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TRANSACTIONS

of the

UTAH ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES

VOLUME I (1908-1917)

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Historical

An announcement was made before the general assem-
bly of teachers at the Provo meeting of the Utah Teachers’
Association that all those interested in the formation of a
Utah Academy of Science were requested to meet at 4 p. m.,
January 3, 1908, in Professor Hinckley’s room, to take
such action as seemed desirable. In accordance with this
announcement, the following persons assembled: Dr. Ira
D. Cardiff, University of Utah; Geo. W. Bailey, Ogden High
School; Dr. S. H. Goodwin, Procter Academy; A. O. Garrett,
Salt Lake High School; E. M. Hall, L. D. S. University ;
R. S. Baker, Eureka High School; C. G. Van Buren, B. Y. U.;
C. C. Spooner, Salt Lake High School; W. D. Neal, Salt Lake
City; Miss Olive E. Peck, Mt. Pleasant; Junius Banks, Lehi
High School; J. F. Rawson, Eureka High School and Fred
Buss, B. Y. U. At this meeting it was decided to perfect the
organization. A committee was appointed on membership,
and another on constitution. The committees were instructed
to report at a meeting to be called by the President pro tem.
in Salt Lake City in April. Moved and carried that all
present as well as any who should be present at the April
meeting should be invited to enroll as charter members.

The April meeting was held at the Packard Library
Auditorium, beginning April 3, 1908. The committee on
membership submitted a list of fifty-nine names of pros-
pective members. The committee on constitution reported a
draft for a constitution which after being acted on section
by section was finally adopted. In all, three sessions of the
first annual meeting were held.

Since this time, the Academy has held an annual con-
vention during April of each year, except that in 1913, two
conventions were held, one in April, and one during the
Christmas holidays and none the following April.

List of Officers

OFFICERS FOR 1908-09.

1p UT de AC rac hs HA BU UR ee Se LOR UG a) od aloe II GS as President
or oun AY Widtsoe, Uy A. Coes. scale Geidie aie a ater First Vice-President
Dr. S. H. Goodwin, Procter Academy.......... Second Vice-President
moe tatrett, Salt ake: Eligh) Sclto@h's 9.1. a au eues 4s ga ein ely Secretary
1B UAT Fe AE DD YS 0S NO) a eae ge Rh SPA PUR Poe a Treasurer
eV O MMe yall OS MS ss yi oa). 5 eerie Sel teysre a. ecattanal oite' Councilor
TEL EP ial De 4 1 Wa a Ge ee ey CDP AA aie ea Councilor
ID See year Crs) 28] a bed a feal URN CS a needrar met po CGR A HE Ae Rn Re a re AAR ce Councilor
OFFICERS FOR 1909-10.
Dee NM) OAaee a 0 ey bea OM) O fengl Maer ec anes ep oth RPA RRR Wee ETAUG oie met alt alo President
Draw ball. Ue AS Goth. teeth eaneree eke eae First Vice-President
Pyle, Medl, sant Lake Citys... i5 sagan ea bie Second Vice-President
ne), Garrett; palt ‘Lake ‘High Schools ou ciioohinieles ee Secretary
Dr. Philena Fletcher Homer, Pleasant Grove............... Treasurer
Pra Peace Gl S@ine swe eae isis sc seioumbey aa aveiesapaeistona eaerbie takcttede © Councilor
es. 3; Goodwin, Procter Academy 61.660. 442 secs J+ a. Councilor
Prot, W: W: Henderson, Weber Academty..) 5. .0i 65. 6%Kcqe Councilor
OFFICERS FOR 1910-11.
ee PE a ysis UU ey AN ie od di, cals Scalpna la clellansbere tepaterd ack career setae tas President
Ci) Spooner; Salt Lake High School. ie. i208 040. First Vice-President
Dr. S. H. Goodwin, Procter Academy.......... Second Vice-President
Pov Garrett, Salt lake’ High Schools Nie ace. teu ens as tie Secretary
fondue, Porrester, Salt Lake Citys i..2t)an tots dbs he Sapte Treasurer
Prat Marcus! &. Jones; Salt ‘luake City enor 22s 8 win Councilor
mot Me Asreaves-VWalker, Salt Lake City.6 scsi hk 6 oli le Councilor
PDO Me WOTRTES Ss Wasi os eve alamietaa ke ieeMohe miele ete oie km einele Councilor
OFFICERS FOR 1911-12.
Ge A NOL OTES pi ich ero ooas See e tain isi nie pene ire eye ages President
Dr. S. H. Goodwin, Procter Academy............ First Vice-President
Dr mobert stewart, Uc AS Coase cueing ts ste Second Vice-President
Ove G). trathete, car ioake High’ Schogiity cig. > oe uses ot paige Secretary
ProtaWviarcusis, jones, Salt Takec@iiyewiewosdtas tcc poles Treasurer
Gris Gea Tetts ie Wie) ANd ores cakes Ci cloce BRIN CTs <'e1 4 Riacenetntaia hoe ens Councilor
Dr Philenavi, Homer,’ Pleasant Grovesat cs. i. doce a Councilor
VAS IDeO Neale salt, Walke .Gitty,. ne sree ea eiiiace wcitcsials SEE ee Councilor
OFFICERS FOR 1912-13.
AvOuGatrett: salt; lake ich Schoolscan cies peer ueieele neat President
Protessor 4. i. Gai bsom, OU. Uh. 6256 sce elbwess suns First Vice-President
Dr. Philena Fletcher Homer, Pleasant Grove..Second Vice-President
Deed eta MARES) CI Ps Oi das a SIS G Lien ihe Balsa ed Abus Secretary
Miss Gertrude, Norton, Salt Lake Cty iis)... okie esas cn Se oe Treasurer
POR AR AN SER TL ORVIEO El Wy, Wiea'asee! ofacchu eeme clare) aiahy a hes redoing Bala ancy ele Councilor
PRO NW REIS) ret ements le VY. tae ike he RU glee Councilor

President W. W. Henderson, Weber Academy............ Councilor

6

OFFICERS FOR 1913-14.

LD SAIL EDNN Coed Sh DEAT OR: Va Gap ker I TQ Dar AD LIS AEN AOA neh, lit 2 I Re President
LE Wa Seah tern ea EMR WOR Re PD i MD ar First Vice-President
Wek ios Dredt,erale Rea e City's c.'tcichuatercatbien + ¢ Second Vice-President
AO Garretts saltimeake doh: Schoole. gicinc ice ciate sus sess Secretary
BV Archunibenryitian CROUntiiul, » io sabe sien ehiniaeloee cnet Treasurer
Flow Marens ye) Jones) salt. take Crm! ocala ak Councilor
Per ataerry retry i) Wah ose Ma elem idk ae alae diletele We Councilor
eiosenhy Peterson, EL. UIs), dislicn aemiratea pets EY PERC AL g aps Councilor
OFFICERS FOR 1914-15.
Brabvliancusiih JORESH Salt Make Citys isis iteleah eon tks ielelewe President
Wethanveyhletehen, Bi i Vater wees eae ee First Vice-President
DEG Ne Mensen ye WAMI GM. arene Lidge! Second Vice-President
A. O. Garrett, Salt Lake High School............ Permanent Secretary
1D rk WANE aNd eGo gore) (0) CON OOK GPA penta iRAMnUE teat HU NEURO OM A Councilor
1B se] oksrs) of oUN 2xr=y ey elsko. « WON WN BELVO Tate ERT ARTY ENE SO RSA AT er gS Councilor
LOREEN aia fo BASSI Va a A NRA CGP OnMMe Tb ee psu OU AME SIRE Councilor
OFFICERS FOR 1915-16.
Pre arviey SHACECHEL, erie Me tisk 2 LN ig eh re me President
AO rrr Sans Ann Gel gisehas minieneelonelare mee First Vice-President
1D ye VIO ST D Eibtakerspocl © ARH © peas SRA AOR ae rey Ua aa aa Second Vice-President
A. O. Garrett, East High School, Salt Lake City.. Permanent Secretary
BAU CSSOLM I ele. Cal DSOM Mm Mle eig) AO a iD Mga Ty 2 STi (RMD LL TONG Councilor
NirmOaiNea Salt ide Cityc ans fee obiig ete ere cgi. Lu wD, Councilor
LONE Gale roll ACG Rene REMMI CLS Em Rite Beat) Councilor
OFFICERS FOR 1916-17.
TOL RUMILER ae ny Feseha es Be Wt gh oan GMa Ga QCA RS fl ht Pea ARO Rm President
TD res UU BACY Dei Dei chsh ORI | Ci Laep ae ne Geese eM AS TMP A EL | First Vice-President
Peoressor War 2. Eyring, By oY oO We oa viccos ols Second Vice-President
A. O. Garrett, East High School, Salt Lake City. .Permanent Secretary
WUD NEA alti alee Cipyys se crease Wiis erly eeu Dane LOU) Nh Councilor
IBROLESSON He les sat Some. WM Uy nie Se ea ute neal one tl Councilor
DAVE ea TOU: MU WAL CS oneness 8 sede Ma wind ks ie Mer banal yas Councilor
OFFICERS FOR 1917-18,
EE CUBASE aN DEE RN OB 5, AA ao CO] nT AO President
[Dita 1 in AOI re Vesa (FIM WJ erg aE aA eS Cea A First Vice-President
LOVESONG EEE Eig fo) EARL W piv ET QNDE AL Se) ASS A va Second Vice-President

A. O. Garrett, East High School, Salt Lake City.. Permanent Secretary
C. Arthur Smith, East High School,

SHE) MRR MEI. lei tale iol Riere lols da eiece ee a Adela Assistant Secretary
Dre Me wEOn Niet: NU NU Cites vert UAV Nena anise eee Ruel Councilor
Professor Can iy rine. JIU N ey Wve coeturen peep ne miei coete niatic ae itttey Councilor

C. Arthur Smith, East High School, Salt Lake City........ Councilor

Roster Utah Academy of Sciences,
October 25, 1917

LIFE MEMBERS.
BISHOP, FRANCIS MARION (1916)............ccceee. 1642 Major Avenue, Salt Lake City

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

RAL. DERLE DD, (Charter, 1908): . oo. c6. se ccs State Entomologist for Wisconsin, Madison

PAGAL bite LCA ADS (Charter, (1908) (o's isos ie:stajasialctotelatoicianie icles ltcue br eielaeie se Yakima, Wash.
CLEMENS, MRS. MARY STRONG (Charter, 1908) ...............- Mo. Bot. Garden, St. Louis
CUMMINGS, PROF. BYRON (1913)....Professor Archeology, University of Arizona, Tucson
GREAVES-WALKER A. F. (Charter, 1908).

TEA Ra ia Harter, 1908) a)eie, occa cents ele dia pislale oesebe dieteoteyecels High School, St. George, Utah
HARTMAN, DR. L. W. (Charter, 1908)......... Professor Physies, University Nevada, Reno
TENOWLTON, DRI As AN(19TT) cesses Professor Physics, Reed College, Portland, Ore.
LUNA el LE 2 22 2 A NY Wk Oe a Asst. Prof. Nutrition, Univ. California, Berkeley
UAC Ere 2, NP Roe) EERO LIEN Let (DCC. LOTS) iia cle, dc tyar's le) oot oiayilal ates ataboln teehee euetslel cis eres (abe Berkeley, Cal.
PETERSON, DR. JOSEPH (1911)....... Professor Psychology, Univ. Minnesota, Minneapolis
SMITH DR. FRANKLIN, O. (Dec., 1918)....Professor Psychology, Univ. Montana, Missoula
STEWART, DR: ROBT. (1910) ............. Asst. Prof. Soil Fertility, Univ. Illinois, Urbana
*VORHIES, DR. CHARLES T. (1909)............. Professor Zoology, Univ. Arizona, Tucson
FELLOWS,
CARROET DRS Wer Fs (1912) oo oi evel; shies 0 0\c' fers Prof. of Animal Husbandry, U. A. C., Logan
TRAINS Dies Rt Tan) CIS09) east ye 3c cheleiealale's Associate Prof. Bacteriology, U. U., Salt Lake City
*EBAUGH, DR. W. C. (Charter, 1908) ...Consulting Chemist, 809 Kearns Bldg., Salt Lake City
BYRING,| PROF: CARL. FB: (April, 1918))..50:. e050 bed eu Assoc. Prof. Physics, B. Y. U., Provo
SE CEC ay Bree EPA Be CLOUD Disa) s)s. 68: 5 'e.o: a alcl'eet ates ava latbarctel uave: eviarelie para dlisted New York, N. Y.
FORRESTER, JOHN BRYCE (Charter, 1908) ..Geologist and Min. Eng., 1634 9th E., S. L. C.
*GARRETT, A. O. (Charter, 1908)............. Head Dept. Biology, S.L. H. S., Salt Lake City
GIBSON, PROF. J. L. (Charter, 1908) ..Dean School Arts and Sciences, U. U., Salt Lake City
GOODWIN, DR. S. H. (Charter, 1908) ........cccccesecws President Procter Academy, Provo
*HARRIS, DR. FRANK S. (Charter, 1908)........... Director Utah Agr. Exp. Station, Logan
Be DR GEO, Res di.) (Der 5 1918)! s:. sci0e c's cb 5 clspomae ae Plant Pathologist, U. A. C., Logan
HOMER, DR. PHILENA FLETCHER (Charter, 1908) .922 E. Second South St., Salt Lake City
RUAN EER ene 4) CLOUD) cieia televise aicca’s o sja.s'le wha tetuvaedefetantala) ara terclereiaiets President B. Y. C., Logan
*JONES, PROF. MARCUS E. (Charter, 1908)...... 270 W. South Temple St., Salt Lake City
MILLER, DR. NEWTON (1916)..............00-- Professor Zoology, U. U., Salt Lake City
IPA Whe Ds COharter: 1908) ob viss b/ci a else p Gal sige ele ane al sl biel a 528 Center St., Salt Lake City
PETERSON) DR: BLMBR Ge C1912) 5 oii swe aie wa lalla delewuslaleieletniets President U. A. C., Logan
EOIN cE OE. Wile CLOT Jie dc/0'c. ojcve oie a elgepaidleelsiinia cies Professor Geology, U. A. C., Logan
PEGE kee EEC GUN CALI ec aialce 5 acs e © oiesele manetorstaiely di latelave Alora Univ. California, Berkeley
EEE, Cl AR TEU CLOTS) eo oie cities a ciereie Teacher Physics, East High School, Salt Lake City
SNODDY, DR. GEORGE S. (1916)........ Assoc. Prof. of Psychology, U. U., Salt Lake City
SNOW, Dr. P. G. (Charter, 1908) ............. Dean of Medical School, U. U., Salt Lake City
STUTOS, DR.) B./G: (Charter, 1908)! 0.0/5 .< 3.5% ,\e's/sleminercree Sugar Breeding Work, Idaho Falls, Ida.
WEST, DR. FRANK L. (1912) ..Prof. Physics and Dir. School of Gen. Science, U. A. C., Logan
WIDTSOE, DR. JOHN A. (Charter, 1908) .................. President U. U., Salt Lake City
RESIDENT MEMBERS.
ATA EeS Fee FeO Rs (DOU) Seis coc ate se b/sbisiere Asst. Prof. Poultry Husbandry, U. A. C., Logan
BENNION, PROF. MILTON (1916)........ Dean School of Education, U. U., Salt Lake City
SERGE MAINS) Fo PA GL OUG D(a ih aha lel shicchs-o lo a.ce's Stouravehere area chdlcelcte chelohe Berg Apts., Tacoma, Wash.
BOND, MISS MARY ELIZABETH (1912).......... Principal Lincoln School, Salt Lake City
BONNER, DR. WALTER D. (1917)........... Professor of Chemistry, U. U., Salt Lake City
BRIGHTON, "THOS: Bi: CAprils | 1918)).\. .i6/.2 galeeic ae Inst. in Chemistry, U. U., Salt Lake City
CAINE, GEORGE B. (1916)................ Assoc. Prof. Animal Husbandry, U. A. C., Logan
CAINE, PROF. JOHN T., III (1912)........ Director of Extension Division, U. A. C., Logan
CORAY, PROF. GEO. (1917)....Professor of Economics and Sociology, U. U., Salt Lake City
CUMMINGS) No Wa (Dee; T9GS)) oii< os iis ain. 2 priniciebieoerele 1461 S. Seventh East St., Salt Lake City
EAS EET ES PA Bees) ADR se icles sida aharie ota. oo als vatchiete le tal @ aula alate wibIe iat tal uae layulereialel die Mammoth, Utah

GARDNER, DR. WILLARD (April, 1913) .........-..02eeeeeee Prof. Physics, B. Y. C., Logan

*Past Presidents.

8

GIDDINGS, L. A. (1917)......... Beto Satara Teacher Zoology, East High School, Salt Lake City
aD DY TRG a pap TM eS) sa VLOE Tie bat cs cycioiouk wovic Sie sieeRete ie’ oie stonmphiclateate ele tton ciple tei wiv eisieieie’wre Murray
HAGAN, HAROLD R. (December, 1913)............... Assoc. Entomologist, U. A. C., Logan
HARWOOD, WILLARD R. (December, 1913).......... Teacher Nature Study, Salt Lake City
ELAN, CMM EUS re OLS) eat p tus Gels SM Sees Adame tind vielen s Wacle(dacic catelers Pleasant Grove
HAGERLOA & Dee ARYL 2 CLOG) <0, cle) Seitivieiecele bie. sus Professor Biology, B. Y. U., Provo
HOGENSON, J. C. (1910)....... State Leader in Boys’ and Girls’ Club Work, U. A. C. Logan
IVERSEN, L. MOTH CLOUT) ciara e srcte.ic.u s.0,n ere « o'eistwieiie wiih face eldieie cietsta.'a wate ninieiat Salt Lake City
AOD OES TOI FT OS RT GLE I) ESR Pe) nS ....Agr. Expert, Salt Lake City
OM tas CPETINUAET SC LQOS Die) cls eye dare biavecaleseye sw ale,s/eauere Males Mie) eis Bie awa ee BIR alee B. Y. C., Logan, Utah
KERR, WALTER MAL CULT) ok seis ices cuts Asst. Prof Mod. Languages, U. U., Salt Lake City
KNOX, MISS FLORENCE (Dec., 1913)....... Teacher U. U. Training School, Salt Lake City
PGS DLAUIN, ts A RR PING Ey Be GLOET \ie cc tacurs! el sevsieislela’s¥aeleieie abe is @ievere olathe a Forest Service, Ogden
LEDYARD, EDGAR M. (1916)............. Agr. Expert, U. S. Smelting Co., Salt Lake City
LYMAN, DR. RICHARD R. (1912)........ Professor Civil Engineering, U. U., Salt Lake City
MACFARLANE, WALLACE (1912)................ Oklahoma Agr. College, Stillwater, Okla.
MABEBSER, PROF. SHERWIN (1917) .......cceccccaccecs Asst. Prof. Physics, B. Y. U., Provo
MATTHEWS, A. L. (1916)............... Asst. Prof. Agr. Education, U. U., Salt Lake City
UREA RGR Aeon) Ctr UL One) citairavate ails savars/s\el's'pr'eie/e(nvelexetcels.e eo Professor of Chemistry, B. Y. U., Provo
REA LAU IEE) VCR DDO S (CLOUB) cis alo aieis- sips tlepororever vusielsiaw clues eielaielyeieeleiele Daniel, Wyoming
MERRILL, DR. JOSEPH F. (1917)........ Director of School of Mines, U. U., Salt Lake City
MOREHEAD, MISS MARY (1915)...... Critic Teacher U. U. Training School, Salt Lake City
MORSE, MISS HAZEL L. (1916)....Teacher Physiography, East High School, Salt Lake City
NORTON, MISS GERTRUDE (1909)............ Teacher Longfellow School, Salt Lake City
PACK (DR: | PREDERICK 3.) (1917) sis:cii.0d cis. leeciwccce Prof. of Geology, U. U., Salt Lake City
PAUL, DR. J. H. (Charter, 1908)....Prof. of Nature Study and Geog., U. U., Salt Lake City
PHERSON, PROF. E. W. (1909).....«.... Asst. Prof. of Mathematics, U. U., Salt Lake City
REEVES, GEO. I. (April, 1913)............ Entomologist, 416 Vermont Bldg., Salt Lake City
PSVOS EC O00.) 1 TQUH tigi 25 OB Geb yh SP eae ae ARR AL ae seen Ct be be eZ U. U., Salt Lake City
SILER AIS ERCCL OLED) ic so a ieyelete's leit sic\e'eie sivielate sivisyae wis leis % Teacher High School, Heber, Utah
SRC RGIS EIN AG ELAS GEO TID) pllararalc'e alcjatelechislels.gere.enaia'e wisele'ulals'aieioieiav clam Asst. Zoologist, U. A. C.
UE RG) EEO MCAS COLON T )) 5 oiciates acecc)s lola’ tie 0:)¢ 0 ipic'eiewwieis s'biala >t 0)s R. F. D. No. 1, Box 274, Provo
SPM BY SLON EY Be i(LODG)). cia aleisern's voles asp tiers Asst. in Chemistry, U. U., Salt Lake City
STEINER, PROF. CHRISTIAN D. (Dec., 1913) ..Prof. Agr. Education, U. U., Salt Lake City
RANG TDETIN Mal OMEL ING WV y CL OLI/) icicle: sickats eis istevate oie Sj slellotel o glv.siel ele ieiie\aca'e ofetote evalela\ete.e/st's a Salt Lake City
PAN UOR MRS. AM Ea TAY de. (Dees, 1918)! Jeic:c ce aiee eieisie-s ve\v's aicleisseielse ela Box 94, Provo, Utah
TAY HOR, ES LES PARK CL9IG)). ... sfees «oe vices sciee Dir. of Extension, U. of Arizona, Tucson
SPAM NER RCT Wa) (IEC TOT), cisicisieis orevelvivie custaceje tel sisialslepis siete sta Sieanie ince Box 94, Provo
TAYLOR, J. EDWARD (April, 1913) .............06. 448 State Capitol Bldg., Salt Lake City
THOMAS, ELBERT D. (1917).........+-.0-. Instr. in Ane. Languages, U. U., Salt Lake City
THOMAS, MATHONIHAH (April, 1918) .........-eeeeeeeee 468 Seventh Ave., Salt Lake City
TUGMAN, DR. ORIN (1917) oo)... es cee cine Assoc. Prof. of Physics, U. U., Salt Lake City
WEST, PROF. RAY BENEDICT (April, 1913)..... Prof. Agr. Engineering, U. A. C., Logan

WILSON, C. OREN (1916)..............- Teacher History, East High School, Salt Lake City

Constitution

ARTICLE I.

Section 1. The name of this organization shall be “The
Utah Academy of Sciences.”

ARTICLE II.

Sec. 1. The objects of this Academy shall be to pro-
mote investigation and to diffuse knowledge in the various
departments of science.

ARTICLE III.

Sec. 1. Members.—Any person interested in the pro-
motion of science may become a member of this Academy
upon nomination by the Council and assent of three-fourths
of the members present at any regular meeting.

Sec. 2. Each applicant for life, resident or associate
membership must be proposed in writing at a stated meet-
ing of the Academy by two or more resident or life members.
Except at the last session, names ratified by the Council
shall be placed in the hands of the members at least one ses-
sion before their election. A three-fourths vote of members
present shall be required for election.

Every person elected to membership shall pay the initia-
tion fee and the first annual dues within one month after
receiving notice of his election and shall sign the Constitu-
tion. |

Sec. 3. Fellows.—Fellows may be elected by the Coun-
cil from the members upon presenting satisfactory evidence
of having done original investigation.

Sec. 4. Fellows who have removed from the State may
be transferred to associate membership.

10 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Sec. 5. Honorary members shall be non-residents of
the State. They may be elected on account of special prom-
inence in science on the written recommendation of two
members of the Academy. The elections shall be in the
manner prescribed for resident members.

Sec. 6. Patrons.—Any person paying to the Academy
the sum of one hundred dollars ($100.00) at one time shall
be classed as a patron and shall be entitled to all the priv-
ileges of a member and to all publications of the Academy.

Sec. 7. Fees.—Resident members shall pay an initia-
tion fee of one dollar and annual dues of one dollar; but the
Secretary shall be exempt from the payment of regular dues
during the years of his service.

Sec. 8. Life Members.—Any person who at one time
shall contribute twenty-five dollars ($25.00) to the funds
of the Academy may be elected a life member of this
Academy and shall be exempt from all assessments therein.

ARTICLE IV.

Sec. 1. Officers——The officers of this Academy shall
consist of a President, two Vice Presidents and a Perma-
nent Secretary. The President and the two Vice Presidents
shall be chosen by ballot at the annual meeting, and shall hold
office for one year, or until their successors are chosen.
They shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their
respective offices. All of the officers shall be elected from
the fellows.

Sec. 2. Permanent Secretary.—The Permanent Secre-
tary shall be elected by the Council to hold office during the
pleasure of that body. The duties of the Permanent Secre-
tary shall be those ordinarily pertaining to that office and
in addition he shall have charge of all books, collections and
other property of the Academy. The Permanent Secretary
shall also perform the duties usually assigned to a Treasurer.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 11

Sec. 8. Council.—The Council shall consist of the Past
Presidents, the President, the Vice Presidents, the Secretary
and three Councillors-at-large to be elected from the Fellows
of the Academy at the time of the election of the officers.

Sec. 4. Vacancies.—In the event of a vacancy in the
office of President, the First Vice President shall serve the
unexpired term, and the Second Vice President shall succeed
the First Vice President. The Council shall have power to
fill any other vacancy in the offices.

ARTICLE V.

Sec. 1. Place of Meeting.—Unless otherwise directed
by the Academy, the annual meeting shall be held in April
of each year at such place as the Council shall designate.
Other meetings may be called at the discretion of the
Council.

ARTICLE VI.

Sec. 1. Amendments.—This constitution may be
amended at any annual meeting of the Academy by a vote
of three-fourths of attending members of at least one year’s
standing. No question of amendment shall be decided except
at a regular session of the annual meeting, nor shall it be
decided at the same session when presented. All proposed
amendments shall be presented in writing.

By-Laws

1. The first hour, or such part thereof as shall be
necessary, in each session shall be set aside for the trans-
action of the business of the Academy. The following order
of business shall be observed as far as practicable:

12 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Opening.
Minutes of the last meeting.
Reports of Officers.
Reports of Standing Committees.
Appointing of Special Committees.
Unfinished Business.
New Business.
Reports of Special Committees.
Election of Officers.

10. Election of Members.
\ 10): Program.

12. Adjournment.

O_o Se a

2. The President shall deliver a public address on the
evening of one of the days of the meeting, at the expiration
of his term of office.

3. No bill against the Academy shall be paid by the
Secretary without an order signed by the President.

4. Members who allow their dues to remain unpaid for
two years, having been annually notified of their arrearage
by the Secretary, shall have their names stricken from the
roll.

5. The Permanent Secretary shall collect initiation
fees, dues and other moneys for the Academy and shall have
charge of the distribution, sale and exchange of the pub-
lished transactions of the Academy, under such restrictions
as may be imposed by the Council.

6. Eight members shall constitute a quorum for the
transaction of business.

7. No paper shall be entitled to a place on the pro-
gram unless the manuscript, or an abstract of the same,
will have been previously delivered to the Secretary.

8. Five members of the Council shall constitute a
quorum.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 13

9. In all points of parliamentary procedure not covered
by this Constitution and By-Laws, Roberts’ Rules of Order
shall prevail. |

10. These By-Laws may be amended by a two-thirds
majority vote of the members present at any regular meet-
ing, provided that the proposed by-law shall be submitted
in writing to the Secretary.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 15

FIRST ANNUAL CONVENTION, UTAH ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES.

Packard Library Auditorium, Salt Lake City, April 4, 1908.

“THE PRIMORDIAL ELEMENT—A RECURRING
PPPOE S ie ids 5 ed RAR By Dr. W. C. Ebaugh

“ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE F'LORA OF
fre GREAT PLATBAU? . ie a. stated By Marcus E. Jones
Published in Contributions to Western Botany, No. 13:46-68, 1910.

““NOTES ON NESTING HABITS OF THE GENERA BOMBUS
ND OSMDA Ss b's) Waited By Dr. Philena Fletcher Homer
In the absence of the author, read by Geo. W. Bailey.

“THE ORIGIN OF THE HOMOPTEROUS FAUNA OF THE
LL 4 gt SS BGA SOAP ABN yt By Dr. E. D. Ball

“RUSTS AND SMUTS OF SALT LAKE AND ADJACENT
RUNDE RIES HOS Cie A SN nl ba natn ea By A. O. Garrett
Published in Mycologia 2:265-304, 1910.

“CONCERNING THE RADIATION FROM THE NERNST
PROT ae viece lhl. AA By Dr. L. W. Hartman

“REFRACTORY CLAY AND THE EFFECTS OF INGREDIENTS
UPON THE MELTING POINT’. .By A. F. Greaves-Walker

“RECENT RESEARCHES BEARING UPON THE PHYSICAL
BASIS Ole RRR EDIT Yeh 0). dice ian By Dr. Ira D. Cardiff

““RESEARCHES ON GLAND CELLS”’..... By Dr. John Sundwall

16 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

NESTING HABITS OF BOMBUS AND OSMIA.
By Dr. PHILENA FLETCHER HOMER.

The nests of one of the most common of the western
bumble bees, Bombus morisoni, are of peculiar interest in
that they represent a complex type hitherto described only
from Europe. Several kinds of nests have been described
by American workers but all are of a simple type in which
the eggs are deposited in masses of pollen and the only cells
are the made-over cocoons of the pupae which are used for
storing honey and pollen.

B. morisoni, however, not only uses the pupal cases
as storage cells but in addition builds both brood cells and
pollen tubes of wax.

The nest was taken in August, at Logan, Utah. It
was situated in an old mouse nest under a strawy
manure pile. The bees had evidently taken forcible posses-
sion of the nest as the mummified remains of the rightful
owner were found in one side of the nest. At the time of
its removal all the stages of bee life were represented,
from the queen mother to the newly deposited eggs,
through the young and mature larvae, pupae and the
recently emerged queens and males.

The nest was very compact in form and composed of
four tiers of cells. The lower ones were dark in color
and mostly used as honey pots. Above there were the
fresh cocoons containing the pupae and nearly mature
larvae. These were light brownish in color with papery
walls stiffened at the base with wax.

The majority of these cells bore near the apex a
curious papilliform mass of soft wax which proved to
be the breeding cells. From three to seven eggs were
arranged in these cells, perpendicularly with the small end
downward. A waxen cup is first formed in which the
eggs are deposited and the cell is then capped over. No
food was found in any of the brood cells and the young
probably depend upon the ministrations of the nurse bees
for their daily rations.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 17

As the larvae increase in size the waxen cell is en-
larged but they evidently remain in one cell until about
ready to pupate. The waxen cells are then larger than
the thumb and somewhat irregular in shape as the soft
walls rather shape themselves around the larvae. In
spinning their cocoons, however, each larva builds for him-:
self an ample papery cocoon.

Besides the breeding cells, the nests contained two
other kinds of cells not usually found in the nests of the
common American species. These were the honey pots
and the pollen tubes. The honey pots were round waxen
cells open at the top and filled with honey. They differed
from the old cocoons which were also utilized as honey
pots in their form and size and in that they were com-
posed entirely of wax.

The pollen tubes were long cylindrical cells of soft
wax situated on the outside of the nest and extending
from the bottom to the top of the nest like chimneys.
This nest contained four of these placed about an equal
distance apart. They were filled to within one-fourth inch
from the top with pollen packed into a firm uniform
mass. .

The nest contained about sixty individuals and was
remarkably free from parasites. The body of a mutilated
Psithyrus was found under the nest where the bees had
thrust her after tearing off her wings and the most of
her legs and pubescence.

While the nests of the bumble bees are of particular
interest in that they form an important link between the
solitary and the permanently social bees, yet the bees of
the genus Osmia are probably the master builders of the
bee kingdom. In no other genus are the places chosen
for the nest or the forms of the cells so diverse.

Only a few of these have as yet been studied but
each one has its own method of building its home. Some
dabble in clay, others form their nests of dainty hued
vegetable fibres; but wherever the cells are placed the
bee itself seldom makes the excavation but places them
in some convenient cavity.

18 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The mud-wasp Osmia is not at all averse to rented
apartments and places her dainty brownish cells in the
empty cell of the common eastern mud wasp. The cells
are so arranged and shaped that they will exactly fill
the cavity of the mud cell.

The cells are extremely dainty, being composed of
chewed plant fibres and plant hairs of a reddish brown
color. They are very firm in texture and will resist
considerable pressure before bending. In leaving the cell
the young bee may emerge either through the concave
end of the cell or through the side of the cell. The adult
closely resembles the Snail-shell Osmia.

The Pine Osmia is a pretty little greenish bee which
builds its nest under the overlapping scales of the pitch
pine. She does not waste extra labor in constructing
a burrow for herself but finds the abandoned tunnel of
a grub or wasp and places her tiny cocoons therein.
These are placed end to end and are separated by thick
partitions of chewed vegetable matter. The material used
in the nests under observation was charcoal. The plug
closing the burrow is likewise of charcoal and about
half an inch long.

The burrows of the mud wasp which builds in
similar situations are always supplied with mud partitions
and their burrows are always closed with a plug of mud.
The character of the partitions may be relied upon for
determining the ownership of the nests.

The Snail-shell Osmia is, however, the aristocratic
member of the family and while she has long been known
in Europe has never before been described from America.
They choose for themselves dainty houses of pearl, the
deserted shell of Helix. The adults emerge early in the
spring from the middle of April to the first of May in
the vicinity of Ithaca, N. Y., the only locality from which
they have been reported.

The adults spend the first two or three weeks in the
shells and on cool days may be found there often four or
five in one shell. The males are much smaller and usually
occupy the inner spirals, often crawling into the third

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 19

spiral of the shell. The larger females rest in the outer
coils until settled warm weather in May calls them to
nest building. Ata place in the spiral where the diameter
narrows to about one-fourth inch, the bee places a thin
partition of vegetable matter, just thick enough to hold
the pollen in place. About three cells are then con-
structed with their long axes following that of the spiral.
Each cell is formed by the two partitions and is well
supplied with pollen. By this time the mother bee has
reached a place where the diameter has increased to
one-half inch and she then places the cells across the
lumen of the spiral. The opening into the shell is then
closed by a plug of chewed plant fibres nearly half an
inch thick. This differs from the plugs made by some
members of the genus in that it is composed of a solid
mass and is not made up of several layers or discs.
This partition is placed more than half way around the
first spiral so that the shell appears empty unless broken
into. As a further safeguard against the depredations
of predaceous and parasitic insects, the mother fills up
the entrance with tiny pebbles.

The Stone Osmia possesses the most highly developed
instinct for the protection of the young against their
parasitic enemies. This exceedingly interesting bee is
one of the larger members of the family and builds in the
larger branches of the pithed plants. A long burrow is
chosen not under one-fourth inch in diameter. In the
bottom of this she stores a mass of pollen and deposits
her egg. She then builds an ample partition of chewed
vegetable fibres closely resembling that of Alcidamea
producta. Next she places a few little pebbles in the
burrow and constructs another vegetable partition. About
three cells are thus formed, the partitions being invariably
composed of alternate layers of vegetable fibres and stones.

When she has finished the partition for the last cell,
the bee leaves an empty space about an inch long and
fills it in with tiny pebbles from one-eighth to one-six-
teenth of an inch in diameter. This stone-filled cell
is then closed with five or six alternate layers of plant

20 : TRANSACTIONS OF THE

fibres and tiny stones which forms a plug one-half to
three-fourths of an inch long.

But however efficacious her precautions may be
against certain members of the parasitic hymenoptera,
they are unavailing against her own relatives, little grey
bees of the family Stelididae which enter the burrow
while the bee is away after pollen and deposit their eggs
in the mass of pollen intended for the Osmia larvae.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 21

SECOND ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE UTAH
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

(Known as the “Darwin Centennial Meeting” of the Academy.)

Packard Library Auditorium, Salt Lake City,
April 9 and 10, 1909.

“DARWIN THE MAN”....By Prof. W. W. Henderson, B. Y. C.
“FACTORS IN ZOOLOGICAL EVOLUTION”. By Dr. John Sundwall
“FACTORS IN BOTANICAL EVOLUTION”. .By Dr. C. T. Vorhies

“THE ADAPTATION OF INSECTS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE

7 ARID: CONDITIONS 30 \5 60.6 e's ok Lah By Dr. E. D. Ball
“THE ALFALFA LEAF WEEVIL”.......... By Dr. E. G. Titus
ETON AINE SGU a ale oe By A. O. Garrett
“ORBITAL GLANDS OF AMPHIBIANS”........ By P. G. Snow

“NOTE ON GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN

DPR ree UA Nk oa, Wieretains Liat bh, Henke ahaa By J. B. Forrester
“HIGH TEMPERATURE MEASURE-

I oP sore) wis) civa isco ’n do chuec eae tins By Dr. L. W. Hartman
“POTTERY GLAZE COLORING”...... By A. F. Greaves-Walker

“THE VALUATION OF FUEL ACCORDING TO
PONE Ta or a aha cals a aMeretnere ad wrens By Dr. Wm. Blum

oe HELAAPEN EY RDS e's se the haale By Chaplain Clemens

22 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THE HONEY ANTS.
By A. O. GARRETT.

(Abstract).

A review is given of a paper by Professor William
Morton Wheeler entitled “Honey Ants, with a Revision
of the American Myrmecocysti.”

There are two species of honey ants in North America,
Myrmecocystus melliger (more abundant at lower altitudes
of 300-1500 meters) and M. mexicanus (at higher altitudes
of 2000-2500 meters). McCook discovered M. horti-deorum
(a variety of M. mexicanus) in the Garden of the Gods
near Manitou, Colorado, in 1882. This is nocturnal in
its habits, while M. melliger is diurnal. The colony of
M. horti-deorum consists of yellow workers, which are
the nurses and feeders; of other yellow workers, which
are the honey makers; and of black workers, which are the
guards and purveyors.

The reasons for giving this review are stated as
follows:

One day last autumn, Mr. Guy Hart, a senior in the
Salt Lake High School, brought to me a box containing
several repletes of honey ants. He had dug them up
near Garfield. The abdominal walls of some had been
broken, and the honey, a thick, viscous, rather dark-brown
substance, had spread over the bottom of the box. The
honey-chamber is about the size of a small currant. The
measurement of that of one ant is 11 x 7.5 mm. I sent
specimens to Professor Wheeler, who pronounced them
as undoubtedly M. mexicanus, belonging to a variety very
closely allied to horti-deorum. They are, however, apparent-
ly smaller than the repletes of that variety, the measure-
ments of which he gives as 10-13 mm. in length.

Whether this is a new variety or not cannot be deter-
mined until a complete set of workers shall have been
collected. However, the find is the first recorded for
Utah, and Garfield is the farthest north and farthest west
of any locality for any species or variety of the honey

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 23

ant. We find many ant-hills among the scrub-oaks of
this region. Who knows whether they are those of honey
ants? Here is a good subject for investigation by the
zoologists of our Academy.

/

24 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

A SHORT COMMENT ON BULLETIN 371 OF THE
U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. |

By J. B. FORRESTER.

Having spent several years in close contact with the
Book Cliffs Coal Field, and having studied the geology
of that region through actual surveys, I believe that a
short comment on Mr. Richardson’s paper may not be out
of place.

It is by a comparison of ideas advanced by different
observers that the science of Geology has attained it present
prominence, and mistakes as well as truths have given it
a great impetus.

It will be unnecessary to go into the history of the
literature concerning the Laramie and the Mesa Verde
Formations, but we shall confine ourselves to the paper
under consideration.

Since 1903 it has been my privilege to study and
collect fossils in the Laramie, or Coal Bearing Series, of
Eastern Utah; also those of southwestern Colorado, and
the Mesa Verde in the same region. I have also run
outcrop surveys from Sunnyside to the Beckwith Plateau
and from Castlegate to Huntington Canyon. These,
together with several geological profiles, cover farily
well this portion of Utah.

I shall give a description of what has, until lately,
been known as the Laramie formation. At Castlegate the
Laramie consists of some 3000 feet of alternating sand-
stones and shales. The strata are thick and represent
long periods of submergence. The conditions of deposition
have been very uniform. However, the Castlegate sand-
stone which lies at the top of the coal bearing series, is
materially different from the other sandstones in this
formation. The lower sandstones weather into a honey-
comb appearance. This is due to wind erosion. There
are no joints, so all edges are rounded. Immediately
under these sandstones, of which there are two, are shales,
easily weathered and eroded. Thus the sandstones are
undermined, the overhanging ledge breaks off and the

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 25

operation commences anew. This is what Dutton named
“Weathering by recession of cliffs” and is very character-
istic of the whole formation.

The upper, or Castlegate sandstone, is very different.
It attains a thickness of over 500 feet, is very compact
and is broken by joints and cross joints into large blocks.
One set of these joints is parallel to the bedding plane and
the other at right angles to it. Consequently the talus
from this stratum is formed of large angular blocks,
while the talus of the lower strata consists of rounded
boulders. The Castlegate sandstone is also underlaid by
a layer of shale and this preserves the recession of cliffs
uniform throughout the formation. Its general resem-
blance to cyclopean masonry makes it easy to identify.

Apart from its fauna the Laramie has strong lines
of demarcation. The abrupt change from argillaceous to
arenaceous at the bottom, and the gradual transition
from arenaceous to calcareous at the top presents an
unfailing index to its delimiting lines. These character-
istic lines of demarcation, so I find, are coextensive with
the Laramie exposures in other portions of Utah.

The Laramie is divisible into three natural zones, viz.,
Upper Zone—Heavy sandstones with a few beds
of shale, and makes precipitous

CULES ON a ae Rd eee 1500 feet

Middle Zone—Thin beds of sandstone and shale,
many seams of coal; makes
talus-like slopes ............ 500 feet

Lower Zone—Heavy bedded sandstones grading
into thin argillaceous sandstones
at the bottom, makes bluffs on
top merging into talus-like
Slopes at. base nike cel 1000 feet
Having thus described the general features and succes-
sion of the Laramie as it occurs near Castlegate and Sunny-
side, I shall now give a general description of the Mesa
Verde as it occurs at the type locality, where I have had
two seasons of geological work.

26 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The name Mesa Verde Group was applied by W. H.
Holmes (U. S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terr., 1875, page
244) to the series of sandstones and shales which form
the Mesa Verde. He included in the Group three divi-
sions, viz.,

The lower Escarpment, sandstone.............. 120 feet.
The middle Coal Group; shale, marl, and coal 800-900 feet.
Upper Escarpment, massive sandstone ........ 190 feet.

This complex included the variable series, largely of
sandstone, occurring between two strong shale formations
—clearly the Mancos and Lewis Shales.

The fossil evidence presented by Cross (Folio No.
60, U. S. Geol. Surv.) shows that the Mesa Verde Forma-
tion is but a part of the Pierre division of the Montana
Group. The following fossils were found by him in this
formation.

Leda sp. Callista pellucida.

Ostrea pellucida. Corbicula sp.

Ostrea inornata. Baculites anceps var. ob-

Cardium speciosum. tusus.

Cardium bellulum. Baculites compressus.
_Inoceramus cripsii_ var. Placenticeras placenta var.

barabini. intercalare.
Mactra alta. Pinna sp.

According to T. W. Stanton, these forms range through
both the Pierre and Fox Hills formations of the Montana
Group of the Cretaceous. The list does not contain any
exclusive Fox Hills species and there is, therefore, no ground
from this fossil evidence to assign the Mesa Verde to the
Fox Hills as was done by the Hayden Survey.

I shall now take up the faunas of the two series as
collected by myself and identified by T. W. Stanton. First,
I shall compare the faunas as found in southwestern Colo-
rado where the succession is clearly shown from the Mancos
Shale through the Mesa Verde and Lewis Shale to the
Laramie. Then compare these with those found in Utah
from the Beckwith Plateau to Ivy Creek.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 27

LARAMIE.

Beaver and Yellow Jacket
Creeks.

Anomia sp. related to A.
micronema.

Modiola laticostata.

Corbiculas sp. related to C.
subelliptica.

Corbicula occidentalis

Corbula undifera.

Melania wyomingensis

Ostrea sp.

Unio holmesianus.

Unio brachyopisthus.

Unio verrucosiformis.

Unio (two undescribed
species. )

Campeloma sp.

Neritina sp.

MESA VERDE

In Strata between Durango
and Hesperus.

Serpula sp.

Serpula sp.

Ostrea subtrigonalis.

Inoceramus cripsii var.
barabini.

Pinna sp.

Lucina. sp.

Sphaeriola sp.

Cardium bellulum.

Cardium speciosum.

Callista deweyi.

Panopaea sp.

Dentalium sp.

Turrietella sp.

Lunatia sp.

Anchuria newberryi.

Fasciolaria sp.

Fusus sp.

Odontobasis sp.

Actaeon intercalaris.

Baculites anceps var. ob-
tusus.

Baculites compressus.

Placenticeras intercalare.

It will be noticed that the Mesa Verde fauna has a
distinct marine facies while that of the Laramie is fresh
or brackish-water, and nowhere have we found the cephalo-
poda, such as Baculites and Placenticeras, distinct marine
forms, in the series I refer to the Laramie; neither do we
find such marine forms as Pinna and Inoceramus. So the
point for us to keep in mind is, “The Mesa Verde fauna is
marine, the Laramie, fresh or brackish-water.”

Without going into detail, I will say that the Tertiary
Kocene which lies conformable on the Laramie, contains
characteristic fresh-water forms, such as Viviparus paludi-
naeformis, Goniobasis tenera, and Unio mendax. Thus

\

28 - TRANSACTIONS OF THE

the Laramie fauna as well as the strata form a transition
series between the marine Cretaceous and the lacustrine
Eocene Tertiary. The Mesa Verde, on the other hand, is
overlain by marine Cretaceous strata, the Lewis Shale.

Now let us compare the fossils found by Richardson
and myself in the Book Cliffs Coal Field.

COLLECTED BY.

G. B. RICHARDSON. J. B. FORRESTER.

Anomia micronema.

Anomia gryphorhyncus ............. Anomia propatoris.
BECHER is 2 eta ch ake Wisse lx © ab aie sos tate alls Ostrea glabra.
REP ROM NC NO mi HN Mh a ll TUE Gh AL le Ostrea soleniscus.
PATIOS IALICOSEAED 24/1 8. SS oie Modiola laticostata.
Agog UTE ara fay i Pcs Ce RE A ee Corbula undifera
Corpula, Subimigonalis. vse Ci... dicwts Corbula subtrigonalis
Corbula cytheriformis ............ Corbula nematophora.
PAN OUAiiel THOM DSONE vid ye wc SL Tulotoma thompsoni.
(AUTO LESS a) a Ego Re a Unio holmesianus.
CELTS CS) ISU le ae ene RRR a ae Oe Unio mendax.
OIL CUEY <7 Rvs RAS a Unio brachyopisthus.

REMERON ERTL CEI Hi) PRS Mises, A Sidial Gla SoReal reece wh eieteadc eee
RE PrRNON Ni ESSENSE A UA. ert RO NS rly 10 ab cee Se
Praiiscan (urrows: in wood Geos ale eke ele wie beaks
Lingula sp.

Cardium sp.

Admetopsis subfusiformis.

Viviparus trochiformis.

Viviparus Panguitchensis.

Planorbis planoconvexus.

Physa copei.

Sphaerium subellipticum.

Melania wyomingensis.

Cyrena securis.

On comparing these with the list obtained in south-
western Colorado one will see that there is a close agreement
even to the species, thus showing that the fossils collected
by Richardson and myself place the series of strata in the
Laramie. In neither of these lists do we find any marine

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 29

forms; on the contrary, such forms as Viviparus, show
clearly the brackish-water nature of the fauna. Not only
that, but also a transition to the fresh-water forms of
the Tertiary.

Again, all these fossils will be found referred to the
Laramie by Meek in his memoir on Cretaceous invertebrate
palaeontology (Vol. 9 U. 8. Geol. Surv. 1876). Dr. White
also, through his more recent researches, corroborated the
deduction of Mr. Meek, and it has been on these palaeonto-
logical grounds that I, as well as others, have referred the
Book Cliff Coal Series to the Laramie.

Let us see now what reasons Mr. Richardson brings
forth to lead him to relegate them to the Mesa Verde. In
the type locality the Mesa Verde lies conformably between
two marine Cretaceous formations, the Mancos and Lewis
Shales. From the faunal relations, the Mesa Verde has
been definitely placed in the Pierre division of the Mon-
tana Group. It is overlain by about 1800 feet of the
marine Cretaceous strata. In the Book Cliffs, Richardson
claims that there has been a long period of emergence,
enough time, indeed, to wash 2000 to 3000 feet of Laramie
and 1800 feet of Lewis Shale into the sea before the Eocene
was deposited.

Does observation substantiate this? I think not. Near
Castlegate the only unconformity that can be found is at the
top of the Fox Hills Formation. From this line of demar-
cation the strata have been laid down with a succession
so gradual that the upper delimiting line can only be found
by palaeontological means with any degree of certainty.

This line has been found to correspond to a stratum
of limestone that is persistent throughout the entire field.
In Ivy Creek where the Tertiary is covered, in part at
least, by a basic lava flow, I was enabled to locate the top
of the Laramie by recognizing this limestone with its
contained Viviparus paludinaeformis.

Mr. Richardson gives a good general section of the
Laramie as I have found it. The only assignable reason
for assuming that so great an unconformity exists, must
be that he first assumed the series Mesa Verde and used

30 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

this means to account for the seeming absence, to him, of the
Lewis Shale. The main point which I think may have led
to this condition is that the whole series which underlies the
Laramie has been correlated with the Mancos Shale. Now
the Mancos Shale, I find, agrees very well with the Colo-
rado formation; and the Lewis Shale with the Montana.
These two formations form the marine Cretaceous which
underlies the series in question. Mr. Richardson knew that
the Mesa Verde, as described by Holmes and Cross, was
overlaid by marine Cretaceous strata. Not finding this the
case here, he was obliged to use the unconformity hypothesis
to account for this seeming irregularity in the Book Cliff
Region. Then he shows a close lithological agreement,
which, I find, is only true in a most general way, in that
the coal bearing series is a complex of alternating sand-
stones and clastic rocks. Nowhere in the Mesa Verde do
we find any such sandstone as that I have called the Castle-
gate Sandstone. (It was in this sandstone that a tibia of a
_ Claosaurus was found some years ago by Robert Forres-
ter in the vicinity of Castlegate). Most of the sandstones
closely resemble those referred to:-as the Lower Sandstones.

The presence of the Lewis Shale has been conclusively
proven, as a complete suite of fossils ranging from the
bottom of the Colorado to the top of the Montana. The
latter formation contains many characteristic Fox Hills
Species. This taken together with the unconformity at
the base of the series in question and the entire absence of
any marine forms in the Laramie or overlying strata, I
believe justifies me in calling attention to this paper; and
in refusing to accept the new classification until it is based
upon more complete paleontological and stratigraphical
investigations. To base a conclusion of so much moment
on thirteen specimens that are at home more in the Laramie
than in the Mesa Verde seems to me rather hasty. Where
what Richardson calls a close stratigraphical agreement, it
seems to me that he would have tried to obtain more
palaeontological data. He does not show a single specimen
of Viviparus in his list, and I know that in Horse Canyon,

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 31

south of Sunnyside, there is an abundance of these forms
just above the lower seam of coal.

At some future time I expect to collaborate with Rob-
ert Forrester in a paper that will take up this whole sec-
tion of Utah, and give a detailed study of the same. Taking
the series as exposed from the Carboniferous to the Ter-
tiary, we will try and give their faunal relations and a
complete list of the fossils that we have found in this little
studied section.

32 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THIRD ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE UTAH
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Room of the Utah Society of Engineers, 702 Newhouse
Building, April 1 and 2, 1910.

Friday, April 1, 1910, 8 p. m.

““A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE JURASSIC OF SOUTH-
EASTERN UTAH”....By J. B. Forrester, Salt Lake City

POLENDMEISM 61 oa Ne By Dr. E. D. Ball, U. A. C.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS..... By Dr. W. C. Ebaugh, U. of U.

Saturday, April 2, 1910. 2 p.m.

““PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE ANIMALS OF GREAT
SA TARE ic go By Dr. Charles T. Vorhies, U. of U.

“RECENT ANALYSES OF WATER FROM GREAT
OARAP DGA I ao Pl By Wallace Macfarlane, U. of U.

““PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE PLANTS OF GREAT
re 8 ual BY. gal PR RO er ea Pa By L. L. Daines, U. of-U.

“RECENT PROGRESS IN ECONOMIC
PUNTOMOROGY? os ee Re By E. G. Titus, U. A. C.

“HFFLORESCENCE OR SCUM ON BRICK
1 8 ih aC RAN a By A. F. Greaves-Walker

““A REPORTED OCCURRENCE OF NATIVE IRON IN
RES Ny We tea orale era By Dr. W. C. Ebaugh, U. of U.

“THE COMPOSITION OF SOLIDS PRECIPITATED
FROM THE ATMOSPHERE DURING
‘SADT STORMS) 7 pebany By Dr. W. C. Ebaugh, U. of U.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 33

A GENERAL SURVEY OF THE JURASSIC IN
SOUTHEASTERN UTAH.

By J. B. FORRESTER.

I shall make no mention of the Jurassic west of the
Wasatch Range. I do not wish to imply, however, that it
is not to be found there. I shall limit my observations to
the occurrence east of that Range, with special reference to
that portion bounded on the north by the Book Cliffs, on
the east by the Utah-Colorado Line, and on the south by
the Utah-Arizona Line. I shall discuss it under the fol-
lowing heads: (1) Geographical Distribution. (2) Geo-
logy, and (3) Economic Features.

The exposure at the Uinta Mountains forms a fringe
along the slopes, and partakes of the attending phenomena
of the Uinta Uplift, namely faulting and folding. A good
section and discussion of its occurrence in this region can
be obtained from J. W. Powell’s “Geology of the Uinta
Mountains.” With this note I shall pass on to the more ex-
tensive exposures farther south.

The Jurassic strata constitute the greater part of
Emery County, Grand County south of the Denver and Rio
Grande Railroad, Wayne County, west half of Garfield and
Kane Counties and practically all of the large county of
San Juan. This makes a total of about twenty thousand
square miles. In this area there are small isolated regions
covered with strata of earlier or later age. A small area
‘of Upper Aubrey is found in the western end of Wayne
County, also in the Cataract Canon of the Colorado River.
The famous Natural Bridges in San Juan County occur in
the northern extremity of an exposure of Upper Aubrey
that extends south to the San Juan River.

GEOLOGY.

For convenience I have divided the Jurassic into three
series, Upper, Middle, and Lower. This division is based
upon lithological characters. The characteristic rocks of
each are as follows:

Lower, 1205 feet of sandstone, massive and cross-
bedded.

Middle, 1866 feet of Argillaceous strata and Lime-
stones.

3

34 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Upper, 492 feet of Conglomerates.
The typical section was taken a few miles west of the
town of Rochester, Emery County.

Lower:
OCanglomenstes (55)... daha ae 100 feet
Red Arenaceous Shales ......... 4.5
SELES ISLE 8c NAME BO eH PD ee eg 2.0
Red Arenaceous Shales .......... 6.5
Red Fossiliferous Conglomerate .. 3.3
[ca ures Tes RAE ERG PD Pa ee 54.5
NSO ISTAD" 6 SUA eo eR 1.5
Hos 1 DI RR ORCS SRT ee ee ANZ ACRE 1.0
RAG sOANOStONE |b c.0e) aids d aul She 13.2
Se UE Nise ua als Wire aia dig hate 6.0
PS CUTER OV Tea a ne eR OE A 1.0
Re WU ita Nicaea UNH URL een 5.0
Coarse Grained Sandstone ....... 1006.0
—— 1204.5 feet
Middle:
Limestone ..... SLU TCR OMERD RAS 40.0
PRPS TRCN WOE AR Aa a 57.0
ARBEIT ERMTBY | \\iiieriss GMa Gait Sell athaahe er aiarak ane 6.0
PPR UOTE RE |e ih abl Kawa uO an aicelak 2.0
SUITE UAE RSYNC RRA ROMAN EH RRO PO Eo 34.0
POSS OBNESLONGE (i656 Kats alee none! 3.5
Limestone and Shales ........... 60.0
Gypsiferous Red Shales ........ 834.0
Red Argillaceous Sandstone...... 110.0
A) FE SIR SRA PHU YEE ORI 10.0
Fine Grained Conglomerate .... 2.0
Green Arenaceous Shales ........ 45.0
Massive Green Sandstone ....... 63.0
Green Arenaceous Shales ....... 138.0
Dark Red Aren. Shales ......... 462.0
—— 1866.5 feet
Upper:
Siliceous Conglomerate ........ 42.0 feet
Variegated Arg. Conglomerate .. 450.0
—— 492.0 feet

TOTEM i Gene ahaa cle ata! eK, Wt egg 3563.0

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 35

These lithological characters I have found to be co-
extensive with the Jurassic of Southeastern Utah. Whether
or not they exist in other localities of our State only time
and research will reveal. But in the absence of paleonto-
logic evidence, I believe the above division will serve for
the: present purpose, as I shall not try to correlate the
several series with those known from other sections of the
United States. For the solving of a problem of such
moment, the fauna so far collected is too meager. I shall
have occassion to speak of this phase later.

From our present knowledge of the distribution and
faunal relations in this Western Interior Region, it is highly
probable that the strata were laid down in a narrow em-
bayment of the Northern Pacific Ocean. It also appears
that near the beginning of the Middle Jurassic this em-
bayment was broken up into many lagoons.

