs acides gras satures et non satures par epuisement de leurs sels de plomb a Tether, qui dissout seulement ceux des acides non satures; nouis avons trotive pour la proportion des deux sortes d' acides : — • S. laevis. S. Louveli. Acides gras satures ... 40 p. cent ... 35 p. cent ,, ,, non satures ... 60 ,, ... 65 ,, Les acides satures fondaient, pour les deux especes, a 55°; les acides non satures etaient liquides, jaunes et leur majeure partie doit etre formee d'acide oleique, car on a pu les transformer en grande proportion, par Faction du nitrate acide de mercure, en acide elaidique. Les acides gras satures, solides, ont ete fractionnes par deux precipitations successives a Tacetate de baryum; les acides gras, regeneres de ces deux portions, fondaient aux temperatures suivantes : — S. laevis. S. Louveli. I re precipitation ... ... ... 60° ... 65° 2e „ 39 .- 36 OILS AND OIL SEEDS 353 Leurs sels de baryum et arachidique melanges d'un peu d'acide laurique, et la second'C SLUX acides laurique et caprique. Somme toute, ces differentes determinations tendraient a connrmer la ressemblance ou Ttidentite des graisses des deux especes de Symphonia €t demontrieraient leur emploi possible pour la savonnerie a cause de la forte proportion d'acides liquides qu'elles renferment, et pour la stearinerie en raison du point de fusion ass^z eleve de leurs acides gras solides. LES EXIGENCES DE I/INDUSTRIE METROPOLITAINE EN MATIERES GRASSES DES COLONIES ET PAYS TROPICAUX. Par M. ALEXANDRE HEBERT. i° LES besoms et la consommation de 1'industrie metropolitaine augments constamment depuis un certain nombre d'annees. Les differents emplois qu'on en fait justifient en effet cette augmentation. Tout d'abord, Talimentation utilise une tres-grande proportion de matieres grasses. Ces substances sont necessaires surtout dans les pays du Nord par suite de leur chaleur de combustion elevee, qua entreties savons durs. Cet inconvenient est main- tenant siippriime grace au precede d'hydrogenation ou de solidification des huiles, par fixation d'hydrogene sous pression en presence d'un catalyseur quelconque, dont OILS AND OIL SEEDS 357 tin certain nombre — nickel, platine, palladium — ont fait leurs preuves ; les difficultes de preparation de Thydrogene pur necessaire a ces operations ayant pu etne surmontees, grace aux progres de 1'aeronautique. Les produits hydrogenes ainsi obtenus peuvent par- faitement servir a fabriquer les savons durs; mais letir emploi €ii stearinerie est .encore diseute, car leur hydro- genation et leur transformation en produits satures n'est pas absolument integrate. De meme leur emploi pour I'alimentation est egalement discute, car on craint que le produit transforme ne retienne des traces du catalyseur, et bien que les matieres employees dans ce but passent generalement pour non nocives; les esprits sensores redoutent toujours une certaine action toxique a plus ou moins longue echeance. Ces precedes d'hydrogenation ont un autre avantage : c'est qu'en meme temps que Tamelioration de 1'huile, ils provoquent sa desodorisation ; c'est ainsi que 1'huile de poisson sort absolument inodore des appareils d'hydro- genation. Toutes ces modifications ont Tavantage de donner ait produit transforme un supplement de valeur qui paye au-dela les frais engages pour realiser 1'hydro- genation et laisse un benefice des plus appreciables. 2° Ayant passe en nevue rapidement les diivers emplods qui necessitent 1'usage des matieres grasses et les desiderata a realiser pour chacun de ces emplois, il est interessant de sitivre le mouvement de ces memes sub- stances grasses. Le tableau suivant, dresse d'apres les documents du 'Tableau general du Commerce et de la Navigation de 1911," indique en regard des produits les principaux pays de destination avec les cbiffres exprimant les exportations en quintaux metriques; il peut fournir des indications sur les besoins reciproques des divers pays. PRINCIPALES DESTINATIONS. Huile fixe pure d'olive ... ... Etats-Unis, 17,089 quintaux. Huile de palme ... ... ... Italic, 9,010. Huiles fixes pnres de coco, de tou- Angleterre, 60,008 ; Suisse, 27,749 J loucouna, d'illipe et de palmiste Etats-Unis, 26,890. Huiles fixes pures de ricin et de Turquie, 3,070; Autriche-Hongrie, pulghere 3,008 ; Angleterre, 3,004 ; Alle- magne, 3,001. 358 OILS AND OIL SEEDS PRINCIPALES DESTINATIONS Huile fixe pure de lin Huile de coton Huile de sesame ... Huile d'arachide .. Huile de colza Huile d'oeillette ... Huiles autres qu'reillette, pavot et de navette PRINCIPAUX PAYS DE PROVENANCE. Huile d'olive Huile de palme ... (Contimicd). Angleterre, 13,903. Pays-has, 726. Suisse, 19,516 ; Italic, 17,678. Algerie, 43,017 ; Italic, 42,068 ; Angleterre, 18,776 ; Etats-Unis, 18,140 ; Suisse, 13,644. Etats-Unis, 3,307 ; Belgique, 3,145 ; Angleterre, 2,572. Belgique, 7,364. Suisse, 2,360; Belgique, 2,360. Huiles de coco, de touloucouna, d'illipe et de palmiste Huile de ricin Huile de lin Huile de coton Espagne, 32,255 ; Italic, 20,817. Cote occidental de 1' Afrique fran^aise, 147,469. Belgique, 6.440. Angleterre, 5,853. Angleterre, 3,104; Pays-has, 2,689. Etats-Unis, 186,681. On petit se sendre compte par ces chiff.res du mouve- ment qui se dessine depui-s quelques annees; ks pays europeens et les Etats-Unis recevant de grandes quan- tites de matieres grasses dont une forte proportion est fournie par les colonies. La progression du mouvement commeroial occasione par les matieres grasses en ce qui concerne notre pays est bien mise en valeur par le tableau suivant extrait des chiffres fournis par le rapport pour la section franchise de I'Exposition universelle de Bruxelles de 1910. TABLEAU COMPARATIF DES EXPORTATIONS ET IMPORTATIONS DES MATURES GRASSES (COMMERCE SPECIAL). Exportations Importations Designation des produits 1900 1909 1900 1909 Fr. Fr. Fr. Fr. Huile fixe pure d'olive 3,870,000 10,128,000 8,308,000 15,350.000 „ „ de palme ... 129,000 990,000 7,562,000 41,278,000 ,, de coco, toulou- couna, illipe, palmiste 4,699,000 15,836,000 335,°°o 791,000 Huile de ricin et de pulghere ... 2,488,000 2,245,000 1,800 514,090 Huile fixe pure de lin 1,234,000 2,537,000 111,000 647,000 , de coton 729,000 2,083,000 19,119,000 16,664,000 , de sesame 5,648,000 8,624,000 — _. , d'arachides 1,985,000 11,831,000 — , de colza 1,560,000 1,249,000 — , d'oeillette 896,000 962,000 — OILS AND OIL SEEDS 359 3° Ces chiffres manifestent le besoin croissant de 1'industrie metropolitaine en matieres grasses. Or, on peut constater que nos pays europeens, que la France iiotamment, tend a ne plus developper sa production de substances grasses ou mieux des graines oleagineuses dont le traitement fournit ces substances grasses. La culture de Tolive tend fortement a emigrer de 1'autre cote de la Mediterranee, en Algerie et en Tunisie; le lin, I'ceillette, le colza voient tous les ans diminuer les surfaces culturales qui leur etaient consacrees et ou les remplace de plus en plus par d'autres cultures, qu'a tort ou a raison on juge plus remuneratrices. Le besoin des matieres grasses croissant et la produc- tion des graines oleagineuses diminuant dans nos pays, on devra forcement se procurer ailleurs ces matieres pre- miieres qui tendent a faire defaut. Deja de tres-grandes quantites de matieres grasses sont fournis par les colonies et les pays tropicaux; il conviendra done de developper ces sources pour fournir aux besoins de la metropole ; et pour le faire a bon escient il faudra d'abord bien connaitre les substances grasses exotiques. Un assez grand nombre sont deja connues et entrent pour une grande part dans notre approvisionnement. C'est la un point de vue qu'il y a lieu de developper, adnsi que Tont fait d'ailleurs plusieurs autres contrees. THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS. SOME NOTES ON CERTAIN POINTS IN RELATION TO THE PROBLEM OF SOIL FERTILITY IN THE TROPICS. By H. A. TEMPANY, B.Sc., F.I.C., F.C.S. Superintendent of Agriculture, Leeward Islands. DURING recent years considerable attention has been directed to the problem of soil fertility, the last decade having been productive of a number of important addi- tions to knowledge in this connection; of especial signi- ficance has been the prominence which biological factors have assumed in relation to the question. The results have, however, been attained under temperate conditions, and up to the present time no special attention has been directed to the aspects presented in this connection by soils in tropical countries. In temperate climates the biological activities of the soil are of necessity limited to a marked extent by the relatively large annual temperature range; during the spring, summer, and early autumn the processes in question attain their maximum energy, but the inter- vention every year of a winter period during which activity in this direction is very greatly reduced, if not entirely suspended at times, constitutes a limiting factor of prime importance; the natural sequence of events under these conditions is therefore that of an alternation of periods of great and small 'biological activity which grade one into the other with the advance of the seasons. In the tropics, on the other hand, the natural state of affairs differs markedly from the foregoing; the absence of a well-marked period of cold weather, except in a minor degree, which is characteristic of a great number of localities, combined with a set of conditions which THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 361 in other respects are particularly favourable to biological development, serve greatly to enhance the importance of this factor; indeed, it may be suggested that under the conditions in question relationships of this description play a part the importance of which cannot be overstated. It is perhaps the natural outcome of the fact that up to the present the work of tropical agricultural depart- ments has been more especially concerned with questions affecting the development of agricultural industries and the investigation of problems cognate to them, that the special aspects of soil fertility in the tropics have not been more fully investigated. In many in- stances, moreover, the lands which are being worked have been but recently introduced into cultivation and possess relatively large accumulations of fertility. Under these circumstances the practical problem which immediately presents itself for solution is the manner in which these accumulations may be used up to the best advantage. There are in some countries, it is true, con- siderable tracts of land which have been under cultivation for long periods of time, and under these conditions intensive systems of agriculture have in many instances become evolved. This is particularly the case when, as in some of the West Indian islands, the total area of cultivable land is limited; it is significant that under these conditions the system of agriculture which has evolved itself has for its basis the relatively frequent application of organic manures, sometimes supplemented by various artificial manures. A certain amount of preliminary investigation has been carried out by the Agricultural Department in the Lee- ward Islands during the years 1912 and 1913, in relation to some of the more important conditions under which soils in that colony exist. The detailed results of this work have been published in the West Indian Bulletin, vol. xiv (1914), pp. 146-152; in the present paper it will suffice to indicate the general character of the results obtained. The scope of the investigations has included measure- ments of soil temperature and sodl moisture, measure- ments of the rate of decay of soil organic matter as the 362 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS result of bacterial action; the investigation of the process of nitrification in soils and also of the fixation of free atmospheric nitrogen as the result of the action of bac- teria of the Azotobacter type. In relation to soil temperature, a large number of measurements have been performed at varying times and seasons throughout the year, at elevations ranging be- tween 100 ft. and 2,000 ft. above sea-level, and in soil types varying between light sandy soils and heavy clays; in all cases the measurements were made at depths of 6 in., 12 in., and 18 in. respectively. The results gener- ally show a series of values ranging between 20° C. and 30° C. ; in the whole course of the measurements no value below 20° C. was recorded, while this was only attained at considerable elevations in the very early morning during the cool season. The upper value of 30° C. was occasionally slightly exceeded in the case of the upper 6 >in. of soils of light texture exposed to the direct rays of the sun during the hottest portions of the day. No doubt higher values than this are reached in the uppermost layers, i.e., the top one or two inches, but the temperature gradient from the topmost layer down to those levels at which the root systems of plants normally exist, appears to be very steep during the day. As is to be expected, the actual daily range of tempera- ture is least at the lowest point at which the measure- ments were made, and more equable temperatures were experienced throughout in the case of orchard soils in which the surface is shaded from the direct rays of the sun. It will be seen that the actual range O'f temperature experienced is particularly favourable to the growth of organisms and that, with the possible exception of the top two inches of soil, at no time is a value attained which is likely to check development to any marked extent. A limiting factor which may occur in the case of arid and semi-arid regions lies in the water supply, but under the conditions governing our observations the soil mois- ture content never falls so low as entirely to check the growth of organisms, while in wetter localities it is usually maintained in a condition highly conducive to biological THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 363 activity. On the whole it may be said that though the alternations of wet and dry seasons probably affect the biological activities of soils in the tropics to quite an appreciable extent, such variations will depend for their magnitude on local conditions, and in any case will con- trast markedly with the regular rise and fall in activity characteristic of soils in temperate regions. In relation to the rate at which organic matter tends to decay as the result of bacterial activity, the result of our investigations may be summarized 'by saying that as the outcome of thirteen separate sets of measurements on soils from different localities, both in situ and also on samples under laboratory conditions, it was found that in periods varying between six and twelve months the content of organic matter became reduced by amounts ranging between 12 and 30 per cent, of the total origin- ally present. The effect of organic matter on the physical and mechanical characters and properties of soils has for long been understood and appreciated; of more recent date is the apprehension of the functions exercised by it in relation to the supply of energy for the mainten- ance of various important bacterial reactions; chief among these may be cited the putrefactive processes resulting under suitable conditions in the liberation of a constant supply of carbon dioxide which assists in rendering avail- able the locked up stores of plant food in the soil. Of importance also appear to be those organisms which are responsible for the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen without the intervention of leguminous host plants, notably those comprised in the Azotobacter group. The existence of organisms of this type has been demon- strated in soils throughout the Leeward Islands and their activity in fixing nitrogen measured approximately in a number of instances. A study of the soil conditions obtaining on plots of cacao in the Dominica Botanic Gardens, comprising a set of manurial experiments in which each unit has received the same manurial treatment for the past twelve years continuously, has shown that on those plots which have received moderately heavy dressings of organic manure considerable accretions of nitrogen have taken place in 364 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS the soil in excess of that which has been added in the manure. The only satisfactory explanation of this result appears to lie in the assumption that it is occasioned by the operations of organisms of the Azotobacter type, the existence of which has been demonstrated in the soils in question. Results in connection with the soils of these same plots are also available to show that in the cases where moderately heavy dressings of organic manures have been applied the rate of decay of organic matter is more rapid than when such manures have been withheld, afford- ing additional evidence that liberal applications of organic manure result in an increase in numbers and vigour of the bacterial flora. In relation to nitrifying power, all of the soils examined showed normal properties; it is, however, again significant that those soils which have been manured with organic manures gave higher values for this property as a general rule. A point of interest in this connection is that though many of the soils in question are naturally deficient in lime they still showed marked formation of nitrates under laboratory conditions; the suggestion has been made that perhaps under these circumstances ammonia formed in the course of ammonification may function as a base for the neutralization of nitric acid, though no experimental evidence is as yet available in favour of this view. A considerable range of manurial experiments in the Leeward Islands over a period of fifteen years' duration has fully confirmed the view that the most satisfactory way of maintaining fertility lies in the application of organic manures. A result such as this sheds important confirmatory evidence on the views outlined above. It is submitted that the above results taken with the indications of manurial experiments, both in the Leeward Islands and elsewhere, point definitely to the importance of maintaining the supply of organic matter in tropical soils; if this is withheld diminution in fertility takes place owing to the effect on the biological relationships which ensue. There would further appear reason to believe that the THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 365 accumulation of organic matter affords an explanation of the high fertility typical of newly cleared forest land in the tropics, since considerable accumulations of nitro- gen are apparently likely to take place as the result of the action of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, while the reserves of other plant foods remain undepleted. Tne question of the relationships existing between the content of organic matter, the bacterial population, and the fertility of tropical soils is of considerable interest; owing to the high and equable temperature the various processes are enabled to proceed with much greater regularity and at a much higher speed than under tem- perate conditions. Considerations such as these indicate that the tropics present special facilities for the study of certain soil problems and it would seem that the further investigation of the subject would be likely to yield in- formation of value and facilitate the elucidation of important points which are at present obscure. FERTILITY SURVEY OF THE EGYPTIAN DELTA. By B. F. E. KEELING, M.A. Director of Physical Services, Survey Department, Ministry of Finance, Egypt. THE Egyptian Government is at present engaged on improving radically the drainage of the lower-lying parts of the Delta, and it was decided to make a detailed survey of these areas which would record the present condition of the land. The survey has a two-fold object. Firstly, such a survey will give the authorities consider- able assistance in laying out the details of their drainage plans, and secondly, after the new drains and pumps have been at work for some years it will be possible to assess the improvement effected in different localities. It is eventually hoped to improve the drainage of the whole country, but naturally this can only be done by degrees, and the first areas to be dealt with are the central part of the Delta and the most western portion draining into Lake Mariut, and accordingly these two areas have been surveyed. The procedure adopted is as follows : — The field parties are provided with maps on the scale of I : 10,000 on which the boundaries of all the ownership plots are marked. The surveyor takes this map and crosses and re-crosses the land shown upon it, marking on the map his opinion of the value of the land. Five categories of land are recognized — good, medium, bad, uncultivated and under reclamation. On the field-sheets certain other information is recorded, in particular on the uncultivated land notes are made if large quantities of grass or bush are present. Thene is, of course, no hard-and-fast line between the first three categories of good, medium and bad, and in particular the first two overlap, the quality often depend- THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 367 ing on other than natural causes, such as good or bad cultivation, use or absence of manures and the like. Experience has shown, however, that an independent person taking the field-sheet over the country will rarely disagree with the opinion formed, and that in particular there will be no difference of opinion that the good land is not bad, and the bad not good. For contiguous classes, good and medium, medium and bad, there is, of course, no sharply defined boundary and opinion will occasionally differ as to which class the land should be assigned to. A check, however, was put 'from the outset on the scale adopted by the field observers. It is well recog- nized that the principal determining factor in the fertility of the Delta land is the presence or absence of soluble salts. If salts are absent good crops can be obtained, if much salt is present it is impossible to grow crops. Accordingly from the outset of the survey it was arranged that frequent soil samples should be taken and that the total soluble salts contained in these should be deter- mined. Ihe laboratory work was in charge of Mr. Hughes. The rule laid down was that on each I : 10,000 sheet five samples should be taken from plots of each quality, good, medium, bad and barren. When on a sheet there was only a small area of a particular category the number of samples was suitably reduced. The amount of salt was determined by dissolving out the salt from 5 grams of the sample in 100 c.c. of water and determining the electric resistance of the solution in a suitable Wheat- stone's bridge. A curve had previously been drawn showing the relation between the electric resistance and the salt content of solutions of different strengths and from this curve the salt content of the sa'mples from the field could be read off. In the case of very salty soils, the solution has to be further diluted before making the determination. The results of these analyses show that the fertility survey is in fact a close approximation to a salt survey by eye estimation. The mean salt-content of what we have called good 368 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS land is about 0^3 per cent., of medium land about 0*5 per cent., and of poor land about 0*8 per cent. The barren land may contain any amount of salt up to 25 per cent. The Biala Colony of 500 feddans contained before wash- ing an average of 10 per cent, of salt. In the more northern parts of the Delta all the samples were also examined for sodium carbonate and bicarbonate which in certain areas are present in considerable quan- tities. The sodium carbonate is of great importance as its presence adds very greatly to the cost of land re- clamation, a small quantity rendering the land impervious to water. A detailed survey of certain carbonate areas of Government land was made with a view to watching the effect of treatment with gypsum. The field-sheets when they come in are reduced to the scale of i : 50,000 to obtain a more convenient map for ready reference. The original sheets will, of course, be stored and will be available in years to come for com- parison with the improved condition of the land which it is hoped will be the outcome of the drainage works. A reference to the fertility map of the Central Delta1 shows the gradual transition from good land in the south, through medium land to bad land, with large areas of barren land in the north, and it will t>e seen what a large amount of improvement has to be effected before the whole area becomes good or medium land. It is also interesting to note the close dependence of the fer- tility on the altitude above sea-level, or, in other words, on the natural drainage. The contoured map1 on the same scale as the fertility map shows that the general division between good and medium land follows roughly the 6-metre contour, whilst the division between bad and barren lies somewhere near the 5-metre contour. This is true in general and also in particular. The area of the good land to the north of Belqas is an example. Reference to the contoured map shows that there is here a hog's back with an altitude of less than one metre with the Bahr Belqas 1 Not reproduced. THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 369 running along the top. The same phenomenon is shown by strips of good land running along the large feeder, the Bahr Shebin, which, following the usual Delta rule, is higher than the surrounding country. This relationship is of course well known, and is strikingly exemplified by another map,1 which is a general fertility map representing the mean rate at which the land was taxed in the year 1907, including both perma- nent and temporary taxes. This shows the dependence of fertility on altitude. In the Delta the land always slopes away from the river and accordingly the land tends to be best along the river branches. Great tongues of good land spread on both sides down each branch of the river as it is now, and also down the lines of the two great branches of ancient times. This map is almost an exact duplicate of the contoured map. Artificial drainage, of course, lowers the subsoil water- level, and in the future, when the works are complete, the Delta will in great measure become, from the point of view of its fertility, independent of its altitude above the sea. 1 Not reproduced. 24 THE WATER SUPPLY OF EGYPT, 1913-1914. By B. F. E. KEELING, M.A. Director of Physical Services , Survey Department, Ministry of Finance, Egypt. THE amount of water in the Nile at its entrance to Egypt during the past twelve months has been less than during any previous year on record, and in spite of the heightening of the Aswan dam by which its capacity was more than doubled, the deficiency of water has cost Egypt many millions of pounds. It will not therefore be thought out of place if I describe in its broader aspects the hydro- graphy of the Nile, the variations in which from year to year are mainly responsible for the variation in agri- DlAGRAM I. VOLUME OF WATER ENTERING EGYPT AT WADI HALFA. M3 per sec 9000 8000 -7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 JAN. 'FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEP OCT. NOV. OEC._ •"• i i \ VOL UM£ •( IF WA r£R REACH/M 1913 £ WAD / HALF. i 4 ! i i 1 i i \ ~ i \ 1 ^ \ \ '• I \ \ i i 1 \ i V i i i i J V \ x^ 4000 n ^ ^ J ( / ^s ^ £*^= .__^. **^~ -J THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 37 cultural returns. This is clearly represented in the dotted line in Diagram I, which shows the variation in volume during a normal year as the river enters Egypt at Wadi MAP OF NIT.F, BASIN. Haifa. It will be seen that during the early months the volume is steadily -falling till it reaches a minimum of about 600 cubic metres per second at about the end of May, that during the next two months it rapidly rises- 372 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS to more than twenty times that discharge early in Sep- tember, after which it begins to fall. This water, which passes Wadi Haifa, has fallen as rain some six weeks or two months previously on the Lake Plateau, draining into the Nyanzas Victoria and Albert and on the mountains of Abyssinia. The map shows these areas and the main feeders of the Nile, the Bahr el Jebel supplied from the Lake Plateau, and the Sobat, Blue Nile, and Atbara draining the Abyssinian hills. The role of these two rainfall areas must be care- fully distinguished. In flood, from July to the end of the year the Blue Nile and Atbara are the only water supplies which count, the Sobat assists supplies after the top of the flood has been passed, whilst the water which comes from the White Nile is of supreme importance in the low stage when the flow of the other rivers in many years almost or entirely ceases. Taking the rivers in order from south to north the Bahr el Jebel draws its constant supply from the great natural reservoir Lake Albert, augmented during flood by numerous mountain torrents. The river then enters the famous region of the sudd, which it leaves with a volume which is very nearly constant throughout the year owing to causes into which I need not here enter. Downstream of the sudd region the river is joined by the Sobat, a river of considerable proportions during flood, but almost dry at low stage. The lower dotted line in Diagram II shows the volume of water passing Malakal after the junction of the Sobat and Bahr el Jebel. This water passes on to the junction with the Blue Nile at Khartoum, the discharge at Khartoum being somewhat greater during the falling stages owing to gains by drainage from the banks. At the time of flood, on the other hand, the great rise in the Blue Nile holds back the waters of the White Nile with the result that the actual amount of water joining the Nile from the latter river is very greatly reduced and in some years there is probably a net upflow just before the top of the flood with a correspondingly increased downflow when the flood has begun to fall. The Blue Nile receives its water from the rainfall over THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 373 a comparatively small area about its upper reaches. The dotted lines in Diagram II show the height and volume of the discharge during an average year. It will be seen that, unlike the White Nile, the Blue Nile has an enor- mous range, the discharge varying in a normal year from about 8,000 to 100 cubic metres per second, whilst in abnormal years the discharge in flood may reach 12,000 DIAGRAM II. VOLUME OF WATER PASSING KHARTOUM AND MALAKAL. JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JUlV /AUS . SER OCT. HOM PEC cubic metres per second, and may drop at the time of minimum supply in the early summer to as little as 50 cubic metres per second. As an example of the relative volumes of the river at different times in the year we may take the figures for 1911 as fairly representative of a normal year. The following table gives the percentage contributions of the two rivers to the main Nile at Khartoum. 374 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS January February March April May June July August September October November December 1912 January White Nile 71 77 76 77 72 73 27 2 6 32 39 52 63 Blue Nile 29 23 24 23 28 27 73 98 94 68 61 48 37 This shows clearly that the White Nile is the more important river in low stage, and the Blue Nile in flood. The waters of the Blue and White Niles meet at Khartoum, and thereafter the only tributary joining the main river is the Atbara, which is entirely dry from October to May, but in July, August and September has a high flood discharge, supplementing the flood waters of the Blue Nile. Having thus described the origin of the water which makes agriculture in Egypt possible, we are in a position to consider the abnormal character of the last twelve months, but before doing so it will perhaps be well to describe briefly the methods of water supply. Putting aside minor details, the cultivated area of Egypt may be divided into two great classes : land which receives perennial irrigation, and basin land which re- ceives one watering a year only, at time of flood. I will describe briefly the former system first. For the greater part of the year the river is flowing several metres below land level, and to give continual irrigation it is necessary either to pump the water from the river to high level canals running through the fields, or to construct barrages across the river to raise the water level artificially to the neighbourhood of land-level. A typical case of the former is the Kom Ombo estate, which depends entirely on pumps for its water supply, whilst the perennially irrigated area of Upper Egypt is de- pendent 'for its regular supply at low stage on the Assiut Barrage. This barrage holds up the water-levels by a maximum of about 2 metres, and enables the Ibrahimia Canal to receive a proper supply of water during the THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 375 low stage. The slope of the water-surface is less than that of the land, and by the time Beirut is reached is above land-level, and watering by free-flow becomes pos- sible. The Delta Barrage fulfils a similar purpose, the canals which water the Delta taking off upstream of it. As a matter of fact the canal system of the Delta is not at present designed to secure free flow to more than a quarter of the Delta, and the water in the canals in the remainder flows below land-level, and has to be pumped through one or two before it can be applied to the land. The main feature of the perennially irrigated area from the point of view of this paper is that its agriculture depends entirely on the quantity of water which is avail- able, and not on the level at which that water is flowing in the river. It is very different in the case of the basin lands, about a million and a quarter acres in extent, which receive a watering once a year by flooding at the time of high Nile, the only supply at other times of year being that which is obtained -from wells. For the supply, canals are dug taking direct from the river and when the river rises they fill. The slope of the water surface in the canal is less than that of the land and some distance below the head the water can be poured on to the land. Theoretically, the greater part of this basin land could be given its flooding even in bad years, but the canal system would be enormously costly and the annual upkeep would be prodigious if years such as the one we have just gone through were to 'be provided for. If the Nile falls below a proper level the irrigation of the area be- comes difficult and in years such as 1913-1914 it becomes impossible to provide water to large stretches of country. The approximate amount O'f water required (in millions of cubic metres per day) during the summer when there is a deficiency of supplies in the natural river is shown in the table below : — »— Deficiency Haifa March ... .. ..50 .,» 77 .. 27 April ... May ... June ... July (1-15) 65 ... 60 55 -• 52 ... — 65 ... 65 ... — 70 ... no ... 40 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS Thus it will be seen that the period of deficiency in a normal year is practically confined to April and May. Seepage from the banks, the amount of which is at present rather uncertain, helps to reduce the deficiency and a certain amount of water is obtained from wells driven into the subsoil, but the main portion of the deficiency is made good by the storage water of the Aswan dam. In normal years, and years of good low supply, the natural river is nearly and sometimes quite sufficient for the present area of cultivation, but when the river is below normal the cotton crop depends on the additional supplies from the reservoir, which in extreme years like the present is indeed of insufficient capacity. Turning now to the last eighteen months, the flood of 1912 was low, but thanks to the increased height of the Aswan dam the quantity of water during the early summer was not worse than in previous years. Early in April, the river at Roseires began to rise rapidly and it was thought by many that the flood was to be an early one. But on May 10 the Blue Nile began to fall rapidly, and at the end of June the river was almost at its lowest for the year, with the result that the real rise did not 'begin to reach Haifa until July 20. In conse- quence, until late into July the natural supplies had to be supplemented by water from the reservoir. The false or spring rise which in some years anticipates the true flood is meteorologically independent of the latter, and we may have years in which good spring rains are fol- lowed by low flood rains, or vice versa. In 1913, whilst the spring rise was above normal, the flood was the worst for more than a century. The actual volume of the flood was less than half that of an average year. But what is the more correct way of looking at it is the river level at Aswan did not rise above 90 metres and fell away very rapidly. The result was that in many cases it was im- possible to fill the basins, and in others water was only kept on for a much shorter time than usual. In all, about 400,000 feddans either were without water entirely, or received a very inadequate supply. Owing to the difficulty of irrigating Kena Province in low floods, a barrage was constructed some years ago THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 377 at Esna by means of which flood levels upstream of it can be increased by 2 metres. In 1913, to save as much land as possible, the irrigation authorities held up the water to a higher head than the barrage was designed for. The scour due to the increased head of water was tremendous and great quantities of stone had to be DIAGRAM III. AMOUNT OF WATER SUPPLIED TO EGYPT BY ASWAN RESERVOIR. JAMUAffV . FEBRUARY MAffCM APRIL 'MAY' - Water supplied by aid of Aswan Reservoir. Volume of water reaching Wadi Haifa, corrected for loss by evaporation and seepage between Wadi Haifa and Aswan. _._._._ Water required to irrigate rice area. thrown into the holes which formed downstream of the barrage. By the artificial increase of head obtained, irri- gation was saved to hundreds of thousands of feddans which otherwise would have gone waterless, and some further land was flooded by means of the pumps at Nag Hamadi* and Baliana, but even so there was a very large area which the flood-waters did not reach. 3/8 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS After the top of the flood all the feeder rivers fell away rapidly, and it was early seen that the water supply during the summer of 1914 would be very short, par- ticularly if the spring rain should fail. To provide the maximum amount of water the overflow sluices of the Aswan dam were boarded up and the volume of the reservoir was increased by about 150 million cubic metres, or roughly 6 per cent. Diagram III shows the amount of water which it has been possible to supply to Egypt. The lower dotted curve shows the volume reaching Wadi Haifa corrected for the loss by evaporation and seepage between Wadi Haifa and Aswan; whilst the stepped curve shows the volume which it has been possible to supply with the aid of the Aswan reservoir. The canals are all closed for clearances during January, and little water is then required, and during this period water was taken from the river to fill the dam to its utmost capacity. When the canals are reopened a large amount of water ds required for a few days, after which the necessary supply is then small. This accounts for the sharp rise at the end of January and the reduced supplies in February, during which month the reservoir was again filled. In March and April there is again a very heavy demand, as the cotton is then sown, and a heavy watering is given. Once the cotton is in the ground the water requirements are reduced, but thereafter, as the summer heat increases, a gradually increasing amount of water is required. The possible water supply has sufficed for the cotton crop, but in addition to that there is a demand for rice which is sown during May. In a normal year, the area in Lower Egypt under cotton is 1,600,000 feddans, and under rice 230,000 feddans. Rice requires about three times as much water as cotton, about 70 cubic metres per acre per day, against 22 cubic metres, so that with rice the Delta requires 48 million cubic metres a day, whilst without it 32 mil- lions a day suffice. To provide the rice area with water a further 200 cubic metres per second are required, which would have necessi- tated the Aswan discharge curve taking the form shown THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 379 in the upper dotted line. It was obvious at an early date that it was impossible to secure such a supply, and accord- ingly the cultivation of rice was prohibited, with the result that instead of being* starved the cotton crop has received a proper measure of water. Looking at the question from the financial point of view, a million cubic metres a day produces a cotton crop worth a million pounds sterling, but a rice crop which is only worth a tenth of that amount. This is a somewhat crude way of looking at the question, but is sufficiently reasonable to show that in time of dearth the rice must be sacrificed. The minimum water require- ments of the Lower Egypt cotton crop is about 32 million cubic metres a day, and the share of water which it has been possible to allot to that part of the country has been 33 million cubic metres, so that there has just been sufficient water for proper irrigation. In a bad year, as has been indicated before, spring rains in the Blue Nile area are of great value in alleviating the situation. It has been established that, whilst the rains which produce the flood come from the west, the spring rains come from the east. In view of the great importance of these rains, an investigation was carried out during the past winter to see whether a statistical connection could be found between the variations in the intensity of these rains and variations in the meteorology of places in and surrounding the Indian Ocean. It was found by analysis of the records for the fifteen years for which they are available, that a surprisingly good forecast of the rains could be made about six weeks ahead. As a measure of the rains the rise in level of the river at Roseires from March to May is taken, and the 'full line in Diagram IV shows the actual rise, whilst the dotted line indicates the rise computed from the meteorology of the Indian Ocean in March. It will >be seen that the agreement is on the whole very good. On the receipt of telegraphic information at the beginning of April, it was disappointing to find that the meteorological indications were that the spring rains would be very weak, the forecasted level at Roseires being nearly a metre below normal. In the middle of April 38o THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS there was a substantial rise, and for a time it appeared as though our forecast was to be wrong, but the rise was of very short duration, and at the beginning of May DIAGRAM IV. FORECAST OF THE SPRING RAINS. 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 Metres .+1.0 +0.4 *0.2 3 -0.2 -0.4 \ . / LL Predicted Roheii Actual Roseires es Gauge. Gauge. (MeanofMay)-(Meanof March). ( „ „ H „ levels again fell very rapidly and the actual mean level in the Blue Nile at Roseires was only 10 centimetres from the forecasted value. I TERRENI AGRARI DELLE COLONIE ITALIANE. Per il Dott. ARMANDO MAUGINI. DelVIstituto Agricolo Coloniale Italiano di FiYenze. II materiale bibliografico oggi esistente non permet- terebbe la compilazione di una monografia completa sui terreni agrari delle colonie italiane; ne d'altra parte cio potrebbe convenirsi ad una breve comunicazione che tende a riunire in poche pagine alcune fra le principal! nostre conoscenze sull'argomento. Per ragioni di spazio ho dovuto transcurare qualsiasi accenno alia costituzione geologica delle singole colonie quantunque sia convinto non si possa parlare di terreni agrari sen-ra conoscere la geologia della regione. Inizio I'esposizione della materia con lo studio dei ter- reni agrari deU'Eritrea per occuparmi successivamente di quelli della Somalia, della Tripolitania e Cirenaica. Terreni agrari deU'Eritrea. Primo ad occuparsi dei terreni agrari eritrei fu il Prof. Fausto Sestini che analizzo alcuni campioni prelevati dal Barone Franchetti nelle aziende di Gura e Godofelassi, illustrandone poi i resultati in una pregiata relazione [i]. Ma la piu completa serie di* analisi e quella riferita dal Dott. Gino Bartolommei Gioli nella sua relazione sul- Tagricoltura Eritrea [2]. Tutte le zone di maggiore interesse agricolo sono state studiate e 1'esposizione dei risultati delle indagini chimiche sui terreni e riccamente corredata da osserva- zioni fatte con molto zelo dall'autore durante il suo soggiorno in colonia. Interessante e di utilissima consul- tazione e pure lo studio del Dott. P. Principi [3] su alcuni campioni di terreni eritrei prelevati dal compianto Prof. Ezio Marchi in occasione di una missione zoo- tecnica nella colonia; ragguagli generali si trovano poi in numerosi altri lavori [4] riferentisi aU'Eritrea. 382 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS Sull'altipiano eritreo sono molto comuni terreni di formazione autoctona, mentre nelle pianure occidentali e nella zona costiera prevalgono di gran lunga forma- zioni alluvionali dovute al trasporto di materiali terrosi per mezzo dei numerosi fiumi e torrenti.1 SuH'altipiano sono rappresentati tipi diversissimi di terreno sia per struttura fisico-chimica, che per profondita, proprieta fisiche e composizione chimica. I terreni del- 1'altipiano dell'Asmara, accuratamente studiati, sono nelle zone piu depresse molto compatti per soverchio tenore di argilla, mentre nelle giaciture piu elevate sono fre- quenti dei tipi sciolti, ricchi di scheletro. Molto varia la pro'fondita; la roccia nuda che affiore e circondata da terreni superricialissimi, molto frequente invece una profondita da I a 3, fino a 6 metri. In genere la permea- bilita e notevole, variabilissimo il colore. Chimicamente debbono considerarsi di media ricchezza; spesso ricchis- sime di ossido di potassio, 1'anidride fosforica, in dose varia in relazione alia diffusions dei basalti (apatite), sempre deficente 1'ossido di calcio, normale il contenuto di azoto. Queste osservazioni pare possono estendersi ad una buona parte dell'altipiano eritreo.2 1 La composizione di questi terreni di alluvione deve essere notevolmente complessa e meriterebbe un'accurata indagine ; infatti e noto che la degradazione delle rocce} causa precipua della formazio del terreno agrario, si compie in modo vario sotto 1'influenza dei diversi climi. In Eritrea dalle zone temperate si giunge alle torride aftraverso una lunga serie di forme inter- medie. Ne consegue che il disfacimento delle rocce avviene diversamente nelle varie regioni della Colonia (di degradazione lateritica parlano fugacemente i Proff. Marinelli e Dainelli nel loro volume sull'Eritrea) e che questi vari prodotti di alterazione trascinati dalle acque partecipano tutti, in misura piu o meno importante, alia formazione dei terreni alluvionali dei bassi- piani. 2 Un'osservazione degna di nota potei fare studiando un terreno molto compatto, nerissimo dell'altipiano Eritreo. Da apposite ricerche risulto essere la colorazione prodotta da uno strato di materia organica pochissimo alterata per mancata nitri- ficazione ; ostacolo a questo processo biologico deve essere stato la difettosa circolazione dell'aria e dell'acqua e la deficienza di carbonate di calcio nel terreno. Terre in condizioni simili non debbono essere rare sull'altipiano Eritreo. THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 383 Ottimi e notevolmente argillosi molti terreni si Gura e Godofelassi, fertili ed importanti i territori pianeggianti del Serae, della piana di Hazamo, di quella di Derentani. La conca di Cheren ha tipi diversi di terreno soprattutto in riguardo alia profondita, ma possiede una buona super- ficie coltivabile a suolo molto profondo. Nelle pianure occidental} i terreni sono spesso di una fertilita meravigliosa; lungo il Gasc la vegetazione e rigogliosissima e sono comuni terreni simili a quelli for- tunati del delta niliaco. Molto ricche risultarono le analisi campioni prelevati lungo il Barca. Dal lungo e accurate esame dei risultati analitici si possono formulare le seguenti conclusion} a cui accenna il Dott. Gioli: i° In generale in Eritrea prevalgono terreni scioltir pure essendo frequenti le zone a terreno molto argilloso. 2° £ costante la deficenza di carbonate di calcio che trova spiegazione nella modesta diffusions di rocce cal- caree in colonia, se si fa eccezione per i calcari coralligeni delle regioni costiere. 3° Varia e la quantita di sostanza organica essendo questa in stretto rapporto con 1'abbondanza di vegeta- zione; cosi nelle pendici orientali dell'altipiano protette da ricchi manti di boschi, si ha un contenuto piu elevato che suiraltipiano. 4° Vicende analoghe di quelle della sostanza organica subisce Tazoto. 5° Sempre notevole il contenuto di ossido di potassio- quantunque in forma poco assimilabile dalle piante; la stesso dicasi deiranidride fosforica che e pero piu modestamente contenuta nelle terre eritree. Nel lavoro del Dott. Principi [3] che riguarda in modo speciale Taltipiano, e contenuta un'accuratissima indagine lito-mineralogica e sono messi in evidenza con molta chiarezza i rapporti fra roccia e terreno. " Le terre piu importanti dal punto di vista agricolo sono quelle che derivani dal disfacimento di Basalti." In questi ultimi anni Tattenzione del Governo della Colonia si porto sulla messa in valore del Sahel cioe della zona costiera a nord di Massaua. Nel bacino del torrente Falcat, nelle vicinanze della foce, sono gia. 384 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS iniziati important! lavori di sistemazione idraulica che consentiranno I'irrigazione di una vasta superficie. I terreni della zona in bonifica da me studiati, sono di buona struttura fisico-meccanica in relazione alia loro natura alluvionale, spesso molto profondi, poveri di car- bonato di calcio, ma ben forniti di sostanze organiche, di anidride fosforica e specialmente di ossido di potassio. Difetto di questi terreni che nelle condizioni attuali non si presenta molto grave, e reccessivo contenuto di sali solubili, prevalemtemente cloruro di sodio; oggi la salsedine, molto variabile nei diversi punti della zona in bonifica e quasi sempre in piccola quantita, ma non si puo a priori escludere possa aumentare e rendersi danno- sisskna per effetto dell'irrigazione. £ probabile che una gran parte del Sahel Eritreo sia costituito da terreni simili a quelli del bacino del Falcat cioe piu o meno salati, molto sabbiosi ne le immediate vicinanze della costa, argillosi nelle zone piu interne di origine alluvionale, quasi sempre in buone condizioni di coltivabilita. Terreni agrari della Somalia. DeH'immenso territorio che costituisce la Somalia Italiana la parte compresa fra il Giuba e 1'Uebi Scebeli si presenta in condizioni privilegiate per lo sfruttamento »agricolo, cosicche le poche nostre conoscenze sui terreni agrari si riferiscono a questa zona. Si occuparono successivamente di questo argomento i Dottori Macaluso [5], Rossi [6], Fanelli [7], Man- gano [8], Principi [10], Onor [n]. La prima persona tecnica che attraverso la Somalia Italiana Meridionale a scopo di studio fu il Dott. Cesare Macaluso; nella breve relazione di viaggio [5] Tautore .accenna ripetutamente alia grande fertilita dei terreni. II territorio percorso, in base a diversi fattori, soprattutto ai caratteri morfologici, fu diviso nel seguente modo : i° Terreni lungo la costa. — In massima sabbiosi su sottosuolo madreporico, limitati verso Tinterno dalle dune. 2° Terreni formanti le dune litorance. — Che corrono parallelamente alia costa; questa zona, secondo Macaluso, THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 385 avrebbe una profondita media di 3 km. La maggior parte delle dune, e le piu alte, sono stabili, di colore e consistenza varia, coperte di vegetazione rigogliosa ed abbondante. Le dune mobili costituite da incoerente sabbia silicea, sono invece coperte da scarsa e povera vegetazione, prevalentemente di salsole. 3° Terreni situati fra le dune e la piana, — Costeggiano le dune per una profondita da i a 3 km. e sono legger- mente inclinati verso la piana. Nella loro formazione partecipano le sabbie delle dune e Targilla della piana, il colore predominant^ e il giallo rossastro, la vegetazione spontanea e molto rigogliosa. 4° Terreni costitwenti la piana propriamente delta. — Che sono i piu importanti nei riguardi agricoli e occupano i due bacini alluvionali del Giuba e deH'Uebi Scebeli. La composizione e pressoche uniforme piu o meno argillosi, di iiotevole profondita e vario colore, la vegetazione e dappertutto rigogliosissima. Lo studio fisico-chimico e chimico dei numerosi cam- pioni di terreno prelevati dal Dott. Macaluso fu curato dal Dott. W. Rossi [6] che raggruppo i campioni secondo i territori a cui si riferivano; Merca, Brava, e Giumbo. Eminentemente sajbbiosi risultarono i terreni della zona costiera e quelli delle dune, salvo rare eccezioni di banchi di argilla; sempre poveri di azoto e di sostanze organiche. I terreni alluvionali della piana sono invece spesso molto argillosi e in essi abbondano generalmente i materiali organici e 1'azoto. Fra i principi fertilizzanti 1'ossido di potassio e sempre abbondante, raggiungendo spesso dei valori eccezionali (17-19 per cento) e cio in relazione alia costituzione geologica delle regioni da cui proven- gono il Giuba e 1'Uebi Scebeli. II calcare e ovunque abbondandemente diffuse e in quantita quasi sempre notevole Tanidride fosforica. Anche il Dott. Fanelli [7] analizzando alcuni cam- pioni di terreni agrari della Goscia ottenne dei risultati molto buoni. Nella primavera del 1908 TOn.Barone Leopoldo Franchetti e il Dott. Guido Mangano ebbero occasione, percorrendo la Somalia, di raccogliere larga messe di notizie ed osservazioni sui terreni agrari. Lo studio 386 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS chimico dei campion! prelevati durante il viaggio, curato dal Dott. Mazzaron, e ampiamente discusso in una nota dal Dott. Mangano [8], le cui conclusioni sono molto concordanti con quelle gia riferite dei Dottori Macaluso e Rossi. Piu recentemente (1911) due intraprendenti giovani, i Dottori Scassellati e Mazzocchi, percorsero la Somalia Italiana Meridionale raccogliendo dati preziosi su tutto quanto ha relazione col problema della messa in valore della colonia. Nell'imico volume finora dato alle stempe [9] e contenuto tin cenno sui terreni agrari, mentre la parte che specialmente a questi si riferisce e di prossima pubblicazione. II Dott. Scassellati ci fa sapere che i Somali distinguono cosi i terreni : Harm medou (terre nere), ricche di humus, fertilissime, sono le preferite dagli indigeni; rappresentano antichi depositi alluvionali del Giuba e dello Scebeli. PI arm gudud (terra rossa), meno provviste di humus perche non beneficate da recenti alluvioni a causa della loro distanza dai flu-mi; sufficentemente fertili. Harm adda (terre bianche), poco fertili diffuse molto lungo la zona di dune litoranee. Utilissima e la nota del Dott. Principi [10] dove sono esposte le lunghe ricerche di laboratorio (analisi lito- mineralogica e fisica e qualche osservazione chimica) sui campioni di terreni raccolti dai Dottori Scassellati e Maz- zocchi. La Goscia e la regione a cui si riferiscono la maggior parte dei campioni ma anche i territori di Brava e Merca sono molto bene illustrati. II Dott. Principi conclude facendo risaltare i due gruppi in cui possono dividersi i terreni della Somalia Italiana : ' ' Terreni sab- biosi formanti le dune e altri rilievi che si svolgono lungo TOceano e alcuni lembi di depositi fluviatili; e terreni piu o meno argillosi e compatti che costituiscono gran parte della pianura alluvionale che si estende ai due lati del Giuba e dell'Uebi Scebeli. II Dott. Romolo Onor, consulente per le opere agrarie nella Somalia Italiana Meridionale, tratta brevemente dei terreni aggrari nella sua relazione sull'agricoltura Bena- diriana [n] e per primo accenna al problema dei terreni salini, che pare abbiano in colonia notevole diffusione. THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 387 Le conoscenze sulla nosfra colonia dell'oceano Indiano si accresceranno notevolmente quanto prima, con la pub- blicazione della relazione di viaggio della missione com- posta dai Proff. Stefanini, geologo, e Paoli, naturalista, che per incarico del Governo della Somalia percorse la colonia rimanendovi circa un anno. Terreni agrari della Tripolitania. II primo lavoro di grande interesse sui terreni agrari della Tripolitania e quello del Prof. P. Vinassa de Regny (1903) [12]; in una escursione geologica nei dintorni di Tripoli e di Horns, 1'autore ebbe modo di fare molte importanti osservazioni sui terreni delle oasi e del cosid- detto deserto a sud di Tripoli, dei quali terreni da 'anche un accurate studio litologico, chimico e fisico. Seguono a questo lavoro due modesti contributi di G. Sesti (1904) [13] e di G. Lagana (1905) [14]; anche la ricchissima serie di osservazioni raccolte dalla missione Sanfilippo-Sforza sara preziosa per lo studioso ed e da augurarsi venga presto pubblicata. Fin dai prkni mesi dell'occupazione militare il Prof. Menozzi pote occuparsi dei terreni sabbiosi della Tripo- litania e in una breve nota [15] espone i resultati delle sue indagini. Segue poi Taccuratissimo studio della Commissione agrologica inviata dai Minister© di Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio sulla zona di Tripoli (1912) [16] e una breve memoria del Dott. A. Maugini (1913) [17] sui terreni delle oasi fezzanesi e di alcuni Uidian della Libia pre- desertka. Finalmente le ultime pubblicazioni suirargomento ci sona date dalle relazioni di viaggio della Commissione di studiosi inviata dai Ministero delle Colonie (1913) [18] e dalla Missione Franchetti (1913) [19] che si reco in Libia per conto della Societa Italiana per lo Studio della Libia di Firenze. Questi due ultimi lavori ci consentono di dare notizie sufficentemente esatte sui terreni agrari di una grande estensione della Tripolitania Settentrionale; il primo si occupa della vastissima zona compresa fra 1'altipiano * 388 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS il mare, il secondo in modo particolare tratta 1'agricol- tura nel Gebel. Onde le brevi notizie die seguono rappresentano le conclusion! delle gia ricordate commission! di studiosi, per quel che riguarda il terreno agrario. Dopo ampia esposizione dei risultati analitici e in base alle numerose osservazioni fatte dai componenti la mis- sione durante il soggiorno in Tripolitania, la Commis- sione Governativa conclude: "In tutta la Tripolitania Settentrionale, dal confine della Sirte e quello Tunisino ; dalla costa al Gebel e nel Gebel stesso, per molte mig- liaia di kmq. di superficie esiste un solo ed unico tipo di terreno agrario. Le sue caratteristiche essenziali sono : la profondita piu o meno grande la rilevante omogeneita della sua struttura; la scarsa proporzione di elementi fini in genere ed in particolare si quelli finissimi od argilli- formi; la preponderante proporzione di sabbia silicea; la proporzione variabilissima di calcare. Esso quindi puo defmirsi : un terreno a struttura granulare, con tendenza airuniformita, a grana grossa, siliceo o siliceo-calcareo, profondo." Per quanto riguarda i principi fertilizzanti i terreni in parola contengono pochissima materia organica ed azoto, sono mediocremente forniti di potassio e meno di anidride fosforica. Queste deficienze non appariscono gravi; per la legge del minimo " la produzione vegetale dipende dalla sostanza alimentare che la pianta assimila in minore proporzione " e in Tripolitania, paese essenzialmente arido, il minimo fattore e rappresentato dall'acqua. La commissione ritiene essere il terreno agrario della Tripolitania favorevole aU'economia dell'acqua; 1'assorbi- mento e la percolazione negli strati profondi sara facile e 1'acqua potra muoversi in tutti i sensi nel terreno. Oggetto di studio e la formazione, molto diffusa in tutti i paesi aridi, di crostoni calcarei piu o meno spessi a diversa profondita nel terreno; Teffetto di queste forma- zioni sulla vegetazione e vario secondo la loro profondita e spessore. II Prof. Ulpiani [20] applicando ad alcuni terreni della Tripolitania il metodo proposto da Van Bemmelen, non esita a definirli lateritici; in un limo di uadi il rapporto : n^b"I;idi±Sr risulto = o'«4» come nei THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 389 terreni tipicamente lateritici — Gortani [21] invece rag- gruppa i terreni della Tripolitania e della Cirenaica fra le " terre rosse " tipiche. Non e qui possibile citare tutte le preziose osservazioni contenute nella relazione della Commissione Governativa, dove ogni problema e opportunamente trattato con chia- rezza e sobrieta. Due notevoli contributi del Prof. Pantanelli [18], pubblicati nel Vol. II fra gli studi com- plementari e illustrativi della relazione, si occupano della concentrazione del liquido circolante e della microflora nei terreni della Tripolitania Settentrionale. La salinita desunta dalla determinazione della condut- tivita elettrolitica del liquido pedolitico, e varia nei terreni studiati; i terreni coltivati delle oasi forniscono estratti acquosi poco concentrati, le sabbie delle steppe un estratto molto diluito, i terreni delle sebkhe sono carichi di sali — In genere i terreni della Tripolitania " cedono all'acqua una notevole quantita di colloidi." L'attivita microbica e molto scarsa nei terreni studiati, spesso ridotta a zero nelle sabbie delle dune e della steppa. Anche nelle oasi sono scarsamente rappresentate molte classi di microrganismi utili all'agricoltura quali i nitrificanti, i pecti novori e i solubilizzatori dei minerali nel suolo. Dei terreni agrari del Gebel tripolitano si occuparono per primi i componenti della Missione Franchetti e in modo speciale Tagronomo della commissione Prof. O. Manetti. Nella formazione dei terreni dell'altipiano, oltre alle azioni ditrasporto eolico della polvere quarzosa del sud, assume importanza la retrogradazione della roccia locale. Cosicche si hanno due tipi estremi di terreni: le sabbie di trasporto eolico quaternarie, e il detrito della roccia locale costituita per lo piu da calcari marnose. Ouesti tipi difficilmente si incontrano, mentre nella mag- gior parte di terreni partecipano in misura maggiore o minore le forme estreme. Non si ha quindi nel Gebel uniformita di terreno osservata nelle formazioni allu- vionali ed eoliche del bassopiano costiero. " II suolo del Gebel non e cosi uniformemente profondo come il terreno nella zona di Tripoli . . . , nondi- meno si puo affermare che il Gebel e fornito in generale 39° THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS di un suolo assai spesso. Le massime profondita si rag- giungono piu frequentemente nel Tarhuna, nella cui parte centrale la coperta quaternaria e pressoche continua, mentre nella zona periferica del Gebel (Tarhuna nord occidentale, Msellata e Garian) le discontinuita del quater- nario e la roccia piu spesso affiorante rendono la potenza del suolo piu pkcola e piu limitato il suo spessore." II Prof. Manetti, in base alle osservazioni fatte sul posto e ai risultati analitici di un numero molto ingente di campioni di terreni, accetta la distinzione dei terreni agrari fatta dagli indigeni in base alle loro proprieta fisiche : Ard Hamra (terra rossa) e il quaternario di origine eolica molto diffuse in tutto il Gebel e nella steppa sud- Tripolina. £ caratterizzato dal predominio di materiale sabbioso-silicei, mancanza quasi completa di scheletro, vario contenuto in calcare. II Prof. Manetti fa risaltare la grande somiglianza della terra Hamra del Gebel con quella della pianura sud Tripolina. Ard hammari (terra rossastra) poco diifusa (ficheti estensivi del Garian, molti frutteti del Msellata e del Tarhuna), non e sempre possibile distinguerla dal tipo precedente, dal quale differisce per una maggiore cemen- tazione calcarea ed una colorazione piu chiara. Rap- presenta la forma di transizione fra le terre piu sciolte (Hamra) e le piu compatte (ten). Ard Ten costituisceno i terreni in posto, dovuti allo sfacelo della roccia locale. Molto calcarei e compatti, di colore meno rosso dei precedenti, spesso poco pro- fondi. Comune nel Garian e nella Msellata, meno nel Tarhuna; quasi sempre misti a porzioni piu o meno grandi di sabbia eolica. Nella terra tenlo scheletro e spesso abbondante, le sostanze argilliformi in quantita superiore che in tutti gli altri tipi di terreno e abbondan- tissima quasi sempre il calcare. Col nome di ten gli indigeni chiamano anche i terreni nelle vicinanze immediate delle poche rocce vulcaniche (fonoliti) esistenti. Dall'accurato esame dei risultati analitici per quel che riguarda la composizione chimica, Tautore cosi conclude : " T° I terreni tutto del Gebel sono, dal punto di vista delle sostanze fertilizzanti, assai poveri. THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 39! 2° I terreni a tipo ten contengono una quantita di potassa sensibilmente superiore a tutti gli altri. 3° Scarsa essendo la materia organica, deficentissimo risulta il quantitative di azoto, parte del quale e stato riscontrato nei terreni sotto la forma piu assimilabile (nitrati). 4° L'anidride fosforica e contenuta sempre in quantita manchevolissima nelle terre tutte; occorrera quindi som- ministrarla dappertutto quando si vogliano ottenere dei raccolti continui di una certa entita. 5° La calce e sempre presente nel terreno, general- mente sotto forma di carbonato; il fosfato di calcio e solo limitato al Gebel el Gharbi. 6° Nonostante le deboli riserve di fertilizzanti, i terreni del Gebel sembrano essere suscettibili si assai 'buone produzioni, quando non manchi 1'umidita. 7° Lo scarso potere assorbente, specie dei terreni piu sciolti, ci fa prevedere che negli strati piu profondi del terreno le soluzioni acquose abbiano una maggiore con- centrazione di sali nutritivi che nei nostri comuni terreni, piu forti e tenaci. 8° La massina permeabilita che si riscontra in molti terreni del Gebel (specie in quelli di tipo Hamra) fa pre- vedere che riserve d'acqua di varia importanza si accumu- lino durante la stagione delle pioggie in corrispondenza del profondo sottosuolo e che risalgano lentamente durante Testate a mantenere in uno stato di vita, meno intensa ma normale, le piantagioni legnose esistenti in coltura asciutta." Oggetto di breve studio sono anche i terreni ritenuti incoltivabili nel Gebel Tripolitano. Sulla Libia predesertica e desertica si possiedono ancora pochissimi dati. Per gentile concessione dell'Ing. Sanfilippo, ho potuto analizzare una serie di campioni di terreni libici prelevati dalla missione durante la lunga permanenza in Tripoli- tania. Dei campioni studiati [17] alcuni si riferisconoa ter- reni di oasi (O. di Murzuk, Goddua e Brak) altri a terreni di alcuni Uidian — Ho potuto notare che poveri di calcare e di materiali argilliformi sono i terreni delle oasi, mentre ne sono abbondantemente forniti quelli degli Uidian. 392 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS Dalle ricerche lito-minerologiche, fisicomeccaniche e chimiche, e risultata evidente la grande affinita fra i ter- reni delle oasi fezzanesi e quelli delle oasi costiere, cio che starebbe in favore alia tesi della comune origine eolica di questi terreni situati a molte centinaia di km. di distanza. Terreni agrari della Cirenaica. I pochi dati positivi oggi esistenti sui terreni agrari della Cirenaica li dobbiamo soprattutto alia Commissione inglese nominata dalla Jewish Territorial Organisation (Ito) che percorse molto velocemente un tratto abbas- tanza esteso di territorio (400 km. fra Derna e Bengasi) in cerca di una regione ove impiantare una grande colonia israelita. La commissione [22] distingue dal punto di vista agrario il territorio percorso, in tre tipi : i° Terrene arabile. 2° Terreno atto alia pastorizia. 3° Terreno atto alia foresta. L'agronomo e chimico della commissione, Dott. Trotter, ha creduto di potere indicare le seguenti dis- cutibili dire:, Per cento Roccia calcarea scoperta ... ... ... ... 6 Terreno coltivabile... ... ... ... ... 23 Terreno colti vat o ... ... ... ... ... 16 Colline ... ... ... ... ... ... 30 Pianure ... ... ... ... ... ... 25 II terreno agrario occupa talora superfici limitate, altre volte grandi ripiani; di questi, Trotter studio quelli di Derna, Cirene, Messa, e Mergi che sono i principal! nella zona percorsa dalla commissione. In tutta la Cirenaica fti notata una grande sproporzione fra i terreni coltivati e i coltivabili. Dopo Tesposizione dei risultati delle indagini chimiche e fisico-meccaniche sui campioni di terreni agrari della Cirenaica il Dott. Trotter conclude: " Trie soils of the Cyrenaica belong to that class most prized by the agri- culturist." Dopo Toccupazione italiana il Dott. Carlo Manetti, durante la lunga residenza a Bengasi, pote raccogliere THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 393 dati e campioni sui terreni agrari del territories L'hinter- land Bengasino [23] puo dividersi nelle seguenti 3 zone : i° La pianura litoranea che si estende per 12-18 km. intorno a Bengasi, lievemente ondulata e che si eleva verso il Gebel-Dakhar. In questa zona sono da dis- tinguersi : / terreni sabblosi prevalenti lungo la costa per la profondita di un km. circa, e i terreni argillosi rossi, ricchi di principi fertilizzanti e di ottima costituzione fisico-meccanica, che si trovano in gran parte della pianura fino ai piedi del Gebel. La profondita di queste terre rosse e varia ma spesso molto rilevante. Tutta la zona litoranea e stepposa nell'estate, ricca di vegetazione durante la stagione delle pioggie; una piccolissima super- ficie e attualmente coltivata. 2° La regione delValtipiano che incomincia con le ter- razze elevantisi sulla pianura costiera fino a raggiungere il margine settentrionale che poi degrada verso il deserto. I migliori terreni si trovano in genere in fondo a Conche, le cui pareti calcaree sono nude di qualsiasi vegetazione. Nella zona di Bengasi abbondano gli affioramenti cal- carei che rendono sterile una grande superficie di terreno. La terra rossa predomina suiraltipiano, ma verso sud comincia ad assumere una tinta giallognola fino ad arri- vare nelle sabbie della zona desertica. 3° Zona desertica. — Al sud della precedents, poco in- teressante nei riguardi agricoli. In poche parole, i terreni predominanti in Cirenaica appartengono alia categoria delle terre rosse; verso Tobruk questo tipo scompare e sono diffusissimi terreni di colorazione giallo-biancastra per la grande diffusione delle arenarie. Frequentemente nelle terre della Ciren- aica e molto abbondante lo scheletro; gia THildebrandt [24] aveva notato che i terreni agrari della Cirenaka sono meno sciolti di quelli della Tripolitania come oggi risulta chiaramente dalle analisi. Le terre della Cirenaica sono tutte eminentemente ferrifere; variabile la quantita di carbonate, di materia organica e azoto, in genere non fanno difetto i principi fertilizzanti. £ da augurarsi che le migliorate condizioni politiche della Cirenaica, consentano presto uno studio complete e rigorosamente scientifico della regione. 394 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS Nelle pagine precedent! ho riassunto una buona parte del materiale bibliografico che puo utilmente consultarsi da chi desideri conoscere le caratteristiche fondamentali dei terreni agrari delle colonie italiane di dominio diretto. Fatte alcune doverose eccezioni, in genere gli studi a cui si e brevemente accennato risentono troppo della specializzazione scientifica degli autori; cosicche mentre possediamo utili ed ottimi contributi riferentisi alia com- posizione chimica e lito-mineralogica di molti terreni, ci mancano assai spesso le osservazioni lunghe e pazienti compittte sui campi, neH'ambiente in cui il terrene deve esplicare la sua capacita produttiva. Noi Italiani dovremmo sempre aver presente che il maggiore ostacolo alia messa in valore delle nostre colonie e la deficente quantita di acqua. Irrigazione e arido-coltura sono dunque per noi problemi di alto in- teresse; specialniente quest'ultimo che si presenta di possibile applicazione su immense superfici delle nostre aride colonie. La conoscenza del terreno, rispetto alia profondita, uniformita di struttura, permeabilita. capil- larita, perdite per evaporazione, ecc., e fondamentale per 1'applicazione dei metodi di arido-coltnra ed ad essa dovremmo in modo speciale mirare, se veramente teniamo a rendere di utilita pratica gli studi relativi al terreno. BIBLIOGRAFIA. [i] Sulla chimica composizione di alcune terre coltivabili di Gura e Godofelassi (Colonia Eritrea), Relazione di Fausto Sestini, in Stndi e ricerche istituite nel laboratorio di chimica agraria della R. Universita di Pisa} Anno 1891-92, fascicolo 11°. [2] Agricoltura Eritrea, Dott. Gino Bartolommei Gioli} Minis- tero Affari Esteri, Bollettino delVEmigrazione,, Anno 1906, N° 16. [3] Osservazioni sui terreni agrari della Colonia Eritrea, Dott. Paolo Principi. Perugia : Tipografia Guerriero Guerra, 1910. [4] Osservazioni fatte nella Colonia Eritrea. Baldacci, 1891. Descrizione di alcune rocce della Colonia Eritrea raccolte dal Dott. Gino Bartolommei Gioli. Giovanni d'Acchiardi. Pisa : Tipog. Nistri, 1902. Relazione di viaggio della Comm. Agricola incaricata di uno studio sulla colonizzazione nell'Eritrea dalle Soc. Coop, di Lavoratori della Terra di Molinella e di Ravenna, Rel. Dott. THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 395 Ilario Zannoni, Min. Affari Esteri, Boll. delV Emigrazione, Anno 1906, N° 16. Ricerche geo-idrologiche in Eritrea, Paolo Vinassa de Regny, Giornale di Geologia Praticcij IQII. Risultati scientifici di un viaggio nella Col. Eritrea, Proff. Dainelli e Marinelli. La Col. Eritrea, Condizioni e Problemi, Omodeo, Peglion e Valenti, Societa Italiana per il Progresso delle Scienze, Roma. Relazione sulla Col. Eritrea, del R° Comm. Civile Ferdinando Martini, Roma, Min. delle Colonie. [5] L'Agricoltura nella Somalia Italiana Meridionale (Bena- dir), Rapporto del Dott. Cesare Macaluso, Boll, del Ministero degli Affari Esteri, Die. igo8. [6] Analisi chimica di alcuni terreni del Benadir, Dott. G. W. Rossi, Agricoltura Coloniale,, Marzo-Aprile, IQOQ. [7] I terreni della sponda sinistra del Giuba all' analisi chimica, Dott. Fanelli. Viterbo : Tip. Agnisotti. [8] Studio analitico di alcuni terreni della Somalia It. Mer., Dott. Guido Mangano, Agricoltura Coloniale } Anno iii, fasc. vi, IQOQ. [g] L'Impresa zootecnica nella Somalia Italiana Mer., Dott. Scassellati Sforzolini, Roma. [10] Osservazioni sui terreni agrari della Somalia It. Mer., Dott. Paolo Principi, Giornale di Geologia Pratica, 1913, fasc. ii. [n] Note di Agricoltura Benadiriana, Dott. Romolo Onor in La Somalia Italiana nei -primi 3 anni del mio Governo, Relazione del Governatore nob. De Martino a S.E. il Ministro Bertolini, Roma. [12] Osservazioni sui terreni della Tripolitania Settentrionale, Prof. Paolo Vinassa de Regny, in Resoconto dei lavori eseguiti nel laboratorio di Geologia Agraria delV I stitnto Su-periore di Perugia, 1903-4. Libya Italica, Terreni ed acque, Vita e colture della nuova colonia, Prof. Paolo Vinassa de Regny, Hoepli, 1913. [13] Sulla potenzialita di alcuni terreni della Tripolitania, G. Sesti, Palermo, 1904. [14] Tripoli e i suoi distorni, G. Lagana, Boll, della Societa Africana d' 'Italia,, Anno xxiv, 1905. [15] Sulla composizione delle terre sabbiose della Tripoli- tania, Prof. A. Menozzi, Rendiconio del R. Istituto, ecc.} Serie ii, vol. xlv. [16] Ricerche e studi agrologici sulla Libia, vol. i, La Zona di Tripoli, Min. di Agricolt. Ind. e Comm., Roma. [17] Su alcune terre della Libia predesertica e desertica, Dott. A. Maugini, Agricoltura Coloniale, Anno vii, fasc. ix. [18] La Tripolitania Settentrionale, Min. delle Colonie, Roma, vol. i, Relazione a S.E. Bertolini, Min. delle Colonie; vol. ii, Studi complementari ed illustrativi della relazione. [19] La Missione Franchetti in Tripolitania, Indagini econo- THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS mico-agrarie della commissione inviata in Tripolitania dalla Soc. Ital. per lo Studio della Libia, Frat. Treves, Milano, igi4- [20] Sulla laterizzazione dei terreni a clima arido, Prof. C. Ulpiani, Le stasioni s-perimentali agrarie italiane, vol. xlv, fasc. ix. [21] Terra rossa bauxite, laterite, M. Gortani. Giornale di Geologia Praticcij Anno xi, fasc. i. Sull'origine della terra rossa, Prof. Paolo Vinassa de Regny, Boll. Soc. Geologica Italiana, xxiii, 1904. [22] Report on the Agricultural Condition of Cyrenaica, J. Trotter. London : Ito Offices, 1909. I terreni della Cirenaica e la relazione della Ito, Prof. P. Vinassa de Regny, Giornale di Geologia Pratica, Anno x, fasc. i. [23] Appunti di Agricoltura Bengasina, Dott. Carlo Manetti, Ministero Affari Esteri, Nov. 1912. [24] Cirenaica, Hildebrandt. Roma : Frank, 1912. COSTITUZIONE GEOLOGICA E REGIME IDROGRAFICO BELLA SOMALIA ITALIANA MERIDIONALE. Per il Professore GIUSEPPE STEFANINI. Docente di Geologia nella R. Universita di Padova. LA parte della Somalia Italiana da noi visitata a presa in esame in questa breve comunicazione puo grossolana- mente rappresentarsi come una regione di forma rom- boidale, limitata a nord est dal medio corso dell'Uebi Scebeli, a sud ovest dal basso e medio corso del Giuba, a sud est daH'Oceano Indiano, a nord ovest finalmente dalla linea di confine, stabilita con la convenzione italo- etiopica del 1908. Dal punto di vista geologico, possiamo distinguere in questo ampio territorio due regioni aventi caratteri assai diversi. La regione interna, costituente una specie di poco elevato altipiano, che scende lentamente dalle ultime propaggini del massiccio etiopico e muore nella pianura a una cinquantina di chilometri dalla riva destra del basso Scebeli, e la regione esterna, o alluvionale costiera che forma una striscia litoranea, larga un centi- naio di chilometri, insinuandosi pero assai piu profon- damente neirinterno, in corrispondenza delle due valli principal!. La regione interna e costituita in prevalenza di locce attribuibili al Mesozoico, addossate ad un massiccio cristallino. Questo si estende assai ampiamente, da Bur Meldac fino oltre il Dafet, in una zona diretta da nord est a sud ovest, e costituita da granititi e quarziti con rari affioramenti di rocce basiche e gneissiche. Le quar- ziti, e specialmente le granititi, affiorano qua e la a formare delle collinette nude, pittoresche, veri scogli isolati in mezzo alia pianura, analoghe a quelle che il Passarge ha studiato nell' Africa Orientale tedesca, de- nominandole Inselbergcn. Le roccie cristalline e special- mente le granititi, che sono le piu diffuse sono per solito nascoste da un ammanto di materiale sabbiosi-siliceo di 39$ THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS disfacimento, che non sembra adatto a trasformarsi in un buon suolo vegetale, che si mantiene infatti dapper- tutto coperto da una vegetazione piu o meno rigogliosa, ma sempre con spiccati caratteri xerofili. Le formazioni sedimentari, di eta mesozoica, si addos- sano attorno a questo massiccio cristallino, specialmente da ovest e nord ovest. Constano soprattutto di una potente pila di strati calcarei che hanno fornito in vari punti ricche faune fossili, attribuibili al Giurese. Alia base dei calcari nella parte settentrionale della colonia (dintorni di Lugh, Dolo ecc.) esiste anche una serie di arenarie variegate, con gessi, studiate gia da De Angelis1 su materiali raccolti dal compianto Sacchi, durante la seconda spedizione Bottego. I calcari si estendono largamente lungo il Giuba anche sulla riva destra del fiume, nella colonia inglese del Jubaland. La terra rossa di disfacimento dei calcari e solo di rado e localmente adibita a coltura dagli indigeni (zona marghiale del Baidoa) e non sembra a priori, molto adatta. Esistono nella regione interna ample plaghe occupate da pianure alluvionali, in rapporto con corsi d'acqua secondari, oggi solo temporanei, e poco important! : prkidpalmente il Baidoa e il Dafet, centri importanti di agricoltura indigena. Tutta la costa del Benadir e orlata da una catena di colline sabbiose, di colore rossastro, larga in media una ventina di chilometri e che raggiunge da qualche decina ad oltre 100 metri di altezza, man- tenendosi a poche centinaia di metri, di rado a qualche chilometro dal mare. La forma delle colline, Tesistenza fra le singole catene, di depressioni chiuse, il materiale dal quale esse sono costituite fanno ritenere che il nome di dune, dato loro generalmente, sia in realta appro- priate : sono pero dune antiche, la cui sabbia e ormai alterata e qua e la cementata leggermente e fissata da una vegetazione di steppa (mimose, euforbie candelabre, ecc.) che tutte le ricuopre : solo qua e la si addossano a queste dune antiche dune recenti ancora mobili, nude 1 De Angelis d'Ossat e Millosevich. Studio geologico sul materiale raccolto da M. Sacchi. Seconda spedizione Bottego. Roma, 1900. THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 399 e candide. La cementazione delle sabbie di duna e awenuta e avviene tuttora lungo la riva del mare, pet- opera di sorgenti e fors'anche dell'acqua marina stessa : si originano cosi dell-e arenarie poco consistent!, spesso bucherellate, formanti in vari punti coste a picco o piccoli promotori sporgenti. Arenarie e calcari di origine marina contenenti resti di organismi di tipo molto recente non si trovano che al livello stesso del mare e solo lungo la costa. Veirso la foce del Giuba ho potuto constatare che esse s'inter- nano per due o tre chilometri, mantenendosi pero sempre ad un livello di pochissimi metri : cosi a Gobwen e alia base della collina di Giumbo si raccolgono in copia le ostriche. Pare evidente che dopo la loro formazione nessun apprezzabile sollevamento siasi verificato in questa parte della costa africana. Si sa che piu al nord (capo Guarda- fui) e piu al sud (Mombasa) si osservano invece analoghe formazioni marine postplioceniche, piu o meno sollevate. Come e ben noto il Giuba si apre una via al mare tra la collina di Giumbo e quella di Turkey Hill, che fanno parte della catena delle dune. L'Uebi Scebeli invece, giunto a una quarantina di chilometri dalla costa, trova sbarrato il suo corso naturale dalle dune stesse, che ne deviano il corso verso SW. II flume scorre cosi per oltre 300 chilometri parallelamente alia costa, e sempre da esso separate per mezzo delle dune, divagando in mille meandri, dividendosi in mille rami, impoverendosi sempre piu di acque, finche ristagna e muore nelle paludi dei Balli, a poche decine di chilometri dalle rive del Giuba. Analogamente a destra di questo in territorio inglese, il fiume Uaso Nyiro forma pure una palude senza raggiun- gere il mare. Cosi avviene che le alluvioni del Giuba e quelle dello Scebeli si riuniscono insieme a formare una larga zona a C che abbraccia a S, SE, ed E la regione sopra chia- mata interna e la separa completamente dalla zona delle dune costiere. Mentre queste per la loro costituzione sabbiosa sono invase dalla vegetazione di steppa e anche nei pressi dei grandi centri non vengono che eccezionalmente 4OO THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS adibite a coltivazioni dagli indigeni, la grande zona allu- vionale del Giuba e dello Scebeli apparisce invece per la sua positura pianeggiante, un po'riparata dai venti marini, per la natura argillosa del suolo, per la presenza dei fiumi, che possono somministrare in copia 1'acqua necessaria all'irrigazione, straordinariamente adatta alle colture di ogni genere. Veniamo ora a dire brevemente delle risorse d'acqua della colonia, e prima di tutto del Giuba e dello Scebeli. Come e noto, la parte inferiore del loro corso e pensile; essi sono percio quasi completamente indipendenti dalle piogge locali, e dipendenti principalmente dal regime pluviale della parte alta dei loro bacini : cosi il periodo delle loro piene (maggio-settembre) corrisponde in parte ad un periodo asciutto della Somalia. La portata dei due fiumi e assai diversa. Pel Giuba, che e una massa d'acqua indubbiamente piu considerevole, si puo calcolare in base ad alcune misure eseguite dal- Tlng. R. Fano2 una portata media, in piena, di oltre 600 me. al secondo; esso va pero impoverendosi piu a valle, sia per causa dell'evaporazione e delle filtra- zioni, sia specialmente perche in molti punti trascina e inonda le circostanti campagne. L'Uebi Scebeli ha por- tata minore, specialmente nella parte inferiore del suo corso, che si prolunga tanto in regioni, ove Tacqua diviene quasi stagnante e ogni sorgente di alimentazione manca. La sua portata in piena viene stimata dal Fano a 270 me. al secondo. 1 dati che saranno desunti dai numerosi idrometri, che gia da qualche anno funzionano in parecchi punti forni- ranno presto, vogliamo sperare, piu copiosi e piu esatti ragguagli, necessari per trovare il mezzo di sfruttare nel miglior modo e piu completamente che si potra la massa d'acqua disponibile. Prescindendo da questi due corsi d'acqua perenni, altre risorse idriche esistono nel territorio studiato; ma, piu 2 FANO, R. : Del Regime delle Acque nelle nostre Oolonie (Somalia italiana) Istituto Coloniale italiano. degli Italian! all'Estero sez. viii. Roma3 ign. THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 4OI che per I'agricoltura su larga scala, esse sono utili (almeno allo stato attuale delle cose) per la pastorizia. Le plaghe calcaree e cristalline della regione interna e le dune costiere (cioe tutte le parti della colonia disadatte alia coltura e coperte dalla caratteristica boscaglia, o vegetazione di steppa) sono popolate da cabile di pastori nomadi, continuamente in emigrazione dietro i loro copiosissimi greggi di cammelli, buoi, pecore e capre. Questi hanno le loro abbeverate ai fiumi e innumerosi pozzi e sorgenti. Nella regione interna sono specialmente ricche di pozzi ^ di sorgenti le plaghe calcaree. La dove la massa rocciosa non e incisa da reticolati vallivi, pare che Facqua imbeva la massa stessa, naturalmente fessurata ed in- franta. L'acqua di base (grundwasser) si trova spesso a non grande profondita, si che non e stato difficile agli indigeni raggiungerla con pozzi profondi pochi metri, aperti coll'aiuto del fuoco nella viva roccia, specialmente in zone alquanto depresse : anzi in qualche punto 1'acqua affiora al livello del suolo e origina vere sorgenti. Da queste devono tenersi distinte, geneticamente, le sorgenti di Baidoa, che si aprono pure in alto, ma in corrispond- enza di una incisione nel margine»dell-altipiano calcareo, originando cosi una piccola cascata, che potra venire ntilizzata per forza motrice. La plaga cristallina non ha pozzi importanti : tuttavia la copertura sabbiosa eluviale, permeabilissima, deve dar luogo al suo contatto col sottosuolo roccioso a un velo d'acqua piu o meno ricco. Esso pero non ha potuto essere aggredito dagli indigeni (salvo qua e la vicino alle <:olline isolate) sia a causa della sua profondita, sia per la difficolta di sostenere le pareti dei pozzi in terreno sabbioso. Tutti i piccoli pozzi che gli indigeni scavano in questa formazione trovansi costantemente insabbiati. In questa parte della colonia dei tentativi di pozzi tubulari avranno molta probabilita di successo. Le alluvioni limitate, vallive, di questa regione interna hanno pure un livello acquifero, raggiunto dagli indigeni con pozzi profondi 5, 7 e fino 9 e 10 metri. Importanti assai sono i cosi detti pozzi dei Galgial, che si trovano distribuiti nel territorio occupato dalla 26 4O2 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS cabila di questo nome, formando una doppia linea paral- lela al corso del medio Uebi Scebeli, a qualche decina di chilometri sulla destra di questo fiume. Essi sono spesso circondati (come avviene di altri pozzi in colonia) da una formazione calcarea, travertinosa, ma il sottosuolo- della regione pare sia sabbioso. La zona della duna costiera ha una falda d'acqua sotterranea quasi continua, che trae origine dalla catena sabbiosa, permeabile e scende con deflusso continuo al mare. Ad essa si deve probabilmente la cementazione locale delle sabbie litorali. Essa alimenta una lunga serie di pozzi e sorgenti, che si estende senza interruzione lungo il mare, talora sotto al livello stesso dell'alta marea, dalla foce del Giuba fino a Itala ed oltre; e che malgrado la qualita non di rado salmastra dell'acqua, serve molto bene agli usi dei nomadi, vaganti sulla duna e aH'abbe- verata dei loro bestiami; non meno che aH'uso degli indigeni nei principali centri abitati. Anche qui, come pure airinterno della catena delle dune, sulla sinistra dello Scebeli a monte di Afgoi, dove pare esistono delle intercalazioni di sabbie eoliche nel- ralluvione dello Scebeli, i pozzi tubulari potranno rendere non pochi servigi. NOTE SUE LA FERTILITE NATURELLE DES TERRES DE LA VALLEE DU MOYEN- NIGER. Par M. J. LEMMET. Directeur du Laboratoire d' Analyses de I'Inspection d' Agriculture a Dakar. LES terras de la vallee du Moyen-Niger doivent leur fertilite, non pas tant a leur composition chimique, c'est a dire a leur richesse en elements fertilisants, qu'aux conditions exterieures favorables qui leur sont faites (lois naturelles; circonstances economiques; methodes cul- turales consacrees par 1'experience). D'une fa<;on generate, on peut dire d'apres les analyses deja faites, que ces terres sont d'une richesse comparable aux bonnes terres a ble de France, au point de vue azote et potasse; mais elles sont beaucoup plus pauvres en ce qui concerne 1'acide phosphorique et la chaux. Neanmoins, les terres de la vallee du Moyen-Niger sont des terres fertiles. Partout en effet, ou Talimentation en eau leur est assuree (pluies, eaux d'inondation; irrigation) elles sont reellement productives. Cette fertilite naturelle est d'ailleurs parfaitement ex- plicable : Elle resulte en effet, comme nous allons essayer de le montrer, d'une part (terres non inondees) d'un choix heureux des cultures, et d'une methode culturale bien comprise; d'autre part (terres inondees et terres irriguees) de Tenrichissement periodique des terres en elements fer- tilisants, dans des conditions un peu speciales : enrichisse- ment en azote aux depens de Tair (microbes fixateurs d'azote); enrichissement en azote, acide phosphorique, potasse, chaux et humus, grace aux substances fertili- santes diverses, charriees par les eaux d'inondation (fumier des troupeaux, ordures des villages, etc.). 404 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS I. — TERRES NON INONDEES. {a) Choix heureux des cultures; (petit mil, arachides et niebes). La culture fondamentale des terres non inondees est celle du petit mil. C'est la une cereale qui est au gros mil ce que le seigle est au ble; elle a pour dominante ou aliment prefere 1'azote, et elle est pen exigeante, vis a vis des matieres minerales. Cette culture -est en outre d'autant moins epuisante que les substances inorganiques puisees par le petit mil dans le sol reviennent a celui-ci, en presque totalite, soit directement, du fait de I'incineration ou de la decom- position naturelle sur place des tiges et des fetiilles, soit indirectement, apres digestion de ces elements par les termites, ou du fait des troupeaux qui viennent consom- mer ces residus, riches en principes nutritifs, et fument alors les lougans sur lesquels ils stationnent. On s'explique done fort bien qu'on puisse obtenir de bonnes recoltes successives, malgre que les terres soient un peu pauvres en acide phosphorique, en chaux, voire meme en potassie, attendu que ces principes se trouvent regulierement regeneres et remis en circulation tous les ans. Cette consideration, de Tabandon sur place des tiges -de mil, apres recolte des epis (pratique interressante pour 1'elevage) explique en rnem-e temps que le sol presente toujours une certaine richesse en humus et en azote. Ce dernier element, qui se trouve abondamment repandu dans 1'atmosphere, est d'ailleurs comme on sait, dans certaines conditions, fixe dans le sol par certains microbes specifiques, et peut finalement apres transforma- tions ulterieures, etre utilise avec avantage par les plantes cultivees. Les conditions essentielles de cette fixation directe d'azote atmospherique sont celles-la meme qui sont necessaires a la vie des microorganismes qui la realisent; c'est a dire, d'une part, la presence dans le sol d'une certaine quantite de matiere hydrocarbonee, telle que 1'humus (aliment des bacteries fixatrices), et d'autre part THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IX THE TROPICS 405 line humidite convenable (condition egalement sine qua non du developpement de tout etre vivant). Ainsi, on comprend, aux Colonies aussi bien et plus qu'en Europe, 1'importance dans le sol d'une certaine quantite d'humus et d'une certaine quantite d'eau, et par suite le gros interet tant du fumier que de 1 'irrigation. En dehors du petit mil, les indigenes cultivent sur les terres hautes (terres non inondees) des arachides, des pois chiches et des niebes, toutes plantes ameliorantes (legumineuses). Parfois, autour des villages sur terres regulierement fumees tin pen de gros mil et de mais, ainsi que du coton. (b) Mcthodc culturalc bien comprise: culture sur buttes (dry-farming); labour profond, jachere et assolement. D'une fac,on assez generate au Soudan et en particulier dans la region du Moyen-Niger, le petit mil est cultive sur buttes, et il en est souvent de meme pour Tarachide et le pois chiche. Cette methode culturale s'explique, en premier lieu, par suite de la nature particuliere du sol. Les terres a mil, qui nous occupent, presentent en effet des proprietes physiques un peu speciales. Ce sont des terres limoneuses, c'est a dire a elements extreme- ment fins. Elles sont poreuses; la capillarite s'y exerce a merveille; mais elles se tassent rapidement, sous Faction de pluies un peu violentes (terres battantes), de sorte que. si Ton n'y prenait garde, le ruissellement y serait intense. De la le grand interet et la veritable raison d'etre de la culture sur buttes. Autant de buttes en effet, autant de petites cuvettes intercalaires, qui vont donner autant de petites mares, chaque fois qu'un orage survient. L'eau de ces lacs, en miniature, ne tarde pas ensuite a disparaitre : Une partie est absorbee par la terre for- mant cuvette et s'en va former reserve dans le sous-sol, tandis que le surplus va alimenter la butte dans laquelle il remonte comme dans du sucre, Ainsi. 1'eau de pluie est utilisee au maximum, attendu que le .ruissellement est mil, et que la perte par evaporation est peu impor- 406 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS tante, grace au binage soigne, que les indigenes prati- quent dans leurs lougans, aussitot apres la pluie. Si Ton songe, maintenant que la butte mesure couram- ment 25 cms., 30 cms. et plus de hauteur (pour 45 cms. de diametre a la base, et 45 cms. environ d'entre-buttes) on voit que cette methode culturale correspond d'un autre cote a un veritable labour profond, et il faut reconnaitre que malgre la rusticite de 1'outil employe (daba= houe) les indigenes en maints endroits pre- parent leurs terres admirablement, et mettent a la dis- position des plantes cultivees un sol a la fois bien aere et 'bien ameubli. En outre, la richesse du sol en humus est entretenue regulierement par 1'enfouissage des mauvaises herbes spontanees, que 1'indigene ramene precieusement sur les buttes. Cette pratique culturale comporte done, comme on le voit, le sarclage, tout en presentant en partie les avan- tages de la jachere sauvage (engrais vert). Enfin, si on y prete attention, on reconnait que la maniere de faire des indigenes, en dehors de 1'interet qu'elle presente parfois sous le rapport du drainage, comme aussi au point de vue du tallage, ou encore de la defense des lougans (en evitant un entrainement rapide de la terre fine par les eaux ou par le vent) comporte, somme toute, une sorte d'assolement; attendu que, soit d'une annee a 1'autre, soit de deux ans en deux ans, les buttes se deplacent dans le champ. La butte nouvelle vient prendre la place de 1'entre- butte au centre du carre forme par les anciennes buttes, qui participent chacune, pour un quart, dans la formation -. vnvO M \T> 10 ONOO OO SS2 c-g rt \O O O « 00 S 3 Is. « rf O LON r^ic^ SffglfgSs&H 11 C» 00 OO HI 00 ° 8 ^ o o1" '^•^•^^.b bbbbobbbobb £* b o o b b H 1 V I sSSsSSHH: Q 1 .li r^ •*> ON O O p O O u->£^ K ta '•5 S 3 A 1 O-ON.On^MVOrj Z •< jt « rj - ^ 2 • . :£ £00 *S SSSStll'sf'&l a. h O J3 _ ON J^ O ^O t^ O N PO N t^ " °^ ""» ON b b b b b b b b b b b b b C5 b b b b b 1 M V r*j O "^ ^ >-o 1 3 £ cu ^ 'Nvo "" "IS, VO M ,_) .4%^* |?8?&?55<§2s 1-8 g c SO ^O *-O N VO £} "* ^° ^ M bbbbobbbobb 1-1 b b b b b 1 g 5S8Sl??:8SJCS,2 j? u 00 N N O •* h 1 >- « w HH roOO d OO 1-1 rr> SN 2 "* b b b b b b b b b b b J 0 CQ c o< rtOO 0 0 ON « 0 M1 0 0 o o o b o 1 OO N N Tj-vO ^ r^-O xo N li 00 O vp O VO c N •o £ : :» o^vp^^o^oo^o-r. "o « 00^0^0 J 00 " 'vO<^— w"oONOO1roOO>22 SJ M O "*• O « ^ ao" 2 M bbbbobbbobb c o. o o o o o S S. S -g « J:0:^: :..::: :O&T : i g | § !.-§ o W^ Slltillo4Io^oO||a: ^5lf^JF;l^|l^ Lime, CaO Magnesia, MgO Potash, K4O Phosphoric acid, PaC Nitrogen, N 4^ THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS for bananas to contain : K = 160 Ib. of potash, P = 80 Ib, of phosphoric acid, N = 40 Ib. of nitrogen, applied per acre twice a year to normal crops, and in double quanti- ties 2(KPN) to crops on exhausted lands. For the experiments, two blocks of land at the two ends of the small fertile table-land on Buderim Mountain, where the land has been under cultivation for over twenty years, were chosen. The results of both series are prac- tically identical, so that we need study only the results of one. The soil is a porous, red volcanic loam of good depthr but at the time of preparing it for cultivation, so worn out that even weeds and grass would barely grow on it. The soil still contained, however, a good amount of humus (in all cases determined by Rather's modification of the Grandeau method [12]), arid a good amount of total phosphoric acid and nitrogen, but was low in total potash and lime, and very deficient in " available " phos- phoric acid and potash (see analyses Table III). Each block was divided into two plots of one acre each, the first being planted in 1909, and the second in 1910, after being kept under a green-manure crop for the year. The land was ploughed shallow at first, with narrow, furrows, and harrowed and cross-harrowed several times, until all the couch grass and other weeds were removed. One month before planting the ground was ploughed deeply, followed by a sub-soiler working to a depth of 18 to 24 in. The ground was again harrowed and cross- harrowed, to get the soil into a good mulch, before making the plant holes in October. The bananas planted were of the Cavendish variety, the most profitable and also the hardiest of the dwarf varieties. The plant holes W'ere made 12 ft. apart, giving 302 plants per acre, and twenty-eight stools to each experiment. The first lot of manure was applied in the plant holes, well mixed with the soil, before planting the suckers, and the sub- sequent applications were made as top-dressings, and were slightly hoed under. I must here state that I believe it is better, in the case of old plantations, to apply part of the artificial fertilizers THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 429 in holes, made with a crowbar to a depth of from 18 to 24 in., all round the banana stool, at a distance of from 3 to 5 ft., and the rest of the fertilizer as a top-dressing. The Narico-bean, planted as a green-manure crop on the second plot, did not grow too well, although well manured, and this must have been due to the acid nature of the soil and want of lime. The crop was ploughed in and the second series of bananas planted September, 1910. The results of the experiments, as shown by the yields (Table II), speak for themselves. Rows i and 2, of the first series, may be left out of account, as the land at that point is a little low-lying, and suffered from heavy washaways during storms in the first year of growth, and the stools in these rows were also more directly exposed to the cold winter winds. The unmanured and lightly manured rows showed from the very start want of vigour in the plants, and demon- strated clearly what to expect when replanting such depleted lands without artificial fertilizers; whereas ex- periments with double quantities of fertilizers gave excel- lent yields. A striking feature on poor land is the formation of so-called "blind bunches/7 The banana sucker, as soon as the bunch appears, seems to lose its vitality, the leaves drop off, and the stalk bends over, often breaks off, as if it had not sufficient strength to support even a small bunch of fruit. Most of the bunches in the unmanured and slightly manured rows were of this nature. The heavily manured plots produced good heavy bunches, many with fifteen and sixteen dozen bananas; the plants have a much healthier appearance, and are much more robust to withstand the severity of the cold weather during the winter months. In my sixth Progress Report on the experiments {Queensland Agricultural Journal, June, 1913) I stated that the quantities of artificial fertilizers applied, can be well considered a world's record, as in some instances nearly 2 tons of artificial fertilizers are applied yearly, and the cost of the manure, 2(KPN), amounts to above £25 per acre, and in the case of experiments where lime was used in addition to the other fertilizers to a total of £29 per acre. 430 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS TABLE II. CROP RESULTS OF BANANA MANURING EXPERIMENTS, ON BUDERIM MOUNTAIN, QUEENSLAND. ist Series. No. of Experiment and Fertilizers used FOUR YEARS' CROPS Total, Dozen Total, Bunches Average annual yield, dozen Per acre Per acre Per acre I. (KPNB) 5,393 625 1,348 2. 2(KPNb) 7,637 971 1,909 3- £(KPNB) ... 3,047 528 762 4- Nil 442 86 1 10 6! 7- *(KPNN) 2(KPNN) (KPTNN) 6,041 13,650 10,204 863 1,489 1,262 1,510 3,412 2.551 8. (KPNA) 7,750 884 !,937 9- 2(KPNA) 14,034 1,639 10. (KPTNA) ... 12,470 1,402 3,ii8 2nd Series. THREE YEARS' CROPS CROF 1913-14 No. of Experiment and Fertilizers used Average Total, dozen Total, bunches annual yield, Dozen Bunches dozen Per acre Per acre Per acre Per acre Per acre ii. 2(KPNB) 9,799 1,165 3,266 4,700 496 12. 2(KPNN) 12,710 1,413 4,237 4,470 432 13. 2(KPNN)-f Salt... io,435 1,284 3,478 4,530 485 14. 2(KPNB) + Salt. . 10,042 1,230 3,347 3,880 4OO 15. Nil ... 5,280 820 1,760 1,639 216 16. Nil + Lime 6,489 971 2,163 4,910 550 17. 