From the character of the Lower Jurassic strata in
Utah, it appears that we had to do with a comparatively
shallow bay. This may be accounted for by the fact that
this region was at the extreme southern end of the embay-
ment. The subsidence and deposition must have proceeded
apace, as evidenced by the even graining of the lower mas-
sive 500 feet of the Jurassic Sandstone. .

The next 500 feet changes greatly in character. One
of two things took place; either the deposition became
greater than the subsidence or a slight rise occurred. Asa
result the succeeding sedimentation was brought within
the sphere of activity of currents and eddies, and the second
500 feet of the Jurassic Sandstone is characteristically
cross-bedded.

During the time necessary for the deposition of this
one thousand six feet of sandstone, the conditions were
remarkably uniform. There were few and slight oscillations
with no orogenic movements. The period seems to have
been one of repose. However the conditions were not
favorable to the sustenance of life. I have searched dili-
gently for any evidence of a flora or fauna in this extensive
sandstone, but have been rewarded with negative results.

The end of the Lower Jurassic is marked by sudden
subsidence and the Middle Jurassic first makes its ap-

36 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

pearance with Limestone strata. Thus far no unconfor-
mity has been found between this and the preceding strata.
For a short period conditions were favorbable for sustain-
ing the fauna that had migrated from the Northern Pacific
south, in the Jurassic Sea, but these conditions were not .
long lived. As I said before the evidence is that the south-
ern end, at least, of this bay was disconnected and broken up
into lagoons. Through concentration by evaporation the
environment became unsuited for the maintenance of living
organisms, and the meager fauna which had migrated so
far from its origin died out during the first two hundred
feet of strata of the Middle Jurassic series, never to appear
again in this locality. .
The fossils found in this two hundred feet are as

follows:

Pentacrinus asteriscus.

Ostrea strigilecula.

Camptonectes stygius.

Camptonectes pertenuistriatus.

Camptonectes platessa.

Camptonectes platessiformis.

Trigonia quadrangularis.

Trigonia montanaensis.

Trigonia sp.

Pinna kingii.

Tancredia inornata.

Astarte packardi.

Modiola subimbricata.

Pholadomya kingii.

Cyprena sp.

Pseudomonotis (Eumicrotis) curta.

Pleuromya subcompressa.

Pleuromya sp.

Gervillia montanaensis.

Cyprinus sp.

Lima (Plagiostoma) occidentalis.

Liman. sp.

Neritina phaseolaris.

Cardioceras sp.

Belemnites densus.

Serpula sp.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 37

Out of a total of twenty-six individuals there are
twenty-one Pelecypoda, one Gastropoda, two Cephalopoda,
one Articulata, one Crinoideae. The Pelecypoda greatly out-
number all the rest. There are nineteen different genera,
all indicative of a marine habitat, the Crinoid and Cephal-
opoda especially characteristic of such. Of these, seven-
teen species are characteristic of the Jurassic, while the
remainder either begin in the Jurassic or earlier.

It is plain then that our strata in Utah are Jurassic, but
the data is insufficient to say with assurance that they are
the Middle Jurassic as found in other areas. The exact
correlation of the subdivisions of the Jurassic of Utah with
those of identified localities is a problem yet to be solved,
and a worthy field for original research.

After this subsidence and the deposition of the Lime-
stone series, a slight rise seems to have occurred and a red
arenaceous shale was deposited in these lagoons. Along
with them ferric oxides were thrown down, with one ex-
ception. In the case of the Green Sandstone and Shales,
Glauconite took the place of the oxides. As concentra-
tion proceeded, Gypsum, a characteristic of the lower half
of the period, was deposited. However, the process of con-
centration did not continue long enough to deposit any
salt in this locality, at least. The Upper portion of the
Middle Jurassic became more and more arenaceous, and the
lagoons gradually filled up with a sandstone-shale complex.

As this filling continued we find shore deposits, and
it is here that I have drawn the line between the Middle and
Upper Jurassic Series.

The base of the Upper Jurassic is a siliceous conglom-
erate, consisting of water-worn pebbles seldom larger
than a good sized hen’s egg, and grading from that down
to sand grains. Immediately overlying this is a calcareous,
argillaceous conglomerate. This is characteristically varie-
gated. The pebbles are small, waterworn, and generally
coated with a thin flim of a black manganese oxide. It is
in the lower part of this conglomerate that the majority
of the vertebrate remains of the Jurassic are found. These
remains are found more or less throughout this Complex.

38 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The strata are colored red, green, white, and purple, with
here and there great blotches of a brilliant red. Seen
from a distance, they certainly present a striking appear-
ance.

The conglomeritic nature is most prominent on the
western exposure, but toward the east the strata lose more
or less of this character, and in places become simply
variegated marls. In a few places, for instance, two miles
and a half west of Cliff Siding, Emery County, the siliceous
portion, at the base contains fragments of trees. These
are the only evidence of plant life found in the Jurassic in
this region. In several of the siliceous pebbles I have
found crinoid stem plates, which seem to indicate a land
area (probably Carboniferous) to the west, in the vicinity
of the present Wasatch Range.

Just a word here as a comment on the foregoing. In
the first place I wish to draw attention to the lower de-
limiting line of the Jurassic. At present I have preferred
placing it at the base of the heavy massive sandstone, as
it appears to me that this whole one thousand six feet of
sandstone, regardless of the cross-bedding of the upper por-
tion, is a unit. Powell calls the cross-bedded portion the
White Cliffs formation, and the lower portion the Ver-
million Cliffs and the red arenaceous shales immediately
underlying, the Upper Shinarump. It may be that the
White Cliff Formation is stratigraphically the same as the
La Plata formation in Southwestern Colorado. If this be
true then the series underlying them down to the base of the
lower conglomerate will be the Dolores of the same locality
and consequently of Triassic age.

The Middle Jurassic as here outlined, is the same as
Powell’s Flaming Gorge group and corresponds with it
both lithologically and paleontologically.

The Upper Jurassic agrees very well with the Mor-
rison formation both lithologically and paleontologically
as is evidenced by its variegated appearance and contained
Allosauri. If this is correct then it will share the fate of
these beds, which according to Marsh are placed at the
top of the Jurassic, and according to Emmons, Cross, and

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 39

Eldridge, who base their classification on the Orogenic
Movements in the Denver Basin, are placed in the Lower
Cretaceous. If the latter classification is right, then these
beds are the only ones in the Western Interior Region that
belong to the Lower Cretaceous as known from the typical
localities.

EROSIONAL FEATURES.

I shall now give the erosional features of the three
series as I have outlined them. The massive five hundred
feet of sandstone of the first or Lower series forms per-
pendicular cliffs with exceedingly smooth faces. Because
of the absence of joint planes there are no rocky talus slopes
to cover the underlying Triassic strata. These straight
walled cliffs are everywhere capped with pinnacles, domes,
and beehives, which belong to the upper five hundred feet,
and are the results of the elements on the intricately cross-
bedded structure. The effect of wind erosion on this cross-
bedding is most peculiar. Great caves or alcoves, as they
may be called, are worn out of the face of the cliffs, their
walls as smooth and round as if done by the hand of man.
In other places are worn hundreds of smaller holes, about
from a few inches to three or four feet in diameter and
very close together. This gives the appearance of a huge
honeycomb, only lacking the bees to make the comparison
complete.

Wherever a stream has cut its way through this sand-
stone the walls are vertical and the canyons are very tor-
tuous. A characteristic bit of weathering is found in the
North Salt Wash, Emery County. Following the wash
one comes up against a straight wall seven hundred feet
high. Near the top is a hole through which the blue sky
shows like a mirror. The canyon then turns abruptly to
the east and after a detour of some five miles the hole is
again seen from the other side, not over a mile and a half
from the first observation point. This winding back and
forth with very little progress in a straight line is charac-
teristic of all canyons in this stratum and the parapets and

40 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

domes breaking the sky line at a distance remind one of
some Moroccan City.

In Emery County, on the west reef of the San Rafael
Swell, some of these domes assume immense proportions.
One of these particularly large and perfect is called the
Copper Globe, another one the Temple and still another St.
Peter’s Dome.

The Bad Land appearance of the Middle Jurassic is
strongly contrasted with the above. It weathers into low
hills covered with a light sand which is blown about by the
winds forming ever changing ridges and hollows. These
dunes keep the eastern portion of Emery County barren
of vegetation. And the whole country has a barren, monot-
onous landscape. In places these dunes and clay ridges
have been made permanent by the cementing action of the
gypsum, which causes them to appear as though they had
been subjected to folding of a high order. The scenery pre-
sents a general somber appearance due to the ever present
ferric oxide. The lower portions are bright red while the
upper portion is almost a maroon separated by a com-
paratively narrow band of faint green.

A siliceous conglomerate caps this and forms the floor
for the bad lands of the upper Jurassic. The difference
between this series and the preceding is that all the hills
in the Middle Jurassic are generally flat-topped while in
this they are rounding knolls with smooth, gently sloping
sides. Around the base of all these small knolls are wagon-
loads of black water-worn pebbles, the origin of which is
not at first apparent.

In weathering, this conglomeritic series parts with
its quartz pebbles, which roll to the foot of the slopes and
leave the calcareous material to protect the remainder.
When dry this finely divided calcareous residue is very
light and one will sink into it from four to six inches,
making progress exceedingly difficult. It contains very
little grit and feels like an impalpable powder. When rain
wets it, it shows its clayey nature and sticks together, very
little of it being washed away unless the rain be exceedingly
severe. When in this condition one had better keep to the

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 41

hard siliceous floor at some distance lest he become too
heavily loaded, for it is no light task to carry ten pounds
of this material on both feet sinking to one’s shoe-tops
with each step.

From a distance the brilliant coloring, red, green,
white, and purple, is certainly a sight one will never for-
get. All the lines are smooth curves with no broken jag-
ged contours to displease the eye. And every change of
position brings in more pleasing combinations. No won-
der the gigantic Allosauri chose this for their Mecca and
burying place. For everywhere you will see piles of bones,
now ornamenting the top of some knoll of many colors,
now scattered about on some small flat. Truly it is a sight
worth seeing.

But of present day life, either animal or plant, there
is a woeful lack. A few stunted pines and cedars here,
some greasewood there, while in the more sandy places one
will see a small area of sand-grass waving gently in the hot
breeze. The animal life, what there is of it, partakes of
the color scheme of the country. Lizards, for that is about
all one can find, are generally brilliantly colored. Very
few snakes can be seen as they seem to need a respite from
their basking habit, while here this would be impossible,
for the atmosphere hardly gets time to cool before the sun
again appears over the horizon to clinch his conquest of
the day before.

ECONOMIC FEATURES.

This phase of the Jurassic will be easily disposed of.
Still this period gives a good example of syngenetic ore
deposits. The ores found have proved to be of little eco-
nomic value. Chief among them are copper, manganese,
iron, uranium, vanadium, sulphur, gypsum, and limestone.
Of these copper occurs as malachite; manganese as psilome-
lane; iron as hematite; and uranium and vanadium as
carnotite. The copper and manganese ores occur in lenses
laid down with the arenaceous shales at the base of the
gypsiferous series. Sometimes they form pockets suffi-
ciently large to obtain a few carloads of ore. These pockets

42 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

appear to be scattered through the territory covered by
the Middle Jurassic strata. The copper has, in places, been
subject to secondary concentration as is shown at the Cop-
per Globe. At which place it has been redissolved by des-
cending waters, carried through the cross-bedded sand-
stone, and deposited at its base on a thin shale stratum,
in sufficient quantities to work for a short period, and to
keep up the hope of the locators.

The manganese deposits east of Green River and south
of Little Grande Station, have likewise received a second-
ary concentration. This unlike the copper, has been concen-
trated along a fault plane. They were worked for several
years in a small way by the Colorado Fuel and Iron Co.
Here also the deposits are too small and distributed over too
much territory to be of much commercial value.

The carnotite occurs in thin films along cracks in
the sandstone. In the eastern portion of the district these
films occasionally develop small pockets in which there is
- from 50 to 60 per cent carnotite.

Sulphur occurs very sparingly; in fact the only local-
ity of which I know is in Sulphur Canyon north of the
Cedar Mountain, Emery County. The gypsum, for the
deposits are in the gypsiferous series, is coated with a
thin film of this mineral for a distance of half a mile,
which has apparently come up through an open fissure
that still emits carbon dioxide gas.

Lime occurs throughout this territory in thin beds,
but is too impure to be of any commercial value.

This leaves only the gypsum which is widespread and
very abundant. It is found throughout the entire region.
The purer beds are so far from the railroad that they could
not compete with the deposits on the west side of the
Wasatch Range. However, while at Green River recently,
I heard considerable talk of their developing the deposits
at that place. In time the many other deposits will be
opened up as the transportation facilities reach out to the
virgin territories.

¢

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 43

On account of its topography and drainage system
the Jurassic of this region is of little value to agricul-
turists.

Unfairly, it would seem, an otherwise fertile soil has
been deprived of a most important assistant, water. The
soil is not to blame for the barren condition in which it is
found. Plenty of water is at hand, but it is hemmed in
by walls that are from one thousand to five thousand feet
high. Several small villages have sprung up along the
larger rivers where their otherwise narrow channels have
widened out for a short distance, also at places along their
courses before they enter their deep gorges. If this land
is ever reclaimed it will be through the assistance of
artesian water, as is being done at Bluff City at present.
Through my studies in this district I reached the conclusion
that the Jurassic sandstone acts as a large conduit and
conducts the water that it absorbs at its upturned edges
along the Uinta Mountains, Rocky Mountains, La Sal and
the other localities in that portion of the state, to the
many points where it is cut by the deeper canyons, and
there issues out as the best water to be found throughout
southeastern Utah.

Ad TRANSACTIONS OF THE

FOURTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE UTAH
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Science Building, Salt Lake City High School,
April 7 and 8, 1911.

Friday, April 7, 1911. 8:15 p. m.
“EUGENICS (THE SCIENCE OF RACE BETTERMENT)”
Presidential Address ...... By Dr. E. D. Ball, U. A. C.

“EARTH MOVEMENTS OF THE WASATCH” (Illustrated by
the stereopticon)
By Prof. Marcus E. Jones, Salt Lake City

Saturday, April 8,1911. 10 a.m.
“FROST AND KILLING TEMPERATURES,”
By Dr. Philena Fletcher Homer, Pleasant Grove

“ALKALI INJURY TO LEAVES OF THE
PAG ha aie irene ete we eawUre eee eras By E. P. Hoff, U. A. C.

“SOME PRESENT DAY FOREST
PROBLEMS”... .By E. R. Hodson, Forest Service, Ogden

“SOME INTRODUCED
WEEDS. 4: By Prof. Charles Piper Smith, U. A. C.

Saturday, April 8, 1911. 2:15 p. m.
“THE CENTENARY OF AVOGADRO’S

FIVPOTHESIS is OS eRY By Dr. W. C. Ebaugh, U. of U.
“RELATION OF PARASITES TO THE DESTRUCTION OF

PSOE IE OES initale ore ate ee eae By A. H. Kirtland
“FIXATION OF FREE

INTTROGEN 605 208 2s By Dr. Robert Stewart, U. A. C.
“MAGNETIC ALLOYS OF THE NON-METALLIC

WERE AT SS hata teeny By Dr. A. A. Knowlton, U. of U.

Saturday, April 8, 1911. 8:15 p. m.
“THE PLANETESIMAL HYPOTHESIS AS A SUBSTITUTE FOR
THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS”
By Prof. Wm. Peterson, U. A. C.
““VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE”
By A. H. Thiessen, U. S. Weather Service, Salt Lake City

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES y 45

eo

SOME PRESENT DAY PROBLEMS IN FORESTRY.
By E. R. HODSON. .

Forestry is a very comprehensive term, for it embraces
both an art and a science or rather several sciences. With
so broad a field and so varied an application, there have
arisen many questions connected mostly with its practice.
The short time in which it has developed in this country
has only intensified these problems. In Europe forestry
grew up through a long course of time, was interwoven
with the development of States and followed the fortunes
of war and social changes. In this country to a certain
extent, limited by our conditions both economic and forest,
we can profit by that experience. For while really a re-
sponse to the economic conditions of tomorrow, forestry
has apparently come to us so suddenly as to arouse dis-
trust in some quarters. Its purpose has been questioned,
the need of it doubted, and there has been a general ten-
dency to discredit its claims. Happily this is fast passing
away. Public spirited people in every walk of life are in-
terested. Forestry is recognized as a part of the national
work and its progress and standards are jealously watched.

The region on which this discussion is principally based
includes the forest areas adjacent to the Great Basin and
at the headwaters of the Snake River, in Utah, Nevada and
southern Idaho. For the purposes of government forest
administration, it is known as District 4.

Over this whole region the general climatic conditions
may be characterized as arid or semi-arid. Sufficient pre-
cipitation for tree growth is confined to the higher ele-
vations of the mountains, and, as a rule, the important
forest areas are still further restricted to northern expos-
ures.

Another broad general distinction is the coniferous
character of the forest. With the exception of aspen and
a few other minor broadleaf species, this type of forest is
unrelieved by deciduous species. This uniformity is largely
the product of climatic conditions, mainly temperature.

46 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

While District 4 is not heavily timbered comparatively,
there is approximately 50,000,000,000 feet B. M. of timber
of which 30,000,000,000 is saw timber. As only a fraction
of this amount is now accessible, the present cut of 35,000,
000 board feet per annum falls on a small part of the total
area. The District is but little developed with a consequent
weak demand. Large operations are also hindered by the
lack of large continuous timber bodies. For these reasons
it is likely that for a long time the greater part of the lum-
ber business will be mostly local and supplied by small scale
operators.

The following problems are at the present time the
most important: Forest fires, Reforestation, Forest tax-
ation, Grazing in relation to Forestry, Agricultural versus
Forest land values, Utilization, and Silvicultural problems.

FOREST FIRES.

It is an old story that forest fires have done great
damage and one that has been emphasized by the past year.
The reduction and ultimate prevention of this source of
loss is an enormous and pressing problem. It is mainly
one of organization and improvement of the forest. To
prevent fires gaining headway an extra patrol is necessary
during the danger season. Telephone lines, roads, trails
and fire lines are indispensable to make the patrol effi-
cient. An equipment of tools and storehouses distributed
over the forest for emergency use is also necessary to con-
trol small fires at the start.

This work cannot all be accomplished in a year or two
even were the money available. It must be the result of
a steady growth and building up of the forests along the
line of permanent improvement. Wonders can be accom-
plished in fire protection by concentration of effort in a
bad season, as evidenced by the past year’s experience, but
a well planned means must be provided beforehand if the
protection is to be complete.

Of first importance in eliminating forest fire is care
with camp fires and other sources of fire. Much care-
lessness is due to the fact that the danger is not generally

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 47

appreciated by the public. There is malicious intent in
but very few cases. Therefore, an educational campaign
on the danger of fire to the valuable mature timber and the
young growth is productive of much good. After fires
start the best thing is to be in a position to attack them be-
fore they gain headway. Rapid means of communication
and transportation are essential as well as adequate amount
of men and firefighting tools.

The hopeless features of forest fires receive most
notice because it is the large conflagrations which attract
attention. A large fire with a wind behind it can rarely
be stopped during the day with any amount of men and
tools but it can often be narrowed down and at night when
low can be surrounded. The damage from large fires is
reduced and countless small fires which are never known
are prevented from gaining headway.

Another side of the fire problem is the effect on the
forest. Two great changes in conditions are made by fire:
Ist, light; 2nd, seedbed. The complete light favors, tem-
porarily, pure stands of light demanding species while
the changed seedbed conditions favor still other species.
A profound change may therefore be made in the com-
position and quality of the forest by fire. This change of
forest types has been little studied and our virgin forests
offer a fascinating field for original investigation.

REFORESTATION.

Perhaps the most popular and easily understood branch
of forestry is reforestation or tree planting. In some
quarters forestry really means little else. The reproduc-
tion of future stands is a vital problem and in this region
a difficult one. It is accomplished by two methods, natural
and artificial. The first by systems of cutting at proper
times merely aids and accelerates what takes place nat-
urally in the virgin stands. The second deals with sow-
ing and planting—strictly artificial means. It is the latter
which is the most important in the popular conception and
concerns us chiefly here.

48 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Because of the arid climate in District 4, forest plant-
ing is much more difficult than in a humid region. Broad-
cast seeding is an inexpensive method being thoroughly
tried in this District, which if successful will greatly facili-
tate the work. The seed spot method is a still more in-
tensive one where the seed is covered in prepared spots;
sometimes cornplanters are used. Both are direct seeding
methods.

As there are places where direct seeding has little
chance, nursery stock is needed. For this purpose three
large nurseries, with an ultimate capacity of 12,000,000
plants, are maintained in the District. Last year 1,000,000
seedlings were field planted and 700 acres sown.

Fall work so far promises best and it has been found
that underbrush protection increases the chances of success
in both sowing and planting.

It is expected that two or three million plants, depend-
ing on development in the nurseries, will be field planted
next fall and also direct seeding done on a large scale.

Since about 5,000,000 acres in the District require
artificial reforestation, it is necessary to push this work
to the limit of funds. Artificial reforestation is therefore
one of the immediate practical problems.

Now a word as to natural reproduction. Many de-
tails are connected with securing this kind of reproduction.
Special methods of removing the mature stand by successive
cuttings are practiced to favor natural restocking. The
composition of the stand and the character of its species
have a direct bearing since a pure stand or one composed
of a single species must have different treatment than a
mixed stand. Also light demanding trees are handled dif-
ferently from shade endurers and a mixture of both still
another way.

As in each of these cases the result will depend on other
minor and often complex factors of soil and local climate
the problem is difficult and will require much patient ef-
fort. It varies with the type of forest, density of stand,
favorableness of situation, indeed with every single factor
in a forest community.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 49

FOREST TAXATION.

While taxation does not affect the government forests
it is important in private forestry. A fundamental dif-
ference between forestry and most other business is the
fact of long delayed returns. One hundred or two hundred
years must elapse before the crop is mature. Now to tax
a forest annually on the basis of the growing crop merely
spurs the desire to get immediate returns by lumbering
before the crop is mature and to cut over the ground more
completely. The forest is slaughtered to cut down the
burden of a yearly taxation. With an equitable tax on
the basis of productivity at the time the crop is harvested
there would not be the temptation, or in some cases the
necessity, of realizing immediate returns, nor would the
cut need to be so complete. The stands would be left to
grow to their full value at maturity and would then be cut
in such a manner as to keep the yield of the forest at the
maximum. The state would not lose but in the long run
would gain by the increased wealth made possible. The
only change would be the time of collection which is ad-
justed to the needs of forestry and its involved time ele-
ment.

Although the National Forests are not directly taxed,
such a system is really in operation through the 25 per
cent of proceeds paid the state. This is, of course, paid
only when the crop is harvested and on the basis of the
actual yield.

The present incongruous system of taxation and the
fire menace are the two greatest drawbacks to private
forestry. With a just system of taxation in application,
much may be expected of private forestry.

THE GRAZING QUESTION.

If a forest were fully stocked and uniform over its
area there would, of course, be no grazing to consider. In
humid regions in the east, particularly the north, the den-
sity of the stand and absence of forage makes grazing im-
possible. But with the scattered open stands of the inter-
mountain country, grazing within the forest limits is ex-

50 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ceedingly important. All of the grazing land cannot be
eliminated from the forests without crippling their admin-
istration since much of it is in small areas scattered among
the timber bodies. Moreover, in the open stands, the forage
is even among the trees themselves.

For these reasons it has been found impractical to
separate entirely forest land and grazing land. In this
region it is necessary to handle much of the summer range,
at least, along with the forests with which it is so inti-
mately connected.

Now grazing has some effect on the timber areas.
This effect will depend on several things, chiefly amount
and kinds of grazing, the forest type, the stage of develop-
ment of the stand, character of soil, slope, etc. Grazing on
cut-over and burned areas where small reproduction is pres-
ent does a great deal of damage where at later stage of
development but little injury would be done. Some species,
notably Douglas Fir, on account of the tender foliage, are
very susceptible to browsing while other species, as Engel-
mann Spruce, are more liable to injury from trampling;
the latter species is practically uninjured by browsing on
account of the stiff foliage of spiny needles.

The problem here is to adjust the two industries in
such a way that the forage may be used and at the same
time the timber protected at critical stages.

AGRICULTURAL VERSUS FOREST LAND VALUES.

Some forests are on absolute forest land, that is, land
which will produce little else. This may be due to eleva-
tion, rugged topography, stony and ledgy surface, etc. But
there are forests on land which is also more or less valuable
for growing crops. Here is where the problem enters.
What factors shall be considered in determining how far
the agricultural development shall crowd the forest?
Shall this be done at once or distributed over a long period
of time? There is the precedent of magnificent forests
swept away in the Middle West to make farms and vil-
lages. These settlements have proved permanent. There
is the desire for immediate returns which has had its way

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 51

and will continue to do so where the agricultural value
promises permanency. That an attempt may be made to
cultivate forest land which cannot have permanent agri-
cultural value is a danger not altogether impossible, the
Jack Pine Plains of Central Michigan may be given as an
illustration. There may be seen whole communities with
schools and churches completely deserted. They were pros-
perous for a time but when the first flush of fertility of the
soil had gone, it was impossible to get sufficient returns
and abandonment was compelled. This land had also once
borne a splendid forest which might now under forest
management be a constant source of revenue instead of an
unproductive waste.

This problem is confused by a short sighted public
opinion. There is some danger that the forest area of a
community may shrink unduly before a keen demand for
land of any kind. Where the agricultural value remains
permanent, there is a gain on that side. But where the
forest is merely destroyed without creating permanent
agricultural values, there is an economic waste. | The solu-
tion lies in securing a better understanding by the public of
the value of forests; and in a liberal policy where the land
is of unquestioned farm value. The border line between
land which should be used for forest purposes and that
which should be released to agricultural use, is different
in different localities and varies with the development of
communities and of new methods. For instance, dry farm-
ing in some sections has changed the balance to the agri-
cultural use. Therefore to devise a just and consistent
policy in the proper use of land will require constantly
more specific information and will tax the resources and
ingenuity of administrative officers.

UTILIZATION.

Forest products are very wastefully used throughout
the country, due to the supposed inexhaustible supply.
There is incomplete utilization in the woods and through
the mill with carelessness in handling and shipping. Only
the best parts of the trees are used and this wasted in the

52 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

slab and sawdust. Improper seasoning also causes much
deterioration and waste.

Aside from this form of waste which takes place every-
where, there is another kind not so apparent. It is the use
of high grade species for low grade uses. For instance,
a valuable species of saw timber size may be used for fire-
wood or a durable species used where durability is not re-
quired as in packing boxes. Species with great strength
are used where this quality is not necessary. The uses of
the different woods have not therefore been adjusted to
conserve the most valuable qualities of species now be-
coming scarce. Recently the Government has done a great
deal along this line. The Forest Service has established a
laboratory at Madison, Wisconsin, to study the different
problems connected with wood utilization as pulp woods,
wood distillation, etc. The strength of different species in
different conditions is also tested.

Such problems as these have not received attention
until recently because of abundance of material of all kinds.
With the growing scarcity of timber, closer and more eco-
nomic utilization becomes imperative and better methods
of manufacture and distribution of uses are seen to be
practical.

SILVICULTURAL PROBLEMS.

Under this head comes a number of the more techni-
cal forest problems. Marking timber for cutting is one
of the most intricate, since both practical and theoretical
considerations are involved. The success of the logging
operation often depends upon securing a certain amount
of scale from a given area. The maturity of the trees,
soil protection, reproduction, injured and diseased trees
are also factors in marking. The principal aim is to keep
the yield of the forest at the maximum in both quantity and
quality. Mixed stands present very different marking
problems than pure stands, dense stands than open ones,
while uneven aged stands must be considered still dif-
ferently. As a general statement all the trees of a stand
which are mature should be marked for cutting so far as

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 53

their removal does not injure the soil and lessen the chance
for reproduction. As many as possible of the diseased
and dwarfed trees should also be marked. In the average
virgin forest an improvement cutting is the one first
needed. The aim of this cutting is to leave the forest with
an even stand of well distributed thrifty growing trees.

Thinning is another problem of intensive forestry. It
is concerned with immature stands while improvement cut-
tings are made in mature stands. The aim of thinnings
is to keep the stand in the younger stages at the greatest
rate of growth without deterioration of the form or quality |
of the trees. In mixed stands the better species are favored
so far as possible. In detail thinning is an intricate prob-
lem and has been much elaborated in Europe. They are,
however, too expensive to be applied in this country at the
present time, although information derived from a study
on a small scale, will be useful later.

The substitution of valuable foreign forest tree species
for less valuable native ones is another important problem.
While great care is necessary and not too much should be
expected, yet there is some chance of success. The
Eucalyptus in certain parts of California and the Norway
Spruce in the Adirondacks are examples. In the latter
locality it is expected that the foreign spruce will eventually
take the place of the native red spruce because of its more
rapid growth and consequently shorter rotation period.

Douglas Fir has been introduced from this country to
Germany where it is valued highly and stands almost old
enough to yield seed have been produced. White Pine,
the great lumber tree of Michigan, has also been introduced
into Germany much earlier and stands 150 years old are
now seen.

In this successful interchange of foreign and native
species there is much encouragement that patient and per-
sistent effort in this line will increase the value and use-
fulness of our forests.

TO SUMMARIZE.

1. In order to insure forestry, fires must be reduced
to the minimum through eliminating the causes and being

54 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

prepared with men and equipment to reach and combat
them when first started.

2. Where natural restocking cannot be expected or
is too slow, artificial reforestation is neccessary if the
forest is to be fully stocked and kept at its highest produc-
tive capacity.

3. To prevent wasteful cutting of forest crops, a sys-
tem of taxation should be devised on the productivity and
collected only when the crop is harvested.

4, Where grazing and forest land are so intermingled
that both industries must be carried on together a system
which will permit the full use of the forage and at the same
time protect forest reproduction in the early stages is
necessary.

5. On areas where agricultural use and forest use of
the land overlaps, the problem is so to adjust the uses that
the greatest constant values are produced.

6. In utilization of forest products, waste of all kinds
must be eliminated by a more exact knowledge of the quali-
ties and uses of woods as well as of the market and manu-
facturing conditions.

7. In the strictly technical silvicultural problems a
well organized policy of research work is desirable in order
that better methods may be available as rapidly as economic
conditions permit their practice and that proper advance
may be made in the scientific phase of forestry.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 55

NOTES ON VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF
TEMPERATURE.

By A. H. THIESSEN.

In the older text books on meteorology we find the
general statement that the temperature of the air decreases
with the altitude. This statement was justified by ex-
periment, observation, and deductions from theory.

The observations were made on mountains, with kites,
and manned balloons. Within the past few years with
increased facilities, new observations have been secured,
causing the meteorologist to modify his views and recon-
struct his theory to some extent.

In studying the distribution of temperature, it is not
enough to carry on observations at any single place. The
vertical distribution of temperature may be different over
land than over the ocean, may vary with the latitude, with
the season, and finally with the changing atmospheric con-
dition at any one place.

The forecaster in the Weather Bureau can not hope to
improve the accuracy of his forecasts greatly unless his
knowledge of the mechanism of the air is greatly increased.
As far as observations on the surface of the earth are con-
cerned, the data are very complete, so in the past few
years attention by experimental meteorologists has been
directed to the upper portions of the atmosphere.

To obtain data from this region they have resorted
to the use of free balloons. The balloons used have varied
greatly in size. They are made of india rubber and filled
with the lightest available gas-hydrogen. An instrument
called a meteograph is attached to this balloon. This in-
strument records either temperature and air pressure, or
air temperature, pressure, wind velocity and humidity.
They are tied to the balloon which when filled with gas
is allowed freely to rise. As it rises higher and higher in
the air, it continually comes into regions of less and less
air pressure and the balloon in turn continually expands
until a limit is reached when the rubber breaks and the in-

~~

56 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

struments fall to the earth. In order to protect the instru-
ment in its falls so that the record and instrument will not
be greatly injured, two devices are used. Either the larger
balloon contains a smaller balloon which is large enough
greatly to lessen the fall, or a parachute is used which
opens as soon as the instrument commences to fall. In
addition a basket work is arranged around the instrument
to ease up the shock. These plans have all been success-
fully carried out, the instruments receiving little or no
injury. The instrument, of course, is carried up into re-
gions of very low temperatures and the record is secured
in two ways: first, an ink is used which does not evaporate
or freeze, and is made of glycerine with an aniline dye. A
second way is by using a sheet similar to those used on a
seismograph. The sheet as you know has a deposit of soot
on it and instead of an inked pen a stylus is employed.

The rate of increase or decrease in temperature as
higher altitudes are reached is called the temperature
gradient. Air is cooler as higher altitudes are attained,
and it is the custom to say that the decrease is at the rate
of 1 degree for every 183 feet, but this is the adiabatic
rate. By adiabatic heating and cooling we mean the in-
crease or decrease in heat due to change in pressure, that
is without gain from or loss to outside space. When a
quantity of air rises it expands and does work which con-
sumes a certain amount of heat energy; and conversely
when it descends work is done upon it and it regains
the heat that was lost.

This rate varies greatly according to the constituents
of the atmosphere. Water vapor causes a considerable
change from the dry adiabatic.

The changes due to day and night and to the various
seasons are felt in the upper as well as in the lower atmos-
phere, but not to such a great extent. In the free air about
3 or 4 thousand feet high no changes are felt due to the
rotation of the earth on its axis.

The seasonal change, however, is more pronounced,
and is about half as great in the upper as in the lower atmos-
phere.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 57

Observations taken on mountains side or tops are very
different from observations taken in the free air. The
atmosphere is cooler over mountain tops than in the free
atmosphere at the same altitude. This is due probably
to the fact that air cools as it rises, and as air is generally
in motion, there is a current of air being constantly forced
up the mountain side and over its top, which is cooled by ex-
pansion and in addition by the free radiation from the
mountain peak.

For purposes of study the atmosphere may be divided
into three portions: or layers:

The first includes that portion extending from the
earth to 3000 m.

The second from the 3000 m. level to the 10000 m.
level.

The third all above the 10000 m. level.

In the first layer, or all that below the 3000 m. level
is a region of considerable atmospheric turmoil. Here
the winds are irregular in direction and vary considerably
in speed. It is the storm layer, although the vortical action
of a cyclone or anticyclone extends into the next higher
level. Here the temperature frequently, especially in sum-
mer, rises with increase in altitude, and the temperature
condition is controlled almost entirely by the passing of
highs and lows over a place.

The second layer, or that between the 3000 m. and
10000 m. is a region of uniform temperature changes. This
region is comparatively free from clouds, the temperatures
fall with the adiabatic rate. There is an absence of atmos-
pheric turmoil characteristic of the first layer. The vorti-
cal action due to cyclones and anticyclone extends into this
layer, but as a rule its normal condition is one of stability
and usual freedom from clouds.

The thin layer or that above the 10000 m. level is a
region which is particularly interesting. Here the tem-
perature gradient is positive—a fact which was unknown up
to a short time ago. Occasional observations indicate an iso-
thermal condition and for this reason it is called the iso-
thermal layer.

58 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

We have then two atmospheres which intermingle but
slightly. The first below the 10000 m. level. Here we
have a negative temperature gradient, with the exception
that below the 3000 m. level in summer time there is oc-
casionally a positive temperature gradient, that it is hotter
as one ascends. Then in the upper we have a positive tem-
perature gradient, freedom from water vapor and no con-
vectional current. It is physically impossible to have con-
vectional currents in this layer as a mass of air would be
continually rising in regions of greater density which is
not possible.

IRREGULARITIES WHICH NEED EXPLANATION.

We have what we call the morning inversion in the
lower atmosphere, that is the temperature is colder near
the earth than at the adjacent higher levels. This is due
to the fact that the earth radiates its heat more quickly
than does the atmosphere. There are wide changes in tem-
perature on the earth due to the over and underrunning of
warm and cold masses of air, and also the amount of insola-
tion at different points on the surface differ considerably
due to cloud layers.

Just the opposite condition prevails during summer and
winter when a place is under the influence of high and low
barometer regarding its temperature.

In summer during high barometer the sky is generally
clear and conditions are favorable for storing up heat, when
the barometer is low the sky is overcast and no heat can get
to the earth and the air is generally cool and below the
seasonal average.

In winter, however, during a period of high barometer
the sky is also clear but the period of sunshine is short,
radiation takes place freely and it is usually colder than
during a period of low barometer when the sky is overcast.

At higher altitudes, however, say 4 kilometers, both in
winter and summer it is colder during low barometer than
during high barometer. That is due to the fact that during
low barometer the air is moist and radiates heat more rap-
idly than dry air which accounts for the observations. But

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 59

in the isothermal region the conditions are reversed; here
the air is being warmed by radiations from the moist air
below when the barometer is low. But when the barometer
is high, and the air relatively dry, it will conserve its own
heat and allow the upper air in the region of the upper in-
version to become cold.

CAUSE OF THE UPPER INVERSION.

There have been all kinds of explanations of the
cause of this upper inversion.

Mechanically we have divided the atmosphere into
three parts or layers, the first of which is the region of
terrestrial disturbance. The second, that lying between the
3000 m. and the 10000 m. which is the region of uniform
temperature changes; the third, that lying above the 10000
m. level, or the region of the upper inversion.

Spectroscopically we have three layers corresponding
to these mechanical layers. The first the black body por-
tion which comprises all below the 3000 m. level where
most of the water vapor exists. Second, the diathermous
or dry air above that containing most of the water
vapor. Third, the selectively absorptive, or the air of the
isothermal layer, presumably rich in ozone.

Solar radiation ranging from 2.5 mu. down, the max-
imum intensity between .4 mu. and .5 mu. Now what ex-
tent of these radiations are absorbed by the atmosphere
and the earth is not easy to say as it depends upon many
things, the wave-length, kind of gas or substance, the
amount of gas through which it passes, which is the same
thing as saying its partial pressure, and even to the total
pressure to which the gas is subjected, and to probably
more.

In the lower levels there are about 5 to 12 per cent of
the energy absorbed, the remainder is either absorbed or
reflected by the clouds, dust or the earth itself. That
portion of the radiant energy which is simply reflected is
returned with its wave length unchanged. That part which
is absorbed has its wave-length changed into waves of great
length relatively. Water vapor absorbs a large amount

60 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

of these long wave radiations; and carbon dioxide and
other constituents of the lower also absorbs them readily.
The heat radiations do not escape readily from the earth
and lower atmosphere then, but only step by step until they
reach the diathermous layer, where the radiations are re-
latively unimpeded.

It is thought that the air in the upper inversion layer
gets its heat by radiations from the earth and from the
layer of water vapor.

Now, the upper air is composed of part oxygen which
absorbs a large part of the ultraviolet and a small part of
the red. Besides causing heating, chemical and electrical
effects are produced. The air there is ionized, and both
ozone and nitrogen pentoxide are formed, and as ozone
absorbs energy from a large portion of the spectrum the
air there is heated both by radiations from the sun and also
those from the water-vapor below which does not happen
with the diathermous region as that is not rich in ozone.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 61

FIFTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE UTAH
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.
Science Building, Salt Lake City High School.
April 5 and 6, 1912.

Friday, April 5,1912. 8 p.m.

“THE PRESENT STATUS OF SALVERSAN”’
Cirhieh’s G06) 66 8s 2... By Dr. R. L. Byrnes, U. of U.

““ANIMAL BEHAVIOR WORK AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE”
(Presidential Address)
By Dr. Charles T. Vorhies, U. of U.

Saturday, April 6, 1912. 9:30 a.m.

“ONE-PIECE SIDEWALK
CONSTRUCTION. \o300 3! By H. M. Jones, Salt Lake City

“THE RUSTING OF IRON’’....By Prof. C. W. Porter, U. A. C.

“THE CELLULOSE FERMENTS”’. . By Dr. J. E. Greaves, U.A.C.
(Read by title.)

“PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME ORGANIC
AMALGAM. Uh s Dae ee By Dr. Frank West, U. A. C.

“SOME EUGENICS DATA”...... By Dr. E. G. Titus, U. A. C.
“‘NOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE SUGAR BEET LEAF
HOPPER AND SUGAR BEET BLIGHT’... .By Dr. E. D. Ball
Saturday, April 6, 1912. 2 p. m.

“THE UNMET NEEDS OF INDIANS IN
MPA Hosta 8) diel eee ceaseless By Rev. G. W. Martin, Manti

(In the absence of the author, read by Prof. M. E. Jones.)

“THE KINETIC HYPOTHESIS AS APPLIED TO MAGNETIC
DATERIALS? O55) i6 ss By Dr. A. A. Knowlton, U. of U.

“BOTANISTS OF UTAH”....By Prof. M. E. Jones, Salt Lake
“LACIATION IN| UTAH 6 i o.lscc' os By Wm. D. Neal, Salt Lake

62 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

“FUNGOUS FLORA OF THE SOIL, AND ITS PROBABLE

RRAVELE Ons eee eS ikee wrens By Dr. C. N. Jensen, U. A. C.
“THE EFFECT OF SOIL MOISTURE ON THE MORPHOLOGY OF
CERTAIN PLANTS”...... By Prof. F. 8S. Harris, U. A. C.

Saturday, April 6, 1912. 8 p. m.
“EARTHQUAKES IN UTAH”’.....By Dr. Fred J. Pack, U. of U.

“METABOLIC INFUENCE OF WATER DRINKING
WYRE UALS Tite Lj e CNN oe ela ctetank a By Dr. H. A. Mattill

“THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EUGENICS
MOVEMENT”. .By Miss Amey B. Eaton, Salt Lake City

*Published in Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 33:1978-2032. Dec., 1911.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 63

THE RUSTING OF IRON.
By C. W. PORTER.

(Abstract. )

A discussion of the chemical and _ electro-chemical
theories of corrosion. The chemical composition and physi-
cal properties of paints and other protective coverings in-
tended to retard corrosion—tThe catalytic influence of cer-
tain paints accelerating rather than retarding rusting. An
exhibit of iron in contact with other metals was presented
with an explanation of the electro-chemical effects of vari-
ous couples on the rate of corrosion of the iron.

64, TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THE CELLULOSE FERMENTS.
By J. E. GREAVES.

(Summary. )

A critical review of the work which has been done
with the cellulose decomposing organisms of the soil. It
indicates the part played by these ferments in soil fertility
and their relationship to the nitrogen-fixing organisms,
especially the part which they play in rendering assimilable
the plant residues to the non-symbotic nitrogen fixers.

The article points out the rich field that is open to the
investigator in a study of the inter-relationship existing
between various species of soil organisms.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 65

THE EFFECT OF SOIL MOISTURE ON THE MOR-
PHOLOGY OF CERTAIN PLANTS.

By F. S. HARRIS.

(Summary. )

Experiments reported gave the following conclusions:

The number of stomata was decreased and the number
of small hairs increased on the leaves of corn by increasing
the soil moisture.

Corn, wheat, and peas growing a number of weeks in
sand containing different amounts of moisture showed a
proportionately greater root growth in the drier sand.

Corn grown in glass tubes 75 days showed a relatively
greater root growth where the level of free water was a
considerable distance below the surface.

Different roots of the same corn plant grown in very
wet and in moist sand showed a greater root growth with
the lower amount of water.

Tests with corn and wheat showed that the ratio of tops
to roots was affected by soil moisture even during the
germination stage.

Wheat harvested at different stages showed relatively
more roots during early stages of plant growth than later.

Wheat grown to maturity showed a greater relative
root growth with low than with high soil moisture, and the
moisture during the early stages of growth had the great-
est influence on that ratio.

on

66 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

SIXTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE UTAH
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Science Building, Salt Lake City High School.
April 4 and 5, 1913.

Friday, April 4, 1913. 8 p.m.
“REALITY OF THE KINETIC
PERRIN 0,2) 2 vss 4 ie ae By Dr. Harvey Fletcher, B. Y. U.

“THE INFLUENCE OF BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS UPON
THE OTHER SCIENCES” (Presidential Address)
By A. O. Garrett, Salt Lake High School

Saturday, April 5, 1913. 9:30 a.m.

“CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF UTAH HYDRO-CARBONS,”
By Carlos Bardwell, B. A. Berryman, T. B. Brighton,
F. D. Kuhre., U. of U. (Read by B. A. Berryman.)

“NON-SYMBIOTIC FIXATION OF NITROGEN BY SOIL
BACTERIA AND OTHER SOIL

ORGANISMS” 05. ee By Dr. L. L. Daines, B. Y. C.
“THE INTENSITY OF NITRIFICATION IN
PABED SOLES 2 5\s Sale inion orbibiie By Dr. R. Stewart, U. A. C.

“PHYSICAL RELATIONS OF SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE
COMBINATION TONES’. By Dr. Joseph Peterson, U. of U.

“NITROGEN FIXATION BY BACTERIA IN UTAH
No ES Rm RB LAR a UE By Dr. E. G. Peterson and E. Mohr

Saturday, April 5, 1913. 2 p.m.

“SOME PROBLEMS OF UTAH BOTANISTS”
By Prof. M. R. Porter, Weber Stake Academy, Ogden

“RECENT ADVANCES IN OUR KNOWLEDGE OF
PROTEIN METABOLISM”’.......... By Dr. H. A. Mattill

“THE EGG RECORD OF A FLOCK OF SIX- YEAR-OLD
YD 1 Tiga eta aaah) A baer NMG Se aA Ut By Dr. E. D. Ball, U. A. C.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ~— 67

“BLOSSOM INFECTION BY
PORE PRR LL eta oy By Dr. C. N. Jensen, U. A. C.
“COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD
Crop ALFALFA HAY FOR MILK PRODUCTION”
By Prof. W. E. Carroll, U. A. C.
“PROGRESS IN CEREAL IMPROVEMENT AT NEPHI
SUBSTATION? . 60 Ui By P. V. Cardon, U.S. Dept. Agr.

Saturday, April 5, 1918. 8 p. m.

“ALLOY STEELS AND THEIR PHYSICAL PROPERTIES”
By E. H. Beckstrand and Dr. A. A. Knowlton, U. of U.

“GERMAN AND AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES—A
COMPARISON”’........ By Dr. W. C. Ebaugh, U. of U.

68 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THE INFLUENCE OF BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
UPON THE OTHER SCIENCES.

By A. O. GARRETT.

Modern biological science begins with 1859—the date
of the publication of Darwin’s epoch-making “Origin of
Species.” We of the present day can have little conception
of the storm of protest raised by the appearance of this
book at a period in the world’s history when the acceptance
of a new theory must be absolutely dependent upon how well
the theory fitted in with the current theological opinions;
at a period of history still dominated by the spirit of
ecclesiastical intolerance which had persecuted Galilee. The
schools were not independent factors to investigate freely
and then publish broadcast the results of their re-
searches, for the benefit of other investigators. They must
first submit their conclusions to the one test: Do they con-
flict in any way with the ecclesiastical beliefs of the day?

No wonder that such a doctrine as that enunciated by
Darwin in the “Origin of Species” literally took the breath
away from those who heard it promulgated! No wonder
that theologians bitterly attacked the so-called heresy! And
in this attack they were joined by many noted scientists.
But there were also firm defenders. In England, Huxley,
Spencer, Hooker, and Lyell; in Germany, Ernst Haeckel,
and in America Asa Gray were enthusiastic in their sup-
port. Of these, none has exerted a stronger influence than
Dr. Asa Gray. Referring to Dr. Gray’s influence, Dr.
Farlow has said: ‘His simple and attractive style enabled
him to reach an audience which would have been repelled
by the dryness generally supposed to be characteristic of
scientific writings. He was also known to be a member
of the orthodox church and the good religious people of the
country said: ‘If the orthodox Gray sees in evolution noth-
ing inconsistent with revelation, why may we not also ac-
cept it?’ Furthermore Gray did not go too far in his views,
whereas some of the evolutionists started off on a wide sea
of speculation whither the public would not be expected to

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 69

follow”. Little by little the belief in Darwinism grew;
and when Darwin died in 1882, well could Huxley say of
him: “He found a great truth trodden under foot. Reviled
by bigots, and ridiculed by all the world, he lived long
enough to see it, chiefly by his own efforts, irrefragably
established in science, inseparably incorporated with the
common thoughts of men, and only hated and feared by
those who would revile, but dare not’. And so, in the
language of a current writer, “organic evolution became the
most stupendous scientific structure of the nineteenth cen-
tury”, profoundly influencing the thoughts and the methods
of all the sciences. But its greatest gift to the sciences is
the fact that through it the shackles of ecclesiastical bond-
age were stricken from scientific investigation; and thus
freed, so wonderful an impetus was given to research along
all lines of science that the nineteenth century has been
aptly nicknamed ‘The Century of Science’.

So much for the general debt owed by all sciences to
the results from biological investigation. In tracing the
history of medicine, chemistry, geology, agriculture, we
find all of them have been influenced to a greater or less
extent by results obtained in biological research.

Let us take the case of medicine. Previous to the
last quarter of the nineteenth century, we find that nearly
every botanist was also a physician. The main reason for
this was that one could hardly expect to earn a living as a
botanist. Positions in colleges were extremely few, and
there was not the opportunity offered in government work
that exists to-day. And so it is not surprising to find the
vast influence of botany upon medical science. Many of the
drugs used came from plants, and the botanist-physician did
much toward making the plants of the world known to
science, and in founding a materia medica. But in other
important ways did the biologist aid in influencing medical
science. In outlining this influence, let us begin with the
year 1668, and with the work of Francesco Redi—poet,
physician, scholar, naturalist. Redi lived at a time when
the teachings of Aristotle were still believed in—that liv-
ing things were created from non-living matter. As Lucre-

70 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

tius expressed it, ““With good reason the earth has gotten
the name of mother, since all things are produced out of
the earth. And many living creatures, even now, spring
out of the earth, taking form by the rains and the heat of
the sun.” Huxley says, “the axiom of ancient science
‘that the corruption of one thing is the birth of another’
had its proper embodiment in the notion that a seed dies
before the young plant springs from it; a belief so wide
spread and so fixed that St. Paul appeals to it in one of the
most splendid outbursts of his splendid eloquence: “Thou
fool, that which thou sowest is not quickened, except it
die.’ ”

Among other examples of spontaneous generation, it
was held that maggots were spontaneously generated from
putrefying meat. Now, on several occasions had Francesco
Redi noticed large flies buzzing around the meat before the
maggots appeared; and it occurred to him that possibly the
maggot was merely an immature stage of the fly. This
hypothesis he proceeded to test as follows: He _ placed
pieces of meat in a bottle, and covered the mouth of the
bottle with paper; but although exposed to the air, and
although in due time the meat putrefied, there were no
flies around the bottle, and no maggots. The paper, of
course, kept the odor of the meat from being conveyed to
the flies. Then he repeated the experiment, except that
he substituted gauze for the paper. Now the flies swarmed
above the gauze, and laid their eggs upon it; and the eggs
were soon transformed into maggots. Thus by a simple
and easily understood experiment did Redi disprove one
statement regarding spontaneous generation. 'The method
shown, other investigators took up other instances of so-
called Spontaneous Generation and one by one showed their
falsity. The dictum ‘‘Omnum vivo ex vivo” had about come
to be an accepted fact among scientific men. Then came im-
provements in the microscope; and there was made visible
a world of living forms the existence of which was pre-
viously not even dreamed of. In connection with the study
of these minute organisms it was observed that when vege-
table infusions apparently free from any sign of life were

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 71

allowed to stand for a few days and then examined micro-
scopically, millions of these micro-organisms were present.
The theory of spontaneous generation was resurrected. I
need not go into detail as to the arguments advanced and
the experiments tried by its supporters, nor by those who
defended the theory of biogenesis; suffice it to say, that the
“Discontinuous Heating’ experiments of Tyndall gave the
death-blow to the scientific heresy of ‘‘“Spontaneous Genera-
tion”’.

In the meantime, convinced that “all life comes from
preceding life’, and therefore that bacteria could not be
generated from the flesh of the body, the great Pasteur
had begun his epoch-making discoveries. He had shown
that fermentation is always caused by an organism; that
the silkworm disease which in seventeen years in France
had caused a loss of $250,000,000, and indeed even threat-
ened the destruction of the industry, also was caused by
a micro-organism, and that it could be absolutely prevented.
He initiated the researches in the subject of serum therapy
by developing sera for chicken cholera, anthrax and hydro-
phobia. Commenting upon the results of Pasteur with
the silk-worm disease, Huxley said in 1870: “There can be
no reason, then, for doubting that, among insects, conta-
gious and infectious diseases, of great malignity, are caused
by minute organisms which are produced from pre-existing
germs, or by homogenesis; and there is no reason, that I
know of, for believing that what happens in insects may
not take place in the highest animals. Indeed, there is
already strong evidence that some diseases of an extremely
malignant and fatal character to which man is subject, are
as much the work of minute organisms as is the silk-worm
malady’. Notice especially in this quotation the words
“minute organisms that are produced from pre-existing
germs.” The great stumbling block to the study of parasitic
organisms had been removed.

In England, also, the death of the Spontaneous Genera-
tion theory had produced results; for Dr. Joseph Lister
had reasoned that if putrefaction is always due to bacterial
development, this must apply as well to living as to dead

72 TRANSACTIONS. OF THE

tissue. Hence the putrefactive changes which occur in
wounds and after operations on the human subject, from
which blood-poisoning and gangrene so often follow, might
be absolutely prevented if the injured surfaces could be
kept from the germs of decay. So he began experimenting
to find a drug that would kill the germ without injuring the
patient. As we know, the results of his experimentation
were crowned with success.

I need not discuss further the investigations which
have led to the development of the science of Bacteriology.
Francisco Redi’s simple experiment has borne a wondrous
fruitage. We realize the important role played by bacteria
not only in medicine, but in agriculture as well, where they
cause destructive plant diseases, aid in fertilizing the soil,
and give characteristic flavors to various products.

But not only in a true understanding of the nature of
bacteria has the explosion of the Spontaneous Generation
theory aided medical science.

In 1833 an English medical student noticed little glist-
ening specks in the muscular tissues of a human subject. His
professor of comparative anatomy classified them as being
the cocoon of a minute “insect”, and gave it the name of
Trichina spiralis. In 1847, the cysts of Trichina were
found in pork by the American anatomist, Dr. Joseph
Leidy. Some time elapsed before the life cycle of the
Trichina had been worked out by German zoologists. This
discovery stimulated investigation as to the part played by
animal parasites in diseases of the human body. One of
the most striking cases of animal parasitism has only re-
cently been brought to light as occurring in the United
States; only recently, I say, notwithstanding the fact
that it affects over two million people: Affects, did I say?
Rather, it makes them useless citizens, with life a burden
to themselves. I refer to the hook-worm disease, discovered
in May, 1902, by Charles Wardell Stiles. At the time of
the announcement of his discovery Dr. Stiles was a zoolo-
gist at the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington. In
December of the same year Dr. Stiles addressed the Pan-
American Sanitary Congress on the subject of his discovery.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 73

To the hook-worm alone he attributed the “laziness” and
general shiftlessness of the poor whites in the sand-lands
and pine-barrens of the South. It is said that physicians
laughed at his “theory”, as they called it; but finally be-
came convinced of its truth. And when we consider that
fifty cents worth of medicine will cure a man who has been
a life-long sufferer from this terrible affliction, and that by
proper sanitary measures it can be absolutely prevented;
when we consider that Dr. Stiles’ discovery will regenerate
certain portions of the South, and give health and hap-
piness to one-fiftieth of the population of the United States,
we surely must conclude that biological science has added
its share to the peace and prosperity of the world, notwith-
standing the fact that many of our friends on the outside
would look on with a good natured smile at the work of
collecting, classifying and studying the various kinds of
worms found in the intestines of dogs, sheep, badgers, foxes,
etc.

Another prolific line of recent investigation has been
that of insects as carriers of disease. The discoveries of
the last few years in regard to the connection between the
mosquito and malarial fever, yellow fever, and certain tropi-
cal fevers are still fresh in the mind. As to the practical
results of these studies we have but to turn to Havana, a
hot-bed of yellow fever for over two centuries, but now
free from the disease; or we have but to compare the over-
whelming death-loss at the Panama canal during the De
Lesseps regime with the extremely low mortality existing
there now.

And so, as the biologist discovers the life history of
these various animal and plant parasites, the physician ex-
tends applied knowledge along his own special lines;
until we may hope that in the not far distant future, a
certain class of diseases will become extinct. Among these
diseases, none gives more promise of early extinction than
typhoid fever. In the year 1890, 2.2 per cent of all deaths
in the registration area of the United States had been
caused by this disease. In 1900, this had been reduced to
1.9 per cent, and in 1910 to 1.6 per cent.

74 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Chemistry and Physics also have been profoundly in-
fluenced by investigations that were initiated at least as
purely biological. In 1827 the botanist Robert Brown
noticed that minute particles suspended in a liquid were
in a continual state of agitation. This observation has
given meat to the physicists ever since. It was not until
1889 that the explanation was offered which is accepted
to-day: that the motion is caused by molecular bombard-
ment. Again, in 1877 the botanist Pfeffer wished to dis-
cover some of the facts associated with the rise of sap in
plants, and began a series of experiments to measure the
osmotic pressure. He constructed an apparatus to simulate
as nearly as possible a plant cell. The results of his re-
searches were published as a monograph. This monograph
opened a new field to the physiological botanists; and when
Van’t Hoff at the age of 24 was called to the Chair of
Chemistry at Amsterdam, his colleague the botanist Hugo
De Vries called his attention to the work of Pfeffer, and
requested Van’t Hoff to continue certain parts of Pfeffer’s
investigations. As a recent writer says, ‘This was the in-
troduction of Van’t Hoff to the work of Pfeffer, and this
introduction marks an epoch in the development of Chem-
istry.”’ Here too the biological influence ends; but the re-
sult of the influence is so great not only to Chemistry
and Physics, but to all sciences, that I am tempted to con-
tinue. Van’t Hoff discovered that a constant relation ex-
ists between the osmotic pressure and the per cent of con-
centration of the cane-sugar used in his experiments. In
this he saw an analogy to the law of Boyle for gases. Then
“af,” said he, “there is any real relation between solutions
and gases, the other laws of gas pressure must apply to
the osmotic pressure of solutions.” Proceeding with this
theory, he showed that the law of Gay-Lussac, and finally
the law of Avogadro for gases, applied for most solutions.
Since the discoveries of Van’t Hoff we really know some-
thing about matter in solution, but this raises the question,
“Why is it so important to deal with solutions by the ex-
act scientific method, or by any method whatsoever? Why
is a knowledge of solutions so fundamental, not only for

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 75

chemistry but for so many of the other branches of natural
science?” Harry C. Jones of Johns Hopkins University
aptly answers these questions. He says: * “We
know matter in three states of aggregation, solid,
liquid and gas. A solution is a homogeneous mixture of
matter in the given state of aggregation with matter in
the same or a different state of aggregation ; the component
parts of which cannot be separated mechanically. In terms
of this definition we can have solid, liquid or gas acting as
a solvent, and every state of aggregation dissolved in its
own or in any other state of aggregation. We would con-
sequently have nine types of solution. Bearing in mind
this broader definition of solution, the whole science of
chemistry is only a branch of the science of solutions.
Think of all the chemical reactions you can, and see how
many do not take place in solutions in the broader sense of
the term. Of course, all reactions that take place at high tem-
peratures between fused masses are reactions in solution,
because the term solution does not raise any question as to
temperature’.

“But let us turn to geology. ‘The rocks are either pre-
cipitated from aqueous solutions or aqueous suspensions,
colloidal or otherwise, or else crystallized from molten mag-
mas—and the latter are as true solutions as the former; the
difference being chiefly a difference in temperature. Thus,
solutions underlie geology.” But what would geology be
without the aid it has received directly from the biologist?
How far can the geologist go in the proper placing of his
strata without being able to classify his fossils? And as
biological knowledge is developed, how soon do we find its
application in historical geology! Only within the past
decade has the botanist discovered that the most of the so-
called ferns of the paleozoic era were not ferns at all, but
really plants more closely allied to the Gymnosperms. To
this group of plants has been given the name Cycado-fili-
cales. What were formerly thought to be fern sporangia
on the leaves are now known to be the microsporangia of

*The Bearing of Osmotic Pressure on the Development of Physics
and Chemistry. Harry C. Jones in The Plant World 16:79. 1913.

76 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

the Cycadofilicales! Even the winged pollen-grains so
characteristic of Gymnosperms have been found! Think
of the effect of this discovery upon historical geology, and
upon plant evolution, if you will!

But it is in agricultural science where we find the
greatest effect of the biological influence. Indeed, agri-
culture may aptly be called “Applied Biology”.

The entomologist has worked out the life-history of in-
sects, and discovered how to control the injurious species,
either by spraying with mineral poisons or by the intro-
duction of other insects as parasites. The ornithologist
has told us which birds are valuable, and which are harm-
ful. The botanist has suggested the possibilities of new
species of plants for cultivation. As an example of this,
it might be interesting to note that commercial rubber is
to-day obtained from over two hundred different species of
plants. He has studied plant diseases, and has shown how
to save millions of dollars annually from their depredations.
Thirty years ago, plant pathology was practically unknown;
but in this brief period, it has grown to be an independent
science. Its importance from the practical side can well
be judged when it is considered that the loss to the farmers
of the United States from grain rusts alone is estimated at
between $20,000,000 and $60,000,000 annually; from oat
smut at $18,000,000 and from corn smut at $2,000,000.
And Plant Pathology has already shown how some of these
losses can be prevented, and it is but the matter of a short
time until the rest of the problem will be solved.

The physiological botanist has shown the laws govern-
ing the growth of plants—their relation to water, light,
drainage, soil-treatment, both mechanical and chemical, and
so forth. But perhaps the most interesting phase of agri-
cultural biology of the past decade or so is that associated
with plant and animal breeding and researches into the laws
of heredity. As is well known to this audience, Gregor
Mendel in 1865 was the pioneer in plant breeding; but his
work on this subject was published when the scientific
world was in the vortex of the storm of Darwinism; and
hence it received no serious attention until thirty-five years

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 77

later. Then it was independently discovered by other biolo-
gical investigators. Mendelism is but the introduction to
a series of brilliant experiments of world-wide interest yet
to come. kEugenics is its natural outcome, and from
Eugenics we hope to see the regeneration of the human
race. Surely biological investigations have played no mean
part towards making the world, mentally, physically, mor-
ally, a better place in which to live!

78 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF UTAH
HYDROCARBONS.

By CARLOS BARDWELL, BENJAMIN ARTHUR BERRYMAN,
THOMAS Bow BRIGHTON, KENNETH
DROWN KUHRE.

INTRODUCTION.

About fifteen kinds of hydrocarbons occur in Utah;
the five of those occurring most abundantly—gilsonite,
tabbyite, wurtzellite, ozokerite, and rock asphalt—are the
ones selected for investigation.

Gilsonite or uintaite was first described by W. P.
Blake! in 1885. He gave it the name uintaite because of its
occurrence in the Uinta mountains. Later the name gil-
sonite was adopted because S. H. Gilson of Salt Lake City
brought it into prominence as an article of commerce.

The deposits of gilsonite are limited to the Uncom-
pahgre Indian reservation in Uinta County, being found
in an area extending from about four miles east of the Colo-
rado line westward along the fortieth parallel about 60
miles.

Gilsonite occurs as a filling of vertical fissures, which
strike quite regularly 40 degrees west. The geological
formation is the “Green River” of the Eocene period of the
Tertiary, here at an altitude of from 5,000 to 6,000 feet.

The ‘Green River” formation consists of a series of cal-
careous shales and limestones intercalated with thin sand-
stone members.

Tabbyite is so named from an Indian chief Tabby. It
occurs in fissure veins in the shales and sandstones of the
upper Tertiary. The deposits are in Tabby canyon, a
branch of the Duchesne and are about 8 to 9 miles south
and west of Theodore, Uinta County. It is being mined by
the Salt Lake and Pittsburg Oil Co., tabbyite being the
trade name of their product.

1H. & M. J. Vol. 40, p. 431.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 79

Elaterite, wurtzellite, or mineral rubber from Utah was
first described by Dr. Henry Wurtz, who showed that it
is a distinct mineral. The name elaterite had been used
previously by Dana and other mineralogists to describe ©
three different minerals of specific gravities ranging from
0.905 to 1.2238.

The region in which wurtzellite is found covers an area
of about 100 square miles between Indian Canyon and
Sam’s Canyon, branches of Strawberry Creek. This is
about 30 miles due north of Price, Utah.

Like gilsonite and tabbyite, wurtzellite occurs in vertical
veins ranging in width from 1 to 22 inches and with a
maximum length of 314, miles. It also is found about mid-
way in the “Green River’ formation of the Eocene. The
veins strike from N. 66 degrees E. to N. 80 degrees W.

Ozokerite or mineral wax has been known for many
years on account of the economic value of the large de-
posits in Galicia, Austria. It has its name from two
Greek words, meaning “I smell’ and “wax,” alluding to its
odor. The only known deposits of ozokerite of commercial
value are those in Utah and those of Galicia.

The area known to contain ozokerite begins about two
miles west of Colton, Utah County, and extends westward
to about four miles west of Soldier Summit, a distance of
twelve miles. The belt is two miles wide. This area may
be divided into three parts: ‘near Colton, on the north
side of Price River Valley, *near and at the east of Soldier
Summit where the railroad crosses the crest of the plateau,
snear Midway station on the north side of the canyon, near
the source of Soldier’s Creek and west of Soldier’s Summit.

The ozokerite deposits occur in shales, shaly sand-
stones and limestone strata in the lower part of the
“Wasatch” formation of the Tertiary. The mineral has
been found at various positions through a section of about
150 feet of strata. The shales are soft and friable and
variously tinted. The sandstones are moderately soft, the
limestones thin and brittle.

1E.&M. J. Vol. 40, p. 431.
717th Annual Report U.S. G. S.
7k. & M. J. Jan. 11, 1890, p. 59.

|
80 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Where the ozokerite occurs the strata are intersected
by fissures, zones of brecciation and parallel jointing.
Those fissures and spaces between the brecciation contain
the ozokerite, usually as thin sheets but sometimes as dike
—like bodies several inches thick. The fissures are nearly
vertical and strike from N. 10 degrees W. to N. 60 de-
grees W. The thickness of the deposit is variable both
laterally and vertically.

In the past rock asphalt has been called bituminous
sandstone, but the name rock asphalt is gradually being
adopted, especially in Utah. The largest deposits in the
state lie south and east of Vernal, north of the White River
and between Ashley and Uintah Valleys®. This deposit
attains a thickness in places of twenty feet but at present
is too far from a railroad for successful commercial ex-
ploitation. Another deposit occurs south-east of Thistle
in Spanish Fork Canyon, and still other immense deposits
are found (a) in the tributaries of Whitmore Canyon, near
Sunnyside, having a bituminous content of from 10 to 12
per cent, rather evenly distributed; (b) at the head of
Willow Creek, a tributary of the Green River in the Book
Cliffs Mountains; (c) in the Laramie sandstones near
Jensen on the Green River.

A deposit of bituminous limestone occurs at the head
of the right hand fork of Tie Fork, a canyon entering
Spanish Fork Canyon two miles west of Clear Creek Sta-
tion. This deposit occurs in horizontal veins of from two
to four feet in thickness and carries 12 to 20 per cent of
asphalt.

An area underlaid by bituminous limestone about 50
miles long east and west, by 10 miles wide north and
south, lies just north of Colton and south of Strawberry
Creek from Antelope Creek on the east to near Thistle on
the west®.

In reviewing the literature of the work done on these
products, one finds that considerable has been published
concerning gilsonite and ozokerite but not much about
wurtzellite, tabbyite, and rock asphalt. Day’ attempted to

5H & MJ. Vol: 17,'\p.. 115.

®U. S. G. S. 17th Annual Report, p. 332.
TJournal of Franklin Institute, Sept. 1895.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 81

show the real nature of gilsonite. He first outlined pre-
liminary work done by Boussingalt and by Kayser. Kayser
gave formulae for a number of distillates obtained from
various asphalts but Day doubts their correctness.

To quote from Day’s article, “The present investiga-
tion of gilsonite had for its object the isolation of such
single hydro-carbons or their derivatives, as would give
some information as to the real nature of the material
itself.”

He gives an outline of the physical characteristics,
solubility in alcohol, ether, glacial acetic acid, carbon bi-
sulphide, and petroleum ether and describes the character
of the residues from each solvent as well as the character
of the dissolved portion. Then follows some analyses, both
proximate and ultimate. He found the most satisfactory
method of determining sulphur to be a combination of the
Carius and Eschla method, dissolving first in concentrated
nitric acid, pouring into cold water, drying the precipitate
formed, then heating it with magnesium oxide, etc.

Next follow the results of distilling gilsonite, descrip-
tion of the distillates and their action with steam distil-
lation, with sulphuric acid and with nitric acid. From its
action his conclusion is that the oil obtained belongs to the
paraffin series and is a complicated mixture of different
hydro-carbons just as is highly refined petroleum.

From the distillate volatile with steam he obtained oils
which seemed to correspond to those described by Peckham’
obtained from California bitumens. This had an odor |
similar to quinoline and to him was evidence of the rela-
tionship of California bitumens and gilsonite and of their
animal origin.

Day gives the results of the treatment with nitric
acid and description of the products and their properties.
From these he concludes that some members of the naph-
thalene series are present.

Eldredge® describes the location of the hydrocarbon de-
posits and the geology of the district as told previously in

®American Journal of Science. III. Vol. 48, p. 250.
°17th Annual Report U.S. G. S., p. 330.

82 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

this paper. He holds to the idea that the cracks in which
the gilsonite is found were formed by the gentle folding
that produced the Uinta Valley syncline. He describes the
appearance and properties of the gilsonite coming from
near the surface where, through atmospheric agencies, it
has lost its luster and become “pencillated” in structure
(columnar at right angles to the wall). Sometimes a
cuboidal structure is developed.

Then follow descriptions of several important veins,
the Duchesne, Bonanza, Cowboy, Culmer and smaller ones.
Those range in thickness from that of a knife blade to
18 feet. From a study of conditions he concludes that the
gilsonite found its way into the fissures as a plastic mass,
coming from below under pressure, and though of high
viscosity, sufficiently fluid to be pressed between the grains.
constituting the wall rocks. He frankly confesses his lack
of ability to suggest the condition under which the gilsonite
existed prior to its flow into the cracks.

Eldredge quotes from Day an analysis of gilsonite as
follows:

Volatile! matter: oid oe aay 56.46 per cent
Pixed Carbom..8 0:23 pap wae 43.43
MAES STE) SURLY oR Meee ee .10
99.99 per cent
Ultimate composition.
TAP IOT Wi a Res i iwt Geese 88.30 per cent
FLVRRGSER ue cease ee 9.96
eo ETL OT a aR MORO ane Be Oo Bi 1.32
PASSAIC cinta ae hake hoi) Sieh cee te Gad 10
Oxygen and Nitrogen, un-
determined ois fs eis oe
100.00 per cent

Locke’? quotes the description analysis, etc., given by
Blake", then add further details. He notes the fact that
it is an insulator, that it appears to be composed of two in-

aC AST, Mi VER IViOL. 1G) pi G2)

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 83

gredients, one of which is more soluble in some solvents
than in others and that a part of it when heated under-
goes destructive distillation. He considers asphaltums to be
composed of a volatile oily portion, petrolene, and a non-
volatile, asphaltene, which is decomposed by heat. The
article closes with descriptions of some experimental mixes
made with gilsonite for paving, roofing, varnish, etc.

Blake" describes gilsonite, giving it the name uintaite
from its place of occurrence and treats briefly of its fus-
ibility, solubility in oils, melted wax, tallow, ozokerite,
turpentine, naphtha, etc. He gives an analysis made by
Fristol and Sawyer as follows:

APTN [arate aleck Cela date feles Viet 78.43 per cent
PPMATOUC. hill aes cities ve’ ats 10.20
PUREE MOT ee Bh le PAA
GIN eS Se aud cailaiah ot ia a Mer toad 8.70
PRM IAA Se eal) USah eee Guna 40
100.00 per cent

Raymond’? describes gilsonite but pays more attention
to the occurrence of it and other hydrocarbons in eastern
Utah than to its chemical properties and composition.

He gives an analysis by T. M. Brown as follows:

DEMERS bate Pease dare eig staan ee 80.88 per cent
PRET ok 8 ie 1; wheiierorayerede heveyaye 9.76
TOTREOGET oe. cid ois Schaal Levies 3.30
RR RORE eee hiss)! once aah een ea ean 6.05
PRMD 25g Palate es ju de aay bons hed d 01

100.00 per cent

The earlier analyses of asphalts gave rather large per-
centages of oxygen but this was probably because the
sulphur content had not been recognized and the oxygen was
supposed, with the carbon and hydrogen, to make up the
ash free bitumen. Still some analyses which report sul-
phur and nitrogen also report small amounts of oxygen.

ue. & M. J. ae ae das
As) es LS ES VOL

84 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

12a By some authorities as Richardson and Peckham, oxygen
is considered as foreign to natural asphalts.

A similar article by Henry Wurtz'* gives a descrip-
tion of gilsonite as well as some solubilities and properties.

In the first reference to wurtzellite Blake* describes
it from a physical standpoint, noting its occurrence, hard-
ness, color, specific gravity, fusibility, electrical properties,
etc. In giving to it the name “wurtzellite’ he said he
wished to compliment his friend Dr. Henry Wurtz of New
York.

Blake!® explains the difference of wurtzellite from gil-
sonite and at some length shows that the Utah wurtzellite
is an entirely distinct mineral from the elaterite of Dana
and other mineralogists. He takes up its form, fracture,
toughness, color, luster, elasticity, hardness, specific gravity,
fusibility, solubility, and electrical characteristics. He
notes that 4.17 per cent is soluble in ether, the soluble por-
tion being a yellow oil of unpleasant odor. The removal of
this oil does not materially affect the properties, however.
Most of his article deals with the substances that are known
as elaterite. These he shows are certainly not the same as
wurtzellite. He also compares gilsonite, albertite, graham-
ite, and other asphaltums but does not bring out anything
new about the Utah product.

Wurtz? gives more comparisons to show that wurtz-
ellite is a distinct mineral.

The Utah ozokerite is very similar in properties to
that of Galicia, but as it contains less oily material and
is firmer, it is more valuable. Plenty of popular’® accounts
as to its mode of preparation, uses, etc., are to be found,
but we could find nothing as to work on its chemical com-
position, distillation products, etc.

With the exception of an occasional reference to the
fact that bituminous sandstones occur in Utah and their
location, nothing was found about rock asphalt.

29, Jour. of Industrial and weve Chem. May 19, 1918, p. 3983.
BE. & M. J. Aug. 10, 1889, p. 11

4K. & M. J. Dec. 21, 1889, p. 545,

wy, A. I. M. E. Vol. 18, p. 497.

7H, & M. J. Vol. 49, p. 106.

3% The Salt Lake Mining Review, oF 15, 1912; Salt Lake Tribune
Dec. 29, 1912; U. S. G. S. Bulletin 285, p. 369.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 85

USE OF UTAH ASPHALTS.

An investigation into the uses which are made of the
asphalts of Utah shows them to me surprisingly numerous
and varied. That there are large deposits of rock asphalt
in Utah is known by comparatively few, and to still fewer
is known the extended use which is made of them. Many
of our most common articles are products of Utah asphalts.
Their use has increased enormously during the last few
years, yet the supply is still short of the demand. Before
the discovery of gilsonite in Utah, European and Asiatic
asphaltum was shipped into the United States; now, be-
cause of its abundance and purity, large quantities of the
Utah asphalt are shipped to the foreign countries.

The production of gilsonite in the last two years has
increased rapidly due to the greater number of articles made
from it. In 1910 the production was 30,000 tons!®; in
1912 over 50,000 tons. This is worth about $20.00 per ton
f. o. b. Utah, which would mean an annual income of
$100,000.

Ozokerite is of still greater value, the price in New
York being 15 to 28 cents per lb.2° The only available data
as to production is that of the Soldier Summit mine. Here
the total production to date has been 300 tons of the re-
fined black ozokerite marketing at from $400 to $500 per
ton, or a total value returned of between $120,000 and
$135,000.

Wurtzellite is little used because of its insolubility.
There are about 1000 tons produced annually.

Perhaps the most extended use which has been made
of Utah asphalts is in the paving industry. Yet the value
of gilsonite and ozokerite for other purposes are so great
as to make it impractical to use them for paving. Gilsonite
has been used in paving the streets of many important
cities. Among these is a long stretch of Michigan Avenue
Boulevard, Chicago”, where it is giving entire satisfaction
under the most exacting requirements.” Rock asphalt has

~H. L. A. Culmer, Address, Nov. 15, 1912.
20Salt Lake Mining Review, Oct. 15, 1912.
21H. L. Culmer, Address, Nov. 15, 1912.

86 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

also been used in the paving industry, especially in Salt
Lake City. Second South between West Temple and First
West was paved with rock asphalt in 1896. It has had no
repairs and is in fair condition after sixteen years of serv-
ice.

Another very extensive and at present no doubt the
greatest use of Utah asphalts is in the manufacture of
varnishes and paints. Only the purest and best asphalts
are used for this purpose. Gilsonite and glance pitch are
used for the best grades, and Trinidad and Bermudez for
the cheaper grades. The asphalt is refined and then mixed
with turpentine and linseed oil to make a varnish. Wurtz-
ellite has been used in the manufacture of a varnish in
which the particles are held in suspension, not entering
into solution.

Asphaltum is practically imperishable”?. The ancient
Egyptians knew of this property and made use of it to
preserve their dead. This property has been made use of
in modern times by coating metal and wood to preserve them
from decay”*. Reservoirs and aqueducts as well as all
manner of water-carrying appliances are lined with Utah
asphalts. For this purpose they are better than coal tar
because they will not crack after heating or aging. Since
they are acid proof they find an extensive use in acid
factories and in industries where acids are employed. As
roofing compounds they are employed extensively and are
said to be better for the purpose than coal tar products.

Some of the uses of the individual hydrocarbons of
Utah are as follows:

GILSONITE :

Manufacture of varnishes.

Paving industry.

Electrical insulator**. For this purpose it is com-
pounded with ebonite. Its non-absorbent property makes
it valuable as a covering for underground conduits for
electrical wires.

2H. L. Culmer Address, Nov. 15, 1912.
23 New International Encyclopedia, May.
“TT, A. I. M. EB. Vol. 16, p: 162

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 87

Manufacture of roofing compounds and ‘roofing
papers”.

For coating of wooden and steel pipes and masonry
aqueducts”*.

The U. S. Geological Survey gives the following uses
of gilsonite?’:

For preventing electrolytic action on iron plates of
ship bottoms, coating barb wire fencing, coating sea walls
of brick and masonry, covering paving brick, and proof
lining for chemical tanks, roofing pitch, insulating electrical
wires, smokestack paint, lubricants for heavy machinery,
preserving iron pipes from corrosion and acids, coating
poles, posts, and ties, toredo-proof pile coating, covering
wood-block paving, a substitute for rubber in the manufact-
ure of garden hose, and as a binder pitch for culm in mak-
ing briquetes and eggette coal.

OZOKERITE :

Electrical insulator?* :—this is the most important use.
A residual product obtained in purifying ozokerite which has
a hard waxy nature is combined with India-rubber to give
an insulating covering for ocean cables. Ozokerite has a
resistance of 450,000,000 megohms per square centimeter
as compared with 110,000,000 for paraffin.

Manufacture of candles?°—Almost all altar candles are
made from ozokerite. They will not drip or bend over and
they have great illuminating power.

As a substitute for beeswax:—Refined ozokerite has
about the same properties as beeswax. It can be bleached
perfectly white with chlorine, in which case it can not be
distinguished from beeswax except by the taste*®. In this
form it is used as an adulterant of, or a substitute for,
beeswax. The manufacturers of ointments, pomades,
salves, and plasters”? use some ozokerite.

As a water proofing material it has considerable use.
Paper waxed with it is employed in wrapping soaps, steels,
and all kinds of articles requiring moisture-proof wrappings.

> New International Encyclopedia.
2 New International Encyclopedia.
27 Mineral Resources of the U. S. 1893.

22 New International Encyclopedia.
27 Salt Lake Mining Review, Oct. 15, 1912.

88 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

It has the property of permeating the pores of wood, mak-
ing a perfectly tight fitting material through which no water
can pass.

Wax figures and dolls are almost all made of ozokerite
as are likewise imitation alabaster statuettes.

In the manufacture of hard rubber for telephone re-
ceivers and transmitters, it is compounded with Para-rubber
to give it hardness. In this form it is also used for phono-
graph records, electrotyping, manufacture of buttons, shoe-
polish, water-proof crayons, and innumerable other articles
which were ozokerite not available, would have to be made
of vegetable or animal waxes.

Ozokerite is largely composed of ceresine which is ob-
tained from it by a process of distillation, the residue be-
ing known as wax pitch, a material used for cable insul-
ation. Ceresine may be incorporated with oils, fats,
resins, etc. In this form it can be applied to innumerable
and varied uses. Some of these are floor polishes and
wax, artificial wax moulding, water-proofing cartridges and
textile fabrics, as a moulding mass for copper and silver
plating, in the manufacture of preservatives for sole leather,
as pencils for writing on glass and porcelain, as wax for
sealing bottles, and as a dressing for black cotton goods.

WURTZELLITE:

Manufacture of varnishes. In a wurzellite varnish the
particles are merely held in suspension, and this results in
a cheaper and inferior grade when compared with one made
from gilsonite. The process by which it is made is a trade
secret. Wurtzellite also finds considerable use as roofing
compound.

TABBYITE:

This is compounded with Para rubber to manufacture
floor mats, rubber paints, and roofings: and as a filler for
rubber in automobile tires, etc. As it closely resembles
gilsonite, it can no doubt be applied for the same purposes
as the latter.

—————

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 89

Rock ASPHALT:

Practically the only use of this material is in the pav-
ing industry. According to statements made by the Salt
Lake City engineering department’s chemist, it would be
an ideal paving mixture if it could be obtained of uniform
grade.

To date the material brought on the market has been
extremely variable in bitumen content, and until some
means of supplying a uniform grade is found it can not
be entirely acceptable as a surface mixture.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS.

The results of the first tests made on the eight samples
are given in table one. They are the standard tests recom-
mended by Richardson and required by the New York test-
ing laboratory. The tests are meant primarily to determine
the fitness of the material for asphalt paving. None of
the samples as they occur comes up to the standards com-
pletely, but in the case of Trinidad, Bermudez, Gilsonite,
and Rock Asphalt, the bitumen could be mixed with heavy
petroleum oil and given the required penetration and other
properties. As our work was concerned with the properties
of the materials as they occur in nature no compounding
was done.

The hardness is given in terms of the commonly ac-
cepted mineralogical scale®®. In all cases—as might be
expected—the hardness is low.

The streak is the color of the powder or the color of
the mark made by the material on a piece of unglazed
porcelain. This was found to be brown in all cases, vary-
ing from light to dark.

The specific gravity was determined in two ways.
First, with the specific gravity bottle and then by weighing
a sample and finding the increase in volume of water in a
burette. When the sample is added great care must be
taken to have no air bubbles adhere to it. The two methods

8 Tale.—1, Gypsum=—2, Calcite—3, Fluorite—4, a saa idl Orthoclase
=u Quartz—7, Topaz—8, Sapphire—9, Diamond=10

90 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

gave very concordant results. The specific gravity ‘is in
all cases very close to one.

The softening and flow temperatures were determined
by putting a small angular piece of the bitumen on a micro-
scopic slide cover glass placed upon a mercury bath and then
heating the mercury.

A funnel was adjusted over the sample and glass. A
thermometer passed through the funnel neck registered the
temperature of the bath and of the sample. When the
first signs of the rounding of the edges and corners was
noted that temperature was taken as the softening temper-
ature. The heating was continued until the sample flat-
tened out as a liquid on the glass. This gave the tempera-
ture of flow. Where the temperature was above the boiling
point of mercury no determination was made.

The fracture was determined by looking at a freshly
broken surface. It was found to be conchoidal in all cases;
that is, the surface appears to be made up of a series of
concentric spheres.

The loss upon heating to 212 degrees F. for one hour
gives the moisture and the very low boiling distillates. These
values are quite low, as are the values for 325 degrees F.
for seven hours, and account in considerable measure for
the zero penetration found in all cases except the ozokerite.
The oven used to obtain a constant temperature was an
ordinary air oven, asbestos covered, with a fan at the bottom
to keep the air in circulation, thus preventing one part of
the furnace becoming hotter than another. Considerable
difficulty was found in the seven hour run at 400 degrees
F. to keep the temperature constant, as the gas pressure in
the burner varied greatly.

The penetration is the distance a number two sewing
machine needle will penetrate the sample when released for
five seconds with a 50 gram weight upon it. For the use
of the standard machine for making these tests we are in-
debted to the testing laboratory, City Engineer’s Office,
Salt Lake City.

The bitumens in the asphalts are divided into two
general classes.*t. Those soluble in 62 degrees naphtha are

“Modern Asphalt Pavement’, by Richardson, p. 118.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 91

called Malthenes and those insoluble in carbon tetrachloride
but soluble in carbon disulphide are called carbenes. Gener-
ally carbon disulphide will dissolve all the malthenes and
the carbenes. These solubility tests were made by allowing
a one gram sample finely ground, to be in. contact with an
excess of the solvent for 12 to 18 hours. The solution and
the remaining solid material were then filtered through a
tared gooch crucible made up of a filter of ignited asbestos
fiber. The crucible was reweighed after being washed with
pure solvent and dried at 100 degrees C. The increase is
the amount insoluble in the solvent. From this the amount
soluble is found. Great difficulty was found in filtering
some of these samples, especially the Trinidad asphaltum.
This material contains a large amount of fine sand which
clogs the filter. No agitation accompanied these extrac-
tions except through a shaking at first and one after about
three hours.

The bottles were corked to prevent evaporation of the
solvent. In order to facilitate filtering the solid matter
was allowed to settle as completely as possible before filter-
ing. The clear solution was poured through the filter, then
the solid matter washed into it. The insolubility of wurtz-
ellite is to be noted, as we have occasion to observe this
property in connection with later extractions.

The results in Table 1 show physical and chemical
properties which may or may not depend upon the ultimate
analysis. Table 2 gives the ultimate composition as de-
termined in our work. The carbon and hydrogen were de-
termined by the ordinary combustion method, collecting the
water in calcium chloride and the carbon dioxide in potas-
sium hydroxide. Great care must be taken in starting a
combustion. The part of the tube containing the copper
oxide and lead chromate should be red hot but the part
where the boat is placed should be cool when the boat is
inserted. If not the gases which are first distilled off will
come too fast to be decomposed by the copper oxide and to
be absorbed by the potassium hydroxide bulb, and a back
pressure will be set up which may puncture the hot tube or

92 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

force some of the gases containing hydrogen and carbon
back into the air purifer.

The nitrogen was determined by the ordinary ‘“Kjel-
dahl” method, distilling the ammonia into standard sul-
phuric acid and titrating back the excess.

The sulphur was determined by the Sprague-Ebaugh
modification of the Eschka method which consists in baking
a weighed sample with zinc oxide and sodium carbonate.
The sulphur is oxidized to the sulphate and leached out with
water, filtered, acidulated with hydrochloric acid and pre-
cipitated and weighed as barium sulphate.

The ash may be determined by reweighing the boat
after combustion or by heating a one gram sample in a
platinum dish till all carbon is burned off, and then re-
weighing. In two cases the ash was analyzed. The com-
positions are given in a separate table below Table 2. This
analysis shows the mineral matter of rock asphalt to be of
silicious nature.

Table 3 records the results of a series of solubility
tests. These results give the amount of hydrocarbon that
can be dissolved by 100 grams of the solvent. The method
was as follows:—a quantity of hydrocarbon was placed in
a bottle in contact with a small amount of solvent. The
bottle and contents were agitated for 18 hours by a water
motor and shaking apparatus, and then the solution was
filtered off. A weighed quantity of the solution was
evaporated and the residue weighed and calculated to 100
grams of solvent. All of the solvents tested were first
tried qualitatively hot and cold, and where solubility was
found a quantitative determination was made. Quantitative
determinations with hot solvents were made only where in-
creased solubility was found in the qualitative test. The
hot extractions were made in a bottle fitted with a reflux
condenser, the solvent being boiling. The hot extractions
are starred in Table 3.

Table 4 gives the results of fractional distillations of
the hydrocarbons. A ten gram sample was placed in a
glass distilling flask and heated until some material came
over. Fractions were taken according to the table given.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 93

The thermometer bulb was placed opposite the dis-
charge tube—not in the liquid hydrocarbon. The distillation
continued until the sample carbonized.

A number of distillations were made with reduced
pressure. A brass retort was used for these as the glass
could not stand the external pressure when hot. The re-
sults were not satisfactory as we could not condense the
distillate completely. Lack of time prevented further in-
vestigation along this line and study of the distillates. It
was found, however, that gilsonite is soluble in its distillates
and in the distillates from wurtzellite and tabbyite. Tab-
byite is soluble in the distillates from gilsonite and wurtz-
ellite, but wurtzellite is insoluble in its own distillates or in
the distillates of gilsonite or tabbyite. Gilsonite is soluble
in stearin and hot paraffin but wurtzellite is insoluble in
both.

SUMMARY.

1st. Considerable scattered work has been done, but
it needs to be gathered together and reviewed carefully.

2nd. Gilsonite is the Utah asphalt most fully in-
vestigated. It is also the most important.

3rd. The uses of these solid hydrocarbons are many
and varied and are growing more numerous rapidly.

4th. In the field one asphalt gradually changes into
the other. The gilsonite occurring furthest east, then the
' tabbyite, wurtzellite, rock asphalt, and ozokerite. There
may be a genetic relationship among them.

5th. All occur in rocks of the same age—Eocene of
the Tertiary.

6th. An interesting series of distillates is obtained at
temperatures ranging from 220 degrees to 350 degrees C.

7th. Gilsonite, tabbyite, ozokerite, and the bitumen
from rock asphalt are soluble in many solvents to varying
degrees but wurtzellite is practically insoluble in all the sol-
vents tried so far.

8th. Though gilsonite, tabbyite, and wurtzellite grade
from one into the other in the field, are quite similar in
appearance and very similar in chemical composition, still

94 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

there is a marked difference in their properties, solubilities,
etc.

In conclusion it may be said that an immense field is
open for investigators in the study of the hydrocarbons.
Each individual asphalt needs a thorough working over, not
only as to solubility, chemical analysis, etc, but also as to
the nature of the compounds of which it is composed.
Each product gives interesting distillates. These should be
studied and no doubt valuable use could be made of them.

A solvent for wurtzellite is needed. Time and work will
develop this. New methods of using these products are
needed and will be found by further study.

The field is large and fruitful and invites original
workers. To those who desire to carry on an interesting
as well as a useful investigation, we recommend the Utah
Hydrocarbons.

TABLE I.

ORIGINAL SUBSTANCE Trin.” | Ber. | Gils. | Tab. |Wort. 1|Wort.2 | Ozek. | R.A.
TOSS 2UAo BL Ur Gels bie tiers ievetberctes 0.073 |0.1765) 0.353} 0.91] 0.53) 0.21) 0 0.14
GSS: Seb ce NTS) Joi Maracas 1.717| 6.63] 0.217} 2.78} 2.76) 1.66] 45.41) 1.43
Penetration Residue ............ 0} 30 0 0 0 0
New Sample Loss 400° 7hrs....| 5.25] 9.71] 0.85} 6.40} 3.88} 1.88] 65.20; 1.79
Penetration Residue............. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Bitumen SO), iniC.28 29 cases. os nee 60.36] 90.98] 99.64] 94.63] 10.83] 8.10} 99.46] 11.34
Org. MatterInsol.in CSe........ 3.94] 3.74 0 0.72!) 87.68] 88.54) 0.50 0
Inorg. or Mineral Matter ....... 35.70] 5.32] 0.36] 4.65] 1.50] 3.36) 0.046) 88.66
Bit Solsini62° Naphtha 2.0555. 4¢ 41 00} 34.40] 61.70) 58.50|t2.76?|£2.74?| 81.71] 9.25
This is! lof TOtal Bite senses 68.00} 38.85] 61.85) 61.85] 39.10] 33.85] 82.20) 81.50 |
Carbenes: Bit. insol.in CCh... a 0 0.18} 1.75] 1°57] 1.65] 2.51) 1.59
Bitvmore sol in COV esac ce letwers 1.37) 0 0 0 0 0 0
Original Loss on Ignition ...... 64.30] 94.6€| 99.64] 95.35] 98.50) 96.64] 99.96] 11.34
Pi ReO Oa rD OMS sacnieeccicseicmeces ats 36.69] 39.60] 43.13} 37.45] 35.60)...... 10.03} 6.85
Sulphur on Original ...........:. 4.22] 4.70] 0.52] 1.24] 4.00] 4.34] 0.29] 0.78
Specific Gravity 78° His .s.cces ss 1.372} 1.05] 1.018] 1.006] 1.032] 1.004] 0.891] 2.097
SRG TUN ici taccie uinletalotipieteieiacars cere means ier b f a a a a a a
MANUS UST vice a vis Addaamedeldaeuinsaele rece c 9g g k g g o (7)
EN ANTCY bead vis bicveiaiaicing cveiearaleie apne d d d d ga dj Bi Meester
PERRO Sie occ lcincrclniae see renre mcm ee 1 <1 2 <1 1 1 ci leg (Ppa Se
COVE Cop AN) PR AT SAT ae A SEAR er e 7 l e e (3 q
SS OMTOTIS TAH cane eis vinesajercas suinom crag nie 203 | 1382 | 320 | 264 | m m SES ioe gehts
BEV Scei lt hae vente resahafore: bieisieisie'e eels ieiaiaiotors 266 | 181 | 377 | 27 n n 140" eon
Penetration at 78°F .............. 0 0 0 0 0 30 0

a Could not filter. b Dark Brow'n. e Dull. d Conchoidal. eTarry.

f Nearly Black. gGlossy. iBrown jSlight Tarry. kSlightly glossy

1 Petroleum. m Above BP n Mercury. o Dull. qg Slightly oily
t Wt. increased.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

95

TABLE II.

SUBSTANCE Trin. | Ber. | Gils. Tab, | Wor. 1} Wor.2 | Ozok. | R. A.
Carbon.... Bh 06| 77.52) 85.25 | 81.32] 76.90] 79.40] 85.35] 9.55
SE WULBE EOIN con cvds Kons ced cc ewieesave 84! 8.90] 10.55 | 10.40} 11.20] 10.55] 13.86] 1,10
POUUMERELUED, ctu Micaela’ Le bina ae Ws wralve ale hs a3 4.70) 0.52] 1.24] 4.00] 4.34] 0.29] 0.78
Ty UES Ay = 2 7 RON ye aR ee us 0.66] 0.89] 2.21] 2.10] 2.18] 2.10] 0.36] 0.31
SEEN ete ferc at chiar Acid eames dais bisleieve es wane 35.70} 5.32] 0.89] 4.65] 1.50} 3.36] 0.04] 88.05
ASD UAITALY BIS. So cicelec'sceeaisecons SiO2| Feods art CaO |MgoO}.

PEOOISOMS DIME cdaacctkliceids casas eels 78.20 2. 20 5.60) 2.10).
PEI IDE LG vo mistais ah viciale tials pidtciveicialaisie.es 35.35] 2.50 3: 2 29.50] 9.45
TABLE III.

SOLVENT Trin. | Ber. | Gils. | Tab. | War.1| Ozok. | R.A.
CISCO ocr cu odds cance sbiemaneineces f f fl 4 1 fl f
PEGE EAViAE MULLET cl ote; cje Biti2 aaln race o'ee's « Salejainte se aretys 109 | 145 = 46 f 13 4
REEMA COLES) alae aistes en's cisic sles nictsaneiteries 30 24 { : at f 1 {
POTS IN SUP ELL Cb heist ociotera id tioreralein eae « Ueleeleteener 84 39 51 T *5 7 7 16
PRA A CELELEG 5, co cis aici g eacnteins Unichie ne ieiele son 132 37 86 sf ea 1 1
SOR AUM rela ale te ce vist ca neledccauwiesas ees oee esate 48 36 71 35 1 18 12
FEOMUO). -)e.5:9 Be a etul dale tele dina dave ial sie ahbeteh ute itehale 39 33 72 | 57 | 0.09 t 14
BUNA PCA ET IRG) We 5 oc cik! nace, aleldieieraiateccintunt a eielnn owe 115 116 60 | 65 45 + 29
MINMPIMIGTIMENG Oo coc. Sides ceteuce doc sede: 39 24 9} 14 |*129) 3
PRA RLV ED cred rere acta pio tsia. crt lew’ ole argh ote aces eiulstenstd vas 3 1 |*839 1 ae f
TS CE a 233 | 54] 33 { aet 2'88
Carbon Oismiphniderseds socis oes ose ce ous oo oo 55 13.45} 0 i
Carbon Tetrachloride x) 44.30] 36.00} 18 | © 12
TGS Ero cl al at A eo Pe 63 5 6.80} 2.8 7 18
BR IVANC ONO VINE. tees cea te cwneres ff 1 *14 1 1 1
BPO p Ve AICOnOe., G65 0h ccs enwccdcieewaseece q | 419 | *a9 f f f

Numbers refer to grams solublein 100 grams cold solvent.
*Grams soluble in 100 grams boiling solvent. tVerysol. fInsol.

LEE SS SOR AD om

eee eee eee eee ey

Total Volatile ..
Fixed Carbon
Ash

eee eee eee ee eee eee re

TABLE IV.

Trin. | Ber. Tab. | Wor.1 | Ozok. | R.A.

14.93} 9.89
10.42

3.12] 16.15
11.93) 21.70
24.87 |422.82
13.21} 0.91

weeeee
eeeeee
seen
seweee | Shed] CO,dd| L0-GL) VUedh | LEO eee ene lewweee
ee ee crs

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sec eee lee seee lee eeee lesser lessees

57,90| 61.58
a 45) 36.92
1.50

seeeee

96 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THE INTENSITY OF NITRIFICATION IN ARID SOILS.
By
ROBERT STEWART.

(Abstract).

It is a common conception that nitrification takes place
rapidly in arid soil. According to this conception, the origin
of the nitrogen is the organic matter of the soil or the
organic nitrogen formed by means of the non-symbiotic
bacteria. The work of the Utah Station shows that this
conception is wrong and that much of the nitrate-nitrogen
is obtained from the deep soil in much the same way as are
the alkali accumulations of the arid West.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 97

NITROGEN FIXATION BY BACTERIA IN UTAH SOILS.
By E. G. PETERSON AND E. MOHR.

(Summary).

Undoubtedly much of the fertility of western soils is due
to the action of soil bacteria, molds and fungi. This state-
ment receives further verification from the following inves-
tigation.

Samples of soil from which the organisms here des-
cribed were isolated were taken weekly from January 9th
to November 4th, 1912, thus including representative cli-
matic seasons. The Greenville Experiment Farm was used
in this test, Plot 47. One hundred c. c. portions of mannite
solution were inoculated with ten grams of soil and incu-
bated at 10 degrees C. After ten days’ incubation sub-
cultures were made in mannite solution and were incubated
for ten days at 20 degrees C. Plates were made from these
sub-cultures, and isolations of pure cultures were made
from the plates.

RESULTS.

Several types of bacteria were found but only three
appeared that grew readily and for a long period. These
three types are briefly described in the paper.

Type No. 1 appeared in the samples on the following
dates: Jan. 9, 16, 22, 31, Feb. 7, 14, 21, 28, March 7, 14, 20,
April 3, 10, 24, May 1, 8, 15, 22, 29, June 5, 19, July 21, 28,
Aug. 4, 11, 18, Sept. 7, 14, 21, 28, Oct. 28, Nov. 4.

Type No. 2 appeared on April 24, May 1, May 29, June
12, June 19, Sept. 7.

Type No. 3 appeared on Jan. 16, March 7, April 10, 17,
May 1, 8, 15, 22, 29, June 5, July 12, Aug. 4, 25, Sept. 21,
Oct. 14, 21, Nov. 4.

5.335 milligrams of nitrogen, the most valuable element
of the soil, were fixed in twenty days by type No. 1.

5.616 milligrams of nitrogen were fixed in twenty days
by type No. 2.

7

98 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

5.588 milligrams of nitrogen were fixed in twenty days
by type No. 3.

These three organisms which appeared rather con-
stantly in the Utah soil examined are thus shown to be pow-
erful fixers of atmospheric nitrogen. Investigations are
proposed to determine the effect upon these and other germs
of various cultural methods of various seasons and climatic
conditions in Utah.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 99

PHYSICAL RELATIONS OF SUBJECTIVE AND OB-
JECTIVE COMBINATION TONES.

By JOSEPH PETERSON.

(Abstract).

If one blows simultaneously two whistles one will hear,
besides the two tones thus produced, one or more others
more or less prominent. The number that will be heard
depends upon the separation distance in pitch of the two
primary tones and upon their relative intensities, as well
as upon their absolute pitch. In this case these extra tones
seem to be located in the listener’s ears. They are called
combination tones, and are of two kinds—summation and
difference tones. Difference tones play an important part
in consonance and dissonance, or musical relations of tones.

Helmholtz explained the origin of combination tones
in three different ways. The importance of the middle-ear
origin view has been greatly minimized by modern research;
and I showed in 1907 that the other two explanations are
identical in physical principle.

It was early found that of these combination tones,
some can be reinforced by physical resonators while others
cannot. The former are called objective; the latter, sub-
jective. This, as we shall see, does not mean that the
latter do not have a physical basis as well as the former,
for they certainly do have.

Many authorities, with Koenig, have denied the exis-
tence of difference tones lying between the primaries; e. g.
5, of the interval 4:9. Rucker and Edser not only proved
that such tones exist and can be reinforced by physical
resonators, but they also proved by the same method, the
objective physical existence of summation tones. Since
then Krueger and others have established the existence of
the corresponding subjective combination tones, tones the
existence of which had been questioned by Max Meyer,
K. L. Schaefer, et al. Subjective and objective combination
tones are therefore now brought to a close correspondence,
a fact supporting my contention of 1907 that the physical

100 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

origin of these two classes of tones is identical in prin-
ciple. My suggestion of this fact has since been confirmed
by articles by certain German physicists in Annalen der
Physik, particularly Clemens Schaefer.

Several authorities have maintained that the summa-
tion tone is a difference tone of upper partials according to
the equation a plus b equal na minus nb or a plus b equal
na minus mb, where n and m are whole numbers; e. g.
4 plus 3 equal 7 equal 7 times 4 minus 7 times 3. In 1895
Rucker and Edser proved the impossibility of this ex-
planation for objective summation tones. Krueger in 1900
heard subjective summation tones even when the upper
partials had been practically eliminated by interference;
and I proved in 1907, by the beating of auxiliary forks with
audible summation tones, that the latter are not difference
tones. My proof rested on the fact that if the pitch of a
first partial be lowered one vibration per second that of
the fifth partial, e. g., will be lowered five vibrations. The
proof was mathematical and has not been questioned.

Subjective combination tones seem, then, to arise in
the liquids of the inner ear on the principle of superposition
of primary vibrations, and like other combination tones,
are therefore really objective to the sensory end organs of
hearing.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 101

SOME PROBLEMS FOR UTAH BOTANISTS.
By M. RICH PORTER.

The object of this paper is not to announce the dis-
covery of some hitherto unknown principle, nor the results
of months of diligent research. That must be left to those
who do not have so great a variety of subjects to teach
and to keep conversant upon. It is my desire, rather, to
refer to some of the possibilities of the science of Botany
in our state, and to appeal for a more generous encourage-
ment of the subject, thereby increasing its scope of useful-
ness.

The first great problem of the local botanist is to
raise the science from a position of minor importance in
the average mind to one equal to Chemistry, Mathematics
or English. The trend of education is so intensely toward
the directly practical that we are apt not to give science
for science’s sake the consideration to which it is entitled.
If I were to condense public sentiment, as often expressed,
to a definition, I would say that Botany is a something,
feminine in gender, ornamental in usefulness, subnormal
in intellect to be used only by the ladies. That one is a
botanist is in many parts a confession that one is either
mentally weak or lazy. The conventional Professor Bump-
kins of the “Merry Widow” with his squeaky voice, ill-
fitting clothes, eccentric ways, dancing through the fields,
after every posy or butterfly, gabbling silly nonsense with
children, has not been conducive to the serious considera-
tion of Botany as a science. We need more of the scholar,
hard at work in his laboratory, patiently determining the
divine principles of life, or solving the many practical prob-
lems of the community, finding out the proper control of
crown galls, tomato blights and the nature of new osmotic
relations. We need more generous equipment for the in-
structors in our high schools—not that I would install
college work there, but that the courses might not take the
form of elementary nature-study or theoretic text-book
recitation; and then, after that, a higher grade of effi-
ciency among the teachers themselves. The ability to pass

102 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

an examination in “Bergen’s Elements” and classify a
couple of dozen of spring flowers, does not qualify a person
to teach Botany. I am certain that if nothing more has
been accomplished at Weber, the students have been con-
vinced that Botany compares with mechanical drawing in
accuracy of technique, and is equal to Chemistry or Civics
in mental disipline and educational value.

Dare I now, without treading on forbidden ground,
or giving offense, make the same suggestion of the lack of
proper encouragement, even in our higher institutions of
learning? Is there one of them that does not submerge
Botany into a “Biological,” a ‘‘Nature Study,” or other de-
partment of a different name, or attach it to the end of
a Horticulture or Agriculture or some other of the com-
mercial or industrial courses? When as a matter of fact
it is the parent and not the offspring of every one of them?
Does either of them offer sufficient work to qualify stu-
dents to do substantial research work or to dignify the
science as a profession? One of our leading institutions
announces in 1912-138 five courses of Botany, the first of
which is “not to be given,” two and three alternate with
four and five and as the last two are different terms,
only one year’s work can be had. When a department
occupies only a fraction of the time of one man, or is
handled by student assistants, there is scant incentive for
research work into the important problems of nature. May
I be permitted to offer another illustration along the same
line—a visit to the U. A. C.

The great state of Utah, with almost all of its botan-
ical features yet undiscovered, can furnish, indefinitely,
problems, for several experts in every one of the great
branches, Physiology, Morphology, Pathology, Systematic
Botany, and Ecology. I am happy to note that we have
some real pioneers in some of these lines. The Agricul-
tural College has now segregated and equipped a depart-
ment of Pathology, and placed in charge a very competent
man; already the excellent results of Dr. Jensen’s work are
felt among us. The subject presented at this convention
is a new development, not know five or six years ago.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 103

In the taxonomic work Professors Marcus E. Jones,
A. O. Garrett and Dr. Paul have done excellent service.
And oh! what a field for the future botanist! Each of
these has discovered and named many new species and
genera of flowers. Thorough as their work has been, I am
sure they will agree with me, that their field is little more
than opened up. Last year the Forestry Service submit-
ted to the Smithsonian Institution a dozen or more unheard
of genera gathered in our western ranges. What Mr. Gar-
rett and Dr. Paul have done for Systematic Botany and
Nature Study, viz., made serviceable and reliable text-books
for this region, some one ought to do for Physiology and
Ecology. No where in the world is there a more interest-
ing, varied and productive study of ecological relations
than in the Wasatch Range. In a very few miles we can
pass through all grades of fertility, temperature, moisture
and altitude, and observe the effect of all these upon the
plant growth. From the top of almost inaccessible pine
trees, far up in the gorges of the Rockies, Dr. Land took
photos of trees growing from crevices in perpendicular
cliffs—pictures more highly prized than those from Mexico
or Samoa. The same school, U. O. C., sent men to this very
valley to gather the E'phedra trifurca, the only available
source of this interesting gymnosperm in the United States.

Let us come now to a brief consideration of my favor-
ite branch of the subject, Physiology. On one occasion Dr.
Barnes came to me and said: “Mr. Porter, the peculiar
nature of the arid soils of your state, and the physiological
relations of the constitutents of those soils to the plant body,
would be a life-long field of research for a Plant Physi-
ologist.”” To show how easy it is to find practical inves-
tigation, permit me to mention two simple demonstrations,
arranged for another purpose, and left scientifically in-
complete. In order to impress the students of Human
Physiology with the evil effects of alcohol drinks on the
tissues, the similarity of the animal and the plant cell was
pointed out and then seedlings were allowed to grow in
solutions of 1-10, 1-5, 14, 1, 3, 5 per cent aleohol and rec-
ords kept and sketches made. Inside of ten hours the

104 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

plant in the strength of beer had died. The others followed
in their turn with the exception of the 1-10 per cent.
This one apparently was stimulated to growth beyond the
control. Of course the toxic aplasmolytic effects of the
alcohol were of no use to the students and were not deter-
mined.

Another experiment was to show the effect of chemicals
used for municipal water purification upon the color of
green house plants. Bleaching powder in strengths of 5,
10, 20, 50, 100 m per 450 c. c. used. The result was that
red geraniums changed to pink, but the color was not uni-
form and the effect was such as would result in total des-
truction of the flowers for the market. The strength used
also tended to kill the blossom. These things might be de-
termined before cities adopt methods of purification and
thus save law suits, injunctions, etc. Copper sulphate and
formalin might be used in similar problems.

The greatest of all problems that present themselves
at present to me, and demanding solution by some compe-
tent plant physiologist, is the relation of the air from the
smelters of Salt Lake valley to the growth of the vegetation.
It is comparatively easy for a chemist to detect the pres-
ence of poison in the stomach of animals that have died, but
just what the fumes do to the osmotic relations or photo-
synthetic processes within the plant body, is quite another
question. Do these gases clog up the stomata, or do they
plasmolyze the cells? What is the toxic effect of each of
them? What strength of these gases would be not in-
jurious, and are all the gases equally fatal? Are there
plants more resistant to these than others are, and a hun-
dred similar questions arise immediately which belong to
the science of Botany. In conclusion, if the thoughts ad-
vanced in this paper will tend to inspire a more vigorous
pursuance of that most attractive and beneficial science—
Botany, into fields unexplored and unlimited I shall be
satisfied.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 105

RECENT ADVANCES IN OUR KNOWLEDGE OF
PROTEIN METABOLISM.

By H. A. MATTILL.

(Abstract).

The experiments of Osborne and Mendel on Feeding
with Isolated Proteins, and those of Abderhalden and his
co-workers have emphasized the importance of the individ-
ual proteins and their decomposition products as the units
of protein nutrition. The specificity of the proteins of ani-
mal and plant origin necessitates their complete decomposi-
tion into these units, the various amino acids, when they
are to be used as food by another animal. The synthesis
of the new protein from these decomposition products takes
place not in the intestinal mucosa during absorption, as
has been held, heretofore, because of absence of positive
evidence, but in the tissues of the body generally, under the
direct and immediate control of the individual cells. The
synthetic power of the animal cell has been greatly under-
estimated. Evidence for this cellular synthesis has been
obtained in the Harvard laboratories with the help of a
new and accurate method for determining non-protein ni-
trogen in blood and tissues. A clinical application of this
method promises to be of great value in determining the
functional activity of the kidney.

106 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

BLOSSOM INFECTION BY SMUTS.
By C. N. JENSEN.

In the presentation of this subject, I have deemed it
wise to take into consideration somewhat more material
than the title of this paper suggests. It has seemed to me
wise to discuss the history of the investigations on smut,
what forms of smut have been considered in the work of
blossom infection, a very general outline of the methods
pursued to establish this important point, illustrations of
blossom infection of various types of plants, together with
infection by smut of plants otherwise than through the blos-
som or through the young seedling.

The difficulty of the control of smuts has always oc-
cupied the attention of the foremost investigators of smut
diseases. There have always arisen conditions which seem-
ingly would not work out according to the known theory.
The last word as yet has not been said on this important
subject, but we are far nearer the solution of it than ever
before, as will be shown as I proceed along in the paper.

HISTORY.—Smut, in all probability, was known in an-
cient times, together with rust, under the general term of
mildew or blight. Later, in historical times, this subject
has received considerable attention again and again. As
early as 1733, we find definite remarks by Tull to the effect
that “Smuttiness is when the grains of wheat instead of
flour are full of black stinking powder.” Very little that
is definite can be found, however, in print previous to 1807,
when Prevost discovered the important fact that the smut
spores germinated in water and consequently showed that
the smuts were of the nature of fungi.

The next step in advance was by Tulasne, in 1847, when
he investigated methodically the germination of spores in
water, and proved that on germination it did not give rise
directly to mycelium, but to a short germinal tube which
produced minute reproductive bodies. He distinguished
this tube as a promycelium. A few years later, in 1853,
DeBary extended our knowledge somewhat of the mode in

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 107

which spores germinate and from this date on this type of
study, together with infection and cytological study has
engaged the attention of many of the foremost mycologists
and phytopathologists. In 1858, Kuhn followed directly
the penetration of the germ tubes in wheat. The most
scholarly epoch-making and accurate work, however, has
been done since the eighties of the last century by a Ger-
man known by the name of Brefeld. Since that date, Bre-
feld has been publishing on this very important subject and
to him we turn for the final word. Up to 1896, all work
on the smut question took it for granted that infection al-
ways took place through the young seedling, but, in 1896,
Maddox, working then in Australia, discovered for the first
time that blossom infection occurred in the wheats. This
was afterwards rediscovered by Brefeld in 1905, working
in Germany. While Maddox first discovered floral infec-
tion, still the very important point, whether infection takes
place through the young seedling or flower remained un-
known until 1905, when our German Brefeld seems to
have settled conclusively to the general acceptance of all
phytopathologists that both seedling and flower may be in-
fected, but when a smut works through the flower, usually
it infects but very slightly through the seedling.

KINDS OF SMUT USED IN BLOSSOM INFECTION EXPERI-
MENTS. In determining blossom infection in the host plants
of smut fungi, those forms come first and chiefly
under consideration whose spores are powdery and whose
spore masses are easily scattered by the wind and thus
distributed. These are first of all the different forms of
loose smuts which occur in our grains, the loose smuts of
barley, of wheat, and of oats; and, by the way, it should be
stated that the general impression is that these smuts do
not occur in the arid region. In fact, in some fields in
Utah, I have found some of these smuts as extensively dis-
tributed as in some of the fields of the East. The spores
of loose smut, however, are not the only ones which have
been considered for blossom infectio» study. The corn
smut spores have been shown to live saprophytically in the
soil and bud finally producing what we term air conidia,

108 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

which, in reality, cause infection of plants as the smut
spores themselves; and, by way of parenthesis, I may state
that the common stinking smut of wheat so prevalent in
the fields of Utah may act as the smut of corn and there is
a possibility that these air conidia too can reach the blossom
of wheat by means of wind and produce infection. This point
needs investigation, and when finally settled, it may clear
up some of the inexplainable conditions found in connection
with the control of this disease. Brefeld himself to-day is
working somewhat on this problem. Still further, we may
add that the study of blossom infection has not been limited
to the two forms already mentioned, i. e., those forms that
produce loose smut, and such as the corn which produce

air conidia, but has also been extended to smuts that are’

carried by air and by water.