2(KPNN ) -f- Lime 9,966 1,165 3,322 4,710 485 18. 2(KPNB ) + Lime 10,596 1,262 3,532 7,070 712 IQ. 2(KPN N ) + Lime + Salt ... 9,260 i, 068 3,o87 7,515 701 20. 2(KPNB) + Lime + Salt ... 8,969 1,122 2,989 7,955 733 K = 160 Ib. K2O applied as 320 Ib. Potassium sulphate per acre. NB = 40 Ib. N applied as 290 Ib. Dried blood per acre. NN = 40 Ib. N applied as 290 Ib. Nitrate of lime per acre. NA = 40 Ib. N applied as 200 Ib. Ammonium sulphate per acre. P = So Ib. P2O5 applied as 470 Ib. Superphosphate per acre. PT = 80 Ib. P2OS applied as 470 Ib. Thomas's phosphate per acre. 2(KPN) means double above quantities. £(KPN) means half quantities. All manures applied twice a year, in spring and in autumn. Salt applied 2 cwt. per acre. Lime applied in two dressings of 2 tons limestone screenings per acre. THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS 43! The average yield of the experimental plots (KPN), taking the average of eight experimental plots for a period of three years, was 345 bunches, with 3,035 dozen bananas per acre per annum, at a value of say £38, the cost of the fertilizer being about £12 los. per annum. In the experiments 2(KPN) we obtained an average yield of 457 bunches, with 4,330 dozen, of a value of £54 per acre, showing a considerably increased net profit over the yield obtained from plots (KPN). The record yield was given by experiment 12 in 1912-13 with thirty dozen per stool (second year's crop), the same plot yielded last year only 14! dozen. Experi- ment 20, which yielded 2i| dozen per stool in 1912-13, gave in the last harvest 28^ dozen per stool. Very re- markable is the yield of the two unmanured plots (experi- ments 15 and 16), giving n and 17 dozen respectively in 1912-13, and last harvest, up to March, 1914, 5$ and i6£ dozen respectively, showing clearly the influence of the long dry spell during the year 1913 on the limed and unlimed, unmanured experiments, and proving the great advantage of liming. The owner of the experimental field also conducted on his own account an experiment with a commercial mixed fertilizer, frequently used for manuring in this district. Using this fertilizer at the rate of 6 Ib. per stool, or 16 cwt. per acre, he applied, expressed in our standard, j K 3^ P i£ N, but the results were exceedingly disappointing, clearly indicating the want of potash in the mixture. With regard to the application of phosphoric acid, it appears that both Thomas's phosphate and super- phosphate give good results. In this class of red soil the soluble phosphoric acid changes soon into an in- soluble form of sulphate. As superphosphates are more easily obtained, they were exclusively used for the second series of experiments. Nitrogen acts apparently best in the form of dried blood, and as nitrate of lime. The application of salt in addition to other manures does not appear to make any appreciable difference in the yields, and it appears that the plant gets a sufficient amount of salt from the ordinary class of soil. 432 THE FERTILITY OF SOILS IN THE TROPICS In the close neighbourhood of the experimental field the head-teacher of the State School on Buderim Moun- tain carried out some manuring experiments with bananas, besides growing a large number of different varieties. The soil was a virgin soil of good quality, and the results of his experiments show that on a virgin soil the application of our standard (KPN), twice a year, gave the most profitable harvest. The incomplete fer- tilizer, without potash, did but barely pay for the applica- tion of the fertilizer, as compared with the unmanured plot, showing the importance of potash to the banana plants. The results of his experiments were as follows : Application of nil (PN) (KPN) 2(KPN) manure Cost of manure nil £9 8s. 6d. £12 6s. 6d. £23 45. od. per acre Value of crop £28 us. gd £39 35. od. £67 2s. 3d. £5$ 155. 2d. per acre Of particular interest to the agriculturist will be the •question, how such heavy manurial dressings affect the physical and chemical properties of the soil. New samples of soil were taken after the experiments had been in progress for four years. One sample was obtained from the unmanured row 15, another was taken from the heavily manured row 12, a few feet from the stool, at places where the fertilizer was actually applied. Another sample was taken between the unmanured rows 15 and 16, and lastly a sample was taken between the heavily manured rows 19 and 20, where lime was applied, 'but outside the zone of artificial fertilizer. The last sample shows clearly that the manure does not spread its effect to any distance and that the plants evidently utilize it as soon as it is applied. In row 12 only do we find a distinct increase in the amounts of available plant food (see Table III). The physical conditions of the soil were improved by cultivation and manuring, and the soil is now in excellent condition, enable of producing good crops, as the plants are enabled to utilize the fertilizers easily. The owners of the experimental fields are quite con- vinced of the profits derived from the application of our j"p|! 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HH CO O ON ro OO ON t>. ro Nr^ 00 NOO 10 NI^O 000 M wfOHH O CO •^ \O O 0s t^ oo r^ & CM CM p « ON ON H»O 60" w b • oo 00 « fo^ b N TMOO CS ^- ON tN ro TJ- N vp O ro ro V t^. •<*• N v ov « OO ON :*1? cr i; o. o CMT 10 N O "•> l^ «OU-> »- HH H- M rot^ VON •^•CM >-«OO i-ivo ON ro t>« ON roo O lo vO 10 ro t^ ON *^ TfOO ON ON ON t>. 00 OO OO OO vb vb %% •*oo to r>. op » ON ro l^OO NONO OOOro 00 b oo t~^ ro r^ ro W N N •-« N ^J-vo — O «O« HH N N VO O p" N ro ro 34 ; o .i : o : o § 'a li -3-2H S-0 3 8 s wg S g 8 3 c-^cs-g •-i N ro 10 53° MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS Le piogge sono in generale abbondanti, precedute da grandi tuoni ed accompagnate da forti scariche elet- triche; durano di regola un'ora o poco 'piu e subito il cielo si rasserena; raramente piove piu ore di seguito. La quantita annuale di pioggia e elevaitissima : le determinazioni eseguite la fanno ritenere oscillante fra i 1,300 mm. ed i 1,700 mm. ed oltre. Anche in anni scarsissimi, sembra non si abbassi mai sotto i 1,000 mm. L'umidita media si considera del 72 per cento nella zona piu alta (oltre i 1,500 m. d'altitudine) e dell'So per cento nella zona piu bassa. La temperatura diurna, durante questo periodo, non sale di regola sopra i 3O°-32° C., ne si abbassa durante ta notte al di sotto di i6°-i4° C. La stagionc sccca si estende ordinariamente da Maggio a Settembre. La temperatura diminuisce gradatamente da Maggio a Giugno per risalire di seguito. Durante la notte si possono raggiungere, dei minimi di 40° C. (raramente si scende a o° sui margini dei rii e nel fondo delle valli); ma durante il giorno la temperatura risale fino a mas- simi di 240-26° C. In questo periodo, il cielo e sempre limpido e 1'atmos- fera secca; rare sono le nebbie, ma si hanno (special- mente in alcuni mesi dell'anno) rngade abbondante (cassimbo). In relazione con queste condizioni di clima, 1'altipiano, particolarmente nella sua zona centrale inoltre i 1,500 m. d'altitudine, va esente da fenomeni di paludismo e si mostra immune da malattie tropicali, ed i Bianchi che da vari anni lo abitano per esercitarvi il conimercio, sono testimoni delle sue buone condizionidi salubrita. L'abbondante caduta di acque che avviene durante un periodo di circa 7 mesi, la natura del suolo filtrante e quella della roccia arcaica, sono circostanze deter- minanti favorevoli condizioni idrografiche. In conseguenza di tali circostanze, suH'altipiano, se mancano o sono rare le grandi sorgenti proprie dei terreni calcarei, e abbondantissimo pero quello stol- licidio di acque sui fianchi dei monti e dei colli, caratteristico dei terreni arcaici. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 531 Basta esaminare iina carta corografica dell'altipiano (tenendo presente che alcune region! non sono ancora geograficamente ben studiate) per formarci un idea di quanto sia sviluppata 1'idrografia della regione. Infatti, nell'altipiano di Benguella spingoiio le loro radici molti fra i maggiori fiumi dell'Anrica meridionale. Per limitarci ai principalissimi, girando attorno alia linea culmfnante ch€ si puo considerare fra Huambo e la anhara di Nbulo-vulo, si incontrano i bacini del fiume Catumbella, del nttme Oueve degli affluenti di sinistra del Cuanza, del Cutato dal Ganguellas, del Cunene : si tratta di fiumi tutti di primaria importanza, che scendono al mare con acque perenni di parecchi me. di portata a m." anche in tempo di magra. In conseguenza delle condizioni idrografiche e della inclinazione che naturalmente hanno i terreni, Palti piano presenta la possibilita di numerose e freguenti — se non molto important! ciascuna — utilizzazzioni di acque, per irrigazione o per forza motrice. Sull'altipiano vive una popolazione indigena assai numerosa, di razza bantu con infiltrazioni varie, com- pletamente pacificata, mancante di spirito guerresco. Sulla base dei dati di vari exploratori che hanno per- corso la ragione, si calcola che 1'Angola abbia una popolazione indigena media di 6 abitanti a km. q.; ma, se si considera che il distretto di Benguella e il piu popolato e che gli indigeni sono concetrati specialmente sull'altipiano, bisogna ammettere che quivi la densita supera di gran lunga la media. Questa popolazione, che oggi fornisce i portatori al commercio dei Bianchi, potra in un prossimo avvenire fornire la mano d'opera occorrente alle aziende agricole : d'atronde e notorio che questo distretto forniva, special- mente qualche anno indietro, abbondante mano d'opera alle " Rochas " di S. Thome e di Principe. Fra gli indigeni, mentre gli uomini sono in preva- lenza portatori e commercianti, le donne ed i ragazzi sono debiti aH'agricoltura. Le colture ordinariamente seguite dagli indigeni sono : granturco fagiuoli, patata, patata dolce; in proporzione minore, sono coltivati anche il caffe, il riso, il cotone, il tabacco, la canna saccarina; cucurbitacee varie e varie piante della flora indigena. 532 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS Per altro, il granturco, ed i fagiuoli costituiscono la base della alimentazione dei neri. I Bianchi, che attualmente vivono sparsi sull'Altipiano, per esercitare il commercio ed accaparrarvi il, caucciu la gomma e gli altri prodotti che vengono dall'interno, raramente esercitano della vera e propria agricoltura. Nei loro orti si trova coltivato pero ogni sorta di ortaggio, cavoli, insalate, pomodori, cipolle, fragole, ecc.; nei loro campi si vedono introdotte le colture di grano, di avena, di fave, di piselli. Svariatissime sono piante fruttifere da loro introdotte, ma straordinaria- mente produttive fra le altre sono gli agrumi, i peschi, i nespoli del Giappone, i g'elsi. Tutto cio dimostra I'adattabilita dell'altipiano a piante diverse, erbacee e legnose; dimostra la possibilita di esercitare quella coltura mista, che offre alimenti svar- iati ai coltivatori, che aumenta le ragioni di provento e rende piu costante il reddito delle imprese agricole. Rispetto al bestiame, vivono sull'altipiano numerosi bovini, ovini, suini; si tratta di animali oggi a limitate attitudini, ma che potrebbero ben costituire la base di un importante allevamento avvenire. Dalle notizie sommariamente esposte, si puo redurre con fondata regione che 1'altipiano del Benguella presenta in se condizioni favorevoli al proficuo sviluppo deH'industria agricola e zootecnica ; e, dato il clima e la salubrita del paese, si puo giustamente dedurre che queste potranno indifferentemente esercitarsi in azi- ende ad ordinamento industriale — agricolo con mano d'opera indigena, o mediante piccole aziende esercitate direttamente dai Bianchi. Le favorevoli condizioni accennate, fino a pochi mesi or sono, esistevano suH'altipiano del Benguella solo allo stato potenziale. Chi infatti avesse voluto allora trasportare alia costa, attraverso al massiccio grani- tivo, i prodotti del suolo, avrebbe dovuto necessaria- mente valersi deH'opera dei caricatori indigeni, o di carri Boeri, mezzi gli uni e gli altri, lenti e molto costosi. Oggi un fatto nuovo e intervenuto a valorizzare 1'altipiano. Da Lobito parte un tronco ferroviario, che MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 533 attraverso 1'altipiano centrale, per Ruwe arrivera a Kambove nel Katanga, allacciandosi con la Ferrovia del Congo; di qui, per Elisabethville, mediante il nuovo tratto di congiungimento fra la Rhodesia e il Katanga, sara unito con Bulawayo e quindi, da un lato con Beira, dall'altro col Capo di Buona Speranza. Una attivita nuova si va manifestando per sviluppare i mezzi di accesso : ai vecchi sentieri, percorsi soltanto dai caricatori, si stanno sostituendo le strade che, seb- bene di costruzione economica, migliorano gia sentital- mente le condizioni del traffico. Facilitati gli accessi, la valorizzazzione agricola deH'altipiano di Benguella, si deve considerare avvenimento a fbreve scadenza. THE PROGRESS OP NATIVE AGRICULTURE IN CEYLON. By C. DRIEBERG, B.A., F.H.A.S. Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society, and Superintendent of School Gardens, Ceylon. IN this paper the term " Native Agriculture " is used to indicate the cultivation of crops other than those generally spoken of %s " Planting Products " comprising mainlv tea. cocoa and rubber. Till within recent times and subsequent to the fall of the great coffee industry, coconut cultivation was mainly in the hands of the Cingalese, but with the rise of the coconut industry much European capital has been invested in this enterprise, which has now attained an important position in tropical agriculture. Conversely a small proportion of the Cingalese population has joined the ranks of tea, cocoa and rubber planters. But for the purposes of this paper, tea, cocoa and coconuts, as estate products, will be left out of con- sideration, and attention given only to such crops as are entirely in the hands of the Cingalese. The chief among the latter is rice or, as it is locally called, paddy, which is the term applied to rice in the husk. It would be out of place in this paper to give a de- tailed account of paddy cultivation as practised in Ceylon. Suffice it to say that the crop has not attained to the importance of an export product, and that there is still a large importation of grain into the island chiefly from Peninsular India and Burma. Whether the island wrill ever produce enough rice to meet the demand not only of its permanent population but also that of the large floating population of Indian labourers who work on tea and rubber estates is very doubtful, but there is no doubt that it could be extended so as to add appreciably to the available food supply. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS The main direction in which such extension is possible is in the tank districts of the Northern, North Central and Eastern Provinces, where large areas which in Cingalese times were under cultivation await the return of the paddy farmer. With the repair and reconstruc- tion of tanks, the conditions for a revival of agri- culture in these parts are steadily improving; while the enterprise of the Mohammedan population, the likely ingress of the South Tamil cultivator as a result of direct railway communication with India, and the awaken- ing national pride of the Cingalese people are factors which may be relied on to assist in the development of native agriculture, urged by the exigencies of a growing population and the competition which is bound to result therefrom. Quite recently a new factor has arisen in the alleged " losses " on estates worked with Tamil labour, by the rise in the price of imported rice ; and European capitalists are seriously considering" the question of embarking upon paddy cultivation on an extensive scale in order to meet the difficulty. The enterprise is a fascinating one, but whether it will prove a commercial success it is impossible to prophesy as there are so many details that have to be reckoned with which can only be fully understood when met with in practice. The yield of paddy except in certain limited areas is much below what it should be, not so much owing to want of effort to improve it but owing to the conserva- tive character of the cultivator in clinging to time-worn practices. It is encouraging, however, to note that the paddy cultivator is coming to recognize the necessity for changing his methods — this result being brought about chiefly through the work of the Ceylon Agricultural Society during the past ten years. Through its staff of agricultural instructors who act the part of missioners among the agricultural masses, the Society has been successful in exercising an appreciable influence on the cultivator. These instructors, who are in close touch with the village population and understand their needs, have come to win their confidence, and in this way 53^ MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS to induce them to accept advice and assistance when- ever offered. The means by which better results are brought about are (i) by the employment of improved types of implements, (2) by the introduction of the trans- planting system (i.e., planting out seedlings from nursery) and (3) by the employment of green manures for fertilizing the land. Native agriculture in Ceylon may roughly be divided into (a) wet cultivation and (b) dry cultivation. By the latter is not meant the so-called modern system of " dry farming," but the cultivation of dry as opposed to wet land. Paddy is essentially a wet crop inasmuch as it is grown under wet conditions, i.e., under tank irriga- tion or on the low lands on which the rain water is conserved, i.e., retained by means of bunds or ridges to meet the requirements of paddy as a water-loving plant. There are, of course, certain varieties of rice which grow under comparatively dry conditions, which would appropriately come to be considered under dry culti- vation. Dry cultivation is generally associated with whatt is known as the " chena " system which is found to exist in all undeveloped countries and is in vogue in the drier parts of the island where tank irrigation is not available. The chena may be described as a tract reclaimed from jungle and generally cultivated for a single season, after which it is abandoned for a term which may extend up to ten years before it is again taken up, while in the meantime the cultivator moves on to successive fresh tracts. It would be out of place here to discuss the merits or demerits of this system which can only be done with a thorough understanding of all the disabilities which the chena cultivator suffers; but it is obvious that the adop- tion of a provident system of cultivation, if it were possible, would be to the mutual advantage of the culti- vator as well as the State as landlord, since the land on which the former operates is the property of the Crown and is rented to him. It may be here stated that (the policy of Government is to discourage chena cultivation and to substitute for it a more rational system of agriculture. To assist in MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 537 this the Agricultural Society has devised a modification of the rotation system to meet the special case of the chena cultivator. This system advocates the division of the chena tract into two, three, or four sections (accord- ing to prevailing conditions) each carrying a different crop at one and the same season, and one crop succeeding the other in regular succession. The following instances will make this clearer : — A. — Modification of a four-course rotation. (0 (2) (3) (4) (a) Cotton ... Legume ... Grain ... Manioc (6) Legume ... Grain ... Manioc ... Cotton (c) Grain ... Manioc ... Cotton ... Legume (d) Manioc ... Cotton ... Legume ... Grain B. — Modification of a three-course rotation. ) (2) (3) (4) a) Grain ... Cotton ... Legume ... Grain b) Cotton ... Legume ... Grain ... Cotton Legume ... Grain .., Cotton ... Legume 3 In its simplest form the rotation would consist of grain and legume grown alternately on two sections of the chena tract. The grain may be hill paddy or any of the millets, the legume one of the many forms of tropical beans. Manioc as a root crop may be replaced by sweet potatoes or yams. Cotton is the only non- edible crop which it is sought to popularize. The chief requirement of the chena cultivator is an edible crop, and it is to his advantage to have his diet varied as much as possible. As a rule he practically grows nothing but millets, a continuous diet of which is by no means the best ration. Through the instrumentality of the agricultural instructors this innovation in chena cultivation is slowly gaining ground. Apart from chena cultivation proper, there are certain crops which are grown under dry conditions, the chief of which is tobacco. The cultivation of tobacco is an old industry which is mainly in the hands of the Tamils of the North, but within the last 25 years the cultivation has spread to most dry districts in the Eastern, North Western, Central and Southern Provinces. The bulk of the tobacco cultivated is of a coarse type only suit- able for consumption in the East. In the Dumbara District of the Central Province, however, a variety of 53$ MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS tobacco originally introduced from Cuba by a European planter, has become naturalized and produces a leaf that is better suited to Western requirements. The cultiva- tion of this tobacco has been greatly encouraged by the intervention of a local German firm who have erected a curing shed in the district with a view to preparing tobacco for ,t'he European market. The enterprise has been promising so far and its extension would be of considerable benefit to the permanent population. Cotton is a crop that has no,t responded well to the efforts that have been bestowed upon it. So far there is no extensive area under this product, and as far as experimental cultivation has been able to show the Hambantota District in the south-east of the island is well suited to the crop, while parts of the Northern and Eastern Provinces are also likely to grow it successfully. The cultivation of vegetables gives occupation to many cultivators chiefly in the vicinity of towns, the higher elevations growing introduced varieties and the lowlands producing the different tropical kinds including yams (Dioscoreas). In this connection mention should be made of the useful part played by the school garden in introducing new varieties of vegetables (new to the island as well as to special localities) and thus adding to the food supply of the people. Indeed the popularity of vegetable growing" has appreciably increased through this means. Through the school gardens also, of which there are 270 in the island, the younger generation of the village population are coming under a system of educa- tion which better fits them for a rural life and makes them take a more intelligent interest in their surround- ings, so that they may be expected to develop into better agriculturists. I do not touch upon fruit culture, which is the subject of a paper by Mr. H. F. Macmillan, F.L.S., the Super- intendent of Botanic Gardens, Ceylon (p. 634). Within the past year the island has happily seen a long-deferred Department of Agriculture an accom- plished fact. The work so long done by the Agricul- tural Society is now passing into the hands of the Department, and the future of native agriculture in Ceylon is more hopeful than ever. THE PROSPECTS OF DRY FARMING IN CEYLON. By C. DRIEBERG, B.A., F.H.A.S., Secretary, Ceylon Agricultural Society, and Superintendent of School Gardens, Ceylon. COMPARED with the so-called dry regions of the rest of the world the dry areas in the tropics are well served as regards rainfall, but the characteristic of the " mon- soons " prevailing in the latter is that they precipitate their moisture within a limited period with the result that long intervals of rainless weather make it a difficult matter to maintain the healthy growth of crops during such seasons. The mean annual rainfall of Ceylon varies from 30 or 40 in. to 200 in. The south-west monsoon rains which prevail from April to July mainly serve the south-west of the island, while those of the north-east monsoon, lasting from October to January, are more evenly distributed. The driest areas are found in the north-east and south- west, comprising the Puttalam, Mannar, Jaffna, and Hambantota Districts. In these the rainfall is below 50 in. per annum. The next driest areas, in which the rainfall is between 50 and 75 in. per annum, are much wider and include the Chilaw, Anuradhapura, Trincomalee, Batticaloa and part of the Matara Districts. The dry zones form two-thirds of the total area of the island, most of which is still in jungle. Here cultivated perennial crops such as rubber, tea and cocoa, all of which need a liberal rainfall, have no chance of thriving. Coconuts, on the other hand can be grown under dry farming conditions. On the Dry Zone Experiment Station at Mahailluppalama in the North Central Pro- vince, managed by the Department of Agriculture, it has been conclusively proved that with a proper system 54° MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS of tillage the coconut palm can be made to grow well and yield good crops. Unfortunately this station is difficult of access and has been visited by comparatively few of those who are likely to be benefited by learning first-hand the lesson it teaches. But it has not been without its influence on the coconut industry of the island through the attention it has directed to the advan- tages of tilling on dry farming lines. Through the exertions of the Director of Agriculture a more acces- sible dry zone station is being opened an Anuradhapura, which is on the railway, while a coconut trial ground for the Chilaw-Puttalam District is also about to be established. The more intelligent coconut planters are already adopting improved methods of cultivation encouraged by the better price of nuts that has recently ruled the market. In travelling through the Chilaw-Puttalam District during the dry season one cannot but be struck with the difference in the appearance of the palms on hard-baked, grass-covered estates on the one hand, and loose soil- mulched lands on the other. On the former one sees drooping withered fronds, on the latter healthy spreading foliage, indicating as clearly as does the garden balsam, the flaccid and turgid condition of the plant cells under dry and moist conditions. It has recently been stated that the area available for coconut cultivation in Ceylon has almost reached its limit, but it may be anticipated that under up-to-date management the dry tracts that have so long lain idle as being unsuitable for coconuts will before long come under cultivation; and indeed one is led to believe that the palm may suffer more from too great than from too small a rainfall. Extensive tracts of Crown land in the dry zone are now being offered for sale and find ready purchasers. Attention has recently been directed to the possi- bility of growing the African oil palm and Sisal hemp in the driest portions of the island. For the small cultivator who favours annual crops much remains to be done in the way of demonstrating the possibilities of raising suitable products in districts MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 541 with a scanty and badly distributed rainfall and served in most cases only by the north-east monsoon. The Cingalese villager appears to have an inherent belief that the chief requirement of cultivated crops is a copious supply of water. In paddy cultivation it is generally admitted that he uses much more water than is necessary. In favoured districts he is free to act upon this belief with the facilities which a liberal rainfall, a convenient spring or stream or a shallow well affords him. In the drier parts he depends upon tank channels for the water supply. When his lot is cast in places where such facilities are absent he strictly limits his cultivation to the rainy season. He has little knowledge or experience of how to conserve soil-moisture by means of tillage as the Tamils of Southern India and Northern Ceylon do. Happily this condition of things is slowly undergoing a change through the teachings of the Agricultural Society's Instructors, and the example set in school gardens. On the Agricultural Department's new Dry Zone Experiment Station a series of demonstrations in the growing of annual crops on dry farming lines will form part of the programme of work, and should serve as a useful object lesson. There is a notion prevalent that it will be possible to apply the principles of dry farming to paddy, but this is not to be encouraged for obvious reasons, though it may be possible to grow certain races of hill-paddy, which are generally raised without irrigation, by this means. But there are many other crops suitable for the purpose. Among cereals we. have maize, sorghum and the smaller millets (Setaria, Paspalum, Panicum, etc.); among legumes, species of Dolichos, Phaseolus, Cajanus, Vigna. Arachis, etc.; among oil plants, Sesa- mum, Guizotia, Ricinus, etc.; among fibres, Crotalaria, Hibiscus, Sansevieria, etc. There are besides such important products as tobacco and cotton, and a long list of " curry-stuffs," e.g., chillies, coriander, cumin, etc., which are imported into the island in enormous quantities, all of which are suitable for dry cultivation. It is not unlikely that with a railway connection between India and Ceylon the cultivators of the Deccan 542 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS may be attracted to the lands in the north-east of the island and lead the way for their colonization. The foundation for such colonization may be said to have been laid by the opening- of railways to the north and the north-west of the island to facilitate travel and transport. So far, however, the vast jungle tract lying between the Jaffna peninsula and Anuradhapura known as the " Wanni " has hardly been touched. It must be admitted that there are elements which are calculated to repel rather than attract the settler, e.g., the want of a convenient water supply, the prevalence of malaria and the presence of wild beasts; but these difficulties must recede before the march of civilization and science. It would be fortunate for the Colony if a financially sound body of men led the way in a project for which capital and enterprise backed up by experience of dry- farming methods are the chief desiderata. It was indeed adventure of this nature which brought about the development of the great planting industries, first coffee, then tea and lastly rubber in the wet hill country which was at one time as inaccessible and difficult for the colonist to live in as the jungles of the dry low country. Once the pioneer succeeds in gaming a foot- ing it may be expected that others will follow in his wake, and the time hastened when our arid tracts will support a thriving industry fostered by the " new agriculture." PRESENTATION DES STATISTIQUES DU COMMERCE DES COLONIES FRANCAISES. APERCU STATISTIQUE DU MOUVEMENT D'EXPORTATION DES PRINCIPAUX PRODUITS DES COLONIES FRANCAISES PENDANT LA PERIODE DECENNALE 1904-1913. Par CH. VERGNES. Gouverneur des Colonies, Dire cteur de V Office Colonial, Paris. J'AI Thonneiir de deposer stir le Bureau du 36 Congres International d'Agronomie coloniale et tropicale, an nom de TOffice Colonial du Ministefe des Colonies, les Statistiques du Commerce des Colonies franchises pendant les annees 1907 a 1911. Je me propose de completer cette collection au fur et a mesure de la publication des volumes qui sont annuellement edites. J'ai pense qu'il convenait d'extraire de ces Statis- tiques, toujours arides, un aperc^u du mouvement des principaux produits d'origine vegetale, produits qui interessent plus particulierement le Congres, et d'en faire 1'objet d'une communication speciale. II sera possible ainsi de mettre en relief les progres, dans les Colonies franchises, aussi bien de 1'agriculture que de 1'exploitation des produits naturels du sol, en remon- tant a une epoque un pen plus eloignee que la derniere periode quinquennale et en tenant compte des resultats de 1912 et 1913 qui, connus a ce jour, n'ont pu etre jnsqu'a present qu'en partie publies. II fallait se bonier cependant dans cette rapide etude; aussi n'ai-je pas voulu remonter plus loin que la der- niere periode decennale 1904-1913; et je n'ai envisage que les produits d'origine vegetale — produits qui, il faut le retenir, constituent 71 pour cent de 1'exportation totale de nos Colonies — et parmi ces produits ceux qui presen- tent le plus d'importance pour des causes diverses. Les uns, comme les bois, les arachides, sont importants 544 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS par le rang qu'ils occupent dans 1' ensemble de la pro- duction des Colonies franchises, aussi bien en quantite qu'en valeur. Les autres tirent leur importance non plus du tonnage de la production, mais plutot de leur valeur intrinseque. II en est d'autres enfin qui sont interessants par la place qu'ils occupent dans 1'cchelle de la production mondiale comparee. Ne retenant ainsi que les plus remarquables a ces divers titres, j'ai limite mon examen aux produits suivants : Les Arachides. Le Coprah. Les Huiles de Palme et les Amandes de Palme. Les Bois. Le Caoutchouc. Le Sucre. Le Riz. La Manioc. Le Cafe. La Cacao. Le The. La Vanille. Le Poivre. Je n'ai pas eu la pensee de dormer an Congres tme idee complete du developpement de la culture, de la production et de 1' exportation de chacun de ces pro- duits; cette recherche nreut entraine trop loin et m'eut oblige a sortir du cadre determine par les reglements constittitifs de I'Office Colonial que je represente ici. D'ailleurs si nous possedons des documents stiffisam- ment exacts et precis sur les quantites et valeurs livrees a la consommation exterieure et qui font 1'objet de 1'exportation, il n'en est pas de me me des documents relatifs a Tetendue des cultures et a la production reelle de chaque produit dans chaque colonie. II cut ete possible, pour certaines denrees, le riz par exemple, de donner la superficie approximative des ter- rains consacres a la riziculture en Indochine, a Madagascar; il cut meme ete possible, quoique avec MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 545 moins d approximation, de donner soit directement, soit par deduction, un chiffre de la production totale, comprenant a la fois le chiffre de la consommation locale et celui de 1'exportation; il n'en etait pas de meme pour les produits qui ne font pas uniquement l'o:bijet d'une culture rationnelle et sont aussi des produits naturels du sol, soit methodiquement exploites, soit meme librement recueillis, tels les caoutchouc, les bois et ley palmistes. Aussi, laissant de cote la culture, n'ai-je voulu m'occu- per que de la production, et meme de cette partie de la production qui sort de nos colonies pour etre livree a la consommation exterieure. Au surplus, si le chiffre de 1'exportation est de beau- coup inferieur a celui de la production pour certains des produits envisages (riz, the, manioc, oleagineux, etc.), il s'en rapproche beaucoup pour d'autres, tels que la vanille, le poivre, le caoutchouc, etc. La consommation locale de ces derniers produits est faible, insignifiante pour ainsi dire, et Ton peut admettre en ce qui les con- cerne que le chiffre de 1'exportation correspond a peu de chose pres au chiffre de la production. Chaque produit examine fait 1'objet de graphiques donnant en quantite et en valeur la courbe de 1'ensemble de 1'exportation des Colonies franchises pendant la periode decennale 1904-1913 et celles de 1'exportation particuliere a chacune des Colonies dont la part est la plus forte dans cet ensemble. La courbe d'ensemble exprime done le total de 1'exportation de 1'empire colonial francais et non pas seulement la somme des courbes particulieres a chacune des colonies denommees. Les graphiques sont accompagnes de notes explica- tives sommaires, donnant les chiffres precis et faisant ressortir quelques details que les courbes ne pouvaient rendre. LES ARACHIDES. L'exportation des arachides provenant de la produc- tion des Colonies franchises pendant la periode decennale 1904-1913 s'est elevee aux chiffres suivants : 35 546 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS Annies 1904 »905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 i *8 225 96,324 101,1 78 155.908 146,038 228 317 231.747 198^80 1 5°. 9.15 Yakuts Francs 21,3X4,240 14,873.343 25 0-7,92 > 30,897.^43 33,130, .So 50,361,836 42,952.386 43,581,157 61,504,171 D'apres les resultats de 1913 (annee moyenne) les colonies productrices se classent de la maniere suivante : Colonies Senegal Guinee Indi>chine Haul Senegal-Niger... Quantit^s Tonnes 140,436 3.541 030 6,326 Valeurs Francs 59^337,320 553.727 94,534 Le chiffre de 1'exportation, qui etait de 152,000 tonnes d'une valeur de 35 millions de francs en 1903 (annee moyenne), s'est eleve a 151.000 tonnes d'une valeur de 61 millions de francs en 1913 (annee moyenne). La production des arachides est sujette a des fluc- tuations importantes aussi bien en quantites qu'en valeurs. Le maximum de 1'exportation pendant la periode envisagee a etc en 1910 avec 232,000 tonnes d'une valeur de 50 millions de francs; le minimum a ete en 1905 avec 96,000 tonnes d'une valeur de 15 millions de francs. La consommation locale des arachides est tres impor- tante, mais il serait difficile avec les documents dont nous disposons de Tevaluer. Les arachides sont presque uniquement expedites en cosses; Tindustrie de 1'huile ne s'est pas developpee. II est a prevoir que la culture de ce produit se developpera prochainement dans des proportions con- siderables, a la suite de 1'ouverture des voies ferrees en construction ou en pro jet en Afrique Occidentale Francaise et en Afrique Eqtiatoriale Franchise. LE COPRAH. L'exportation du coprah pendant la derniere periode decennale 1903-1912 s'est ele ^ee aux chiffres suivants: MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 547 Aaadu 1903 1904 1905 1900 1909 1910 1911 1912 14,911 9765 11,220 8.373 7,V»4 10,776 16,377 17.584 17,526 16,166 Yaleuis Francs 3.806917 2,839483 2,576 093 2 8,9,901 5 2 8 258 6,560,706 6536,682 6,3 '6,765 Les Colonies productrices se classent dans 1'ordre suivant d'apres les resultats de 1'annee 1912 (annee moyenne). Valeure Francs 2,800,223 2,393^5 98-, M2 105,263 Et. de I' Oceanic Ind chine N.uveic-(Med',5^O L'exportation avait ete de 14,911 tonnes d'une valeur de 3,870,000 francs en 1903 (annee faible); elle s'est elevee en 1912 (bonne annee) a 16,266 tonnes d'une valeur de 6,317,000 francs. La noix de coco a 1'etait frais et le coprah font en outre 1'objet d'une consommation locale importante. HUILE DE PALMES ET AM ANDES DE PALMES. La production du palmier a huile comprend Thuile de palmes d'une part, les amandes de palmes d'autre part. Le tableau ci-dessous fait ressortir les chiffres de Texportation de ces deux produits en quantites et en valeurs pendant les dix dernieres annees 1904-1913. HtiUes de Palmes. 1905 100 1907 1908 1909 1910 19-1 1912 1913 Tonnes 14434 11,112 13,709 15 34* 22.944 20,769 22,001 18,911 14,682 Yaleure Fra> cs 6,325,751 3,627,1524 4 50 ,6 2 5461.971 7,724,774 9 3* '^87 9,145,293 12,221,194 10215,778 7,307,?8o MlbCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS Amandes de Palmes. Annies Quantites Valeurs lonnes Francs 1904 ...... 33.812 ...... 6,919,287 1905 ...... 25,029 ...... 5.361,630 1906 26,460 ...... 5,671,708 I9<>7 ...... 27,731 ; ..... 6,413,967 1908 32,741 ...... 7,752,150 *909 43,744 ...... 10,357,799 1910 46,809 ... 12,583,999 '9' i 5i,747 ...... 15,^52,550 1912 51,377 ...... 16,959,278 1913 41,066 ... 15,409,016 D'apres les resultats de 1912 nos Colonies product- rices peuvent etre classees comme suit pour les huiles de palme : Colonies Quantites Valeurs Tonnes Francs Dahomey ......... U,9I7 ... 6,361,320 Cote d'lvoire ......... 6,776 ... 3,727,065 Guinea 142 ... 84,922 Gabon... 49 ... 27,322 Le classement est le suivant pour les amandes de palmes : — Colonies Quantity Valeurs lonnes Francs Dahomey ......... 37,495 ... 13,398,416 Cote d'lvoire ......... 6,799 ••• i, 7^7,753 Guine'e ......... 5,135 ... 1,026,969 Senegal 1,764 ... 705,5*4 Gabon ............ 92 ... 29,837 II existe en Afrique Occidentals Franchise et en Afrique Equatoriale Franchise de tres abondants peu- plements de palmiers a huile (Elaeis guineensis) exploites rationnellement ou d'une maniere rudimen- taire par les indigenes. Specialement an Dahomey et a la Cote d'lvoire le palmier a huile est Tobjet de soins culturaux. L'exportation qui etait de 14,400 tonnes d'une valetir de 6,326,000 francs en 1904 est passee a 18,911 tonnes d'une valeur de 10,216,000 francs en 1912 (annee moyenne) et a 14,700 tonnes d'une valeur de 7,308,000 francs en 1913, annee deficitaire. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 549 LES Bois. Sexploitation des bois dans les Colonies francaises pendant les dix dernieres annees a donne les resnltats suivants. constates a la sortie : A , Quantit&s Valeurs Tonnes Francs i(,04 ... ... 28,838 ... ... 2,746,245 1905 29,680 3.163,379 1906 47,029 5. 232,0.43 1907 ... ... 83,184 ... ... 7,686,158 1908 85,275 7,084,348 1909 58,347 3,702,379 1910 ... 45,041 ; 4,563-707 1911 ... ... 138,845 ... ... 8,100,046 1912 131,082 9,297,658 1913 ... 124,968 ... 14,299,315 Les Colonies productrices, d'apres les resultats cle 1912, peuvent etre classees comme suit : r* i • Ouantites Valeurs Tonnes Francs Gabon 95,747 ••• 5,538,027 Cote d'lvoire 30,490 2,896,529 Madagascar ... ... ... 2,930 ... 425,663 Indochine 1.330 ... 332,861 II est a noter que la Guyane et la Nouvelle-Caledonie produisent des bois precieux, dont Importation est encore faible en quantite, mais relativement importante en valeurs. L'exportation des bois qui etait en 1904 de 28,838 tonnes d'une valeur de 2,746,245 francs, s'est elevee en 1912 (annee moyenne) a 131,082 tonnes d'une valem de 9,298,000 francs. LE CAOUTCHOUC. L'exportation du caoutchouc de cueillette ou de plantation provenant des Colonies franchises pendant la periode decennale 1904-1913 s'est elevee aux chiffres suivants : A . Ouantites Valeurs Ann^es Tonnes Francs 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 I9II 1912 1913 6,188 ... ... 31,929,114 6,654 37,516,093 8,379 ••• 45,429,950 6,771 41,803,464 4,768 29,169,501 6,817 46,7-9,298 7,617 ... 64,450,414 6,392 ... ... 50,426,280 6,820 ... ... 46,898,045 4,681 ... ... 31,241,289 550 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS D'apres les resultats de 1911 (annee moyenne) les colonies productrices peuvent etre classees dans 1'ordre suivant : Colonies Quantites Tonnes Valeurs 1" rancs Guinee... I,896 I5.J73.536 Moyen Congo 1,416 i 4, 33M99 Coie d'lvoire ... 1,203 9.^7.945 Madagascar ... .. 801 4,506,305 Gabon... 281 1,826,507 Haul Senegal-Niger 258 1,745,401 Indochiue 246 1,112,129 Nuuvelle Cale'donie ii 101,400 reexportation qui etait en 1904 (annee moyenne) de 6,188 tonnes d'une valeur de 32 millions de francs, s'est elevee en 1912 (annee moyenne) a 6,800 tonnes d'une valeur de 47 millions de francs. Le maximum de la periode envisagee a etc atteint en 1906 avec 8,400 tonnes d'une valeur de 45,000,000 francs et le minimum en 1908 avec 4,800 tonnes d'une valeur de 29 million francs. II est a remarquer que les chiffres de Importation representent exactement ceux de la production, le caout- chouc n'etant pas directement employe ni travaille industriellement dans nos colonies. La plus grande partie de ces caoutchoucs sont des caoutchoucs de cueillette; cependant il existe en Indo- chine des plantations importantes s'clevant approximative- ment a 68,557 hectares, dont 12,901 plantes de 4,005,011 pieds (VHcrco brasillensis . LE SUCRE. L'exportation des sucres provenant des ("olonies franchises s'est elevee pendant la derniere periode decennale 1904-1913 aux chiffres suivants : Anne"es 1904 1905 I9OO 1907 ico8 1909 1910 191 1 1912 1913 Quantite's Tonnes IOI,l66 84,429 i2i,357 138,092 128=298 106,792 120,404 127,604 107,922 109,266 Valeurs Francs 24,241,996 29,065,257 26,675,573 38,582.124 32>875,37o 28,167,284 42,025,047 40,870,731 45,144,395 29,306,062 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 551 Les Colonies productrices, d'apres les resultats de 1912 (bonne annee), peuvent etre classees dans Tordre suivant : Colonies Quantity Valeurs Tonnes Franc* Martinique 39.499 ••• 19,345, 7°7 (jii'deloupe ... ... ... 39,210 ... 10,445,009 Reunion ... ... ... 26,678 ... 8,072,020 Indochine ... ... ... 1,652 ... 337>575 Mayotte (Madagascar) ... 875 ... 344,084 Les chiffres de 1' exportation, qui avaient ete en 1904 (annee faible) de 101,166 tonnes d'une valeur de 24,242,000 francs, se sont eleves en 1912 (bonne annee) a 107,922 tonnes d'une valeur de 45,144,000 francs. Une quantite considerable de ce produit, quantite qu'il est difficile d'evaluer, est livree a la consommation locale. LE Riz. L'exportation du riz provenant de la production des Colonies franchises pendant les dix dernieres annees s'est elevee aux chiffres suivants : Annies Quantity's Valeurs lonnes francs 1904 •• ... 977.15° 109,555,081 1905 •• ••• 623,630 69,719,905 1906 ... 764,341 86,206,834 1907 ... 1,4^0,428 153.875. '99 1908 .. ... 1,238,823 139.248,053 1909 i,099,Q99 147,925,867 1910 .. ... 1,277,918 168,884,789 1911 •• ••• 877,178 118,529,326 1912 ... 824,620 ... ... 114,675,654 1913 -. 1,297,499 ... 178,234,248 D'apres les resultats de 1913, annee bonne moyenne, les Colonies exportatrices peuvent etre classees comme suit. Colonie- Quantltds Valeurs Tonnes Francs Indochine 1,286,804 ... 176,367,274 Madagascar ... ... ... 10,664 •-• 1,859,102 Guinee 29 ... 7,556 Senegal ... ... ... i ... 316 Les chiffres donnes ci-dessus ne s'appliquent bien entendu qu'aux quantites livrees a consommation exterieure, on pourrait presque dire a 1'excedent de la production sur la consommation locale. 552 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS II faut, en effet, avoir present a 1'esprit que le riz est la base de la nourriture de la majeure partie des sujets coloniaux frangais et meme de la population indigene tout entiere de I'lndochine, de Madagascar, de nos possessions de Tlnde, etc. II est difficile d'evaluer la production reelle du riz d'ais 1'ensemble de nos possessions, on peut cependant donner pour Tlndochine les approximations suivantes : Production du Riz en Indoclrine. Cochinchinc. — Superficie consacre a la riziculture : 1,500,000 hectares — soit 27 pour cent de la superficie totale. La production totale y est estimee a 2,429,000 tonnes (1910), dont 2,150,000 utiles (1,200,000 tonnes environ allant a Importation). Chiffre de la population: 3,032,596 (1911). Tonkin. — Superficie consacree au riz: 828,781 hec- tares. Production totale estimee a 1,873,045 tonnes (coefficient de consommation par tete et par jour estime a ok. 650; ce chiffre me parait assez eleve). Chiffre de la population: 6,119,620. Cambodgc. — Superficie en riziculture estimee a 675,000 hectares, soit 4*5 pour cent de la superficie totale. Production estimee a 627,000 tonnes. Popula- tion: 1,684,252. Annam ct Laos, — Les statistiques font defaut. Les recoltes y sont souvent deficitaires a Tegard de la con- sommation indigene. La production des trois principaux pays riziculteurs — Cochinchine, Tonkin, Cambodge — se totalise avec : 2,429,000 1,873,000 627,000 4,929,000 tonnes soit 5 millions de tonnes. En admettant comme coefficient de consommation moyenne par tete et par jour en Indochine le chiffre de ok. 300 (qui est plutot faible) j'estime la consommation annuelle totale pour les 16 millions et demi d'habitants MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 553 a environ 2 millions de tonnes — auxquels il fait ajouter la consommation du paddy par les bestiaux et Tindustrie (alcool, etc,) difficile a evaluer meme approximative- ment. Production du Riz a Madagascar. Le riz constitue a Madagascar la plus importante des cultures indigenes; aussi trouve-t-on cette cereale sur tous les points de la Colonie du Sambirano au Lac Alaotra et de Diego-Suarez au plateau des Baras. II est cultive d'une maniere intensive en Imerina et au Betsileo. Le riz est, en effet, la base de Taliment- ation de Tindigene et sa culture s'etend sur pres de 400,000 hectares (exactement 396,130). Au dire des indigenes, la moyenne de la production de certaines regions varie de 1,000 a 2,500 kilos de paddy a Thectare, alors que la moyenne de certaines autres oscille entre 2,500 et 3,000 kilos. Si nous nous reportons, en outre, a diverses experi- ences fattes a Tananarive sur des terres saines labourees a la charrue, les rendements y accusent un maximum de 4,000 kilos. Ces diverses bases permettent d'etablir un chiffre moyen de rendement d'environ 2,000 kilos, qui corres- pond a une production generale de 800,000 tonnes pour la Colonie, sur lesquelles 10,664 ont ete exportees en 1913 en augmentation de 3,243 tonnes sur Tannee 1912. LE MANIOC. L'exportation du Manioc provenant de la production des Colonies franchises etait insignifiante il y a dix ans et n'a commence a prendre un certain developpement qiie pendant les cinq dernieres annees. La courbe ascendante de 1'exportation de ce produit est remar- quable. Les chiffres sont les suivants : . , Quantit^s Valeurs Ann6es Tonnes Francs 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 716 4,860 I3.9I4 23,493 23,913 101,924 757,728 I,7O7,Il6 3,178,685 3,184,248 554 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS Madagascar occupe incontestablement le premier rang dans le classement des Colonies productrices, d'apres les resultats de 1913. Colonies Ma lagiscar Ind -chine Reunion Quantit^s Tonnes 21,670 2,24} 329 Valeurs F.ancs 2,938 630 245.579 61,910 Ces constatations sont d'autant plus interessantes qu'elles s'appliquent a un produit dont le mouvement d'exportation s'est tout recemment affirme. Le Manioc est la base de I'alimentation des indigenes de certaines de nos colonies, notamment de nos colonies de 1'Afrique Equatoriale; il entre egalement pour une part importante dans la consommation dans les posses- sions franchises d'Amerique et a Madagascar. LE CAFE. L'exportation du cafe provenant des cultures des Colonies franchises pendant la periode decennale 1904-1913 s'est elevee aux chiffres suivants : Annies 1904 K05 iqo6 1907 1908 1909 19 o I9II 1912 1913 Quant he's Tonnes >'47 ,527 ,400 1 .720 ,670 .464 .808 .986 5,146 ,835 Valeurs Francs 2,313.929 2,86. ,773 2,924 047 3,445.860 2,861,955 3,^69,337 4,442.713 3,950 960 4,609,336 D'apres les resultats de 1910 (annee moyenne) les colonies productrices se classent dans 1'ordre suivant : Colonies Guadeloupe Nouvelle Caledonia Reunion Quantity's Kilos 95^383 518,927 117 I7Q Valeurs Francs 2,486,123 850,235 2l6,6o8 Madagascar Martinique Indochine * */ < * / 37 Il6,32I 13 699 2,770 182,912 29,196 5.540 Le maximum de 1'exportation a ete atteint en 1912 avec 2,146 tonnes d'une valeur de 3,951,000 francs et le MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 555 minimum en 1904 avec 1,147 tonnes (Tune valeur de 2'3I3^9O0 francs. LE CACAO. La production du cacao dans les Colonies franchises pendant la periode decennale 1904-1913 s'est elevee aux chiffres suivants : Annies 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 I9II 1912 1913 Quantit Tonnes ,080 . ,166 ,366 ,415 ,421 . ,'525 ,065 .. ,601 ,717 Valeurs Francs 1,638,522 I<592,958 2 O26.2n2 3.569,981 3, '23,297 2,183,^23 2,557,659 3,444,970 2,5S2,24I 2,988,79I Les principals colonies productnces d'apres les resultats de 1'annee 1912 (annee moyenne) se classent de la maniere suivante: Colonies Guadeloupe M.irtinique Gabon Madagascar et Dependances ... Cote d'lvoire Quantity's Tonnes 918 501 25 20 Valeurs Francs 1,399,856 879,130 8l,000 49,581 41,908 La consommation locale du cacao etant de tres faible importance, le chiffre des exportations peut etre con- sidere comme s'approchant beaucoup des resultats de la production. Les chiffres de 1904 etaient de 1,080 tonnes d'une valeur de 1,639,000 francs; ils se sont eleves en 1912 (annee moyenne) a 1,600 tonnes d'une valeur de 2,552,000 francs. La culture et la production du cacao sont en reel progres dans les Colonies franchises. LE THE. L'exportation par mer du the provenant de ia pro- duction des Colonies franchises s'est elevee pendant la MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS derniere periode decennale 1903-1912 aux chiffres suivants : Annies 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 I9II 1912 Quantitds Kilos 167,965 33L738 225,647 367,962 385,027 3I3.827 326,650 537,958 559,433 435,7»8 Valeurs Francs 386,436 837,193 568,762 927,612 930,095 768,935 572,595 947,463 979,210 762,556 L'Indochine est seule a retenir comme pays produc- teur et exportateur de the; les autres colonies n'en produisent que de faibles quantites livrees a la consom- mation locale. II est tres difficile de determiner le chiffre de la production de I'lndochine ou les differentes sortes de the sont 1'objet d'une importante consommation, dans toutes les classes de la population. II est difficile egalement de tenir compte des quan- tites exportees par les frontieres de terre. LA VANILLE. Le tableau ci-dessous donne en quantites et en valeurs les chiffres de r exportation de la vanille dans les Colonies franchises pendant la periode decennale 1904-1913. Annies 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 I9II 1912 1913 Quantites Kilos 277,141 325,755 371,545 233,051 346,448 404,684 423,294 475,090 415,629 234,933 Les resultats de 1912 permettent de onies productrices dans Tordre suivant, en valeurs. Conies OjSg," Madagascar et Dependances 206,502 Et. de 1'Oceanie 137,118 Reunion 52,165 Guadeloupe 16,921 Martinique ... ... ... 2,on Gabon 912 Valeurs Francs 3,235.691 3.982,946 3,947,728 4,945,947 3,583,478 5,249,722 5,700,592 7,919,073 10.227,635 7,153,598 classer les col- en quantites et Valeurs Francs 7,496,907 685,723 1,606.432 334,524 58425 45,624 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 557 Du tableau ci-dessus il ressort que 1'ensemble de la production qui etait de 277,141 kilos d'une valeur de 3,236,000 francs en 1904 s'est eleve a 415,629 kilos d'une valeur de 10,228,000 francs en 1912 (annee mo)renne) et 235,000 kilos d'une valeur de 7,154,000 francs en 1913 (mauvaise annee). II y a lieu de considerer que les chiffres de 1'expor- tation ci-dessus donnes correspondent a peu pres exactment au chiffre de la production, la consommation locale etant tres faible. Les releves connus de la production mondiale de la vanille permettent de constater que cette production s'est elevee a 600 tonnes en 1911; la production des Colonies franchises a ete a cette epoque de 475 tonnes qui representent environ les deux tiers de la production mondiale en quantite. La proportion est tres differente en valeurs etant donnes les prix cleves des vaniiles du Amerique Centrale et les bas prix de nos vaniiles ocean- iennes. LE POIVRE. L'exportation du poivre provenant des Colonies franchises s'est elevee pendant la periode decennale 1904-1913 aux chiffres suivants : Annies 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 I9II 1912 1913 Quantitds Tonnes 5' 343 4, 428 4, 986 5, 025 4 760 6, 373 4, 161 4, 217 3 634 4 437 Valeurs Francs 6,413,888 5.313,563 5>9«3>3i2 6,030,788 5,712,806 5,736,850 3- 746,« 34 3,796,274 3,256,515 3,993-731 C'est Tlndochine qui occupe incontestablement le premier rang parmi les colonies productrices de cette denree; on peut meme dire qu'elle est la seule dont le chiffre d'exportation soit a retenir. Le maximum de ^exportation a ete atteint en 1909 avec 6,373 tonnes d'une valeur de 5,737,000 francs et le minimum en 1912 avec 3,634 tonnes d'une valeur de 3,257,000 francs. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (i) EXPORTATION DES ARACHIDES DES COLONIES FRANC; AISES DE TQ03 A 1913. QUANTITY. 5J 8 ,•' •••** HtSen&galNige GufneeF*? --.-. ^•'" ^"v. — .. . — .. ~~~ • — ••• "*••*•". • •* ro ^- in O) CD o> fx OQ c) o ™" CM c^ O> O) O) O^ O^ O) O> MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 559 (2) EXPORTATION DES ARACHIDES DES COLONIES FRANCISES DE 1903 A 1913. VALEUR. 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 / / /& ^ / /' V ^ nrtr P Totaux GenSraux Senegal / \ ^^^^ f \ /?' + ** \ ^ s ^ / x / i *i no ^ 1,500 7 i ft> 1 OOO ^ f / 5 fjOO / •iO Hf Senegal Niger / j? 5 Guinea F** (*•!•» * • v5 Q '+»t :.--i U..-* 500 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (3) EXPORTATION DU COPRAH DES COLONIES FRANQAISES DE 1903 A 1912. QUANTITY. 18,000 16,000 2,000 1,000 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS U) EXPORTATION DU COPRAH DES COLONIES FRANQAISES DE igo3 A igi2. VALEUR. 562 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (5) EXPORTATION DE L'HUILE DE PALME DES COLONIES FRANCISES DE 1903 A 1913. QUANTITE. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 563 (6) EXPORTATION DE L'HUILE DE PALME DES COLONIES FRANCISES DE iQ03 A igi3. VALEUR. II 10 9 o o o> o> OOOO — — "— — - en -O> 01 Oi O> O> O> .O 564 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (7) EXPORTATION DES AMANDES DE PALME DES COLONIES FRANCISES DE 1903 A 1913. QUANTITY. 50,000 45 40,000 35 30,000 l». 15 10,000 Tota.ux Genfr&ux Dahomey Cote d'lvoire Guin'eeF'f- <*>5friniDfxcDO>o ooooooo — o> o o* o o en CD O) MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 565 (8) EXPORTATION DES AMANDES DE PALME DES COLONIES FRANCISES DE 1903 A 1013. VALEUR. 16 15 14- 13 '12 II IO r -8s - Totaux Gbner&ux Dahomey Gui/iee Fs.? — .. en *• o 3 en CD to rs O o o> o> 0 — w to 01 Ol O) 0V 566 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (9) EXPORTATION DU Bois D'EBENISTERIE DES COLONIES FRANCHISES DE 1903 A 1913. QUANTITY. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 567 (10) EXPORTATION DU Bois D'EBENISTERIE DES COLONIES FRAN^AISES DE 1903 A 1913. VALEUR. 7 Totaux G&nkraux Gabon Coted'lvotr* Madagascar o <• in ill O — £4 CO 0> O> O> O 568 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS ;u) EXPORTATION DU CAOUTCHOUC DES COLONIES FRANCHISES DE IQ03 A 1913. QUANTITE. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 569 (12) EXPORTATION DU CAOUTCHOUC DBS COLONIES FRANCAISES DE 1903 A 1913. VALEUR. 570 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (13) EXPORTATION DU SUCRE DES COLONIES FRANCISES DE 1903 A 1913. QUANTITY. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 571 (14) EXPORTATION DU SUCRE DES COLONIES FRANCHISES DE 1903 A 1913. VALEUR. Indochine \~~* "^- J 572 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (15) EXPORTATION DU Riz DES COLONIES FRANQAISES DE 1904 A 1913. QUANTITY 1,500,000 10,000 e 6 4 2,000 0 .' B..«'* ««••* ^0 0 ,-• f.*' Madagascar ^intorsooc^O"" CM co 000000----- O1 0> G) O> O> O C) w MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 573 (16) EXPORTATION DU Riz DES COLONIES FRANCAISES DE 1904 A 1913. VALEUR. I -s I 200 1,750 1,500 1,250 1,000 750 500 250 0 , ••-. / e> ***•«» / t . / / ,' Madagascat f*. •* 2£VOrsoD.O>0-C4C« 574 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (17) EXPORTATION DU MANIOC DES COLONIES FRANCHISES DE 1908 A 1913. QUANTITE. 24,000 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 575 (18) EXPORTATION DU MANIOC DES COLONIES FRANCHISES DE 1908 A 1913. VALEUR. 4,000 576 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS EXPORTATION DU CAFE DES COLONIES FRANCISES DE 1903 A 1913. QUANTITY. 2,000 9 8 7 6 1,500 3 4 £ 3 "* i ••? 1,000 <> 0 7 6 500 4 3 2 100 o *^* \s ^ / ^ ss Totaux G'eneraux \ L \ I \ y \ f i \ \ / / \ i \ / / \ i \ \ \ / \ y > / \ \ / Gouadeloupe \ / \ \ / \ \ f ... \ ^ \ ^ t. .'* *% / s t*° •*' •. ^ »..%> .. »' / "V ^ %> ^, N s / x^ ,x *« -..^ Reunion Madagascar <^..- ,.x- - ..._ •'' ^S— -. » .- — ' cn^-intorxcooo — wr ooooooo — — -- o o> c> c* 01 o 01 o> o> o> (J MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 577 (20) EXPORTATION DU CAFE DES COLONIES FRANCHISES DE 1903 A 1913. VALEUR. 5,500 5,000 4,500 4,0.00 |3,-500 § ^3,000 S jo24500 =1 ^2,000 1,500 1,000 500 0 y / \ / / \ / / / / ^•^ / / \ / Tptaux Gkneraux \ ^^ \ \ / ^ S \ f < S v / f — —. / Gouadeloupe / / \ / / V^ / / ^ ^ \ V / H'!.eCaleJonie \ / • / \ y *•. / •, ,' ..»•••' ..' Rkanion Madagascar ****** ^^ X ^S ••••*.. -.-.._ I-TTi >>~rZ. -^••• -•.^ ••^^ *^ •-^ — _ in ooo O — cvi tn Q) o> o> o> g> 37 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (21) EXPORTATION DU CACAO DES COLONIES FRANCHISES DE 1903 A 1913. QUANTITY. 1 2(\r\C] / v / V 1,800 / \ / \ /^ . ^** • • ^^ /_ > ^~ ^^, r tS y -§1,200 / ' Totaux / ^ 1 ,000 Generaux / ^>.s 0 / 800 ,' ^^ ^ / €00 Goua.de/oupe ^ « -^ \ s / «••• *••.., / •••••• Martinique • •- .. •* 200 . X" 0; Gabon -" *s ^ ' r "> \ L •) <4 3 r ? « o c n C 3 c ^ p § s s MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 579 (22) EXPORTATION DU CACAO DES COLONIES FRANCHISES DE 1003 A 1913. VALEUR. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (23) EXPORTATION DU THE DKS COLONIES FRANCHISES DE 1903 A IQI2. QUANTITE. 550 500 50 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (24) EXPORTATION DU THE DES COLONIES FRANCISES DE 1903 A 1912. VALEUR. 1,100 1,000 100 582 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (25) EXPORTATION DE LA VANILLE DES COLONIES FRANCISES DE 1903 A 1913. QUANTITE. 550 500 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (26) EXPORTATION DE LA VANILLE DES COLONIES FRANCHISES DE 1903 A 1913. VALEUR. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (27) EXPORTATION DU POIVRE DES COLONIES FRANCAISES DE 1903 A 1913. QUANTITE. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (28) EXPORTATION DU POIVRE DES COLONIES FRANCISES DE 1903 A 1913. VALEUR. SOME NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN PHILIPPINE PRODUCTS. By O. W. BARRETT. Chief, Division of Horticulture, Bureau of Agriculture, Philippine Islands. SITUATED in the extreme western part of the Pacific and extending from near the Tropic of Cancer, to about 10° N. latitude, the Philippine Archipelago with its 1,000 islands is a highly diversified region yielding rather more kinds of product than are turned out by any other tropical country. Variations in soil and climate are more than ordinarily in evidence. Unfortunately, however, the northern, and at times the central portion, of the country is visited by the typhoons which prevail, during some six months of the year, throughout the central Pacific region; droughts of several months duration are also prevalent in the northern and central portions of the Archipelago. The large island of Mindanao and the adjacent Sulu Archipelago, extending south-westerly from the Zam- boanga Peninsula towards the north-western extremity of Borneo, as well as the southern portion of Palawan with the islands between it and British North Borneo, comprise a more or less distinct region in which typhoons seldom or never occur and in which the fairly high rainfall is remarkably evenly distributed. The much broken tableland, if it may be so called, of the interior of Luzon, the largest island, is a subtropical district in which certain temperate and subtropical crops can be handled with some success. Frost, of course, occurs in January, February and March, on the higher reaches of the mountains in Nueva Ecija, and the sub- provinces of Benguet, Lepanto, Bontoc, and Kalinga. Hailstorms are practically unknown, though one striking case of this kind did occur in southern Luzon in April, 1914. In the rainy season lightning is some- MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 587 times destructive, but as compared with most temperate and some tropical countries it is a negligible feature. The rainfall for the lowlands of the northern (Luzon) and central (Visayas) parts may be put down at about 60 to 80 in. per annum; in the southern section it ranges from about 80 to 100 in. Insect pests are, with the exception of migratory locusts, only ordinarily prevalent. Sugar-cane thus far is remarkably free from troubles of this sort and coconuts on the whole suffer surprisingly little from either the red weevil or the rhinoceros beetle. Rinderpest, surra and a few other serious animal diseases have called for very careful attention and some stringent measures on the part uf the Bureau of Agri- culture, and without expert supervision, rigid inspection, and quarantine regulations both in infected zones and in the ports of entry, it is probable that the Filipino farmers would soon be practically without cattle and horses. With 7,500,000 people scattered over an area of 119,542 square miles (31,000,000 hectares) the countiy as a whole is rather under-populated. Labour therefore, according to season and locality, is comparatively scarce. The floating population in the interior provinces is comparatively small; the custom, established by the Spaniards, of a complicated rental system affording the lessee comparatively little personal liberty and individual privilege in the way of agricultural holdings either of forest areas or crop lands, is still more or less in effect. In other words, the Filipino planter is seldom obliged to change his residence and, being able in almost every case to satisfy his family's immediate wants by a few days' labour on the share system in a neighbouring rice field or abaca (Manila hemp) plantation supplemented by a small patch of sweet potatoes, maize, and bananas, he is naturally loath to travel even into the next town to seek employment even at a comparatively high wage rate. Looking at the matter in perspective, therefore, we see a highly diversified country, inhabited by some thirty more or less distinct branches of the Malay race. The MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS agricultural operations, broadly considered to include everything from gathering gutta-percha to poultry raising, are managed in a haphazard, rule-of-thumb sort of way. In almost every case outside of the larger crops such as sugar, coconuts, abaca and tobacco, small unit farms, clearings and cultivated fields are the rule. Through the several tribes' lack of trust in each other and petty mutual jealousy there has been comparatively little exchange of either methods or materials, which predicates a highly localized, not to say specialized, agriculture. Obviously then one should expect a wide range of Philippine products and a large list of economic materials seldom or never found outside certain res- tricted localities in this country. The following notes are based partly on the writer's personal observation and, especially as to statistics, on the Annual Report of the Insular Collector of Customs for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1913. Vegetable Products. Timber. — After a number of years' earnest effort on the part of the Bureau of Forestry to interest other countries in the excellent woods of the Philippines, figures are beginning to indicate that there is a rapidly growing appreciation of at least a dozen or more of the better sorts of our timber. The total export value of timber, including logs in the rough, for the fiscal year 1913, however, was only about £19,000; this figure could easily be quadrupled without drawing heavily upon the 40,000 square miles of forest. There are over 500 species of woody plants now known in the Philippine Islands and new species are continually being described by the Botanist of the Bureau of Science. Some 200 of these are of commercial importance. A rather large number are peculiar to the Archipelago. Palm Sugar and Alcohol. — Passing over the well- known abaca or Manila hemp, sugar-cane, tobacco and cereals, one of the most interesting vegetable pro- ducts of the Philippines is palm alcohol. Although certain local restrictions in the way of internal revenue, transportation, etc., inhibit this industry, the provinces MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 589 of Cagayan, Pangasinan, Pampanga, Bulacan, and Capiz may be expected gradually to increase their output. With the new Mines process of making high-grade sugar from the various palm saps, there is a splendid field for the manufacture of at least several thousand tons per annum of nipa palm sugar here. Vast swamps, covering hundreds of square miles, exist in the above- mentioned provinces and with the exceedingly cheap water transportation of the tuba or sap, from the tide marshes to the distilleries, there should be a splendid profit in this self-maintaining crop. Although this palm is strictly a salt-water species, it is stated on good authority that the drought of 1912-13 did actually affect the tuba yield of the nipa swamps, the explanation being that although the roots were, of course, unaffected the leaves normally require a certain amount of rain for their best activity. Coconut tuba to the amount of over 42,000,00 litres (about 8,500,000 gallons) is produced here annually. Most of this is fermented and distilled into a low-grade alcohol. With the newly discovered (Hines) process, however, it will be possible to turn a portion or all of this tuba into a high-grade sugar. The sucrose con- tent is about 15 per cent, of the fresh juice; in other words, about 3^ quarts of juice will produce i Ib. of sugar. The buri (Corypha elata) abounds in Mindoro, Pangasinan, Batangas, Cebu, and the island of Mindanao; this palm also is tappable to a larger extent than is usually realized. The crude methods of manu- facture in use by the local inhabitants, however, turn out only a dark-coloured, syrupy sugar, which is not at all suitable for export. When it is considered that a mature tree will yield 20 to 30 quarts of sap containing over 15 per cent, of sucrose per day over a period of two to three months, some idea of the tremendous profit obtainable from an acre of these wild palms may be realized. A simple process has been devised recently by which it is possible to produce more than twice as much sugar per acre from the Kaong, or sugar palm (Arenga sacchariferd), as from sugar-cane. Details of the 59° MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS method are published by the Bureau of Agriculture in the Philippine Agricultural Review for May, 1914. Although this palm is one of the oldest agricultural crops known, being mentioned in Sanskrit writings some 4,000 years ago, it has only just recently become of any real importance. The sugar obtainable in East Indian and Malayan markets, while of good flavour, is filled with impurities and has, of course, a bad colour. The chemical composition of the sugar is identical with that of the sugar-cane and while the protein content is slightly higher than that of either the sugar beet or sugar-cane, the content of sucrose, ranging to over 16 per cent., more than offsets this disadvantage. Trouble with the precipitation of the albuminoid sub- stances, gums, pectins, etc., has been the principal reason hitherto for the failure to produce a fine white sugar from this palm. Mr. C. W. Hines, Sugar Expert of the Bureau of Agriculture, has devised a very cheap method for precipitating these substances. Briefly, it is as follows : the juice is heated nearly but not quite to the boiling point and then allowed to cool. The albuminoid substances, coagulated by the heat, fall within a few minutes as a whitish layer at the bottom of the receptacle; the clear sap is decanted off and the residue treated in a similar manner to sugar-cane precipitates. A small amount of milk of lime is then stirred into the still warm sap, and this is carbonated by blowing into it a current of gas (filtered to remove soot, etc.) from the chimney, or, if limestone is at hand, a very small furnace would furnish a flow of high- grade gas. The second precipitate, consisting largely of the pectins, gums, etc. (which, if boiled with the sucrose cause discoloration of the finished product) are either allowed to settle or are strained out. Boiling then proceeds in the regular manner and a fine-flavoured product, fully as white as that obtainable in the ordinary cane-sugar factory, is produced. Considering the fact that for a period of 15 to 25 years the sugar palm requires practically no attention from the planter, coupled with the fact that old palms may be utilized for starch — each trunk giving from one to three MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 591 bushels of a fine white article — we are obliged to admit that the tropics now have another first-class crop plant. In passing it may be mentioned that the sugar palm seems to be more at home in the Philippines than else- where; it begins flowering at 4 to 6 years of age, and continues to produce from one to four tappable (male) flower racemes each year for at least 15, and probably in well-cared-for plantations, more than 25 years. Sago. — Sago is produced locally in the Agusan Valley of northern Mindanao to a limited extent. The vast swampy forests of this palm, of which there seem to be two varieties, could and should yield thousands of tons annually. This palm fortunately sprouts from the stump, a stand therefore merely requiring to be thinned out from time to time. Almdciga. — This resin, which belongs to the kauri class, is the product of a coniferous tree (Agathis alba, (Lam.) Foxworthy), found throughout southern Mindanao, the islands of Negros, Mindoro, and in the higher districts of Luzon. The tree, known locally as Adlangao, Sateng, Baltik, etc., attains a large size and prefers mountain slopes. It is most abundant at between 400 and 1,000 metres elevation. The yellowish or brownish amber-like semi-transparent resin "accumu- lates as a hardened produce on the trunk after incisions are made in the bark, or at the base of the trunk, where it is deposited in the ground through ruptures made usually near the junction of the roots and the trunk. The latter deposits remain in the ground after the tree dies and decays and are discovered by collectors, who thrust a sharp pointed stick in the ground to determine their location."1 The collecting is usually done by the hill people, or " non-Christian tribes," who usually dispose of the gum at a very low price to Chinese middlemen who generally ship it to Singapore. The amount exported is in the neighbourhood of 800 to 1,100 tons per annum; the " assessed value " is 10 pesos per 100 kilograms (£i for 220 lb.). Almaciga resin is used in the production of 1 H. N. Whitford : "The Forests of the Philippines," Part I. 592 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS high-grade varnishes, in microscopy, and for purposes where a very hard varnish is required. There are several commercial grades of this product valued largely accord- ing to purity and colour; the clear article, free from bark and dirt, is worth about 12 to 15 pesos per picul (£20 to £27 per ton). Elemi. — This is a white plastic, or nearly solid, oleo- resin, the product of forest trees known as Pili (Canar- ium luzonicum) and Pagsahingin (C. villosum). It is collected mostly in Tayabas but it occurs also in Ambos Camarines, Albay, and Sorsogon in southern Luzon; " Brea blanca," or " Brea de Pili," is the local name. Only a comparatively small amount of this resin is exported at present, but when a steady supply can be depended upon it will become a valuable commodity. It is used locally in a crude state, mixed with ashes, powdered charcoal, etc., as a pitch for caulking boats; torches, having a very agreeable odour but a smoky flame, are commonly made from it. On account of its pronounced stimulating qualities it is used in various medical ointments and in surgical plasters. Over 200 tons of Manila elemi are collected annually, valued at about £15 per ton. The produce of a fair-sized tree is said to be about 25 Ib. per season. Manila elemi, while closely similar to Mauritius elemi (produced by C. paniculatum), must be distinguished from the unrelated Brazilian, Mexican, and African resins sold under the name of " elemi/' The tapping process is very simple: "Incisions are made in the bark usually at the beginning of the rainy season (June). About once a month the resin is collected and the bark recut. This keeps up till December, when the resin practically ceases to flow for that year." Other Resins. — There are several other resins which enter into local commerce; some 50 species of the Dipterocarpacese alone yield oils, pitches, or resins. " Some of these are encountered in a solid form, others are plastic, and still others harden so slowly that they are removed as fluids. The latter are known as wood oils and bear the local name of the tree from which they are collected. To the former class belongs the resin MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 593 of yacal (Ho pea plagata) and guisoc (Shorea balangeran). This is collected by making incisions through the bark. The oil hardens to a brittle brownish-black resin and is collected in this form. It is used locally for torches and is often mixed with softer resin for caulking."2 Wood Oils. — The principal Philippine wood oils are Balao, produced by several species of Dipt ero carpus and Anisaptera, and Supa, a thin pitch-like oil, produced by a leguminous tree (Sindora supa, M. et R.) These wood oils are gathered in a very wasteful manner for local use, and considerable quantities of valuable timber trees are destroyed by the crude methods of native collectors. Cup-shaped incisions are made in the base of the trunk, into which the oil oozes; firing the cut surface greatly increases the flow. About 50,000 litres (over 12,000 gallons) are estimated to be produced throughout the Archipelago; the assessed value is o.io peso per litre (i/- per gallon). There is at present no export, these oils being used only by the Filipinos for lighting and, when mixed with other substances, for caulking boats. Dyewoods. — Only one wood of this class, known as Sibucao, or Sappan wood (Caesalpinia Sap pan), is of any commercial importance at present. This tree is frequently planted as a timber crop, especially in the island of Panay in the Visayas. Only the bright colored heart-wood is used. Several dye-stuffs are produced in the province of Cavite, but are of merely local import- ance. Over i, 600 tons of dyewood, mostly from Iloilo province in Panay, were produced in the fiscal year 1913; the assessed value is 11.50 pesos per 100 kilograms (£i los. per ton). Besides Sappan wood about 81 tons of dye barks were also produced in the last fiscal year, worth about £5 per ton. Tan Barks. — Although there is a considerable quantity of this material in evidence throughout the Archipelago, there is no real industry except for local requirements at present. Only about 880 tons were produced in the 2 H. N. Whitford : " The Forests of the Philippines," Part I. 38 594 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS last fiscal year and the assessed value was only £3 per ton. Rattan. — There are about 30 more or less distinct varieties of rattans recognized in the Archipelago; these are produced by the climbing palms of the genera Calamus, Dacmonorops and Korthalsia. A consider- able quantity of this material is used locally in the manufacture of furniture and in tying bamboo sticks in the construction of houses, fences, etc. Only about 3,000 tons per annum are 'exported, according to the Bureau of Forestry statistics. It is possible, however, that some of this product finds its way into Sandakan and Singapore from Western and Southern Mindanao without the export being recorded. The assessed value is only £10 per ton. The export figure could undoubtedly be trebled very promptly if the price were somewhat increased. Gutta-percha. — Western and Central Mindanao have for years produced a considerable portion of the world's gutta-percha; on account of the customs of the Chinese middlemen, however, practically all this material has been handled through either Singapore or Sandakan, and consequently the Philippines has not received due credit for the production. Several species of Sapo- taceae, especially of the genus Palaquium, usually large trees of the dense forests, are the origin of true gutta. A firm has recently been established on the Rio Grande river at Cotabato and a plant has been erected with facilities for cleaning the raw product and turning out a very high-grade article in cubes and blocks instead of the old balls and twists which frequently contained stones, chips, bark, etc., when they reached 'the hands of the Chinese merchant. Only about 85 tons were recorded as having been exported during the last fiscal year. The assessed value was £70 per ton. Rubber. — A few large vines of the forests of the Southern Islands produce genuine caoutchouc, but though sometimes collected by the wild tribes, it is mixed with gutta-percha and is sold at the same price to the Chinese dealers. Pararneria philippensis is the prin- cipal of these vines, and one or two species of MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 595 Choncmorpha also yield fairly good rubber. Although scores of thousands of Para rubber seedlings have been distributed throughout the Archipelago during the past five or six years probably not 2 per cent, of them are in evidence at the present time. The fault lies partly in the ignorance of the planter as to the proper methods of handling and partly in the climate, that is, in the long " dry season " droughts which almost every year last for three to six months. In the island of Basilan, south-west of Mindanao, however, one plantation is just beginning to produce a very small quantity of first- class Para. At Lais on the Davao Gulf of south- eastern Mindanao, a small plantation of Castilloa rubber is beginning to turn out a little scrap; it seems that the trees on this plantation have made a phenomen- ally good growth, the soil and rainfall being precisely suited to the trees, which in about seven years have attained to something like a foot in diameter. In the Province of Albay and Ambos Camarines there are a few very small plantations in some of the richer valleys, but through wrong methods of culture and the aforesaid drought periods, they cannot be considered as even moderately good. Ceara has been planted in several places but practically abandoned as non-productive. Pili nuts. — Several forms of this nut are known in the Philippines but it seems that most of the export varieties are yielded by Canarium luzonicum. In Tayabas three distinct varieties known as Basiad, Tugdugin and Palauay are recognized by the natives; of these Basiad is the best flavoured but most people prefer the Palauay on account of its large size. The outer fleshy covering of the nut is sometimes used by the Filipinos in making a "dulce." On account of the recent interest in the pili as a table nut in the United States some planters are discussing the advisability of planting a few pili trees in their abaca and coconut plantations. It is doubtful, however, whether these trees would bear before 20 years and even than no large crop would be obtained. One bushel per tree is considered by the Bureau of Forestry to be a fair estimate for a good sized tree; this, with the ykld of elemi, or resin, brings 596 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS up the income per tree to some 6/- to 8/-, or, say £15 per acre for 25 to 40 years. The tree seldom exceeds 18 metres (60 ft.) in height. It grows, however, at all altitudes up to 1,500 feet. In the forest they do not average more than one tree to every five acres. In some regions, such as Ambos Camarines, Albay, and Sorsogon, it is very easy for native collectors to bring in one sack of nuts per day. The nuts are worth from id. to 2d. per Ib. locally. About 900 tons were shipped from Manila in 1913, most of the material being handled by five export companies. The average f.o.b. price in Manila is about £10 per ton. Lumbang. — Two species of wild or semi-cultivated trees in the Philippines produce this nut, sometimes known as candle-nut and frequently exported from Mindanao as Biao. Aleurites trisperma (" Balukanad ") appears to be largely confined to the Philippine Archi- pelago; A. moluccana, or true lumbang, is wild or semi-cultivated both in the Davao district of Mindanao and in southern Luzon. The nuts of the two species are very similar both in appearance and properties and the oil of both closely resembles that of the Chinese Tung, or wood oil tree (A. Fordii). Most of the lum- bang is used locally by Chinese dealers in Manila in the manufacture of soap and in painting cascos, small boats, and lighters to waterproof them, and also for preserving timbers intended for use in water. Estimates of the local consumption of lumbang vary widely; it is probable, however, that not more than 50 tons per year are handled in Philippine markets. The local value is 5 to 8 pesos per picul, say, £8 to £12 per ton. Two or three grades of oil are produced from the kernels, one being used to a small extent in the preparation of paints. The hard shells are removed by women and children and the kernels are then dried in the sun as in the case of copra. In Cavite three grades of the kernels are recognized, the third quality being largely composed of small pieces, more or less rancid kernels, and a certain amount of shell particles. Recent interest in lumbang is causing a few planters to experiment with it as a secondary crop on coconut plantations. Some authorities claim MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 597 that the tree will bear in the fourth year and that several bushels of nuts (in the shell) are produced by a good- sized tree. Soap barks. — Though not exported, there is a good steady local trade in Gogo (Entada scandens). This large liane which belongs to the bean family, produces gigantic pods, sometimes three or four feet in length. The bark contains considerable quantities of saponin and even the wood can be used, pounded into a coarse pulp, as a soap-making material. The natives, however, do not employ this bark for making soap but for pre- paring a saponaceous liquid for washing the hair. It is quite probable that soap made from this bark, being practically free from injurious alkalies, could be used in cleaning delicate fabrics upon which ordinary soap would be more or less deleterious. The bark of Albizzia saponaria, known as Sogo-kasai, Pipi, etc., contains enough saponin to make it a possibly exportable product. St. Ignatius' Beans. — This product is confined to a certain region of the Philippines including the islands of Samar and Leyte and the northern peninsula of Mindanao. Practically all the seeds of this vine, however, are exported from Catbalogan, Samar. The species Strychnos Ignatii is said to be even more power- ful than its very close relative, S. Nux-vomica and to contain even larger amounts of brucin. It is used to a considerable extent locally, the seeds selling for about one centavo (one farthing) each. It is known to possess very active tonic powers and is believed by the natives to be an active aphrodisiac. For a number of years a small quantity of these seeds has found its way into European markets. The vine appears to be impatient of cultivation or even of any attempt to increase its yield. Marine Products. Pearl Fisheries. — Though not generally known outside of the Philippines there is in the Sulu Archipelago a really important pearling industry. There are over 50 pearling boats now operating and diving apparatus is MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS beginning to be used. Japanese capital finds these fisheries an attractive field. Moth)er-of-pearl shell to the value of £35,000 was exported during the fiscal year 1913. The number of pearls actually secured is very difficult to estimate. Button Shells. — The opening of two factories for making pearl and other buttons in Manila has resulted in a good trade in both the Green Snail or Turban (Turbo marmoratus), and Top (Trockus niloticus) shells. Besides the heavy local consumption, some 740 tons were exported in the past year (valued at over £28,000). Window Shells. — Only in the Philippine Islands is the window shell (Placuma placenta} used as a substitute for glass in windows. These exceedingly thin, transparent shells are remarkably tough and durable and last for a lifetime with ordinary treatment; they constitute almost entirely the window pane material of the Philip- pine Islands. They are obtained in Manila Bay and to a certain extent in the Visayas, no less than 5,000,000 shells being used per annum in the city of Manila alone. Tortoise Shell. — The exports of this material are small, the value during the past year being only £350. There are three marine species, one of which (Chelonc imbricata) supplies most of the commercial shell. Trepang. — No less than 63 species of sea cucumbers are found in the Philippine Islands. In the Province of Surigao and adjacent districts of the southern islands the Chinese dealers carry on a very good trade in beche- de-mer, some four or five distinct varieties being in evidence. About £13,000 worth were secured in 1913, the price per picul ranging from 12 pesos for the common "Yellow Belly" to 80 pesos for the selected " Oe," a large, smooth black sort (Holothuria atra), i.e., £20 to £80 per ton. Only desultory methods of collecting this valuable and very wholesome product are in evidence yet. Shark Fins. — A Chinese and Moro fishery has existed for some years in the Sulu Archipelago, the exports being valued at about £10,000. Singapore and Hong MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 599 Kong take the whole output which amounts to 175 to 200 or more tons; the " white/' or dorsal fins are worth up to 6/- per Ib. in 200 Ib. bales. Unfortunately the sharks, which are extremely numerous and cheaply caught around the Sulu Island, are not economically handled; oil from the liver could be obtained in vast quantities and the meat, if dried and ground, would furnish a large amount of excellent fertilizer; the skins (shagreen) are also valuable and in the case of the beautifully marked tiger and marbled sharks (Stegostoma tigrinum and 3\ marmoratum) the value is high, passing as " Morocco leather." Edible Sea Weed. — Especially in the Southern Islands and Western Luzon good edible sea weed is found, and a crude product known as " gulaman " (Aghardiella and Graclllaria spp.) is obtainable in the markets of the larger cities. This industry is worthy of greater attention. Isinglass. — Several species of fish occur whcih yield a fair grade of " sounds." Scale3 estimates that the value of the fish bladders thrown away at the large markets exceeds the value of the fish in the hands of the lake and sea fishermen. Sponges. — Little has been done thus far to develop the sponge industry of Mindanao and the Sulu Archi- pelago. Proper methods of gathering and a very small amount of capital are apparently all that is required. Fish Ponds. — It is not generally known that in the vicinity of Manila there are many artificial ponds in which, market fish are raised for local consumption. According to the Bureau of Science the value of these ponds is at present about £600,000. In passing, it may be mentioned that no less than 1,600 species of fishes are known to inhabit Philippine waters and practically all of these are food species. A fair grade of sardines, according to experiments by the Bureau of Science, can be put up locally. Excellent oysters are fairly common and are beginning to be cultivated. The spiny lobster, Phil. Journ. Sci.j 191 13 vol. vi, No. 6. 6OO MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS several shrimps, and a number of edible sea snails are products of considerable local importance. Ambergris. — A small amount of ambergris is picked up now and then, and in 1912 some 40 lb., worth locally about £800, were exported, presumably to Singapore. Other Animal Products. Beeswax and Honey. — Beeswax to the value of over £7,000 was exported, almost entirely to the British East Indies, during the past year. Domesticated bees from Hawaii and Guam have recently been established by the Bureau of Agriculture. Wild honey enters into local trade to a considerable extent but not sufficiently to supply the demand. Silk. — The Bureau of Science has at present a Philip- pine race of the Bengal-Ceylon silkworm, and this special breed is so well acclimatized here now that nine broods can be reared in a year. Stringent quarantine regulations have thus far kept out the European diseases and everything appears to be favourable for the success of the industry. The Bureau of Agriculture has intro- duced numerous varieties of mulberries, some of them being great improvements over the old Spanish variety which until last year was alone in evidence. Guano. — Both sea-bird and bat guanos are of local importance though it is not likely that any export will be made in the near future. Much difficulty is experi- enced, however, in obtaining non-leached guano in the bat caves. It is, of course, impossible to control the drip of water; moreover, the bats are liable to leave a cave if any great changes are made in their " roosts." Birds' Nests. — The province of Palawan could export considerable quantities of the sea swallow nests; the demand in Canton and Hong Kong is always good. Colugo Fur. — A few hundreds of these beautiful skins are exported, mostly to France, every season. The greyish, brownish, or blackish marbled and mottled hair is very thick, and as soft as eiderdown or chinchilla; it is said to be used principally in making up very hand- some, if rather expensive, " boas " for the Parisian modes. The animal itself is rare outside the island of Bohol. A SHORT REVIEW OP THE LABOUR CONDITIONS AND THE PROVISION OP LABOUR ON THE AGRICUL- TURAL, MINING AND OTHER ESTATES IN THE NETHERLAND EAST INDIES. By P. A. MOORREES. Introduction. IN order to obtain a true conception of the labour con- ditions on the estates in the Netherland East Indies it is necessary to divide this colony into two regions, viz. : — (a) The islands of Java and Madoera. (b) The other islands of the Netherland East Indian Archipelago usually indicated as the " Outer Posses- sions." On the first-named islands the labour conditions are regulated by the general provisions of the civil law, whilst in the Outer Possessions the labour agreements are for the greater part subject to special ordinances. The supply of labour in the Outer Possessions also differs from that in Java and Madoera. In the last- mentioned islands, in fact, work is carried on exclusively with labourers taken from the native population, whose engagement on behalf of the estates has not in these islands been regulated by law; on the estates in the Outer Possessions on the other hand, labourers of other nationalities are found side by side with Javanese; the number of Chinese on the tobacco estates in the East Coast of Sumatra Residency (Deli) is indeed remarkable. In so far as the Netherland East Indies are concerned special supervision is only exercised by the authorities in respect of the recruiting of natives of Java and Madoera for labour to be performed on the estates in the Outer Possessions. The special ordinances in force in the Outer Possessions with reference to labour contracts are of two kinds : — A. — The so-called Coolie Ordinances. 6O2 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS B. — The ordinance regulating the labour conditions as between employers and employed who have made labour contracts on a basis differing from that provided in the coolie ordinance. Both kinds of ordinances apply only to those labourers who are engaged by the employer and who do not belong to the native population of the Government division in which the estate is situated. Labour contracts which are made with persons belonging to such popu- lation, and labour contracts which have for their object not the labour itself but the produce thereof, as well as contracts which only relate to the performance of odd services, do not fall within the scope of these ordinances, and are subject to the common law. A. — Coolie Ordinances. (1) Object of these Regulations. — The coolie ordinances owe their origin partly to the necessity of giving to the employers in the Outer Possessions security of tenure, i.e., to ensure that during a certain period they would have at their disposal such labour as they were obliged to import from outside, and partly to offer to those engaged in a land which was foreign to them, the necessary protection and assurance of good treatment on the part of the employer.1 In virtue of the coolie ordinances, which agree in their main substance, written contracts may be made with labourers not belonging to the native (original) population of the Government division in which the estate is situated, on behalf of agricultural, mining and other estates in the Outer Possessions on the basis of, and subject to, all the consequences of the said ordinances. (2) Labour Contracts. — These may not be made for a period exceeding three consecutive years, and must con- form to certain specified conditions and be drawn up according to a prescribed form. 1 The Coolie Ordinance for the East Coast of Sumatra, which applies to seven of the sixteen districts of the Outer Possessions where coolie ordinances are in force, is published in the Official Gazette, i88g, No. 138. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 603 In so far as they have not been drawn up on the basis of the Recruiting Ordinance in force in Java, they have no force of law until they shall have been registered by the Head of the Local Government within whose jurisdiction the estate on which the labourers have contracted to serve is situated, and no such registration shall take place until after it has been shown through interrogation that the labourers have voluntarily entered into such contract and are duly acquainted with the contents thereof. In the event of the registration being refused the labourers engaged shall, at the expense of the employer, be returned to the place where such engagement was made. (3) Labourers. — The labourers employed on the estates in the Outer Possessions as contract coolies, i.e., whose labour contracts are governed by the coolie ordinances, number nearly 300,000, of whom there are 183,000 in the Residency of the East Coast of Sumatra (Deli) alone. They are composed principally of Javanese, also to a large extent of Chinese, with a small number of men from various parts such as Atjeh, Nias. West Coast of Sumatra, Timor and Borneo. On the rubber estates many Javanese women are at work. (4) Employer's Obligations.— The principal obliga- tions of the employer are good treatment of the labourers, regular payment of the contract wages, the supply of suitable dwellings free of charge, and proper medical attendance, including all necessary medicines and the provision of good bathing* and drinking water. The employer is also under obligation to return to the place where they were engaged all labourers dis- charged on the expiration of the contract or whose contract has either been arbitrarily violated by the employer or considered by him as dissolved on account of duly confirmed continual unfitness for the work which they undertook to perform, unless such labourers desire to remain and have received permission to that effect from the Government. (5) Obligations of the Employed. — The labourer is under obligation to perform regularly the work for 604 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS which he bound himself, to carry out faithfully all orders issued by the employer or his staff, and to act in ever}' way in conformity with his contract. He may not absent himself from the estate on which he is employed without a written permit, except on free days and when, on account of ill-treatment, he wishes to make a complaint against the employer or his staff. The number of working hours may not exceed ten per day under the contract. (6) Treatment of the Labourer. — In addition to his material obligations under the contract in connection with public rights, the employer is charged under the coolie ordinance writh the proper treatment of his labourers, by which is understood such conduct towards, and intercourse with, the labourers as may be claimed by them as free men. Without good treatment, showing appreciation and respect for his manners and customs, the workman will never feel contented and at home and become part and parcel of the estate on behalf of which he has contracted to serve. In further explanation of the above it may be added that rough and coarse behaviour towards the labourers, beating, abusing, refusal to listen to and deal calmly with the complaints and requests of the workers, however insignificant such complaints may sometimes appear in Western eyes, punishments by means of ordering the labourer to do disagreeable or dirty work, haggling over wages and other similar persecutions, would all be acts which must be considered as contrary to the requirements of proper treatment under the coolie ordinance. By acts such as these the employer estranges tne labourer, causing the latter to harbour a feeling of revenge towards him which slowly grows to hatred and may lead to serious consequences as the labourer, bound by his contract, cannot leave the estate on which he feels discontented. And if at any time an attack should be made on the employer's staff, the direct cause may have been an ordinary box on the ear or some abusive language, even provoked perhaps by a defiant and improper attitude of the labourer, but the real cause MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 605 is the long-smouldering discontent which finds utterance in this manner. In these times of a general uplifting of the native, the planters, if at least they wish to be immune from attack, will do well in their dealings and intercourse with the population to take into account the altered spirit of the Eastern nations. A knowledge of languages and a tactful behaviour are amongst the requirements which every employer and his European staff should possess. Young and inexperienced assistants should not be placed in positions of independence, and the mode of living of many requires supervision as the moral preponderance of the European over the Eastern races is dependent again on the manner of living of the first-named. The necessity for good treatment of the labourers is realized by most employers and much is already being done to render the life of the coolies on the estates more agreeable. On various estates complete sets of native musical instruments (gamelan) are to be found; on others bioscope entertainments are regularly given. (7) Wages. — The wages of the labourers who have made labour contracts on the basis of the above men- tioned coolie ordinances vary a good deal. On rubber estates they amount as a rule to 33 cents per day for men and 28 cents per day for women, if the labour contract is made for the first time. In the re-engagement contracts the men stipulate for an additional 5 cents per day. Besides these payments the trained tapping coolies usually receive a monthly premium of from f. i to f. 1.50. The coolies engaged for the tobacco cultivation, who plant tobacco, earn by this work on an average 60 cents per day. For other work the usual wages of 33 and 28 cents are paid. In some districts where provisions are exceptionally dear, the contract wages are higher. For mine work also higher wages are given, viz., from 40 to 60 cents per day, whilst all food is supplied in addition, on some estates free, on others at a small charge. 