METHODS USED IN THE IVESTIGATION OF THIS PROBLEM
OF BLOSSOM INFECTION. It may be of interest to mention
to you in a very general way some of the methods used to
determine blossom infection in smuts. The first difficulty
lies in the collecting and presevation of smut spores from
the summer in which they are produced until the following
spring. The spores are often attacked by insects and des-
troyed, so that their germinating capacity the following
year has been lost. This difficulty has been overcome by
the following method. Spore material is gathered in suf-
ficient quantities soon after the breaking open of the spore
masses and then kept in a dry place for approximately
eight days. The spores are then sifted through a sieve on
to white paper. These sieved spores are carefully put
away in small sterilized flasks. These flasks are filled in not
more than one-fourth to one-fifth. The neck is closed with
sterilized paper and spores are put away into a dry cool
place for storage through the winter. In spring, shortly
before using them, the spores are placed in sterile water for
a day and thrown about five or six times on a centrifugal
sieve. The first spores thrown out are almost perfectly
pure and cultures can be carried out in sterile nutrient solu-
tion with scarcely any pollution at all.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 109

Now, as to methods of infection. Seed has been col-
lected the year previous to the collecting of the smut, pre-
served over winter and planted the following spring, that
is, the spring preceding the collection of the smut. The seed
is planted and the crop harvested in the fall so that with
care and selection we know that the crop produced is prac-
tically clean from smut. This seed is preserved over the
same winter as is the smut and is used the following spring
to start the experiment.

The seed is planted in two plats, one acting for the pur-
pose of control, the other to be used for the purpose of in-
fection. At blossoming time, the smut spores are either
blown through an atomizer into the blossoms on all the in-
fection plants, or they are placed by means of a brush into
the flowers. The maturing seed of both plats is preserved
until the following year, when each is again planted. Also
at this planting, two more plats are simultaneously run, the
soil of the one plat being previously inoculated with smut
spores. The other plat presumably contains no smut
spores, but is sown with seed which has been inoculated
with the spores. Repeating then the plats as they will
stand in the year in which results are obtained from the ex-
periment, we have Plat 1 sown with seed grown from arti-
ficially infected blossoms; plat 2 control; plat 3 sown with
seed which has been infected; plat 4 sown with seed that is
clean, but the soil containing smut spores. In the carrying
on of these experiments, it should be mentioned that the
greatest precautions have generally been taken to use only
seed that has been properly sterilized before using.

I do not want to trouble you with tables to any extent
and hence I will repeat the results of but one experiment
which was run by Brefeld in 1904-5. The experiment is
taken at random amongst the many.

Plat 1. Plants grown from seed produced from arti-
ficially infected blossoms, 220 stalks, 67.7 per cent smutted.

Plat 2. Plants produced from seed which, after steri-
lization, has been inoculated with smut spores, 300 stalks,
no smutted plants. 5

110 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Plat 3. Plants produced from sterilized seed planted
in a soil which has been inoculated with spores, 250 stalks,
none smutted.

Plat 4. Control. 1000 stalks—one smutted specimen.

Experiments, the results of which were similar to this
already quoted, were carried out by Brefeld from 1900 to
1905. These experiments included thousands of plants, —
the results in general were always the same. In the words
of Brefeld, we may say: Here it is proved positively that
young ovaries are directly attacked through their stigmas
by the germs of infection scattered by the wind; that the
smut, however, is not developed in the same year but that
rather the germs of infection which penetrated into the
young embryonic fruit remain latent in the ripening grain
and after the dormant period of the seed grow out of
these equally with the germination of the embryo in order
to pass over in the inflorescence to the production of the
spore masses.

Now, how is the condition of the experiment simu-
lated on a natural scale? It happens as follows. The plants
affected with the loose smut mature earlier than the nor-
mal healthy ones. In fact, they mature so that the smut
is being distributed by the wind at the time of flowering
of healthy plants. The distribution of the smut continues
for days, a condition which is closely associated with the
variation of the time of opening of flowers, which continues
also for several days. This condition has been shown to
hold true for the loose smuts of wheat, barley, and oats.
Definite experiments have been carried out with barley,
giving the same general results, as with wheat and the
infection of the blossom has become a scientific fact as far
as these two crops are concerned. The infection of the
blossom of the oats with loose smut has not been attained
with as definite results as with barley and wheat. There
is no question but that the smut is distributed at blossom-
ing time but in general it appears as if the smut spores do
not germinate until the following year. They lie securely
protected within the hull next the kernel. In the spring
at the time of planting and upon germination of the seed,

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 111

these smut spores also germinate and infect the seedling.
This appears to be the general rule; for the treatment of
this smut is similar to that of other smuts where the smut
spores adhere to the surface of the fruit. However, with
oats, we find that the external treatment is not always as
effective as it should theoretically be and in all probability
some infection of the ovule the previous year does take
place.

BLOSSOM INFECTION ON THE MELANDRYUM. The smut
forms already described appear in the blossoms of grasses,
that is, in plants characterized by wind fertilization. There
are, however, a number of smut fungi which occur in plants
fertilized by insects. A special characheristic form of
this kind of plant is the Melandryum of the family Caryo-
phyllaceae, which is affected with what is commonly termed
anther smut. The infected plants appear healthy except
as to the anther, which alone is attacked by the smut fun-
gus. Experiments have completely demonstrated that blos-
som infection also takes place in this instance, the smut
being transported by such insects as butterflies to the
stigma where it germinates and grows down into the seed,
there to lie dormant until the following season, when the
seed is planted.

SMUT INFECTION IN WATER PLANTS. As a con-
comitant supplement to the above described infection by
wind and insects, water must further be added as an agent
by which smut spores are transported. The forms of Doas-
sansia inhabit mostly.the leaves of water plants, for ex-
ample, Alisma, Sagittaria, and so on, and develop in these
localized diseased spots, which can easily be detected by
a yellowish appearance. Finally, in these spots are de-
veloped the spore masses of the fungi. These spore masses
consist of an outer sterile layer of cells surrounding an
inner mass of fertile ones. The cells of the outer layer
soon lose their contents and become filled with air. The
spore mass then floats very readily. The fertile cells of
this spore mass germinate in the water like Tilletia. The
sporidia, however, continue to bud and form many filiform
conidia. These finally are carried by the water and come

112 -TRANSACTIONS OF THE

in contact with the embryonic leaves which they attack and
again the characteristic diseased spots with its spore masses
are produced. While this is not a case of blossom infec-
tion, I mention it in connection with this paper to show
how our conception of the attack and distribution of smut
is becoming enlarged from the old idea of seedling in-
fection only.

INFECTION OF THE MAIZE PLANT.—Seedlings of maize
are never infected. The embryonic tissue of the leaves
and flowers, however, are. This happens as follows. The
smut spores live saprophytically in the soil. After germ-
ination and the formation of sporidia has taken place, these
sporidia bud and produce secondary conidia. These, in
turn, bud and this continues until some conidia reach the
air and are transported by the wind to embryonic tissue,
where infection takes place. Any embryonic tissue may be
infected, and consequently we often find here flower in-
fection occurring also. The smut spores, it should be stat-
ed, in passing, are not capable of growing in pure water at
all or only to a very limited extent. They only germinate
in nutrient solution. The soil contains such a solution and
especially favorable is the solution when the soil is rich
in humus or when it contains much manure. This simple
fact of spore germination only in nutrient solution being
established, it is easily seen how well manured land planted
to corn has been claimed by the farmer to yield more smut-
ted plants than the soil not so rich in humus. Another
lesson to the investigator, that after all many of the ex-
periences of the farmer are founded upon fact and the in-
vestigator may here often find the keynote for the solution
of the problem.

A number of plants could be taken up somewhat briefly
as those already indicated, and show how they become at-
tacked by smut. It must suffice, however, at present, to
say that blossom infection has been shown to take place in
Indian millet, in the Panicum species, and in Italian millet.
Brefeld at present, as already mentioned previously, is
experimenting on the covered smut of wheat and barley to
see if the phenomenon of blossom infection does take place
to some extent with these smuts.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 113

Summing up, these are some of our conclusions and
our present position. First. Besides infection of the seed-
ling, still other forms of infection exist, such as blossom in-
fection of wheat, barley and oats, by the loose smuts, and
infection of young leaves, as in the water plants, a point
previously overlooked.

Second. In general, only the youngest embryonic tis-
sues of any host plants are the ones attacked by the germs
of infection.

Third. Experiments on infection of maize smut have
proved clearly that the large host plants in the process
of development and formation expose in different places,
for example the leaves and the flowers, young embryonic
tissue which can be attacked by infection germs.

Fourth. A similar condition to that of the maize hap-
pens in water plants where the embryonic tissue of devel-
oping leaves is affected.

Fifth. In the loose smuts of wheat and barley and
the anther smut of Melandryum, the matter is essentially
different from the cases of corn and water plants. Here
the disease does not develop in the parts in which infec-
tion takes place. The result of infection is shown only after
a long period of incubation during the winter time and at
the time of unfolding of the inflorescence of the plant the
following year. While the idea formerly prevailed that
only seedling infection occurred, we have now come to
realize that at the flowering time the ovules and stigmas
offer assailable tissues for the germs of infection and that
this takes place in these embryonic parts.

Sixth. Accordingly, in the occurrence of smut dis-
ease in our grains, we must reckon with two places of
infection, quite independent of each other, first the young
germinating seedling, second the blossoms. We must con-
sider that in separate cases both forms of infection may
be effective at the same time, but first one and then the
other will have the ascendency. In judging of the natural
spread of smut fungi and smut diseases, these recently ex-
plained facts are of direct value. Also they are of the ut-
most value when it comes to a consideration of the con-
trol of these diseases.

114 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FIRST, SECOND AND
. THIRD CROP ALFALFA HAY FOR MILK
PRODUCTION.

By W. E. CARROLL.

(Abstract).

During the two years ending March 31, 1913, the De-
partment of Animal Husbandry of the Utah Experiment
Station has been testing the comparative value of first,
second and third crop alfalfa hay for milk production. Each
year fifteen milk cows were used, divided into three lots
of five each. Each lot contained two Holsteins, one mature
Jersey, a Jersey heifer, and one grade cow borrowed for the
experiment. The second year the lots were the same in
number and the same size, composed of two Holsteins, two
Jerseys and one grade each. During each year, the lots
were fed so that each lot at some period of the experiment
received each crop of hay, i. e., lot 1, for example, was fed
one period on first crop, another period on second crop,
and a third period on third crop hay. A preliminary per-
iod of about two weeks was run each year in order to get
the cows on feed well and the record keeping in good shape.
The lots were divided so as to have them as nearly equal in
weight, in age, and in period of lactation as was possible
with the cows available, and the subsequent records showed
that the lots proved to be very uniform.

A minimum allowance of grain was fed each year. The
first year, it consisted of one part bran and one part crushed
oats. The second year, it consisted of one part bran and
one part chopped barley. As small an allowance of grain
was given as was thought practical in order to throw the
test as completely as possible on the different crops of
hay. With this in mind, 0.65 pound of the grain mixture
was fed per day for each pound of butter fat produced
each week. That is, a cow that was producing 10 pounds
of butter fat per week received 6.5 pounds of the grain mix-
ture per day.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 115

The first year, after the preliminary period, the first
test period consisted of four weeks, the second test period
four weeks, and the third test period three weeks, it being
necessary to finish the experiment one week earlier than
planned on account of the hay running short.

Both feed and milk were carefully sampled for chem-
ical analysis. The milk was composited for a week and
the samples tested for butter fat each week, the calcula-
tions for fat being based upon these results.

The results here reported are only for the yields of
butter fat and the feed consumed, the chemical data not
having been included. The results are stated in number
of pounds of butter fat produced for each 100 feed units
consumed. A feed unit is an expression to equate the vari-
ous feeds used to a uniform basis. The factors used are
those reported as results of a very great number of Danish
feeding experiments and include also data from the results .
obtained in the United States recently published by the
Wisconsin Experiment Station, that is, one pound of grain
of certain kinds, such as corn, barley, wheat, and so on, is
considered to equal one feed unit. This is taken as a basis.
1.1 pounds of oats are required to equal 1 feed unit, 1.1
pounds of bran equal one feed unit and 2 pounds of alfalfa
hay are considered equivalent to 1 feed unit. That is, the
grains used stand in the ratio 1 pound of barley equals 1.1
pounds of oats equals 1.1 pounds of bran, equals 2 pounds
of alfalfa hay.

The calculations based upon these factors give the
first year for each 100 feed units consumed: the first hay
crop produced 5.16 pounds of butter fat; the second crop
produced 5.40 pounds of butter fat; the third crop pro-
duced 4.88 pounds of butter fat.

The results of the second year show that 100 feed units
from the various crops produced as follows: First crop,
4.80 pounds of butter fat; second crop, 5.30 pounds of but-
ter fat; third crop, 4.66 pounds of butter fat.

Both years’ results, then, seem to favor second crop
hay. This is decidedly contrary to the experience of the

116 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

average farmer and the results cannot be taken upon the
figures themselves.

In noticing the way the animals ate the various crops
of hay, we found that they took more readily and consumed
more actual pounds of first crop hay than any of the others.
Third crop hay stood second in this respect and the second
crop hay was eaten only reluctantly. It was aimed to feed
only what the cows would clean up well each day, but, in
spite of this the animals refused considerably more of the
second crop hay that was offered them than they did of
the other two crops.

The results seem to indicate one of two things, either
the hay used differed less between first and second crop
than the average hay, consequently produced results closer,
or that it is possible for the average cow to consume more
alfalfa hay than she will return profit for, suggesting that
it may be wise to limit the hay ration of a dairy cow for
most economical results. For highest production, of course,
if economy is not considered, all the hay that will be cleaned
up should be fed and observations made on the experiment
would suggest that the hay would stand for this purpose:
first crop, third crop, second crop, in the order given.

Any general conclusions or statements are reserved
awaiting the results of further experimentation.

Published as Bulletin No. 126 of the Utah Experiment Station, Aug.,
1913.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 117

PROGRESS IN CEREAL IMPROVEMENT AT NEPHI
SUBSTATION.

By P. V. CARDON.

(Abstract. )

The work of cereal improvement at Nephi has been
in progress since 1908. It has been conducted along two
important lines, (1) the introduction of all existing var-
ieties of cereals which gave any promise of being adapted
to local conditions, with a view to determining their rela-
tive value, and (2) the isolation and increase of superior
strains of these varieties.

One hundred and four varieties and strains of cereals
have been tested. The tests have shown the superiority of
the winter varieties. Of these, winter wheat, especially of
the hard group, has given the best results.

The isolation and increase of superior strains has been
accomplished by what is known as continuous selection.
This work has shown the possibilities of improving the pres-
ent known varieties of cereals. In some instances an in-
crease of 5 to 10 bushels per acre has been obtained.

118 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

MOLECULAR REALITY.
By H. FLETCHER.

(Abstract).
A short review of the history of the kinetic theory.

A summary of the equations used in determining mol-
ecular magnitudes. Description of Brownian movements in
gases. Calculation of the average displacement due to
Brownian movements: (1) Along a line; (2) In a plane;
(3) In space. Calculation of the actual displacement and
time of fall when an outside force is acting. Development
of formulae which give the distribution of the displace-
ments about the mean value. Description of recent experi-
ments and presentation of data which completely verify
the theoretical formulae. Calculation of all of the molecu-
lar magnitudes from the data. Verification of the fact
that a gaseous ion and an ion taking part in electrolysis is
the same.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 119

SEVENTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE UTAH
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Chemistry Lecture Room, University of Utah.
December 26 and 27, 1913.

Friday, December 26, 1913, 8 P. M.
“COMMUNITY LIFE AMONG INSECTS,” (Presidential

MGaTPea ye esc res By E. G. Titus, U. A. C.
“THE QUESTION OF VALENCY IN GASEOUS
JONIZATION,” | &..3'0'.). By Dr. Harvey Fletcher, B. Y. U.

Saturday, December 27, 1913, 9:30 A. M.

“SOME METABOLIC EFFECTS OF BATHING IN GREAT SALT
LAKE,” ...By Dr. Helen I. and Dr. H. A. Mattill, U. U.
“CORN UNDER IRRIGATION,” By Dr. Frank S. Harris, U. A. C.
“PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS WITH ROOT BORERS,”’
By Prof. M. R. Porter, Weber Stake Academy, Ogden

“How Far Is SCIENTIFIC EXTENSION
PRACTICABLE oon tosis By Dr. E. G. Peterson, U. A. C.

Saturday, December 27, 1913, 2 P. M.

“SOME FEATURES OF THE RECENT INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS
OF GEOLOGISTS,” ..... By W. D. Neal, Salt Lake City

“OUTLINE OF MINING AND SMELTING CONDITIONS AT
SANTA FE, NEW MExico,” ...By B. Arthur Berryman

(In the absence of the author, read by the secretary).

“RELATION OF VENTILATION TO THE KEEPING OF FRUITS

AND VEGETABLES,” 2). 60/55) By Dr. Geo. R. Hill, Jr.
“‘URADIUM AND VANADIUM DEPOSITS IN
(9101: el ee Ne eae By Prof. M. E. Jones, Salt Lake City

“THE INFLUENCE OF ARSENIC ON BIOLOGICAL
TRANSFORMATIONS OF NITROGEN IN
SPETES: STE be asta eat hogs By Dr. J. E. Greaves, U. A. C.

(In the absence of the author, the paper was summarized
by Dr. Titus).

1 Published in Amer. Jour. Physiology 36: 488-500. March, 1915.

120 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

CORN UNDER IRRIGATION.
By F. S. HARRIs.

(Summary).

The proper use of water is the most important question
in the agriculture of arid regions; and the consistent use of
manure is necessary to the establishment of a permanent
agriculture in any country.

Corn is one of the most important of the crops raised
by American farmers. Its study, therefore, has economic
as well as scientific importance.

This paper reported tests of the effect of soil moisture
and manure on the yield and morphology of corn.

The highest yield of corn to the acre of land was pro-
duced where from fifteen to thirty acre-inches of water
were applied. Twenty inches is probably the best amount
to use under Greenville conditions.

Where forty acre-inches of water were applied there
was a decrease in yield of corn, a waste of water, a loss
of time in applying the unnecessary water, and injury to
the soil; hence the wise farmer will avoid the excessive use
of water.

Manure gave sufficient increase in yield of corn to
make it worth about $2.00 a ton.

Many results are given showing the effect of irriga-
tion water and manure on relative amounts of different
parts of the corn plant.

Large amounts of irrigation water. cause the corn to
have relatively less grain, cobs, and leaves, and more husks
and stalks.

Manure decreased the percentage of grain, cobs, and
husks in the plant, but increased the percentage of stalks and
leaves.

Soil treatments affected the branching of the corn tas-
sels in the same manner that they affected the production of
ears.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 121

The time of maturity of corn was delayed by irriga-
tion, but hastened by manure. This is important since the
earliness in maturity of corn is very desirable in Utah.

The germination of corn was most rapid and complete
in a soil containing a medium amount of soil moisture.

The number of stomata on a given area of leaf surface
was increased by a large amount of soil moisture. This
probably causes wastefulness in transpiration.

The proportion of roots to tops was increased by lower-
ing the soil moisture. When deep rooting is desired, over
irrigation should, therefore, be avoided.

122 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

OUTLINE OF MINING AND SMELTING CONDITIONS
AT SAN PEDRO, NEW MEXICO.

By B. A. BERRYMAN.

This paper is what might be called a reconnaissance sur-
vey of conditions at the San Pedro Copper Mine. The prop-
erty of the Santa Fe Gold & Copper Mining Co. is located in
the San Pedro Mountains, Santa Fe County, N. M. It
is about 40 miles from Santa Fe, and 18 miles from Stanley,
the nearest railroad point.

This mountain, together with the Ortiz mountain on
the north and the South mountain on the south, form a large
hog-back in the Estancia valley. These mountains are not
very rugged, and practically all rocks are angular, indicat-
ing very little water action.

The slopes of the mountains are fairly well covered
with vegetation consisting in the main of scrub cedars,
pinyon pines, and cacti. The predominant type of cacti is
the tree cactus growing to a height of from six to seven
feet. The flat Opuntia is also very common, then a few
cacti having a bee-hive shape are found. There is prac-
tically no shrubbery or small plants, not even sage brush.
The cacti seem to take the place here of the sage and rabbit
brush as found in Utah.

The San Pedro Mountains are the result of a laccolith
intruded into Carboniferous strata. The northern, western,
and eastern slopes are composed almost entirely of the lac-
colithic material, which has a characteristic porphyritic tex-
ture. In the central part and on the southern slope con-

‘ siderable of the laccolithic roof is preserved, having a thick-
ness of about 700 feet. To the north of the San Pedro
Mountains is a large series of red shales, which are placed
in the Cretaceous by the U.S. G. S., they having found con-
siderable ammonites in them.

From the City of San Pedro, which is one and a half
miles west of the property, up to the smelter there are about
200 feet of Carboniferous limestones, which occur in heavy
flat benches, and are used as a flux by the smelter. It aver-
ages from 45 - 55 per cent CaO in excess of silica.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 123

Above the smelter is about 700 feet of highly meta-
morphosed strata consisting first of beds of limestones in
which are crinoid stems, and a few Productus. The horizon
is given as the Madera limestones of the Carboniferous, by.
Waldamare Lingreen. Above the limestones are sandstones
and shales, also of the carboniferous period. The whole
series dips to the east 10 to 15 degrees.

The greatest part of the igneous rocks is a granodiorite
porphyry of a fairly uniform texture. Under a good lens
crystals of andesite and hornblende are easily seen, imbed-
ded in quartz and orthoclase. An analysis of this rock gave:

SS Tee NR OSG 62.08 1
ROBO awoke epckaitere aus 4.76
1, 6 pe eee Ee 4.62
1) OR Lele 2.84

Besides the large laccolith there are several dykes in-
truded into the limestones. One near the top of the moun-
tain is a grayish-yellow porphyritic mass, without any dark
crystals. The groundmass is orthoclase and quartz.
Another dyke just below the one described has a fine grained
white porphyritic texture with a groundmass of a micro-
poikilitic intergrowth of quartz and orthoclase.

‘T have not been able up to the present time to find any
lamprophyric dykes.

Contact metamorphism is extremely well shown, espe-
cially in the roof of the laccolith. The whole sedimentary
series that overlies the laccolith and forms the western sum-
mit of the mountains is greatly altered. The limestone
nearest the igneous rocks is irregularly crystallized and
garnetized and contains calcopyrite. The shales above the
limestones show less metamorphism, but they have a baked
appearance (and have lost to a great degree, their fissility,
and where they are calcareous hornfels containing diopsite
and lime feldspars are formed).

Considerable faulting has taken place subsequent to
the igneous intrusion. All faults so far examined are of
the normal type. The dip varies from 70 to 85 degrees and
the throw from a few inches to 300 feet.

1U. S. G. S. New Mex. No. 28.

124 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The ore deposits of the San Pedro Mountains present a
typical example of deposits attending igneous activity. At
the contact copper deposits with a garnet gangue are formed.
Narrow gold veins are abundant both in the porphyry and
the altered sediments. Then in the unaltered limestones
farther away from the contact, galena of the replacement
deposit type is found. Then as a result of erosion gold
bearing gravels have accumulated at the base of the moun-
tains and have been worked since the time of the Spaniards
200 years ago.

The workings of this company are confined entirely to
the copper deposits of the garnet zones. There are three
well defined ore bearing zones, known locally as Nigger
Heaven, Middle, and Lower zone. These garnet zones are
separated one from another by a white quartzese porphyry.
These quartzese porphyries are facies of the main igneous
mass. The distribution of the pay ore in the garnet beds
is extremely irregular. At places the ore shoots are 30 - 40
feet high and several hundred feet long. The average height
of the stopes are 5 - 6 feet. The ore is mostly calcopyrite
with some bernite, cuprite, and a little malacite and azurite
in the upper workings where oxidizing conditions have pre-
_vailed. The oxidized zone however is very shallow, not more
than 150 feet. The calcopyrite is invariably associated with
the yellow garnet, andradite, and in a few places with also
a little pyrite, specularite, and wollastonite.

Mining is almost entirely by the overhand stoping
methods. The shaft is 220 feet deep and is tapped 180
feet from the collar by a tunnel to the surface. Most of the
workings are above the tunnel level. Hence all ore is
dumped in shoots to this level where it is trammed to the
shaft and hoisted to the surface. All waste is trammed out
the tunnel, the hoist not being large enough to handle both
the ore and waste tonnage. The hanging wall of all the
stopes is hard and tough and stands extremely well. Tim-
bering is practically unknown. In a few of the very large
stopes pillars of low grade are left for support. If timbering
had to be used in the stopes it would increase the cost of
mining to such a degree, that from an economic standpoint,
mining the ore at a profit would be out of the question.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 125

All the ore is hoisted through the Richman shaft by a
two ton self dumping skip, where it passes over the picking
belt. The ore first passes over a grizzly and then through a
blake crusher set to 4 inches. It is then elevated to the
picking belt by a belt conveyor. The picking belt consists
of a 24 inch belt conveyor moving about 30 feet per minute.
There are from five to ten Mexicans on each side of the
belt who pick out the waste which is subsequently trammed
to the dump. The sorted ore drops from the picking belt
to a cross conveyor belt which delivers it to the bin at the
top of the gravity tramway. The gravity tram is about 800
feet long, and by means of two two-ton skips on a three
rail system, the ore is delivered to the smelter bins at a cost
of from 2 to 3 cents per ton.

The mine ore sample is taken by an automatic sampler
installed at the picking belt, the sample being crushed, coned,
and quarted as usual.

The smelting is done in a 40 inch by 120 inch copper
matting furnace of twenty tuyers, and a drop of 9 feet. The
furnace is jacketed with steel water jackets, and operates
under a blast of about 11 oz. mercury. The blast is fur-
nished by a Root Blower of 85 cu. ft. air per revolution, and
an average speed of 84r. p.m. The blower being driven by
a 125 H. P. Norberg Corliss engine direct connected.

The furnace is tapped on the side under the tuyers,
the intermittent tap being used. The matte and slag flows
into a small fire brick settler having inside dimensions of
6 feet 8 inches by 3 feet by 2 feet 8 inches. Slag flows from
the settler into 5-ton pots which are pulled to the slag dump
by a donkey hoist. Matte is tapped into moulds holding
about 150 lbs. to the pan depending on the grade of matte.
The matte is weighed at the end of each shift, and is then
stored in a warehouse until a carload is ready to ship. Each
carload averages 43 tons with the probable exception of the
last car of each month, when the matte is all cleaned up.
An assay for copper, gold and silver, is run on each carload
lot. Then a copper average for the month of all lots ship-
ped is run.

126 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The composite slag is run every month, which aver-
ages:

Sg aneenitei a vaca’ Lane 40.6%
FOO shacks ey 20.5
BUG SIVAN CU er A Ae 28.9
COPPER ae 0.55

The copper loss is accounted for by the small amount of
settling space in the settler. The matte averages from 45 -
60 per cent copper.

The average analysis of the ore is:

Beare me veletesay wit 36.0%
Bren dsY wine a's vs men cele 14
Ge 6 Sa a ae Bi a 22
obs 1 64) § aU teat Ree 3
CADDER es So ea 2.8%

In order to make a 45-50 per cent matte we have to sup-
ply more sulphur. This extra sulphur is furnished by the
addition to the charge of a sulphide ore which is shipped in
from Leadville, Colorado. The average amount necessary
to furnish enough sulphur to give the required 45 to 50 per
cent matte is 75 lbs. per 1500 lbs. of mine ore. A typical
furnace charge is as follows:

Mime Ore yon e 1500 lbs.
Leadville Sulphide . 75

San Pedro Slag .... 200

Limeroek iit ahs. bss 150

ORE) icc trees ely 12.2%

A typical slag from the above charge will average:

re) MMIC oN) INI ag 40.4%

Uy 0 Amaia Uo Got Sa cea dae 21.6

(OB SRNL St pers 28.0

The greatest drawback to this company is transporta-
tion. As before noted this property is 18 miles from a rail-
road. Practically all freighting is done by team at a cost
to the company of $4.00 per ton. This freighting charge in-
creases the cost of coke to $10.50 per ton. Coal costs $3.50

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 127

per ton for haulage from the company mine, 14 miles from
the smelter. A Rumley Oil Tractor has been installed, and
for 8 months out of the year hauls part of the coke up to
the smelter, and matte down to the railroad. The matte
is shipped to El Paso for converting. The cost per ton
by the tractor is $2.00. No doubt if transportation facil-
ities could be bettered this would be one of the best mines
in New Mexico.

128 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THE INFLUENCE OF ARSENIC UPON THE BIOLO-
GICAL TRANSFORMATION OF NITROGEN IN SOILS.

By J. E. GREAVES.

(Published in Biochemical Bulletin, Vol. III, (1913),
pp. 2-16.)

(Summary)

The article represents a study of the effects of
arsenic upon the bacterial activities of the soil and it shows
that one hundred parts per million of sodium arsenate may
be applied to a soil rich in calcium and iron without mater-
ially decreasing the ammonifying and nitrifying powers of
that soil. Smaller quantities may stimulate these activities.

Zinc arsenite, lead arsenate, and arsenic trisulfide stim-
ulate the ammonifying activities of a soil, and their toxi-
city is not very marked until comparatively large quantities
of arsenic are present. The two former reduce the am-
monifying and nitrifying activities only one-half when 1,120
parts per million of arsenic are present, while arsenic
trisulfide exerts a stimulating influence upon the ammoni-
fying activities of the soil in the lower concentrations and
does not become very toxic even in the highest concentra-
tions.

Paris green exerts marked toxicity on the ammoni-
fiers, even when present in small quantities. When present
in large quantities it practically stops ammonification in
soil.

All these compounds stimulated nitrification, the stim-
ulation being least for Paris green and greatest for lead
arsenate.

Arsenic trisulfide and Paris green, when present in
large quantities, nearly stopped nitrification.

Arsenic stimulated ammonification and nitrification,
when it was present in soils in small quantities, but in very
large quantities it was toxic. It is improbable, however,
that lead arsenate, zine arsenite, or arsenic trisulfide, will
ever be applied to agricultural soil in quantities sufficient

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 129

to become injurious to soil bacteria. Paris green may,
but the quantity added would have to be large.

The stimulating activity of the various compounds add-
ed to the soil, upon ammonifying organisms and especially
upon the nitrifying forms, is partly due to the anion and
partly to the cation. Much of their action may be due to
their influence upon injurious species.

Water-soluble arsenic may exist as such in soils to the
extent of 82 parts per million without entirely stopping
ammonification and nitrification. Large quantities of
ammonia and nitric nitrogen may be produced in a soil
containing 50 parts per million of water-soluble arsenic,
which is a greater quantity than any ever found in an
agricultural soil.

Measured in terms of their influence upon ammonifi-
cation and nitrification as it takes place in soil, the toxicity
of lead arsenate is the least. Next come zinc arsenite and
arsenic trisulfide. The greatest toxicity is exerted by Paris
green. From the results reported in the literature on the
subject, this seems to be the sequence of toxicity when tests
are made on the higher plants.

There is nothing in these results to indicate that
arsenic trisulfide, or zine arsenite, is as safe as lead arsen-
ate for use as an insecticide. Arsenic trisulfide may be
safer when first added to the soil, as is shown by its being
almost insoluble when first applied and having practically
no toxic influence upon ammonification; but, as bacterial
action takes place in the soil, the arsenic of the arsenic
trisulfide is much more soluble than that of lead arsenate,
and becomes toxic to the nitrifying organisms when it is
present in large quantities.

130 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

EIGHTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE UTAH
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Chemistry Lecture Room, University of Utah.
April 2 and 3, 1915.

Friday, April 2, 1915, 8 P. M.

“THE RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF THE SCIENTIST,” (Presiden-
tial Address) By Prof. Marcus E. Jones, Salt Lake City

“THE TEXTILE FABRICS OF THE CLIFF
DWELLERS” 22. 2. By Prof. Byron Cummings,, U. U.

Saturday, April 3, 1915.

““CONTROLLING GRASSHOPPERS,” .. By Dr. E. D. Ball, U. A. C.

“EFFECT OF SOIL ALKALI ON PLANT
GROWTH, (sae ee oak By Dr. Frank S. Harris, U. A. C.

“SOME UNIQUE RUSTS,”
By A. O. Garrett, High School, Salt Lake City

“EFFECT OF THE AMOUNT OF PROTEIN CONSUMED UPON
THE DIGESTION AND PROTEIN METABOLISM OF
LAMBS AND UPON THE COMPOSITION OF THEIR
FLESH AND BLOOD” ..... By Dr. W. E. Carroll, U. A. C.

Saturday, April 3, 1915, 2 P. M.

““A DETERMINATION OF AVOGADRO’S
CONSTANT N's cia doles By Dr. Harvey Fletcher, B. Y. U.

“THE VOICE TONOSCOPE” ..By Dr. Franklin O. Smith, U. U.
“THE ORIGIN OF HIGHER ORDERS OF DIFFERENCE TONES:

EXPERIMENTAL” ....... By Dr. Joseph Peterson, U. U.
“THE HoT AIR FURNACE—A STUDY OF 3
OOMBUSTION i a4eee’s b By Dr. W: C. Ebaugh, U. U.

“COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY”
By Dr. Chas. T. Vorhies, U. U. and Prof. Marcus E.
Jones, Salt Lake City.

(Illustrated with lantern slides and color photographs).

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 131

EFFECT OF SOIL ALKALI ON PLANT GROWTH.
By F. S. HARRIS.

(Summary).

Results of over 18,000 determinations on the effect of
alkali in the soil on the germination of seeds and the growth
of plants were presented. From these data the following
conclusions were drawn:

The effect of the various alkali salts in soils on plant
growth and the quantity of alkali that must be present to
injure crops are of great practical importance to farmers
in arid regions, as well as of considerable interest to the
scientist.

Only about half as much alkali is required to prohibit
the growth of crops in sand as in loam.

Crops vary greatly in their relative resistance to alkali
salts, but for the ordinary mixture of salts the following
crops in the seedling stage would probably come in the
order given, barley being the most resistant: Barley, oats,
wheat, alfalfa, sugar beets, corn, and Canada field peas.

Results obtained in solution cultures for the toxicity
of alkali salts do not always hold when these salts are ap-
plied to the soil.

The percentage of germination of seeds, the quantity
of dry matter produced, the height of plants, and the num-
ber of leaves per plant are all affected by alkali salts in
about the same ratio.

The period of germination of seeds is considerably
lengthened by the presence of soluble salts in the soil.

The anion, or acid radical, and not the cation, or basic
radical, determines the toxicity of alkali salts in the soil.
Of the acid radicals used, chlorid was decidedly the most
toxic, while sodium was the most toxic base.

The injurious action of alkali salts is not in all cases
proportional to the osmotic pressure of the salts.

The toxicity of soluble salts in the soil was found to be
in the following order: Sodium chlorid, calcium chlorid,
potassium chlorid, sodium nitrate, magnesium chloride,

132 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

potassium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, sodium carbonate,
potassium carbonate, sodium sulphate, potassium sulphate,
and magnesium sulphate.

The antagonistic effect of combined salts was not so
great in soils as in solution cultures.

The percentage of soil moisture influences the toxicity
of alkali salts.

Salts added to the soil in the dry state do not have so
great an effect as those added in solution.

Land containing more than about the following per-
centages of soluble salt are probably not suited without
reclamation to produce ordinary crops. In loam, chlorids,
0.3 per cent; nitrates, 0.4 per cent; carbonates, 0.5 per cent;
sulphates, above 1.0 per cent. In coarse sand, chlorids, 0.2
per cent; nitrates, 0.8 per cent; carbonates, 0.3 per cent;
and sulphates, 0.6 per cent.

SOME UNIQUE RUSTS.

The rust fungi include over two thousand species of
parasitic fungi. The usual text-book in elementary botany
uses Puccinia graminis or wheat rust as the type of these
species—a rust probably as atypical as could be selected.

In order that the references in this paper shall be clear,
permit me to give a few elementary definitions. Rusts are
either autoecious or heteroecious—an autoecious rust being
one that has all of its spore forms on the same species of
host plant, while a heteroecious rust requires two species of
hosts for its life cycle. The complete life cycle of a heter-
oecious rust is as follows: In the spring spores called
aeciospores are produced in chains in a special cup-shaped
spore-case (technically a peridium) called an aecium.
These spores are blown to the alternate host, and there
germinate, producing a mycelium (or rust plant) within
the tissues of the host. Within a short time this mycelium
fruits by producing clusters of one-celled reddish or brown-
ish spores called uredospores. These blow to other plants
of the same species, germinate and form new mycelia,
which in due time produce their successive crops of uredo-
spores, and so on all during the summer. The uredospores

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 133

are the multiplying spores of the plant. In the late sum-
mer or in the autumn, the same mycelium which has been
producing uredospores now produces clusters of two-celled,
thick-walled spores known as teliospores. Although in a
few forms these germinate at once, in most forms they re-
main on the plant during the winter, and in the early spring
(about the time the alternate host has begun to leaf out),
each teliospore germinates by producing from each of its
two cells a tube called a promycelium. This promycelium
cuts off four cells at its upper extremity, and from each of
these cells develops a minute spore called a sporidium. The
sporidium is blown to the host that produced the aecio-
spores, and there germinates into a mycelium which gives
rise to the aecia again.

But we have many variations from the above typical
life history. Some rusts never have the aecial stage; some
never have the uredo stage; while still other species omit
both of these stages, the spores that are produced being
only sporidia and teliospores. Again, some do have all the
stages when conditions are favorable, but can abbreviate
their life-history if one of the alternate hosts is not available
for infection. Wheat rust is a splendid example of this.

In the study of the rusts certain general relationships
have been recognized as existing in nature. The purpose |
of this paper is to call attention to some departures from
these. For example, it is believed in general that all the
rusts on the grasses, rushes and sedges are not only heteroe-
cious, but that they have their aecial stage on some
dicotyledonous host. A striking exception to this is Puc-
cinta graminella (Speg.) Diet. & Holway, found on Stipa
eminens Cav., which produces its aecial stage on the same
host as the teliospores, i. e., it is autoecious. But Puccinia
graminella is unusual in another respect. All other grass
rusts so far as known produce the complete cycle of spores—
aecia, uredo and telial—but this species apparently does not
produce the uredospores.

Another unusual grass rust is the race of Puccinia
found on Phalaris. These rusts produce their.aecia on a
monocotyledonous host.

134 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

It is expected that the sporidia from the teliospores
will inoculate one and only one, or at most two or three
very nearly related, species of host-plants. Imagine the
surprise of the botanical world when the peculiar case of
Puccinia subnitens Dietel was recognized. It has been
proved by inoculation experiments that its sporidia produce
aecia on Cleome serrulata, Cleome spinosa, Chenopodium
album, Radicula sinuata, Sisymbrium incisa, Salsola Tragus,
Lepidium apetalum, Lepidium virginicum, Capsella Bursa-
pastoris, Erysimum asperum, Atriplex hastata and Sarco-
batus vermiculatus—twelve species representing three very
distinct families of plants.

Another rust of much interest, Aecidium tuberculatum,
E. & K., occurring on Callirrhoe involucrata, has been con-
sidered of much interest because its mycelium seems to be
perennial. Now, an aecium is at most only a temporary
structure, and it has no business with a perennial mycelium!
On this account, the rust was discussed at some length in
1904 by Mark A. Carleton in Bulletin 63 of the Bureau of
Plant Industry. But the apparent discrepancy has just
been explained by Dr. J. C. Arthur and F. D. Fromme. In
the February, 1915, number of the Bulletin of the Torrey
Botanical Club, it is shown that the rust is really an Endo-
phyllum in the telial stage (instead of the aecial stage of
some rust of the genus Puccinia or Uromyces). The genus
Endophyllum is one in which the telial form resembles very
closely in appearanc the aecial stage of other rusts. Arthur
and Fromme succeeded however in producing the conclusive
promycelia and sporidia by means of the Kunkel method of
sowing the spores on the surface of a non-nutrient agar.

It is the rule among heteroecious rusts having all spore
forms that the teliospores will not germinate until the fol-
lowing spring; i. e., not until they have been exposed to the
rigors of winter. But Uromyces Houstonianus (Schw.)
Shelton is the single known exception to this rule by ger-
minating as soon as produced. It occurs on Sisyrinchium
graminoides Bicknell.

Some of the most striking departures from rule are
found in the genus Gymnosporangium. These rusts are

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 135

heteroecious, having the teliospores on some Gymnosperm,
usually of the cedar group, and the aecial stage on some
ligneous species of the Malaceae. But there are several
radical exceptions to this statement. For instance, Gymno-
sporangium bermudianum (Farl.) Seym. & Earle is autoeci-
ous, having both spore-forms on species of Juniper. The
aecia of Gymnosporangium exterum Arthur occur on
Gillenia stipulacea, an herbaceous annual belonging to the
family Rosaceae, and those of Gymnosporangium gracilens
(Peck) Kern & Bethel are found on Fendlera rupicola and
species of Philadelphus, two hosts belonging to the family
Hydrangiaceae. But still farther removed from the
Rosaceae is the host of the aecial stage of Gymnosporan-
gium Ellis (Berk.) Farlow, which occurs on Myrica ceri-
fera and M. carolinensis belonging to the family Myricaceae!

Each teliospore of the Gymnosporangia commonly has
two germ-pores to each cell; but in the species G. multi-
porum Kern, recently described from Colorado, there are
from five to seven (usually the latter number), to each
cell.

Still another perculiar Gymnosporangium is G. Blas-
daleanum (Dietel & Holway) Kern. This species has in
the aecial stage, not the usual so-called Roestelia, but the
genuine aecium. The aecia of Gymnosporangium Ellisti
(Aecidium myricatum Schw.) also has this unusual charac-
teristic.

The number and arrangement of the germ-pores is be-
coming an important diagnostic character in the rusts,
especially in connection with the uredo-spores of the dif-
ferent species. Uromyces uniporulus Kern and Puccinia
uniporula Orton, two rusts found on Carex, are unusual in
that their uredospores have each only one germ-pore, while
those of all other known species of rust on Carex have at
least two. Puccinia karelica is an unusual sedge rust in that
it is the only known sedge rust with scattered germ-pores,
all other known species having equatorial, super-equatorial
or subequatorial pores.*

1Arthur and Fromme: “The Taxonomic Value of Pore Characters in
the Grass and Sedge Rusts.” Mycologia 7:28. 1915.

136 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Many more interesting exceptions to the rule of life
history and of structure might be mentioned, but the above
will be sufficient to call attention to some of the important
ones, which have shed new light on the entire subject. In
our own State, but little work has been done on this im-
portant and most interesting group if plants. Probably
many species occur in the State that at present are unknown
to science. No attempt has been made by most of the bot-
any teachers of the State to germinate spores, or attempt
culture work of any description. And yet no field for
original investigation offers more unsolved problems to
tempt one than that of the rusts. It is to be hoped that
some attention may be given to the subject by the botany
teachers of the State, who can be assured in advance that
they will find plenty both to interest, to puzzle and to re-
ward them. ;

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 137

EFFECT OF THE AMOUNT OF PROTEIN CONSUMED
UPON DIGESTION AND METABOLISM IN LAMBS
AND UPON THE COMPOSITION OF THEIR
FLESH AND BLOOD.

By W. E. CARROLL.

(Conclusions only).

While the data presented seem to warrant the follow-
ing conclusions, it should be borne in mind that the differ-
ences in protein consumption between animals of the three
lots were not great, and that even the low protein animals
probably received protein somewhat in excess of their truly
minimum requirements.

1. The amount and the chemical composition of the
feces of lambs is independent of the amount of protein
consumed. This is true whether the corrected or the un-
corrected data are considered.

2. The feces of lambs contain considerable quantities
of purely metabolic products. To determine accurately the
extent of digestion of feeds, the only correction usually
made—that for metabolic protein—is in itself insufficient.
“Metabolic ash,” and no doubt other substances as well, in-
fluence the accuracy of the coefficients of digestion.

8. The coefficients which are especially affected are
those of protein, fat, and ash. On account of the methods
used, little confidence can be placed in those of fat and ash
as ordinarily reported. The correction for metabolic pro-
tein, while the method is far from satisfactory, should al-
ways be made.

4. The amount of metabolic protein in the feces is not
influenced by the protein intake. It is more nearly related
to the total dry matter consumed than to the amount of dry
matter digested as reported by some investigators.

5. The amount of protein consumed (the rations being
similar in other respects) does not influence the extent to
which any of the food nutrients are digested when judged
by corrected coefficients of digestion.

' 138 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

6. The uncorrected data indicate the same, except that
for protein a positive correlation exists between protein
consumption and the coefficients of digestion of this nu-
trient.

7. High protein consumption results in high urine
output and in high excretion of total and urea nitrogen in
the urine. Creatinin is excreted in practically constant
quantities irrespective of the protein intake. Ammonia and
creatin nitrogen are present in smallest amounts and bear
no constant relation to protein ingestion.

8. Expressed on a percentage basis, urea nitrogen
makes up a higher proportion and creatinin nitrogen a rel-
atively lower percentage of the total nitrogen of the urine
of lambs fed a high protein ration than is the case with lambs
on a low protein intake.

9. A slight positive correlation exists between protein
consumption and nitrogen retention by growing lambs. The
same is true for nitrogen absorption (corrected data) and
nitrogen retention.

10. The methods used in this investigation failed to
show any influence of the amount of protein consumed
upon the nitrogenous composition of the flesh and blood of
growing lambs. The only chemical effect observed which
followed differences in protein intake is the storage of fat
in the boneless meat. This seems to be favored by high pro-
tein consumption.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 139

THE VOICE TONOSCOPE.
BY FRANKLIN O. SMITH.

(Abstract).

Many attempts have been made to measure the motor
process involved in singing, reading and speaking. Ob-
viously the unaided ear will not serve the purpose. At-
tempts to measure these processes by means of graphic and
photographic apparatus have failed because these instru-
ments are too cumbersome and admit too many sources of
error. What is required is a “simple, and at the same time
accurate and ready means of measuring the pitch of tones
produced by the human voice.’

The instrument which has been designed to solve this
difficulty is appropriately called the tonoscope by its in-
ventor, Professor C. E. Seashore. Although complicated in
structure it is easy of manipulation and is sufficiently ac-
curate for measuring the pitch and timbre of the voice in
singing and speaking,

The tonoscope consists essentially of a movable screen
in the form of a drum, which turns on an axis at the rate of
one revolution per second. By means of a small acetylene
gas flame at the end of a speaking tube in front of the mov-
ing screen the vibrations of the voice are reflected upon the
screen. The tonoscope, therefore, works on the principle of
stroboscopic vision, or the principle of moving pictures.

This stroboscopic effect is produced by a unique meth-
od. The screen is perforated by 1800 holes each 3.5 mm.
in diameter and spaced with the highest possible accuracy.
These holes are arranged in 110 parallel rows, each complet-
ing the circumference of the drum in uniform spacings for
each row. The number of holes increases, by one for each

1Seashore. The Tonoscope Psychological Monographs. No. 69, pp.
row, beginning with 110 holes, over one octave.

As one sings a given tone, say “c,” the row of holes
corresponding to the vibration frequency of this tone ap-
pears to stand still while all the rows at the right of this
one appear to move forward and all those at left appear to

140 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

move backward. By this means and by other simple devices,
the reading of the tonoscope is comparatively easy, thus
making it possible to train the voice by means of the eye.

Measurements have been made with this instrument
on the ability to strike a pitch, to sustain a tone and to
modulate a tone. The vowel sounds have been analyzed
and their characteristic qualities revealed. The tonoscope
has already demonstrated its utility in discovering musical
ability and promises large returns in a specific field of ap-
plied psychology.

2W. R. Miles. Accuracy of Voice in Simple Pitch Singing. Psychologi-
cal Monographs. No. 69, pp. 13-66.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 141

NINTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE UTAH
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Chemistry Lecture Room, University of Utah.
April 7 and 8, 1916.

Friday, April 7, 1916, 8.00 P. M.

“INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH IN THE UNITED STATES,” (Presi
dential Address) ...By Dr. Harvey Fletcher, B. Y. U.

“THE ALKALI CONTENT OF CERTAIN UTAH
SRENMEEy e s ais) dL aia By Dr. Frank 8. Harris, U. A. C.
Saturday, April 8, 1916, 10.00 A. M.

“THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH” ......... By Dr. E. G. Peterson, U. A. C.

“SELECTING BULLS BY PERFORMANCE”
BENE I alias Meaty ye key Dr. WE Carroll iw AL ©:

“PEYOTE, AN INDIAN NARCOTIC”
By A. O. Garrett, East High School, Salt Lake City

“THE PRESENCE OF RABIES IN

EA Are cae) ea on lai, By Dr. L. L. Daines, U. U.
““AN EPIDEMIC OF COLDS WITH MICROCOCCUS CATARRHALIS. .
AS CAUSATIVE AGENT” ..... By Dr. L. L. Daines, U. U.

Saturday, April 8, 1916, 2.00 P. M.
“BOTULINUS POISONING” ....... By Dr. L. L. Daines, U. U.

“COMPARISON OF METHODS OF TREATMENT FOR GRAIN
SUC eG a By M. Rich Porter, Salt Lake City

“A NEW CoUNT METHOD OF MEASURING THE ELEMENTARY
ELECTRIC CHARGE” ..By Dr. Harvey Fletcher, B. Y. U.

“THE VALUE OF GASEOUS IONIZATION IN
HYDROGEN?) i). 6.6. By Prof. Carl F. Eyring, B. Y. U.

“OuR NATIONAL AWAKENING TO THE IMPORTANCE OF
SCIENCE iwi By Dr. W. C. Ebaugh, Salt Lake City

142 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH IN THE UNITED STATES.
By HARVEY FLETCHER.

Although in some lines, especially chemistry, there has
been some industrial research ever since the birth of our
nation, it is comparatively recent since it has been recognized
as a very important part of the large industrial organiza-
tions.
| The large corporations are beginning to see that the
development work, especially with the big problems, is
carried on much more successfully by University men rather
than by the so called practical man, who has received his
education in the business.

As early as 1795 James Woodhouse, Professor of
Chemistry of the University of Pennsylvania, took an active
interest in commercial problems. He showed that anthracite
coal was better than ordinary bituminous coal for giving
“intensity and regularity of heat.”

Also about this time John Harrison, the first manu-
facturer of sulphuric acid, took an active interest in indus-
trial problems. There has always been scientific research
men connected with the mining industry, especially in the
milling and smelting of the ores. There were a great many
chemists who contributed to our industrial development dur-
ing this time. Work on beet sugar, production of gelatine,
illuminating oils, manufacture of bleaching powders, manu-
facture of Bessemer steel were things which were accom-
plished by the chemists of this period.

In 1860 Joseph Wharton made it possible to establish
firmly a new industry by discovering a new process for the
manufacture of zinc.

During the 25 years succeeding this, a great deal was
done in the steel industry, the preservation of wood and on
products of petroleum, etc. After the construction of power
plants at Niagara Falls, making it possible to produce elec-
trical energy very cheaply a number of new processes were
invented for the manufacture of metals and chemicals not-
able among which was the process of producing aluminum by
Charles M. Hall, a young Oberlin graduate.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 143

Aluminum was discovered in Germany by Mohler in
1828. In 1855 it cost $90.00 per pound. In 1886 it had
fallen to $12.00. The American Castner process brought it
to $4.00. Hall discovered that eyolite fused readily at a
moderate temperature and when so fused would dissolve
alumina very readily. If the solution is electrolized the
pure metal is obtained. This process was instituted in 1895
with the result that the market price is now about 20 cents
and 50,000 tons are being manufactured yearly.

The Du Pont Co. in Delaware, manufacturers of gun
powder, employ 250 trained chemists. Its chemical de-
partment comprises three divisions; the field division for
the study of problems which must be investigated outside
the laboratory and which maintains upon its staff experts
for each manufacturing activity together with a force of
chemists at each plant for routine laboratory work; second,
the experimental station which comprises a group of lab-
oratories for research work on the problems arising in con-
nection with the manufacture of black and smokeless pow-
der, and the investigation of problems or new processes
originating outside of the company; the eastern laboratory
which confines itself to research concerned with high ex-
plosives. Its equipment is housed in 76 buildings, the ma-
jority being of considerable size spread over 50 acres. It
is estimated that this eastern research laboratory yields a
profit of $1,000,000 annually. It is estimated that the re-
cent invention by Gayley of the dry air blast in the manu-
facture of iron saves the American people about $20,000,000
annually.

In Agriculture, the largest of our industries, we were
slow to adopt the methods of scientific research. The first
U. S. commissioner report of 1868, he states that in a few
colleges some work in agriculture was attempted but, in-
asmuch as no teachers had been prepared, they necessarily
would need to be self taught in the schools in which they
were teaching. Shortly after this, a number of Agricultural
schools came into existence, so that by 1876, there were 39
colleges with 473 professors and 4,211 students which had
taken advantage of the land grant of July 2, 1862, for the

~

144 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

establishment of schools of agriculture. However, very
little research was done until 1889, when the government ex-
periment stations came into existence.

The first agricultural experiment station in America
was established at Middletown, Conn., in the chemical lab-
oratory of Wesleyan University, 1875. By 1887 there were
17 of these in operation in the United States and in 1889
there were 46 stations maintained by the government em-
ploying 370 trained men and costing about $720,000 per
year.

From this splendid beginning the department of Agri-
culture has come to be a very important part of the central
government. It has divided itself into clearly defined lines
regulatory, research, and educational and it is in this branch
that the research man gets splendid support from the gov-
ernment. There are now 65 experiment stations and 69
agricultural colleges.

As is evidenced from our program, the scientific men
in our Utah experiment station are contributing a very gen-
erous share to this great work.

As far as I know, the biologist is doing little for the
great industries, except as it has its very important con-
nection with Agricultural research. As physicians and
surgeons and as researchmen at our large universities, they
are doing a wonderful work for our nation; but they are
not hired directly by the large corporations to do research
work, although a great number are employed in applying
principles which are quite well established in improving san-
itation and health conditions.

The farm property in the U. S. A. is now worth about
$43,000,000,000 and is increasing daily. Many of the more
educated class are looking toward the farm as a desirable
place, and since this industry is at the very basis of our
existence, it is no wonder that the great volume of the re-
search work done by the government is in the Department
of Agriculture. In the year 1913, the printing alone in this
department cost $400,000. Its many agents cover prac-
tically the whole earth and its annual expenditures are
many millions. The Bureau of Soils, the Bureau of Plant

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 145

Industry, the Bureau of Animal Industry and the Forest
Service have to do with our very national existence. The
Bureau of Chemistry, by its relation to the pure food laws
touches our daily lives and protects the manufacturer from
unfair competition. The work of this bureau also stimu-
lates manufacturers of foods to produce better products, and
therefore these companies are beginning to see the real need
of establishing research departments in connection with
their business. The work of this bureau is supplemented by
the work of the state and city boards of health.

So we may say that through the combined efforts of
the Department of Agriculture, the experiment stations, ag-
ricultural colleges, manufacturers of farm implements, is
devoted a greater amount of scientific research than any
other business in the world.

Then there is the bureau of fisheries, which spend
$40,000 on a highly specialized field of biology, the bureau of
geological survey spending about half a million, a great deal
being spent for original research, the bureau of mines
spending over $300,000 for technical research on problems
pertaining to our mining industry. The bureau has done
a great deal for mining in the way of finding new and bet-
ter explosives. All coal used by the government costing
$8,000,000 is purchased only upon the recommendations of
this bureau. Then we have the Bureau of Standards. So
we see at the present time, the government is doing a great
deal in industrial research, but I think it is only a fair be-
ginning and in the future we will see a rapid growth in the
line of work, especially in some departments.

Just as Germany has become a great industrial nation,
so will the United States when she realizes the necessity of
a close co-operation between the University laboratory and
the industrial plant.

It is comparatively recent since any of the large cor-
porations have maintained a research department with the
exception of a few individual chemists, and there are a great
number who still do not see the necessity of maintaining such
a department. I mention particularly some of the achieve-
ments of some of the corporations whose research depart-
ments are, we might say, just in the making.

10

146 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The American shoe industry was one of the first to
maintain a well directed research laboratory. It is marvel-
ous when we contemplate what they have accomplished, both
in the preparation of the leather and the precision apparatus
which constructs the shoe. These achievements are due to
no single individual, but to a group.

The development of the automobile, especially the low
priced car, or putting it plainly, the Ford, is a marvel.

The gasoline consummed in our country equals the
water supply of a town of 40,000 inhabitants and its costs,
only on holidays and Sundays, are $1,000,000. Many of the
automobile companies now maintain research departments
comprising designers, chemists, machinists, physicists,

mathematicians, etc. One tire manufacturer alone spends

$100,000 upon his research department.

In 10 years time the Ford Automobile Company in-
creased its output from less than 2,000 cars to one half mil-
lion. Each acre of floor space, and there are 47.5 in the
plant, produces annually $3,000,000. The number employed
number 21,000 and it is claimed that they receive the high-
est average salaries of any similar group in the world.

It is estimated that a complete Ford car leaves the fac-
tory every 25 seconds. The organization of both the men
and the placing of machinery is almost perfect. Such a
phenomenal growth and astonishing organization is only
possible with a well equipped research department of ex-
perts, in physical science, in biological science, in social
science as well as in commerce and business. Nearly all of
our optical companies are starting or already maintain good
research laboratories, employing both physicists and chem-
ists.

The Eastman Kodak Company has a splendidly equipped
laboratory which has just recently been built in Rochester,
N. Y., for specialized work in research. It spends lavishly
funds for the investigation of problems which are based upon
the fundamental principles upon which the industry rests.

In the paper industry general research is confined
mainly to the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison and
in the industry it seems we need more technically trained

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 147.

men, men of university training. Most of the manufacturers
of paper are content with men who have been trained in the
business.

In the steel industry a great amount is expended an-
nually on research work. Especially gratifying has been
the results of the work upon the strength of steel rails. In
twenty years the locomotive increased its weight over four
times so that by about 1905 22 per cent of the rails were
moved the first year, due to depressed heads. The problem
was given to the research men in the South Chicago Steel
Works, and, by changing process of manufacture and the
composition of the steel rail they seem successfully to have
solved it. The steel rails sent out from this furnace have
been in operation 4 or 5 years and no bad reports have
been received. When such things are accomplished, the
promoters readily see the cash value of the research de-
partment.

Probably the largest industrial research laboratory at
the present time is that conducted by the General Electric
Company in Schenectady, N. Y., and yet it has only been
organized fifteen years. In 1901 Dr. N. R. Whitney, Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in Mass. Inst. of Technology, was en-
gaged to organize a laboratory of physical and chemical re-
search. At first he only gave half his time and his labora-
tory was 50 x 100 feet in one of the older buildings of the
Company. Inside of a year the laboratory force grew to
twelve men. In three years (1904) Dr. Whitney gave up
his teaching and devoted all his time to research and had
thirty-five assistants. During this year the laboratory was
moved to new quarters, occupying about forty good re-
search rooms, all equipped with lathes and laboratory equip-
ment. The wiring was such that voltages from 0 to 6,600
volts and currents from 0 to 200 and power up to 150 KW
could be supplied to any room. There was also a well equip-
ped store room of chemicals, a machine shop, and a library
maintained. All scientific journals are kept on file. Dur-
ing the period when the laboratory was in one room from
1901 to 1904 research work on electric furnaces and their
products, organic and inorganic insulating materials, met-
allurgical operations luminous, was done.

148 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

During the succeeding period the metallized carbon
filament, the mercury arc rectifier, and the magnetito arc
lamp were produced.

Then came the development of the tungsten filament
which has revolutionized electric lighting and made possible
the X ray target and the tungsten make and break contact.

The wonderful development of the electric furnace is
a result of this laboratory. The perfection of this furnace
has made possible the study of the magnetic properties of
iron alloys, with the result that hysterices and eddy current
losses have been greatly reduced. At present the research
staff is over 150 and the laboratory is located in a modern
seven story building and occupies a floor space of 66,500
square feet. Power is supplied at 250 volts d.c. Three
wire systems and at 40 cycles 3 phase 120 volts. In the
laboratory power plant are sixteen machines which deliver
power at different voltages and at frequencies ranging
from 25 up to 2000 cycles. Currents up to 12,000 amperes
and voltages up to 2,000,000 may be obtained. An elabor-
ate switch board enables an operator to send any kind of
current and voltage anywhere in the building. In the power
house there are also a liquid air machine, an air compressor,
two large vacuum pumps.

The building is piped throughout with city water, river
water, illuminating gas, compressed air vacuum, high pres-
sure hydrogen, low pressure hydrogen, oxygen, high pres-
sure steam. Distilled water may be delivered by gravity
to any room, and 250 motors, 80 transformers and 60
vacuum pumps are distributed through the building.

On the first floor are offices, the library of 1400 vol-
umes and the machine shops. The second floor is occupied
by research work on insulation; by production work on
Coolidge X Ray tube, and by the carpenter shop. Because
of the importance of insulation, the company devotes much
time to its improvement. On the third floor is the ana-
lytical laboratory and electrolytic work. Also work on
transformer steel and other alloys are on this floor. One
can readily see the importance of a slight decrease in the

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 149

transformer core loss because of the great saving of power
throughout the United States.

The lamp work is located on the fourth floor. A small
factory for the manufacture of all kinds of lights is main-
tained. Photometers of every description for testing ef-
ficiency and the most modern apparatus for making life test
are on this floor.

Also laboratories of a purely scientific nature with no
definite end in view are maintained simply to contribute
to scientific thought. Often they suggest definite problems
which are of commercial value to the Company.

Besides the one laboratory described, the General Elec-
tric Company maintains research laboratories at the Lynn
and Pittsfield plants which specialize on the production
problems. There are lamp development laboratories at
Harrison and Cleveland which develop and standardize
new processes, materials, and lamp designs for the factory.
There is the physical laboratory at Cleveland, which con-
ducts experiments in physical and physiological aspects of
light and illumination. There is the illuminating labora-
tory at Schenectady devoted wholly to illuminating engineer-
ing. There is also the consulting engineering department
laboratory, the testing laboratory, and the standardizing
laboratory which are all separate from the main research
laboratory.

One of the coming research laboratories is that of the
Western Electric Company who are the manufacturers of
all the telephone and telegraph instruments used in U.S. A.
This company is affiliated with the American Bell Tele-
phone and Telegraph Company and manufacture all ap-
paratus used by this company. Two months ago I had the
pleasure of visiting this laboratory.

There are in the United States at least fifty splendidly
equipped research laboratories, some of them spending over
one-half million dollars per year.

So a few of the industries have broken down the tradi-
tion that their business and the academic trained scientists
have no connection.

150 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

It has been mainly due to the work of the University
that industrial progress in the past has been possible, al-
though the poorly paid professor received very little finan-
cial reward. Today the university man is beginning to re-
ceive recognition for his place in industrial development.
The banker is beginning to realize that a man who devotes
himself to the development of science for science sake alone
often yields large financial returns.

For example: A few years ago the electron theory,
ionization effects, and especially the photo electric effects
were considered of pure academic interest.

This photo electric effect has made possible the wireless
telephone, and the new amplifier may soon replace the Pupin
loading coil for long distance transmission.

Also the phenomenon of pure electron emission has
been used in the Coolidge X ray tube which is so valuable
to the physician, and also on the high voltage rectifier. It
was not long ago when Lord Rayleigh found nitrogen, taken
from the air, had always a slightly different density than
that generated in the laboratory. He felt himself obligated
to science to try and clear up the discrepancy. In co-
operation with Sir Wm. Ramsay, he discovered argon. This
gas is very inert and good for nothing, so what was the use
of all the trouble? The only answer Ramsay would have
given is that it was a contribution to our knowledge of
science and is therefore worth while. But a friend might
have said to him(as a number of my friends have said to me
about my worthless work of chasing electrons down in the
laboratory at Provo), ‘Why don’t you invent something
which will benefit mankind or which will bring you financial
reward” and he still would have answered, “Science is worth
while for science sake alone.”

But very recently (within two years) the most effic-
ient electric light now on the market is made with this gas.
It will save millions of people “dollars and cents” and give
them a very much better light.

A good example of showing the relation of the progress
of manufacturing industry and research is the history of
our talking at a distance. First we called loudly and the

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 151

strongest voice was the best telephone. Then the idea of
a speaking tube which was not connected with the voice
was introduced by a research man. The tinsmiths and
plumbers did the rest as far as perfection was concerned.
Then came the development of electro-magnetic induction
and no one dreamed of its having any connection with
speaking at a distance. Joseph Henry, in his cellar at
Albany, who had to steal a little time from his full daily
program of study to experiment in a field he loved, dis-
covered electromagnetic induction. By means of the trans-
mitter and receiver these principles finally changed the
speaking tube into a long wire. To one not familiar with
the principles underlying the telephone, it may appear as
simply long drawn out speaking tubes, but the principles
underlying the action of the two are entirely different.
Then followed the mathematical researches of Maxwell and
the noted experiments of Hertz, which made the wireless
telegraph possible. I have already spoken of the photo
electric cell which made the wireless telephone possible.
Again to one who was simply observing the change in
methods of long distance talking might say the tubes are
now drawn so fine that you can’t see them, but as shown by
this illustration, the progress is not through fine wire draw-
ing by newly discovered fundamental laws of nature which
were all found out by the pure research man.

Fortunately the financiers are beginning to realize the
importance of spending a good sum for research work con-
nected with their business, but still this advanced sort of
research does not get the encouragement it deserves. There
are a few institutions which are devoted to this cause, but
I am sure that in the near future a great more encourage-
ment will be given from the government and from big
business.

When put in the industrial research laboratory, the
University trained man has, as has been indicated, shown
his superior ability and the board of directors has been
forced to take notice. As a further illustration and a very
apt one, let me quote from Dr. Whitney, head of the General
Electric Research Laboratory. “I have seen whole factor-

152 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ies entirely overhauled a number of times in the past few
years in order to make the newest lamps. Not only have
entire floors of complicated and expensive machines for
making carbon lamps been thrown out and new machinery
for making metal filament lamps installed, but before pack-
ing cases containing new machines could be opened and un-
packed in the factory they have been thrown out as useless,
as the advance from squirted metal filaments to drawn wire
filaments proved the better way. Before the limit of fac-
tory efficiency on vacuum lamps could be reached, the in-
troduction of nitrogen into the lamps brought the factories
an entirely new factor and now before the consumers have
more than commenced to feel the effects of nitrogen-tungs-
ten lamps, the manufacture of argon and its introduction
into the lamp becomes a reality. If the research labora-
tories which discovered the means of bringing about these
changes with their corresponding economies, could tax the
consuming public a cent for every dollar thus saved to the
public, the laboratories would receive over $1,000,000 a
year to spend on further research.”

After all, as we see, the people are the ones most in-
terested in research work and usually they don’t know it.

On account of the great impetus given industrial re-
search due to the supreme success of some of its laborator-
ies, the large coporations are scouring the country for the
best men in the Universities. The salaries are much higher
than those usually given the University and College pro-
fessors, and the equipment is fast becoming superior to
that of the University laboratory. Therefore, unless there
is a reaction on the part of the University, it will lose
most of its best men, especially of the younger class.

However, I believe this will force the University Pro-
fessor’s salary up to its desired place, alongside of other
professions requiring equal training and ability. On the
whole, the outlook is very optimistic. There is an awaken-
ing in science. And just as sure as the government and
big businesses continue to increase in their efforts to foster
it, this nation will enter an era of industrial prosperity
that it has never known before.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 153

THE ALKALI CONTENT OF CERTAIN UTAH SOILS.
By F. S. HARRIS.

(Summary).

Alkali determinations were made in soil from. seven
counties in Utah. Samples were taken from typical alkali
spots, from parts of the same field producing good crops,
and from places surrounding the bare spots where only
about a half crop was produced.

Determinations were made of total soluble salts, chlo-
rides, carbonates, and sulphates in these soils to a depth of
four feet.

Curves were given showing the distribution of the dif-
ferent salts at various depths in each soil.

The highest concentration and the location of salts was
found to vary considerably; in some soils it was found in
the surface foot, while in others it was two, three, or four
feet below the surface.

Taking an average of all seven counties, good crops
grew where there were 5,089 parts per million total soluble
salts, but no crops grew where there were 14,397 parts per
million of salts. There was about half a crop where the
total salts were 9,263 p. p. m.

As an average of the three counties where sulphates
were low, no crops were produced with a concentration of
10,709 p. p. m. of salts, while there was only half a crop
with 6,455 p. p. m.

A study of the individual curves shows just about the
toxic limit of alkali salts under field conditions where the
salts indicated are present.

154 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

SELECTING DAIRY BULLS BY PERFORMANCE.
By W. E. CARROLL.

(Abstract).

The method reported evaluates the bulls on the basis
of the records of all their Advanced Register daughters.
The records were reduced to a percentage basis in order
to eliminate the age factor.

yee neeued as Bulletin No. 153 of the Utah Experiment Station, May,
Slr

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 155

OUR NATIONAL AWAKENING TO THE
IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE.

By W. C. EBAUGH.

Mankind is prone to use shibboleths or catch words.
A person conversant with our language at various periods
of time would have no difficulty in telling when such phrases
as the following were used most frequently: “Liberty,
Fraternity, Equality”, ‘““Masses against Classes”, “Aboli-
tion”, ‘Labor against Capital’, “See America First’,
“Conservation of National Resources”, “Safety First’,
“Efficiency and Scientific Management’, “Preparedness”.

With the shock of war in August, 1914, entirely new
conditions arose in the industrial as well as in the political
world. The war itself, based on race—old hatreds and
suspicions in Europe, brought out much that was worst and
much that was best in mankind. Over night was effected
a world transformation. Men were removed from peace-
ful occupations to those of war; schools and universities
were deserted for camp, barracks and trenches; industries
were turned into new channels and science itself was di-
rected with new aims.

On the one hand was the call for destructive agencies,
and the scientist and technologist provided munitions not
only of the older types of explosives, but also deadly gas
and liquid fire to add horrors to the already horrible. In
ordnance the skill of metallurgists produced alloys of quali-
ties unknown in earlier wars. Submarine and aerial war-
fare called for new methods and new means.

On the other hand science was forced to supply agen-
cies for constructive work, to find new uses for old mater-
ials and new materials for new needs. Hygiene and medi-
cine called for new industries, by which elements were
forced into new combinations to meet these unusual needs.

No matter how our sympthies may lie with respect
to the participants to the present struggle, all must admire
the wonderful “preparedness” and team work shown by
Germany. Overnight the land whose battle cry for cen-

156 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

turies has been “‘Feinde rings herum” (enemies around
about) called into place all available resources, and since
that time has been very largely dependent upon self-help.
Girt about with a proverbial wall of steel, and unable to
secure raw materials from overseas, or even from ad-
joining parts of Europe, a nation of seventy million souls,
living within an area about five-sixths as large as Texas,
has given a wonderful exhibition of the way in which science
and technology can be forced to do superhuman things
when superhuman demands are made.

First and foremost came a demand for explosives, and
that meant nitrogen in various forms of combination. With
ordinary sources of nitrates shut off, it was necessary to
convert inert nitrogen of the atmosphere into compounds
rich in energy, and it was done. With cotton excluded
from imports, substitutes had to be found; wood pulp had
to be used—and it was done successfully. Ammonia had
to be produced from atmospheric nitrogen, and the cyanamid
process solved the difficulty. Copper and zinc became
scarcer and scarcer, therefore other alloys and even paper
were substituted for them. Petroleum having been ex-
cluded from imports was replaced, in part at least, by sub-
stances obtained from the distillation of coal—a distillation
carried out, not with the ordinary beehive oven but with
byproduct ovens and others of improved constructions. It
is claimed that some coals have been subjected to treatments
whereby hydrocarbons become the principal products.
“Petrol” is as important to the modern army as food or am-
munition.

As the result of a carefully thought-out plan the first
blows struck by Germany were directed at the portion of
France and Belgium able to supply coal, iron and other raw
materials not found extensively in Germany, and a second
great offensive was directed at Mesopotomia in order to
open up a district from which foodstuffs might be obtained.

In England naval efficiency was found adequate to meet
the emergency as soon as it arose. The work of construct-
ing armies for oversea campaigns was no greater than that
required to produce supplies for both army and navy. In

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 157

a nation of individualists, more or less unused to team work
and the subservience of the individual to the organization,
results obtained at first proved to be very unsatisfactory ;
and it was only the persistent faith in their ability to ‘“‘mud-
dle through somehow” that enabled the British to with-
stand the severe shocks of repeated defeats inflicted by a
well organized, well supplied emeny. When the effort was
made to determine wherein the difference between England
and its enemies was to be found, it was not long until the
conclusion was reached that they would have to do after the
conflict began what Germany has completed before the war
started. The nationalization of industries under the direc-
tion of Lloyd George and the facility with which supplies
and men were brought from the colonies to England proved
to be the salvation of the country. Even with this, however,
it was soon recognized by the British themselves that some-
thing more than political acumen is necessary to meet the
new condition, as is shown by the following quotation from
a writer in the London Fiancial News.

“No unofficial war document thus far published can
compare in importance with the manifesto issued yesterday
on the subject of our national neglect of science. The sig-
natories include many of the foremost scientific names of
the day. The arguments are crushing in their conclusive-
ness. Best of all, if it is permissible so to speak, the mani-
festo is issued at a time when we are face to face with the
most lurid of object lessons. The bulk of our failures in
the war have been a consequence of our neglect of that
scientific energy, strenuousness and organization of which
the Germans make so much. We believe their achievements
in this field are exaggerated. At the same time, they are
far too obvious for us to remain undisturbed by them unless
we mean to resign our ancient place in the world.”

The signatories of the scientific manifesto point out
that our highest ministers of state are mostly ignorant of
the obvious facts and principles of “mechanics, chemistry,
physics, biology, geography, and geology’. It will be noted
that economics is not included, possibly because it is re-
garded as a department of biology. The same ignorance,

158 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

as the scientists say, runs through the public departments
of the civil service, and is nearly universal in the House of
Commons. Its existence has been demonstrated by the an-
nouncement, on the part of a member of the government,
that the possibility of making glycerine from lard was a
recent discovery. Doubtless some other minister will short-
ly allude to the law of gravitation or to spectrum analysis
as phenomena which have recently come within the cogni-
zance of the government. The remedy for this state of
affairs, in the opinion of the distinguished scientists, “‘is
a great change in the education which is administered to the
class from which public officials are drawn’. Science
should play a larger part in the civil servants’ examina-
ions, to the exclusion of Latin and Greek. “Eventually,
the Board of Trade would be replaced by a Ministry of
Science, Commerce and Industry, in full touch with the
scientific knowledge of the moment’. In those circum-
stances, the manifesto goes on to say, with an optimism
which is almost pathetic, “public opinion would compel the
inclusion of great scientific discoverers and inventors as
_a matter of course in the Privy Council and their occupa-
tion in the service of the state.” But if the Privy Council
is to be filled up with scientific discoveries, how are party
hacks and political schemers to be rewarded for their
sycophantic services where they can not afford to pay the
price for a knighthood or a peerage?

About the peremptory necessity of better scientific
organization on national lines there can be no two opinions.
It is not only a question of our prosperity, but of our ex-
istence. The law of the survival of the fittest works just
as inexorably among nations as it does among individuals.
We can be the fittest if we like. Unless we do like we shall
not survive. But if we are to tackle seriously this problem
of scientific reorganization, we shall have to scrap the
whole of our rotten and antiquated political machinery. The
scientific mind and temper can not possibly flourish in an
atmosphere of political trickery, nepotism and plunder such
as that which has surrounded us for the last few centuries.
For instance, what is the first characteristic of the true

1
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UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 159

scientific spirit? Surely, the desire to ascertain the whole
of the facts, and then to pass an unbiased judgment upon
them. The true scientist, secure of his data, will follow his
intellect whithersoever it leads him. But these principles
are reversed under the House of Commons. In what should
be the assemblage of the best national intellect there is no
place for intellect at all. No private member of the House
of Commons is allowed to pass an independent judgment on
facts, scientific or otherwise. Before the data are sub-
mitted to him he is told what his opinion must be. If he
can not quite make up his mind, he taps humbly at the door
of the whip’s office and is there told what he thinks. The
greatest of all scientific achievements is possibly the New-
tonian principle that every portion of matter attracts every
other portion of matter in the universe with a force pro-
portionate to the respective masses, and inversely as the
square of the distance. If, in normal times, the House of
Commons were ordered by the whips of the predominant
party to pass a resolution that Newton was wrong, and that
“every atom of matter in the universe repels every other
atom, conversely as the circle of the distance” (whatever
that may mean), the members would file into the division
lobby with their customary subservience. In normal poli-
tical circumstances the House of Commons will pass any-
thing, no matter how mischievous or ludicrous if it is
ordered so to do. When the national sovereignty is in the
hands of such an assemblage of unintellectual automatons
as that, he who anticipates legislative sympathy with
scientific achievement might with equal prospect of satis-
faction hope to taste green cheese from the moon.

Very much the same may be said of the civil servants.
All the highest posts are filled by private “influence”. They
go to the exprivate secretaries of ministers and to the sons,
sons-in-law, brothers-in-law, nephews, cousins and other
relatives of the men who are already “bosses” in the various
departments. Talent and distinction are boycotted. Sup-
pose the greatest of scientific discoverers—a Darwin or a
Wallace—to be in rivalry as candidate for a high position
in the civil service with some son-in-law of a minister or

160 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

“commissioner”. The scientist might as well retire from
the contest. The young ass would get the position and a few
thousands a year with it. If he were hopelessly unable to
discharge the duties, a competent deputy would be engaged
at the expense of the taxpayers. That system fills the
civil service with the offscourings of incapacity. Years
ago Sir Charles Trevelyan said:

“There is a general tendency to look to the public estab-
lishments as a means of securing a maintenance for young
men who have no chance of success in the open competition
of the legal, medical and mercantile professions—the dregs
of all other professions are attracted towards the public
service as to a secure asylum.”

Thanks to this wicked system, it was recently an-
nounced that no less than five masterships of the High
Court had been bestowed by “influence” on the sons of
judges, to the exclusion of hundreds of better-qualified men,
who, unfortunately, had not been fathered from the bench.
When the administration of justice is itself tainted with
nepotism, and when the dregs of every profession are ap-
pointed to the highest positions in the public service as a
result of private “influence”, we have a long way to go
before scientific achievement, no matter how distinguished
and beneficial, will count for much in this country.

There are, however, some encouraging signs. The
political truce is opening the eyes of the public to the stupi-
dity of allowing the British Empire to be run in the in-
terests of political schemers and lazy bureaucrats. Three
or four years ago it was a common belief that our insane
party system was an essential of effective government.
That delusion is gone forever. We are now beginning to
understand that an Empire is run on precisely the same
lines as a great business. The partners of a great com-
mercial undertaking would not tolerate the presence among
them of a man who, like a politician, announced his opposi-
tion to proposals before he knew what they were or who,
like a bureaucrat, was incessantly plotting for his own
hand and pocket against the interests of the partnership.
True science and politics are incompatible. They can not

_ UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 161

»xist together any more than the eagle and the squid can
share the same apartment. Science has at this moment
the most magnificient opportunity that has ever enjoyed of
seizing the steersmanship of human destiny. Every man
who wants to see his country great, progressive and pros-
perous, marching as a standard-bearer at the head of the
advancing legions of mankind, should back the scientist with
every ounce of energy that he possesses. If otherwise, he
wishes to see her mean, petty, retrogressive, squalid and
contemptible, let him support a return to our debasing party
strifes, with their concomitant triumph of the political
schemer and all the host of parasites whom he enriches out
of public money.”

And as indicating the increased respect with which
science ought to be treated a short quotation from NA-
TURE is also apropos:

“IT wonder whether other readers of Nature besides
myself caught the interference fringes from three facets of
this glittering subject in the issue of December? The first
was the Royal Society’s advertisement for applications for
grants for scientific investigations from the government
fund; the second, the editorial contrast between the rates
of pay for legal and for scientific services; and the third,
the anniversary address of the president of the Royal So-
ciety, containing the suggestion that science does not take
its place in the national organization because the general
public looks upon scientific investigations as a hobby.

What else can the general public do while men of
science, in dealing with one another, generally act upon the
principle that scientific investigation is is a hobby for which
facilities are required, not payment? The demonstration
afforded by the Government Grant Committee and the Com-
mittee of Recommendations of the British Association is
conclusive. The normal practise is for these committees to
be asked to supply a portion—rarely the whole—of the ex-
penses of some scientific investigation. The applicants in
reply to the advertisement will think it meritorious to offer
their brains and the time required to use them without ask-
ing for any payment. That is the true criterion of a hobby.

11

162 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

So great is the power of science to transform serious oc-
cupations into hobbies that even lawyers sometimes find
themselves astride and ambling with the rest.

In justification of the scientific societies, it may fairly
be said that they were intended for the riding of hobbies,
and everything in their constitution and practise conforms
with the eminently useful ideal. Scientific societies rely
very largely upon unpaid work and long may they continue
todo so. One of their chief attractions is that within their
precincts there is a respite from the wearing obligations of
debit and credit. One can not find the like about a law
court or a house of business, where as a rule those who are
paid most are treated with the highest respect.

It is the difference between hobby and business that
brings us to the parting of the ways. If the national
scientific effort is organized through the agency of societies
where all the best work, even by the officers, is done with-
out any regard to payment, we can not expect the public
to look upon science as a business into which pecuniary
considerations enter. It is, and must remain, a hobby.
If, on the other hand, there should be created a Privy Coun-
cil for Science, as Sir William Crookes suggests, there
would be at least a permanent staff to whom the idea of
paying for brains and time would not be fundamentally
repugnant as it must be to the officers of a society.

The idea of scientific investigation as a hobby does
not necessarily originate with the general public; it is in-
digenous in the older universities, where there are a large
number of college officials intellectually competent to un-
dertake researches, some of whom do and some do not. At
Cambridge in my time scientific investigation was the oc-
-cupation of the leisure men whose maintenance was provided
by the fees and emoluments of teaching. It was as mucha
hobby as chess or photography. There was no sense of
collective responsibility for providing the nation with an-
swers to its scientific questions. Scientific researches had
become an element of competition for rewards of various
kinds, and some “research students” were paid; but the
idea of “making a living” by scientific investigation never

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 163

reached the surface, though the merit acquired by research
might weigh in the appointment to a post of teaching or
administration. On the contrary, the early agitation for
the endowment of research was regarded as finally disposed
of by calling it the research of endowment, as though the
wish to be paid were conclusive evidence of insincerity.

The suggested council will have some difficulty in or-
ganizing adequately paid research. The endowed re-
searcher in the national interest must expect an occasional
audit of an imperious character, and his employers must see
their way to act upon it. With teaching the difficulty is
less. If the students of one year do not respond, the next
year may be more successful. It takes just about a life-
time to satisfy ourselves about our own weaknesses. The
responsibility is nicely divided; it is just as much the duty
of the students to learn as of the lecturer to teach, and
neither student nor teacher has the material for a considered
judgment upon the matter. That is why the “hobby” sys-
tem with occasional rewards for exceptional success, is so
popular. It can be worked best by letting things go their
own way.

The present state of things, which all agree in deplor-
ing, can be altered by drawing a clear distinction between a
society’s hobbies and the nation’s purposes, and entrusting
them to separate administrative management. Mr. Carne-
gie has made it clear that the financial detachment of a
voluntary society is not essential to the successful organ-
ization of scientific research”’’.

But what of America? First came the call for relief
work on account of deplorable conditions in Belgium and
other parts of Europe. The response was immediate and
the organization for collection and distribution of supplies
worked out well, in spite of almost innumerable obstacles.
Our inherent unwillingness to take up arms except when
all other means have failed, prevented our actually enter-
ing the conflict. With the passage of time, however,
there came the feeling that our nation must undertake to

164 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

put its house in order so that were the stern realities of war
to present themselves, we would be prepared, in a measure
at least, to meet them. With respect to military and naval
matters, both machinery and personnel, our public prints
have had much to say. Concerning financial and industrial
preparedness they have had less to say, perhaps because the
latter topics do not afford opportunities for spectacular
head lines to the same extent as do the former. But taught
by the example of warring Europe, President Wilson and
his co-workers called into existence the Naval Advisory
Board, made up of men who had already won their spurs
by scientific and technical achievements; this Board soon
recommended that there be established a national research
laboratory on such a scale that experiments, tests, and re-
searches might be carried out in all branches that had to
do with questions of national defense. As expressed by
them, they wanted to make their mistakes and rectify them
before hostilities began. Another far-reaching recommen-
dation was that their Board be enlarged by the addition of
representatives in each State from our greater engineering
and scientific societies. It is probable that in the near
future announcement will be made through the public press
as to the persons who have been selected as members of this
enlarged Board, and an outline of their duties will be pub-
lished. It will be seen, therefore, that scientist and tech-
nologist have already begun to receive recognition from the
military and naval branches of our government.

Object to it as we may, it is nevertheless true that
necessity is the mother of invention, and that the rigors of
war and of peace have forced quick solutions of problems
that otherwise might not have been solved. One hundred
years ago France, isolated by her enemies, offered a re-
ward for the best process for manufacturing soda, and
LeBlanc evolved his well known method. A score of years
ago one of the largest German chemical factories needed
fuming sulphuric acid so badly, in order that it might pro-
duce a synthetic dye stuff to take the place of one formerly
obtained from a certain plant, that it devoted, it is said,

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 165

more than a million dollars to experimentation before it was
rewarded with Knietsch’s contact method for producing
sulphur trioxide and sulphuric acid of any desired strength.
Similarly the inevitable exhaustion of Chili nitrate deposits
within a generation stimulated efforts to convert atmos-
pheric nitrogen into nitrates and ammonium compounds,
with the result that the problem was solved shortly before
the present conflict in Europe began. .

Our early American researches had to do chiefly with
utilitarian aims. Even astronomy was cultivated because
of its connection with navigation. Agricultural experimen-
tation, medical research and other branches of scientific
activity might be mentioned in illustration. In later years
the same trend is observable. Moissan’s epoch-making dis-
coveries in France with an electric furnace of small dimen-
sions were followed by the production of electrochemical
substances of great importance here in America. More
recently the formation of alloy steels, the utilization of
rarer metals, the preparation of plastics, etc. exemplify the
same thing.

Under present market conditions business men have
turned to the American chemist and manufacturer with
demands for certain products in quantities unheard of here-
tofore. The most notable instances, perhaps, are the calls
for potash and nitrogen fertilizers, and the amount of ac-
tivity among research men to produce these materials at
reasonable cost can be appreciated only by those who are
in touch with the situation. And very striking, too, are
the demands for coal tar products. Unfortunately those
who are clamoring loudest seem to think it possible for the
American scientist and engineer to create overnight and
in the face of all the difficulties involved in patent rulings
a complicated industry that has been developed in Germany
only through the concentrated work of scientists and manu-
facturers during the past two generations. Not only is it
necessary for us to change the method of distilling coal,
but there must be brought about such interdependence of
companies handling special products that co-operation will

166 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

take the place of competition; and this, too, in the face of
our laws concerning combinations in restraint of trade.
Heretofore we have gone largely upon the principle that
America was a place where raw materials could be pro-
duced cheaply and where we would make what we could not
buy. Now we see where such a policy would lead us, and
want to rectify our mistake by fostering all means leading
to economic independence. Our extreme individualism and
excessive competition must give way to a closer knit in-
dustrial organization where legitimate interdependence in
production and distribution is recognized and fostered.

The unreasonableness of many demands have been
hinted at above. ‘Make dyes and drugs at once!” There
has been overlooked entirely the fact that the chemical in-
dustry in Germany represents an investment of millions of
dollars, has taken years to grow, has hundreds of scientists
engaged in research work, and thousands more employed
in applying the discoveries of research men. With us it
means a change from the beehive to the byproduct and other
modern ovens, and from the manufacturing of coarse or
intermediate chemicals to what are known technically as
“fine” chemicals.

And with respect to patent difficulties—warring na-
tions may and do treat all codes and regulations as scraps
of paper, or subject to interpretation, according to the
needs of the moment, by an executive “order in council’,
but peaceful nations with high ideals cannot morally resort
to such expedients. Unquestionably changes in patent laws
are necessary, especially to break down the “dog in the man-
ger policy’, and to make actual operation of a patent in
this country a condition for holding the patent.

It will thus be seen that the present crisis has shown
our needs along certain lines, and as a result a call goes up
for help with none to help but scientists and technologists. It
is time for nationalization of industry and co-operation in
America. Trained economists with scientific and technical
skill are needed to anticipate wants and then provide for
them. On a large scale this is or will be done by the naval

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 167

Advisory Board—which will really be a governmental Ad-
visory Board—and on a small scale by the services of trained
observers, organizers and engineers, experts in various lines.
Our cousins across the waters have found the futility of
entrusting big enterprises solely to men of the lawyer—
capatalist—governmental class, and have come to rely large-
ly upon the advice of trained specialists. |The call comes
to us as scientists. Are we ready to meet it? That this
is no dream of a professional scientist, but is shared by
men who direct practical affairs is shown by our conclud-
ing paragraph, taken from an address delivered by Sec-
retary F. K. Lane, Department of the Interior, before one
of the sections of the Pan-American Scientific Congress
recently :

“T fancy that if Christopher Columbus is able at this
time to survey this world and see what is happening that
he is well pleased at his venturesome voyage. While the
nations of the world that he left have their knives at each
other’s throats the peoples of this new world have sent
their most learned men, their philosophers, their scientists,
inventors and engineers to talk with one another as to how
this new land may become wiser, richer and be made more
useful. This is surely a contrast. It is a condition for
which my knowledge of history offers no parallel.

There are times I know when nations who believe in
themselves must fight. But let us not delude ourselves
with the notion that civilization is the product of arms. The
only excuse for war is to secure peace, that men of thought,
resourcefulness and skill may have opportunity to make
themselves masters of the secrets of nature.

For the real battle of the centuries is not between men
or between nations or between races. The one fight, the
enduring contest, is between man and physical nature.

There is no denying the fact that we live in a world
that is hostile and secretive. It is organized to destroy
us if itcan. Our enemies have cunning and ferocity. We
have but to fold our arms and the beasts, the flies, the
rats, the mosquitoes and the vermin would make us their

168 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

easy prey. And if they could not win by force, they
would bring death by starvation. This world was made
for a fighting man and for none other. Softness is not to
be our portion, because nature knows no holiday. So man
must battle with nature that he may secure that physical
peace necessary to give his spirit a chance to show itself
in things of beauty and deeds of goodness.

And this is what we call civilization—this triumph
over the downpull of nature. We make her yield. We
master her secrets. With wooden club and stone axe, with
bow and arrow and with fire man mastered his wild en-
emies, and then with seed and water man mastered the
surface of the earth. The sea challenged him; and he dis-
covered the floating log, the paddle and then the sail, until
he made himself master also of the surface of the sea.
These things it took ages to do. Nature revealed nothing.
Man had to observe and reflect that he might discover or
invent. Was there ever such a discovery as that a planted
seed would sprout and yield? Or that the wind wonld
drive a hollowed log?

But these things happened long ago. And now we have
made not only the surface of the land and sea our own,
but their depths as well. The wind not only fills our sails,
but we master the air itself. We make our own lightning
and harness it to work for us, to push and to pull, to lift and
toturn. We have found the great secret that nature can be
made to fight nature. But we must fight with her for
our weapons. They are not handed to us; they are hid-
den from us. If man is to have dominion over this earth,
he is committed to an unending search. He must bore and
burrow, dig and blast, crush and refine, distill and mix,
burn and compress until he forces nature to yield her locked
and buried treasures.

Nature would have man isolated, but he triumphs over
her with billets of steel and threads of copper. He swings
a hammer and an engine is made that makes him neighbor
to the world. He whispers to a wire which shouts the
spoken word into space.

ss

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 169

Nature would have a limit to the soil’s supporting
strength, but man robs the air of its nitrogen and the rocks
of their phosphorus and potash to revivify the unwilling
earth.

Nature would have man the victim of insidious enemies
that stop or clog the human machine, but man distills from
the buried carbons agents that stay destruction for a time,
and now man has found a mineral which gives promise of
opening the way into a new world of mysterious restoration.

This is a glorious battle in which you are fighting—
the geologist who reads the hieroglyphs that nature has
written, the miner who is the Columbus of the world under-
ground, the engineer, the chemist, and the inventor who out
of curiosity plus courage, plus imagination, fashion the
swords of a triumphing civilization. Indeed it is hardly
too much to say that the extent of man’s domain and his
tenure of the earth rest with you.”

170 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

TENTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE UTAH
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Salt Lake City, Utah, April 6 and 7, 1917.
_ Room 21, Young Memorial Building, L. D.S. U.

Friday, April 6, 1917, 2 p. m.

“THE PRESSURE-WATT CHARACTERISTICS OF DRAWN
WIRE TUNGSTEN LAMPS”
By C. Arthur Smith, East High School, Salt Lake City

“THE VARIATION OF THE ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY OF
THIN METAL FILMS”...... By Dr. Orin Tugman, U. U.

“THE ANASTOMOSING OF ARTERIES AND VEINS IN A
Cat”. By Dr.Newton Miller and James 8.Godfrey, U.U.
(Paper read by the junior author).
“MODERN BIOLOGY AND
PREFORMATION”.......... By Dr. Newton Miller, U. U.

Friday, April 6, 1917, 8 p. m.

“THE WORLD WITHOUT SCIENCE” (Presidential
JOE Ca RR UL CRE By Dr. Frank S. Harris

“THE VALUE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN
FORESTRY’. ..By C. F. Korstian, Forest Service, Ogden

““AN ESSAY COMPARING MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF NORTH
CENTRAL EUROPE WITH RELATED SPECIES IN
NORTHERN UNITED STATES,”

By S. Moth Iversen, Salt Lake City

Saturday, April 7, 1917, 10 a. m.
“FREEZING TEMPERATURES IN FRUIT

1 S10) 1 SAAS) IN By Dr. Frank L. West, U. A. C.
“‘BEET MOLASSES AS A FEED FOR WEANLING
| gl C2 ASAD AI RSD CG By Dr. W. E. Carroll, U. A. C.

“WEATHER, SOIL, DISEASE AND QUALITY IN
POTATOES Pee haune By Dr. Geo. R. Hill, Jr., U. A. C.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 171

“FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEPTH OF PLANTING VARIOUS
HOR inh La ele! By Howard J. Maughan, U. A. C.

Saturday, April 7, 1917, 2 p. m.

“THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE
TREATMENT OF POTATOES” By Bert L. Richards, U. A. C.
(Presented by Dr. Geo. R. Hill, Jr., in the absence of the author).

“THE PRESENT SITUATION OF RABIES IN

MOAB A MRT WS ON sas soa e ia ye By Dr. L. L. Daines, U. U.
“THE TIME ELEMENT IN VOLUNTARY
RA as as bs ned ee ah witin'ns he By Dr. Geo. S. Snoddy, U. U.

“THE LIQUID SULPHUR DIOXIDE METHOD OF DETERMIN-
ING AROMATIC HYDROCARBON OILS’”’
By Thomas Joseph, U. U.

“THE DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF
RRO UT ES eats a cck os Weithy By Theodore Erickson, U. U.

172 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THE PRESSURE-WATT CHARACTERISTICS
OF DRAWN WIRE TUNGSTEN LAMPS.

By C. ARTHUR SMITH.

Perhaps no industry in the country ever had so phe-
nominal a growth as that of the incandescent lamp. Al-
though its history covers only the brief period of thirty-five
years, it has in that time been developed to such a high
state of perfection that it has practically crowded out
every competitor from the field of electric lighting. In
less than three years after the first incandescent lamp
made its appearance, the arc lamp industry began to show
signs of uneasiness, and scarcely five years had gone by
when the manufacturers of the arc lamp were forced to
improve their designs in order to hold their place in indoor
lighting.

The first incandescent lamp was of the carbon fila-
ment type, very fragile, of low efficiency as expressed in
watts per candle power, and of uncertain duration. For
nearly twenty years it was the only incandescent lamp on
the market. In 1899 the tantalum lamp was invented by
a German scientist and immediately entered the field as
a strong competitor because of its excellent illuminating
qualities and high efficiency. For atime it looked as though
it would displace the carbon lamp entirely, but within a year
from its introduction a new process of preparing the carbon
filament was discovered. The result of this discovery
brought forth what is known as the metallized carbon fila-
ment, and the carbon lamp henceforth became the Gem lamp.
Its durability was greatly increased, its efficiency was
raised to nearly that of the tantalum lamp, and the first
cost was considerably less as it was a cheaper lamp. It
thus continued to hold first place for indoor lighting un-
til the year 1908 which was one of supreme importance in
electric lighting industry. It marks the advent of the
tungsten lamp. This lamp immediately took first rank on
account of its excellent illuminating properties and high
efficiency, and this in spite of the fact that it was extremely

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES WE

fragile which rendered the renewal cost rather high. This
defect, however, was remedied by a discovery made in 1912
by the General Electric Company in which tungsten, one of
the most brittle metals, was rendered so ductile that it was
possible to draw it out into very fine wire, down even to
.001 of an inch in diameter. Thus, the second period in
the development of the tungsten lamp began under the new
name of the Drawn Wire Tungsten lamp.

The tantalum lamp ceased to exist almost immediately
after the appearance of the tungsten lamp in 1908, and the
drawn wire tungsten of 1912 practically eliminated the car-
bon lamp. The arc lamp was driven from the field of in-
door service by the Gem lamp so that since 1912 the tungsten
lamp has continued to enjoy a complete monopoly of indoor
electric lighting. The arc lamp held its place in outdoor
service until 1914, when the incandescent lamp engineer,
not content to rest from his labors until his lamp was made
serviceable for outdoor as well as indoor lighting, dis-
covered that a light bulb filled with an inert gas gave as
brilliant a light as the arc, and that without materially
affecting the efficiency or the life of the lamp. This is
known as the Mazda C or gas filled tungsten lamp, and
owing to the presence of the gas can be raised to a very
much higher temperature with scarcely an appreciable dis-
integration of the filament, thus giving a high degree of
illumination throughout as long or even longer life. This
fact enables the manufacturer to put out lamps up to any
desired candle power. The highest power lamp on the
market at the present time is the 1000 watt lamp, but
there is no reason why an even higher power lamp could not
be made if such were desired. Within the last year efforts
were made to produce this same type with a wattage suffi-
ciently low to be made practicable for ordinary service with
the result that a 75 and 100 watt lamp were placed on the
market and are beginning to attract attention already. The
arc lamp therefore having apparently reached the limit
of its possibilities is fast disappearing; and the time is un-
doubtedly near at hand when it will have become an his-
toric relic to be studied merely for the purpose of compari-

174 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

son. But the place occupied by the arc lamp in the past is
not to be minimized. As is always the case in pioneering,
things are usually done in a wasteful, more or less hap-
hazard, and, judged from more highly developed standards,
in a primitive style. So it was with the arc lamp, the
pioneer in electric lighting. For the first twenty-five years,
time, energy, and material were wasted so far as practical
results were concerned. But it is a significant fact that
almost immediately after the invention of the incandes-
cent lamp the failures were put to good account and a
really serviceable arc lamp arose out of the ruins of these
failures. From this time on it was a race between the
two types with the arc continuing to fall farther and farther
behind, notwithstanding the fact that its efficiency al-
ways was and is even yet considerably higher than any-
thing yet attained by the incandescent lamp. Its failure is
due among other things to the necessarily complicated
mechanism of its regulating device, to the necessity of fre-
quent attention in changing electrodes, cleaning, etc., and .
the lowering of illumination by deposits from the electrodes
on the surface of the globes.

This brief survey of electric lighting is given in order
to emphasize the lines along which development up to the
present time has progressed, which are efficiency, illumina-
tion, and durability. Tests are made by the manufacturers
with these factors constantly in mind, but since the lamps
are seldom used except for ordinary service they are not
usually carried much above the normal load.

It occurred to me that it might be interesting to carry
the test from voltages considerably below normal up to the
burnout point of the lamps in order to examine the illum-
inating characteristics through as wide a range as possible.
Therefore a large number of lamps both of the carbon and
tungsten types were tested from 80 volts up to the burnout
point (which was for carbon lamps from 200 to 220 volts
and for tungsten from 270 to 290 volts). In nearly all
cases the lamps tested were new. The primary object was
to determine the candle power and efficiency characteris-
tics through the entire range. The curves thus obtained

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 175

suggested certain non-uniform variations in these character-
istics in the region of high voltages. It was thought that
these variations might be traced back to more fundamental
relations, viz. pressure-watt characteristics. In order to
determine this, three lamps of the tungsten type were
selected and this characteristic studied. The lamps selected
were 25, 40 and 60 watt.

The curves in figure 1 show the volt ampere charac-
teristic of each lamp. It will be observed that the rate of
increase of the current diminishes slightly as the voltage
increases. The cause of this is revealed in fig. 2 showing
the relation between volts and resistance. The similarity
of the two sets of curves is evident with the exception of the
25 watt lamp. Here the rate of increase of resistance in-
creases slightly causing the curve to bend downward in-
stead of upward as in the curves of the other lamps. But
the greater slope of the resistance curves as compared with
that of the current curves indicates that the rate at which
the increasing resistance diminishes is less than that at
which the increasing current diminishes, and since by
Ohm’s law current is inversely proportional to resistance
it undergoes less variation than it otherwise would. This
has a direct bearing upon the power consumed since watts
equals volts times amperes, and explains at once why tung-
sten lamps consume less power at the same voltage than
carbon lamps whose resistance diminishes with increased
voltage.

The curves represented in fig. 3 are the pressure-watt
characteristics. They show a constantly increasing value
of power throughout the entire range. There are no ap-
parent anomalous characteristics either in these or in the
previous curves, therefore they should submit themselves
readily to rather simple mathematical treatment. By their
shape we recognizze them as belonging to the parabolic
family and hence may be represented by the equation
Pe RL Pk tA Si ok ny Se Naa YC Ul eats. rebelde (1)
where w is the watts, e the volts, and a and n physical
constants. By eliminating a we may solve for n which is
found to give an average value of 1.6 for all the lamps.

176 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Substituting this value for n and solving for a, we find
that its value depends upon the size of the lamps. This
was to have been expected since no two curves pass through
the same origin. For the 25 watt lamp it is .0102, the 40
watt, .0173, and the 60 watt .0231. These values are found
to be roughly proportional to the rated watts of the lamps.
A comparison between the observed and calculated values
of the watts shows a close agreement throughout the en-
tire range. This seems to confirm the uniform variation
indicated by the curves.

It would seem, therefore, that whatever the cause of
the anomalous characteristics in the candle power curves
for high voltages, it must be looked for elsewhere than in
the direct relation between volts and watts. If the pres-
sure-power relationship is uniform throughout the entire
range of voltage, as it seems to be, and the candle power
relationship is non-uniform, as it undoubtedly is, the true
cause must appear in some intermediate step resulting pro-
bably from a change in the properties, either physical or
chemical, of tungsten. Since drawn wire tungsten under-
goes certain mechanical and heat treatment in its prepara-
tion it may be that such changes take place in the region of
high temperatures even though no such changes have
been observed in the native metal.

TABLE I.
WATTS.

a = .0102 a= 01%3 a= O28
25 25cal. 40 40cal. 60 60cal.

Ohms
rls 40 60

Amperes
e 25 40 60

80 | .185 | .242 | .822 | 592 | 331 | 248 | 10.5 | 11.3 | 19.4 | 19.1 | 25.8 | 25.9
100 | .158 | .274 | .365 | 633 | 364 | 274 | 15.8 | 16.2 | 27.4 | 27.4 | 36.5 | 36.8
120 | .180 | .309 | .410 | 668 | 388 | 293 | 20.6 | 20.5 | 36.1 | 36.6 | 48.2 | 48.9
140 | .200 | .3839 | .450 | 700 | 413 | 311 | 28.0 | 28.1 | 47.5 | 46.9 | 62.9 | 62.9
160 | .220 | .364 |-.487 | 728 | 440 | 328 | 35.2 | 34.4 | 58.2 | 58.1 | 77.9 | 77.6
180 | .235 | .391 | .525 | 765 | 460 | 343 ; 42.3 | 41.4 | 70.4 | 70.3 | 94.5 | 94.0
200 | .255 | .415 | .555 | 785 | 483 | 361 | 50.1 | 49.5 | 83.0 | 83.0 |111.0 |111.1
220 | .267 | .489 | .585 | 824 | 502 | 376 | 58.6 | 57.0 | 95.5 | 96.5 [128.8 |128.9
240 | .280 | .461 | .617 | 850 | 520 | 389 | 68.1 | 65.5 |111.9 [111.2 |148.0 |148.1
260 | .292 | .480 | .645 | 890 | 540 { 412 | 76.0 | 74.6 [124.9 [126.5 |167.5 |169.0

|
280 | .298 | 495 | er 946 | 566 415*| 83.0 | 83.9 ‘eae 142.3 |176.0*|179.0*

n
* e= 270 volts. Wave hc w= watts, e=volts.
a and n = constants.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 177

THE VARIATION OF THE ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY
OF THIN METALLIC FILMS.

By ORIN TUGMAN.

(Abstract).

It is known that the electrical conductivity of a very
thin sheet of metal may change rapidly with time. Films
of metal, made by chemical deposition and by a cathode
discharge, show this change. Usually the conductivity
increases with age so that in a few hours after the film is
made its resistance has decreased to one half of its former
value.

This phenomenon has been explained by the emission
of occluded gases which when escaping allow the particles
of deposited metal to coalesce.

The experiment described in this abstract was done to
find the effect, if any, of violet light on the conductivity
of thin metal films. Silver films were made by chemical
deposition on glass. The Brashear formula using Rochelle
Salts to precipitate the metallic silver, was used.

In ordinary daylight the resistance of such films de-
creased, from the beginning the thin film showing a more
marked change than thick films. Under the light from
a quartz mercury lamp the resistance increased with the
first incidence of the illumination. If the film was taken
out of this light the resistance again began to decrease. A
film left in the light from the quartz lamp for several days
showed an increase of resistance to infinity. An examina-
tion of the film revealed a dark brown deposit on the glass
which was soluble in ammonium hydroxide. It is evident
that the silver becomes oxidized under the ultra violet light
and that the increase of resistance is due to this chemical
change.

These thin films are more readily oxidized under ultra
violet light than the surfaces of thick plates. A polished
plate was under this illumination for thirty-six hours and
showed no oxidation.

More extended experiments of this nature are in
progress.

12

178 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THE WORLD WITHOUT SCIENCE.
By F. S. HARRIS.

As people move about in the world performing their
several tasks with the aid of numerous mechanical devices
and surrounded by many conveniences and luxuries, they
are prone to look upon these conditions as having always
existed, when in reality the last century has seen more pro-
gress in scientific discovery than have all the previous
centuries of human history. It is only necessary to compare
conditions in the days of our great grandfathers with those
today to realize how very rapid has been the change. The
debt that mankind owes to science is made clear on com-
paring the possibilities of a civilization in the absence of
science with one assisted by the powerful agencies of modern
research.

It has been the practice of a certain class of persons
to undermine the teachings of science, thinking that they
were thereby staying the ravages of some hideous monster
and rendering a service to mankind. Thanks to the gradual
spread of learning, persons of that class are rapidly being
replaced by those who see in science nothing to be feared
but something to be fostered and developed. People are
finding that the sole aim of science is the discovery of
truth, and that no amount of suppression will prevent truth
from eventually being discovered. That scientific workers
often draw erroneous conclusions from available facts no
one can deny; but that they should be hindered in the pur-
suit of their investigations because of a few mistakes would
be to deny them the charity that is extended in every other
endeavor of mankind.

Science, unlike religion, has had to develop very slow-
ly. In religion, the revealed word has always been a guide
and has pointed the way; in science, every step has re-
quired long and tedious work. It required ages for man
to learn how to draw on nature for her hidden secrets. Old
habits of thinking had to be discarded and new methods of
work devised before noteworthy results could be obtained;

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 179

but with these difficulties overcome, advancement was
rapid.

Going back to the very dawn of history we find the
Egyptians possessed of considerable knowledge of the stars
and the seasons. They also understood the properties of
the triangle and used this knowledge in resurveying the
land that was flooded each year by the Nile.

There was no real development in science, however,
until the Greeks began their rather systematic observa-
tions of nature. Aristotle (384-322 B. C.) and his student
Theophrastus recorded many accurate observations from
their studies of animals, plants and rocks; but all the
science of the Greeks was so intermixed with speculation
and philosophizing that a great deal of error crept in. At
that time the methods of modern science were entirely un-
known, but the scope of the work was so broad that practi-
cally all the sciences now trace their origin to the time of
Aristotle.

Later, Alexandria became the center of the Greek
world; here all the learning of the time was centered.
Euclid, Hipparchus, and others collected data on astronomy,
geometry, trigonometry, optics, heat, and even anatomy.
The greatest work during this time was done at Syracuse
by Archimedes (287 B. C.) who created the science of
statics.

The Romans did little for science. Pliny (23-79 A. D.)
collected all the writings of those who had gone before,
but he contributed nothing new. His compilation, however,
did much to preserve the information that had been dis-
covered by earlier scholars.

During the middle ages practically nothing was done
in science. The people were so completely bound to authority
that original studies were almost unknown. Aristotle was
the universal authority on all branches of science. The
story is told of a heated discussion arising over the number
of teeth in the horse’s mouth. All the authorities were
searched and ponderous writings submitted on this question
that could have been so easily settled by simple observation.
The whole attitude of mind led to study of authorities who

180 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

had written on nature rather than to a study of nature
itself.

Science in the middle ages was fostered chiefly by the
Arabs who believed in the pseudo-sciences of astrology and
alchemy, but they did much to advance algebra and some
of the sciences. By the end of the 14th century astrology
reached the summit of its popularity. At this time every-
thing that happened on the earth was attributed to the
condition and position of the stars. Disease, weather, crop
growth, and even personal fortune or misfortune were
thought to be profoundly, if not completely, dependent on
heavenly bodies. Man was in no sense thought to be mas-
ter; he was considered to be merely a victim of the
stars.

Tradition, belief in authority, and superstitions of the
false sciences of astrology and alchemy long and successfully
resisted the advance of knowledge. Time-honored ideas,
nevertheless, received a rude shock at the hands of Coper-
nicus (1473) and by 1600, when Giordano Bruno was
burned at the stake, the germ of original investigation had
been planted. In the next century perhaps the greatest
revolution in thought that has occurred in all history swept
the western world. To this many factors contributed: the
genius of a few great men like Newton, Galileo, Harvey,
Kepler, Descartes, Bacon, and Leibnitz; the invention of
the telescope and the compound microscope; and the general
awakening of thought by the Renaissance.

Before Galileo, only two modern men of science are
conspicuous: Copernicus, who studied the movements of
heavenly bodies, and Vesalius (1514-1564) who overthrew
the authority of Galen and studied at first hand the organ-
ization of the human body. Not until the seventeenth cen-
tury did modern science gain a secure footing. In 1628
William Harvey, by adding experiment to observation,
demonstrated the circulation of the blood and created a
new physiology, and in 1687 Newton published his “Prin-
cipia” which established the science of mechanics. These
two contributions were so revolutionary that the earlier
ideas of physical and biological science were almost com-

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 181

pletely upset; and through them a foundation was laid on
which the structure of modern science could be reared.

In the eighteenth century the development of chemistry
by Lavoisier aided by Scheele, Priestly, and others gave to
scientists a new and powerful instrument for solving many
of the mysteries of nature. In the early part of the nine-
teenth century there was almost a complete change in
science. The old idea of the spontaneous origin of life
was given up; the methods by which plants and animals
feed and grow were discovered. Science was subdivided
with specialists working on each of its branches.

Then followed a popular interest in science which re-
sulted in the contribution of very much larger sums for
research than could previously be obtained. Before this
time the scientist was considered to be out of harmony
with the rest of mankind; he was forced to carry on most
of his investigations secretly. As the century advanced,
science gradually won a hearing. At first it was grudg-
ingly tolerated; later its more conservative teachings were
made a part of ordinary schooling, and toward the close
of the century it was given a place of equal rank with classi-
cal subjects in the college curriculum. Since the middle of
the century the practical service of science to mankind has
gradually become so well known that today scientific re-
search is considered to be as much a part of governmental
duty as any branch of the public service.

The wisdom of diverting public funds and private en-
dowments. to scientific research and instruction will be
more fully appreciated by a review of some of the con-
tributions of science to transportation, communication,
medicine, manufacturing, agriculture, household economy,
and other branches of human activity.

Probably in no practical phase of man’s life have the
discoveries of science yielded more far-reaching results
than in transportation. It is only necessary to compare the
old sailing vessel, the horse car, and the stage coach with
the modern steam ship, the electric trolley, the steam-
drawn train, the automobile, and the flying machine to
realize what the discoveries that made these improvements

182 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

possible have meant to civilization. It will be readily seen
that the activities of the modern world would be utterly im-
possible with the old methods of transportation. When
months were required to haul a wagon load of freight across
the continent, it is obvious that nothing but the most pre-
cious commodities could be thus conveyed.

The casual observer looking at an automobile does not
realize that it is made up of many complex parts, each one
of which probably required a number of stages of develop-
ment on the part of scientific workers before it was finally
completed. The electric current used in the spark, the
workings of the internal combustion engine, the mechanism
used in transmission, and the vulcanizing of rubber which
made pneumatic tires possible all demanded years of patient
work on the part of scientists.

Closely associated with transportation are the improved
methods of communication. Fast mails, the telegraph, the
telephone, and the wireless telegraph and telephone in-
dicate the service that science has rendered to the com-
munication of intelligence. At present only a few hours
are required to learn the happenings in all parts of the
world, while in the days before science discovered the uses
of steam and electricity, months were necessary to convey
news to the various parts of a country as large as the United
States. In the old days business had to be confined largely
to local transactions; today there is no geographical limit
to exchange. Formerly the people knew practically noth-
ing beyond local happenings; at present all feel themselves
to be parts of an immense world community.

Human health and well being have been so materially
aided by science that a return to the old conditions would
arouse a feeling of horror in all who realize the situation.
It has not been many centuries since practically all bodily
ailments were attributed to unfavorable stellar conditions
or to evil spirits. The disease was diagnosed by a study of
the stars rather than by an examination of the body.

The germ theory of disease had its origin as late as
1860 and was not thoroughly established until almost 1880.
Before this time medicine was simply groping in the dark.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 183

A few specific treatments were known, but many of these
were founded on false principles. The work of Pasteur
on the micro-organisms causing disease and the applica-
tion by Lister of the knowledge of these organisms in an-
tiseptic surgery have probably done more to overcome
human suffering than all previous discoveries.

The utter helplessness of man in blindly coping with
disease is realized when it is known that in Naples 300,000
people died in five months due to contagion, and in Con-
stantinople 10,000 people died in a single day. As late as
1867, 3.4 per cent of the women confined in hospitals died,
while today the mortality is only .08 of one per cent. Be-
fore the days of Pasteur and Lister about 41 per cent of
those having a limb amputated died, while today the per-
centage has been reduced to about 5. These are only a few of
the many illustrations that could be cited to show how
scientific discoveries have helped in the control of disease
and in the reduction of the death rate.

In manufacturing of every kind the discoveries of
chemistry and physics have wrought such changes that
scarcely any of the processes used by our grandparents
are in use today. The new is being replaced by the newer.
Electricity, taken from the waterfall and transmitted to
where it can be best utilized, now turns the wheels of
machinery once operated by hand. In the digging and
smelting of ore, in the making of iron and steel, and in the
converting of these into articles of commerce, all the pro-
cesses have been improved by discoveries of science. Simi-
lar improvements have been made in the textile industries;
in fact, every branch of manufacturing is now using
science as a basis in production. Through science many
luxuries that could formerly be enjoyed only by the rich
are now placed at the disposal of everyone.

Such household conveniences as electric lights, steam
heat, modern plumbing, and labor-saving machines have
added much to the comforts of home and have given the
housewife a greater opportunity to prepare herself for in-
telligent motherhood.