606 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (8) Advances. — Advances are paid on all labour con- tracts when made. For labourers engaged in Java on the basis of the Recruiting Ordinance, in so far as they are not mech- anics or craftsmen, such advances may not exceed f. 15 for the unmarried and f. 20 for the married men, part of which is payable on arrival at the estate. In all other cases advances are given of from f. 15 to f. 90, according to the length of time for which the contracts have been made. The contract provides that such advances shall be repaid by means of monthly deductions from the wages, such deductions, however, not to exceed one-quarter of the monthly wage earned. (9) Feeding. — On agricultural estates the employer does not, as a rule, provide all the food for the labourers. The employer, however, generally stipulates in the contract that the wages shall be paid partly in the form of full board, for which, as a rule, not more than 14 cents per day is charged. Most employers, however, only confine themselves to offer the chief article of food, rice, for sale to the labourers at a fixed price. On mining estates, as a rule, the whole of the food is provided for the mine workers free. (10) Medical Treatment and Housing. — The authorities demand expert treatment by fully qualified European or Native medical men, as well as proper nursing, including nourishment. Some estates have their own hospital to which a European or Native physician is attached; others send the sick labourers to the Government dispensaries, where the patients, if opportunity offers, can be treated and nursed against payment, but in most cases a number of estates unite in erecting a central hospital. Those suffering from slight leg or foot wounds, as well as those who feel unwell for a day or two, remain in a simple sick ward on the estate, but all other sick patients are sent to the central hospital for treatment and nursing. Great expense is incurred by a number of employers in the medical treatment of the labourers on their MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 607 estates; the building and equipment of their hospitals are such that they could easily serve as a model for the best establishments for the sick. Directions for the building of hospitals and for the housing of the labourers could be given in a general way, but for the arrangements and equipment thereof it would be difficult to provide a model for use on all estates, as the conditions which prevail, such as the habits of the people, the climate of the district in which the estate is situated, the time during which the buildings will have to serve in connection with the nature of the employment, and other factors which might influence such arrangements and equipment, vary widely. With regard to labourers' dwellings, experience has shown that, in the case of married couples, the method of employing small isolated dwellings intended for one or two families is preferable to the barrack system. In any case each family should be housed in separate rooms of at least 4 by 4 m. In such rooms, instead of one family, three unmarried persons may be accom- modated. Provision should be made for proper water closets, bathing accommodation, good drinking water and separate kitchens, whilst the laying out of fruit and vegetable gardens should be encouraged. In connection with sanitation, it is advisable, before erecting hospitals and labourers' dwellings, to consult a medical man of some experience, preferably one who has some knowledge of the conditions obtaining in the Residency of the East Coast of Sumatra, where much has been done to meet the requirements in this respect. In addition to the recruiting charges, the expenses of working with contract labourers may be estimated at an average amount per annum of: For housing medical treatment wages ... loss on rice supply of tea ... gifts... writing off debts, etc. ... f. 10 10 ... 140 6 i i i f. 169 608 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (n) Penal Enactments. — Any arbitrary violation of the labour contract is punished on the part of the employer with a fine and on the part of the employed with a fine or deprivation of liberty, whilst the latter is further threatened with punishment on account of opposition, insulting or threatening an employer or his staff, dis- turbance of the peace, excessive laziness, inciting to desertion or to refusing to work, fighting, drunkenness and such like offences against good order. Finally, punishment is also threatened for encourag- ing the non-iulfilment of labour contracts or the favouring thereof by housing, or taking into service any labourer who is not free from service obligations towards others, whilst any labourer found outside the estate without permission and without lawful reason is liable to be taken back to such estate, if necessary by force. B. — Ordinance regulating the labour conditions as between employers and employed who have made labour contracts on a basis differing from that provided in the Coolie Ordinance (Official Gazette, - 1911, No. (1) Object of the Ordinance. — In the event of employers in the Outer Possessions taking into their service labourers not belonging to the native population of the Government division in which the estate is situated, on a different basis from that provided in the coolie ordin- ances, they can only do so in conformity with the provisions of the second section of the ordinance published in the Official Gazette, 1911, No. 540. (2) Labour Contracts. — Contracts to be made with labourers in conformity with these provisions are not subject to specified forms and may be made either ver- bally or in writing, except when the labourers have been recruited in Java on the basis of the recruiting ordinance (see under C. p. 6n), in which case the contracts must be written and drawn up in conformity with a specified form. Re-engagement contracts in the Outer Posses- sions with such labourers recruited in Java may, if desired, be made verbally. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 609 Contracts made under this ordinance, as in the case of the coolie contracts referred to under A (2), p. 602, must be made for a specified period. The names of the labourers should be entered in a prescribed register, together with the date of commence- ment and termination of their contract, the wages agreed upon and the indebtedness, if any, of the labourer. The Authorities do not interfere with the entries or registrations of the names of such labourers, but the register should at all times be open for inspection by the Government Officials concerned and the Labour Inspectors. (3) Obligations of the Employer. — The employer is under obligation to pay the wages regularly to the labourers, and no moneys may be stopped out of such wages except those mentioned in the contract and on no account may such stoppage exceed one-quarter of the wages earned since the last payment of wages. The employer is also bound to provide his coolies with suitable dwellings, together with proper medical attendance including all necessary medicines, and to supply them with good bathing and drinking water. Finally, the employer is bound to return the labourer to the place where he was recruited at his (the em- ployer's) expense, on the expiration of the labour con- tract or on any intermediate date, in the event of such labourer being forced, through physical incapacity to work, to leave his service prior to such expiration, or in the event of his being discharged by the employer through no fault of his own or without any contributing cause on his part. (4) Special Penal Provisions. — Penalties may be im- posed for failing to keep, or for not keeping properly the register above referred to, or for refusal to allow inspection thereof by the competent authorities; for a breach of the provision regarding the payment of wages, and for failure to provide housing accommoda- tion or medical attendance; for resistance, insults or threats against the employer or his staff, disturbance of the peace, righting, drunkenness and similar offences against good order, as well as for encouraging the non- 39 6lO MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS fulfilment of labour contracts or favouring such non- fulfilment in any way whatsoever. Apart from the above the dissolution of labour con- tracts, in the event of either party failing to observe his obligations, is a question of compensation for costs,, damages and interests. C. — The Supply of Labour on the Estates in the Nether- land East Indies. (i) Introduction. — Administrators of estates situated in Java and Madoera, are free to engage labour both in those islands and in the Outer Possessions, on behalf of their estates, without any permission from the Authorities. Recruiting in the Outer Possessions for estates situ- ated in Java and Madoera does not occur, as in Java, with its 35,000,000 inhabitants, sufficient labour is always obtainable under certain circumstances, and the local native is preferred as a labourer to all other races. Natives of Java, chiefly of Central and West Java, on the other hand are much in demand in the Outer Possessions and elsewhere. The population of the Outer Possessions is sparse and the people not always willing to hire themselves out as labourers, as in most cases, on account of the few people and the compara- tively large extent of arable land available for them, it is easier for them to supply their small wants in other ways. Besides recruiting in Java on the basis of the recruit- ing ordinance (see under (2) below) the employers in the Outer Possessions try to keep a full complement of labourers by making re-engagement contracts with the labourers imported from elsewhere, whose labour con- tracts have expired. Such men would have the right of repatriation at the expense of the employer to the place where they were recruited : by offering premiums, advances and higher- wages, assurance of a maintenance of the right to a free return and otherwise, it is sought to keep the labourers on the estate. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 6ll The re-engagement contracts are made for a period of i, 2, or 3 years, the amount of the premiums and advances being in proportion thereto. On an average such advances for i, 2, and 3 years are respectively f. 25, f. 45, and f. 70. The premiums, which, however, are not invariably granted, amount to from f. 5 to f. 45. The advances are deducted from the wages in monthly instalments. On some estates from 60 to 80 per cent, of the labourers agree to re-engagement. Other labour is engaged on a small scale in the district in which the estate is situated, as well as in a few other residencies of the Outer Pos- sessions and elsewhere, but for the rubber estates such recruiting is unimportant. (2) Recruiting on the Basis of the Recruiting Ordinance (Official Gazette, 1909, No. 123). — The recruiting of natives in Java and Madoera for performing labour on behalf of commercial, agricultural, or industrial under- takings and public works in the Outer Possessions was at one time free. It was increasing year by year, and, in order to regularize it and to put an end to the abuses which had crept in, an ordinance was enacted in 1909, - according to which such recruiting could only take place with the permission of the authorities. Directions were given at the same time as to the manner in which recruit- ing might be carried on in the event of permission thereto having been obtained. In accordance with these directions, the non-fulfilment whereof is a punishable offence, labourers for the above- mentioned undertakings, in so far as they are not recruited through the medium of the Public Authorities in the interest of the State, can only be obtained in Java and Madoera through a recruiting office. The manager of such an office, known as the recruiting agent, in order to be able to act as such, must obtain a licence from the head of the district in which he is established. The recruiting officers (Europeans) and assistants (natives) in the service of the recruiting agent must also hold a licence 2 The provisions for the execution of this ordinance are con- tained in the Supplement to the Official Gazette, Nos. 60,62 and 7232. 6l2 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS granted by the head of the local government in which they reside. Persons not in the service of a recruiting agent cannot obtain a recruiting licence. All such licences, which are given in writing, are only issued to persons of good reputation. They are liable to cancellation by the authority by whom they were granted in the event of the holder, in the performance of his duties in connection with recruiting, failing to fulfil the obligations imposed upon him, or being guilty of un- authorized acts with regard to the natives concerned. The engagement of non-adult natives is prohibited; as regards married women, their engagement is only per- mitted subject to their husbands giving their consent to that effect. The law imposes upon the recruiting agent various obligations, of which the following are the principal : — (a) The engaged persons to be housed in depots to be erected or fitted up and maintained at his expense, both in the chief centres of the divisions in which he carries on his work, and at the place of embarkation of such engaged persons. (b) All persons housed in such depots to be properly treated, fed, and clothed. (c) Sick persons to be conveyed to a ward or hospital "kept separate for such purpose. (d) The engaged persons to be medically examined at liis expense to ascertain whether or not they are physically •capable of performing the work for which they were engaged. Before the persons engaged shall be transported to the •depot at the place of embarkation they must be in possession of a declaration issued by the authority in the interior where the negotiations regarding the engagement were first opened, as evidence of their agreement with the principal terms of the labour contracts to be concluded with them in any of the three ports of Batavia, Semarang, tind Soerabaya. Embarkation of contract labourers at any other port than the above is prohibited. No labour contract may be made unless accompanied by :a medical certificate, stating that the labourer is physically MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 613 lit for the duties he has been engaged to perform, as well as by the above-mentioned " declaration." Labour contracts are not legally effective until the existence thereof shall have appeared from Acts executed before any of the recruiting commissioners residing at Batavia, Semarang, or Soerabaya. In executing these Acts, which are put in writing in conformity with the specified forms, i.e., for contract labour with penal provisions the forms of labour contracts (vide A (2)) fixed by the various coolie ordinances, and for free labour the form referred to under B (2) of this review, the contents of the contracts shall be clearly explained to the natives in their own language by the official before whom such Acts have to be passed, whilst all necessary information shall also be given to them with regard to any consequences of such contracts as may be of import- ance to them. Co-operation in the execution of these Acts on the part of the above-mentioned officials shall be refused, amongst other reasons, if it should appear that the labourer has agreed to the contract through fraud or in error, and if serious doubt should have arisen as to the identity of himself or of the members of his family accompanying him. All expenses of transport, feeding, and nursing of the recruited labourers on board ship are to be paid by the recruiting agent. As a result of the great demand for Javanese in the Outer Possessions, the number of recruiting offices in Java has increased enormously of late, accompanied by a rise in the cost of recruiting. Whereas about six years ago these charges only amounted to about f. 65 per re- cruited labourer, in 1913 they had risen to f. 165 per head, to fall again in the course of the year 1914 to f. 125 and f. 130. (3) Direct Recruiting in Java. — Although the recruiting in Java is in the hands of the professional recruiters — i.e., of recruiting agents, who, after having been licensed as such by the authorities, conclude the required labour contracts with the prospective labourers as attorneys of the employers in the Outer Possessions — some employers 614 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS have of late endeavoured to free themselves from pro- fessional recruiting, which in Java, on account of the abuses attending such recruiting, is unpopular with the natives, expensive in working, and often unable to supply or supplies too slowly the demand for suitable labour. They applied for and obtained a licence as recruiting agents, and themselves managed the recruiting on behalf of their estates. This plan, however, has not so far received much extension on account of the heavy expenses connected with it. During the last year or two the Deli Planters' Asso- ciation on the East Coast of Sumatra has also been engaged in recruiting in Java under their own manage- ment. This recruiting is done by labourers who have worked for a number of years on the estates in the above- mentioned district, and the majority of whom go to Java for some considerable time on leave of absence, being consequently still in the service of the employer con- cerned. Such labourers act as assistants of the recruiting office established in Java by the aforesaid Association, after having obtained a licence from the authorities, and recruit in Java amongst the members of their family and friends. This method of recruiting has the advantage that labourers can be recruited from a superior class of people than the wanderers, who are the first to be got hold of by the professional recruiting officers. Moreover, the risk of fraud and misrepresentation is lessened by the fact that the recruiting assistants, knowing that they may perhaps be working afterwards on the same estates as the men now engaged by them, will not so easily resort thereto as the professional recruiting officers, whose relations with the recruits completely cease after embarka- tion, and who have therefore nothing more to fear from them. Although the Deli Planters' Association has many difficulties to contend with in this respect, it looks as if their efforts will be well rewarded. The General Association of Rubber Planters on the East Coast of Sumatra also intend to adopt the above course. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 615 (4) Recruiting in the Outer Possessions. — Compared with the number of contract labourers leaving Java, the number of those returning is small. In 1912, for example, 40,243 labourers left Java for the Outer Possessions and only 4,571 returned, whilst 4,947 left for foreign countries -and 384 returned. The corresponding figures for 1913 were 32,537 and 4,766, and 2,185 and 569. The reason of this is that many, on expiration of their labour contract, do not make use of their right of repatriation, but accept re-engagements either on the same estate or elsewhere. The existing estates, in fact, provide themselves in the first place with the necessary labour by making re- engagement contracts, firstly, because by so doing they keep at their disposal labourers suitable for the work and inured to the climate, and secondly, because the great expense of recruiting elsewhere is thereby saved. Others establish themselves as free labourers, farmers, small traders, or domestic servants in the country to which they emigrated. It also happens that here and there the native population of the Outer Possessions emigrate from one district to another, and there hire themselves out as labourers on the estates. On the East Coast of Sumatra, for instance, many Bandjarese (people from the Southern and Eastern Division of Borneo) are found, who are there taken into service by the employers, chiefly for the erection of labourers' dwellings, barns for trade purposes, etc. From Nias there is a proportionately large emigration to Atjeh and Tapanoeli, where these emigrants are met with on the estates. Islanders from Timor also allow themselves to be recruited for labour on the estates. D. — Supervision of the Execution of the Labour and Recruiting Ordinances. The supervision of the execution of the regulations with regard to the mutual rights and obligations of employers and employed in the districts where such regulations 6l6 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS are in force is carried out by the Labour Inspection and Coolie Recruiting Service in the Netherland East Indies.3 The general supervision is entrusted to the superinten- dent of the aforesaid service; under his orders there will shortly be sent out two inspectors, of whom one will also act as assistant superintendent of the said service, and twelve assistant inspectors charged with the direct supervision, as well as with the duty of regularly visiting the estates or places where the regulations apply, with the control of the conditions prevailing there, with receiving complaints, if any, from employers and employed, and with reporting thereon. When visiting the estates they may have the services of native and Chinese interpreters who have been attached to them, and who will assist them where neces- sary in their conversations with the labourers. In pursuance of their instructions the assistant in- spectors of labour will apply themselves to the study of labour questions and labour conditions within their jurisdiction, and will endeavour, where necessary, to cause improvements to be made in the conditions of labour on the estates visited by them. They will further endeavour, wherever necessary and practicable, to effect an amicable settlement of any dispute which may have arisen between employer and employed with regard to their mutual rights and obligations. Reports as to their findings will be forwarded by them to the superintendent of the service, and these will, where necessary, be communicated to the Government with a view to the introduction of any measures or provisions required. The general supervision also as regards the recruiting of contract labourers on behalf of agricultural, mining,, industrial and other undertakings established either in or outside the Netherland East Indies, rests with the superintendent of the labour inspection, and in so far as 3 This branch of the service issues Reports, which are obtainable by the public at the Depot van Leenmiddelen, at WfUtevreden. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 6l/ they shall receive instructions to that effect from such superintendent, the other officials of this branch of the service are also charged with such supervision. The heads of divisional and local government shall further exercise a general control over the fulfilment of the provisions concerning the recruiting of natives in Java and Madoera, the said heads of government in the exercise of such control in the ports of Batavia, Semarang, and Soerabaya being assisted by the Recruiting Commis- sioners, and, so far as the sanitary conditions in the recruiting depots and the health of the persons housed therein are concerned, by medical officers appointed for that purpose. The labour inspection officials exercise no judicial functions; they are charged, however, with the investi- gation of punishable offences in relation to the labour and recruiting ordinances. Where in the Outer Possessions regulations as to recruiting do not exist, no special supervision, as already mentioned above, is exercised thereon. This, however, does not prevent Inland Government officials being obliged, in virtue of their official position, from seeing that no deception shall be practised with regard to such recruiting. Thus, as a rule, labour contracts of persons recruited in a district other than the residency in which the estate concerned is situated are executed before the Government official of the place of origin of the labourers. SGUARDO COMPARATIVO DEI SISTEMI DI CONCES- SIONE BELLA TERRA NELLA COLONIZZAZIONE CON BIANCHI. Per il Professore DINO TARUFFI. GLI scopi che si prefigge ed i mezzi con cui si svolge la colonizzazione delle terre, variano secondo i paesi e le loro condizioni. In rapporto a queste, si possono distinguere tre casi principalissimi, in cui i coltivatori bianchi si trovano ad operare : — • i° Paesi di immigrazione, con larghissima parte di terre libere disponibili per la colonizzazione. 2° Paesi europei, di emigrazione. 3° Infine, e come termine intermedio, paesi di con- quista, le cui popolazioni indigene contano gia dei diritti riconosciuti ed abbastanza estesi sulle terre. Nei paesi nuovi, nei quali i diritti delle popolazioni indigene sulle terre, nei fatto o nei diritto sono trascura- bili, si puo disporre di riserve immense di terre demaniali, che lo stato puo destinare a colonizzazione; difetta invece la mano d' opera. In questi paesi il capitale, guidato dalle intelligenze dei popoli colonizzatori, apre la strada; ma in compenso reclama la prima parte nella concessione delle terre. Di qui, un primo periodo, nella storia della colonizza- zione delle terre, di concessioni a grandi lotti, concessioni da prima gratuite successivamente onerose, ma sempre a prezzi relativamente bassi. Ma, dopo che i paesi nuovi si sono incamminati nella via ulteriore della utilizzazione delle loro terre, una distinzione si vede automaticamente delinearsi. Le colonie adatte per il bestiame ricevono incremento e conferiscono impulse alle Industrie armentizie; le altre MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS richiamano sempre piu largamente i piccoli coltivatori europei. Tale differenziamento e come una imprescindible conseguenza delle condizioni di tempo e di luogo : rindustria armentizia infatti, date le condizioni del- 1'agricoltura nel tempo, e Tunica forma conveniente di utilizzazione capitalista delle terre. Dove 1'industria armentizia non trova condizioni adatte, non v'e utilizza- zione remunerativa che mediante la piccola coltura, mancando i mezzi per esercitare forme diverse di pro- duzione agricola. I grandi colonizzatori debbono dedicarsi alia divisione della terra in lotti d'estensione limitata, da ricedere ai piccoli coltivatori a prezzi convenienti. Ma intanto il richiamo di mano d'opra, la necessita e Tutilita di forme di piccola coltura, determina solle- citamente un secondo periodo, specialmente nelle colonie piu adatte ad utilizzazione agricola : quello delle piccole concessioni e della formazione di proprieta coltivatrici, come base della politica fondiaria dello stato. Queste piccole impresse assumono forme diverse : generalmente sono concessioni in proprieta assoluta; molto raremente concessioni in affitto a breve e lungo termine; spesso sono gratnite ma, anche se onerose, il prezzo per ciascuna unita di superfice e necessariamente limitato. Col volgere degli anni, si vanno determinando fatti ancora diversi : per le comunicazioni divenute piu facili ed economiche, in seguito ai perfezionamenti tecnici deiragricoltura, questa va subendo una profonda trasformazione : da arte agricola, si trasforma in una vera industria terriera, che richiede la direzione di intelligenze convenientemente preparate, 1'aiuto di capitali adeguati. I nuovi elementi direttivi tecnici non possono essere alia portata del piccolo coltivatore, i mezzi moderni — ed economic! nel funzionamento — di coltura agricola, non possono essere messi in azione nelle piccole aziende di proprietari coltivatori; di qui un terzo periodo — il periodo attuale — nella concessione delle terre e nella vita agricola dei paesi nuovi; periodo in cui, accanto alia piccola pro- prieta, prospera la grande proprieta capitalista. Grandi e piccole concessioni, grandi e piccole proprieta 62O MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS coltivatrici, si vedono in questo modo promosse e formarsi nei paesi nuovi, non ostante la grande disponibilita delle terre; e le une e le altre si vedono prospere o languenti,. non in ragione delle terre disponibili, ma del sistema di agricoltura, piu o meno razionale, che viene esercitato e del capitale di cui si dispone. Essendo abbondante e di basso costo la terra, e il capitale e la niaggiore o minor limitazione di questo, che determina : da un lato, il sussistere ed il prosperare della grande proprieta, di fronte alia proprieta coltivatrice ; dall'altro, il prosperare od il lang'uire della piccola pro- prieta costituita. La costituzione di proprieta coltivatrici nei paesi nuovir come e stata in passato, seguita a rappresentare oggi pure un ottimo sistema per allettare al popolamento delle terre. La forme seguita nella costituzione delle proprieta coltivatrici, in virtu delle terre demaniali di cui abbon- dantemente si dispone, e generalmente la concessione gratuita condizionata. Le condizioni stabilite si riassumono neH'obbligo del colono di costruire la casa ed abitarla almeno durante tutto il periodo dei lavori campestri, e di mettere gradatamente a coltura il terreno. Successivamente alle concessioni, una ulteriore opera si va spesso svolgendo in favore dei coltivatori diretti, nell'uno e nell'altro dei due modi seguenti : (i°) con 1'aiutare ed incoraggiare la costituzione della piccola proprieta mediante sussidi ed anticipazioni; (2°) col mettere la piccola proprieta costituita nelle condizioni di essere sottratta alle cause dissolvent!, e specialmente alia espropriazione per debiti. Considerata nei complesso, la colonizzazione sussidiata ha dato non buoni risultati, per ragioni varie : innanzi tutto perche agisce in senso opposto alia naturale selezione che dei coloni dovrebbe potersi fare in ragione dei mezzi e delle attitudini loro ; secondariamente attutisce in essi il senso di responsabilita e di iniziativa. I mezzi protettivi della piccola proprieta costituita e sopratutto I' homestead exemption hanno diminuito il credito od altrimenti il senso di responsabilita, facilitando 1'esercizio di una agricoltura a limitate anticipazioni. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 621 Ma una tal forma di agricoltura e quella che ha affrettato I'esaurimento delle terre e fatto decadere la piccola proprieta costituita. Xei paesi europei le terre sono — nella grandissima prevalenza — soggette a proprieta privata, nelle sue varie forme di grande, media e piccola. In conseguenza di fatti storici ed economic!, queste sono talora soggette a vincoli, servitu e diritti che limitano o quanto meno alterano il diritto private di proprieta; presentano tal'altra difetti material] di suddivisione e parcellamento, vin- colanti a forme difettose di utilizzazione. Manca dunque, in complesso, la terra libera disponibile per la colonizzazione. Quanto all mano d'opra rurale, raggiunge bensi generalmente una densita elevata per unita di superfice, ma presenta 1'uno o Taltro dei seguenti difetti di dis- tribuzione, che la colonizzazione delle terre mira appunto ad eliminare : o la popolazione rurale, per quanto densa per unita di superfice territorial, si trova agglomerata nei centri rurali e le campagne sono spopolate; oppure, se densa e ben distribuita in alcuni regioni o parti di regione, si trova eccessivamente rarefatta in altre. Per ottenere la distribuzione uniforme della popolazione in rapporto alia terra, occorre poter disporre della proprieta privata, ed occorre che questa sia libera da vincoli che in qualunque modo ne limitmo il pieno diritto, ed ummune da viziosi difetti di divisione. Di qui la necessita di una duplice azione colonizzatrice : azione indiretta, tendente a render libere le proprieta private; azione diretta, rivolta a convertire queste ultime in piccole proprieta coltivatrici. La costituzione delle piccole proprieta coltivatrici, per ragioni ovvie, e la meta a cui tende costantemente la azione legislativa in favore della colonizzazione delle terre nei paesi europei. Ma la proprieta in Europa, diversamente da quanto accade nei paesi nuovi, ha tin valore, ed tin valore relativamente elevato, che oltrepassa i mezzi a disposi- zione dei coltivatori diretti; prezzo, contro il quale si 622 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS infrangerebbe ogni buona volonta di questi ultimi, se lo stato non intervenisse — cosi come difatti interviene — con due mezzi : — • (i°) Assumendo direttamente 1'opera colonizzatrice, nelle terre demaniali di cui dispone, od in terre acquistate appositamente, per ricederle ai lavoratori a condizione di favore (Colonizzazione statale). (2°) Oppure anticipando ai coltivatori — con modi e forme diverse — il denaro occorrente all'acquisto delle terre, mediante restituzione rateale (Colonizzazione libera). Nella Colonizzazione di stato, le terre oggetto di parcellamento sono innanzi tutto le demaniali, quindi le provincial!, comunali, le proprieta di opere pie ecc. I mezzi con cui lo stato arriva a disporre delle proprieta private, successivamente o tosto occorrenti, sono : 1'acquisto libero in seguito a volontaria vendita; 1'acquisto all'asta delle proprieta oberate dai debiti; 1'acquisto forzato per espropriazione. A quest'ultima forma per altro niolto raramente si e ricorsi. Le terre procurate coi mezzi suddetti, vengono parcel- late e cedute generalmente in proprieta, piu raramente in affitto : le concessioni, piu raramente sono gratuite od in enfiteusi; normalmente sono a pagamento rateale, per un periodo lungo di tempo. Lo stato in questo modo e rimprenditore dell'opera di parcellamento, ad analogia di quanto accade nei paesi nuovi, ed allo stato rimane il rischio deH'impresa. Ouesta, per altro, e compito assai piu difficile che nei paesi extra-europei, perche richiede molta maggiore immobilizzazione di capitale per unita di superfice; perche i lotti di terrene non possono avere la estensione e non hanno le riserve di fertilita dei paesi nuovi. La maggiore difficolta consiste nei soccorrere Topra, tenendo desto lo spirito di intrapresa dei coloni. La costruzione della casa viene lasciata alia volonta del colono adeguatamente sovvenuto : questi inoltre deve possedere i capitali di scorta occorrenti. Nella Colonizzazione libera, lo stato interviene come sovventore diretto od indiretto. Esso pone i coltivatori in condizione di avere in prestito una quota molto elevata MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 623,' del valore del lotto (fino ai 9/10) da pagare al venditore, all'atto dell'acquisto, con restituzione in annualita durante tm lungo periodo di anni. In questo modo, mentre il venditore puo subito percepire Timporto della vendita, il colono e in condizione di acquistare la terra anche disponendo di poco denaro. II venditore assume spontaneamente r opera ed i rischi e lucri del parcellamento : il maggior gtiadagno pro- veniente dalla vendita frazionata da un lato, e dall'altro la necessita di vendere a causa dei debiti, sono le cause determinant! del parcellamento stesso. Ma, data appunto una condizione finanziaria generalmente disagiata nel proprietario, il credito non puo limitarsi a sovvenire it. colono : occorre che aiuti anche il parcellante, perche questi possa eseguire le necessarie opere. E poiche le anticipazioni che vengono fatte, ai coloni per 1'acquisto, ai venditori per il parcellamento, investono- quote molto elevate del valore del fondo (come abbiamo veduto, fino ai 9/10 di tal valore); si comprende la necessita di organi intermediari fra i sovventori ed i sovvenuti, per invigilare tutto 1'andamento dell'opera colonizzatrice. In sostituzione ed integrazione di questi organi intermediari, in alcuni paesi, sono andate costi- tuendosi societa di colonizzazione, che assumono Timpresa a scopo di pubblica utilita. Confrontati fra loro i due sistemi du colonizzazione statale e di colonizzazione libera, il secondo dimostra condizioni di innegabili superiorita, per maggior economia- realizzata nella attuazione e maggior vitalita delle pro- prieta costituite. Nei paesi di conquista, nei quali esistono gia dirittr determinati degli indigeni sopra la terra, diritti che non possono essere tenuti in non cale senza pericolo di gravissime conseguenze, si rendono necessari criteri di attuazione diversi dell'opera di colonizzazione. L'esistenza di forti proporzioni di terre demaniali disponibili avvicina questi ultimi ai paesi nuovi; ma, se la terra disponibile non e in proporzioni ed in condizioni tali da supplire ai bisogni del popolo colonizzatore, occorre poter disporre 624 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS delle terre impegnate dagli indigeni, cosi come nei paesi europei si procura ottenere a beneficio della colonizzazione la proprieta privata. In confronto con quanto accade nei paesi europei, si incontra per altro questa molto grave difficolta : che occorre in precedenza, conoscere esattamente — e non sempre e facile ne semplice — i diretti dei nativi sopra la terra. Acquistata questa nozione fondamentale, si presenta come piu naturale un orientamento analogo, a quell o seguito nella colonizzazione libera europea, e cioe : — (i°) Procurare di liberare le terre dai diritti di uso, servitu ecc. ad analogia di quanto nella colonizzazione mterna indiretta. (2°) Mettere gli indigeni in condizione di vendere ed i coloni in condizione di acquistare la terra in proprieta privata. Dati gli scopi prevalentemente agricoli che si prefigge la colonizzazione delle terre nei paesi in esame, il passaggio di proprieta puo avere di mira tanto la costi- tuzione delle grandi che delle piccole proprieta, secondo che le condizioni di tempo e di luogo determinano piuttosto il formarsi delle une che delle altre. In quanto riguarda la costituzione delle piccole pro- prieta, per ottenere un rapido valorizzamento, appaiono opportune provvidenze analoghe a quelle seguite nella colonizzazione libera europea, che nei paesi di conquista sono destinate a maggiori successi, per il prezzo relativa- mento piu limitato delle terre. NOTE ON THE MANGROVE FORESTS OF BRITISH INDIA. By R. S. PEARSON, F.L.S. Forest Economist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. i . — INTRODUCTION. THE ever-increasing demand for tanning agents due to the greater annual consumption of leather, together with the decrease in supplies of some of the best known tanning materials, such as chestnut bark from France and " Babul " (Acacia arabica) bark in India, have caused the trade to search for possible substitutes. British India possesses many valuable products, some of which are only used locally for tanning, such as Cassia aunculata and Acacia arabica barks; Cxsalpinia digyna and Csesalpinia coriaria, Acacia arabica, Phyllanthus Emblica and Zizyphus xylopyra fruits and Anogeissus latifolia leaves, while Myrabolams obtained from Terminalia Chebula, and to a less extent from Terminalia belerica, are not only used locally, but largely exported to Europe. Another large group of tanning materials is obtained from the bark of various species of mangrove from the tidal forests of India. Up to the present they have not been exported on a commercial scale to Europe, though large quantities are annually imported into Calcutta from the Sunderbans, and also on a small scale into Rangoon and Moulmein from the coastal forests of Bassein, Tavoy and Mergui. It is with this group of tan barks that it is proposed to deal in the present note. 2. — SPECIES. The order to which mangroves belong is that of the Rhizophorcx. They form, 'together with other species, the tidal forests of India and Burma, having a very striking appearance and peculiar character of their own. The trees and shrubs do not generally grow into massive steins, but form short, small to moderate-sized trunks with spreading crowns covered with glossy thick leaves, 40 626 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS while the peculiar inverted candelabrum-shaped root system is developed to fix the shrub or tree firmly in the soft mud and to protect it from being uprooted by storms and waves. Further, many species develop aerial roots from their branches or send up "knees" and other ex- crescences from their root systems in order to obtain air. The most important species belonging- to this order, from the tanners' point of view, are : — (i) • Rhizophora mucronata, Lam., found in the tidal forests at the mouth of the Indus, on the West and East Coast of India, in the Sunderbans, on the Arakan, Bassein and South Tenasserim Coasts of Burma, and in the Andamans. It is also found in Portuguese East Africa, the Philippine Islands, on the Malay Coast, and in Australia. (/'/) Rhizophora conjugata, Linn., a small tree generally associated with the above species. (iii) Ceriops Candolleana, Arn., is a small evergreen tree found plentifully in the Sunderbans, in Bengal, on the Bassein and Tenasserim Coasts, in Ceylon, and in most tropical coastal forests of Asia, Africa, and Aus- tralia. Like Rhizophora mucronata, it has a very wide distribution. (iv) Ceriops Roxburghiana, Arn., is a large shrub or small dwarf tree found in the Sunderbans, on the Tenas- serim Coast, the East Coast of Ceylon, the Andamans, the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago. (v) Kandelia Rheedii, W. and A., an evergreen shrub or small tree found on both the East and West Coasts of the Indian Peninsula, in the Sunderbans, Andamans, and Burma. (vi) Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Lam., a large tree found in the tidal forests of the Western Peninsula, in the Sunderbans, Burma, the Andamans, Ceylon, and in Tropical Africa and Australia. 3. — AREA COVERED BY MANGROVE FORESTS, YIELD AND COST OF EXTRACTION OF THE BARK. It will be seen from what has been said above that the most important species of mangrove have a very wide MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS distribution, being found in the coastal forests of Africa, extending eastwards through India, the Malay Archi- pelago, and Philippines to Australia. In India, however, though many of these trees and shrubs are found along the coast, it is only in a few localities that the forests extend over large areas of country, in most cases such areas being situated in the estuaries of large rivers; thus the most extensive mangrove forests are to be found on the Arakan and South Tenasserim coasts, the Sunder- bans, Andaman Isles, and to a less extent on the Bassein Coast of Burma. It is proposed to deal with each area separately, so as to give a clear idea of the possibilities of each locality. (f) Mangrove Forests of the Arakan Coast. The tidal forests of Arakan are nearly all situated between the mouth of the Mayu River in the Akyab District and that of the Kaleindaung River in the Sandoway Sub-division, of which quite two-thirds are situated in Kyaukpyu Sub-division, which lies midway between these two rivers. The exact area covered by mangrove forests is not known, but Mr. Hamilton, the Sub-divisional Forest Officer, who is well acquainted with the district, estimates it to be over 2,000 square miles. He has actually surveyed 323 square miles, and estimates the mapped portion to be about one-sixth of the total area. The tidal area is covered by three types of forest. Those at the lowest level contain various species of man- grove, of which Rhizophora mucronata and Rhizophora conjugate* are the most important; the next belt of forest somewhat higher up consists of the same species mixed with a valuable timber-yielding tree, known as " Sundri " (Heritiera minor), and finally, the highest areas covered by the tide are covered by pure " Sundri " forests. In order to arrive at an estimate of yield per acre or for the total area, Mr. Hamilton, after carrying out his surveys, laid out an acre sample plot, in which he felled the mangrove trees and stripped them of their bark, with the result t'hat 6,760 lb., or about three tons of green bark, was collected and 2,500 c. ft. of stacked fuel. From his survey he obtained the following data: — 628 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS Acres Mangrove forest ... ... ... . 101,122 Mixed mangrove and " Sundii " torest " Sundri " forest Cultivated land Rivers and creeks 21,512 5,79* 42,404 Total area surveyed ... ... 206,564 Thus the area surveyed should yield about 300,000 tons of green bark and 5,000,000 tons of stacked fuel. As the area surveyed is estimated to be one-sixth of the total, the yield from the mangrove forests of the Arakan Division may be put at 1,800,000 tons of green bark and 30,000,000 tons of stacked fuel. The Divisional Forest Officer, Mr. Walker, gives it as his opinion that as man- groves do not coppice, though the natural regeneration from seed is excellent, it would be best to work the forests by leaving standards as seed-bearers and give the forests a forty years period of rest between each felling cycle. Further, as the above calculations are based on one sample plot covering only an acre, it would for safety's sake be well to reduce the yield by one-third. Working on that basis, with a forty years' felling rotation and a two-thirds yield, the annual sustained yield of green bark works out to 30,000 tons for the whole Division, and 5,000 tons for the area which has been surveyed. These estimates are probably below the mark, inasmuch as the yield has been reduced by one-third of the actuals, and the mixed mangrove and " Sundri " forests left altogether out of account. While carrying out the work of stripping and collecting the bark the figures of cost were carefully recorded, and it was found that it cost Rs. 15 to cut and strip three tons of green bark, i.e., the yield of one acre. Taking carriage, establishment charges, cutting, stripping, and stacking of fuel, etc., all into account, it is estimated that Rs. 12 — 15 per ton would be the outside cost of delivering fresh bark at either Sandoway or Kyaukpyu. The local officers think that labour would be always available, and that extraction and delivery of the bark to a factory could be arranged for with contractors. It is, however, pointed out that owing" to the hard nature of the wood and to the difficulty experienced in stripping MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 629 quickly special instruments would have to be used, while possibly rough wireways might greatly facilitate ex- traction to the waterways from the interior of the forest. The most suitable sites for a factory would probably be either Sandoway or Kyaukpyu, as the rivers and creeks converging on these places afford excellent lines of export for the raw material throughout the year, while the British India Steam Navigation Co.'s steamers call frequently at both ports. (it) Mangrove Forests of South Tenasserim. The mangrove forests of South Tenasserim occur in the Mergui and Tavoy Districts, especially in the former. The exact area which they cover is not known, though the Divisional Forest Officer, Mr. Pocock, reporting on the subject, describes them as more or less unlimited. A good deal of bark is and has been extracted from these forests, some of which was sent for experimental pur- poses to the Government Rangoon Tan Extract Factory, which is now closed down owing to the factory site having been originally wrongly chosen and to the plant being out of date and repair. The cost of extraction of bark in Mergui based on actual experience works out as follows : — Rs. A. P. (a) Cost of extraction to Mergui 6 4 o per ton (b) Wharfage fees o 12 6 ,, (<•) Cooly hire for bundling and boat hire from wharf to steamer 320 „ (d) Shipping charges from Mergui to Rangoon 640 „ Total ... 16 6 6 In this locality the cost of felling and stripping comes to Rs. 6-4 per ton. Mr. Hamilton found that it cost him Rs. 5 per ton to do the same work in Arakan, while the total cost of landing bark in Rangoon works out to Rs. 16-6-6 per ton, as against Rs. 12 — 15 per ton in Sandoway or Kyaukpyu; in other words, the estimates put up for two different localities by different officials agree very fairly well. There can be little doubt that Arakan and Mergui are the two most suitable and pro- mising areas available for the extraction of mangrove bark and for the preparation of tan extracts in British India. 630 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS (in) The Sunderbans Mangrove Forests of Bengal. The forests of the Sunderbans are situated on the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, south-east of Calcutta. The chief species of mangrove in these forests is Ceriops Candollcana, which is found widely distributed almost throughout the Division, though more particularly in the saline tracts. Here, owing to the proximity of the forests to a large city, the wood is extracted as poles and fuel has a greater value than, the bark. It is, however, a fact that the greater number of pieces of mangrove wood destined for the Calcutta market are also stripped of their bark for tanning purposes. Inquiries made show that about 3,500 tons of the bark are annually imported into Calcutta; further, it is stated that the cost of extraction is relatively high. It is thought that though a certain quantity of man- grove bark would be annually available from the Sunder- bans, owing to the proximity of these forests to a large consuming centre, the prospects of starting a tan extract industry in that locality would be relatively poor, when compared with those existing in Arakan and South Tenasserim. (Iv) The Mangrove Forests of the Andaman Isles. The mangrove forests of the Andamans are found fringing the shores, interrupted here and there by the steeper slopes of the coast, and along the banks of tidal creeks, stretching often for considerable distances inland. The outer edge of the zone of these forests consist chiefly of Rhizophora mucronata, Rhizophora conjugata, and Ceriops Candolleana, while in the inner and the higher zone Bruguiera gymnorhiza is more frequently found. Mr. Baker, the Deputy Conservator of Forests in charge of the Andaman forests, gives it as his opinion that the labour at present available would be insufficient to cope with the work of extracting mangrove bark, otherwise it would be possible to sell the bark f.o.b. Port Blair at Rs. 21 per ton. This estimate is based on work- ing with convict labour and includes royalty. Were persons interested in the mangrove bark from the Andamans, the only possible way of working it com- MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 63! mercially would be to obtain a concession for extraction from the Middle and Northern Islands and import the labour. (v) The Mangrove Forests of the Basse in Coast of Burma. The mangrove forests of the Bassein District are found between the mouth of the Laumgyi River and that of the Kyonkadun, and also in the Mwedon and Pokweyo forests. The other areas in which mangrove forests are found in this locality are the Kyagon, Ngyputaw, Einme, Sinma, and Bassein Ranges. From the forests lying between the Laumgyi and Kyondakun Rivers about 5,000 mangrove trees are extracted annually. These trees are stripped of their bark, which is taken to Rangoon via the ports of Pyapon and Begale, where the Irrawaddy Flotilla Co/s boats call. The cost of extraction of the bark to the above ports is estimated to be Rs. 12-8-0 per ton. The man- grove forests of the other above-named forests are not worked at present, as there is no demand for the bark. 4. — THE VALUE OF MANGROVE BARKS FOR THE PREPARA- TION OF TAN EXTRACTS. This note lias not been prepared with the object of deal- ing with the value of the various species of mangrove bark for tanning purposes, but to demonstrate, the possi- bilities of utilizing mangrove bark, and furnishing infor- mation as to cost of extraction, quantities available, suitable localities, labour, and local conditions. It will therefore be sufficient to mention some of the more important reports which have been published in the past, and which demonstrate the value of mangrove barks for tanning purposes. Many reports have been written on the analysis of man- grove bark and mangrove extracts; all of these it would be impossible to mention without dealing with the subject in detail. Amongst the most important publications and correspondence on the subject are : («) A report by Dr. Hooper on certain tannin extracts prepared in the Pyinmana Forest Division, Upper Burma, 1898. (iiy 632 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS Reports by Messrs. Ribbentrop and Dunstan on a tan extract plant for India, 1901. (Hi) Dr. Hooper's Report published in the Agricultural Ledger of 1902, No. i, pp. 35-36, which deals with Rhizophora mucronata. (iv) An article entitled " Mangrove Barks, and Leather Tanned with these Barks from Pemba and Zanzibar," Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, 1904, pp. 163-166. (v) A Report from, the Imperial Institute on Mangrove Extract and Borneo Cutch by Professor Wyndham R. Dunstan, M.A., F.R.S., Director of the Imperial Institute of London, dated June 25, 1908. (vi) A Report from the Imperial Institute, dated April 28, 1911, on Samples of Mangrove Extract sent from the Government Tannin Factory, Rangoon, (vii) A Note by Messrs. T. Steel and G. Harrison Russel, published in the Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry for March 15, 1912, entitled "The Mangrove Bark of North Queensland and the Manufacture of Mangrove Cutch," which deals with Rhizophora mucro- nata, Rhizophora conjugate, Bruguicra gymnoyhisa, Ceriops Candolleana, and other species, (viii) Indian Forest Records, Volume III, Part IV, 1912 — " Note on the Preparation of Tan Extracts, with Special Reference to those Prepared from the Bark of Mangrove (Rhizo- phora mucronata)," by Puran Singh, F.C.S., Chemical Adviser, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. (iv) A Note entitled " Australian Mangrove Barks," published in Volume XLI of Tropical Agriculturist, August, 1913. The above reports deal nearly exclusively with the value of the bark for tanning, and clearly demonstrate its possi- bilities and limitations. 5. — CONCLUSIONS. The conclusions arrived at after perusing the available literature on the subject, and having inspected some of the mangrove forests referred to in this note, are that the possibilities of utilizing the bark commercially for tannin extract are fair to good according to the locality selected. Mr. Walker, in reviewing the position of affairs in Arakan suggests forming mangrove reserves which could be leased out to any firm obtaining a con- MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 633 cession on payment of royalty on the manufactured pro- duct. Were such action taken the lessees would then be secured from interference with their work by private trades, an important point to be considered when con- templating such an enterprise. The terms which the Local Government would grant to such prospective lessees cannot be stated, though, judging from the policy followed in the case of similar concessions for the extraction of raw material for new industries, the terms asked for would probably be very moderate. FRUIT CULTURE IN THE TROPICS. By H. F. MACMILLAN. Superintendent of Botanic Gardens, Ceylon. THE subject of this paper, though not new to many people, is, I think, of sufficient importance to justify my presenting the following notes to the Congress. That it possesses considerable interest not only for the colonist or would-be colonists, but also for residents of tropical countries, goes without saying. Few products of the soil present greater attractions to the cultivator than fruit, for the prospect of being able to pluck the fruit of one's own orchard, in addition to obtaining a reasonable return 011 one's capital, has a special charm. Pomology now finds a place in the curriculum of technical colleges in Europe, America, Australia, and elsewhere, and in practice may well be said to be carried to a fine art. So far, however, fruit culture on a commercial scale has attracted but little attention in the tropics, with but few exceptions. Chief among the latter are Jamaica, with its prosperous banana industry, and Singapore, with a flourishing trade in the growing and preserving of pine- apples. In Hawaii Islands also results have shown that pineapple culture for local consumption and export can be made a commercial success. FRUIT CULTURE IN CEYLON. Hitherto fruit-growing in Ceylon has only been carried on either as an auxiliary means of livelihood or for private consumption, and it is asserted that there is not sufficient inducement to make it a business venture. But if inducements are created, as they may be, there would seem to be undoubted opportunities of developing fruit- growing in Ceylon on commercial lines. The require- ments of the colony and neighbouring countries in the way of fruit, either fresh, preserved, or in jams, are MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 635 large, and should be capable of being" supplied cheaper by locally grown produce than by that brought from thousands of miles away and cultivated and prepared by expensive labour. Good fruits at reasonable prices are always in demand, and considerable quantities could doubtless be disposed of, at all seasons, in supplying the shipping at Colombo, the local markets and private bungalows, or in making jams, jellies, and preserves. The scarcity of country- grown fruits in Colombo is especially remarkable, and in low-country villages the principal fruits usually seen are sour plantains, green thick-skinned oranges, inferior pineapples, bullock's heart, and such-like. Up-country residents are perhaps even worse provided for, except in the dry season, February to May, when tree-tomatoes, passion-fruit, mountain-papaw, and cooking pears aire available in limited quantities. In some of the best-cared- for gardens peaches, strawberries, figs, plums, oranges, cherimoyer, and China guavas are more or less success- fully grown. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS FOR FRUIT CULTURE. The most influential factor in fruit culture may be said to be climate, as constituted by the normal rainfall and temperature. Most fruits prefer a comparatively dry climate, which favours the development of flavour and keeping qualities. Ceylon possesses both tropical and sub-tropical types of climate, each of which may be divided into wet and dry zones, and should thus be capable of producing a great variety of fruits to per- fection, both of tropical and sub-tropical sorts. Nothing- can surpass the suitability of the humid districts of the low-country for the purely tropical kinds, as the pine- apple, mangosteen, sapodilla, durian, and rambutan. At intermediate elevations with less rainfall the avocado pear, guava, orange, and others thrive equally well, whilst at elevations of from 4,000 to 6,000 ft. the tree- tomato. China guava, mountain-papaw, and passion-fruit grow to perfection. Here also certain European fruits give moderately good crops in the dry season, provided the plants are not over-exposed to strong wind. 636 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS POSSIBILITIES OF AN EXPORT FRUIT TRADE. The question whether Ceylon is capable of joining the ranks of fruit-exporting countries has attracted private and official attention on previous occasions, and some spasmodic attempts have been made at furthering local interest in the matter. In this connection Dr. Trimen wrote in 1887, in response to an official communication from the Secretary of State for the Colonies: " I do not know7 if it be true of the Eastern tropics generally, but in Ceylon there is among English people no great liking for tropical fruits, and few consider them in any way comparable with temperate and sub-tropical ones. Hence there is a large import of tinned and bottled fruits of America and England." Conditions have, however, altered much since then. Easter and more frequent steamer services now enable fruits from the Antipodes being landed in London in good condition. The taste for rare tropical fruits has increased, and many that were unknown in England but a few years ago, as the avocado pear, the cherimoyer, mangoes, and others are now frequently seen in Covent Garden, and sold at fancy prices. Though the partiality for European fruits is in many cases justified, many people think that no fruit can surpass or equal in lusciousness a good pineapple, a " suwandale " banana, a mangosteen, a cherimoyer, or a perfect mango. These are the envy of people in less- favoured climes. The pineapple, mangosteen, and cheri- moyer have been described as the most delicious fruits in the world, whilst in the estimation of the late Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace, the sensation of eating durian was worth a voyage to the East. If, therefore, the fruit could be eaten in England without the necessity of a long voyage it should be worth a good price. In supplying fresh fruits to some of the coastal districts and towns of India less favourably situated for fruit culture, there should be opportunities in Ceylon for a local export trade. This might be supplemented by the establishment of a factory in Colombo or Kandy for making jams and preserves and for canning and drying fruits. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 637 OBSTACLES TO SUCCESS. That there are difficulties in the way of pursuing fruit culture in the tropics with appreciable success is only to be expected. But this is the case with every new venture. For instance, the first pound of tea produced in Ceylon cost about £5 to grow and make, while one of the first consignments of fruit sent from Australia to England sold at fancy prices, but freight and commissions landed the owner in a loss of over £50. The pilfering habit of the natives frequently necessitates the picking of fruits in a green and unripe state, which reduces the latter in popular estimation and in price, and therefore checks cultivation. Another obstacle to progress is the system which obtains locally of supplying fruits by the number instead of by weight or size and quality; thus the natural incentive for growers for market is to increase the number rather than the quality of the fruit. Were fruit-growing, however, to be undertaken seriously and become an established industry in Ceylon, these and other difficulties could douHtless be largely overcome. District fruit inspectors might be appointed, and it would be the duty of these to see to the carrying out of recognized methods of culture, to enforce regulations for packing, transport, and disposal of produce, and report on the first signs of outbreaks of pests or diseases. WHAT FRUITS TO GROW. The number of tropical fruits that are edible is con- siderable, though those of real merit are comparatively limited. As differences of opinion will always exist as to the relative value of fruits, a fairly exhaustive list is given here for selection. The motto should be to grow a few kinds well rather than many imperfectly. To attempt growing numerous sorts in a cramped area inevitably leads to disappointment and indifferent results. (i) For Low and Intermediate Elevations, with Moderate Rainfall. Plantain or banana (Musa paradisiaca). — By far the 638 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS most universal fruit grown in Ceylon; in season all the year round. There are numerous varieties, " Suwaii- dale " and tl Kolikuttu " being considered the two best. Second-rate varieties, as " Embul-hondaruwala," are the most cultivated, being more prolific and easier grown. Mango (Manglfcra indica). — The fruit par excellence of India. Found under a great number of varieties, of which the " Rupee Mango " is the largest and one of the best grown in Ceylon. A rather dry climate suits the tree best. Usual season May and June, but earlier at lower elevations. Pineapple (Ananas sativus). — Numerous varieties are known, one of the largest and best being the " Kew Pine " or " Smooth Cayenne," which has spineless leaves; grows up to 5,000 ft. elevation under favourable condi- tions. Principal season : May to August. Mangosteen (Garcinia Mangos tana). — A moderate- sized tree, the delicious fruit of which is usually in season from June to August, or earlier at the lower elevations. The tree is of slow growth, and does not usually bear till eight or nine years old. Thrives in moist districts up to 1,500 ft. The fruits are usually retailed at 75 cents to i rupee per dozen. Durian (Durio sibethinus). — A handsome lofty tree, celebrated for its large edible fruits, which are charac- terized by a disagreeable odour. Season : July and August. Orange (Citrus Aurantium). — There are innumerable varieties of the local " Sweet Orange," most of which luxuriate in the low-country. The sourer kinds are suited for making marmalade, and could be grown in large quantities for this purpose. A rather dry climate, with irrigation, produces excellent fruits. The " Washington Navel " and other grafted varieties do best at the higher elevations. Rambutan (Nep helium- lappaceum). — A large spreading tree, the curious burr-like, yellowish-red fruits of which contain a pleasantly acid, white aril round the seed. Season : July and August. Sapodilla (Achras Sapota). — A small, slow-growing West Indian tree, introduced into Ceylon about 1802; MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 639 fruit dark brown, about the size of a peach, with soft luscious pulp when fully ripe. Thrives up to 1,000 ft.; a first-class dessert fruit, well worthy of extended cultivation. Papaw (Carica Papaya). — A small, quick-growing herbaceous tree; the large melon-like fruit, always in season, is very refreshing and wholesome. In the unripe state the copious milky juice is rich in pepsin, for which the fruit is recommended for use as a vegetable, being cooked and served like vegetable-marrow. Breadfruit (Art o car pus incisa). — A very handsome, quick-growing tree, with large, deeply cut leaves and oblong green fruits of the size of one's two fists. Uguressa (Flacourtia Ramontchi var. Cataphracta).— A thorny, bushy tree of Malaya, producing large berries which are purple or dull red when ripe; they are a pleasant dessert fruit, and make excellent jam. Kamaranga (Averrhoa Carambola). — A low, slender- branched tree, bearing a profusion of peculiar winged fruits, which are very juicy, though sour. Some varieties, however, are sweet and worth cultivating as a dessert fruit. Cochin Goraka (Garcinia Xanthochymus). — A small, ornamental, cone-shaped tree, with large leathery leaves and attractive yellow apricot-like fruits, which are very acid, but refreshing; the yellow pulp is suited for making jam. Soursop (Anona muricata). — A small tree, with large green kidney-shaped fruits of a sweet sub-acid flavour. Bullock's Heart (Anona reticulatd). — A small bushy tree, the large heart-shaped fruits of which contain a white granular pulp, which some people relish. Seasons: January, June, and October. Custard Apple (Anona squamosa). — A small tree; fruit roundish or heart-shaped, with projecting scales, enclos- ing sweet, custard-like pulp. Avocado Pear (Per sea gratis sima). — A small tree, with large pear-shaped green fruits, containing a large round seed in the hollow centre. The greenish-white pulp (pericarp) is agreeable and wholesome, though more palatable when flavoured with vinegar, etc. Said to be 640 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS much in favour in America. Principal season: July and August. Guava (Psidium Guyava). — A shrubby tree, introduced into Ceylon by the Portuguese, and now quite naturalized. Thrives in a wild state at all elevations up to 4,000 ft. The better varieties are worth introducing and cultivating for making jellies or jam. Pomegranate (Punica granatum). — A shrubby tree, the best varieties of which are commonly cultivated in the Mediterranean region for their large globular fruits; the scanty but juicy and astringent pulp surrounding the seed varies from sweet to acid and bitter, according to variety; it is commonly eaten for its medicinal properties. Thrives at almost all elevations in Ceylon. Brazil Cherry (Eugenia Micheli). — A small tree with bright red tomato-like fruits, which are acid and slightly aromatic; probably suited for making jellies and preserves. Rozelle or Rata-bilincha (Hibiscus Sabdariffa). — A small annual shrub, with fruits enclosed in fleshy dis- tended calyces, which are bright red when ripe; suited for making jams and jellies. Rose Apple (Eugenia Jambos). — A medium-sized tree, with white and rose-tinted and scented fruits of the size of a large hen's egg; the pulp is snowy white, sweet but rather juiceless. Season: May and June. Star Apple (Chrysophyllum Cainito). — A large, hand- some tree, with dark-green leaves; fruits round, milky when unripe, similar to small sapodillas. Season: February and March. Loquat (Photinia japonica). — A small Japanese tree of the apple family, bearing a profusion of sweet-scented flowers, followed by yellow fruits resembling a crab apple. Superior varieties are well worth growing. Ket-embilla or Ceylon Gooseberry (A Iberia Gardneri). — A small shrubby tree of Ceylon, with purple velvety fruits, full of slightly acid pulp, not unlike gooseberries; suited for making jams and preserves; well worth grow- ing, especially with a view to improvement by selection and high cultivation. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 64! (2) For the Higher Elevations, say from 3,500 to 6,000 //. Tree-tomato (Cyphomandra betacea). — A small herba- ceous tree, introduced into Ceylon in 1884, and has become a valuable acquisition for up-country; bears a heavy crop of fruit almost throughout the year, if planted in fairly sheltered situations; it is known in the West Indies as " Vegetable Mercury," owing to the action of the fruit on the liver. Cherimoyer (Anona Cherimolid). — A small tree, intro- duced into Ceylon in 1884; the fruit is considered to be one of the most delicious known, and resembles a custard- apple in appearance, but is much superior to that in flavour. Deserves to be widely known and cultivated. Season : October to December. China Guava (Psidium Cattleyanum). — A small smooth- barked tree, producing heavy crops of claret-coloured agreeable fruits, which may be used for dessert or for jams and jellies. Persimmon (Diospyros Kaki). — A small tree, which bears one of the most noted fruits of China and Japan ; not yet generally established in Ceylon, but has been found to thrive and bear fruit in some hill gardens. Passion-fruit or Sweet Cup (Pas si flora edulis). — A perennial climber, introduced from Brazil, now growing commonly up-country in a wild state, and cropping abundantly twice a year. The fruits are slightly fragrant, .and contain a pleasant juicy pulp. Usually sold locally at about Re. i per hundred; often sold in Covent Garden Market at a shilling or more per dozen, being imported from the Canary Islands. Strawberry (Fragaria vcscd). — Grows from 4,000 ft. upwards, and in the dry season produces good crops of fruits, which are of moderate size and flavour. Some- times sold in Nuwara Eliya at 75 cents ( = is.) per pound. The common wild strawberry of England has become quite naturalized in Ceylon, growing in a wild state in the Nuwara Eliya district. Cape Gooseberry (Physalis Perumana). — A small creep- ing, semi-woody bush, with a berry enclosed in a balloon- 642 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS like calyx; its pleasant sub-acid flavour suggests an English gooseberry; easily grown, and now naturalized about Nuwara Eliya and elsewhere. It is well worthy of extended cultivation, being excellent for dessert, and is one of the best fruits known for making jam or preserve. Mountain Papaw (Carica candamarcensis). — Similar to the low-country papaw in appearance, but the leaves are smaller and coarser; the fruit is only about one-eighth the size of the latter, but is pleasantly scented, and is good for stewing. Peach (Pcrsica vulgaris). — Grows freely in sheltered situations at 4,500 to 5,500 ft., preferring a rather dry climate; in favourable seasons it gives good crops of fruit of moderate quality. Fig (Ficus Carica). — This well-known fruit tree thrives in Ceylon at 5,000 ft. and upwards and bears heavy crops, but the fruit is rather juicele,ss and insipid, and usually fit for stewing only. Principal season: April to June. The variety " Black Asiatic ". has been found the best suited to Nuwara Eliya. Plum (Prnnus domestica). — So far only very few varieties have been found to succeed to any extent, these being chiefly the " Blood," "Redheart," " Ootacamund," and "Japanese Yellow." Blackberry (Rubu-s fruticosus). — A straggling prickly climber; has been grown successfully for many years ai Hakgala Gardens (elevation 5,800 ft.), where it fruits freely in May and June. Ceylon Blackberry (Rubus moluccanus var. macro- carpus). — Indigenous to Ceylon, common from 3,000 to 5,000 ft.; the fruit is large and juicy, and when ripe has a good flavour. (3) For the Dry or Semi-dry Zones, Grapes (Vitis vinifera). — Certain varieties are grown in the dry climate of Jaffna with very fair success. More productive and better flavoured kinds would no doubt be found to thrive if given a good trial. Orange (Citrus Aurantium). — Fruits of excellent quality MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 643 can be produced in the semi-dry zone, especially if irrigated and properly cultivated. Musk Melon (Cucumis Melo). — An annual creeper, with large, globular, luscious fruits; should be a valuable acquisition, and thrive to perfection in a semi-dry climate with good soil. Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera). — This tall feathery palm, so extensively cultivated in Northern Africa, Western Asia, etc., has not yet become established in Ceylon. In the countries where grown the well-known fruit is a standard article of food with the inhabitants, as well as of animals, and forms a considerable article 01 export. Numerous varieties are known. Carob or Locust-bean (Ceratonia siliqua). — A small tree, specimens of which have been grown at various elevations in Ceylon, but it has not yet become established here as a fruit tree. Extensively cultivated in the Mediterranean region for its sweet sugary pods, which form a considerable article of export, being a nutritious cattle food, and also largely eaten by human beings. (4) Nut Fruits suited to Low Elevations. Butter Nut (Gary o car nuciferum). — A lofty South American tree, producing a large round fruit which contains several hard-shelled nuts (the seeds), said to be the most delicious of the nut kind. Suited to the moist low-country. Brazil Nut (Bertholletia exceha). — A tall, handsome tree of Tropical America, with large globular fruits which contain the hard-shelled "nuts" or seeds; con- siderable quantities of the latter are exported from South America, and are the well-known Brazil nuts of com- merce. Suited to the humid low-country. Thrives in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, where it pro- duces fruit annually. Cashew Nut (Anacardium occidentale). — A shrubby tree, naturalized in the low-country of Ceylon, where it is found in abundance. The edible kernel (seed) is of an agreeable nutty flavour, and is said to be in much demand in Europe for confectionery. Queensland Nut (Macadamia ternifolia). — A medium- 644 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS sized tree, with brown, marble-like nuts of an agreeable flavour. Suited to elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 ft. Java Almond (Canarium commune). — A very large tree, with numerous damson-like fruits, produced in large clusters in great abundance. The kernel resembles sweet almonds in flavour. Thrives in the low-country up to 2,000 ft. AGRICULTURAL SANITATION IN THE GOLD COAST. By W. H. PATTERSON. Government Entomologist, Gold Coast Colony. IN presenting these few notes no attempt is made to offer observations regarding1 the general sanitation affect- ing such insects as mosquitoes and tsetse-flies, nor to discuss the relative health of the colony as affecting Europeans compared with other parts of the Tropics, nor is it possible to give results of research work; but the idea is to raise the question of the wisdom of allowing the growth of industries to exceed educational control. What is meant can perhaps be clearly seen by the cocoa industry of the Gold Coast Colony. This cocoa industry, though as yet not out of its infancy, has had a most remarkable development, and the following figures will explain its present value : — Year Quantity Value 1903 5,104,761 lb. £86,250 1904 11,451,458 200,025 1905 11,407,608 186,809 1906 20,104,504 336,268 1907 20,956,400 515.089 1908 28,545,910 540,821 1909 45,277,606 755,347 1910 50,692,949 S<,M>7. I9II 88,987,324 1,613,468 )9I2 86,568,481 1,642,733 1913 113,239,980 2,489,218 It will be seen that the increased output for 1913 is 26,671,499 lb., 38 per cent, over that for 1912, with a value increase of £846,485, or 51 per cent. Whilst half of this increase is due to the late season, the balance is credited to an increased bearing area, i.e., new farms coming into productivity. The Annual Report of the Agricultural Department for 1912 contains the following significant statement: " Already signs are everywhere apparent that there is grave danger of the farms being extended beyond what might be reckoned reasonable limits, resulting in neglect 646 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS or inability to maintain the plantations in a clean and healthy condition, thereby threatening the whole industry with disaster." To understand the position fully it is necessary to know that the cocoa industry is entirely a native or peasant one; that it is impossible to give the acreage at present under this crop, as the farms are small, varying from a few trees to at the most fifteen acres, and, to add to the difficulty, many farms are hidden away in the " bush." The farms are made by cutting and burning the original forest or by clearing the "bush" from between wild oil palms. Seed is sown, and the land may be intercropped with food crops, such as yams, tannias, and cassava, or, unfortunately, the "bush" may be allowed to grow again almost, if not entirely, uncon- trolled until such time as a stray cocoa flower may be found upon a plant severely handicapped for existence in its infancy. Seed is sown much too thickly, varying from 4 ft. by 4 ft. to 12 ft. by 12 ft., which latter distance is the best, save in few instances where an exceptionally good patch of soil is found. This neglect of the trees in the early stages is the cause of the greatest loss due to what is known in the vernacular as " Akate " or " Sankonuabe," i.e., to the ravages of two species of capsid bugs, Sahlbergella singularis, Hogl., and Sahlbergella theo- broma, Dist. The life-histories of these two bugs are not yet com- pletely worked out, but appear to be briefly as follows : The cylindrical, pearly-white eggs are laid for the most part singly, embedded in the woody tissues of branches ranging from J to i| in. in diameter. They are ~-Q in. in length, and it is difficult to locate them, as only two short white hairs project into the air. Incubation occupies from fourteen to twenty-one days. Feeding is done during the evening, night, and early morning, and ceases as soon as the sun becomes hot, though during dull and wet days it may continue throughout the greater part of the day. The insects remain almost motionless during the day and are not easily detected, being much the same colour as the bark. They are often in groups on the under sides of the branches, but isolated specimens may be seen in leaf MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 647 axils. All branches, from soft, herbaceous shoots to those of 2 in. in diameter, are used as food. The shoot is pierced and the sap extracted. The cortex and cam- bium in the area pierced turn brown and die. When young branches are attacked the sucked spots sink slightly, producing a somewhat gnarled appearance. In dry weather, when many wounds have been made, the leaves turn brown and wither, and the branch is easily bent over with the wind. Should the weather be moist very few branches are broken, and the presence of the insects is overlooked until very severe damage is done. The epidermis in a few days dries up round each puncture and splits open. Gumming takes place and may continue for some time. Where many wounds have been made together, but so that small spaces are left between the sucked areas, the work of healing is left to isolated strands of cambium. It is the result of the after activity of the cambium in attempting unsuccessfully to heal over the dead parts, which since 1909 has been described as canker or dry canker. Young trees may suffer so much that all top growth is killed, and has to be renewed from basal suckers, often delaying the fruiting period for as much as three years. Even when the damage is less severe the after crops are much reduced, as there is so much less vegetative activity in the trees, and the dis- tribution of manufactured products impeded, for the punctured sites never completely heal over. Food plants of the insect other than cocoa have not yet been found, nor has any effective natural control yet been hinted at.1 When a farm has successfully reached the age of pro- duction, the so-called " cocoa mosquito," Helopeltis sp., may take its toll. From recent work performed here it has been found that the effect of this insect may be very severe, as one female made eighty-four punctures in a pod in 1 Since this paper was written Mr. Patterson has found that the kapok tree (Eriodendron anfractuosurn] is a food plant of " Sankonuabe," and in order to reduce the numbers of the pest it is recommended1 that all kapok trees in the neighbourhood of cocoa plantations should be destroyed. (See Re-p. Agric. Gold, Coast, 1914, p. 22.) — [ED.] 648 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS fourteen hours, whilst a pair made 264 punctures in two leaves of Acalypha hispida in twenty-four hours. " Cocoa mosquito " may attack young herbaceous shoots, destroy- ing these, and it may attack the pods. Young pods may be destroyed, though the larger ones may pull through, provided brown pod disease (Diplodia cacaoicola) and the grey moth borer of pods (Chamcoma stictigrapta) do not also attack. This Helopeltis breeds on red guava (Psidium pomiferum) and its white variety, and on capsicum, both of which are widely distributed through- out the colony. The range of food plants is a wide one, and embraces Psidium cattleyanum, Aralia Guilfoylei, Panax fruticosum and vars. dissectum and Victoria?, Solatium Wendlandii, S. seajorthianum and 6\ melangena, Physalis peruviana and P. minima, Datura Metel, Spondias lutea, Mangifera indica, Punica granatum, Artocarpus incisa and A. integrifolia, Acalypha hispida and A. Wilkesiana, Musa Cavendishi, Eriodendron anfractuosum, Pipernigrum and P. Cubeba, Bixa orellana, Sterculia Barteri, Ipomoea Batatas, Ilex Paraguay ensis. Camellia Thea, Paullinia pinnata, Thespesia populnea, Dioscorea sp., Per sea gratissima, Terminalia Catappar Michelia Champaca, Euphorbia sp., and Lcea sp. Both Sahlbergella and Helopeltis would yield doubtless to treatment, such as spraying with kerosene emulsion, but there are reasons why such a method of control has made no headway since the discovery of these pests in 1909 by Messrs. Dudgeon and Evans. Among these must be mentioned (i) the pessimistic attitude of the native as shown in " Sankonuabe," which means some- what like " Let the land go back into oil palms," it being difficult to grow cocoa according to his ideas; (2) the great labour involved in spraying with ordinary knapsack sprayers when the operator has to pump and direct the liquid at one and the same time; (3) the labour of bring- ing water from a distance; and (4) the cost of kerosene and the absence of any suitable local oil. " Sankonuabe " alone appears to be responsible for a loss of 25 per cent, of the possible output of cocoa, whilst it is not yet possible to estimate the damage done by Helopeltis, which at the present time is stated to be MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 649 widely distributed. In addition to these pests, much damage is done by two thread blights (Marasmius scandens and M. equicrimts), by brown pod disease (Diplodia cacaoicola), black pod (Phytophthora Faberi), and in 1913 true or " wet " canker due to Nectria theobromx, Massee, was diagnosed from a number of widely separated districts. Notice is not here taken of coleo- pteron and lepidopteron stem borers, as at the moment these are making no headway; but squirrels, rats, and white ants all harass the farmer, should the foregoing not be a sufficient array of enemies. Yet the statement already quoted from the Annual Report of 1912 is apparently amply warranted, for farms are hardly touched save at the reaping seasons, pods are left on the surface of the soil, pruning is done with cutlasses in a most crude manner, and snags and gashes are abundant, dead and decaying wood plentiful, and tar, as an antiseptic dress- ing, almost entirely absent. With the possible spread of canker one almost dreads to anticipate the results. Nor is the danger confined to cocoa, as there is no reason why coconuts should not be planted on a large scale, possibly in conjunction with cocoa; but in one small plantation as many as 200 adult rhinoceros beetles were captured in fourteen days, and palm weevils are very abundant. With the heaps of cocoa pods every- where, the recent researches of Mr. R. W. Doane in Samoa point to immediate injury to coconuts, should such be started in the Gold Coast without adequate restrictions to control the plantations. Again, with the Para rubber industry, there is menace from two serious fungoid diseases — Fomes semitostus and Hymenochsete noxia. These have been noted in European-managed rubber plantations and promptly treated, but Para is being extensively planted by native farmers with their cocoa, and there is reason to fear that should such diseases make their appearance they may not be effectively treated. To cope with agricultural education, conduct experi- ments, arrange model plots, and supervise the work of school gardens, there is at the present time a staff of eleven European officers, assisted by six native travelling 650 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS instructors. Looking more closely into the case, it is found that of the eleven European officers one is devoted entirely to administrative duties; one to specialized work; one stationed in the Northern Territories — where the rainfall and humidity do not permit of the cultivation of cocoa — fostering" a cotton industry, and conducting experiments in the rotation of food crops; four are in charge of large agricultural stations, where the duties are such as to allow of no time being devoted to itinerant instruction. This leaves only four officers for itinerant instructional work and for relief of station officers during their annual leave of absence from the colony. Of the six native travelling instructors, two are engaged in con- ducting sub-stations, and are not able to travel more than fourteen days per month. Owing to the close system of planting adopted by the native farmers and the present negligent methods of conducting their farms, it would appear as if the average life of the farms would not exceed twenty years, a very short life for cocoa, added to which there are the grave dangers for the future from the establishment of many diseases and the destruction of much forest land, thereby making the future growth of cocoa a matter of probable difficulty from lack of humidity and organic matter in a country where animal manure cannot be obtained, and the value of green-dressing crops has yet to be discovered. Though there is much difficulty in obtaining European officers, and the mercantile community absorbs the most promising of the native officers, yet it has, I think, been clearly shown that there is an urgent and most pressing need for men to carry out the ordinary tropical agricul- tural sanitary measures as employed in other colonies, and to meet the demands the following measures are suggested : — (1) The establishment of a staff of European inspectors of cocoa farms, to examine farms, supervise the work of native travelling instructors, and the work of school gardens. (2) Considerably augment the staff of native travelling instructors. (3) The establishment of a large number of model plots, MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 65! say at distances of not more than five miles apart. (This has been initiated on a small scale, the men in charge being given a few weeks' instruction before taking up the work.) Such plots need not be of considerable size, and could be as small as would carry 200 trees. (4) The starting of communal spraying outfits in con- junction with model plots. Sprayers should take some form of pneumatic machine, and stock solutions of insecticides and fungicides should be supplied at cost price. (5) The awarding of prizes for well-conducted farms in various districts. (6) Encouragement to be given to schoolmasters to become local experts. (7) The adoption of legislative measures for neglect if necessary. Care must be taken that advisory officers are not employed to carry out such measures, for by so doing their work would be heavily discounted. (8) The adoption of control factories for fermenting, curing, and shipping of cured cocoa. (9) The utilization of the numerous large school gardens in which as yet too much attention is bestowed upon the manual work to the detriment of the education side. (10) The furnishing of all schools in cocoa-growing districts with coloured wall illustrations of the pests and diseases, the evils of bad pruning, the types of good pruning, together with actual specimens. At the same time illustrations of mosquitoes, etc., could also be presented, for it must be remembered that it is a good investment to devote special attention to the schools, as it is from this rising generation that improved farmers are to be expected. COFFEE-LEAF DISEASE (HEMILEIA VASTATRIX, B. ET BR.) IN UGANDA. By S. SIMPSON, B.Sc. Director of Agriculture, Uganda. WITH A NOTE ON THE PRESENT POSITION By W. SMALL, M.A., B.Sc. Botanist to the Department. BOTANISTS appear to agree that coffee is indigenous to Abyssinia and the Sudan, and if not actually in Uganda, it must have been introduced a very long time ago, as wild coffee trees (Coffea robusta, Linden) are scattered throughout the Buganda Province in small lots of about five to ten trees, and moreover, the early explorers, Speke and Grant, mentioned its existence. These wild trees receive practically no attention beyond picking the fruit when ripe. There can be no doubt that the coffee-leaf disease has been present in the country for many years. Sir George Watt, in his " Commercial Products of India," refers to its existence in the Victoria Nyanza region, whilst Sadenback, in " Einige Beobachtungen und Bemerkungen iiber die durch Hemilcia vastatrix verursachte Blattflecken- Krankheit der Kaffeebaume " (Forstlich-naturw. Zeitsch., iv, 1895) and M. Hennings in Zeitsch. trap. Landwirt- schaft, Der Tropcnpflanzcr, Nos. 5 and 8, 1897, both refer to its existence in this region many years ago. Old residents were well acquainted with the disease and called it " native coffee-leaf disease," under the impression that it was not H. vastatrix, B. et Br., and that it had been identified at Kew some years ago as something different. When H. vastatrix had been recognized in British East Africa the matter was carefully gone into in this Protectorate, where coffee growing is receiving the serious attention of planters, and all European estates were visited. H . vastatrix was discovered in many cases, and always where some indigenous coffee suffering from H. vastatrix was found in the vicinity. A very careful examination MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 653 was made of the disease on both cultivated and indigenous coffees, and no difference was observable, and having seen H. vastatrix B. et Br. at Durban some years ago, I was able to identify both as H. vastatrix. Kew, however, said that the indigenous coffee was suffering from H. Woodl'i, but after further work had been done on the subject, the Kew Bulletin No. 5 of 1913, p. 170, confirmed my original diagnosis by stating that " The chief result of the examination of the various type specimens is therefore the establishment of the fact that there is no record of coffee being attacked by any species of Hemileia other than H . vastatrix." Treatment was taken in hand immediately, and it was recommended that where the trees were badly affected they should be uprooted and burned. In other cases diseased leaves were picked and burned, and the plants sprayed with either Bordeaux or Burgundy mixtures. Wind breaks and light shading were also recommended. NOTE BY MR. SMALL. The source of infection was and is most likely the disease as it occurs on native coffee. Experiments have been conducted to determine this point. These are in- complete and will be continued, but so far results have been of a negative kind. In other words, spores of Hemileia from leaves of Coffca robusta. Linden, have failed to infect leaves of cultivated coffee. Transport of Hemileia spores is easily accomplished. Inquiries made in Uganda have shown that the most frequent agency in the spread of infection from one place to another, or from one part of an estate to another, apart from natural agencies such as the wind, has been native labour. The drier weather of 1913, especially towards the end of the year, arrested the progress of the leaf disease, and at present — before the onset of the April-May rains of 1914 — many of the estates which were seriously ravaged by the disease are able to show masses of fresh new foliage, new shoots, and prospects of good crops. Should this state of affairs be repeated frequently, and should Hemileia be less virulent than before, it is justi- fiable to conclude that the original severity of the outbreak 654 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS of leaf disease is not to be of great duration, and that succeeding years may see coffee estates comparatively free from disease. Again, the disease being endemic, cannot be expected to work the havoc that it wrought in Ceylon. Experiments with sprays and powders have been con- ducted. Sulphur and lime used as a powder, and various solutions of salt and lime in water used as a spray, have given disappointing results. The best results have been got from the use of Bordeaux and Burgundy mixtures. These are suitable for use at any time, and particularly before the onset of wet weather, as a necessary preventive measure. The behaviour of Hemileia is essentially that recorded from other parts. Infection takes place readily. The atmosphere in most parts is humid overnight, heavy dews are usual, and the temperature is seldom low enough to hinder germination. Disease spots on the leaf may number over one hundred, or be so numerous as to conceal entirely, with masses of uredospores, the whole under- surface of the leaf. I have never found Hemileia on any part but the leaf. The teleutospores are very rarely met with, and never on leaves which are still adherent to the trees. A search has been made, but not as systematically as could be wished, for a possible JEcidium condition. Un- fortunately, the element of chance entering into this research is great. When found the intermediate host may not be easily extirpated, and again, its destruction might not affect the prevalence of the uredo-stage of the fungus. The following genera of the Rubiaceae occur in the Victoria Nyanza Region: Mitragyne, Oldenlandia, Muss&nda, Dutyandra, Gardenia, Belonophora, Can- thium, Vangucria, Craterispermum, and Pavetta, At least four of these genera have been found to harbour species of Hemileia in other parts. On the whole, one is safe to conclude that the present outlook is favourable to coffee planters in Uganda, not only because of indications that the disease may be less virulent than formerly, but also, and especially, because planters are realizing that measures must be taken against Hemileia. IL R. GIARDINO COLONIALE DI PALERMO E LA SUA ATTIVITA. Per il PROFESSORE A. BORZI. Direttore del R. Giardino Coloniale di Palermo. L'ISTITUZIONE di tin R. Giardino Coloniale a Palermo,, oltre che il riconoscimento del reale e sentito bisogno di tin organo di tal genere nella nostra Patria, e stata un portato spontaneo delle particolari risorse natural! della Sicilia. II detto Istituto non e che tina derivazione deirOrto Botanico tmiversitario di Palermo. Questo, durante la stia piu che secolare esistenza, si e distinto da ttitti gli altri Istittiti del genere d' Italia e d'Europa per la caratteristica ricchezza di coltivazioni tropicali a pien'aria, alle quali il favore del clima meridionale con- ferisce tin rigoglio non dissimile da qtiello delle flore dei Tropici. Dalla considerazione di qtiesto fatto, per il qtiale 1'Orto Botanico e andato rinomato in Italia e ftiori, all'idea di sfrtittare tali eccellenti attitudini, nel senso di fare dell'Orto stesso non solamente tin mtiseo vivente di rarita vegetali, ma anche tin centro destinato a diffondere ftiori dei stioi stessi confini la conoscenza delle ricchezze vegetali esotiche per scopi pratici, non vi era che tin passo. E, benche non ne avesse esplicitamente la ftinzione, 1'Orto Botanico, per cura dei stioi Direttori, assolse molte volte questo compito, introducendo nell'agro siciliano ntimerose colttire nuove, alctine delle quali sono ora difftisissime e costituiscono dei cespiti non indifferenti deirAgricolttira nostrana.1 Col graduate diffondersi, poi, anche in Italia degli studi still'Agricoltura tropicale, in seguito allo stabilirsi di vasti interessi nazionali in regioni aperte alia colonizzazione ne parve piu che mai evidente Tutilita di un centro che di 1 Tale e ad es. la coltura del manderino e del nespolo del Giappone in Sicilia. 