184 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

In agriculture, the oldest of the arts, the transfor-
mations due to science are scarcely less marked. From the
time of the ancient Greek, when farm practice was often
based on dogmatic traditions, to the present time when the
principles underlying agriculture are well understood, the
methods employed have changed radically. Practically all
of this change has come during the last century since
science has been used in solving the problems of the land.

Before 1840, when Liebig finally demonstrated the
methods by which plants obtain their food, soil management
was based on erroneous and wasteful ideas. Since that
time the advances in agriculture have been so rapid that
.volumes would be required to record the discoveries. Every
phase of farming has been improved until today one man
is able to produce as much as was formerly produced by
many. This means that the products of the farm can be
furnished at a more reasonable rate, and also that many
of those formerly required to produce the world’s supply of
farm products are now at liberty to engage in other pro-
ductive enterprises.

Probably sufficient has been said to show how all the
arts and industries of mankind have been profoundly in-
fluenced by the work of science. In brief, without the re-
sults of science we would find ourselves in isolated com-
munities, dependent on local production, with no adequate
means of transportation or communication, and subject to
the ravages of disease. We would be forced to content our-
selves with very few personal conveniences; and, worst of
all, our minds would be dominated largely by superstitious
ignorance regarding our surroundings. With the aid of
science man is able to become master of his environment;
he may harness the forces of nature and use them to ad-
vance his own welfare as well as to make the earth an
abiding place worthy of his God-given intelligence. Best
of all, he is enabled to obey that part of the first command
wherein he was given dominion over the earth and was
required to subdue it.

a

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 185

ANASTOMOSING OF ARTERIES AND VEINS
IN A CAT.

By NEWTON MILLER AND JAMES S. GODFREY.

In the spring of 1916 a number of cats were brought
into the Zoological laboratory for dissection. Among this
number was one which showed a very unusual degree of
anastomosing of arteries and veins.

A carmine starch mass was injected into one of the
carotids with the result that it passed over into the veins,
especially those of the hind legs and the posterior region
of the abdomen. Since starch grains do not pass through
the capillaries, it was evident that direct unions between
arteries and vein were present.

Examination showed one large connection between the
caudal artery and the common iliac vein, which caused the
filling of the post caval. In addition four others were
found in the branches of the internal iliacs; seven in the
branches of the femorals; three in the branches of the
iliolumbars; two in the adrenolumbars, and one in the in-
tercostals which filled the azygos vein. Also five others
were found in the branches of the right subclavian artery
and vein. This is a total of twenty three, besides there
were evidences of others which we were unable to locate.

186 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

VALUE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN FORESTRY.’
By C. F. KORSTIAN.

In Charge of Research, Intermountain District, U. S. Forest
Service, Ogden, Utah.

Scientific research may be defined as the experimental
observational method of diligently searching after natural
facts and principles instead of relying on the answers
secured by imagination or through deductive reasoning
from assumed premises. In other words research implies
the application of the senses and reasoning powers with
which nature has endowed man, in finding out all he can
concerning the vast world and universe about him. Man
never can be perfectly sure that he has found out all about
them until he is able to control them, which, you will say,
is physically impossible. The principle of research, as the
only foundation of all knowledge, has hardly yet thorough-
ly penetrated the thick walls of academic dogmatism and
a false conceit of knowledge. Research means progress
which denotes the replacing of the old by the new.

It seems superfluous to speak of the value of research
in general before so academic an audience. Consequently
your attention will be directed primarly to the value of
research in forestry and incidentally to some of our pro-
blems in forest research. Forestry is defined as the science
and art of managing forests in continuity for forest pur-
poses, i. e., for wood products and forest influences.

The economic and industrial development of the United
States is of comparatively recent date. The abundance
of many of the natural resources of the country have here-
tofore made the consideration of their exhaustion a subject
of little public interest. The increasing rapidity with which
the natural resources of the nation have approached a
state of depletion in the more populous and better indus-
trially developed parts of the United States has recently
emphasized the need of the utmost foresight in their con-
servation. In recognition of this need the Federal Govern-

1Read before the Utah Academy of Sciences, April 6, 1917. Published
by permission of the Secretary of Agriculture.

ee

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 187

ment of the United States in 1891 made radical changes
in the public land policy through providing for the estab-
lishment of national forests from the timbered portions of
the then unappropriated public domain. The total area
of the national forests now approximates 155 million acres,
while state and communal forests aggregate approximately
four million acres. The standing timber on the national
forests alone is valued at nearly 600 million dollars. The
merchantable standing timber in the United States, ex-
clusive of Alaska, amounts to around 2,800 billion board
feet.

One of the most interesting and far-reaching move-
ments in conservation in the United States has been the
nation-wide movement toward the public ownership of
forest property, especially potential forest land. The direct
value of the forest which accrues to the public at large
makes the practice of forestry economically possible by the
public before it becomes practicable for the private indi-
vidual. Since forestry in the United States originated in a
general educational propaganda any great constructive
movement in forest conservation cannot be a success in this
republic without its being solidly supported by public opin-
ion. *Toumey believes that public opinion will continue to
grow in this country until ultimately at least 50 per cent of
the strictly non-agricultural lands capable of producing
forest crops are publicly owned.

At this time when the United States is all but in the
throes of actual warfare, the speaker cannot refrain from
digressing from the main theme for a moment in order to
utter a word regarding the proper place of the scientist and
the forester in the national preparedness campagin which
is now being conducted. Preparedness signifies, not only
the optimum military and naval forces necessary for re-
pelling the enemy, but also the ability of a nation quickly
to adapt itself to the rapidly changing conditions wrought
by war and to render available the latent resources of the
Nation in the shortest period of time. Major Ahern, a
soldier and a forester, in a discussion of the preparedness

2Toumey, J. W., The Interdependence of Forest Conservation and For-
estry Education. Science, N. S. 44; 327-337, 1916.

188 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

question recently informed the speaker that, in his opinion,
foresters could render more efficient service to their coun-
try through the moblization of the forest resources of the
Nation than if they took their places with their regiments
in the front line of battle. It is the firm conviction of the
speaker that the organization and development of the latent
national resources should likewise demand the attention of
scientists as much or even more than the actual prepara-
tion of war equipment and participation in battle.

Forestry education fosters the forest policies of the
Nation, determines the methods of forestry practice and
therefore should advance simultaneously with forest re-
search. Without one the other would be impossible. The
remarkable increase in agricultural research and conse-
quently agricultural education in the United States during
the past fifty years has profoundly influenced the pro-
duction of agricultural products. The enormous sums
spent annually by the Federal Government and the States in
the promotion of agricultural research are returned a hun-
dredfold through increased and diversified production.
Needless to say, all are familiar with the excellent work
which is being done by the large number of agricultural
colleges and experiment stations and will agree that they are
living testimony to the public belief that the success of
agricultural pursuits depends primarily upon the results of
research which actually control agricultural development
and advancement. The forest schools and forest experi-
ment stations are fully as essential in the application of
rational forest conservation as the agricultural colleges and
experiment stations are essential in agricultural conserva-
tion. They are necessary if the practice of forestry is to
remain an integral part of the national development of our
natural resources and the future growth and exploitation
of forest crops are to remain commensurate with the de-
mands of the Nation for all time to come.

Graves has shown that, while it is true that forestry
as an art and an applied science utilizes the results of re-
search in the natural and engineering sciences and while it

3Graves, Henry S. The Place of Forestry among Natural Sciences
Report of Smithsonian Institution for 1915, pp. 257-269.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 189

is also true that the forester’s activities, especially during
the pioneer period of establishing forestry practice, may be
largely administrative in character, there is nevertheless
a fundamental forestry science which has a _ distinctive
place among the other natural sciences. The science of
forestry gains its distinction partially through its correla-
tion of parts of many of the other sciences, such as botany,
physics, chemistry, mathematics, engineering, entomology,
zoology, and geology, but more specially through the re-
sultant science—forestry—which depends upon an intimate
knowledge of the life of the forest as such and the discovery
of the natural laws governing its growth and development.

In forestry, as a natural science, we deal with the
forest as a community in which the individual trees in-
fluence each other and also influence the community as
an organic entity. The life history of the forest varies
with the individual species entering into its composition,
the density of the stand, the manner in which the trees of
different ages are grouped, the climatic and soil factors
which influence the vigor, growth and development of the
individual trees. By abuse the forest may be greatly in-
jured and as a living biological community, it may even be
completely destroyed. The forest responds promptly to
care, protection, and improved methods of treatment and
by skillful management it may be made to produce a very
high quality of products in greater amounts and in a
shorter time than if nature were left to take her own
course.

In forestry, as in other pursuits, the practice depends
upon the science and logically should follow rather than pre-
cede. Scientific work in forestry can only develop grad-
ually since the life of a single individual tree may extend
over an average of six or seven generations of man.

Forest research in its development in every country
must pass through a series of evolutionary stages, which,
although not always sharply defined, may be grouped as
follows:

1. The observational stage; when very little is known
of the forest. The observations are generally made in con-

190 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

nection with other preliminary organization work such as
a reconnaissance of the forest resources.

2. The investigational stage; when there is informa-
tion available as to the species most in need of being stud-
ied and an actual need is felt for the results of special
studies, although they are still intensely practical and de-
signed so that the results will be available at once and of
immediate application.

3. The scientific research and experiment station
stage; when the character and extent of the forest re-
sources are known and many of the real forest problems
have become apparent. Efforts are made through the use
of delicate instruments to secure fundamental scientific
knowledge by which the biological laws governing the for-
ests may be better understood.

Forest research in the United States has just recently
reached the third stage of its development. It will become
more and more stablized through the recently created
Branch of Research of the U. S. Forest Service, which is
co-ordinate with the administrative branches of the Service,
and the Committee of the Society of American Foresters
appointed to co-ordinate and correlate all forest investiga-
tions conducted in the United States and Canada.

With this rather brief discussion of research as a neces-
sary adjunct to the actual practice of forestry your atten-
tion will now be directed to some of the present problems
of forestry practice which will be solved through forest
research. The fundamental problems which underlie a
large number of the smaller practical problems of nation-
al forest management may be grouped as follows:

1. Studies of the life histories of forest trees, which
are similar to studies of the life histories of animals, insects,
and fungi, and form the basis for the silvicultural manage-
ment of the forests. These studies also embrace the study
of the biological characteristics of tree seed, i. e., the source
of seed and its viability, the relation of seed to climatic and
physical factors, and its physiological characteristics such
as its capacity for delayed germination, which are funda-
mental to the regeneration of our forests, whether by arti-

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 191

ficial reforestation or through natural reproduction. If
the life histories of our forest trees were thoroughly known,
many of the methods of handling our forests would have
been determined.

2. Studies of the relation of tree life to the physical
and climatic factors of the habitat which go into the basic
causes of the biological characteristics of forest trees,
Studies of the relation of light, climate and soil to tree
growth are now under way.

3. Volume, growth and yield studies of individual trees
and stands, which embrace the laws of the growth of in-
dividual trees and stands. This field of investigation has
been barely entered. There is a great opportunity for
developing basic principles which will simplify the methods
of the regulation and management of our forests.

4. The ecology of virgin forests, which includes a
study of the relation between forest types or associations
and their physical conditions of growth. This group is
really an extension of the studies of life histories of in-
dividual trees to entire stands. When further progress
has been made these studies should furnish a solid basis for
the silvicultural management of our different forest types.

5. Studies of ecological succession on cut-over, burned-
over, and culled forest areas. Studies of what actually
takes place after a virgin forest is cut-over, or burned un-
der the prevailing climatic and physical conditions of the
region afford the best opportunities for establishing definite
relations between a method of cutting and natural repro-
duction. Such studies also provide a basis for the rational
determination of the suitability of the site for artificial
reforestation and the species to be used.

6. Studies of the organic and climatic enemies of
forest trees. The study of the organisms which injure
forest trees is really a field for the forest pathologist,
forest entomologist, and forest zoologist, while the study of
the effects of snow, hail, wind, sun-scald, lightning and
other climatic factors upon trees properly belongs to the
forester.

192 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

7. Studies of forest influences, including the relation
of forests and other vegetative cover to run-off, erosion
and streamflow, the relation of forests to the climate of
the region in which they are located and the regions lying
to the leeward of the forests, and the effect of the forest
cover upon the physical condition of the soil. These
studies are basic to studies of the economic value of the
forest.

8. Studies in forest economics. Data are now being
compiled which show the monetary value of watershed
protection to irrigation and agricultural lands dependent
upon irrigation waters, to water power and to navigation.
It is estimated that the service which the national forests
perform in the conservation of water for irrigation alone
amounts to $2,500,000 annually. Another important study
is that of the effects of destructive cutting, which is typical
of the private ownership of timber lands in important
lumber producing regions, upon the economic and sociologi-
cal welfare of the region. A study of the disposition of
State timberlands and other natural resources by the State
governments is in progress, the objects of which are to show
(1) the prevailing policy of the States with reference to the
disposition of such resources and the purpose of their use,
(2) the efficiency of the State administration of the con-
servation policy with reference to forest resources; and
(3) the general results of the State ownership of forest
resources from the standpoint of the Nation as an entity.

9. Studies in forest fire protection, which have as
their objects the development of a more scientific basis for
rating forest fire hazard and liability, the determination
of the relation of meteorological conditions to fire hazard
and fire protection, the working out of the principles under-
lying fire protection, the determination of the basic prin-
ciples of assessing forest fire damage and the relative
damage in different types of forest under varying condi-
tions. Fire protection studies are of fundamental impor-
tance to the adequate protection of the national forests from
fire and in the efficient administration of them.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 193

10. Forest products investigations, which include
studies of the mechanical, physical and chemical properties
of wood, wood preservation, pulp and paper-making, kiln-
drying, seasoning, wood distillation, industrial statistics of
the production, consumption and prices of forest products,
mill-scale and depreciation studies. A comprehensive study
of the lumber industry is being conducted by the Forest
Service in co-operation with the Bureau of Foreign and
Domestic Commerce and the Federal Trade Commission
which aims to analyze in a constructive way the conditions
in the leading forest-using industry of the United States,
and to show their influence on the stability and advance-
ment of the industry and on the conservation of the forest
resources of the Nation. Other studies deal with the tech-
nical phases of utilization and marketing and the re-
placement of wood by other materials.

11. Range investigations, which include studies of the
carrying capacity of the national forest ranges, the natural
and artificial reseeding of the range, improved methods of
handling stock, methods of developing stock-watering
places, eradication of poisonous and unpalatable plants from
the range, the effect of grazing upon forest reproduction,
the relation of grazing to erosion, streamflow and forest
fires. This group of studies is especially important in
the Intermountain Region where national forest range
management is perhaps more important than in almost any
other region.

The Federal Government naturally assumes the leader-
ship in forest research in the United States through the
Forest Service. Out of a total annual appropriation of
approximately $5,700,000, close to $375,000 are expended
for research work in the groups just mentioned. This
expenditure is admittedly necessary in order to lay the
foundations for the practice of forestry, both on the
national forests and elsewhere, for an increase in the
productiveness of the forest resources, and for the econom-
ical use of forest products. A well-equipped Forest Pro-
ducts Laboratory is maintained by the Forest Service in
co-operation with the University of Wisconsin at Madison,

13

194 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Wisconsin, where the majority of the research in forest pro-
ducts is conducted. 'The main purpose of the Laboratory is
to promote economy and efficiency in the utilization of
wood and in the processes by which forest materials are
converted into commercial products. The Forest Service
now maintains eight forest experiment stations each in
a different forest region, one of which is located on the
Manti National Forest in central Utah. At these stations,
the Forest Service studies the biology of the forest trees, the
relation of tree life to the environment, the ecology of virgin
forests, ecological succession, forest protection, forest in-
fluences and the more highly scientific range investigations.
Such really scientific problems as the effect of the forest
upon the climatic factors, i. e., the temperature of the air,
wind, soil moisture and humidity of the air, are being
studied by means of frequent and thorough instrumental
observations. The long-time studies of the effect of the
source of seed upon the resulting trees and the physiological
characteristics of forest tree seeds are also centered at or
near the forest experiment station.

Time has not permitted the entering into any amount
of detail in connection with the discussion of any of the
above-mentioned lines of investigation, all of which are
being pursued by the Federal Forest Service as aggressively
as funds will permit. No attempt has been made at this
time to present the actual results of the researches of the
Forest Service, which may be secured in the detail desired
by consulting the numerous publications of the Forest Ser-
vice and the annual reports of the Forester. With this
general survey of forest conservation, forestry as a natural
science, and the more important problems of forest research
confronting the Forest Service, it can be seen that the
monetary value of scientific research in forestry is en-
ormous indeed, that forest research in the United States is
still in its infancy, and that, as one of the youngest branches
of scientific research, it has a Herculean task before it.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 195

MODERN BIOLOGY AND PREFORMATION.
By NEWTON MILLER.

The Greeks as early as the 6th century B. C. were
meditating on the origin of animals and their methods of
propagation. Thus in the literature of this people we
are told that fishes are produced spontaneously; that eels
take their origin in the slime of the sea shore where air,
light, water and earth meet in a creative matrix; even
Aristotle taught that caterpillars were generated from
green leaves.

Near the end of the Greek period the Christian re-
ligion became widely accepted and people looked more and
more to the Scriptures for trustworthy information. And
the book of Genesis told them of special creation. So the
matter rested securely for sixteen centuries upon the de
novo origin according to the Greeks and upon the teaching
of Genesis.

But this should not always be. An innocent little ex-
periment by Redi disproving the spontaneous origin of flies
started a long series of experiments involving the work
of Helmholz, Tyndall, Schleider and Schwann, Schroeder
and Dursch, Postem and Kent, which have demonstrated
conclusively that spontaneous origin of life does not exist.
In the words of Harvey “Only life from an egg.” Thus the
Greek conception was eventually overthrown.

Harvey, whom I just mentioned, was asserting that life
takes its origin in an egg. What is an egg? Some believed
the egg to contain all that is essential to life and it only
needed the male element to cause it to unfold. Others con-
sidered the egg only suitable medium in which the contri-
bution from the male can develop. Among the Ovoists
sprang up a school of preformationists headed by such men
as Spallanzini, Haller and Buffon. They taught that the
egg contained a chick, this chick an egg with a miniature
chick in it, and this another egg and chick, etc. A Chinese
box affair. This is a special creation to a nicety, and why
not?

196 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Casper Wolff was not so easily convinced, and by 1759
he was able to demonstrate that the chick was not pre-
formed in the egg; that its parts were added in the course
of development. This work was verified by other embry-
ologists and the theory of preformation seemed forever
knocked into a cocked hat.

But not so. Yet it required more than a century to
revive. In this time the cell had been discovered and its
importance realized in part. A closer study of the cell re-
vealed a nucleus and the nucleus chromosomes. Direct
observation and experiments have shown these chromosomes
to play an important role in heredity.

Weismann made these the basis for his theory and on
paper he formulated a most intricate super structure which
he insisted must exist in a mature form in the chromosomes.
His biophores and determinants, ids and idants were all
there in the egg ready to direct the development of the in-
dividual from the fertilized egg to maturity. But these
ids, idants, chromosomes, etc. are contributions from similar
structures in the parents; those chromosomes of the parents
from those of the grandparents, and so on ad infinitum. It is
true Weismann never advocated that a chick lay preformed
in the egg, yet his theory certainly smacks strongly of
preformation.

And now the most recent experimental evidence is in
a measure supporting Weismann’s theory. T. H. Morgan
and his students are at work mapping out the characters in
the chromosomes, or more accurately the factors for
characters. A glimpse at the chart will make this clear.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 197

ne Sepia.

25.0 Pink and Peach.
40.0 Kidney.

55.0 Ebony and Sooty.
73.0) == Beaded.
95.0 Rough.

The bar is the Chromosome. To the right are indicated the factors
for color and structural characters. The figures to the left show the
relative distances the factors are apart.

198 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

The figure here shown is one of the four chromosomes
of a ripe ovum of the fruit fly, Drosophila ampelophila.

If the figure is a faithful chart of a chromosome then
much can be read into it in the light of a large amount of
data which has accumulated in the last ten or twelve years.
First, the chromosome is a product (an offspring) of the
chromosomes of the parent. Second, the factors for charac-
ter are contributed by the father and mother, and lastly,
the factors are definitely spaced in definite chromosomes.
Thus the offspring is a composite of the parental character-
istics and therein is the modernized conception of prefor-
mation.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 199

AN ESSAY COMPARING SOME MAMMALS AND
BIRDS OF NORTH CENTRAL EUROPE WITH RE-
LATED SPECIES NATIVE IN NORTHERN
UNITED STATES.

By L. MOTH IVERSEN.

In drawing a comparison between animals of one con-
tinent with related species of another, it may not be out
of the way to include our neighbors (or, if you please,
servants) of zoologic standing, usually termed our domestic
animals. Briefly, I would state that dog, horse, ox, sheep,
hog and cat appear unchanged in character and otherwise,
even if their treatment and mode of living have under-
gone changes (more particularly in our Western States).
This might be said of fowls, ducks, geese, also. In horses,
for example, you may find just the same individual dif-
ferences of behavior, etc., as in Europe and that although
many of them in early life had the freedom of the range
in the wild and woolly West.

Passing on to game mammals, the European wolf is
perhaps a counterpart of our timber-wolf; while coyote
holds more of a peculiarly fox nature, barring the howling
voice and gregarious habit. Thus the writer has noticed the
latter, single, on one occasion, moving for miles in a manner
distinctly reminding him of a fox on its nightly hunt, stop-
ping frequently and sniffing the air with nose high. Here
it may be added that among wolves, as well as bears,
cases are described where individuals have behaved in a
quite exceptional manner, as witness: “Le loup de Gevau-
dan” in the time of Louis XIII. of France—a terror of
that mountain country—once driven off and defeated by a
few young children, without firearms, even after having
seized their baby brother who was saved. (Asa rule, both
wolf and badger possibly may be regarded a little more in-
dependent in their ways there than here.)

Of foxes, I am inclined to think less is seen here.
Lynxes are usually more retiring in Europe than here.
Otter, mink and beaver show little difference; ermine none;

200 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

skunk—you know—is strictly American. Our numerous
species of squirrel, ground-dog, marmot, gopher and sper-
mophile naturally cut a much greater figure in the land-
scape than the few corresponding Northwestern Europe-
ans. Wild rabbits seem to show less fear in Western United
States: on occasion one met on a narrow spit of land on
the eastern coast of the Baltic sea jumped into the water
to escape an unarmed man.

The migratory rat which swam the Volga river as an
invading army in 1728 (?), and which reached Salt Lake
City about 1906 (?), shows according to my observation
considerable change. While all the specimens I have seen
here have been undersized (and poorly fed), very large ones
were often seen in Denmark showing little fear either of
man, dog or fox, let alone cat—unless the latter be of un-
usual size and strength. Our pack-rat I cannot speak of
from personal experience. One of our small bats is re-
markably courageous when cornered, biting savagely.

Whale and seal in many species belong to both sides
of the Atlantic ocean.

Ruminants of certain families, forty to sixty years
ago, were still lording it in hundred thousands west of the
Missouri-Mississippi; and now bison and elk have, practi-
cally speaking, been sent to the “happy hunting grounds”
(those in Jackson Hole and Yellowstone excepted), with
antelope following suit. In 1880 there still were herds of
the latter counting thousands in Wyoming. The same
fate has befallen the European bison outside of the very
large Bialowicz forest in Lithuania where some sixteen
hundred were still protected by the Czar about twenty-five
years ago. The World War in 1915 deprived him of this
forest (and in 1917 of his throne), so the number of the im-
perial game is not likely to be much greater to-day than
that of our national game in Yellowstone National Park.

Of rapacious birds, eagle, falcon, hawk, buzzard and
kite exhibit much the same features of character, but
American species of hawks are numerous and some show
more courage and self-confidence than Europeans do to-
wards man, for which they are often very poorly rewarded.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 201

For instance, a beautiful squirrel-hawk, more than two feet
long, took his last earthly rest in a tall popular on M street
in this city, about twenty or twenty-five years ago, because
before it could be prevented an ardent huntsman brought
the stately bird down with his gun. Owls are frequently
objects of unqualified hatred, entirely unwarranted.

Four species of owls were observed by me in Denmark
and as many in Utah. Of these half at least can be recom-
mended for admission by St. Peter as useful, unrightfully
persecuted, birds. The wonderful Speopyto (the “burrowing”
owl), I can truthfully say holds a record, for in any coun-
try and at any time I found no creature of more prepos-
sessing manner, or sympathetic demeanor, than this useful
and innocent, childlike soul—the sweetest of all Americans.
I have in mind one brought home from the foot-hills by my
little son in about:1895. (It was killed next day by a half-
witted boy with a flipper). Six or more may often be seen
on top of their burrow, apparently enjoying the view of
hill or valley. The Danish species, which this mostly
reminds of, is Minerva’s owl which nests in village churches,
and whose antics on a straw-thatched cottage-roof in bright
sunshine I watched thru a field-glass in 1875 from a house
about fifteen rods distant. This was in northern Jutland;
and the entertainment afforded by these three or four
owlets, flapping their wings and gleefully playing, will al-
ways remain with me.

Both species are consequently diurnal and contrast
with such as the common night or wood owl and many
others. The night owl is in my opinion the bird of most
peculiar language, as the female will be heard flying with
her howling mate to utter her distinct “gy e’ep” following
his ‘‘oo-hoo’’.

Another interesting comparison can be drawn between
the great uhu of the Germans, now scarcely found in Den-
mark, and the large horned owl of United States. The
first is sixty-three to seventy-seven centimeters in length
while the latter is perhaps sixty centimeters. Both are
redoubtable birds, and the former is both larger, stronger
and possessed of a more distinguished (almost awe-inspir-

202 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ing) bearing. In May, 1870, driving through a big forest
in southern Zealand, our company stopped the team to ad-
mire a splendid mountain-ow] on one of the lowest limbs of
a big beech tree. A young count left the conveyance and
threw a small rock at the bird which, however, did
not even change his position—never stirred. I told him to
leave it alone when he manifested a desire to obtain some
expression from it. Impressed by its dignity, we all kept
our eyes riveted on the majestic creature facing us as if
commanding or granting a favor.

The turkey-buzzard stands without comparison as
there are no vultures in northern Europe and I had no op-
portunity of observation in other parts of the continent.

Choosing some waders and web-footed birds, we may
examine such related species as the two coots, the European
and American, which are quite different in markings;
storks, no species of which is native of North America;
herons, cranes, pelicans and swans and hell-divers. The
last named are quite different species in the two continents
but present corresponding features. The crane is found
in some parts of northern Europe but, like the pelican, not
breeding in Denmark. One must go to southeastern Europe
to find the pelican which is of different species from those
of America, but like the one we are familiar with in Utah,
migratory and, as all species, a powerful flier. Its mode
of life, that is in flying, swimming, feeding, etc., is much
the same as those of America. Sometimes the north
African heron is seen in southern Europe. Coots have
large families, making quite a feature; sometimes as many
as twelve young may be seen swimming with their mother.
They are not molested here nor there.

Touching upon such as I have known individually,
the white stork stands out conspicuously with the mute
swan as a character bird. The nests of both birds abound
in the northern part of my native island, Zealand; there-
fore, I can truthfully say that the same pair of birds, either
stork or swan, will return year after year or rather al-
ways to the same nest. In fact, because of their size and
strength and familiarity, or acquaintance, with the human

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 203

population, a census could be taken of them without great
difficulty in many localities. Their residence is estab-
lished. Because of the storks’ color, they are easily noted
in or near their nests either on thatched roofs of houses or
barns or in large stunted trees near houses. Apropos of
the thatched roof so commonly connected with the stork
nest, I will say that I have seen the home of the bird built
on tiled roofs in a number of cases in one city (Horsens,
Denmark) of my acquaintance. A pair of young swans
returning to the home nest and finding it occupied will
occasionally take up abode on a very undeserving pond in
order to maintain and secure sole occupancy of the locality.

The white stork is and has been for centuries the ever
welcome associate of Danes, Dutch, Germans, Poles and a
few other nations, who consider it sacred in the sense of
protecting and loving it and according it the respect due
a decent neighbor. A similar friendship is extended to the
mute swan which is given the right-of-way on any pond or
lake it may choose for a summer home, whether tame or
wild. In my native country it is a thing unknown to lift
a gun at a white stork, and I have never heard of a mute
swan’s being killed; but a different attitude is taken to-
wards the singing swan, it being hunted like any game in
proper season. Once in the month of August I saw thirty-
nine white storks standing together, the largest number
personally seen at one time. The largest number of mute
swan seen together at one time flying was eight (in the
month of May) when the writer was driving past a lake
upon which the birds undoubtedly had no home as it was
devoid of islets.

Different is the story of the black stork. It never
voluntarily comes near man. Its home is in tall, old for-
ests, far from human abodes. This bird is a fisherman,
and I have seen it applying its art in Jutland, alone, but
not far from our boat. I have never heard of its being
hunted, maybe because it is not particularly palatable as
a food. Fish eaters are seldom tasty.

As previously stated, the singing swan does not enjoy
the peace and love accorded his brother, the mute swan.

204 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

A winter guest on the sea coast, he is an easy prey in fog,
blizzard or wind to the vandal hunter. Here it might be
stated to bear out the evil tale which the bird would tell
of experience because of his unprotected exsistence, I
have seen a person known to be a poacher walk through
the open streets of a town (Holbek) proudly carrying a
beautiful specimen which he had shot, flung over his shoul-
der.

On inland lakes, also, the beautiful and attractive
greater diver, podiceps is seen, behaving like a coot and an
excellent mother. The corresponding species, hell-diver,
I have seen both on Lake Michigan and Utah Lake, but
not with families.

The whooping crane, whose European cousin is the
grey crane (Grus cinerea) and celebrated for its dancing
performances, ought to be protected by us, in my opinion,
for its great beauty in the landscape. To a smaller extent
I feel the same for the American white pelican.

There are numerous items of interest which time will
not allow me to bring out to-night, such as nest-building,
parasitic birds—the cuckoo (C. canorus) and cowbird, as
well as others, and immigrants or imported as the “English”
sparrow, which, by-the-way, seems more intelligent here
than in Europe, although I have heard that in England it
truly sings.

In conclusion, therefore, I dare say that even a centen-
arian who had taken an active interest in animals (furry
or feathered) would, if privileged to live in health an
additional century, be convinced that new phases of animal
life could be found and observed and old questions more
fully answered; and that without consideration to the vast
interest that might be awakened through the so little ex-
plored field of their many languages.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 205

BEET MOLASSES AS A FEED FOR WEANLING PIGS.
By W. E. CARROLL.

(Summary).

Thirty grade Tamworth pigs between 9 and 12 weeks
old were divided into three as nearly uniform lots as pos-
sible. A basal ration composed of 2 parts ground barley
and 3 parts wheat shorts was fed to all lots. Lot 1 re-
ceived only the basal ration; Lot 2, the basal ration and
1 pound of beet molasses for each 100 pounds live weight;
Lot 3, the basal ration and 2 pounds of the molasses for
each 100 pounds live weight.

Feeding was done by lots. Weights were pee weekly
of each lot and individual weighings were made each month.

Feeding began July 23 and as early as August 28 two
pigs in Lot 3 died. Up to this time the pigs in neither
Lots 2 nor 3 appeared as thrifty as in Lot 1.

The symptoms preceding death were loss of appetite,
lack of thrift, and partial loss of muscular control, re-
sulting in a wobbling, uncertain gait. This muscular
weakness sometimes lasted a day or two and then disap-
peared for a time. There was no scouring in any of the
cases, as would be expected had the animals been overfed
in the ordinary meaning of that term.

Post mortem examination of two of the typical cases
showed no decided pathological condition. The livers and
kidneys were, however, considerably congested.

The first death in Lot 2 occurred September 18. At
the close of the test Lots 2 and 3 each contained only 3
live pigs, while not one pig had been lost from Lot 1. The
average live weight of the surviving pigs was 57 pounds for
those in Lot 2 and 47 pounds for the ones in Lot 3, as
against 88 pounds for the average of the 10 pigs in Lot 1.

Such disastrous results were not expected at the be-
ginning and no provision was made for an adequate ex-
amination of the affected and dead animals.

No explanation is offered for the cause of death, as
other experiments are recorded where more of the molasses
was fed than in this test. The age of the pig, however, may
be a factor.

206 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

FACTORS AFFECTING THE DEATH OF PLANTING
VARIOUS CROPS.

By HOWARD J. MAUGHAN.

(Summary. )

Experiments showing the effect of the depth of plant-
ing on the germination and growth of various seeds have
been recently completed at the Utah Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. Wheat, oats, corn, barley, alfalfa, peas,
beans, sugar beets, and sorghum were planted in a fertile
clay loam soil at depths from 1 to 8 inches under three
conditions of soil moisture to find the best depth for
growth under different soil conditions. The growth of the
young plants was observed at 5-day intervals from plant-
ing, making a total of 17,280 determinations.

The tests showed that although the 3 to 6 inch plants
usually gave a higher percentage of germination, the depth
of planting seeds does not influence germination or sprout-
ing very much. The 3 to 6 inch depths were especially
favorable for the germination of alfalfa, sugar beets, and
sorghum seed.

The depth of planting giving optimum germination was
not materially affected by the percentages of soil moisture
used, although the soil with high moisture was about two-
thirds saturated and the soil with low contained less than
half as much. With beans, however, the optimum ger-
mination depth was 2 inches and 4 inches for high and
low soil moisture respectively.

The plants nearly always grew faster when planted
from 1 to 2 inches deep in the soil regardless of soil mois-
ture. This was noticed particularly with small seeds, with
seeds having poor germinating power, and with the roots
more than the tops. Deep planting seriously retarded the
growth of both the roots and tops of the young plants.

The height of the plants above the soil generally de-
creased as the depth of planting increased. The largest
growth of plants above ground never occurred from seeds

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 207

planted deeper than 3 inches. Small seeds planted deeper
than 3 inches failed to reach the surface in 20 days.

Thus, while the best germination usually occurred
with the 3 to 6 inch plantings, the growth of the plants
was faster with shallow sowings. Well-developed root
systems and a good growth of tops were produced by the
shallow-planted seeds, while the young plants from the
deeper-planted seeds were using their stored food endeavor-
ing to reach the surface of the soil.

208 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THE TEMPORAL CONDITIONS OF VOLUNTARY
CONTROL.

BY GEORGE S. SNODDY.

The investigations which form the basis of the report
I shall give today have been in progress for the last five
years and have been performed largely in the laboratory
of experimental psychology at Clark University. Some
experiments in continuation of the original investigation
have been performed in the laboratory of the University of
Utah. This paper will attempt to abstract certain portions
of the results which I believe will be interesting and intelli-
gible to a group rather more interested in general science
than in the subtle points of psychological theory and ex-
perimentation.

Before we attempt to present the point of view develop-
ed in these experiments, a few statements about the field
of voluntary control in general, would seem to be of value
in clearing up the meaning and purpose of the investigation.
In the first place voluntary control has not been submitted
to very careful experimentation; which state of affairs is
largely due to two conditions. On the one hand, psycholo-
gists have not, until very recently, found it necessary to
learn very much about the conditions of control, and, on the
other hand, when they did resort to experiment, they were
often misled into unprofitable theories and speculations.
When modern industry turned to the psychological labora-
tories for aid in the securing ways and means by which they
could get more efficient service out of workmen and at the
same time make the life of the employee longer and more
enjoyable, experimental psychologists were stimulated to
attempt some fairly well directed experiments in this field.
Prior to this time, however, experimental efforts were in
part suppressed and in part misdirected by the prevailing
conception of will which is the heritage of psychology as
well as of common life.

The gist of the popular or common sense conception
of will is most clearly seen by redirecting our attention to

\
UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 209

the title of this paper, the conditions of voluntary control.
We seem to be assuming, as the popular mind would say,
that the will is not free, that it is subservient to something,
viz., these very conditions we are about to study. This
same popular mind would say that the will is a dynamic,
causal agent which is not at all the result of conditions.
To use a dynamic figure, he would probably say that the will
is the charge of explosive which blows these socalled con-
ditions to the four winds. From this conception, which was
at one time the view of psychologists and still the view
of the popular writers such as Channing, Larsen and others,
psychologists had to be freed before profitable experimen-
tation could proceed. The writer has no desire to seek
fame for himself, rather charity, when he says that this
study is one of the first attempts to put the will problem
on what I want to call a profitable experimental basis. In
fact the experimental part of the thesis herein contained, so
far as it is a study of control, is in every way original with
the writer.

The only studies which have thrown any light at all
on the physiological conditions underlying voluntary control
are those from the abnormal field. These studies have
been made upon abnormal patients in hospitals and asylums.
In many of these abnormal cases, the control, which has
been built up by long practice, as in the case of handwriting,
has been lost piecemeal through progressive breakdown
of the nervous system in disease. The remnants of the
nervous system left intact and the resulting loss in control
has thrown a flood of light on the physiological mechanism
of control. These studies have not, however, left us with
any means of aiding or determining the conditions of con-
trol in the normal subject, and it is just these which the
industrial psychologist wants to be able to do.

With just these ideas in mind, the writer was stimu-
lated to attempt some actual experiments with normal
subjects on the conditions of control. I cannot introduce
you to my point of view better than by narrating some of
the stages of development through which I went in building
up the experiment. William James years ago made a

210 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

general statement, altogether without analysis or explana-
tion, with reference to the acquisition of skill and the in-
fluence of time periods upon that acquisition, “‘that we
learn to skate in summer and swim in winter.” In other
words, James had observed that the recess period following
a practice period was of enormous value in building up a
skill of execution in a practiced act. As already indicated
James did not attempt to offer a satisfactory explanation
of the phenomenon. The verification of James’ observation
is so difficult to obtain that it has never been received very
seriously. Some observers have contended that they have
seen ample proof of this law and as a result have accepted
it, but these observations had to meet the far more general
law that we seem to forget a little of everything during
the recess periods which follow the practice. The typist
who returns from a vacation expects to practice con-
siderably before he reaches the efficiency maintained be-
fore the recess. In the face of such results, it was diffi-
cult for many psychologists to believe there was any truth
in James’ contention. Forgetting was held to be so well
nigh universal that it would always seem to militate against,
if not completely offset, any improvement which might
take place across a recess interval. On the other hand we
have had observations from such unscientific sources as
golf players who observe that the first day of practice
seems to net them nothing, but upon returning to the game
after a recess of a few days they are surprised to find that
the first stroke seems to be just the right one. Many of
these observers have contended that the degree of skill se-
cured over the recess intervals far exceeds any acquisition
in later practice. Psychologists, however, have generally
contended that these observations are simply the result of
illusion and that if accurate measurement be taken we are
sure to find that the golf player has lost much of his ef-
ficiency over the recess interval.

To make our story shorter the writer admits that he
had become a firm believer in the doctrine of the recess
interval as propounded by James long before he knew that
James had ever advanced such a view. To demonstrate

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 211

this law in an experimental situation has always seemed
to me a practical and valuable experiment. But to do so
one would need to employ an activity which involved little
or no forgetting, otherwise, the loss during the recess from
forgetting would far more than compensate any gain that
would come from the recess. Little progress was made
in the matter of finding a learning exercise which involved
no forgetting until the writer came across a study made by
Judd, while still a teacher at Yale, which dealt with practice
on some of the optical illusions until the illusion would
be overcome. Judd found that after the illusion had been
overcome by constant practice that the learning, and such
it actually is, would persist without modification for a
period of a year.

Judd had given us a clue. But, what were we to do?
Judd’s apparatus could not be duplicated because of the
enormous expense. We hit upon the device known as
mirror tracing. This seemed to involve the illusion and
was open to accurate and easy use in the laboratory. Our
first experiment with the mirror tracing was a complete
success. We found that after a certain degree of efficiency
had been secured, that this was not only retained but often-
times improved upon after a lapse of nine months. James
was verified and we found ourselves in possession of data
far richer than James had ever suspected, for it was not
only shown that improvement would occur over the recess
interval, but that some recess was absolutely necessary for
improvement to take place at all. It was also shown that
the amount of recess or time out between practices which
was necessary for the highest efficiency varied enormously
with individuals. This led us to feel that we had found
a device by which we could measure the time element of
voluntary control. The results from futher experimenta-
tion more than justified our hopes. Below, are indicated
some of the conclusions from our studies which bear di-
rectly upon the problem of control.

To summarize our findings here: In the early stages
of the learning the recess period is absolutely necessary for
any improvement in accuracy; the least improvement can-

212 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

not be made until a recess period is allowed. As the learn-
ing continues, however, the length of the time interval re-
quired for control becomes less and less. A stage is ulti-
mately reached where further improvement will be a gain in
speed, not accuracy, and this improvement is dependent upon
series, not recess, practice. A complete learning curve is de-
pendent upon recess period practice at first and mixed series
and recess practice later.

The length of the recess interval necessary for the
attainment of the highest efficiency in accuracy varies
enormously from subject to subject. Some subjects require
a period five times as long as do others. For most subjects
maximal efficiency in accuracy is secured during the early
stages of the learning by one practice per day.

An average group of subjects may readily be divided in-
to those requiring long recess periods for the attainment
of accuracy and those who can secure a high degree of ac-
curacy with a short recess. If twenty-four hour recess
intervals precede all practices, an average group of college
students will differ slightly in the attainment of accuracy.
Now if the interval preceding practice is reduced to ten
minutes, there will be wide variations as to accuracy at-
tained, the highest often being three to four times as high
as the lowest. From this it is seen that individuals differ
not so much in their ability to attain accuracy as in the
temporal conditions underlying its attainment.

Those subjects who show the poorest control are (1)
those who speed up most during series practice; (2) those
in whom this speed is little retarded by the insertion of
short recess intervals; (3) those who are popularly called
quick, snappy, and more accurately, nervous; (4) those most
affected by drug stimulants such as strychnine or caffein ;
(5) those most affected by the social stimulus or the pres-
ence of others in the laboratory; (6) those in whom the
efficiency from time to time is extremely variable.

Those subjects who show the best control are (1) those
whom the world would call somewhat slow, the phlegmatic
type in general; (2) those who do not lose their accuracy
in a marked way by light doses of strychnine or caffein;

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 213

(3) those who are not affected by the social stimulus; (4)
those whose work is not variable from time to time.

In conclusion I would point out that one of the es-
sential elements in voluntary control as revealed by these
studies is the time period which must precede a perfor-
mance. Since this period is long for some and short for
others, and since the time period necessary for an accurate
performance is lengthened by drug stimulants such as
strychnine and caffein, it seems clear that the phase of
control which we have measured is fundamentally a pro-
cess of neural integration or upbuilding which in turn
conditions the accuracy output of the subject, especially
the temporal conditions of that output. The integration
proceeds at different rates in various individuals and is
probably going on all the time but, with respect to any one
performance, if the anabolism would exceed the katabolism
the subject must have a cessation of activity in that per-
formance. The anabolism is preserved by the elimination
of all drugs and the katabolism hastened by the adminis-
tration of them. This anabolism is greatly aided by the
practice of all those economies and abstinences generally
found to favor health and bodily vigor.

214 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THE LIQUID SULPHUR DIOXIDE METHOD OF DE-
TERMINING AROMATIC HYDROCARBON OILS.

By THOMAS JOSEPH.

(Abstract).

Oils and tars are for the most part complex mixtures of
solids and liquids, not all of the same type, but belonging
to widely different chemical groups. Since the commercial
value of the oil or tar depends upon the relative amounts
of these various components, a method of making quantita-
tive determinations is of considerable importance, and a
number have been proposed. These methods all remove
the constituents of basic nature by washing a dilute acid,
and those of acid nature by washing with a dilute alkali.
There remain then to be determined (a) unsaturated hydro-
carbons, either cyclic or open chain compounds, (b) benzene
derivatives and (c) saturated hydrocarbons, either cyclic or
open chain compounds. The method most commonly pur-
sued from this point on is to remove the unsaturated
hydrocarbons by shaking with ordinary concentrated sul-
phuric acid, the unsaturated compounds dissolving in the
strong acid, and are then easily separated from the lighter
layer of immiscible oil. The benzene derivatives are then
dissolved in dimethy] sulphate, leaving the saturated hydro-
carbons unattacked.

Several objections attach to this method, the most
serious being that none of the separations are complete
and exact. The sulphuric acid will dissolve some of the
benzene derivatives, and the dimethy]! sulphate will dissolve
some of the saturated hydrocarbons, especially if these are
of low boiling point. Another serious objection is that
while dimethyl sulphate is almost odorless, and so gives
no warning, it is at the same time a very active poison.

In October of 1915 Dr. W. F. Rittman, of the U. S.
Bureau of Mines, published the details of a different
method, in which unsaturated compounds and benzene deri-
vatives are removed together by dissolving in liquid sulphur

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 215

dioxide, the saturated hydrocarbons remaining unattacked
and forming an upper layer of immiscible oil. Dr. Rittman
very carefully and specifically pointed out that the separa-
tion must be made at a temperature not higher than 20
degrees centigrade, and that if the oil contained in ex-
cess of 25 per cent of benzene derivatives and unsaturated
compounds the addition of liquid sulphur dioxide would
not cause a separation into two layers. In that case it is
necessary to add enough of an inert paraffin oil to reduce
the content of unsaturated and benzene hydrocarbons to
less than 25 per cent.

In attempting to make use of Dr. Rittman’s method
in our own work on oils and tars we quickly found that we
were able to get satisfactory separation into two layers,
even when 60 per cent or 80 per cent of the oil dissolved
in the sulphur dioxide. We also found that in some
cases repeated washing with the sulphur dioxide would
completely dissolve the sample of oil. This suggested the
possibility that the saturated hydrocarbons are not so in+
soluble in the liquid sulphur dioxide as Dr. Rittman had as-
sumed. In following up this point we found that every
sample of petroleum oil we could get hold of was soluble in
the sulphur dioxide, the solubility running sometimes as
high as 10 per cent of the weight of oil taken, and using
an equal volume of the solvent. The oils tested included
gasolines, kerosenes, hexane and heptane, and specially
prepared distillates of definite boiling point range. We
also found that as the percent of benzene derivatives in-
creased the amount of the added diluent recovered diminish-
ed. The maximum recovery of added diluent (gasoline or
kerosene) is had when the amount of benzene derivatives
does not exceed 30 per cent, but a quantitative recovery
cannot be had in any case, due to the solubility of the added
diluent (gasoline or kerosene) in the sulphur dioxide. This
introduces an error into the method which it would seem
almost impossible to overcome.

216 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THE DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF GILSONITE.

By THEODORE ERICKSON.

(Abstract).

Utah possesses very extensive deposits of solid and
semisolid hydrocarbons, of which gilsonite, elaterite and
asphaltum are perhaps the best known. These hydro-
carbons are at present but little utilized, and hence the De-
partment of Chemistry of the University of Utah has under-
taken a systematic study of them to determine if possible,
(a) their real chemical nature and (b) their commercial
possibilities. At present gilsonite is receiving our atten-
tion, and our work thus far has been confined to des-
tructive distillation at atmospheric pressure.

When subjected to destructive distillation at atmos-
pheric pressure, gilsonite yields about 50 per cent of its
weight in a thin black oil, about 30 per cent of its weight
appears as gas, and about 20 per cent remains in the re-
tort as coke. The gas yields about 0.25 per cent of am-
monia, but as yet no further examination has been made
of it and the coke has not been’ examined.

The oil, 8 liters of which we prepared, was washed
with dilute sulphuric acid, then with dilute sodium hydrox-
ide, then with water, and finally dried over sodium. It
was next fractionally distilled, using an efficient distilling
column filled with short pieces of aluminum wire. Cuts
were made each 5 degrees, and the distillation repeated
eleven times. The temperature range of the distillation
was from about 40 degrees to above 300 degrees, and all
the distillations above 150 degrees were carried out under
a pressure of 15 mm of mercury. After this distillation
was finished the whole series was again distilled making 2
degree cuts instead of 5, and this was repeated 10 or 11
times. By this time there were well defined accumulations
of oil at various points in the series, and these accumula-
tions were next redistilled, taking one degree cuts. The

‘UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 217

object of these repeated distillations was to secure as per-
fect as possible a separation of the oil into its various com-
ponents. We are now engaged in the chemical and physi-
cal examination of these oils.

INDEX

Page
A General Survey of the Jurassic in Southeastern Utah— i

Mery PCT CRECE Soa atid a, 0i 0 6c sosy acs, 0 vce the Rae apetal se aad A age Cie lohare a do 33
Alfalfa Hay for Milk Production, Comparative Value of First,

Second and Third Crop (Abstract)—Dr. W. E. Carroll....... 114
Alkali Content of Certain Utah Soils, The (Summary)—

eee aie oo UA EAS Ak hele ha RN OS 0. o Stet MPUMUMURDR RS ch eiaeahad Ai grai’a, oi Sa 153
Anastomosing of Arteries and Veins in a Cat, The—

Dr. Newton Miller and James S. Godfrey.................... 185
Ants, The Honey (Abstract)—A. O. Garrett...................5. 22
Aromatic Hydrocarbon Oils, The Liquid Sulphur Dioxide

Method of Determining (Abstract)—Thomas Joseph........ 214
A Short Comment on Bulletin 371 of the U. S. Geological

meets is HONTESUEE fi: Gti eaa.s's ss ccls Cote Warton an ae 24
er aie, 1 PROTEOME Uric eel ae a's 4. «son cx «cow ela ale Gemelaly arate adnan 5
Bardwell, Carlos and others—Chemical Properties of Utah

RRO RE TIENTS Fa ecsigtatt celeste te sictaies'a, 6m Jisss sisi 8 Med Oe Ride Aa eR 78
Beet Molasses as a Feed for Weanling Pigs (Summary)—

OER MAS eT fe | HMI ap et CM IL nO and 205
Periuiiat ws. Arthurs mentioned,.|, Wasi sss sagas cquneleee aauah swap 6
Berryman, B. Arthur and others: Chemical Properties of Utah

Rem eR CARER NCIATS ceo thiol whole eta aay 6 wo etek a aon ae re eitetoteete HME ual 78
Berryman, B. Arthur: Outline of Mining and Smelting

Conditions: ati Santa) Pe: New Mexico. aut caida anions) slays s 122

Biological Investigations upon the Other Sciences, The Influence
OUTS © 48 ESE 9 RAIS oP eo aia EBM AL a), Ree I A EEE

Blossom Infection by Smuts—Dr. C. N. Jensen.................. 106
Bombus and Osmia, Nesting Habits of—
Pe een letcher: Hamers 2 a. Uruk va colt ne awed amie cient 16
Brighton, Thos. B. and Others: Chemical Properties of Utah
EEMAVGEATDOUG . xis, toaies ce aes dad oe eM Ok hind Dahan ro dete 78
Pactrr. tor ra, aientomed) 3) ee ee A pe 5
Cardon, P. V.: Progress in Cereal Improvement at the Nephi
PEMPIGEDENQUL Co icrafci Moje ara seis sce ae Res Cae Nee ha Socal ge hata ae ed 117
Carroll, Dr. W. E.: Beet Molasses as a Feed for Weanling Pigs
EUEIAE Mas Rade ae oc cea hiee OM LEAS Comte nek OU Renee mike 205
Carroll, Dr. W. E.: Comparative Value of First, Second and Third
Crop Alfalfa Hay for Milk Production (Abstract)............ 114

Carroll, Dr. W. E.; Effect of the Amount of Protein Consumed
Upon the Digestion and Protein Metabolism of Lambs and
upon the Composition of their Flesh and Blood (Conclu-

BREUER OMAN re See Peay Cctiae ota simi cee MRM LAD Slovan tal a aia oi 60s Bk et Meee a aN 137
Carroll, Dr. W. E.: Selecting Dairy Bulls by Performance........ 141
eerie OG. Ve) By SRCRTIOTEM SL Ba ats W's ¥ dw leew 4 Sion ora Whe nes elcid 6
Cellulose Ferments, The (Abstract)—Dr. J. E. Greaves.......... 64

Chemical Properties of Utah Hydrocarbons—Carlos Bardwell,
Benjamin Arthur Berryman, Thomas Bow Brighton, Ken-
BELO VET OM Rane Len tase ctoetet ais L's). 6) Jigga laaalvak teed MrT tli 78

220 INDEX

Comparative Value of First, Second and Third Crop Alfalfa Hay Wea

for Milk Production (Abstract)—Dr. W. E. Carroll........... 114
Constitution and ‘Bay -Liaweis iio) se septa aie scm oleinmtele makati aia oe a 9
Corn Under Irrigation (Summary)—Dr. F. S. Harris............. 120
Destructive Distillation of Gilsonite, The (Abstract)—

Wheodore iP racksomy ye) LU ele aie eye eta aicte\ ste ie\le le eteivsleties ot ete iene a aera 216
Daines) ‘Dr. ioymian ss Menon al aise Live aww anew al plait 6
Drawn Wire Tungsten Lamps, The Pressure-Watt Character-

istics \of—C./ Athi Siistaae Guerre ces vic wie dive sie cae ee ae 172
Ebaugh, Dr. W. C.: Our National Awakening to the Importance

OL SCREMEE 2 Ze CU a ie Ae aN a 155
Ebaugh: Dr. W.. C., mentiotiedayn sissies Se Ua nina eee 5
Effect of the Amount of Protein Consumed upon the Digestion

and Protein Metabolism of Lambs and upon the Composi-

tion of Their Flesh and Blood (Conclusions only)—

Die) Wi Bi Care oo Oe ett oe ee ee 137
Effect of Soil Alkali on Plant Growth (Abstract)—

1 SUNNY SINGS Fai et UC of at Ch PRM Sh RY A BIS SN 131
Effect of Soil Moisture on the Morphology of Certain Plants, The

(Stammiary Dir Saige 2 cite o> vie. sin > ein a eee Mitten eerie 65
Electric Conductivity of Thin Metallic Films, The Variation of

the’ (Abstract) or ran mitten, on.) 2 ee ee 177
Erickson, Theodore: The Liquid Sulphur Dioxide Method of

Determining Aromatic Hydrocarbons....................-0. 216
Hories. (Pron /Cach Fi: gene. ts ie Ssh.) ae Slotiante oe Cee aes meme 6
Factors Affecting the Depth of Planting Various Crops

(Summary) —Howard))J. (Maughan... ee ae 206
Ferments, The Cellulose (Summary)—Dr. J. E. Greaves.......... 64
Fletcher, Dr. Harvey: Industrial Research in the United States

(Presidential VA Garessy you sb) hes ym’ ld Stag, ek se lee moatl okat eye eens 142
Fletcher, Dr. Harvey: Molecular Reality (Abstract).............. 118
FPletcher:/\Dr. Harvey: mentioned oo. 2.5 Us ciave Siewiesiain lela eyatel pie 6
Forestry, Some Present Day Problems in—E. R. Hodson........ 45
Forestry, Value of Scientific Research in—C. F. Korstian........ 186
Forrester, J. B.: A General Survey of the Jurassic in Southeastern

(1 REM re CHALE ANOLE SAN RRO PUAN ce LP be ENRON AAR TS NY vil 33
Forrester, J. B.: A Short Comment on Bulletin 371 of the U. S.