656 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS tali studi fosse stato competente promotore. Ouale migliore designazione, quindi, per la fondazione di tin tale Istituto in Italia, come gia ne esistevano all'Estero, se non la citta di Palermo, dove gia. il clima, la tradizione, 1'ambiente stesso, ne formavano la migliore, la piu natiirale base ? Cosi dunque e sorto a Palermo un Giardino specializzato allo studio delle coltivazioni coloniali, dapprima in veste modestissima, quale una semplice appendice dell'Orto Botanico universitario, oggi finalmente come Ente antonomo, sotto il nome di " R. Giardino Coloniale." St or la. Nel 1905, discutendosi alia Camera dei Deputati la legge del Bilancio della P. Istruzione, 1'On. Casciani cosi si esprimeva parlando deH'Orto Botanico di Palermo : — • " Quando in Italia esistera veramente un Ministero di Agricoltura, un Ministero cioe che intenda la sua missione, sospingendo gli studi sperimentali volti a favorire nuove colture che sono di tanto interesse per alcune regioni, sopratutto per le regioni del Mezzogiorno, ove alcune colture soffrono per eccesso di produzione, allora soltanto si potra intendere quale vantaggio potra portare al paese 1'Orto Botanico di Palermo, che per la sua posizione, per la sua estensione, e per il modo col quale e diretto puo portare un importante contribute alia soluzione di molti problemi riflettenti la nostra agricolttira." In quella occasione la Camera votava un ordine del giorno nel quale si invitava il Governo a sollecitare la trasformazione dell'Orto Botanico di Palermo in Istituto Botanico internazionale, come era gia stato deliberate in un altro precedente ordine del giorno. Nel 1906, per iniziativa del Ministero degli Affari Esteri e col concorso dei Minister] dell' Agricoltura e della P. Istruzione veniva istituita nell'Orto Botanico palermi- tano una " Sezione coloniale " destinata a studi di acclimazione di piante tropicali, con una piccola dotazione ed u n personale proprio. Nel 1910, per determinare meglio le funzioni e le attribuzioni del piccolo Istituto venne dato corso ad un MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 657 progetto che ne contemplava altressi I'ampliamento e la sistemazione definitiva. Nel Febbraio, 1913, il Ministero della P. Istruzione, di concerto con quello deirAgricoltura, delle Colonie e del Tesoro, presentava al Parlamento Nazionale il disegno di Legge relative, che nel Giugno successive veniva appro- vato dalle due Camere e poscia pubblicato Til Luglio sotto il No. 971. Un recente Decreto Reale ha approvato infine il Regolamento che da esecuzione alia Legge stessa. Per questa Legge il R. Giardino Coloniale di Palermo e eretto in Ente autonomo ed ha una dotazione fissa di L. 8,000 annue. Puo valersi inoltre dei contributi di Enti pubblici e privati e dei proveniti della propria gestione. Detta dotazione e le spese per il personale sono inscritte in un capitolo speciale del Bilancio della P. Istruzione. Relasioni e manifestazioni ufficiali della " Sezione Coloniale." Dalla sua fondazione ad oggi Sezione Coloniale deH'Orto Botanico di Palermo ha mantenuto rapporti continui e regolari con i principal! Enti Coloniali del Mondo e specialmente con le Colonie italiane di dominio diretto. Nel 1910 essa figurava degnamente alia Mostra orticola- Commerciale tenutasi a Palermo, esponendovi le sue meravigliose coltivazioni esotiche di pien'aria, ottenendo la medaglia d'oro del Re ed il compiacimento degli stessi Reali, venuti in quella occasione ad onorare della loro visita la Mostra. All'Esposizione di Firenze del 1911 il Giardino otteneva parimenti una medaglia d'oro. Numerose altre onori- ficenze, di piu antica data conta anche 1'Orto Botanico per Tattivita spiegata nello stesso campo. Attlmta dell'Istituto nella Madre-patria. Nei riguardi del miglioramento e della trasformazione delle colture della Madre-patria segnaliamo anzitutto Topera spiegata in favore della Cotonicoltura. Insieme con gli studi tecnici e scientifici, Tlstituto ha cercato col mezzo di campi sperimentali e col sussidio di ogni agevolazione pratica possibile, di estendere questa coltura 42 658 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS in Sicilia e nel Mezzogiorno d'ltalia; numerosissimi campi sono stati istituiti e diretti dall'Istituto dalla sua fondazione ad oggi. Pregevolissimi e di antica data, ma non ancora entrati nel campo della pratica attuazione per molteplici difficolta economiche sono gli studi sui Ficus da gomma elastica. I prodotti in caoutchouc proveniente dal latice di tali piante coltivate nel Giardino di Palermo furono premiati con medaglia d'oro all'Esposizione di Milano del 1906. Molte altre piante da gomma sono state studiate, e tra esse I'Atractylis gummifera, specie diffusissima in Sicilia che ora e oggetto di sfruttamento industriale da parte di alcune Societa. Pure molto diffusa, ed accolta ovunque favorevolmente e la coltivazione del Sisal in Sicilia ed in altre parti d'ltalia. Coltivazioni promosse e diffuse dal Giardino palermitano sono pure quelle di varie essenze forestali, quali quelle del Myoporum scrratum in vari punti della Sicilia, della Calabria e della Libia, adoperato specialmente per rinsaldamento di terreni mobili; quelle dell' Acacia horrida sulle lave vesuviane e nell'agro messinese; quelle della Chloris Gay ana, eccellente erba da foraggio estivo, neirinterno arido e montuoso della Sicilia; quelle del Banano, del Mango, della nocciola americana, della patata dolce, della pianta della razzia, ecc. in molti punti dell'Isola e del meridionale d'ltalia. Molte altre piante esotiche d'interesse economico sono allo studio od in corso di sperimentazione, quali le Palme da datteri come piante da frutto in Sicilia, il The, ecc. Altre piante proprie della flora siciliana o gia da tempo acclimatate sono anch'esse oggetto di studio per tin maggiore sfruttamento industriale dei loro prodotti o per trarne eventuali nuove risorse. Citiamo : il Fico d'India, la Palma da scope, il Girasole, ecc. Attivita svolta nelle Colonie. Nei riguardi deirAgricoltura propria delle Colonie italiane di dominio diretto, solo ora, coll'avvenuta esten- sione della sua importanza e delle sue risorse il Giardino ha pofuto cominciare un'azione di qualche rilievo. Tra- lasciando di menzionare le varie forniture di piante MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 659 eseguite in questi ultimi mesi per conto del Ministero delle Colonie e dei Governatori della Libia, ricorderemo che attualmente il Giardino, per mezzo di un suo impiegato, va provvedendo alle piantagioni ferroviarie lungo le linee della Tripolitania e della Cirenaica, per incarico.deirAmministrazione delle Ferrovie dello Stato. Insegnamento. Per cio che riguarda 1'insegnamento I'lstituto si e fin'ora ispirato soltanto ai bisogni delle masse emigrant! agricole ed ha sostenuto la necessita di una istruzione agraria preventiva dei contadini emigranti sulle colti- vazioni proprie dei paesi ai quali si dirigono. Ha istituito percio tre anni or sono tin Corso trimestrale di colture coloniali destinato a contadini, eppero di carattere essenzialmente pratico, riflettente le norme di una razionale coltivazione di piante esotiche aifatto sconosciute airagricoltura patria. L'efficacia pratica di siffatto insegnamento, oltre che nella forma assolutamente elementare e semplice con cui e impartito il corso, va risposta principalmente nelle esercitazioni che i contadini stessi eseguono attorno alle coltivazioni trattate, esistenti in Giardino. II corso non e quindi che un esperimento diretto di coltivazioni coloniali eseguito nella Madre-patria. Senza dubbio molti miglioramenti potra avere ancora quest'opera, qualora non manchi sopratutto il benevole incoraggia- mento dello Stato ed il concorso degli Enti. Tra i frequentatori del Corso si sono avuti numerosi soldati contadini del presidio di Palermo, i quali vi partecipavano con permesso speciale del Ministero della Guerra. Materiali da studio: Museo, Biblioteca, Laboratory, ecc. Come annesso dell'Orto Botanico palermitano il Giardino Coloniale si e valso e si vale tutt'ora del materiale scientifico di quest'ultimo, che non lascia alcunche e desiderare. II Museo Coloniale, di cui fanno parte anche le antiche collezioni dell'Orto Botanico, comprende oramai un numero grandissimo di prodotti, provenienti dalle Colonie italiane e da altri paesi tropicali. Citiamo le collezioni di 660 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS legmami deU'Eritrea, quelle di prodotti e manufatti di fibre tessili, quelle di frutti e semi eduli. Figurona anche molto degnamente prodotti di piante coloniali provenienti dalle colture dello stesso Giardino. La Biblioteca comprende oltre 10,000 opere ed opuscoli e circa 200 periodici botanici ed agrario-coloniali. L'Erbario coloniale e ricco fin'ora di circa 5,000 specie, raccolte direttamente nei luoghi d'origine da vari corrispondenti. I Laboratori, nei nuovi locali dell'Istituto Botanico universitario di Palermo, comprendono sale per ricerche micrografiche, per esperienze di fisiologia e patologia vegetale e ricerche di chimica agraria, fornite di ogni sorta di strumenti, apparecchi, ecc. di recentissimo acquisto e di grande valore. Giardino. L/area propriamente destinata alle colture del Giardino Coloniale ammonta a circa 4 Ea. Altri terreni fuori dei suoi stessi confini sono stati frequentemente presi in affitto ed adibiti ad uso di sperimentazione. Piante ed associazioni floristiche tipicamente coloniali si trovano pero anche in terreno deirOrto Botanico, ivi da lunghi anni coltivate. Una superficie speciale e riservata alle prove di concimazione delle varieta di cotone; altre servono per piante annue od erbacee perenni fecolifere, oleifere, alimentari, tintorie. Altre ancora sono adibite a vivai per Agave sisalana, Chloris Gay ana, ecc. Sono notevoli i boschetti di Ficus elastica, di Banani, di Palme da Datteri, i gruppi di liane tropicali, i bacini di piante acquatiche, le collezioni di piante grasse, ecc. Coltivazioni coloniali. II numero delle specie di piante coloniali perenni od annuali, coltivate a pien'aria o eventualmenite dentro stufe, supera le 2,000. Circa 220 sono piante da legnami, notevoli fra le quali le specie di Diospyros che forniscono Tebano, V A gat his australis (legno di Kauri), YAnacardium occidentale (legno di acajou), la Bumelia tenax (legno di ferro), la Jacaranda mimosaefolia (legno di palissandro), ecc. Le piante tessili o papirifere sono rappresentate da MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 66l 120 specie, fra cui V Agave americana (fibre di zabara), I1 Agave sisalana (fibre di sisal), la Calotropis procera (seta vegetale), la Cannabis saliva (canapa), la Carludovica palmata (paglia di panama), il Cor chorus olitorins (juta), YEnodendron anfractuosurti (Kapok), il Phormium tenax (lino della Nuova Zelanda), ecc. Circa 50 sono le specie che forniscono tannino, fra le quali la Caesalpinia coriaria (divi-divi), YEucalyptus diversicolor (karri), la Quercus aegylops (vallonea), la Rhus coriaria (sommacco) e le varie specie di Acacia. Piu di 40 specie sono piante tintorali, tra cui citiamo lo Zafferano, 1'indaco (Indigofera tinctoria), lo Gnado (I satis tinctoria). Circa 75 specie spettano alle piante a gomme o resine, tra le quali le A cade a gomma arabica, la gomma di Kuri (Agathis australis), la gomma di Drago (Dracaena Draco), la gomma d'Euforbio (Euphorbia antiquorum), ecc. Le piante a caoutchouc sono rappresentate da 24 specie; notevoli fra esse, oltre al Ficus elastica, YHevea brasiliensis che fornisce il Caoutchouc di Para, il Manihot Glaziovi (Caoutchouc di Ceara), il Parfhenium argentatum o Caoutchouc di Guayule, ecc. Oltre 70 le specie ad essenze di cui alcune importantissime neirindustria dei profumi, ed 80 circa le piante oleifere. Le piante medi- cinali sono rappresentate da quasi 150 specie alcune delle quali rarissime; ed altre 75 sono specie a frutti e semi eduli o che forniscono fecola o zucchero, come le specie di Dioscorca, la Mangifera indica, varie specie di Anona, la Pcrsea gratissima, la pianta del Cacao, ecc. DELL'USO DELL'ACIDO CLOEIDRICO, 0 DI ALTRE SOSTANZE ACIDE MINERALI, E DI SOSTANZE SPECIALI, PER LA CONSERVAZIONE E BUONA MATURAZIONE DEI FORAGGI IN SILO, NEI CLIMI CALDI. Per il Professore ITALO GIGLIOLI. Delia R. Universitd di Pisa. L'uso di conservare i foraggi verdi nel Silo e, nei climi temperati e piovosi, una pratica utile, ma non sempre di grande necessita. Invero, vi e ancora chi dissente sulla utilita ed il vantaggio economico dell'insilamento nell'agricoltura dei paesi piu temperati di Europa. Per i foraggi di migliore qualita, molti preferiscono la fienagione airinsilamento; benche sia stato in parecchie prove comparative dimostrato, in particolare negli Stati Uniti, che il conservare il foraggio sotto forma di insilato costi meno che conservarlo come fieno [i]. Nei climi piu aridi, dove il disseccamento avviene rapidamente, Taroma ed altre importanti qualita del fieno vengono a scapitare; e questa e probabilmente la ragione del minore valore nutriente e commerciale del fieno degli Stati Uniti, in paragone col fieno delle piu temperate parti di Europa, dove il fieno arriva nei fienili non soverchiamente secco ed in condizioni da subire quelle lente alterazioni, le quali sono analoghe alle alterazioni caratteris;tiche del buon insilato. Cosi durante pochi mesi il fieno posto in fienile puo subire dei cali anche del 10 per cento [2]. Nei climi umidi il bestiame puo facilmente ricevere foraggio verde e succolento, sia sotto forma di erba, sia sotto forma di radici, durante tutte le stagioni dell'anno. D'altra parte, anche nei climi umidi e freschi, si possono avere condizioni che consigliano la conservazione dei foraggi allo stato verde e fermentato, sia perche la stagione puo non essere sempre favorevole ad una buona fienagione, sia perche per certe prodtizioni agrarie, come quella del latte, la provvista di foraggio succolento non MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 663 e mai troppa. Cosi vediamo che 1'uso deirinsilamento fatto in Silo a fossa, od in Silo sopra terra, ed anche in Silo a semplice mucchio compresso, si e andato sempre piu estendendo, specialmente nei paesi piu aperti al progresso agrario. Negli Stati Uniti, dove l'allevamento del bestiame acquista sempre maggiore importanza, 1'uso dei Silo per foraggio verde, specialmente di Mais, si e grandemente esteso in questi ultimi anni; recentemente si calcolava che in alcuni stati della Unione americana si avesse almeno un Silo per ogni cinque poderi. Vi sono poi alcune sostanze, residui delle industrie agrarie, come le polpe di barbabietola e di distillerie, le quali sono troppo acquose per poter essere conveniente- mente essiccate; essendo alterabilissime, e giocoforza conservarle coirinfossamento. In Germania, in Francia, in Austria-Ungheria, ed in Italia, sono migliaia e migliaia di tonnellate di queste polpe acquose che bisogna ogni anno infossare appena uscite dai zuccherifici. A cagione di pratiche non bene intese queste polpe, tanto facili a guastarsi, non sempre si possono bene conservare, in modo da apparecchiare pel bestiame un foraggio sano e nutriente. Ma e nei climi aridi e caldi dove Tuso d'infossare il foraggio verde, e prepararlo per il consumo durante la stagione secca, sarebbe pratica piu che mai necessaria, per assicttrare all'agricoltura quelle basi sicure di sviluppo, le quali consistono principalemente nei buon allevamento del bestiame. In questi climi asciutti, le pioggie possone essere sufficienti ad assicurare nella primavera una precoce ed abbondante produzione verde; ma poi subentra la lunga stagione estiva nella quale, anche quando vi fosse, come raremente avviene, buona provvista di fieno e di mangime secco, il bestiame deperisce per difetto di foraggi freschi e succolenti. A questo difetto si puo sopperire soltanto per mezzo dello insilamento dei foraggi verdi, a primavera. Si comprende come in alcuni climi aridi, per esempio nell' Australia, l'uso dei Silo si vada estendendo vieppiu. Nei Victoria erano 160 i poderi nei 1906 provvisti di Silo; ma dopo quattro anni, nei 1910, il numero di questi poderi 664 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS era salito a 590; e la quantita di foraggio insilato da 7,240 tonn. era salita a 27,000 tonn. [3]. Si aggiunga che nei climi caldi la vegetazione spontanea e quella arborea possono offrire materiale di scarto che mal si presterebbe al disseccamerito, inquantoche richiede tin processo di fermentazione (od enzimica o bacterica) per diventare gradito al bestiame e meglio adatto alia sua alimentazione. Vi sono climi aridi, come avviene in Libia, nei quali la scarsissima produzione di piante foraggiere non basta al sumo immediato. Ivi non e in uso neppure la fienag'ione, e tanto meno lo potrebbe essere, nelle condizioni attuali, Tinsilamento. Ma anche in queste condizioni estreme, 1'utilizzamento della vegetazione spontanea e del fogliame di alberi che si possono adattare a vivere su terreni molto poveri, sarebbe pratica di evidente utilita. La Tunisia ci offre buoni esempi deirutilizzamento di piante spontanee di poco valore mediante 1'infossamento allo stato verde. Ma se nei climi temperati non e sempre facile conservare il foraggio verde e fermentato senza che subisca perdite sensibili, e senza che vi sia il rischio che una buona parte deirinsilato si guasti al momento del consumo, la difficolta ed i rischi sono molto maggiori quando il clima e caldo; e quando il Silo deve incominciare ad apririsi nella stagione quando piu alta e la temperatura e quando piu rapide di conseguenza sono le alterazione putrefattive. Durante la conservazione nei Silo, e inevitabile la perdita di una porzione della materia secca, dovuta alle fermentazioni varie ed ai processi di respirazione celhilare. Quando 1'infossamento viene fatto a buona regola d'arte, preparando insilato acido anziche insilato dolce, esclu- dendo nei modo piu accurate possibile Taria dal Silo, e riducendo al minimo le superficie che sono piu esposte all'azione esterna, la perdita di sostanza secca si puo grandemente attenuare. A Rothamsted, nell'Inghilterra, dove per molti anni I'argomento venne accuratamente studiato, la conclusione generale e stata che coll'insila- mento si puo preparare un buon foraggio, con una perdita di sostanza secca non molto differente da quella che si verifica nella fienagione. Angelo Menozzi e Vittorio Alpe a Milano, in esperimenti fatti nei 1891, MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 665 con trifoglio infossato in Silo in muratura, dopo una conservazione rispettivamente di 4, 10 e 8 mesi, trova- varono che le perdite in sostanza secca erano del 12* i, del 14*5 e del I3'3 per cento; tale perdita era del 15*87 per cento nel caso di erba da prato, conservato a mucchio, colla pressa Blunt. In questa pressa, come in tutti i Silo a mucchio, per quanta cura si possa avere neiraccrescere la pressione quando neirinterno vi e segno di crescente temperatura, le perdite sono quasi sempre rilevanti, essendo le pareti del mucchio esposte all'azione deH'aria, e quindi alia invasione delle muffe; le quali, decom- ponendo gli acidi organic! del foraggio insilato, lo predispongono a rapida putrefazione [4]. Ma anche nel caso di foraggi infossati dentro a Silo a fossa, od altrimenti ben chiusi, le perdite possono essere notevoli. Nelle accurate esperienze di H. E. Annett ed E. J. Russell, a Wye, nel 1904 e 1905, essi trovarono una perdita di sostanza secca nel Mais insilato uguale al 36 per cento. Questi autori disponevano alcuni sacchetti, pieni del foraggio fresco, bene chiusi con cucitura, e pesati, in vari punti della massa di foraggio di Mais verde, all'inizio deirinsilamento; e dalle variazioni di peso totale e della composizione chimica, calcolavano la perdita in sostanza secca e nei vari costituenti. Queste perdite di sostanza secca sono dovute principalmente allo svolgimento gasoso, che si verifica nei processi fermentativi, che hanno luogo duranfe I'insilamento, specialmente nei primi giorni. Ma oltre a queste perdite gasose, che coi metodi in uso nell'insilare, si debbono considerare inevitabili (e sono, secondo la espressione di F. H. King, come la " respirazione deH'insilato "), le forti perdite determinate da Annett e Russell sono dovute in parte anche a trasudamenti, che da! singoli sacchetti di tela dovevano aver luogo verso 1'insieme della. massa insilata. Si puo comprendere, dunque, come le perdite di sostanza secca, determinate col metodo dei sacchetti, possano segnare cifre superiori a quella di tutta intiera la massa di foraggio fermentato nel Silo, quando questo sia bene costruito e chiuso. II calo di sostanza secca, determinata dai due recenti sperimentatori inglesi, e infatti superiore a molte altre determinazioni, come quella 666 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS citata del Menozzi, e come in parecchie delle osservazioni fatte da sperimentatori negli Stati Uniti, in Italia e in Germania [5]. Kiihn e Menzel, come ricorda F. H. Storer, verificavano nel Mais insilato una perdita di sostanza secca di circa 23*4 per cento. O. Kellner ammette che neirinsilamento le inevitabili perdite debbono variare fra 20 e 35 per cento della sostanza secca. D'altra parte, negli Stati Uniti, con Mais insilato, Armsby e Caldwell ebbero una perdita di sostanza secca del 17*78 per cento; la quale paragonava bene colla perdita del 20*34 per cento nella materia secca dello stesso Mais affienato sul campo. C. D. Smith, nel Michigan (1902), trovava che le perdite variavano dal 14*5 al 20*3 per cento, nel peso totale durante Tinsila- mento. Sono perdite che nella pratica possono subire delle variazioni notevoli, variazioni che S. M. Babcock ed H. S. Russell ammettono possano oscillare fra 3 per cento e 40 per cento a cagione del vario modo nel quale nella pratica si raggiunge lo scopo di tener fuori 1'aria dal Silo durante tutto il non breve periodo della sua chiusura. D. Feruglio ed L. Mayer, sperimentando ad Udine nel 1910, trovarono che nell'infossamento del Mais, la perdita di sostanza secca non oltrepassava la cifra del 10 per cento [6]. Come vedesi, abbiamo variazioni grandissime nella valutazione della perdita di sostanza secca. Anche nelle esperienze in piccolo, dentro bottiglioni, E. J. Russell trova il 25 per cento di sostanza secca perduta dal Mais verde insilato. Basta Taccesso deiraria per far salire le perdite al 60 per cento. La natura del foraggio che viene insilato dovra molto influire sulla facilita colla quale perde sostanza secca durante 1'insilamento. I foraggi che meglio si con- servano sono quelli piu zuccherini, come il Mais, i Sorghi, la Saggina ecc. nei quali, durante i primissimi stadi deirinsilamento, lo zucchero si viene mutando ad acidi, quali 1'acetico ed il lattico, in modo che la massa arriva ad acquisare una certa acidita che si approssima all'i per cento. Questo grado di acidita impedisce 1'attivita dei fermenti anaerobici, ed arresta ogni ulteriore alterazione MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 66/ clella massa insilata, almeno fino all'apertura del Silo, purche coll'andare del tempo 1'acidita non sia gradata- mente eliminata dalla ammoniaca che si viene producendo nel disgregarsi proteolitico delle sostanza proteiche. Ouesta disgregazione proteolitica (la quale sembra del tutto indipendente dalla azione microbica) dalla quale si generano ammine ed ammoniaca, costituisce il punto incerto sulla efficacia del metodo che in questo scritto si propone [7]. Nei foraggi verdi, nei quali vi e difetto di zucchero e relativa prevalenza di proteici, come avviene nel caso della medica. del trifoglio, della veccia e di altre leguminose, o nel fogliame di bietole, di cavoli o di alberi (a piu ancora nelle polpe esaurite di zuccherificio e di distilleria) il foraggio non puo acquistare rapidamente la necessaria acidita durante i primi giorni di insilamento. In questi casi, nei quali difetta 1'azione protettiva dell'acido lattico e di altri acidi organici, ed e forse maggiore I'ammoniaca prodotta, le alterazioni fermenta- tive si accentuano ed il consumo di materia organica secca si fa rilevante; e diventera rilevantissima se si fa un semplice interramento in fosse, senza muratura, o se il Silo non e a buona tenuta di aria. F. Tangl ed S. Weiser, nel 1910, in Ungheria, facendo Silo a semplice interramento in fosse, ebbero colla Erba Medica diminuzioni notevoli di sostanza secca e di valore alimentare, perdite, invero, dovute anche in parte ad infiltramento. Nello infossamento di foglie e colletti di barbabietola la perdita di materia secca arrive anche al 54*9 per cento. Si comprende come con tali ristiltati, dovuti principalmente al modo di insilare, e forse anche alia temperatura alta della estate in Ungheria, li speri- mentatori Ungheresi non si dimostrino molto persuasi della utilita pratica dell'insilamento [8]. Oltre alia natura del foraggio verde che si insila, le condizioni di clima dovranno molto influire sopra le perdite di sostanza secca e di valore alimentare che avvengono nei Silo. Nei climi caldi, seguendo i metodi consueti, le oscillazioni nella buona riuscita dell'insila- mento e nel valore del foraggio conservato dovranno essere molto maggiori che nei climi temperati. Nella 668 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS inchiesta fatta do J. A. Voelcker nel 1893, su^ risultati nella pratica dell'insilamento nell'India, egli veniva a conclusion! poco confortanti, temendo che tale pratica nan potesse utilimente molto estendarsi, ma limitarsi solo a quei foraggi che non si potrebbero altri- menti utilizzare. Nel caso di insilamenti con Panicum jumentorum (Guinea Grass) e di Sorghum vulgare (Jouar) le perdite ammontavano rispettivamente al 49 per cento ed al 33 per cento del peso del foraggio fresco. Tali perdite derivavano in parte dairessiccamento ed in parte da poca cura nel comprimere Tinsilato, lasciandolo poi troppo esposto all'azione dell'aria durante il consume [9]. La vecchia regola di Goftart, che nel comprimere un foraggio insilato conviene lirmtare la pressione, in modo da non spremere il succo, obbligando questo al accumu- larsi nel fonda del Silo, e regola che in particolar modo va osservata nei paesi aridi e caldi. Ivi conviene anzi- tutto, che la intera massa dell'insilato conservi la naturale succolenza. II liquame organico, che si accumula nel fondo del Silo, diventa presto, quando il Silo viene aperto e 1'aria introdotta, un fomite di processi putrefattivi, facili a contaminare tutta la massa del foraggio. Nei climi caldi, anche quando il Silo e ben costruito, e durante il consume del foraggio, allo schiudersi del Silo, che si accelera il guastarsi ed il perdersi di una forte proporzione di foraggio. Pressioni moderate nei Silo, siano essi a fossa od a torre od a mucchio, saranno possibili soltanto dove il foraggio stesso, fino dall'inizio deH'insilamento, e stato reso poco alterabile, mentre che 1'acquosita della massa e accresciuta e bene ripartita e conservata; e 1'aria inter- stiziale fino dalla chiusura del Silo e mantenuta del tutto disossigenata. Si miri a rendere il foraggio dentro il Silo, e dal primo momento della sua uscita dal Silo, inconsumabile dai fermenti e bacteri, e possibilmente poco alterabile dagli enzimi, anziche limitarsi (come vien fatto nella pratica usuale) a proteggere il foraggio dall'accesso deiraria, fidando soltanto nell'azione protettrice dell'in- acidimento spontaneo, enzimico e bacterico. Ouelle stesse azioni chimiche che proteggono la sostanza insilata dalle alterazioni contribuiscono ad accrescerne ed a bene ripartirne la succulenza. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 669 Oltre al metodo noto, ma poco usato, del trattamento con sale pastorizio (che non sembra esercitare nel Silo una particolare azione protettiva), vari metodi sono stati tentati, o che si potrebbero meglio tentare, per rendere poco e lentamente alterabile la massa insilata; essi si possono ripartire sotto i seguenti capi : — (1) Scottatura della massa insilata con vapore. (2) Inoculazione con fermenti lattici. (3) Aggiunta di melasse, o zucchero. (4) Trattamento con antisettici speciali, come Solfuro di carbonio. (5) Trattamento con acidi specialmente minerali, o con sostanze minerali acide. Trattamento con vapore. — Questo metodo e stato applicato da A. L. Knisely, della Stazione Agraria dell'Oregon. Le prove si fecero in Silo piccoli e grandi, Tinsilato scottato con vapore conservandosi meglio di quello ordinario. L'insilato cotto venne fornito ai bovini in razioni quotidiane di 50 a 75 libbre inglesi. Le prove fatte nel 1905 mostravano che il Mais verde sarebbe il foraggio piu adatto per la iniziale cottura al vapore; la quale tende a mantenere bassa Tacidita della massa insilata. Infatti, nelle prove di confronto, il mais insilato ordinario aveva una acidita media di 1*58 per cento, mentre nell'insilato cotto Tacidifa media era di 0*53 per cento soltanto. Questa bassa acidita dovrebbe rendere 1'insilato cotto molto proclive a guastarsi quando il Silo viene aperto, specialmente in un clima caldo. La cottura 0 piuttosto una parziale scottatura al vapore, non puo arrivare a distruggere completamente i micro-organismi. NeH'insilato vi sono bacteri termo-resistenti sporigeni, 1 quali resisterebbero anche ad una vera e propria cottura ; nel caso poi di una scottatura, necessariamente imperfetta e non uniforme, la sopravvivenza bacterica non dovrebbe essere lieve. £ certo pero che coll'arrestare le alterazioni dovute al protoplasma vivente nelle cellule del mais, e quelle dovute ad enzimi, e nel ridurre grandemente Tattivita bacterica, la cottura deve ridurre le cause di perdita di sostanza organica e di deterioramente nutritivo nella massa insilata. Nelle esperienze in piccolo di E. J. Russell, il mais insilato normale subi una perdita di 670 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS materia secca del 25 per cento; invece, il mais riscaldato a 98 per cento rimase inalterato e con una perdita del 12 per cento soltanto. Nella grande pratica, 1'uso della cottura del foraggio insilato dovra certamente riuscire costono e non sempre di facile applicazione [10]. Dalle prime classiche ricerche di G. Lechartier, nel 1881 fino a quelle recenti di S. M.' Babcock e H. L. Russell negli Stati Uniti, e di E. J. Russell in Inghilterra, ci conferma sempre piu la opinione che 1'azione dei bacteri nella formazione deirinsilato e un'azione secondaria. La trasformazioni nel Silo sarebbero dovute principal- mante al protoplasma delle cellule viventi del foraggio verde ed agli enzimi che questo protoplasma secerne, e che anche dopo la sua morte ne continuano 1'azione. Anche sotto la influenza di antisettici, come cloroformio, etere, e toluene, che arrestano la attivita bacterica e quella del protoplasma, ma rispettano 1'attivita enzimica, il foraggio verde chiuso nel Silo prosegue nelle principal! sue caratteristiche trasformazioni [n]. I bacteri sono consumatori molto attivi di non piccola parte della sostanza organica del foraggio insilato. Percio con side ran do che 1'azione trasformatrice dei microbi nel Silo e piu dannosa che utile, sarebbe desider- abile, quando fosse possibile, eliminare completamente nell'insilato 1'azione di ogni sorta di microbi. D'altra parte, i bacteri aiutano nella produzione dell'acidita complessiva del foraggio insilato; e questa acidita, tanto piu utile quanto piu fissa, come quando e dovuta all'acido lattice, esercita un'azione protettiva contro i bacteri anaerobici piu nocivi, e contro i bacteri tutti, che in particolare tendono rapidamente a svilupparsi prima del completo riempimento del Silo ed al momento della sua apertura. Percio malgrado la loro azione consummatrice sugli zuccheri e sopra altri carboidrati solubili, o solu- bilizzabili, del foraggio insilato, si cerca di aiutare nel Silo lo sviluppo ed il predominio dei fermenti lattici. Indi 1'uso di culture selezionate di questi fermenti lattici, da aggiungere al foraggio verde, quando prima viene strati- ficato nei Silo, e la cura nel mantenere nei Silo le con- dizioni piu favorevoli allo svolgersi della fermentazione lattica. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 671 La pronta chiusura del Silo, uniforme e completa stratificazione e compressione del foraggio ben trinciato e la completa esclusione dell'aria esterna, oltre all'impedire che sin dallo inizio la temperatura della massa insilata oltrepassi i limiiti di 30° a 35° C. son condizioni tutte che meglio assicurano il buon sviltippo dei fermenti lattici e la loro azione protettiva. Tale azione protettiva deriva essenzialmente dal grado di acidita che i bacteri lattici danno (o dovrebbero dare) a tutta la massa insilata : 1'acidita si aggira intorno all'i per cento circa, non potendo oltrepassare certi limiti, oltre i quali 1'acido lattice stesso reprimerebbe lo sviluppo dei fermenti che lo generano [12]. Gli studi di Stanislao Epstein, nel 1902, per la buona conservazione nei Silo delle polpe di barbabietola, prima dimostrarono la utilita di accrescere artificialmente nell'insilato le culture dei fermenti lattici. Le polpe di zucherificio sono molto adatte per questa applicazione. Tali polpe, quando escono dai diffusori, sono, a dov- rebbero essere, quasi sterilizzate, salvo la resistenza di spore e di germi termo-resistenti e termofili; percio queste polpe sono in condizioni favorevoli per rapidamente giovarsi della inoculazione con irtia coltura bacterica selezionata. Questa, risvegliando la fermentazione lattica, impedisce il nascere dei germi nocivi nelle polpe; le quali, a cagione della loro grande acquosita, sono alterabilissime quando vengono insilate. Si aggiunga che nelle polpe di zuccherificio, rimaste esposte alle forti temperature dei diffusori, il protoplasma delle cellule vegetali e stato ucciso, e gli enzimi sono stati decomposti; percio e solo col promuovere i bacteri lattici che si assicura neirinsilato 1'azione protettiva dell'acido lattice. In Francia si trova in commercio, fino del 1909 un prodotto che va sotto il nome di Lacto-pulpe, patentato dai Signori Bouilliant e Crolbois, che serve per la inoculazione delle polpe di barbabietola e di altri foraggi da insilare. Nella Scuola Agraria di Berthonval, in Francia, i Signori Malpeaux e Lefort fecero, dal 1909 in su, svariate prove soddisfacenti con Lacto-pulpe, adoper- andolo anche nel caso dell'infossamento di foraggi verdi. Questo Lacto-pulpe richiede un lavoro piuttosto com- 6/2 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS plesso di attivazione culturale, prima che si possa applicare alle polpe ed ai foraggi posti in Silo. II Gorini, che ha sperimentato in Italia questo prodotto francese, non se ne mestra troppo soddisfatto. Negli Stati Uniti, nel Connecticut, W. Esten adoperava culture pure di bacteri acidificanti per accelerare la fermentazione iniziale del mais insilato, trovando che se ne migliorava la qualita. In Austria un prodotto simile e preparato per la inoculazione dell'insilato; esso va sotto il nome di Vindobona-Pulpe [13]. Gli esperimenti del Gorini hanno il merito di avere dimostrato la utilita dell'aspersione del foraggio di mais verde, al momento della sua stratificazione nel Silo, con una cultura selezionata di fermenti lattici. E probabile che nel caso deH'insilamento dell'erba medica, o trifoglio, od altre leguminose, nelle quali vi e difetto di zucchero e predominio di proteici, oltre alTaggiunta dei fermenti lattici, converra ancora un trattamento con melasse, che assicurino col loro zucchero il buon successo dell'acidi- ficazione lattica. Nel climi caldi 1'uso ed il trasporto lontano di culture bacteriche selezionate non deve nella pratica essere cosa molto sicura; si tratta di sostanze facilmente alterabili e non sempre capaci di una regolare attivazione culturale. Nei clima caldi le lotte fra le varie specie di microbi, pur tanto complesse e variabili quando le temperature sono basse, si svolgono attraverso troppo incognite, quando si tratta di una massa cosi complessa ed eterogenea quale e un foraggio insilato, dove varie ed opposte possono essere, nelle varie parti della massa, le fermentazioni predominanti. Sembra piu ragionevole, volendo assi- curarsi 1'azione protettrice degli acidi, aggiungere diretta- mente le sostanze acide, nella loro forma piu inalterabile ed effettiva, quale e quella degli acidi minerali, anziche attendere che attraverso le loro lotte complesse i bacteri generino un acido facile esso stesso a sottostare a processi fermentativi. Aggiunta di zucchero. — Questo trattamento non e ancora entrato nella pratica sperimentale, eccettoche in un tentative del Dott. Samarana della Stazione di Casei- ficio di Lodi. Nelle sue ricerche, come nel metodo dei MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 6/3 fermenti lattici selezionati, il Samarani mira a favorire nell'insilato la fermentazione bacterica a danno della fermentaziorie butirrica, partendo dal concetto (come si esprime D. Feruglio) che anche in seno alia pasta dei formaggi, la fermentazione lattica salva la caseina dalle fermentazioni butirrica e putrida. " Per meglio riuscire nell'intento, il Samarani aggiunge al foraggio da infossarsi, assieme ai fermenti lattici, anche lo zttcchero fermentescibile, elemento elettivo per la suddetta fermentazione, a mezzo delle melasse residuali della fabbricazione dello zucchero. I risultati sarebbero buoni. Mancano pero anche qui finora le conclusion! definitive per Tapplicazione del metodo nella grande pratica " [14]. Come sopra ho osservato, 1'aggiunta dello zucchero, sotto forma di melassa, dovrebbe essere necessario, a complemento dell'inoculazione con fermenti lattici, nel caso che si vogliano insilare foraggi di leguminose. Anche Lohnis accenna alia utilita di arricchire con zucchero questi foraggi abbondanti in proteici, ma invece di melasse consiglia di far mescolanze con mais verde, od avena verde, od altri foraggi zuccherini [15]. Secondo il mio concetto, pero, 1'uso della melassa neirinsilamento dei foraggi, specialmente nei paesi caldi, potrebbe avere uno scopo piu direttamente e propriamente antisettico di quanto queste melasse verrebbero ad avere quando usate semplicemente in sussidio alia fermentazione lattica. Lo zucchero, come e noto, quando e usato in certe proporzioni, agisce per conto proprio come sostanza antisettica, come vediamo nel caso del miele e delle melasse stesse, che si possono facilmente conservare a lungo. Se pero, nel caso della conservazione dei foraggi verdi, si dovesse far uso soltanto di melassa come sostanza antisettica, le dosi dovrebbero essere troppo forti e costose, a meno che non si mirasse ad ottenere 1'azione protettiva dell'acido lattico, merce Taggiunzione di una piccola percentuale sola di melassa. Quando invece la melassa, in proporzioni relativamente forti, tali da accrescere in modo evidente il valore alimentare del foraggio, si aggiungesse assieme con dell'acido cloridrico, nelle proporzioni corrispondenti all'acidita alia quale 43 674 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS arriva nn buon insilato acido, per esempio del 2 per cento, lo zucchero dovrebbe mantenersi inalterato ed aggiungerebbe la propria azione a quella dell'acido cloridrico per contrastare alle alterazioni che fanno diminuire sempre nell'insilato il primitive valore alimentare del foraggio. Nella torba melassata, che si adopera come mangime, si aggiungono 80 parti di melassa a 20 parti di polvere di torba : questa ultima servendo a correggere 1'azione alquanto lassativa che le melasse esercitano sul bestiame quando adoperate da sole. Nel caso dei foraggi insilati, le proporzioni potrebbero essere invertite. Bastano, proporzioni relativamente basse di zucchero quando questo viene applicato. Non conviene nei Silo sciupare melassa per fare acido lattice, il quale non ha valore alimentare; ma piuttosto con 1'uso di piccole quantita di acido cloridrico, serbare intatto il duplice valore alimentare della melassa e del foraggio. Trattamento con antisettici spcciali, specialmentc col solfuro di carbonio. — fi noto che da molto tempo, dal 1887 il Dott. A. Crete, in Svizzera, proponeva Tuso del solfuro di carbonio per la conservazione del foraggio nei Silo. Gli esperimenti furono fatti su larga scala a Dissenhofen, nei 1887, adoperando 2 cmc. di solfuro di carbonio per ogni 2 litri di capacita del Silo. II foraggio insilato fu trifoglio. il quale si conserve molto bene per sei mesi, avendo evidentemente subito alterazioni •enzimiche (come si verificava nelle recenti esperienze americane ed inglesi con il cloroformio e col toluene), la cellulosa anche essa essendo stata in parte resa solubile. II bestiame consume avidamente il foraggio conservato con il solfuro di carbonio, senza soffrirne inconvenienti. Altre esperienze col metodo Crete furono fatte in Francia, nella Haute Garonne, nei 1893, dal Signer De Gineste. insilando trifoglio incarnate. Invece di irrigare con solfuro di carbonio, ed andare incontro a perdite ed altri inconvenienti, il De Gineste adoperava le capsule Jemain, il solfuro di carbonio essendo usato nella proporzione di Kgr. 2*3 per ogni mille Kgr. di foraggio. I resultati furono soddisfacenti, il trifoglio insilato conservandosi bene per due mesi. In Svezia. come ricorda F. Storer, Alex. Mueller aveva MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 675 adoperato solfuro di carbonic per mantenere inalterato un mucchio molto eterogeneo di residui vegetali, i quali vennero poi utilizzati vantaggiosamente come mangime. Piu recentemente, nel 1901, in Russia, J. Kalugin e S. Paraschchuck sperimentarono 1'uso del solfuro di carbonic nell'infossamento del trifoglio pratense, del cavolo e delle carote da foraggio, paragonando anche gli effetti sul foraggio ben compresso, e poco compresso. In ambedue i casi il solfuro di carbonic contribui grande- mente alia buona conservazione dei foraggi, specialmente quando questi erano poco compressi. Si manteneva neirinsilato la struttura primitiva, mentre grandemente si riduceva la perdita di sostanza organica nutritiva. Dopo eliminati i vapori di solfuro, il foraggio restava con un odore piacevole, come di miele. L/effetto del solfuro di carbonio, come gia aveva osservato Crete, e di arrestare in mode notevole nell'insilato lo sviluppo di acidi organici liberi [16]. Nei climi caldi 1'uso del solfuro di carbonio, oppure anche del tetracloruro di carbonio, si dovrebbe certamente sperimentare per la conservazione dei foraggi. B. Corner, nel 1891, ricordava come il solfuro di carbonio si fosse dimostrato molto utile per la conservazione di polpe acquose di distillerie in climi tropicali, adoperando da i a 2 grammi di solfuro per ogni 1,000 litri di liquame [17]. II solfuro di carbonio e un potente disinfettante, tanto come gas che in soluzione nell'acqua. Come, nel 1884, dimostrava Ckiandi Bey, il solfuro si scioglie nell'acqua nella proporzione di Cr. 0^50 per litro; e questa soluzione arresta tutti i processi fermentativi e microbici. Non va pero dimenticato che nel case di foraggi con- tenenti sostanze cianogenetiche, come sarebberole diverse varieta di Sorghum, i vapori di solfuro, o di tetracloruro, eccitando le azioni enzimiche, potrebbero indurre la h'berazione di acido cianidrico ed originare azioni tossiche. £ tin argomento che va ancora trattato sperimentalmente. Trattamento delVinsilato coll'anidridc solforosa. — II Crete, nelle sue esperienze dal 1885 al 1887, fece anche una prova coiranidride solforosa, osservando che in presenza di questo gas Tinsilato svolge una quantita minore di gas che nel caso deH'insilato normale. In 676 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS questo rispetto il solfuro di carbonic avrebbe agito ancora piu energicamente che 1'anidride solforosa. Ne il Grete, ne altri, per quanto io abbia potuto verificare, hanno ripetuto le prove sull'uso deiranidride solforosa neirinsilamento. Sarebbe certo opportune che nei climi caldi si ripe- tessero queste prove stiU'azione dell'anidride solforosa sui foraggi chiusi in Silo. Questo gas dovrebbe esercitare una triplice azione. Anzitutto, coirintralciare tutti i processi di ossidazione, verrebbe ad assicurare rapicle- mente una di quelle condizioni che piu son necessarie e stille quali piu s'insiste nella pratica dei Silo, e che si realizzano colla esclusione dell'aria. L' anidride solforosa, com' e noto, e in se un disinfettante, che arresta tutte le azioni bacteriche e lo sviluppo di rnuffe, uccide il proto- plasma delle cellule vegetali, impedisce 1'azione delle ossidasie e probabilmente attenua tutte 1'azione enzimiche. Infine, colla sua ossidazione, che potrebbe esercitarsi soltanto sopra una piccola parte del gas, Fanidride solforosa genera acido solforico; il quale colla sua acidita manterra inalterato il foraggio quando questo si trasporta per il consume nelle stalle. L'anidride solforosa, che ha pure il vantaggio di essere sostanza facilmente eliminabile, come vediamo nelle sue applicazione enologiche, dovra certamente impedire che neirinsilato, al momento del consume, si generino sostanze fetide, o si moltiplichino germi patogeni. II difficile, nel caso deiranidride solforosa, sta nel modo come opportunamente amministrarlo al foraggio quando viene riposto nel Silo. E forse questa la ragione per la quale il Grete stesso non diede seguito alle sue prime esperienze. Val certo la pena che 1'attenzione degli sperimentatori agrari nelle regioni tropicali e sub-tropicali sia richiamata su questa interessante applicazione. In Tunisia nel 1910, assieme con altri antisettici, si e speri- mentata Tazione dell'anidride solforosa, per impedire Fammuffimento ed altre alterazioni nelle sanse di uliva, serbate per 1'alimentazione del bestiame [18]. Trattamento con acidi, specialmente minerali, o con sostanze minerali acide. — La proposta di adoperare gli acidi in generale, ed in particolar modo gli acidi minerali, MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 677 per la conservazione dei foraggi dentro i Silo, fu fatta dallo scrivente molti anni or sono a Portici, presso Napoli. Egli cosi scriveva nel 1885 : — " L'azione conservatrice degli acidi sulle sostanze vegetal!, mi ha suggerito una nuova pratica nella pre- parazione dei foraggi infossati nei Silo. " Durante Tinfossamento e uso mescolare il foraggio verde con sale comune. Oltre al sale, io ho aggiunto acido citrico, od acido tartarico, od anche cremortartaro. Qtiesti acidi meglio assicurano la conservazione del foraggio, e preparano alimento sano e gradito pel bestiame. " Nelle prime mie esperienze, fatte col Professore Moldo Montanari, conservando mais da foraggio dall'agosto 1885 al marzo 1886, i resultati sono stati soddisfacenti : per noi e pel bestiame. specialmente utile per 1' Italia meridionale e per tutti i " Gli agricoltori dovrebbero tentare questo metodo, paesi caldi. Nei quali i Silo potrebbero tanto bene servire per conservare foraggio fresco primaverile fino ai mesi piu caldi dell'estate, quando e tanta penuria di foraggio. II difficile, nell'arte dei Silo, e d'impedire il guastarsi del foraggio fresco, cosi proclive a fermentare rapide- mente e a putrefarsi, specialmente durante il caldo estivo. ''La presenza degli acidi impedisce, o grandemente mitiga, queste nocive alterazioni nel Silo, dovute ad attivita microbiche. 11 Collo stesso metodo si potrebbero conservare foglie di gelso per i.bachi da seta. " Gli acidi minerali hanno azione piu conservatrice, e sono molto meno costosi che gli acidi vegetali. II solo acido minerale che si potrebbe consigliare, per conservare i foraggi, sarebbe 1'acido cloridrico molto diluito. Prima di darne al bestiame bisognerebbe bagnare via via le porzioni del foraggio acidificato con soluzione di car- bonato sodico. L'acido cloridrico sarebbe cosi neutraliz- zato, ed il foraggio resterebbe condito di cloruro sodico, o sal comune " [19]. In queste prove (nelle quali il mais infossato veniva anche protetto, nel fondo e nel colmo del Silo, con fogliame di eucalipto e di pino), la quantita insilata era 678 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS di Oli. 48 di foraggio fresco, coll'aggiunta, oltre al sal comune, del due acidi organici, nella proporzione di 200 gr. di cremor tartaro e di 200 gr. di acido citrico per ogni strato di due Oli. di foraggio trinciato : complessiva- mente nella proporzione del 2 per cento. Durante i sei mesi d'infossamento, la perdita in peso, in rapporto al mais verde primitive, si calcolo al 12*1 per cento. Nella vicina prova di confronto, con foraggio semplicemente salato, la conservazione ed il calo furono quasi le stesse. Gli acidi organici non avevano influito in modo palese. Una seconda prova fit fatta, sostituendo agli acidi organici 1'acido cloridrico. Questo acido si adoperava in soluzione diluita al ^y, spruzzandolo con un grosso aspersorio sopra ogni strato di 2 Qli. di foraggio, via via che questo si veniva stratificando nel Silo. La durata dell'insilainento fit anormale, il Silo essendo rimasto chiuso per ben 18 mesi, dall'agosto 1886 al marzo 1888. La quantita di mais verde insilato e trattato coll'acido cloridrico era di Qli. 45'2O. Per confronto, un Silo simile fit riempito con Qli. 40*40 dello stesso foraggio trinciato, colla sola aggiunta di sale pastorizio (125 gr. per Q\.). Dopo 18 mesi di conservazione, il foraggio era in ottimo stato, le diminuzioni in peso determinate dal Professore M. Montanari essendo poco different! nelle due prove: del 21*70 per cento nell'insilato con sale, e del 21 74 per cento nell'insilato coll'acido cloridrico. Vi era pero, nel foraggio cloridrico meno acidita che neir insilato col sale, questo essendo andato piu soggetto ad alterazione acetica, nel mentre che nel foraggio clori- drico era palese il predominio della fermentazione alcolica. Dopo 1'apertura dei Silo, per circa un mese, i foraggi vennero regolarmente consumati dal bestiame senza che si osservassero inconvenient] e senza che fosse necessario di neutralizzare il foraggio cloridrico [20]. L'azione dell'acido cloridrico e evidentemente limitata, non arrivando forse abbastanza ad impedire le alterazioni enzimiche. Nelle nuove esperienze su questo argomento, bisognera adoperare dosi piu forti di acido cloridrico che quelle adoperate nelle prove preliminari di Portici, non pretendendo ad una lunga durata nell'azione protettiva, MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 679 tale da oltre passare quei pochi mesi che si richiedono nella pratica agraria. L'acido, infatti, tende gradataniente ad esser neutraliz- zato, forse combinandosi coll'ammoniaca e colle basi derivanti dai process! proteolitici. In una prova con trifoglio incarnate, non trinciato, conservato in Silo per oltre 4 anni, dal 1888 al 1892, I'acido cloridrico non valse piu ad impedire il guastarsi del foraggio. In questo caso Qli. 27*68 di trifoglio fresco erano stati trattati con 20 litri di acido cloridrico commerciale, diluito a 200 litri di soluzione acquosa. Durante i qtiattrp anni di permanenza nel Silo Tacidita era scomparsa. Non bisogna dunque preoccuparsi tanto di una possibile soverchia acidita (che si dovrebbe poi nentralizzare quando si amministra il mangime) all'apertura del Silo, quanta di adoperare nel riempire il Silo una proporzione di acido cloridrico sufficiente per assicurare una buona acidita iniziale. Si consiglia in molti casi (e questo consiglio puo meglio valere per climi caldi) di intridere bene con acqua il foraggio verde prima di chiudere il Silo, collo scopo di escludere meglio Taria e mantenere succulento 1'insilato : sarebbe bene che qtiesta acqua fosse acida con acido cloridrico. II combinare 1'azione deiracido cloridrico con quella dell'anidride solforosa (merce il bisolfito sodico) e forse un suggerimento che potrebbe riuscire utile per le ulteriori prove [21]. Una recente prova dell'utilita delle sostanza acide minerali, quando adoperate per la conservazione dei foraggi insilati, e fornita dalle esperienze del 1912, a Perugia, del Professore G. Sani. Egli adoperava fosfata mo nocalcico, finamente polverizzato, col quale cospar- geva del trifoglio nella proporzione di 300 gr. di perfosfato per OH. di foraggio verde, via via che questo si andava stratificando in un grande Silo di lamiera di ferro. II perfosfato mediante la sua acidita, attenuava la tempera- tura nella fermentazione iniziale, impedendo che \l foraggio si alterasse. Infatti, dopo undid mesi di con- servazione il foraggio inacidito col perfosfato, oltre all'avere esternamente Taspetto di foraggio fresco,. 68O MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS manteneva inalterati nei suoi tessuti i granuli di amido. La perdita complessiva nel trifoglio trattato con per- fosfato calcico fu del 1370 per cento, mentre nella prova di confronto, dell'insilamento normale, la perdita fu del 18*68 per cento. Mentre nel trifoglio originario la pro- porzione di materia secca era del 27*61 per cento, nel trifoglio insilato col perfosfato la materia secca era del 28*32 per cento; infine, nell'insilato semplice questo per- centuale della materia secca era ridotta al 23*99 per cento [22]. Gli esperimenti del Sani sono doppiamente istruttivi inquantoche consigliano 1'uso di una sostanza acida che e facilmente alia mano nelle campagne e dimostrano come con essa si possa bene conservare uno dei foraggi verdi piu renitenti allo insilamento. Le esperienze di H. Weiske, nel 1885, ricordate da O. Kellner, hanno dimostrato che una certa proporzione di acidi minerali aggiunti ai mangimi non esercita azione nociva sul bestiame, quando beninteso non oltrapassi certi limiti. Egli paragonava del fieno ordinario da prato, amministrato allo stato semplice ad alcune pecore, con lo stesso fieno inumidito con acido solforico diluito (grammi 7*5 di anidride solforica per i Kgr. di fieno); in ambedue i casi le pecore digerivano ugualmente il foraggio. Nel rumine, Tacidita dei mangimi viene del tutto, od in gran parte, neutralizzato dalla alcalinita predominante in quel primo stomaco dei ruminanti [23]. Si comprende come una eccessiva acidita dovrebbe riu scire dannosa; ma in tale caso sarebbe facile neutralizzare 1'acidita, al momento del consumo, aspergendo il foraggio con carbonate di sodio, oppure semplicemente con del calcare in polvere. L. Frank esperimentava recentemente per dimostrare 1'utilita, nel caso delle vacche da latte, di mescolare col foraggio ordinario dal calcare polverizzato, collo scopo speciale di correggere nel latte la deficienza in cake [24]. Dovendo scegliere fra i due acidi minerali, cloridrico e solforico, crederei che la preferenza si dovrebbe dare al cloridrico, inquantoche e 1'acido che si trova naturalmente nel succo gastrico e che percio e piu adatto ad agevolare la digestione. Inoltre, neutralizzando questo acido, si MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 68l ^'enerano cloruri; i quali sempre nei mangimi si debbono preferire ai solfati. Recent! osservazioni, a Porto Rico tendono a dimostrare la utilit'a nello svilnppo del bestiame bovino dell'aggiunta ai mangimi usuali di piccole quantity, di cloruro di calcio [25]. II cloruro sodico, poi, oltre all'essere un costituente normale ed importante nell'alimentazione degli erbivori, avrebbe anche un'azione specifica, non bene spiegata, nell'impedire 1'azione nociva di alcune tossine, che si possono generare nell'insilamento, almeno nel caso delle polpe di barbabietola. Nelle importanti ricerche, fatte nel 1893 di S. Arloing, sul potere patogeno dell polpe di barbabietola insilate, si trovava che 1'aggiunzione a queste polpe del 0*20 o 0*25 per cento di cloruro sodico sarebbe il metodo piu semplice e meno costoso per ^liminare le tossine che cagionano nel bestiame la " malattia della polpa " [26]. Valga il presente scritto a richiamare 1'attenzione degli studiosi deiragricoltura dei paesi caldi alia importante •questione della conservazione dei foraggi succulent! ed al buon utilizzamento, come mangimi, di piante spontanee e di residui vegetali facilmente alterabili. Coll'iiso di antisettici acidi, oppure di solfuro di carbonic e di anidride solforosa, non dovrebbe essere tanto necessario di cos- truire grandi e costosi Silo, la efficacia degli antisettici potendo manifestarsi ugualmente bene in Silo relativa- mente semplici e di costruzione poco costosa [27]. Le cose esposte non possono costituire ancora dei suggerimenti diretti per la pratica agraria; sono piuttosto stimoli a nuovi e piu estesi esperimenti, dai quali con sicurezza la pratica coloniale potra attingere norme utili e di larga applicazione. La bibliografia che segue puo bene servire di base a Victoria, Melbourne, 1912, vol. x; riportato in Bull, de VInst. Intern, d* Agric. } Rome, Mai 1912, p. 812. Anche per la produzionei silos." Relaz. terza, idem, Milano, 1908. Dopo lo studio della microflora di varie qualita di foraggi insilati, Gorini tende a credere che per assicurare un insilato normale, ci voglia il 688 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS predominio di una flora bacteria normale. Indi Pidea del- rimpiego di ferm'enti telezionati. L. MALPEAUX. " Conservation des Pulpes par les Ferments lactiques." Journ. Agric. -prat., 1910, ii, p. 303. L. MALPEAUX et G. LEFORT. " Ensilage des Fourrages, des Racines, et des Pulpes. Emploi des Ferments lactiques." Journ. Agric. -prat.., IQII, ii, p. 488. Ricordano come Maze, nel 1905 (Annales de I' Inst. Pasteur, 1905, xix, p. 378) avesse indicate come ogni sostanza ricca in carboidrati fermentescibili si potesse proteggere contro i fermenti della putrefazione seminandola con fermenti lattici. L. MALPEAUX et G. LEFORT. " L'Ensilage des Pulpes et Pemploi des ferments lactiques." Journ. Agric. -prat., 1912, ii, P. 590. COSTANTINO GORINI. " Ricerche di Batteriologia agr. sui foraggi conservati nei silo." Sesta Relaz. Ann. Inst. Agr. A. Pontij Milano, 1912. Vi e il resoconto di una prova fatta a Piacenza, assieme col Prof. Zago, confrontando un insilato normale di erba con insilato simile seminato colle colture littiche del Gorini, facendo vantaggiosamente prevalere i fermenti lattici nella microflora delPinsilato. F. LOHNIS. Vorlesungen iibcr landu>, Bakteriologiej Berlin, 1913, p. 218. Esten osservava, nel Connecticut, i vantaggi dell'usare culture pure di bacteri acidificanti per ottenere che in 24 ore Pinsilato fresco fosse bene acidificato. Si inocularono 3,000 tonn. di insilato di mais, il quale mature a foraggio, con grato odore, con un anticipo di tre a quattro settimane nella maturazione. W. M. ESTEN. ''Maize Silage in Connecticut." The Con- necticut Farmer, New Haven, March ii, 191 1. Riportato in Bull. Rens. Agr.j Inst. Intern. d'Agr., Rome, Aout, IQII, N. 1,155. WOLFER (loc. cit.j p. 276), acoenna alPuso di irrorare con latte acido Pinsilato mentre si stratifica nel silo, -per meglio assicurare il prevalere dei bacteri acidi. [14] SAMARANL, in Annuario della R. Stazione di Caseificio di Lodi 'per il 1910, Lodi, 1911. Citato in D. FERUGLIO, loc cit.f p. 4^0. [15] LOHNIS. Loc. tit., p. 220. [16] A. CRETE. " Schwefelkohlenstoff beim Einmachen von Griinfutter " (Schiveiserisches landw. Centralbl.., Jahrg, 1886, N. i), Beidermann 's Centralbl. der Agrikulturchemie, 1886, xv, P. 355- A. GRETE (o Gretel). " Ein Versuch zur Konservirung von Griinfutter mittelst Schwefelkohlenstoff" (Milchseitung, 1889, xviii, N. 13), Biedermann* s Centralbl. der Agr. Chemief 1889, xviii, p. 502. In un silo della capacita di m.c. 4^32, pieno di buon trifoglio, aggiungeva kgr. 2 di solfuro di carbonio. In silo simile, pieno di erba di prato, aggiunse kgr. 3*5 di solfuro di carbonio. Chi riferiva temeva che il metodo dovesse essere troppo costoso. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 689 Questo nel 1889; ma dopo il 1901, la preparazione del solfuro di carbonio con forni elettrici ha reso questo prodotto molto meno costoso. La fabbrica a Penn Yan, nello Stato di New York, fabbrica oggi solfuro di carbonio col metodo di E. R. Taylor, nella proporzione di 14,000 libbre inglesi nelle 24 ore, e ne potrebbe fabbricare 25,000 libbre. Per un riassunto del metode di Crete, vedasi anche : A. CRETE. " Conservazione di foraggi verdi mediante il Solfuro di Carbonio." Giorn Staz. agrarie ital.j 1890, xviii, p. 201. F. KALUGIN and S. PARASHCHUCK. The Influence of Carbon Disid-phide and Common Salt on the losses of Nutrients and the Character of the Fermentation of Ensiled Fodders. Riassunto in Exfi. Stat. Record, IQOI, xii, p. 822. [17] B. CORNER. (Zeitschr. d. S-piritusindustrie_, 1891, p. 395), Jahresb. d. Agrikulturchemie,, 1891, xiv, p. 724. [18] L'obbiezione maggiore all'uso delPanidride solforosa od a solfiti o bisolfiti, sarebbe della possibile azione tossica di questa sostanza. Se per Palimentazione umana conviene essere sever! nel limitarse la quantita nelle bervande e nei sciroppi, tale severita non sara forse tanto necessaria nelP alimentazione de' bovini. Ma e solo la sperimentazione che potra stabilire i limiti, come si e fatto nel caso dei mosti e dei vini. In riguardo all'uso dell'anidride solforosa per conservare man- gimi di sansa in Tunisia, vedi : Bull. Dir. Agric. Tunis, 1910, xiv, p. 476; riassunto in Ex$. Stat. Record, Washington, 1911, xxv, p. 575. [19] ITALO GIGLIOLI. Igiene Antimicrobica, Napoli, 1887,. p. 400. [20] MOLDO MONTANARI. " Due prove dell'Infossamento del Mais foraggio col Silo Coffart, compiute nelPOrto Agrario della R. Scuola Sup. d'Agricoltura in Vortici, dal 1885 al 1888. Annuario della Scuola di Portici, 1890-91 vi, Portici, 1891. Vedi anche : Staz. Agr. ital.f 1892, xxiii, p. 518. [21] Secondo Cohn, basa una Soluzione di 0*7 per mille di acido cloridrico per completamente arrestare la fermentazione lattica. Nel foraggio appena trinciato si fa piu intense il processo respiratorio ed il consumo di sostanza vegetale. Colla immediata aggiunta della soluzione cloridrica questo inutile spreco della sostanza piu nutriente del foraggio si risparmierebbe. L'aggiunte di acqua si fa per rendere piu compalta e meno aperta all'azione dell'aria la massa insilata, nel caso di foraggi voluminosi e piuttosto secchi. L'aggiunta di piccole porzioni di bisolfito sodico, sparse nelPinsilato prima di aggiungere Pacido cloridrico, accrescerebbe di molto Pazione antisettica di questo, paralizzando forse del tutto la respirazione cellulare, causa principale di consumo di materia secca nel foraggio appena insilato. Vedi, per es. : O. L. REED and J. B. FITCH. "Sorghum Crops for Silage."" 44 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS Kansas State Agric. Coll. Ex-p. Stat. Circular 28, 1913; riassunto nel Bull, dell' Inst. Intern, di Agricoltura, Ott, 1913, N. 1,172. [22] GlOV. SANI. " Azione del Fosfato monocalcico nella con- servazione del foraggio verde." Rendiconti R. Accad. dei Lincei, Roma, luglio, 1912, vol. xxi. [23] H. WEISKE, B. DEHMEL, G. KENNEPOHL, B. SCHUTZE u. E. FLECHSIG. " Einfluss von freier Saure auf die Verdauungs- vorgange sowie auf den Stickstoff- und Mineralstoffumsatz im Korper der Herbivoren. (Journ. f. Landw.j 1885, xxxiii, p. 21), Jahresb. d. Agrikulturchemie, 1885, P- 547. L'esperienza, con pecore Southdown, si fece in tre periodi, alternando fieno normale con fieno solforico, e nel terzo periodo con fieno e magnesia. Nei tre periodi la digeribilita del fieno continue uniforme. La proporzione non lieve di acido solforico non ebbe cattivo effetto. Vedi anche : O. KELLNER. Die Erndhrung der landw. Nutz- tiere. Berlin, 1905, p. 54. Kellner riporta alcune sue esperienze con pecore, alimentandole con foraggio acido, contenente 2*67 per cento di acido lattice. [24] L. FRANK. " On the Influence of Feeds Poor in Lime upon the Lime-content in Cows' Milk." (Chem. Zeitung, 1910, xxxiv, p. 978), riassunto in Ex$. Stat. Record, Washington, 1911, xxiv, p. 278. [25] E. G. RITZMAN. "Silage in Porto Rico." (Porto Rico Agric. Stat. Re-port] Ex$. Stat. Record, Washington, 1912, p. 872. [26] S. ARLOING. " Recherches exp. sur le pouvoir pathogene des pulpes de Betteraves ensilees et sur le moyen de Pamoindrir." Annales Agronomiques, 1893, xix, p. 133. [27] Mediants antisettici che, nello stesso tempo, impediscono Pazione bacterica e soffocano la respirazione delle cellules vege- tali, sara forse piu facile conservare allo stato quasi normale alcuni foraggi caratteristici dei paesi piu aridi, che per la lore forte succulenze mal si lasciano conservare nei silo. Tali sono gli articoli di fico d'India e di altre specie di cactus, i quali, come osservava J. W. Leather nell'India, molte volte si riducono nei sila ad un mucchio di fibre poco digeribili. Questi silo di cactus furono sperimentati prcsso a Madras. J. W. LEATHER. "Silage-making in India." Agric. Ledger, No. 2, Calcutta, 1894, p. 4. Nel New South Wales si considera che il metodo piu pratico per utilizzare i cactus e di insilarli; poiche in pochi mesi gli aculei si rammolliscono e si ottiene un mangime abbastanza buono. (Indian Agric., No. 2, February, 1909, vol. xxxiv), Tropical Agriculturist, Ceylon, June, 1910, p. 504. Vedi anche, per il valore alimentare di questo foraggio : EMILE BAILLAUD, " Observations sur Pemploi des cactus dans Palimentation du betail." [Tunisie.] Journ. d' Agric. Tropi- £ale, September, 1910, p. 261. E. W. HORN and S. G. MUTKEKAR. " The Feeding of Prickly Pears." Agric. Journ. of India, April, 1914, p. 191. LE LANE BELLA TRIPOLITANIA E MEZZI PER MIGLIORARLE. Per il Dott. ALBERTO CASELLI. L'ALLEVAMENTO degli ovini ha importanza massima fra le Industrie agrarie della Tripolitania ne potrebbe essere altrimenti in tin paese in cui le terre a pascolo sono abbon- dantissime e dove la popofezione, indolente per natura, piu die aH'agricoltura meglio si dedica alia vita pastorale. La qualita dei pascoli stessi costituiti principalmente da piante foraggere di scarso valore nutritivo consentono piu che I'allevamento dei bovini e degli equini, quello degli ovini e dei caprini. Prima della guerra il commercio di esportazione degli ovini si aggirava intorno ai 100,000 capi che venivano diretti paricolarmente al mercato di Alessandria d'Egitto, mentre solo piccolissime quantita erano avviate a Malta e in Italia. Cli ovini rappresentano per la Tripolitania tin capitale elevatissimo se considerate e paragonato al rimanente bestiame. II loro numero stipera certamente il milione e mezzo di capi raggrtippati in greggi di varia entita a seconda del numero dei com- ponenti la famiglia del pastore : in media i g'reggi sono costituiti da tre o quattrocento pecore ma non e raro il caso incontrare nei pascoli piu ricchi della Tripolitania dei grossi greggi di 4,000 capi. Razze ovino-tnpolitane. — La pecora della Tripolitania, ed in generate quella del Nord Africa appartiene alia razza Siriaca varieta berbera; la stia conformazione subisce pero molte modificazioni a seconda i luoghi che abita e le cure di cui e oggetto. Tuttavia il lipoma caudale rappresenta un carattere di altissima importanza etnica. La razza del Sudan, che trovasi rappresentata nelle regioni del Sud della Tripolitania, non ha alcuna importanza per la produzione della lana. Le pecore della Tripolitania hanno bellissimo aspetto, sono coperte di abbondante vello e durante il periodo dei pascoli verdi presentano un ottimo stato di nutrizione. 692 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS II vello ricopre generalmente tutto il corpo esclusa parte della testa, le gambe, la parte posteriore dell'addome, rinterno delle cosce, e la parte anteriore della coda; sarebbe di una sufficente uniformita e lo e effettivamente negli animali ben tenuti; ma la trascuratezza degli indigeni e le frequenti malattie della pelle non curate, lo rendono grossolano e in molte parti interrotto da larghe chiazze sprovviste di lana. II vello si presenta aperto a bioccoli conici, piu facile quindi ad insudiciarsi, diversamente impregnate di sego nelle varie regioni del corpo. II mantello e di un biondo giallognolo con colorazione nera, marrone e rossiccia alia testa' e alle estremita degli arti. Si fa una distinzione fra la lana proveniente dalla parte orientale della Tripolitania e quella dalla parte occi- dentale, ritenendosi la prim a di qualita superiore e piu adatta alia tessitura dei baracani. Negli animali in buona condizione di salute e di mitrizione la quantita di lana che si raccoglie da un vello non lavorato oscilla fra i tre e i quattro chilogrammi, ma in condizioni eccezionali, puo raggiungere e sorpassare i sei Kg. La tosatura si effettua con un sistema poco razionale, mediante cioe una forbice grossolana e di grande dimensione la quale non permette che il vello sia tolto egualmente e per intero da tutta la superficie del corpo. Resta infatti della lana tagliuzzata in quantita rilevante che e sottratta al vello e venduta a bassissimo prezzo. La lana portata sul mercato dai proprietari e acquistata dagli indigeni e dai negozianti esportatori al prezzo di L. 80 al quintale se sudicia, e di L. 2.40 il chilogrammo se lavata e di buona quanta, pero la maggiore quantita di lana che si trova sui mercati non e epurata. Anzi i pastori per farla aumentare di peso la bagnano con una piccola quantita di latte di buero e vi gettano sopra della sabbia. I negozianti esportatori sventano pero abilmente questa astuzia e difficilmente acquistano anche, se offerte a buon prezzo, lane molto sudicie perche in tal caso oltre a pagare della sabbia per lana dovrebbero sottoporle a frequenti battiture per attenuare il cattivo odore che emanano. Quando nella lana non si usano mezzi fraudolenti per renderla piu pesante, la perdita di peso, nella lavatura a fondo varia dai 55 al 66 per cento. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 693 No. d'ordine Lunghezza dei bioccoli Caratteri fisici Perdita per cento alia lavatura d'acqua Per cento Nell'esame di otto campioni di lana di pecore delle regioni del Tarhtina e del Cussabat si sono ottenute per lavaggio con acqua fredda e con etere le seguenti perdite in peso : Perdita per cento all'azione dell'etere Per cento 1 ... 8 . Molto ondulata ... 55 ... 9-48 2 ... 6 „ „ ... 45 ... 870 3 ... 7 Ondulata ... 40 ... 10*40 4 ... 6 . Ricca di giarra ... 49 ... ii'io 5 ... 9 Lucente... ... 46 ... 11*50 6 ... 7 Molto ondulata ... 44 ... 8-90 7 ... 8 Ondulata ... 44 ... 9-30 8 ... 6 Scura ... ... 43 ... 970 In queste lane Pimpurita sono rappresentate principal- mente da particelle terrose che vennero asportate con acqua corrente fredda. I campioni furono in seguito sottoposti all'azione dell'etere per determinare la quantita di grasso che contenevano. Pucci e Gugnoni dopo la lavatura di alcuni velli della Msellata ottennero i seguenti reiidimenti : Peso del vello No. d'ordine Primadel D°P° I1 e lavaff^io Perdita Reddito Perdita con acqua fresca Kg. Kg. ... Velio di pecora (Cussabat) ... 3-0 ... •300 ... 1,700 . • 43'3 • • 56*6 ... 3 '9 ... 760 ... 2*140 .. . 45*1 .. • 54-8 3*8 •300 ... 2-500 .. . 34*2 .. • 657 .. 4*0 ... •520 ... 2-480 .. . 38*0 .. . 62*0 ... ... 2-7 ... •060 ... 1-640 . . 39-2 .. . 60-7 ... 4*1 -. 1-640 ... 2*460 .. . 40-0 .. . 60*0 ... 2 -9 ... 1-300 ... I -600 . . . 44-8 .. • 55'1 ... 2-9 ... i -ooo ... I*9OO .. •34'4 •• . 65-1 Qualita dclla lana. — Se la razza ovina della Tripolitania non lascia molto a desiderare per la quantita di lana che e in grado di fornire, altrettanto, non puo dirsi per la qualita. Infatti la lana si presenfa generalmente poco nniforme ed e costituita da fili non sempre dello stesso spessore e perche questo varia sovente anche lungo il medesimo filo, ora piu grossa alia base ora piu al- 1'estremita. E pero vero che se questo difetto e da attribuirsi alia generalita, non mancano individui che offrono un vello assai uniforme, piu chiuso, con bioccoli quasi prismatici e costituiti da fili molto ondulati misti a sui lana Osserv ratteri - ~ s . O £5 § ^"3 , ' , « ! — soos m m pppptopptop HH -rrvO ^ t^ t^OQ ON O OA"tO ro »O M ^i-imMt-iCjMMN ^MNmroi-it-ifO .2 lu pe .2 J o" E vs 2 Diametro micromillim O f^-O yOOOO to >3- vo w l»x\O fjvp O vO tovO tO O ^VO l-x N 00 >OVQ 00 fO CO ON TfOO vb vb OO vb W OOO Vf ••< ONt^Tl-« iob tOt^M MOQ W W f^ moo t>.oo Q rovO \OvO OvOO Ov.0 OvO O O f>vO vo vO O vO vO O vO O vo O — tN. ONOO >O rf « v£5 00 '*• t^^O '•-> to TT N OO 00 t-^vb OO « N ON ON ONOO «5 TJ- co f. fOrOfOrtfO1-1 ^*-fON TJ-PI ro-^-rorocNi fororo^-fow rr>cofo ON ON O ON CN t'^ t*** 1^. ^ iN O vO CS ON ro £N» vN vO ONVO to ^f ^~vo ON ON O OONNOQi-iMONTfLO Tt-vo 1-1 fO M VOOO O ^O W ON ON CD — ONVO OO Tf ON O fi^O OOvO ONQ to « ONtOOMOrrOOO IOON «T>vO M r^ IN ON •'S-'O OO i-" VOVOOONO -^-OvOvO NvON rf Tj-OO O OOO ^r N OvQvO N OOO ^-O ON ONVO OO >-i N OO ONVO ON ON >O N tO\O ^OO vO to i-c >-« ON ON 10 ^1-vO N ON ONON>OI>.M ^-M ONQOO ONOO Tf-ro»ot-« M tor^t^M Q\ ONOO 1-1 to V ON O ONVO fOOOO HH t^tOM t~>.O O O f5 O to O I^OO O to S>: i| rf I I ONION -3-cof'JtNOO r^WOO i- ThfT)t-i w ONOOO fO ON^-pvp O O « «Ofn«OO O r'lOO ynrojoo MOO r^i-^M O O "-1 "OOO vb m to en w i^. iovb co « iovb vb io^-*Ttto^-ioovb b boovboovooodo ojoDDOtq pp 'tuo O tou^vnuoo O too O >o«o>oO voino O tr^o ^OO to 'O to O O rt- o b w In V W- Koo vbb*-ON«bNbNONb« >ovb co N b '<-• fo Tgyjss u U ti Ii ti 11 li li ti ti ii ii 11 ii . . . w fa cafe w^ cc fe c/3 fe w» en fo w fa x UBUIUIBS3 IUIAO jiSsp ossag '•= c e .i* *S 8 'S c5^«3c« UHOUH MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 695 pochissima giarra. E per i caratteri del singoli fili in riguardo alia lunghezza, allo spessore, aU'elasticita, al- 1'ondulazione e resistenza si puo osservare la unita tabella dove sono riportati i resultati dell'esame eseguito nel Laboratories Tecnologico dell'Istituto Agricolo Coloniale Italiano su campioni di lana poresi nelle regioni della spalla e del fianco. Nell'analizzare questi valori notiamo anzi- tutto la poca omogeneita dei caratteri dei fili costituenti il medesimo vello e le notevoli disuguaglianze dei caratteri presentati da velli diversi. Cosi prendendo per prima in considerazione la lunghezza, le lane della Tripolitania possono essere comprese fra quelle che gli industrial! classificano per lane lunghe o da pettine e che si usano per la fabbricazione degli articoli detti pettinati. E se per finezza la lana tripolina lascia piuttosto a desiderare, pur tuttavia, per questo carattere non e inferiore alle lane comuni della Toscana e a quelle incrociate secondarie di Buenos Aires. Molti velli pero sono costituiti da fili che lungo il loro percorso presentano strozzature che facili- tano lo spezzamento dei fili stessi durantela tessitura. Oueste strozzature si originano durante la stagione secca per la scarsa alimentazione, e per le deficenti abbeverate, cause che provocano un'improvvisa diminuzione del diametro del filo stesso ; col ritornare della buona stagione la lana riprende crescendo il diametro normale e lascia nell'ultima parte la strozzatura. II carattere della estensibilita e assai pronunciato nei fili esaminati; infatti questi dopo essere stati tesi, hanno presentato aH'esame un allungamento di circa del 35 per cento, valore invero troppo alto, per una buona lana da tessere. L'esame della resistenza dei fili alia -rottura, espresso nella tabella, in numero di grammi, ha fornito dei valori molto variabili con prevalenze di valori minimi a causa delle frequenti strozzature esistenti nei fili stessi. L'ondulazione e un carattere assai frequente dei velh della Tripolitania e se queste ondulazioni sono meno accentuate dei velli merinos, pur tuttavia superano in confront© molte delle lane comuni italiane. Le lane della Tripolitania quando sono asciutte non assorbono ne ritengono una grande quantita di acqua; da alcune prove eseguite su varii campioni, le medie ottenute si aggirano Lunghezza assoluta Diametro mm. micromm. 1° Tosatura 1197 • 35'3 (medie) Produzione di circa i anno compresa la agnellina 2° Tosatura 82-6 327 (medie) Produzione di 12 mesi 696 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS dal 10 al 15 per cento. Alcuni dei dati riferiti nella tabella allegata possono confrontarsi con quelli ottenuti dall'esame dei campioni di lana della razza incrociata Vissano-Maremmana e Bergamasca derivata, che e con- siderata come una buona razza da lana : Carico di Allunga- rotturo mento gr. per cento 8-125 ... 25-62 9'6ll ... 22-97 N.B. — Le medie sono state eseguite sopra 8 campioni, sia di i° tosatura, sia di 2°, e per ciascun campiono sono state eseguite 10 determinazioni. Esame di possibili miglioramcnti della razza Berbera. — Uno dei piu diffusi esperimenti di miglioramento della razza ovina Berbera, nell'Africa Settentrionale, e stato eseguito mediante riproduttori Merinos-Rambouillett, Soassonais e della Crau. Questi esperimenti hanno avuto luogo nel Sahel Algerino e in alcune regioni della Tunisia, molto vicine per condizioni climatiche a quelle della Tripolitania. I riproduttori Soassonais, Ram- bouillett, hanno fin dall'inizio deiresperimento dimostrato la loro poca adattabilita al nuovo ambiente a causa della deficente qualita dei pascoli e delle scarse cure dei pastori indigeni. Durante questi esperimenti, si mostrarono pero superiori gli ovini Soassonais a causa della loro parentela con i Lincon. I riproduttori di questa razza importati da un allevatore della Mitidya fornirono nei primi tempi soggetti di una cert a precocity, e resistenza ; pregi che andaro pero man mano a scomparire nelle successive generazioni. Alcuni Merinos della Crau tenuti •perfettamente liberi nel Sahel Algerino come la razza ovina locale, e sottoposti ad eguale trattamento, pro- dussero dei soggetti abbastanza resistenti, sobri ma che rimpiccolirono notevolmente e scemarono di peso nelle generazioni successive. Da cio risulta chiaramente che rallevamento Algerino e Tunisino e di conseguenza quello Tripolino, s;. trova in condizioni tali che non gli permettono di stabilite la MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 697 superiorita di questo o di quell'incrocio. Se il Merinos- Rambouillett infatti non ha sopportato i metodi poco razionali deirallevamento indigene, se il Soassonais ha manifestato nelle successive generazioni dei segni evidenti •di degenerazione e se infi-ne il Merinos della Crau ha dato resultati inferiori a quelli della razza del paese, ne con- segue che il metodi dell'mcrociamento debba senz'altro essere abbandonato. E a questa conclusione sono venuti quasi tutti gli allevatori deir Algeria e della Tunisia, ad •eccezione di qualche proprietario che preferisce figurare in esposizioni e concorsi senza tener conto di un giusto € vantaggioso ricavato. Incroci Sardo-Barbarcschi. — Da alcuni si e anche accen- nato alia possibilita di migliorare la razza berbera mediante riproduttori della razza sarda o siciliana. Ora da alcuni dati tolti dalla pubblicazione del Dott. Spissu sulla razza sarda, che per rendimento poco si discosta da quella siciliana, si rileva come la quantita di lana che essa produce non supera in media i due chilogrammi; e che riguardo alia qualita e assai mediocre e piu adatta a far materasse che a fabbricar tessuti. E presumibile che la quantita e la qualita diventerebbe ancora piu scadente in un paese come la Tripolitania che ha scarsezza di foraggio maggiore, per quanto poco si voglia, delle regioni di origine; e che la superiorita della razza Barberesca sia riconosciuta in Sicilia e in Sa-rdegna, lo si desume dal fatto che riproduttori berberi sono stati importati da allevatori siciliani e sardi per migliorare le razze locali. Selesione. — Da quanto e .stato detto sui tentativi di miglioramento in Algeria e Tunisia per mezzo di ripro- duttori perfezionali, ne resulta che per il momento nessun incrocio si presterebbe con vantaggio alia sostituzione della razza ovina berbera, perche questa risponde meglio di qualsiasi altra alle risorse e alle condizioni climatiche di alcuni paesi dell'Africa Settentrionale. Non Rimane quindi che esaminare il metodo della selezione, pratica che noi riteniamo piu indicata ad apportare alia razza con effetto sicuro un rapido miglioramento. La selezione della razza ovina barbaresca deve avere di base sopratutto il miglioramento della produzione della lana, della carne «*d in via secondaria quella del latte; e riferendoci alia 698 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS prima funzione dobbiamo anzitutto tener presente cbe per quel che riguarda la quantita, qualsiasi miglioramento sara possibile quando saranno migliorate le condizioni di all- mentazione; lo stesso non puo dirsi per quel che riguarda la qualita perche questa, tutta si impernia sulla selezione di soggetti che forniscono i migliori velli nei riguardi dei loro caratteri fisici. NeU'esame dei campioni riferiti nella tabella allegata alcuni valori mettono in evidenza la bonta di alcuni caratteri dei velli del Cussabat e del Tarhuna; la presenza di questi vale a dimostrare come non manchino in Tripolitania animali capaci di fornire lane di buona qualita che potrebbero essere impiegate con maggior profitto nell'industria tessile piuttosto che nella confezione dei materassi. Abbiamo pure osservato come la razza Barbaresca abbia il vello sufficentemente esteso ora il metodo della selezione deve mantener costante questo carattere e possibilmente intensificarlo e cio si puo facilmente raggiungere, seguendo le norme che hanno adottate i francesi per creare nei loro Rambouillett delle vere ripiegature della pelle che hanno contribuito ad aumentare notevolmente 1'estensione del vello. Per quanto riguarda la pratica della tosatura converra introdurre dei metodi piu razionali quali le forbici appositamente costmite per i piccoli greggi, e le macchine tosatrici a mano o ad azione meccanica per i greggi numerosi. L'epoca della tosatura non dovra esser potratta di molto tempo per non diminuire il rendimento della lana che cadrebbe in parte prima di esser raccolta. In tin paese come la Tripolitania in cui 1'acqua scarseggia ovunque, e consigliabile di eseguire la lavatura della lana dopo la tosatura, anche per evitare che gli animali, causa della bassa temperatura della notte vengano, dopo tosati, ad esser colpiti da pleuriti o da polmoniti. Occorre pure evitare dopo eseguita la lavatura, una essicazione troppo rapida che potrebbe esser causa di un deprezzamento della qualita della lana stessa. Perche la selezione abbia il suo rapido conseguimento occorre inoltre che sia praticata da tutti i pastori. Ciovera notevolmente in quest'opera di persuasione 1'autorita dei capi, essendo attualmente la pastorizia tutta in mano degli indigeni, e la lusinga di qualche premio in danaro da concedersi agli allevatori MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 699 che esporranno i migliori capi riproduttori nelle mostre zootecniche. L' organizsasione del Commcrcio della lana in Tripoli- tania.— Perche alcuni mercati della Tripolitania riescano centri di qualche importanza per il commercio della lana e attirino di conseguenza un gran numero di compratori dall'Italia e dall'estero converra in seguito limitare al minimo il numero di questi mercati per farvi accentrare la maggior parte delle lane prodotte in Tripolitania. II sistema adottato attualinente di vendere le lana a vello intero rende impossibile da parte dell'industriale Tacquisto diretto presso i produttori; ma necessita 1'opera del negoziante che tiene divise le qualita e le classifica per tipo. Cosi Findustriale valendosi di questo evita il pericolo di accollarsi una partita di qualita diverse di lana di cui alcune non possono occorrergli : Riteniamo che ai lamentati difetti possa in avvenire provvedere 1'istituzione di una co-operativa alia quale dovrebbe confluire la maggiore quantita della lana prodotta nella Tripolitania. Un collegio peritale avrebbe poi lo speciale ufficio di esaminare le lane e di valutarle secondo la relativa resa, finezza, lunghezza, resistenza ed uso, riunendole in classi e determinadone i diversi prezzi. Questo Istituto prov- vedendo cosi alia classificazione della lana recherebbe senza dubbio un vantaggio sensibilissimo ai produttori e ai consumatori con la formazione di masse uniformi di fissa composizione e di valore determinato e favorendo cosi Torganizzazione di mercati stabili nei centri piu importanti della Tripolitania. BIBLIOGRAFIA. G. Pucci and G. GUGNONI. " La Pastorizia nelle Tripolitania." Dalla Relazione della Missione Franchetti in Tripolitania. F. Tucci. "La Zootecnia nella Tripolitania." Dalla Rela- zione per lo Studio Agrologico della Tripolitania. PUBLICATIONS DEVOTED TO TROPICAL AGRICULTURE AND RESEARCH. By W. R. DUNLOP. Scientific Assistant to the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies. THE present occasion of the International Congress of Tropical Agriculture would seem to afford a particularly favourable opportunity for approaching a subject of such general and widespread interest as that of the periodicals now circulating in the Tropics. It is self-evident that the geographical situation of tropical countries is such as to render inter-communication, and particularly social intercourse, matters of extreme difficulty, hence journal- istic communication is very essential, and must be regarded as a matter of vital concern in the march of progress of tropical agriculture. The sources from which periodicals circulating in the Tropics are issued may be roughly classified as follows : Trade and official (e.g., Colonial Office) publications from England and America; journals issued by Govern- ment Departments and Agricultural Societies in the Tropics; and, in a class somewhat by themselves, the summarizing publications issued by various institutions, examples of such journals being the Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Intelligence and Plant Diseases, the Experi- ment Station Record, the Review of Applied Entomology, and the Agricultural News. By far the largest number of the publications at present existing come from the second source, and although in most cases these periodicals may be regarded as serving an efficient purpose in the circulation of results, there are, it is thought, certain disadvantages attaching to many of the systems at present in vogue. In the first place it must be at once evident that existing information in tropical agriculture is exceedingly scattered, and the number of periodicals — some of them merely leaflets — at present in circulation MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS JO1 is remarkably large. This, however, cannot altogether be avoided, since many of them are intended principally for a specially limited local circulation; but there does exist a tendency on the part of every society or depart- ment that comes into existence to feel that its proper independence or status is not firmly established unless it itself published the results of its own work. In many instances this is quite unnecessary, and is frequently the cause of work which really has some general significance not being regarded as such. It is true that the large mass of published matter which is travelling from one tropical country to another is sifted in the clearing-houses of the institutions where summarizing publications are issued, but it will be seen that the want of centralization in regard to publication work, besides incurring the risk mentioned above, has a further disadvantage in that it places greater strain upon the work of these clearing- houses. As an example of the benefit that accrues from centralization, reference may be made to the work of the Imperial Department of Agriculture, which issues publications for various colonies; but even in the West Indies there is a great deal of local publication work done which might with more advantage be carried out at a central office. Another disadvantage attendant on the circulation and storage of facts in the Tropics is the admixture of widely different kinds in the same journal. Many of the so- called agricultural journals, for instance, contain articles of both the agricultural and the scientific kind. By " scientific " is meant information that is principally of value only to specialists — for instance, entomological and mycological systematic studies. Not only does much of this literature fail to appeal to the planters, but its existence in a journal devoted to general agriculture involves a large amount of trouble on the part of the specialist, who has to hunt up references scattered through endless publications which are principally devoted to lines of work entirely different from his own. This consideration thus leads us to realize that the want of specialization in tropical publications not only necessitates a very wide range of reading, but it also yO2 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS seriously interferes with convenient storage. The lack of specialization further increases the duties of librarians and those who are responsible for the provision of references on diverse subjects. As already intimated, there are now in existence several publications of the summarizing type which assist in overcoming the difficulties pointed out in the previous paragraph, but these cannot do everything. It is impos- sible for any journal to abstract every article that is published, and if this be so it follows that a critical examination is necessary. Very often this is wanting in the case of summarizing journals, and good papers some- times get neglected whilst worthless ones are placed on record. It is felt that an effort should be made in the future to confine information bearing upon each great tropical industry to specialized journals, and that the various branches of scientific work should, as far as possible, be published centrally. In the sections of this paper which follow, an attempt has been made to outline the various media through which facts relating to the principal tropical industries obtain circulation. Perusal of this section will make it very evident how great is the overlapping amongst agricul- tural publications, but the notes which are given should serve a useful purpose to those who desire to know of the best publications to keep in touch with in connection with the principal industries. It may also prove useful to those who intend writing on any subject connected with the crops mentioned, since it provides a guide to the principal sources of reference. Though it is by no means regarded as complete in this respect, the information is based on the systematic examination of publications by the writer in the prepara- tion of articles for the Agricultural News (the fortnightly review of the Imperial Department of Agriculture in the West Indies), the notes are therefore the result of first- hand experience. Rubber. Two of the principal trade journals representing this industry arc the India Rubber Journal, published in MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 703 London, and the India Rubber World, of New York. Although primarily concerned with the supply, manu- facture and consumption of rubber, these periodicals do not neglect the industry from the grower's point of view, and in connection with plantation manufacture these journals are particularly worth perusal by the tropical planter. A third journal of value to the rubber grower is Tropical Life of London. From the purely agricultural aspect, the most important papers on rubber growing make their appearance in the publications of the Department of Agriculture, Federated Malay States, and in those of the Department of Agricul- ture, Ceylon, including the Annals and Circulars of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya. Useful information appears occasionally in the Bulletins of the British Guiana and Trinidad Departments of Agriculture, as well as in the West Indian Bulletin of the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies. The state of the French rubber trade finds an outlet in the Bulletin de V Association, des Planteurs dc Caoutchouc, whilst important information on rubber planting appears from time to time in the Journal d' Agriculture Tropicale, in L' Agriculture Pratique des Pays Chauds, and in that interesting and particularly well- illustrated periodical, the Bulletin Agricole du Congo Beige. Valuable papers concerning rubber in the German colonies are to be found in Der Tropenpflanzcr, whilst accounts of South American work appear from time to time in the various Bulletins of the Latin-American Republics. As regards official publications that devote attention to rubber which are issued from London, reference must be made to the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, which is yearly becoming more indispensable and almost inter- national in importance. As a source of reference on the technology and chemistry and economics of rubber this journal is of special value. For botanical information the Kew Bulletin frequently proves a fertile source of reference, whilst for trade notices and changes of legis- lation and production statistics the Board of Trade Journal should be consulted. 7O4 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS In concluding this section on current literature on rubber growing and manufacture, the value of the Colonial Reports, and for foreign intelligence, the Consular and Diplomatic Reports should be noted. It is necessary also to acknowledge here the international publication, the Monthly Bulletin of Agricultural Intelli- gence and Plant Diseases. As is well known, this bulletin publishes abstracts of most of the important papers that appear in connection with tropical agriculture, and is of special service in that it obviates a great deal of search and translation. The same remarks apply in a somewhat less degree to the Experiment Station Record. But this latter publication confines itself more to the recordance of experimental work, consequently it cannot be said that its perusal is of especial value to those immediately interested in rubber growing. Finally, there is the Press in the Tropics and at home. Grenier's Rubber Nezvs, the Ceylon Observer, and the Demerara papers all devote space to matter pertaining to the industry. In England there is the Times, in which the accounts of Company meetings bring to light many new and interesting facts which are well worth the atten- tion of those connected with the industry. Cotton and Fibres. There are not many periodicals devoted entirely to cotton, although there is a great deal of matter published in the form of papers and reports. In England, the Reports of the British Cotton Growing Association are of interest and value as an indication of progress, especially in Africa. The Textile Mercury, Textile Institute Journal, Cotton and Cotton Gazette of Man- chester are also useful journals, and should be more widely read in the Tropics, as they help to keep the planter in closer contact with the manufacturer. As would be expected most of the important literature on cotton grow- ing emanates from the United States, Egypt, India, West Indies, and East and West Africa. The amount of matter published by the United States Department of Agriculture on cotton is large, the extent and nature of which can be well gauged by reference to the indexes of MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS /O5 the Experiment Station Record. To the West Indies the American work on cotton has been and is of inestimable value, and the same appreciation must be felt in Egypt and India. The characteristic feature of the American work — and it is shown in their publications — is the energy and ingenuity displayed in order to surmount the practical difficulties which confront the grower. To Egypt the cotton-growing world is indebted for the Journal of the Egyptian Department of Agriculture and for numerous papers on the cotton plant and on the cotton seed problem published through various channels. A useful French journal is the Bulletin de V Association Cotonier Coloniale. From India comes the Agricultural Journal of India, which from time to time contains papers on cotton, and also the Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture in India, and the various local Department publications. Owing to the industry being in a state of rapid development, the African literature is principally composed of progress reports. But in Africa, as in other cotton-growing countries, special problems will have to receive systematic investigation, and in the near future we may look to East and West Africa for new facts concerning the cotton crop. Technological matter, con- cerning East and West African cotton, appears from time to time in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute. The Indian Trade Journal and British East Africa Agricul- tural Journal often contain valuable information on cotton. Several of the French periodicals devote some atten- tion to cotton, particularly the Journal d' Agriculture Tropicalc and L' Expansion Coloniale. The South African attempts in the direction of cotton growing find publicity in the Journal of the Department of Agriculture of the Union of South Africa, whilst at home general references to the industry will be found in Tropical Life, and from a statistical standpoint in the Board of Trade Journal. Information concerning the West Indian cotton industry is to be found in the publications of the Imperial Department of Agriculture, namely, the West Indian Bulletin, the Agricultural News, the Pamphlet Series, and in the West Indian Botanic Station Reports. 45 706 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS Turning to the periodicals which deal especially with fibres, reference may be made to the Journal d' Agriculture Tropicale and to the Philippine publications, particularly the Philippine Agricultural Review, which devotes much attention to the production of Manila hemp and kapok. In England, the technological and economic side of fibre production receives systematic consideration in the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, and various aspects of the industry are written up from time to time in Tropical Life. The work in German possessions in Africa will be found described in Der Tropenpflanzer and in the official publication of the Amani Institute, Der Pflanzer. Owing to the development of fibre growing in Fiji, Mauritius, Jamaica, and the Bahamas, the Reports of the Department of Agriculture of those colonies often prove of interest. Special attention may be given to the Bulletin Agricolc, Mauritius, and to the 'Revue Agricole, Reunion. It is hardly necessary to add that those interested in fibre should follow closely the summarizing publications referred to in the first section of this paper. Doing so will often be the means of becoming acquainted with work in foreign countries which has been published in periodicals that have a very limited circulation. Sugar. The economic and manufacturing side of the sugar industry is represented in England by the International Sugar Journal. In America this side of the industry, as well as production, is dealt with by the Louisiana Planter, Sugar, and the Modern Sugar Planter. These journals also report on affairs in Cuba, though this Republic has its own organs, as exemplified by the Cuba Magazine and the Cuba Review. From Porto Rico, near by, comes the publications of the Government Experiment Station and the local Planters' Association. On the sugar industry of the British West Indies, the Imperial Department of Agriculture issues periodicals and reports, as do also the Departments in British Guiana, Trinidad, and Jamaica. From India, important papers come in the publications of the Departments already referred to under cotton, whilst the industry in Mauritius receives regular attention MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS /O? in the Bulletin Agricole and in the Departmental reports. Java and the Dutch colonies generally are represented by Der Indische Mercuur Ar chief voor de Suikerindustrie in Nederlandsch-Indie, Bulletin van het Deli Pro ef station, and others. In the East, also, the Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station publishes valuable bulletins on sugar production, and in Australia there is the Journal of the Queensland Department of Agriculture, and the Aus- tralian Sugar Journal, published at Melbourne. The principal sugar journal in South Africa is the Durban Agricultural Nezvs. Facts concerning the sugar industry in the Argentina find circulation in Revista Industrial y Agricola de Tucuman. Tea and Rice. The production of these two crops being principally confined to the Far East, one looks to publications from this part of the world for leading information. Tea and rice go into consumption without that intensive manu- facture which characterizes rubber, fibres and sugar, and this lessens the necessity for the very technical journals that have arisen in connection with these latter-named crops. As regards tea, Ceylon and Southern India publish the results of work through the medium of the Tropical Agriculturist, Indian Planters' Gazette, and the Planters' Chronicle. The Reports of the Assam Depart- ment are also important. The Indian and Ceylon pub- lications devote considerable space to the subject of rice growing. It is also of interest to note the appearance of papers and articles on this industry which are of late making their appearance in the British Guiana and Trinidad periodicals consequent on the settlement of a coolie population in these colonies. Hawaii, too, has a developing rice industry, and experimental work has for some time been in progress there. The Japanese, the Javanese, and the West African publications also should be consulted in regard to rice growing. Cofjec and Tobacco. The cultivation of these crops, particularly tobacco, is very widely spread, hence literature dealing with them 7°8 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS is scattered. For coffee, the Brazilian publications, e.g., Boletim de Agricultura, Sao Paulo, may be usefully consulted, also the Surinam and Jamaican and Porto Rican agricultural literature. The Planters' Chronicle of Southern India generally has several pages devoted to experimental work connected with coffee. Important literature on tobacco growing is to be found in the American and Indian official publications, par- ticularly the Bulletin of the Ohio Experiment Station and the Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture in India. Almost all the general agricultural journals referred to in previous sections contain from time to time articles on tobacco, but special reference may be made to the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, L' Agriculture Pratique des Pays Chauds, and L'Agronomie Tropicale. Much of literature on tobacco comes from Hungary and from Salerno, in Italy. Tobacco growing in South Africa is dealt with in the Union Agricultural Journal, whilst the Nyasaland Reports contain interesting information con- cerning the industry in East Africa. Coconuts and Bananas. The cultivation of coconuts has received much systematic attention in the Philippines. The Philippine Agricultural Review and other publications issued in these islands are, therefore, important sources of refer- ence. From the Federated Malay States also comes literature on coconut growing, and special mention may be made here of the Bulletin of the Federated Malay States Department of Agriculture. Coconut cultivation being an important industry in Trinidad, the Bulletin of the Agricultural Department in this colony and the Journal of the Agricultural Society frequently contain papers on coconuts. The same may be said of British Guiana. There is as well to be mentioned the Tropical Agriculturist (Ceylon). Articles on the position of the industry from an economic aspect are frequently seen in the Financier and other London papers. As regards bananas, Jamaica, the great producing centre, issues information of a practical kind in the Journal of the Jamaica Agricultural Society, whilst MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS 7OO, more scientific articles appear occasionally in the Depart- ment's Bulletin. The Hawaii Experiment Station has of late been issuing considerable literature on bananas, as has also the Queensland Department. It may be well to record here the fact that a useful literary service has recently been rendered through the publication of two books — one, entitled "Coco-nuts: The Consols of the East," and a second, "The Banana: Its Cultivation, Distribution, and Commercial Uses." These works bring* together in compact form a large amount of infor- mation which was previously very diffused. Cacao and Citrus Fruits. The chief cacao growing countries are Ceylon, Trinidad, Grenada, the Central American Republics, Gold Coast, and the Cameroons. It is thus natural to find that most of the literature in circulation dealing with the cultivation of this crop emanates from the Departments and Societies in these places. As with most of the other industries, the growing of cacao is not neglected by the Philippine agricultural authorities. Much of the work published in Trinidad, Grenada, and Dominica in connection with cacao has referred to sanitation and the question of manuring; more attention is now being given to vegetative propagation and selection. The German publications are the best on fermentation and allied matters. In this connection reference may be made to the useful collection of papers on this subject in a book called the " Fermentation of Cacao." This affords another demonstration of the extent to which agricultural information in the Tropics is scattered. It is of value to note here that a useful journal for information on the cacao market is the Gordian, published at Hamburg. Turning to publications which devote attention to citrus fruits, it is found that they are principally those issued by the Experiment Stations in the Southern States of America, the American Genetic Association, and by the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies. The Perfumery and Essential Oil Record and Messrs. Schimmel's Reports are often valuable for information concerning citrus products. Citrus culture extends into 710 MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS the sub-tropics; it is consequently followed by its literature, and those interested in this culture must there- fore not restrict their attention to publications in the Tropics only. General and Scientific Literature. It is not proposed in this paper to deal at any length with the publications of a general kind, nor with the purely scientific literature that circulate in the Tropics. Brief mention may be made, however, of the Colonial Journal and the Empire Rcvieiv as examples of the former class; of the latter, Nature, Science, the Journal of Agricultural Science, Science Progress, the Journal of Agricultural Research, the Annals of Botany, the Bulletin du Jardin Botanique, the Kew Bulletin, Annales Mycolo- giques, Bulletin Trimestriel dc la Socictc Mycologiquc de France, Mycologia, Phytopathology, Comptes Rendus de V Academic des Sciences, the Journal of Economic Entomology, the Review of Applied Entomology, the Quarterly Journal of Applied Physiology, the Zeitschrift filr Pflanzenkrankheiten, and the Bulletin of Entomo- logical Research are examples of scientific publications issued in Europe and America which frequently contain information indispensable for conducting research in the Tropics. As already mentioned, the greater part of the scientific work done in the Tropics appears as special bulletins or pamphlets, or else somewhat unfortunately interposed between articles of more general interest in the agricultural periodicals. If institutions of the univer- sity type with a university Press existed in the Tropics it might be possible to co-ordinate scientific literature, and so render an invaluable service to those engaged in agricultural education and research. JOHN BALE, SONS AND DANIEL5SON, LTD. GREAT T1TCHFIELU STREET, \V. I. TTNI\ *t T OF B^^r ^^*^^^H|i