Gea Gah Sap rvsee asl s cipiks x o/e is a0 shwicuatatin g einai etal iatet eh ote 24
Porcestery 3s tes Mentone dy... ok icaiewilalcisle seule ei een ee 5
Garrett, A. 0.) Honey Ants (Abstract) .ii5 0 ele jie soins alae aaa 22
Garrett, Ai! Os itrmemtioned ai). osc 5). SEs ee ele Roem 5,6
Garrett, A. O.: The Influence of Biological Investigations Upon

the Other Sciences (Presidential Addtess) ) 0. jcsl vor eee 68
Gatrett/ A; O.='Sonte Uanine Rusts 00 ose ye ee a aie 132
Gibson; Professors.) hc. meNtIONSM . ole. ean slates nie a «otis ete eee 5,6
Gilsonite, The Destructive Distillation of (Abstract)—

Theodore! (Erickson yess le hea ae ae ela ea cielo atata ae 216
Godfrey, James S. and Dr. Newton Miller—The Anastomosing

of Artertesiand Weis iia Cate ssa We 185
Goodwin!’ Dr: (Sie: enemenemedt (05.0). eis ON Or i ena enero 5
Greaves, Dr.) JE: The Cellulose Ferments./ 5. eyes set ieee tae 64

INDEX 221

Page
Greaves, Dr. J. E.:The Influence of Arsenic Upon the Biological
Transformations of Nitrogen of Soils (Summary)............
Cee ee Vy BIReT, Th.) Rive TREMTIONGEE .)o)6 nis odes hide ig sss 0! a © wiglae'e daie'le 5
nO RIE ARRCRUPAOENEG 0/12 2 6c fbel'd sca Il = wlebl ig @/AI8 AAI wide ¥ icin Ginetta cs 5
rer eer GM 5s VATEOMLION OC 2 a's jacciinial Siete les Hal aise ea doelele w widen ap 6
Harris, Dr. Frank S.: The Alkali Content of Certain Utah Soils... 153
Harris, Dr. Frank S.: Corn Under Irrigation (Summary).......... 120
Harris, Dr. Frank S.: The Effect of Soil Alkali on Plant Growth
OS TSAO URE GRRL EY ESSE LS BP GA OR KO YAN SDP NPS 131
Harris, Dr. Frank S.: The Effect of Soil Moisture on the Mor-
paolory at Certain ‘Plants (Stummary) ee naa. ete sla' ase 63
Harris, Dr. Frank S.: The World Without Science (Presidential
LCE ESS IS ISSR ARES EAR es ATL RRL Y 20 CaN i te 178
Henderson! Proressor VW.) Wi: mentioned 3) su a 5
LOS EOE ete che Lysiliea vere a pabetiny cate cane tela Wiciitbaid:& soisna ai HUN ncaa Uaeaue Baresi uneasy 0 22

Hodson, E. E.: Some of the Present Day Problems in Forestry... 45
Homer, Dr. Philena Fletcher: Nesting Habits of Bombus and

DS TEE RESO Ie EAE A OTE RD Opn eID ATE OL CR a 16
Homes), Mr) Philena, Pletcher:) mentioned (iis Ose eae els oe 5
Honey Ants, The (Abstract)—A. O. Garrett.............0...02005: 22

Industrial Research in the United States—Dr. Harvey Fletcher... 142
Influence of Arsenic upon the Biological Transformation of

Nitrogen in Soils (Summary)—Dr. J. E. Greaves............ 128
Influence of Biological Investigations Upon the Other Sciences,

Le See MEAT Mg) PPT INA Sp PL Up Rc RE 68
Intensity of Nitrification in Arid Soils, The (Abstract)—

Pe OR GRRE ALE MRATE | ae) shells ex ve raisin oa Vee o: MU AHea han Mal ARAL Ue ge 96
Iron, The Rusting of (Abstract)—Dr. C. W. Porter.............. 63

Iversen, L. Moth: An Essay Comparing Mammals and Birds of
North Central Europe with Related Species in Northern

RIPEN TEROG ILM! Sia at) fui ves ats alts aieiehvie a AhaNMM IAL thee Rh dean esa aie 199
Jensen, Dr. C. N.: Blossom Infection by Smuts............00.00.5 106
Peaere tan P98. INES ATER Ay 5 S)b icin Salashe aerate ebd wiclanebosiad sustete 6
PORES ETA, | MATS HAs THRBHONEE | AU Lolo. eieidt Wil siale sue wicks 5,6
Joseph, Thomas: The Liquid Sulphur Dioxid Method of Deter-

mining Aromatic Hydrocarbon Oils (Abstract).............. 214
Jurassic in Southeastern Utah, A General Survey of the—

tay Sf os OA OTOH RD UATE NMAC SNCS Ae) PING OD a a A 33
maaw ited Dr, Aj Als tnentioned ee yi Meee Ulead ly elec toe ee 5,6
Korstian, C. F.: Value of Scientific Research in Forestry........ 186
Kuhre, Kenneth D. and others: Chemical Properties of Utah

ERY OE OCAEDOINS/ Ctwale cen sparc aiaiis Wee lath cog LL /are eC Meal Ara 78

Mammals and Birds of Northern Central Europe with Related
Species in Northern United States, An Essay Comparing—

PCM BH iver Sien ley Ei) clay ere aa eu Eder Man gency iy ates atau (MICRON |e ea 199
Mattill, Dr. H. A.: Recent Advances in our Knowledge of

Proteus, Metabolism, CABSCEACED 01) 6 iid oicjeved w «sein a Uinialehvapinaemenee 105
Maughan, Howard J.: Factors Affecting the Depth of Planting

MUCUS | MOPMIDIE CSNERMEVETI AE YP lis). a a 2 ie! pss diol gidtctonsidhtuye tae ella 206

Milles, Or: Newten: mentiqneds 0.026064). oh ds ee at, 6

222 INDEX

Page
Miller, Dr. Newton: Modern Biology and Preformation.......... 195
Miller, Dr. Newton and James S. Godfrey: The Anastomosing of

Arteries atid’ Vets! 18a Oat.) Ccceee ciinay oie «ele soak amt fates 185
Modern Biology and Preformation—Dr. Newton Miller.......... 195
Mohr, E. and Dr. E. G. Peterson: Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria

in, Utah Soils )\(Siamnrary yee con vie cals a 'seee Sih le ogee Bia poo ene eee 97
Molecular Reality (Abstract)—Dr. Harvey Fletcher.............. 118
Neal. Wi. Wis embrace .)5) aie aoa te a.s a islet sass 9: cm aos GRP 5,6
Nephi Substation, Progress in Cereal Improvement at the

(Abstract) PW Cardone yc Gyes cis cds lage al ie oneness 117
Nesting Habits of Bombus and Osmia—

Dr, Philena Pletcher" Phamrers $2 0) desde s ces eee oleae ee 16
Nitrification in Arid Soils, The Intensity of (Abstract)—

Dr: Robert Stewart sy Ree ee le Se Se ae ae oe eae 96
Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria in Utah Soils (Summary)—

Dr," EG: Peterson aad BGO iio a\.siale Sa UO ee eta 97
Norton, Miss ‘Gertrude: mentioned ...)...... 00.06.00 es cemee 5
Notes on Vertical Distribution of Temperature—

Dr ACS. Phiessete wile Gdeko ss nlc Pe cules WRG UO eee aaa 55
Officers of the Academy from 1908 to 1918.....................2- 5
Our National Awakening to the Importance of Science—

Pe) WS GE eran Bae a's eid wanito go bs8: bse ahalin, Sa Sk eS AS eee nr 155
Outline of Mining and Smelting Conditions at Santa Fe, New

Mexico—B., ‘\Arthurw Berryman: 79 ocycisincis ee lelotetne eieeiete eimeonaane 122
Peterson, Dr. E. G. and E. Mohr: Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria

it Utah, Sos (Starter yb. si nis lea 0 o's pclae soe AE Oe a 97
Peterson, Dr: | Josepi,: mentioned. 2... 65 v5. seb meeain a4 wanes 6
Peterson, Dr. Joseph: Physical Relations of Subjective and

Objective Combination Tones (Abstract)................e08- 99
Peterson, Prof, | Wm.: mentioned 3.25 !0). ics a). ane died ka ee 5
Physical Relations of Subjective and Objective Combination

Tones (Abstract)—Dr. Joseph Peterson...............0+-e0ee 99
Porter, Dr. C. W.: The Rusting of Iron (Abstract).............. 63
Porter, M. Rich: Some Problems for Utah Botanists.............. 101
Program of ‘the ‘First: Annual Convention: 00/32 402.,4¢) cakke ketene 15
Program of the Second Annual Convention.................0000: 21
Program ‘of the ‘Third Annual Convention... i: .c bein oye 32
Program of the Fourth Annual Convention....................5 44
Program ‘of the Fitth Annual Conventions: 0.) 04 Je s2ee os cegemonnle 61
Program) of the’ Sixth Annual Convention... 020). eee nee ne 78
Program of the Seventh Annual Convention.................... 119
Program of the Eighth Annual Convention. ...............0..400.05% 130
Program: of the, Ninth Annual Conventions <0 2300:2)291. sis onan bys 141
Program: of the, Tenth: Annual Convention: . i. ..i2. 4): nee see Ours 170
Progress of Cereal Improvement at Nephi Substation

(Abstract) Pie Gacdomy.. «6. ss di: be eat seid elas oie eee 1l7,
Protein Metabolism, Recent Advances in our Knowledge of

(Abstract)—-Dr. He Ay Mattill. .. 2). 2332s ere a aaear 105
Recent Advances in our Knowledge of Protein Metabolism

(Abstract)—Dr)) FAs Mate | ec ketene sale ereutera lobia are 105

ee

Page
URN ENTS IAMETRE ET Ee tcc citer tafe t's chk de boatio (aye ec acaiaiala s-bmcelacnsoiale dtha a! Boole s
Rusting of Iron, The (Abstract)—Dr. C. W. Porter.............. 63
Rusts, Some Unique—A. O. Garrett... ........c. ccc ee ccuccncctees 132
Selecting Dairy Bulls by Performance (Abstract)—

He LUMAR ON Csi A Sal Wate eid d xy 0 als iw lgt sche late ada ws ale 141
Science, Our National Awakening to the Importance of—

eR es ECRIRUMEREN oh d SN oye it viata nie eS ha, Rivera Xo stweiais cicee 155
Science, The World Without—Dr. F. S. Harris................... 178
BHA CA SCNT METEETOREG . ctsistens elt acave th cbalcseicherel erste lace. 0 sheila, shale 6
Smith, C. Arthur: The Pressure-watt Characteristics of Drawn

PMs AIFS ERE RSRAINS :oyc7 ia iv aielioe,'s be ot haseie Sama beanie oe alabis d 172
Smith, Dr. Franklin O.: The Voice Tonoscope (Abstract)........ 139
Smuts, Blossom Infection of—Dr. C. N. Jensen.................. 106
Snoddy, Dr. George S.: The Temporal Conditions of Voluntary

MO MARG AE LR ot atac ct ci ah ge Yes diel ai eal ts Joie a telgnal wenes SPO REMY AMA eRe weve loi ra 208
Soil Moisture on the Morphology of Certain Plants, The Effect

ot Caitagiaty)—Die.. Fs SS, Farris... cee dah aiitotenle ty Saale. 65
Some Present Day Problems in Forestry—E. R. Hodson........ 45
Some Problems for Utah Botanists—M. Rich Porter............. 101
Some, Unique Rusts—A: O.) Garrett. : . 26.0 odie cr leeks weed. 132
MRM Rea AG NS.) SEP ERE ROME L155 st Vio, wl a alain, obs Aen et mtgeltae Wy aleve ttes uae 5
Stewart, Dr. Robert: The Intensity of Nitrification in Arid

PRA N CSE EGE) Sa Witton AARON E Nay 2 hg lolgoue al sa eae MD aC ene Re cialcee sit 96
PremArt, Hoty seObert, mentioned: 4) 2. ..3 . Secs are ee tla ek es Sales 5
Prat, IIE. (Oli: MENTION... 2 ois. su oe bes estee eee ed te kc 5
Temperature, Notes on Vertical Distribution of—

Beret MeRSel chine. s ontegeip ee nay porary ts setah, te 55
The Pressure-watt Characteristics of Drawn Wire Tungsten

Amite —— Cs, PAC CMU SMANELD trctioe y os 3 a sekowie atee au teteleiricts ertivig lowe We. 172
Thiessen, Dr. A. H.: Notes on Vertical Distribution of

Pbesiea ERR EIB 6. 0 Pala eed ad aeRO ies Sle ae eA, OR REE Leta oe le 155
Meee NENG. (si) gts MIVOMPET OME dla c's ald ares epee ae saben otal wo anak bate 5,6
Tugman, Dr. Orin: The Variation of the Electric Conductivity

oo i hin, Metallic-Films' (Abstract) 1.5) k oe ee oe ces ware 177
United States, Industrial Research in the—Dr. Harvey Fletcher... 142
Utah Botanists, Some Problems for—M. Rich Porter............. 101
Utah Hydrocarbons, Chemical Properties of—

amg satGnyerl atich CONOR ee. Pelee: eee oP la kl a hee 78
Utah Soils, Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria in (Summary)—

rE Wa. Peterson aad 1.) Mone. 227500 9.0.6. os\d = eas wae cers 97
Value of Scientific Research in Forestry—C. F. Korstian........ 186
Voice Tonoscope, The (Abstract)—Dr. Franklin O. Smith....... 139
Voluntary Control, The Temporal Conditions of—

Re ex CeW ROUEN? «1, saitshetat ache Gates Sido wicteseh. «ic «(adel slacattnaet 208
creates yy WOW. G0 1b oy ER CTAEIGHIEE sla 2 sted ore sia co ola wleicie «ace slag dasee Gare oene 5
West, De. Prank 1.2 mentioneds i403 ood swede <cleots o'er sd pa acecee 6
Miigesee, br lon Ass mentioned. 226. < «.c/s as) s/d sored de btwaee ae 5

World Without, Science, The—Dr. F. S. Harris.................. 178

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TAH ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES

NOV 25 1946
Yaronay wwe

RECORD PRESS
MAMMOTH
Eats UTAH

ee) ee eee

CONTENTS.
Eleventh Annual Convention (1918) ................... 15-45
Twelfth Annual Convention (1919) ..-................. 46-117
Thirteenth Annual Convention (1920) ................ 118-174
Fourteenth Annual Convention (1921) ~............. 175-267
LISS, SOUPS AIS SEND 6 ER Tint Sead COS CASS ita 8 See alae as 269-276

‘List of Officers

1908-09.

By. Ire D. Candil, Ue a ee ee ee President
A. O. Garrett, Salt Lake High School........00.0000222222.2222-2.--000-+ Secretary
1909-10.

De. OW: ©... Bibaeok, Rc os 2S ene aa Se ee President
A, 0. Garrett, Salt. Lake Pieh Schooli2i22 2 ae Secretary
1910-11.

Dry: Ds Ball, Age Cr ee Sa ae i ao cera President
A. O. Garrett, Salt Lake High School.........000200000.2022220.22-.---- Secretary
1911-12,

Drs GMb Morhies,s Wie Ube SC ie oy RS ce eae President
A, 0, Garrett, Salt “Lake High: School: 022s eo Secretary
1912-April, 1913.

A. O. Garrett, Salt Lake High School........00..2.2202220-20000----- President
PNB); Ar. Tabs. Ae Oe eek Eee a, acne le Roe ee Secretary
April, 1913-Dec., 1913.

Die OMe Samed bys |: MO Pl Sy, Seat ree AN ar Bh CRAM Neos Con, ME! President
A, O. Garrett; Salt Lake Hich Schoolsi03 025. ee Secretary

Dec., 1913-April,1915.

Prof. Mareus E. Jones, Salt Lake City....2.......00. Se President
A. O. Garrett, Salt Lake High School.......0........ Permanent Secretary
1915-16.

Dr. Barvey. Fletcher Bo Vo UW oe oe ee ae Une President
A. O. Garrett, East High School, Salt Lake City, Permanent Secretary
1916-17.

Dr. Frank S. Harris, U. A. G..2:..2 SEE ph bres once aS ai Male President
A. O. Garrett, East High School, Salt Lake City, Permanent Secretary
1917-18.

WD. Neal Salt Take ‘City ti. ok ae ne President

A. O. Garrett, East High School, Salt Lake City, Permanent Secretary
C. Arthur Smith, East High School,
Sait ake (Orig ee ae ae Assistant Secretary

*Deceased.

1$18-19
TU SESMN Tol D1 ut OFS oreo) 1 HRB Jeg. bey (5 ak San dra AES le eee io President
Proressor Carl hivyring, BY. U.i.-.-...2-02..--....- First Vice-President
TENDER 1) Sa a eee ene Ae ea Second Vice-President

A. O. Garrett, East High School, Salt Lake City, Permanent Secretary
C. Arthur Smith, East High School,

TDI egy oe) OSE EP, 2 EAC IS Se aR Se ee aE Assistant Secretary
Proreesor Hyram schneider UU. ...-...5----2.----.--2.0-2 one Councilor
0 EER SCT aia 0 eae i ace rho EE OED Councilor
Clarence F. Korstian, Forest Service, Ogden,...................... Councilor

1919-20.
OES MS pets cr Fo Tia RES it (RPS eget Rn ey en ART OP President
Clarence F. Korstian, Forest Service, Ogden-........ First Vice-President
Deonrank 0 West; U. As Cx 2k ae ee Second Vice-President

A. O. Garrett, East High School, Salt Lake City, Permanent Secretary
C. Arthur Smith, East High School,

DU PNA GEL SCR iy 9 ee Re eda eile a ce ee Corresponding Secretary
rare Ph “Ts ONNOCT is Wins ne eed ore Res ie Ee ee Councilor
ECM enya ros ils 600 repeated 0 (a Diss ee alsa Uae ene eA eae" at Serres eee Councilor
Peurcesor Diyraum monneider W.U 2.525 22s seh Councilor

1920-21.
Clarence F. Korstian, Forest Service, Ogden...................-.... President
Peer rome bs Wrest A. 2a. Aa eo First Vice-President
Professor Hyrum Schneider, U. U................... Second Vice-President

A. O. Garrett, East High School, Salt Lake City, Permanent Secretary
Cc. Arthur Smith, East High School,

8) EB 7h | a ORR Aa oe AR epg eR O67 Corresponding Secretary
UD rele) Capt RRB TPES 1 gl AIRY = AGES PRR ec ee ec gure ed een pe (a Councilor
Professor Harold R. Hagan, State Crops and Pests

@ OTVAISSIO Dore eee as he ee UE ae oe Councilor
Peocessre carl) Py Pine es Yc ececcns: tec aca Councilor

1921-22.

Brae beanie las WW CStsr Wc Any Oa eect cole oe nos set a ok ee aed eceaee President
Professor Hyrum Schneider, U. U.................-...-- First Vice-President
Professor Carl F. Eyring; B: Y..U........2-..—2:.. Second Vice-President

A. O. Garrett, East High School, Salt Lake City, Permanent Secretary
C. Arthur Smith, East High School,

yet aatice: (Oi tee ee ee Le oe Corresponding Secretary
Penressor diaraio” i. -taran, U. 7 cols oe ec ceeeed Councilor
PPA NTO PP We VAS MO ents es. Pe ee i oe eee anata Councilor

R. A. Hart, Office of Public Roads and Rural
stele -ane Ue Mt 2 a. SS aes eee nace nee Mee easSe enemas! Councilor

Roster Utah Academy
of Sciences

JUNE 151021

LIFE MEMBERS.

BISHOP; FRANCOIS MARION (1916)......---...--------- “.1642 Major Avenue, Salt Lake City

DEE AS AAG. (CLOTS a 2:5 oe oe ee ee ao eee ie ee Mammoth, Utah
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS.

SPALL DRE) (Charter, 1908): c=. 2 eee ed Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa

OAR D TE aD Re Te ay Dy (Charter: G0 6))iae sae nen ee meee cen Yakima, Washington

CLEMENS, MRS. MARY STRONG (Charter, 1908)... ..--Pacifie Grove, California
CUMMINGS: PROP. = BYRON "(VOB sos ocak 8 See PN wnt eee
pe iene S hacreenee Professor Archeology, Univ. Station, Univ. Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
*EBAUGH, DR. W. C. (Charter, 1908)
Professor Chemistry, Denison Univ., Granville, Ohio
SMG HORM.) bee EDA Vibe s(DO1D)) 222 re oe i A eee New York City, New York
GREAVES-WALKER, A. F. (Charter, 1908)
HARTMAN, DR. L. W. (Charter, 1908)....Professor Physics, Univ. Nevada, Reno, Nev.
NOVA DOIN: DIR cACheAL® (CLO Tt) ins ee See Professor Physics, Reed College, Portiand, Ore.
MATTILL, DR. H. A. (1912)
MATTILL, DR. HELEN I. (December, 1913)
PETERSON, DR. JOSEPH (1911)
Jesup Psychol. Lab., Peabody College, Nashville, Teun.
PORTH GOR Co Wolo). ses Professor Chemistry, Univ. California, Berkeley
SMITH, DR. FRANKLIN O. (December, 1913)
Professor Psychology, Univ. Montana, Missoula

STEWART, DR. ROBERT (1910)...............-...- Director Exp. Station, Univ. Nevada, Reno
*VORHIES, DR. CHARLES T. (1909)............ Professor Zoology, Univ. Arizona, Tucson
FELLOWS.

7 NG 24 Si OF ORS MMe 4Y- NB Ql & Umm a U2) HE i its eee tie ec ee sn eee ere oe Asst. Horticulturist, U. A. 0., Logan

BONNER, DR. WALTER D. (1917) Professor Chemistry, U. of U., Salt Lake City
BRIGHTON, DR. THOS. B. (April, 1913)....Asst. Prof. Chemistry, U. of U, Salt Lake City
FOARROLL, (DR. Wi.) Bio (1902) 25.--2ne Professor Animal Husbandry, U. A. ©., Logan
DAINES, DR Deas) (L909) we eee, Professor Bacteriology, U. of U., Salt Lake City
EYRING, PROF. CARL F. (April, 1913)

Assoc, Professor Physics, B. Y. U., 155 E. 4th North St., Provo

HORRES TER: -J OELN “BR YO -(@hartor’ 1908) 2c ee eee eee Hiawatha
GARDNER, DR. WILLARD (April, 1913)-............. Assoc. Prof. Physies. U. A. C., Logan
*GARRETT, A. O. (Charter, 1908).......... Head Dept. Biology, S. L. H, S., Salt Lake City

GIBSON, PROF. J. L. (Charter, 1908)
Dean Sch. Arts and Sciences, U. of U., Salt Lake City
HAGAN, PROF. HAROLD R. (December, 1913)
Assoc. Prof. Zoology, U. of U., Salt Lake {City

HAL, ERNEST M.. (Charter, 1908) ....--..-.---.2--:-ces-cscees 616 Forest Ave., Palo Alto, Calif
FHARRIS. DR, RANE. 'S. (Obanters 1908) 2c2 iin ce i oeceeneneeee President B. Y. U., Provo
PPAR Te CAs (UO LS nase Drainage Eng. U. S., 319 Federal Bldg., Salt Lake City
HOMER, DR. PHILENA FLETCHER (Charter, 1908).-.-:.........-.--...----------- Pleasant Grove
ISRAELSON, ORSON W. (1918).........-.. Prof, Irrigation and Drainage, U. A. C., Logan
*JONES,. MARCUS E. (Charter, 1908)...............--..0------ 1137 Douglas Ave, Salt Lake City

*Names followed by asterisks are those of Past Presidents.

-I

*KORSTIAN, CLARENCE F. (1917)
Appalachian Experiment Station, Box 1117, Asheville, N. Carolina
MATTHEWS, PROF. A. L. (1916).-Assoc, Prof. Rural Education, U. of U., Salt Lake City

MERRILL, DR. JOSEPH F. (1917)............ Dean School of Eng., U. of: U., Salt Lake City
Mit eeliiba Di. MS OF (U9U9) 2 Horticulturist, .Utah Exp. Station, Logan
PHPERSON, DR. HUMBER G. (1992) 20.2 sie President U. A. C., Logan
EPHEMRSON, PROM. WM. (LOTT) 2.22220. Director Utah Agr. Exp. Station, Logan
SCHNEIDER, PROF. HYRUM (1917)........ Asst. Prof. Geology, U. of U., Salt ake City
SMITH, C. ARTHUR (1916).............. Teacher Physics, East High School, Salt Lake City
SNODDY, DR. GEO. S. (1916)............ Assoc. Prof. Psychology, U. of U., Salt Lake City

SNOW, DR. P. G. (Charter, 1908)......Dean School of Medicine, U. of U., Salt Lake City
Penis Dies uy.G. (Charter, 1908). 220 Utah-Idaho Sugar Oo., Salt Lake City

PLUGMAN,- DR. OREN (1917) ...c--5.0c stele Professor Physics, U. of U., (Salt Lake City
WEST, DR. FRANK L. (1912)....Prof. Physics & Dir. Sch. Interior Inst., U. A. C., Logan
WIDTSOE, DR. JOHN A. (Charter, 1908)................-. President U. of U., Salt Lake City
MEMBERS.
AMPH J. OHO, (1921) .:....:-<. Meteorologist U. S. Weather Bureau, Salt Lake City
PE EN LEV SCUIN S LA FUE HE ONG yn oe ee ee ee rey hE wo U. S, Forest Service, Ogden
ANDREW, JUNE (1921)......................Asst. Gen. Chemist Amalgamated Sugar Co., Ogden
BAKER, FREDERICK S. (1921).............. Forest Examiner, U. S. Forest Service, Ogden

BARRETT, ALONZO T. (1921)....Tech. Chemistry, High School, 2534 Bunker Ave., Ogden
BARRETT, C. ELMER (1921)_.._... Tchr. Science & Math., Weber Normal College, Ogden

BEELEY, PROF. ARTHUR L. (1919)...............- Asst. Prof. Edu., U. of U., Salt Lake City
BENNION, PROF. MILTON (1916)........ Dean School Education, U. of U., Salt Lake City
RENEE MAIN oF.) AUS DED Ui, (LGEON 3-25 toe ee ee Berg. Apt., Tacoma, Wash.
BRADFORD, DR. ROBERT H. (1921)............ Prof. Metallurgy, U. of U., Salt Lake City
CAINE, GEORGE FE. (1916)................ Assoc. Prof. Animal Husbandry, U. A. ©., Logan
SoMNiGee On. JOENET., Tins CLOTS esa oh ee Dir. Ext. Div., U. A. C., Logan
CHRISTENSEN, ANDREW LEE (1919)... 294 N. Main St., Salt Lake City
BOW TiS. PROM PmROY Wi (1919) 2220 eee cde 2529 Fulton St., Berkeley, Calif
OO TLE, H. I: (1921) ........ Agr. Chemist, Utah-Idaho Sugar Co., 2698 Alder St. Salt Lake
PEON. te.” He 4B (4 O20). Lo a Prof, Philosophy, U. of U., Salt Lake City
PVN. PANSY AL (L921) -5 2 Instructor in Botany, U. of’ Uj, Salt Lake City
GAVIN, MARTIN J. (1921)............ Oil Shale Tech. U. S. Bureau Mines, Salt Lake City
GIDDINGS, L. A. (1917)....Teacher Zoology, E. H. School, 437 Douglas Ave., Salt Lake
BENE SAVE ar eS L MING hie Dp) (COL ited Yak ar ton hin a red OR 0 Re oo ees pare y NS Pleasant Grove
HEAD, ROYDEN E. (1921)................-... Metal. Asst. U. S. Bureau Mines, Salt Lake City
HBHENDERSON, DR. MARTIN P. (1916) .....-2---20 222 Professor Biology, B. Y. U., Provo
BOW MMs: nh. Ve ttOZL). foes Tchr. Chemistry, East High School, Salt Lake City
UP EME CHS: AUiEyEeEuds, 0) (LOE Os) teat ee ear aes ee Springville, Utah
PNGADES PRANK (8! (1927) .o.c0onceco eke Chemist Utah-Idaho Sugar Co., Salt Lake City
JACOBSEN, WM. C. (1921).................. District Chemist, Amalgamated Sugar Co., Ogden
JENSEN, C. J. (1921)......... --Teacher Biology, Weber Normal College, Ogden
JONES, JAMES W.. (1917)-2.-2-2c2c2.0cce eet Agr. Expert, 418 Federal Bldg., Salt Lake City

JUSTIN, MINER M. (1921)

Agr. Statistician, U. S. Bureau of Crop Estimates, 442 State Capitol, Salt Lake City
KARRICK, LEWIS C. (1921) Asst. Oil Shale Techn., U. S. Bureau Mines, Salt Lake City
KERR, WALTER A. (1917)........ Asst. Prof. Mod. Languages, U. of U., Salt’ Lake City
KNOX, MISS FLORENCE (Dec., 1913)-....Techr. U. of U. Train. School, Salt Lake City
LLOYD ON AN 8] BE oa 1) BX 5 Mem ea (1 9) Ye ee A PE 2 P. O. Box 1785, Salt Lake City
PENDS Dit) SOHN -G:. (L921) Inst. Geol. & Chem., Weber Normal College, Ogden
LOCKE, SAMUEL B. (1921)....Fish and Game Investigator, U. S. Forest Serv., Ogden
LYMAN, DR. RICHARD R. (1912)

Professor Civil Engineering, U. of U., 47 E. S. Temple, Sait Lake City

MAESER, DR. SHERWIN( 1917).................-.. Asst. Professor Chemistry, U. A. ©., Logan
MALMSTEN, HARRY E. (1921)............ Grazing Examiner U. S. Forest Service, Ogden
ETN, IR: REOMAS) Eis (VOL) csi eo iacebeesesncacececeene Professor Agr. B. P. U., Provo

MATTHEWS, BRUCE R. (1921)
‘Teacher Chemistry, West High School, 954 S. W, Temple, Salt Lake City
MORSE, MISS HAZEL L. (1916)-_...Teacher Physiography East High School, Salt Lake

MICOS, hOSmer Ke CROSS 5 President Dixie Normal College, St. George
CUUNTTE Ae A ORRSCO TEA (Ry. Neo Ga 2 }2.1 0) Oe ee 352 Milton iAve., Salt Lake City
UAE Tag 0G] SOE 8 AST cei he SD ee ge Ue Eee Ue pe Sete eRe ts Salt Lake City
PAUL, DR. J. H. (Charter, 1908)....Prof. Nature Study & Geog., U. U., Salt Lake City
PEHRSON, E. W. (1909).................-.- Asst. Professor Mathematics, U. U., Salt Lake City
EAA De) SWrs (QUOD Oye 2 oe so le eae Asst.. Agronomist Exp. Station, U. A. C., Logan
Pio, De. CHAS, G. (8908) ac. 1s. tesececcsennnsnecesnes 465 E. S. Temple, Salt Lake City
QUINN, ELTON E. (1920)-...Asst. Prof. Chemistry, U. U., 1360 Browning, Ave., Salt Lake
TELCOS We 271 DFS SN Doo ea 3 ht ps 2.2 Uy Rs sera eae Plant Pathologist, U. A. C., Logan
OUOECHEY hs Wee CUO DM oie General Chemist, Amalgamated Sugar Co., Ogden

SEARS, DR. HEBER J. (1921)....Prof. Hygiene & Preventive Med., U. U., Salt Lake City
SHACKELL, DR. LEON F. (1921)

Prof. Physiology and Physiological Chemistry, U. U., Salt Lake City
SHOEMAKER, DAVID A, (1921)............ Grazing Examiner, U. S. Forest Service, Ogden

SMITE, ORSON (10282 Soe ee ees ee ee Teacher Sandy High School, Murray
SPALDING DOM = Cl Saye ee sca en) ean eee ee ee ae a BR. Fo3D: 4) Box 108 Provo
STEINER, CHRISTIAN D. (December, 1913)

Professor Agr. Education, U. U., Salt hake City
STEVENSON, CLARENCE C. (1921)....Asst. Metal., U. S. Bureau Mines, Salt Lake City

SUGDEN, JOHN W. 6 s(n oe ee ed eee a Pe 915 Deseret Bank Bldg., Salt Lake City
THOMAS, ELBERT D. (1917)...... Prof, Oriental Life and Culture, U. U., Salt Lake City
THOMPSON, HARE Y Wi (i021) 222. Professor Pharmacy, U. U., Salt Lake City

THORNE, GERALD G. (1918)

Sugar Beet Investigator, U. S. D. A.,.962 So. 8th West, Salt Lake City
UNSELD, GEO. P. (1920)...................- Tchr. Physics, West High School, Salt Lake City
VARLEY, TEOMA © CLO Bas acer eee U. S. Bureau Mines, Salt Lake City
WILSON, CG. OREN (1916)

Teacher Economics, East High School, 940 McClelland, Salt Lake City

WINGATH, SAMES) Be. (CDOS) 58 eee ee scesenscdenccpeectonas Teacher High School, Springville
MEMBERS-ELECT.*

AL BRO, WPAN OTS OW 5: wccxcccsese-tatapocmsvetsncaesshcenesuaeenwocnusencnses Chemist Sperry Flour Co., Ogden

133.0} G1 5 6G ced MAS «RMS oe eae ee Asst. Prof. Range Management, U. A. C., Logan

OAD IBS OS 9 OB Ah Ga Cie Sa RE WN Oe eRanernr fi 2 See Ate Instructor in Physics, U. A. C., Logan

PACIS, SHBG BRD Sida satecasuesnce>cdnerwccs-cesccsepmetaeacan es Instructor in Zoology, U. A. C., Logan

STEW ARTE.” GRO cool es.cc secrete ast ea ne da teneeeseteacsemesoae Professor Agronomy, U. A. C., Logan

SNES HOB BES Bee vs FIR DE a ae SE Ps AE RE ee ane ee Assoc. Agronomist, U. A. C., Logan

*Nominated by Council to be presented for election at the next meeting of the
Academy.

Constitution

ARTICLE I.

Section 1. The name of this organization shall be
“The Utah Academy of Sciences.”’

ARTICLE II.

Sec. 1. The objects of this Academy shall be to pro-
mote investigation and to diffuse knowledge in the various
departments. of science.

ARTICLE III.

Sec. 1. Members.—Any person interested in the
promotion of science may be a member of this Academy
upon nomination by the Council and assent of three-
fourths of the members present at any regular meeting:

Sec. 2. Each applicant for life, resident or associate
membership must be proposed in writing at a stated meet-
ing of the Academy by two or more resident or life mem-
bers. Except at the last session, names ratified by the
Council shall be placed in the hands of the members at
least one session before election. A three-fourths vote
of members present shall be required for election.

Every person applying for membership in the Acad-
emy shall accompany his application with the initiation
fee and the first annual dues, and shall sign the Consti-
tution.

Sec. 3. Fellows.—Fellows may be elected by the
Council from the members upon presenting satisfactory
evidence of having done original investigation.

Sec. 4. Fellows who have removed from the State
may be transferred to associate membership.

Members or Fellows who have removed from the

10 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

State and who have been dropped from the rolls for the
non-payment of dues, may upon their return to the State
have their names restored to the rolls as provided for new
members in Art. III, Sec. 2 of this Constitution.

Sec. 5. Honorary members shall be non-residents of
the State. They may be elected on account of special
prominence in science on the written recommendation of
two members of the Academy. The elections shall be in
the manner prescribed for resident members.

Sec. 6. Patrons.—Any person paying to the Acad-
emy the sum of one hundred dollars ($100.00) at one
time shall be classed as a patron and shall be entitled to
all the privileges of a member and to all publications of
the Academy.

Sec. 7. Fees.—Resident members shall pay an initia-
tion fee of one dollar and annual dues of two dollars; but
the Secretaries shall be exempt from the payment of reg-
ular dues during the years of their service.

Sec. 8. Life Members —Any person who at one
time shall contribute twenty-five dollars ($25.00) to the
funds of the Academy may be elected a life member of
this Academy and shall be exempt from all assessments
therein.

_ ARTICLE IV.

Sec.l. Officers —The elective officers of this Acad-
emy shall be chosen by ballot at the annual meeting, and
shall consist of a President and two Vice Presidents, who
shall perform the duties usually pertaining to their
respective offices. All of the officers shall be elected or
appointed from the Fellows.

Sec. 2. Secretaries —There shall be a Permanent
Secretary and a Corresponding Secretary appointed by
the Council to hold office during the pleasure of that body.
The duties of the Permanent Secretary shall be those ordi-
narily pertaining to that office and in addition he shall
have charge of all books, collections and other property
of the Academy. The Permanent Secretary shall also
perform the duties usually assigned to a Treasurer.

The Corresponding Secretary shall perform the duties

een Pei,» i

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 11

usually pertaining to that office under the direction of the
Permanent Secretary.

The Permanent Secretary and the Corresponding
Secretary shall be exempt from the payment of regular
dues during the period of service in their respective
offices.

Sec. 3. Council_—The Council shall consist of the
Past Presidents, the President, the Vice Presidents, the
Secretary and three Councilors-at-large to be elected
from the Fellows of the Academy at the time of the elec- —
tion of the officers.

Sec. 4. Vacancies —In the event of a vacancy in the
office of President, the First Vice President shall serve
the unexpired term, and the Second Vice President shall
succeed the First Vice President. The Council shall have
power to fill any other vacancy in the offices.

ARTICLE V.

Sec. 1. Place of Meeting —Unless otherwise
directed by the Academy, the annual meeting shall be
held in April of each year at such place as the Council
shall designate. Other meetings may be called at the
discretion of the Council.

ARTICLE VI.

Sec. 1. Amendments.—This constitution may be
amended at any annual meeting of the Academy by a vote
of three-fourths of attending members of at least one
year’s standing. No question of amendment shall be
decided except at a regular session of the annual meeting,
nor shall it be decided at the same session when presented.
All proposed amendments shall be presented in writing.

12 TRANSACTIONS OF THE
By-Laws

1. The first hour, or such part thereof as shall be
necessary, in each session shall be set aside for the trans-
action of the business of the Academy. The following
order of business shall be observed as far as practicable:

1. Opening. :
2. Minutes of last meeting.
3. Reports of Officers.
4. Reports of Standing Committees.
5. Appointing of Special Committees.
6. Unfinished Business.
7. New Business.
8. Reports of Special Committees.
9. Election of Officers.
10. Election of Members.
11. Program.
12. Adjournment.

2. The President shall deliver a public address on
the evening of one of the days of the meeting, at the
expiration of his term of office.

3. No bill against the Academy shall be paid by the
Secretary without an order signed by the President.

4. Members who allow their dues to remain unpaid
for two years, having been annually notified of their
arrearage by the Secretary, shall have their names
stricken from the roll.

5. The Permanent Secretary shall collect initiation
fees, dues and other moneys for the Academy and shall
have charge of the distribution, sale and exchange of the
published transactions of the Academy, under such
restrictions as may be imposed by the Council.

6. Eight members shall constitute a quorum for the
transaction of business.

7. No paper shall be entitled to a place on the pro-

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 13

gram unless the manuscript, or an abstract of the same,
will have been previously delivered to the Secretary.

8. Five members of the Council shall constitute a
quorum.

8. In all points of parliamentary procedure not cov-

ered by this Constitution and By-Laws, Roberts’ Rules of |

Order shall prevail.

10. These By-Laws may be amended by a two-
thirds majority vote of the members present at any regu-
-lar meeting, provided that the proposed by-law be sub-
mitted in writing to the Secretary.

Longe

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 15

ELEVENTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE
UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Physics Lecture Room, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
April 5 and 6, 1918

“Exceptional Growth of Some Mammals and of a few
Lower Species of the Northern Hemisphere’’......
S. Moth Iverson

“The Quest of the Student of Nature’’................ ae 4
Dr. Chas. G. Plummer

“Our Country—A Retrospect’’................0.... Wm. D. Neal
“Reversals in Photographic Plates’’........ C. Arthur Smith

“An Equation of the Density—Exposure Curve of a
POOveeTapnic: Plate. io. Dr. Orin Tugman

“Intensity and Distribution of Illumination From
Automobile Headlights’’........2..2222022.220.. Orson Smith

“Pogsibilities of Oil and Gas in Salt Lake and Cache
Me Te AT rise ee Prof. Hyrum Schneider

“The Second Reclamation of the Desert’’..Richard A. Hart
“Major J. W. Powell and His Work”..Francis M. Bishop

“Some Uncommon Insect Pests in Utah’’...................-
ant) ar weer ne ee us ie alee se Prof. A. L. Matthews

“Food and Feeding of Nestlings’’...... Dr. Newton Miller

16 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

PERSONAL REMINISCENCES OF
JOHN W. POWELL.

BY FRANCIS MARION BISHOP.

Gentlemen:—

It affords me genuine pleasure to be of your number
at this time, and for a brief space to have the honor of
speaking to you of one who has left lasting evidence of
his fitness to do the work he chose, because he loved it,
and who with Longfellow could say that he believed “The
talent of success is nothing more than doing what you can
do WELL, and doing WELL whatever you do without a
thought of fame,” but only of the work itself, and with
Dickens could truthfully add—‘‘Whatever I have tried
to do in life, I have tried with all my heart to do well,
whatever I have devoted myself to, I have devoted myself
to completely.” John Wesley Powell’s life was a living
exponent of these two thoughts.

His early youth was characteristic of many of our
American boys—who so full of ambition and purpose can
hardly brook nature’s apparently slow process in the
growth of body and mind to make them fit for the work
they have to do. His parents, Joseph Powell and Mary
Dean Powell, of old English stock but intensely American,
gave to the boy that strength of body and those sterling
qualities of mind that later developed and expanded until
he became a leader of unusual abilities. His parents
landed in New York in 1830, after a time removing to
Palmyra and thence to Mount Morris in Livingston Co.,
where on the 24th of March, 1831, John W. Powell was
born and as his name would indicate his parents were
Methodists, but they were conscientiously opposed to
slavery, which was in a way countenanced by the Metho-
‘dist Episcopal Church. Joseph Powell, the Major’s
father, left that church and on the organization of the
Wesleyan Methodists, he became a regularly ordained
preacher of the latter church. Mrs. Powell was a highly
educated and very intellectual woman, and in this atmos-

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES LF

phere of social, educational, political and religious fervor
the future scientist and explorer grew and flourished.

From New York State his family moved to Jackson,
Ohio, when he was about 5 years old, and in 1846 moved
still westward to South Grove in Walworth Co., Wiscon-
sin, where a farm was purchased. As he grew in years,
certain traits of character developed, among them, that
one that marked the future explorer, that trait of doing
all his work well, became a notable quality in the boy’s
hfe. His ploughing, sowing and work of all kinds on the
farm was of the best and his business ability in buying and
selling for the farm was admitted by all his neighbors. In
addition to his farm work, he now began most zealously
to strive for an education, which was the dearest wish of
his parents, who continually impressed upon him the
importance of the highest education possible. In the
accomplishing of this object he continued his studies at
Janesville, Wis., working night and morning to pay his
way. In 1851 his family moved to Bonus Prairie, Boone
County, Illinois. Two years later, at Wheaton, Illinois,
he entered the Wesleyan College, where he remained
until 1855, when he entered the preparatory department
of the Illinois College at Jacksonville. In 1857 he began
a course of study in Oberlin College, Ohio, where in the
study of botany he discovered his true vocation, the inves-
tigation of natural science. He became an enthusiastic
botanist, and searched the woods and swamps around
Oberlin with his characteristic thoroughness, making an
almost complete herbarium of the flora of that section.

In 1858 as a member of the Illinois State Natural
History Society, he engaged with the society in a natural
history survey of the state. Powell having the depart-
ment of Conchology, with his usual thoroughness made
the most complete collection of the mollusca of Illinois
ever brought together by one man. Incidentally botany,
zoology and mineralogy came under his attention, and he
secured collections for the Society in each of these depart-
ments of research. With broad mental grasp, now a
pronounced trait, he perceived that all these sciences were
but part of the greater science of geology, to which won-
derful study he determined to devote his life. Thus
while studying, teaching and lecturing, usually on some

18 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

topic connected with geology, in 1860 he visited the south-
ern states and closely observing the sentiment of the peo-
ple on the subject of slavery, he became convinced that
nothing short of war could settle the matter. In the win-
ter of 1860-61 as principal of the public schools of Hen-
nipin, becoming convinced that war was inevitable, he
began studying military tactics and engineering, and in
the spring of 1861, when the call came for volunteers he
was the first man to enroll in Co. H., 20th Regt., Illinois
Infantry. When the regiment was organized at Joliet,
Illinois, he was appointed Sergeant-Major and as such
went to the front. With his mind thus stored with mili-
tary science he could not be kept down and became at
once invaluable to the military authorities. He was
placed in charge of planning, laying out and constructing
the defensive fortifications of Cape Girardeau, Mo., doing
the work so thoroughly that he received the unqualified
commendation and approval of Gen. Fremont, command-
ing the department.

He was now commissioned as First Lieutenant of Co.
H, and after a few weeks’ service with his Company,
was put in charge of the fortifications he had constructed.
During the winter of 1861-62, he recruited a battery of
artillery composed of loyal Missourians, which was mus-
tered into the U.S. Army as Battery F, 2nd Regt. Illinois
Artillery with John Wesley Powell as Captain. His bat-
tery was ordered soon after to Pittsburg Landing, Tenn.,
and he took part with it in the battle of Shiloh, April 6,
1862, where in directing his battery in firing he lost an
arm. On account of imperfect surgery, a second opera-
tion was necessary, leaving only a stump below the elbow,
which caused him pain most of the time in future years.
Returning to his command as soon as the wound had
healed, as Division Chief of Artillery, he took part in the
siege of Vicksburg and the Meridian Raid. Then he
served on detached operations at Vicksburg, Natchez and
New Orleans, until the summer of 1864 when he was
returned to his former command in the Army of the Ten-
nessee, and bore an active part in all the operations after
the fall of Atlanta. When Sherman started on his march
to the sea, Major Powell was sent to General Thomas at
Nashville and was placed in command of a brigade of

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 19

twenty batteries of artillery and served on Gen. Thomas’
staff at the battle of Nashville, and to the end of the war
in 1865. His career as a soldier was marked by that same
thoroughness in the study and mastery, not only of details
of military life, but also of military science. Especially
was he apt in the use of material at hand for the accom-
plishing of his ends, building bridges out of cotton gins,
and protection for his guns from gunny sacks and old rope
and shields for his sharpshooters from the mouldboards of
old ploughs found upon abandoned plantations. During
the time he was in the service he never overlooked an
opportunity to continue his studies in natural science,
making collections of fossils in the trenches of Vicksburg,
and land and river shells from the Mississippi swamps
adjacent.

Upon his return to civil life, Major Powell accepted
the offer of the chair of geology in the Illinois Wesleyan
University, although offered a very lucrative political
appointment. After my regiment was mustered out, I
met the Major here in January, 1866, and became one of
his pupils in the domain of the natural sciences, under his
care. In 1867 he was elected to the chair of geology in
the State Normal University at Normal, Illinois. At
about the same time, he was elected curator of the IIli-
nois State Natural History Society, whose collections of
specimens were in the museum of the Normal University.
He thus became attracted to the great West then just
opening up for general research, as a new field for prof-
itable scientific research, and his determination to be first
in the field led him to organize a party, composed largely
of his students in the Wesleyan University and friends in
the western part of the state, including his brother-in-law,
Prof. A. H. Thompson, afterwards intimately associated
with Major Powell in his various surveys.

At this time I was working in the Museum and was
fortunate enough to be selected as one of this party and
starting from Council Bluffs, via Plattsmouth, we crossed
the plains going up the Platte River to Denver and south
along the Front Range, scaling Pikes Peak, July 27, 1867,
westerly through South Park and northerly to a point
almost due west from Denver, thence out of the mountains

20 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

and back to Julesburg on the Union Pacific Railroad, and
home and school work again. This trip through the
mountains opened up a wonderland for the Major, so
again in 1868 he was in this field, devoting his salary and
appropriations from the Illinois Industrial University, at
Champaign, and other financial assistance to the expenses
of this venture. When this party broke up in the autumn
of 1868, Major Powell, Mrs. Powell and the Major’s
brother, Walter B. and a party of hunters, including the
Howland brothers, Wm. Dunn and Wm. R. Hawkins,
afterwards members of his first party to explore the
canyon, crossed the range to White River and wintered
near the camp of Chief Douglas and his bands of Utes.
With the return of spring the Major went to Granger on
the U. P. Ry., disposed of his outfit and hastened on to
Washington and induced Congress to pass a joint reso-
lution approved by Gen. Grant, allowing the Major to
draw from any western army post rations for a party of
twelve men, while engaged in making explorations and
collections for public institutions, and a most worthy con-
cession it was. He again obtained permission to divert
his salary and appropriations from the various institu-
tions in Illinois, these and an appropriation of $500.00
from the Chicago Academy of Sciences, and contributions
from friends, all of which were spent for the advance-
‘ ment of his great purpose, the solving of the last great
geographical problem of the U. 8., that of the Canyons of
the Green and Colorado Rivers, as well as making col-
lections in other branches of scientific investigation.

Major Powell organized his first expedition and
started from Green River, Wyo., in the spring of 1869,
taking the river at its flood, for otherwise many of the
broad shallow rapids would have been so full of rocks
as to be impassable, but with plenty of water in the chan-
nel they were run in safety. At Green River, Wyo., the
altitude is about 6000 feet, while the mouth of the Rio
Virgin at Black Canyon, the last canyon of the great
gorge, the altitude is about 700 feet above sea level, and
to determine how this 5300 feet drop was made by the
river, as well as to unravel many of the wierd legends
that threw a halo of mystery around this thousand mile
gorge, were some of the things Major Powell had in mind.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 21

With characteristic foresight, he provided for all obser-
vations as to directions of the river and topography to be
taken in duplicate so that in case of loss of one, the other
set might be preserved. The wisdom of this precaution
was demonstrated shortly after entering Lodore Canyon
at the foot of Brown’s Park, when one of the boats was
wrecked in a rapid, called Disaster Falls, and the men
and everything in the boat were spilled in the river. Two
of the crew reached shore and the third landed on a low
rocky island in the river, from which he was rescued after
numerous trials and brought in safety to the mainland.
All of the instruments and provisions in this boat were
given as a peace offering to the merciless river, but no
life was sacrificed.

Day after day the wonders of the great river
‘and canyon unfolded until the mysteries of the can-
yon became common, every day occurrences. With no
further mishap, the party reached the head of Marble
Canyon, beginning just below the mouth of the Pariah
River in Arizona. In this gorge a legend claimed that
the river ran into the side of a great mountain and dis-
appeared for miles and finally appeared on the other side
of the range. The wonders of the 600 or 700 miles of
canyon passed were marvelous, almost beyond concep-
tion, with canyons so deep and narrow that the stars
could be seen in day time, with stretches of continuous
rapids for scores of miles followed by miles of placid
water. With the most stupendous exhibition of natural
sculpture work, from great pot holes containing pine
trees, two feet in diameter, not reaching the levels of the
walls, to the largest natural bridges in the world, this
panorama had passed by, but what lay beyond in this
gorge with a rapid to begin it—what was to follow?
The Major and his men were inured to danger, and what-
ever their misgivings in their talks about their camp fire,
when the order to go was given, after a few days’ rest,
not a man hesitated, but men and boats took the river
again. This canyon, 45 miles long, formed part of the
first great bend of the river where it cuts through the
southern end of Kaibab Plateau or Buckskin Mountain
and extends to the mouth of the Little Colorado River,
where the nature of the rocks change from limestone to

,22 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

granite and the canyon reaches a depth of over 6000 feet
and from the moment of starting was one titanic fight
against the power of the river. This battle continued
until on the second great southern bend of the canyon,
about 150 miles down, rounding the Shevwitz Mountain
or tableland, a point was reached where the whole volume
of the river appeared to roll up against the mountain
side and to disappear. Here was the great siphon; here
was the place where he who entered left all hope behind.
The men who composed this first party were all hunters,
trappers or miners, with many superstitious fears, but
could not be driven. For three days the Major and his
party tried to scale the canyon wall to get out on top and
try to find out what was beyond but failed to find any
break in the solid canyon wall, and discussed the next
step, until the stars warned them to rest if possible. All
but three of the party finally agreed to go ahead and
risk the river, as the Major argued and believed if they
could get out they would find that the water made a
quick turn to the right and went along all right. He
tried every way to persuade these men, the Howland
Brothers and Bell, to risk the river and go ahead. These
three were called cowards and other hard words and
finally they declared they would go no farther, risking
the canyon wall and getting back to civilization, rather
than be swallowed up by the thirsty river. When the
Major became satisfied that these men would not go on,
he called the party all together, decided to leave them
one boat, one third of all provisions and instruments, one
set of records, and then go on, hoping they might suc-
ceed in getting out and reaching some of the southern
settlements of Utah. He further agreed if they got
through, to wait for them and to fire their three guns as
a signal that all was well and tocome on. In carrying out
this plan, one boat was pulled out for them but in such a
position that it could easily be launched again and
bidding a silent good-by the two boats pulled off and one
after the other, as was their custom, plunged into the
seething, roaring waters. When the first boat struck
the maelstrom as the Major had declared his belief, the
canyon broke squarely to the right and in less than 30
minutes both boats were in comparatively smooth water.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 23

The Rubicon had been passed. A landing was at once
made and for two days every signal that could be made
was made in hope that the third boat would come on.
But they waited in vain. The feeling engendered had
become so bitter that although the Howland boys and
Bell could see that the other boats had gone safely
through, yet they were too sore to go on, and sorrowfully
the Major and his party proceeded. Nothing of any
moment occurred until at the end of Black Canyon below
the Rio Virgin, the hazardous trip ended and the party
broke up. The Major with his valuable records returned
by way of St. George, Utah, in the hope of hearing of his
other men, but no word of any kind had been heard.
After waiting several days at St. George, no message of
any kind coming of or from them, with a heavy heart he
came on to Salt Lake and from here to Washington to
report.

In 1870, the Major learned that the Schevwitz Indians
living on the plateau, near where the men separated had
one or two watches and guns, that from all accounts
belonged to the missing men. Ever anxious to learn
of their fate he decided to come to Utah at once, and
selecting Walter H. Graves and myself from Bloomington,
Ill., came to Salt Lake by rail and from here in wagons
and on horseback we went to Pipe Springs, Arizona, and
from there with Jacob Hamlin and Ashton Nebeker as
guides and interpreters, we went to the southern slope of
the West Side Mountain of Lieut. Ive’s survey, now cal-
led Mt. Trumbull, and from there sent a runner to the
Schevwitz village about 30 miles away, inviting the chiefs
to come in and have a council and smoke the pipe of
peace. Two days later the chief men of the village,
eleven of them, came and after an all-night parley, this
was what Powell learned—That his men had succeeded
in finding a way out of the canyon and in a famished con-
dition, without water, they reached the Indian Village.
Unfortunately for them, a day or two before a renegade
Indian called ‘Pete’, from Colorado, had reached this
same village. As he could talk a little English, the men
told their story and their desire to reach St. George, the
Mormon settiement, about 75 miles distance. However,
improbable as their story of coming down the river in

24 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

“Water Ponies” might have seemed, all would have gone
well had not “Pete” in his talk convinced the Indians
that the white men were telling lies and that they were
bad men and had come from Colorado to steal their
squaws. After giving the men food and water and bid-
ding them sleep, under the direction of “Pete”? an ambush
was planned and shortly after starting for St. George the
next morning, they were cruelly ambushed and killed,
their poor bodies being literally filled with arrows. A
watch and some other keepsakes of the men were recov-
ered and sent back to their parents in New England and
so closed that chapter of mistakes and sorrow. While
waiting for the Shevwitz Indians to come from their vil-
lage, our party made a trip down the Lateral Canyon to
the Colorado River, looking out a point in the canyon
where supplies might be brought in for a second expe-
dition, the plans for which were being formulated in Pow-
ell’s mind. Our work having been accomplished, we
returned to Bloomington and during the fall and winter,
I was engaged in making a map of the Green and Colo-
rado River Canyons, from the field notes taken. This
map when finished was the first map ever made of this
great gorge from topographical notes, and was taken to
Washington and placed on file in the War Department, as
the official map of this survey of the river; and in subse-
quent work was found to be remarkably correct. Pow-
ell’s thirst for knowledge of this hitherto unknown coun-
try was not quenched by the first trip, and realizing the
many natural imperfections and defects, he immediately
began organizing his second expedition to make a more
perfect exploration and scientific survey of this wonder-
land, whose mythological barriers had been burned away
or broken, by his first canyon trip.

In May, 1871, the second party fully equipped with
instruments and supplies made its start from Green River,
Wyo., with three boats and eleven men. At Brown’s
Park, 75 miles down the river, one of the party, Mr. Rich-
ardson, was sent back, and the other ten going on and
making a successful exploration of the Green and Colo-
rado Rivers and the lateral canyons as far as the head of
Grand Canyon, at the mouth of the Pariah River, where,
owing to the lateness of the season and the cold water,

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 25

we were compelled to leave the river and continued the
field work on land during the fall and winter, along the
west side of the Canyon.

Now that the work was successfully launched, Con-
gress generously came to his assistance, making appro-
priations for continuing the survey, topographical and
geological, of the country adjacent to the river, the expen-
diture of the appropriations being under the supervision
of the Smithsonian Institution, yearly, thereafter, until
1879, when the work of this survey was consolidated with
those of Hayden and Wheeler and afterwards known as
the “U. 8S. Geological Survey’. Prof Clarence King was
made the director, as the Major felt that he had been too
closely interested in its creation to allow his name to be
presented. The new consolidation was placed under the
Department of the Interior, and in 1881, Clarence King
resigned and Major Powell was immediately appointed
in his stead. The result of Powell’s original field work
was topographical maps of a large part of Utah and con-
siderable portions of Wyoming, Arizona and Nevada, as
shown by many volumes of reports and monographs.
Among them may be cited—The Exploration of the Colo-
rado River of the West, 1869 to 1872; The Geology of the
Uinta Mountains and Lands of the Arid Region, by Pow-
ell; Geology of the High Plateaus of Utah, by C. E. Dut-
ton, U.S. A.; Geology of the Henry Mountains, by G. K.
Gilbert; and four volumes of Contributions to North
American Ethnology, one of which contained Lewis H.
Morgan’s famous monograph on “‘Houses and House Life
of the American Aborigines.’’ Early in his western work
Major Powell became interested in the native tribes,
studying the language, tribal organization, customs and
mythology of the Utes, Pai Utes and the Moki or ‘‘Sheni-
mos’, Wisemen, as they called themselves, and on one
occasion was formally adopted into one of the Moki Clans.
Through his influence at the consolidation of the three
surveys, a Bureau of Ethnology was established and
attached to the Smithsonian Institution with Powell as its
director, an office he held until 1894 without salary. His
labors as a pioneer in the science of ethnology have been
recognized by leading societies and institutions of learn-
ing throughout the world. As a lecturer he was inde-

26 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

pendent, interesting and forceful and never lacked the
ability to turn things to accomplish his purposes. About
this time, on one of his lecturing tours, the Major was
engaged to speak at the University of Michigan where it
was a custom for the students to guy the speakers, even
Charles Sumner being a victim. Powell had been warned
of this practice, and as he advanced to the platform in
evening dress he was greeted with a call of “How are you,
Coat-tails?”, which was repeated from all parts of the
house. During a momentary lull, he exclaimed with a
peculiar squinting of his eyes, and the half laugh his
friends so well remember, ‘“‘Your greeting reminds me
of Dave Larkin’s reply, when criticised for wearing a
wamus in July. Dave said, with his slow drawl, ‘If you
don’t like my wamus, I can take it off.’”’ The answer
with the suggestion took instantly and after the laughter
had ceased, cries came from everywhere, ‘“‘You’ll do. Go
on”’,

This incident aroused Powell and he has often said
he never talked better nor had a more attentive audience.
With his closing sentence he said, “I have given you the
finest account of the exploration of the Colorado River
my command of language permits. I have been dramatic
and as eloquent as I thought this occasion demanded.
If anyone wishes a plain statement, regarding the explor-
ation, I will be happy to give it to him at my hotel’.
After a moment’s hush, as the students grasped the impli-
cation there came cries of “Sold.” However, a large
number called upon him and found he had stated only
facts, as of course he had. In his later years when he
should have rested, he took up the study of psychology
and philosophy, which aggravated his malady, sclerosis
of the arteries, and produced his last illness. As a result
of his later studies he published two treatises—“Truth
and Error’ and “Good and Evil,” the first relating to
matter, motion and conciousness as related to the exter-
nal universe or the field of fact, and the other as related
to humanity or to welfare.

The life of Powell is an example of intelligent, per-
sistent endeavor. His power to look ahead and to fore-
east events, standing on the imperfections of the present,
was extraordinary. As a soldier, he was a patriot; as

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 27

-an explorer, he was a hero. As a far-seeing scientific

man, as a loving friend and a delightful comrade whether
by the camp fire or in the study, and as a true sympa-
thizer with the aspirations and ambitions of subordinates
or equals, there has seldom been his superior.

The United States, especially the western states, will
long remember Powell and his survey of the Colorado
Canyon; and I can only add: Reguiescat in pace.

28 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

CASES OF EXCEPTIONAL GROWTH OF
CERTAIN SPECIES OF MAMMALS,
REPTILES AND INSECTS.

BY L. MOTH IVERSEN.

(Abstract).

1. Giants and dwarfs in the human races, compris-
ing both entire peoples and exceptional size of individu-
als belonging to universally known nations (freaks).

2. Unusual developement of bodily strength, height
or weight in domestic animals.

3. Similar facts concerning terrestrial or marine
mammals (birds) or reptiles asserted and accepted by
prominent or famous students of nature.

4. Similar facts concerning terrestrial or marine
mammals (birds) or reptiles observed by the writer in
Europe and U. 8.

5. Exceptional size of insects (isolated cases).

6. <A few fish “stories” and some figures concern-
ing the piscatorial realm.

7. An attempt to show an effect on phenomenal
stature—claimed or scientifically proved.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 29

THE QUEST OF THE STUDENT OF NATURE.
BY CHARLES GRIFFIN PLUMMER. M. D.

(Abstract).

He seeks TRUTH!

His field of search and adventure is the Universe.

His subjective mind and his objective mind partici-
pate in every activity. His interpretation of the realm
he contacts is restricted only when he is dominated by his
objective mind. It is when he is ruled unreservedly by
his subjective mind that he interprets to the fullness of
his capacity.

As he fares forth he promises himself that he will
use his eyes and his ears ungrudgingly. He disregards
the man-made orthodoxy that creation is made up of the
animate and the inanimate classes.

Those creatures that walk and run and crawl upon
the earth, that fly in the air and swim in the sea, have a
strange fascination for him, because they exhibit charac-
teristics about which he knows little.

It is probable that in his early life he was more
directly concerned with such creatures because the teach-
ings of many years led him to believe they alone mani-
fested what is termed life. Yet when he grew to be more
keenly observant and was wholly in harmony with his
surroundings his attention became rivited upon that other
division, the inanimate or lifeless (so-called) part of
creation.

Time comes when he acknowledges the potent per-
sonality of the lowly weed and vegetable; the undying
charm and beauty of the wayside flower; the imposing
majesty of a giant tree; the strangely persistent cohesion
of the rock and mineral molecules as they form the crust
of the planet, as their mass is uplifted into great and rug-
ged mountain chains or is reduced to dust by elemental
activities that make the soil which affords lodgment for
the seeds of all plant life.

Then there is forced upon his consciousness the

30 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

thought that these manifest life but they do not exhibit
their activities to his objective mind.

He becomes an animated question-mark. The
“When?” and the “Where?” and the “Why?” press him
for explanation. These interrogatories are answerable.

The unvarying harmony that reigns in undisturbed
Nature impresses him mightily. He is set at ease by its
wondrous music ONLY when the natural balance is
maintained upon the earth. Obviously such a balance
exists by design and rules always when wild-life is left
to the administration of its own affairs.

Long continued investigation compels the student
to believe that the white man is the arch disturber and
destroyer of this balance. Why? Because he breaks
his own laws and disregards all Divine Laws, of which
he is wholly ignorant or quite inconsiderate, in his every
day association with his fellows.

Sometime, somewhere, there comes to him the
knowledge that mankind suffers much unnecessarily. If
man’s assumption of dominion over all creation were not _
so clearly an attitude of ownership, did he not protest and
speculate and contend with such eagerness and heat, his
course beside other created things would be more harmon-
iously pursued.

Protest and speculation have no place in nature.

However much mankind may seek complete domi-
nation over all the earth, his dominion ceases upon the
sudden appearance of incomputable insect hordes. These
creatures multiply so rapidly, eat so voraciously, and des-
troy so extensively that even man and his vaunted power
is of no avail in their presence.

All animal life depends upon the products of the
earth for its sustenance. There is nothing but wild bird-
life that stands between ultimate starvation by mankind
with his herds and the insect hosts that prey upon his
crops.

This thought teaches the student that the real
munition plant is the earth and that food is the only
munition with which mankind may fight all battles to
successful issue.

He recognizes the obvious value of everything in
creation. That each product is not only for his use but

“ow ES

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 31

for the use of his neighbor as well. He says that all
occupy important places in a Divine Cosmogony that
strives ever toward perfection.

Of course he grieves for those who suffer material
injury by such shortsightedness as indiscriminate killing
of earth’s creatures may bring about, as well as for those
dissatisfied ones who drive their ships of Science into
unknown harbors and ride unrestfully in shallow waters.
He offers them the same field of quest and venture he
travels in which they may delve understandingly if they
choose to do so.

The thought of wholeness (perfection) in Nature
possesses him. He has found out that a study of Nature
without including man in its scope is incomplete and hence
unsatisfactory. Why? Because man is just as much a
product of Nature (Divine Law) as is any other thing in
creation. So the student of Nature refuses to consider
attributes alone in his study. He is intent upon charac-
teristics. How a thing lives and reacts toward his fel-
lows is of prime worth to him.

He endures experiences which teach him that life
is made up of unnumbered individualities—that each one
has a right to live and does so in peace with all others
according to its guidance by Nature. When mankind
assumes the right to remove from the earth in the name
of Science, for sport, in the pursuit of opulence or in
vainglorious exhibitions before his kind, immense num-
bers of the myriad forms of life on every side, he does so
at his peril. A day of reckoning comes that is pitiless and
that is fatal to such daring ones.

The stonewall of CAUSE which Science has erected
is a man-made reduction of knowledge to rules and to
symbols. It looms large and impenetrable before the
scientist in his supreme effort to understand and to
explain. The farther the scientist goes into the subject
of Nature upon his present-day fundamentals the more
deeply he is submerged in a sea of doubt. He starts out
upon a long, long, most interesting journey to him and
arrives—where ?—at the point from which he set forth!

The scientific followers of Aristotle and his teachings
tried in vain to account for this bugbear. In sharing with
Democritus his atomic theory of the earth’s formation,

32 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Epicurus married Chance to Chaos—but we know that
this union was a sterile one!

There are those scientists who still cling to the belief
that some day the fruit of this union will be forthcoming
and thus prove the stability of their reasoning.

The student who uses his entire equipment as it is
obvious Divine Mind intended it should be used under all
conditions, pins his faith to the oldest of all thoughts con-
cerning CAUSE—the spiritual—because it makes the
strongest appeal to his reason and offers the most satis-
faction.

His conclusion is that an omnipresent, immutable
spiritual law rules the Universe (NATURE) and IT
demands obedience from the multitudes numbered in ITS
creation.

When this student accepts the administration of
Nature’s laws as the wisest handling of great complexi-
ties he is in perfect harmony with his surroundings. He
has faith in the light that guides him and never becomes
a discordant factor in God’s great out-of-doors.

Man falls out of his place in evolution when he dis-
regards this spiritual guidance. Nature unaided by
Divine Law likewise fails.

The student has learned also that only the fit shall
survive.

He would return to the lost art of teaching, that of
discipleship.

By this manner of direction he is compelled to believe
that the study of nature is not confined to the commitment
of first principles to memory; to scientific differentiation
of a few trees and flowers and animals and insects. Rather
is it a gradual realization of the meaning of and appre-
ciation for one’s everyday environment.

Nature-study does not teach a love of man-made law;
but it does teach the Divine Law of Love!

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 33

OUR COUNTRY: A RETROSPECT.

Being a study in Progress, Achievement and Influence.
BY W. D. NEAL.

(Abstract).

The paper discusses certain phases of progress and
achievement made by the citizens of our country, or of
men who have lived here and whose experiments, inven-.
tions and discoveries were developed largely by our peo-
ple or in our own country.

A broad general view of advancement along lines of
growth in population, development of resources, science,
invention, education, founding of cities and states, indus-
tries, material prosperity and self government: their influ-
ence both directly and indirectly upon our own people and
those of other nations.

The paper maintains that, while at the beginning of
our history, people of the old world little dreamed that
anything good could come out of America, since then our
progress and achievements along the above lines have
been such as to influence for the better, both in peace and
in war, the manners, customs, laws, industries—yes, even
the food they eat, the clothes they wear, the sights they
see, the sounds they hear, the thoughts they think, the lib-
erty and freedom they enjoy, of many people on all the
continents of our earth.

Today America leads; her achievements are epoch
making; her success has led the other nations as well as
our own, to better conditions and her greatly beneficial
influence on the human race is practically undisputed.

34 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

REVERSALS IN PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATES.

BY C. ARTHUR SMITH.

(Abstract).

The density of a photographic plate increases as
the logarithm of exposure, up to a certain maximum. On
further exposure the density is found to diminish to
a minimum. On still further exposure it begins to
increase again. These points of maxima and minima are
called critical points and vary with the kind of plate
exposed.

The relation of density to exposure is best shown by
the curve fig. 1. B and C are the critical points. The rever-
the curve, fig. 1. B and C are the critical points. The rever-
sal of the plates begins at B. It is seen that the curve
between C and D has approximately the same slope as
that between A and B. The same is true of the slope
between B and C and A and B. The curve has the
appearance of having reached a second maximum at D,
but time did not permit taking data beyond that point.
It is possible that had we continued our exposures we
would have found a succession of maxima and minima
points, but the character of the curve beyond that shown
is problematical. It might settle down to a regular sine
curve, or it might obey the decay law and finally disap-
pear entirely, or it might become wholly irregular.

Just what is the cause of reversals in a photographic
plate does not seem to be well understood. There are
two theories regarding it. It is thought by some to be
due to a chemical change produced by the action of light
on the silver salt. By others it is believed to be due to
a photoelectric effect upon the silver grains. This theory
is based on the now established fact that light incident on
a metallic surface will produce an electric discharge from
the surface of the metal.

‘SSG(NOOUS NI dUNSOdXA AO “DOT

él

oT

06

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

DENSITY.

— i] tvs) > o

ot
PRED 61 AD MACACHLAN, CORTOR,

36 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

AN EQUATION OF THE DENSITY EXPOSURE
CURVE OF A PHOTOGRAPHIC PLATE
TAKING REVERSAL INTO ACCOUNT.

BY ORIN TUGMAN.

(Abstract).

The equation derived by Hurter and Driffield
accounts only for a curve which never reverses. This
equation was derived on the laws of absorption and that a
silver bromide grain in a photographic plate remained
exposed.

This equation assumes that after a silver halide grain
absorbed a sufficient energy to be exposed, further
absorption will render the grain unexposed. After that
more energy will be required to expose the grain again
and so forth.

The equation is an infinite series of exponential
terms.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 37

INTENSITY AND DISTRIBUTION OF
ILLUMINATION FROM AUTO-
MOBILE HEADLIGHTS.

BY ORSON SMITH.

(Abstract).

Automobile headlights fitted with various types of
lenses have been tested to determine the relative distri-
bution of light about each type. In each case a curve
has been plotted showing the results of the test.

Measurements were taken by means of a portable
photometer constructed by placing a Bunsen screen in
one end of a light-proof box, four inches square and four
feet long, and a portable lamp carriage in the opposite end
The instrument was calibrated to read directly in foot
candles by comparing it to a standard lamp, certified by
the Electrical Testing Laboratories.

38 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

POSSIBILITIES OF OIL AND GAS IN SALT LAKE
AND CACHE VALLEYS.

BY HYRUM SCHNEIDER.

(Abstract).

In both of these regions gas occurs in artesian wells
and companies have been organized to drill for oil.
Petroleum occupies a position of great importance in the
successful prosecution of modern warfare. Its produc-
tion is fast falling behind an increasing demand; therefore
if these fields offer reasonable possibilities their explora-
tion should be encouraged but if, on the other hand,
Science indicates their barrenness, useless expenditures of
money should be discouraged.

Wherever oil and gas have been found in commercial
quantities certain geologic conditions prevail. (1) There
is a source, either in the form of organic matter from
which oil or gas is derived or as_ disseminated
oil, from which the oil or gas has accumulated into
so-called pools. (2) The structure of the rocks, their
porosity and ground water conditions are favorable for
the accumulation of the oil or gas, or both, into pools.

Do these conditions prevail in Salt Lake and Cache
Valleys? Salt Lake Valley is a down thrown block,
along the great Wasatch Fault. On this block there has
accumulated, since the faulting, over 2,000 feet of detri-
tal material or valley fill. A discussion of oil and gas
possibilities in this region must take into account the val-
ley fill and the rocks of the down thrown block on which
the detrital material was deposited. In so far as the geo-
logic story of the valley fill can be read, it seems that cli-
matic and other conditions were unfavorable for the dep-
osition in it of sufficient organic matter to produce oil or
gas in commercial quantities. Even if the source of the
oil were there, structural and ground water conditions
are unfavorable for its accumulation into pools. The
rocks of the down thrown block beneath the detrital
material are the same as were the rocks at the surface of

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 39

the up throw block to the east, at the time of faulting. A
study of the Wasatch Front Range shows no oil bearing
rocks in it now and indicates that there probably were
none at the time of faulting. So even though there seems
to be at ledst one favorable structure in the rocks buried
beneath the detrital material which partly fills Salt Lake
Valley, there can be no oil pools in these rocks without a
feeding source.

Cache Valley, as Salt Lake Valley, is partly filled
with detrital material, which is no more promising ground
for oil and gas in commercial quantities than is the valley
fill of Salt Lake Valley. Nor does a study of the Bear
River Range to the east of Cache Valley or the Wasatch
Front Range to the west, offer inducements to drill
through the detrital material into the rocks beneath.

40 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THE SECOND RECLAMATION OF THE DESERT.

BY R. A. HART.*

(Abstract).

The importance of agriculture and the necessity of
making every acre of land produce its highest economic
return have been brought forcibly to our attention by the
great war.

We, of the West, are concerned particularly with
agriculture based on irrigation.

We have come to think of irrigation as being a guar-
anty of crop production and generally are acquainted
with its benevolent aspects. Most of us are unaware of
the fact that the unrestrained use of irrigation water is
a potent factor in the reduction of crop returns and in
the actual deterioration of lands. As a matter of fact,
an alarming proportion of the lands that have been
brought under irrigation are now unproductive to a
greater or lesser extent. |

Irrigation results in the water-logging and mineral-
ization of the soil of the arid region. The accumulation
of alkaline salts is the result of a high water-table and
the only effective remedy is underdrainage followed by
proper cultivation and irrigation. Drainage lowers the
water table and prevents its fluctuation within the root
zone, while the subsequent treatment provides for the
leaching out of the soluble salts.

The reclamation of lands injured by irrigation is both
feasible and economical and makes possible an important
contribution to war needs.

*Senior Drainage Engineer, Oftice of Public Roads and Rural
Engineering, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 41

SOME UNCOMMON PLANT PESTS.

BY A. L. MATTHEWS.

The work in the Salt Lake City War Gardens for the
year of 1917 brought to light two pests, uncommon
to the state of Utah, namely the Blackleg, (Bacillus
phytophthorus) and the corn-root web worm, (Genus
Crambus), A new pest which as far as can be deter-
mined was discovered—the Tomato Aphis, possibly
belonging to the Macrosiphum solanifolii. The dis-
cussion of these pests will be treated in the order of
importance relative to their destructive characteristics.

BLACKLEG. (Bacillus phytophthorus).

As nearly as can be determined Blackleg made its
first appearance in America in an Idaho potato field, in
1915. The cisease has spread rapidly since that date
and was discovered for the first time in Utah in 1917, in
connection with the Salt Lake City war gardens.

Blackleg originated in Europe, reached its greatest
development in Germany, and later it found its way into
England. (Carruthers, W., Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc. Eng.,
68, p. 226-1907). The development of the disease in
Germany was in connection with potato and the beet sugar
farms. As far as is known at the present time, the Ger-
mans have not found a remedy for the disease. The
practice in England, where the disease is known, is to
hold it in check by crop rotation. How the disease got
into America is very much a matter of conjecture.

Blackleg is a disease due to a bacterium called
Bacillus phytophthorus. The disease affects differ-
ent plants differently but all plants attacked show similar
characteristics. A description of the disease on the
potato will suffice to explain how the disease can be
detected. When the potato is attacked with Blackleg
the lower leaves wilt, turn slightly yellow, then brown
and finally dry up and drop off the plant. The last leaves

=

42 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

to wilt and drop from the plant are those at the top.
When the stem is cut it reveals either a dry decayed or a
moist decayed condition. Sometimes the young tubers
carry black spots on their surface and when cut near the
stem end, the medullary rays often show dark rings.
The disease spreads rapidly in hot weather with the land
in a wet or continued wet condition. All farm and gar-
den plants are susceptible to the disease except the
cereals. Corn is immune and should be planted in gar-
dens where this disease is present.

The root crop when attacked does not show the dis-
ease until well developed. The lower portion of the root
decays and the decayed portion gradually works up
toward the top; the leaves at last wilting and drying up
in a similar manner.

In this city where fields were attacked by Blackleg
as much as 75 percent to 90 percent of the crop was des-
troyed. 2

Remedy: No absolute remedy is known. The dis-
ease can be held in check by careful irrigation and rota-
tion of crops. Fields where the disease is known to be
present should be planted to a cereal crop for two years;
corn is probably the best. Lime and strong nitrogenous
manures, especially nitrate of soda and sulphate of
ammonia should not be used on infected land. Bordeaux
mixture does not seem to do much good. Dr. Otto Appel
says, “Potatoes, beans, carrots, parsnips, cucumbers, tur-
nips, vegetable marrow, beets and mangolds are suscep-
tible to this disease and should not be cultivated for two
years on land where the disease occurred.

CORN-ROOT WEBWORM (Genus (Crambus).

The corn-root webworm should not be presented to
the Utah Academy of Science, since a number of descrip-
tions have been written relative to it. The only reason
for presenting the subject at all is to show that the pest
has become established in Utah and agriculturalists
should always be on the outlook for it. The history and
description of the insect can be found in any good text
on the subject, but in order more forcibly to bring the
pest to the attention of the people of Utah this paper will

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 43

describe it in brief. The description which follows is
merely a compilation of descriptions taken from texts on
the subject, following O’Kane. (O’Kane; Injurious
Insects).

The corn-root webworms are from 34 to 1 inch long
when full grown, and their bodies have numerous low
tubercles. They hatch from eggs laid by small, active
moths which have the habit of resting on grass stems with
their wings folded around their bodies. There are two
generations annually, the moths of the second brood
appearing in the latter part of summer. The worms feed
in a silk tube more or less covered with particles of dirt.

The outward evidence of attack is the stunted growth
of the corn or the death of young plants. When the corn
is pulled up the roots are matted in a web.

Remedy: Fall plowing and cultivation will help to
hold the pest in check, but to avoid injury corn should
not be planted on land which has just been broken up from
sod or weeds. Infected land should be fallowed during
the latter part of the summer and should not be planted
to corn the following year.

TOMATO-BUD APHIS.

History: As far as is known this insect was first
determined during the summer. No literature has been
found describing the insect to date. It made its appear-
ance in Salt Lake City during the summer of 1917.

Description: 'Tomato fruit is set from the flowers
directly. Last summer the blossoms continued to drop
from the plants and in many instances it was impossible
for the fruit to set. After intensive study, a microscopic
insect, which had the appearance of an aphis, was dis-
covered on the plant. The insect seemed to work in
groups of five or six sucking the juice from the lower
stalk about 34, of an inch from the bud. This seemed to
weaken the stalk sufficiently so that the bud dried up and
dropped off. The winged aphis was discovered associ-
ated with the infected portion of the plant.

Remedy: Strongly fertilize the soil and give the
plant an abundance of water. Nitrate of soda in the

a4 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

proportions of one pound to three gallons of water and
the application of one pint of the solution to each plant
seemed to help the condition, probably by making the
plant hardy. A solution from manure is equally as effec-
tive. Spray the plant with a tobacco solution or a weak
kerosene emulsion which will kill the insect.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 45

THE FOOD AND FEEDING OF FLEDGLINGS.

BY NEWTON MILLER.

(Abstract).

Several species of young birds were observed
throughout a complete bird’s day. The data thus col-
lected show rhythms of feeding and give a good idea of a
day’s work of the various birds. The data also gave an
index to the amount and kind of food consumed. The
amount and kind of food used is one of the determining
factors in computing the economic importance of a
species.

Young birds do not get all the food they desire.
There is a struggle for the offerings of the parents and
usually one gets more than his share. This in part
accounts for the frequent occurrence of one large or one
small fledgling in each nest. The young cowbird is the
notorious example.

The complete article will be illustrated with charts.

46 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

TWELFTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE
UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Physics Lecture Room, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
April 4 and 5, 1919

iw History. of. Entomology: to 18007 2 ee
VA ashe Soe tt i RE i By Harold R. Hagan, U. A. C.

“Detection of Overgrazing by Means of Indicator

PRaMA REN UA, TENOR RAL Pe Sede AIP By Mark Anderson,
U.S. Forest Service, Ogden

“The Problem of Handedness’’......By A. L. Beeley, U. U.

“Investivations:in Dehydration’ =... 2. ee
SPSS Ale SP eh seo h 2 By Tracy H. Abell, U. A. C.

“Distilled Water as a Medium for Growing Plants’’......
2 tills BE NORE AMS RS SET By Dr. M. C. Merrill, U. A. C.

“Determination of Probable Temperature at a Partic-
ular Place for a Definite Hour on a Definite Day”’
OUR Renata We? \Sene Sa) By Dr. Frank L. West, U. A. C.

Atalay ater tor nie stipn ee ee
Dek he abe By Dr. F. 8. Harris and N. I. Butt, U. A. C.

“The Relation of the Method of Analyzing Alkali Soils
to the Limits of Toxicity”..By D. W. Pittman, U. A. C.

om Theory or Capillary Plow? io. 2.0. ee eee
TUE SEE PATE ee eal! By Dr. Willard Gardner, U. A. C.

“Ig Blectric Air Heating Feasible? ? 2.2.2 eee
BAER CUM ie US Se a By Dr. Joseph F. Merrill, U. U.

“Atoms and the Atomic Theory 2.2.5.2 oo ee
ge ae tes Sn awe ate By Dr. W. D. Bonner, U. U.

“Evaporation and Soil Moisture in Relation to Forest
Planting 2 eae ee ee By C. F. Korstian
U.S. Forest Service, Ogden

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 47

HISTORICAL OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOP-
MENT OF ENTOMOLOGY TO 1800.

BY HAROLD R. HAGAN.

Entomology is a modern science. It is still a very
young science with many rough, projecting points of
achievement marking the contributions of the rare genius
in the field. To glance back at those earlier workers and
recall their labors and successes in entomology is indeed
a pleasure.

Aristotle is our first historical figure. In the philo-
sophical branches of science he was more often in error
than in truth. I think perhaps this can be traced to his
efforts to equal or surpass his great teacher, Plato. It
is certain that ‘‘Platonic’”’ philosophy exerted a tremend-
ous influence upon his life and work.

His temperament was better suited to observing and
recording natural phenomena, however, than to philo-
sophical deduction and the interpretation of physical
forces. His contributions in biology represent an amount
of work rarely surpassed in more modern times. I doubt
that he had a complete first-hand knowledge of all the
animals treated by him. He fails to mention many com-
mon animals in his country, yet he undoubtedly had con-
siderable data concerning them. In his writings he con-
siders over five hundred species, which is a far greater
number than the average educated person today can even
mention by common name. In his writings, I believe it
safer, in general, to accept the accurate statements as the
results of his own labors, while much of the descriptive
material at variance to truth is more likely the “filler”
of his encyclopaedic efforts gathered from others. He
gave considerable attention to insects and some of his
eight order names are still in use, but of course with much
more limited fauna in each as the result of modern inten-
sive study and development of the science.

In his studies of the life-history of the honeybee and

48 _ TRANSACTIONS OF THE

the silkworm he became fully aware of the metamor-
phosis of insects. Knowing the egg and larval stages as
he did, it is difficult to realize why he should express his
belief in the spontaneous generation of insects. In his
dissections he acquired a splendid general idea of gross
external and internal anatomy, yet he classifies insects as
“animals without blood.”

The great historical figure, Aristotle, is given so much
space in my brief resume, for he alone in all antiquity
stands before us as a careful investigator and a philoso-
pher of the life of the biological world. Modern think-
ers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries broke
entirely away from his interpretations of nature and
developed a new philosophy culminating in the ‘Origin
of Species.”” The twentieth century shows a distinct and
growing tendency to parallel his line of thought, and
while rejecting his philosophical treatment of the sub-
ject, to endeavor to grasp his subtle understanding and
sympathy with life.

With the decline of Greece as the center of culture
and learning, we lose track of original workers in biol-
ogy and the historian usually sets up the single Roman
compiler of natural history, Pliny, as a connecting link
between ancient and modern biology. His writings
simply record others’ work and the fictitious tales of trav-
elers. They are to be read with discrimination, as they
are entirely encyclopaedic in scope, recounting the fables
as well as the knowledge of his time. They contain lit-
tle truth. They were widely read by the Arabians after
the Roman period, and were a source of the teachings
of the Moors. They were later re-translated into the
languages of the Christian races. He interestingly des-
cribes the origin of the silkworm industry and shows
that when he wrote the art of beekeeping was already
centuries old.

During the long interval between the time of Aris-
totle and the beginning of the Renaissance, there were
no important students of insects. The awakening of the
whole of mankind and all subsequent mental growth,
economic development and religious freedom of thought,
trace their beginnings in this period known as the “Ren-
aissance.” The crusades fostered the spirit of explora-

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 49

tion, the collection of trophies, the accumulation of spoils
of war. The knowledge of Greek language and liter-
ature developed naturally. Among other things were
found and eagerly read the voluminous works of Aris-
totle. The cause of such wide interest in natural history
which we see exhibited at this time probably had its
origin in several activities among which should be men-
tioned the truer estimation of the position, size, and
movements of the earth in our solar system, the inven-
tion of the printing press, and the marvelous tales of a
new world and its fauna, following the voyages of
Columbus. A rapidly increasing population supported a
leisure class who encouraged the capture abroad and
exhibition at home of all sorts of strange animals. A
literature was imperative in the face of these new ideas,
facts, and specimens. What was more natural than to
turn to the writings of the ancients? On the zoological
side Aristotle was the authority, and his pupil, Theophras-
tus, had almost as much weight in botany.

For some time it was supposed that the works of
Aristotle covered all nature; and as there was nothing
to add men busied themselves translating and attempting
to reconcile new discoveries with the old text; or some-
how they entirely overlooked the new fact if it contra-
dicted their written records.

Among the first of the writers of the Middle Ages
we find very little or no originality of thought, their work
consisting largely of selections from the Peripatetic
School. Aldrovandus, however, ignored the classifica-
tion of the anima] kingdom by Aristotle and erected one
of his own. Although it was in several respects very infer-
ior to that of the Greek, we should observe him as the first
independent thinker to publish his ideas. Ags was the uni-
versal custom until very recent times, entomology shared
the leisure moments of the naturalist. With so wide a
field for investigation why, they thought, should any one
part of the living world receive isolated, concentrated
study at the expense of all? To this idea, Aldrovandus
and those succeeding him firmly adhered; hence, we
sometimes find their names more closely united to botany
or to other branches of zoology, and the entomologist

50 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

must confess that their work in the field of insects was.
largely incidental.

By the middle of the seventeenth century we find
a growing activity among a new school of biologists who
clearly recognized the inadequacy of their predecessors’
philosophy and methods in the present growth of the
biological sciences. This period was marked by a fur-
ther extension of the general knowledge of insects
through descriptions and particularly through a new art,
delineation. As examples, we should mention the plates
drawn by Madam Merian and the paintings of Geodart,
both being superior to any previous attempts. The sys-
tems of Swammerdam and of Ray were serious efforts
to erect a more modern classification for the identifica-
tion of insects. The introduction of the microscope into
the science by Leeuwenhoeck, Lister, and Hooke opened
a vast new field of research in minute anatomy. Mal-
pighi, in fact, produced a justly famous work with the
aid of this instrument—his anatomy of the silkworm.
Another Italian, Francis Redi, at this time attacked and
overthrew in the scientific mind, at least, the doctrine of
equivocal generation for practically all organisms. The
later researches of Pasteur on the microorganisms dis-
posed of a group beyond the technique of Redi. The
study of the life histories and the metamorphoses of
insects had as a patron that most careful, accurate, and
critical observer—Reaumur, who, with the grace and
excellent diction characteristic of the Frenchman, re-
corded his observations in attractive form for the popular
mind. He might justly be criticised for paying no atten-
tion to systematic arrangement or classificatory values
in his writings. We find the same lack of appreciation
of taxonomy in a later period in the elegant writings of
his countryman, Buffon.

One of the most important developments of his time,
however, was the classification of Ray which was in a
measure an expansion of Swammerdam’s system. Its
feature was the employment of a definite character in
the separation of the orders. It was founded on the com-
pleteness of the metamorphosis. Although in many
respects unsatisfactory and even inferior to that of Aris-
totle, it pointed out the path to a more satisfactory sys-

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES by

tem which was later widely accepted. His classification
has attained fullest expression in the system established
by Handlirsch through Latreille early in the twentieth
century.

The following period, the era of Linne and his
pupils, exhibited unparalleled enthusiasm among biol-
ogists, the further improvement in dissections and study
of the life cycles of insects and the discovery of many new
fields of investigation from the entomological side.

Up to this time insects had been given popular names,
or for scientific purposes the name consisted of a short
descriptive phrase or two, something after this fashion:
“The little, round, black ladybird with two red spots on
the elytra.’”” Now with the number of described species of
insects constantly and rapidly growing, this method led
natural history swiftly to the rock of confusion for its
speedy wrecking and possible destruction. Linne, the bot-
anist, with his great intuitive faculties, however, seems to
have been born and trained especially to supply this
want of a proper terminology. ‘“Linne‘s general philo-
sophical propositions in botany can be traced to Cesal-
pino, his terminology to Jung, and his doctrine of sex-
uality to Camerarius.’”’ Thus, we can see that the theory
of Linne’s classification is essentially Aristotelian and was
carefully employed in the recognition and sifting of
the facts in natural affinity and in his interpretation of the
organs of fructification. Supplementary to classification
he recognized the prime importance of a short, accurate
and exact system of terminology. As a result, he took
up Jung’s system and applied it consistently. Consis-
tency of application is what Jung did not follow and the
method was never shown to full advantage until pre-
sented by Linne.

Linne recognized the desirability of a natural system
of classification and admitted that his was to a great
extent artificial. The former method was necessary to
trace lines of descent and real affinities in nature, while
the latter he drew up carefully, basing it primarily upon
certain arbitrarily selected distinctive structures, and
offered it to the world simply as a convenient system of
separating and determining species without too serious
thought as to their fundamental relationships. Entomol-

52 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ogists must further remember that his classification was:
fashioned in the first place to satisfy a long felt need
in his particular field, botany. Later it was extended also
to the zoological field and finally it was taken up and
perfected by specialists in their various branches of the
animal kingdom.

This rigid and artificial classification failed in some
very notable cases to find the cordial support in France
one would naturally expect. Buffon was his first serious
opponent on this question, and he put forth the most
weighty and incontrovertible arguments against theSwed-
ish naturalist. To paraphrase one, as an example, he
said in effect: ‘“‘Why adopt so unnatural a system where
one puts the tabby, our household pet, in the same group
with the ferocious lion and tiger? No, no, it were far
more natural and generally understandable if we make
up a system of classification wherein both the dog and
the cat were put in the same group with the horse, the
rabbit, and the pigeon, our domestic friends.”

Buffon’s official position, a political plum, was really
very efficiently filled by him. As director of the Jardin
du Roi he spent his salary and considerable additional
sums in improvements. His correspondence bore fruit
in constant contributions of specimens from foreign lands.
His fiuent, elegant writing was perhaps the greatest
single aid in the popularization of biological science in
his time. His entomological work, in conclusion, was
done by those in his employ. He had scarcely any first-
hand information concerning insects.

Another, who with greater reason, sought a natural
system of classification was Cuvier. He was of a differ-
ent type to Buffon and one whose work, while not
directly in the field of entomology, still influenced the
systematists in the latter field. The ideas embodied in
the study of comparative morphology were, in entomology
at least, finding expression in the changes in methods
of taxonomy.

The system of entomological classification given by
Linne was founded upon the organs of flight. De Geer
now added the organs of manducation to those of flight,
but the resulting classification was perhaps less satis-
factory than the former. A little later Fabricius, a pupil

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 53

and great admirer of Linne, attempted a system of
classification based simply on cephalic distinctions,
chiefly the maxile. His system also was no improvement
over that of Linne, yet his work on the lower orders
was a distinct aid to their better understanding. Leach
in England adopted part of the Fabrician system and
fitted it to an extended portion of Linne’s classification.
He introduced the idea of having all names in the same
rank end with the same termination. This feature is used
today except for generic and specific terms. Latreille,
the first bona fide entomologist (and it is said by author-
ities of the present time no greater figure has since
appeared in the entire field) combined the best features
of preceding systems most intelligently and succeeded
in erecting the system upon which we depend for our
present taxonomic work.

While a satisfactory classification was in process
of evolution to its culmination in Latreille, other devel-
opments of the science were rapidly taking place. Insect
delineation and hand color work in the ofierings of
Herbst, Huber, Esper, Panzer and others have never
been excelled. Their work was marvelous for its pre-
ciseness and faithful reproduction of anatomical and
chromatic details.

Considerable advance in the knowledge of insect
transformations at this time was probably due to the
inspirational work of Bonnett in his study of the life
history of the aphid and the phenomenon of agamic
regeneration. The publication of his results created
great excitement not only in entomological science, but
among zoologists in general, and even held the attention
of the popular mind for a considerable time. About
fifteen years later Lyonet’s work on the internal anatomy
of the goat-moth appeared. The major part is concerned
with the larval stages. It is conceded that no more
skillful, accurate work of like nature has since appeared.
As an example of minute dissection, it still stands a
model in entomological science. Another movement to be
noted was the establishment of entomological societies to
provide common meeting places for followers of the sci-
ence and as a medium through which publications and

54 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ideas could be disseminated. Other scientific organizations
founded for the advancement of pure and applied science
were now opening branches devoted to the encourage-
ment of the biological sciences in all of which entomol-
ogy, sooner or later, was represented. Finally, at the
close of the eighteenth century a new development of
entomological science, economic entomology, arose to
fill the needs of the young American nation. It now
seems quite certain that economic entomology had
sporadic encouragement in Germany in reducing forest
pests before this time, and in another sense had a history
dating from ancient accounts of the silk-worm and the
honeybee industries. Still for its widest scope and fullest
growth it is typically an American science.

This brings us in historical sequence down to the
beginning of the nineteenth century. In this period so
many remarkable changes occurred in every branch of
the science that it must rest for the present. Intensive
specialization within the science; subordination of many
of the problems, once held as fundamental, to new
concepts; and, lastly, the rapid strides in agricultural
and medical entomology are in brief, perhaps, the
principal ideas to be traced through the century still to
be treated.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 55

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Brandis, J. D.—Einige Beitrage zum studio der Alten in der
Insectengeschichte. Lichitenbergs Magz. 1785, Jahrg, 4,
pp. 129-149.

Dow, R. P.—Various articles in the Brooklyn Entomological
Society Bulletin, all volumes. 1912-1917.

Hagen, H. A.—1862—Bibliotheca Entomologica.

Kirby, William and Spence, William, 1826—Introduction to
Entomology, Volume 4.

Lacordaire, M. T.—1838—“‘Histoire de l’Entomologie’’ in Intro-
duction a l’Entomologie, tome II.

Lenz, H. O.—1856—Zoologie der alten Griechen and Romer,
etc. (Article Insecten, pp. 523-612.)

Locy, William—Biology and its Makers. Henry Holt and
Company.

Marlatt, C. L.—1898—A Brief Historical Survey of the Science
of Entomology, etc. Proc. Ent. Society of America, Vol.
IV. No. 2, pp. 83-100.

Miall, L. C.—1912—Early Naturalists, their Lives and Work.
McMillan Co.

Ogle, W.—1882—Aristotle on the Parts of Animals. Oxford
University Press.

Pliny—Historia Naturalis. Several translations.

Sachs—History of Botany,—1530-1860. Oxford University
Press.

Thompson, J. Arthur—1899—The Science of Life, Henry Holt
and Company.

56 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

DETECTION OF OVERGRAZING BY MEANS
OF INDICATOR PLANTS.

BY MARK ANDERSON.1

The primary purpose of our federal forest adminis-
tration is to protect the forests and watersheds against
injury, to develop the highest possible use of the forest
resources consistent with this policy of protection and
improvement.

One of the principal forest resources in this region
is the native forage. For this reason, we have been con-
cerned mainly with the work of bringing about a proper
utilization of the forage crop produced each year. If
grazing is to be permitted at all within the National
Forests, it must be properly regulated. That grazing
properly regulated is in harmony with a proper practice
of forest conservation has been demonstrated beyond
any doubt.

Our first responsibility is to determine how the range
will be grazed. Our second responsibility is to deter-
mine who shall share in the use of the forest forage. The
first duty then consists in preventing misuse of the range,
either in the form of overgrazing or under-utilization.
The second duty, which consists mainly in maintaining a
relationship between local agriculture and the forest
range, or rather in preventing monopoly in the use of
forest ranges, has very little, or nothing, to do with the
science of range management, and will therefore be
neglected in this discussion.

HOW SHALL THE RANGE BE GRAZED?

To tell you in detail how ranges should be divided
between the different classes of stock based upon the
character of the forage, topography, etc., would consume
more than twenty minutes in itself. To tell you how the
grazing periods should be fixed and how detrimental pre-
mature grazing is to the range would consume at least

1Grazing Examiner of the U. S. Forest Service, Ogden.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 57

another twenty minutes. There are numerous other
phases of range management, such as herding sheep, salt-
ing cattle and reducing losses from poisonous plants, each
of which could hardly be covered in one lecture. For
this reason, I will aim only to tell you what the presence
of certain plant species on the range mean to the range
inspector.

Recent trampling or close cropping are by no means
the most reliable indicators of the intensity of grazing,
neither is an eroded condition the -most common result
of overgrazing, even though it is probably the most seri-
ous result where it occurs.

A few of the best indicator species are Sneeze Weed’,
Nigger Head’, Tar Weed’, Yellow Mustard’, Knot Weed?*,
Senecio®, .

The mere presence of these plants alone is not con-
clusive proof of an overgrazed condition but where any
of these plants predominate over considerable areas to
the evident replacement of'more palatable species the
evidence of overgrazing can be taken as conclusive.
Then, too, if the area under observation is overgrazed
palatable shrubs such as Service Berry? and Snow Berry®
will be found in a stubby condition and in many instances
only the dead stumps of such shrubs will remain. In
aspen types where the range is overgrazed there will
nearly always be a noticeable lack of aspen reproduction.
The term overgrazing is used here to mean grazing to a
degree of intensity that will result in reducing the grazing
capacity of the range. This is usually the result of very
slow process of too intensive use or too early grazing
extending over several years.

(Will then show about 10 lantern slides of inferior
or poisonous plant species growing on overgrazed areas,
two or three of eroded areas, two or three of browse and

\Helenium Hoopesii.
2Rudbeckia occidentalis.
3Madia glomerata.
4Sophia incisa.
5Polygonum sp3.
8Senecio sps.
74melanchier sps.
8Symphoricarpos Sps.

58 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

tree species injured through overgrazing, two or three
illustrating how grasses will crowd out weeds on exclu-
sive sheep ranges end vice versa on cattle ranges, two
of cattle and sheep grazing together, and five of properly-
vrazed range types).

The principal causes of overgrazing are premature
grazing or too early use of the range in the spring, poor
distribution of stock or an excessive number of stock.
Premature grazing is the chief cause of over grazing or
injury to the range, particularly on cattle areas near the
older established communities. Our sheep ranges. are,
on the whole, in much better condition than are our cattle
ranges, mainly for the reason that sheep are better con-
trolled and kept off the range until it is ready, while
cattle are generally poorly controlled and in most cases,
get onto the high range before it is ready. As a rule
cattle are not so well distributed on the range as sheep
and consequently there is more localized overgrazing on

cattle ranges than on sheep ranges.

One of our biggest problems in forest protection in
Utah is to develop some practical means of preventing
premature grazing by cattle and to secure a more uni-
form distribution of cattle on the range. The construc-
tion of fences would be the most effective means in check-
ing the too rapid drifts of stock to higher ranges in the
spring and also to keep the stock from congregating on
certain range units. If properly constructed, these fences
would make it possible to practice deferred and rotation
grazing. By asystem of alternate protection the forage
plants on certain range units would be permitted to regain
vitality and revegetate the range.

Another big step toward solving the problem would
be to educate more forest officers and more stockmen to
recognize overgrazing when they see it, by a study of
the range, particularly with reference to the presence of
particular plant species that are in reality the best indi-
cators of the condition of the range.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES bY

THE PROBLEM OF HANDEDNESS.

BY ARTHUR L. BEELEY.

The writer’s sole aim in the presentation of this
paper is to analyse and clearly define a problem,—the
problem of left-handedness.

By way of showing that there is a problem here and
not an imaginary one let me call your attention to the
extremely right-handed nature of our mechanical environ-
ment. Both the letter and the newspaper which you read
this morning began in the upper left-hand corner and
the written and printed symbols had meaning only as
you read them from left to right.

The handle to the door through which you entered
this room turns only to the right.

If you enjoyed the distinction of coming to this meet-
ing in a Ford you will recall the right-handed nature of
the “‘self-starter.”” Your dinner this evening was prepared
in pans and kettles with spouts convenient for the right-
handed cook. The gas jet or electric plate upon which
the food was heated is controlled by a switch turning
only to the right. If you dined in town you will recall
something of the orchestra which entertained you; the
pianist played the most difficult parts of the score with
his right hand. The cash-girl secured your change from
a register operated from the right hand side. And so on
ad infinitum. In a word, our mechanical environment,
just as our system of handwriting, has developed in rela-
tion to the kinds of movement most easily made with the
right hand. Imagine then, if you will, the problems of the
four and a half million left-handed persons in our country
alone who must adjust themselves to their right-handed
surroundings.

It is already known quite definitely that left-hand-
edness exists in about four or five per cent of the normal
population. Between one and two million of the left-
handed Americans are at present under the tutelage of

60 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

our school system, part of whose business it is to develop
manual skill and facilitation. The lamentable inefficiency
of our methods of instructing this large group was vividly
brought to the writer’s attention in a recent survey of the
handwriting problems and achievements of some 300 left-
handed children in the public schools of the city of
Chicago. The hand writing was, quite naturally, very
much inferior to that of the right-handed pupils, but
more significant was the fact that these unfortunate
left-handed ones invariable received less help from their
teachers than their right-handed neighbors, not to men-
tion such additional disadvantages as cramped, unhy-
gienic postures arising out of an attempt to adjust to light
and desk arrangements adapted to the needs of the right-
handed. In the absence of anything authoritative from
physiology and psychology the teacher is naturally left
to her own rule of thumb procedure in such cases, and
this procedure, strangely enough is to “break”’ the pupil
of his left-handedness by forcing the use of his right hand.
When this fails the pupil is regarded as mentally incor-
rigible and is left to his own resources.

There is another aberration known in this field as
“mirror writing.” It is left-handwriting executed by
an exact reduplication of the movements of the right
hand, in a symmetrical way from the central point in
front of the body out toward the left. This writing
becomes legible and is like right-hand writing when seen
in a mirror. -In the writer’s investigation of this aspect
which canvasses a total school population of 106,000
children, he found only 42 bona fide cases of “‘mirror-
writing.” In the course of an intensive study of several
typical cases, it was brought out that teachers and par-
ents alike regarded the phenoménon as somewhat of a
sub normal, criminal tendency. Invariable the method of
correction was by the use of force.

Some evidence exists, also, which although small is
by no means negligible, that the forced changing of chil-
dren from their native left-handedness to right-handed-
ness after speech and writing have become more or less
habitual, results in certain speech defects, such as stam-
mering, stuttering, and even some of the more complex
aphasias. The explanation of this is based upon the

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 61

already established fact that in right-handed persons
for example, the left-cerebral hemisphere dominates the
right half of the body and also controls the speech move-
ments. Since handwriting is a form of speech and
directly involves the speech centers in the cerebrum, to
change one’s handedness after the cerebral centers have
become physiologically established, is to produce aberra-
tions referred to. These facts and even the limited data
accumulated make it morally incumbent upon the teacher
as well as the parent to proceed cautiously in training the
child who exhibits any left-handed tendencies whatso-
ever.

With increasingly complex and specialized mechan-
ical environment calling more and more for manual skill
and dexterity upon the part of vocational workers and
others, the problem seems entitled to more than passing
notice. The industrial worker or the soldier who loses
his dextrous hand or arm must be fitted by society for
economic independence and usefulness. Such rehabil-
itation, it is obvious, can proceed only intelligently with
some recognition and study of the complex neuro-mus-
cular processes involved. It is hoped that the United
States Surgeon’s General’s Office will sieze the oppor-
tunity to contribute to the solution of this problem by a
thoroughgoing analysis of its results and observations in-
the matter of manual re-education.

Such then are a few of the more important aspects
of the problem of left-handedness. Let us turn our atten-
tion now to a brief discussion of the available facts,
theories, and opinions which together constitute our pres-
ent stock-in-trade for an attack of the problem.

While the median of the results of all investigations
dealing with the prevalence of left-handedness, gives the
distribution as 4% of the normal population, it is note-
worthy that Ballard, Smith, Weber and Lombroso hold
that the characteristic is more frequently found among
males than females. Five other workers find left-hand-
edness more frequent among delinquents, and Lattes
finds it more prevalent among negroes. The wide dis-
parity between the results of the various studies would
seem to be due largely totwothings. First, a too narrow
survey, and second, a questionable technique which in

62 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

most instances is unverifiable and unknown to all but the
investigator himself.

There have been but two systematic studies made
which deal with the hereditary aspects of left-handed-
ness;—Jordan and Ramaley. In both instances, how-
ever, the results point to the conclusion that left-handed-
ness is a Mendelian recessive. In the light of this and
other facts, it would seem that there are all degrees of
handedness ranging from extreme left-handedness to
extreme right-handedness with a moderate right-hand-
edness as the mode, or the most frequent type. But our
difficulty here, as elsewhere in this problem, is that the
studies have been too few and all not sufficiently com-
prehensive.

The origin or cause of right- and left-handedness has
been a favorite theme of the educational theorist. I shall
mention a few typical explanations.

It is argued by some that a child’s handedness is a
result of imitating its parents, or that it arises from the
mother’s constant method of carrying it.

Again it is said that the great majority of right-
handedness is largely the result of education.

It is argued by Gould (8) and others that since the
heart is the most vital organ of the body and is located
nearer the left side, in primative warfare the shield was
held in the left hand thus protecting the heart, while the
right hand became the spear hand and has consequently
acquired a dexterity which has been perpetuated through
the ages.

Some argue that since the viscera on the right side
of the body are heavier than on the left side (the liver and
lungs), this condition places the center of gravity to
the right of the anatomical center, thus rendering the
use of the right limbs more likely. That owing to the
position of the arteries the blood is forced through the
right subclavian artery under a greater pressure than
through the left, and as a result the muscles of the right
side are better nourished and stronger. Left-handedness
is explained by the earlier branching off of the left sub-
clavian artery.

The last two theories imply that left-handedness is
tie 1esult of a transposition of the viscera or what is |

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 63

known as situs inversus. Cases of transposition are on
record which were not correlated with left-handedness.
Furthermorxe, all left-handed people are not character-
ized by visceral transposition.

Judd and others say that since the two sides of the
brain receive their blood supply through arteries which
are asymmetrical, that where the blood supply is larger
to the left side of the brain, the right hand is naturally
developed to a higher degree of dexterity; where the
right side of the brain receives the greatest blood supply
the person is naturally left-handed.

This theory is invalidated by the presence of the
anterior communicating artery, which connects the two
cerebral arteries of the brain and forms part of the Circle
of Willys. As a result the cerebral blood supply is
pooled, so to speak, thus making it impossible for one
hemisphere to receive a greater blood supply than the
other.

Again it is held that “in about 96 percent of all
infants the right eye is the better-seeing eye and thus
compels the right hand to work with it.” Stevens &
Ducasse determined experimentally that in a majority of
their subjects objects appearing in the right half of the
field of vision of both eyes, are uniformly enlarged over
objects appearing in the left half of the field of vision.
From this they conclude that “‘by reason of the fact of a
marked difference in the space sense of the two halves
of the retina, objects in the right half of the field of vis-
ion by appearing larger attract the visual attention which
in turn leads to grasping movements with the right hand.
The hand thus favored by earliest experience acquires a
special skill which causes it to be used in all manual acts
requiring the greatest precision.” A fatal objection to
this theory is the fact that among the congenitally blind
one finds about the same proportion of right- and left-
handedness as among the sighted.

In the matter of mirror-writing, by far the most
nearly complete study of its kind was made by Fuller, of
the University of California, who holds that “‘the knack of
mirror-writing can be acquired by any one, although most
of us are unaware of this latent ability.”” The simple
explanation of mirror-writing being “that certain impul-

64 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ses which do not ordinarily function, are, by the con-
ditions under which mirror-writing takes place, allowed
to be so.””’ Many subjects were induced to write mirror-
wise under the following various conditions: Hypnosis,
Drugs, Abstraction, Insane, Hemiplegia, Feeble-minded,
Deaf and Dumb, Skilled persons, University students, etc.
According to his results, the more complete the dissoci-
ation, whether temporarily induced by hypnosis or by
drugs, or as a permanent characteristic of the insane, the
more the subject wrote “mirror-wise.’’ From this he
concludes that in every case of true mirror-writing “there
must be a mental disturbance, a dissociation of attention,
a deflection of the mental content; a low grade of intel-
ligence or else a serious disturbance of the higher facul-
ties.”’

Fuller’s physiological explanation of reversed writ-
ing is based upon the fact that any movement of one side
of the body is accompanied by a potential symmetrical
impulse of the corresponding part of the opposite side.
Mirror-writing, he says, is but a specialized instance of
such associated movements. He goes on: “In every
instance of stimulation of a nerve on one side of the body
(primary stimulus), there is, by the arrangement of the
central paths, opportunity afforded for the stimulation of
the corresponding nerve on the opposite side of the body
(secondary stimulus). It will thus occur that the graphic
representation of the secondary stimulus will be an exact
mirror replica of the graphic appearance of the primary
stimulus. Accordingly, all symmetrical movements may be
traced ultimately to a single brain area. From this area,
the motor complex of the side primarily intended to be
active receives its stimulus. The opposite side is stimu-
lated to a lesser degree either by its direct connection
with the primary area; or indirectly by its connection
with the opposite motor complex; probably both means
are available. For the purpose of mirror-writing it is
most convenient to assume the truth of the second alter-
native, viz., that the connection is with the opposite motor
cortices through the corpus collosum.”

Fuller concludes then that “upon the use of the right
hand for ordinary writing depends our ability to write
mirror-wise with the left hand. It is a necessary condi-

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 65

tion that the child must have had some practice with his
right hand at the ordinary writing.’ Otherwise there
will be no mirror-writing by the left hand, ‘‘for those who
have been allowed to use their left hand freely from the
first, find rightward writing as easy as do the right-
handed.”

These explanations of the physiology of mirror-writ-
ing are the most plausible extant, and merit acceptance
but for the fact that a very important type of mirror-writ-
ing which Fuller failed to investigate, is still an enigma.
The writer found, after an intensive study of ten typical
cases of mirror-writing which had appeared in the normal
school population, that the very first handwriting
attempts of these children were left-hand reversals. Now
according to Fuller’s own words: “The child must have
had some practice with his right hand at ordinary writ-
ing before ‘mirror-writing’ can occur.”

Furthermore, according to this theory, the left-
handed child who writes conventionally with his left-
hand, and is made to use his right hand will spontaneously
write mirror-wise with the right hand. The facts, how-
ever, do not support this hypothesis.

Again, the implication from these conditions is
unmistakable that mirror-writing is positively correlated
with dissociation or insanity. Here again a discrepancy
arises, since it is a matter of record that while many mir-
ror-writers are retarded, some are also known to be pre-
cocious.

Fuller, however, by his physiological analysis of mir-
ror-writing has incidently thrown some light upon another
phase of the problem,—the causal relationship between
speech aberrations and the changing of handedness.

A just criticism of Fuller’s method would seem to be
that he induced reversed, left-hand writing in subjects
who are not normally “mirror-writers,”’ rather than study-
ing the characteristics and the spontaneous behavior of
those who execute mirror-writing normally. The method
might be likened to a study of insanity made by inducing
a temporary insanity in otherwise sane subjects.

The writer’s own results, even with their admitted
limitations, call for another explanation. In such an
attempt, it would be futile to neglect or to ignore the sal-

66 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ient characteristics of the mirror-writers themselves. For
instance, it was found that the ten who were chosen for
intensive study, were found by the writer’s own objective
tests to be extremely left-handed; the other thirty-two
were reported by their teachers as being also markedly
left-handed. This fact would imply a strange “motor
imagery.”’

What really happens, it would seem, in case of such a
child is that his first and early concepts of the writing act
are awry; that is to say, that as he perceives others writ-
ing in the conventional style with the right hand the imag-
ery thus stimulated does not possess the optimum balance
or association between the ‘‘visual” and the “‘motor’”’ ele-
ments. While such a person does not reproduce with one
hand the movements learned by the other, nevertheless
the sight of those who do write normally is conceived of
in ‘“‘motor’ terms, i.e., the most natural movements
involved in a reproduction of the same. Furthermore,
it is not difficult to see that such a child’s “‘scribble-period”’
may serve as a process of trial and error, by means of
which he readily learns that the easiest form of movement
is with the left hand and from right to left. In such cases
as these, in which we also have extreme left-handedness,
the period of ‘happening on to’’ the easier type of move-
ment will naturally be very short, since it will take but a
very few trials to reveal which is the easier form of move-
ment.

These, then, are the principal data available, with
some of their limitations pointed out. Such practical
school-room problems as the following still remain
unsolved, however. If left-handedness is hereditary, up
to what point is it safe to force left-handed children to
become right-handed? What are the probabilities of
inducing speech defects by changing handedness? Can
a person who is naturally left-handed ever become as
dexterous with his right hand? Growing out of these
questions, however, there arises a more fundamental prob-
lem of greater importance, viz: How may the native
handedness of young children be detected or diagnosed?
It was to this basic aspect of the problem in an attempt
to derive a test, that the writer applied himself.

In carrying out his investigation the writer proceeded

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 67

on the assumption that a test involving acts of dexterity
would be superior to a test of skill or endurance, since
such a test would ultimately be given in most cases to
children between the ages of four and eight years.

The desired test, in order to be valid for the purpose
in mind, must be relatively accurate when applied to
individual cases.

The test must be simple, not alone of comprehension
by the subject, but in construction and application; it
must be designed to meet the needs of school administra-
tors, teachers, and other educational officers.

It must choose as a means of diagnosis some type of
skill which, when tested in young children will reveal
and express the relative potential dexterity of the two
hands.

The ability or dexterity tested must closely resemble
the principal dexterities called forth in school work and
in practical life; at the same time the two must not be
identical. That is, one could not adequately detect native
handedness by asking a first-grade child to write his
name, first with the right hand and then with the left,
and thus determine the superior hand by the superior
product. A valid test must obviate the practice element
as much as possible.

With these basic considerations in mind the writer
decided on the general plan of trying out certain of the
existing and most suggestive tests in order, first, to elim-
inate the least promising, and, secondly, either to perfect
the remaining ones or to glean suggestions for the con-
struction of a new test. The essence of the general
method was to apply certain tests to a large number of
children of different school ages, whose handedness was
already known quite accurately, and to determine the
validity of the tests by the degree or extent to which its
results corresponded or correlated with the known facts
of the children’s handedness.

In all, eight mechanical tests were evaluated exper-
imentally on a group of 465 school children. Six of
these tests had already been suggested and used in
attempts at diagnosis; two of these tests embodied the
writer’s own ideas and conclusions. The test which I
have here is the one which has yielded the most accurate

68 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

results yet obtained in diagnosing handedness. The test
however is still relatively valueless until norms of ability
have been developed through wide application to large
groups. When this is accomplished one could compare
an individual’s'score with the norm, and say with reason-
able definiteness, for example, that subject ‘‘A’” whose
score is x could safely be changed to right-handedness
without any appreciable loss in dexterity, while subject
“B” whose score is y, ought by all means to remain left-
handed.

All that is claimed for the investigation is that it
has discovered and made possible a more scientific means
of diagnosing handedness, and has thereby facilitated the
elaboration of these and other findings in the field.

In conclusion, it would seem that the opportunities
and the obligations of science in regard to the problem of «
left-handedness has two well-defined aspects. First, to
facilitate the adaptation of those persons who are strongly
left-handed to their right-handed environment, and
second, to effect an early change to right-handedness in
those who are known to possess only a slight left-handed
tendency, or are nearly ambidexterous.

It is hoped that this discussion will indicate the need
of a thoroughgoing scientific attack of the entire prob-
lem of handedness, not alone by psychologist, but by
physiologist as well. _In the first place, a survey of the
entire problem should be made which will include all of
the normal as well as the abnormal aspects, involving
intensive experimental research of individual cases as well
as extensive statistical study of types. Second, the tech-
nique of the investigation should be carefully evolved and
made altogether objective and verifiable. Third, the
results, to be of value, should be critically interpreted.
Such an attack of the problem of handedness would also
materially assist in dispelling the intellectual fog which
hovers around so much of our present discussion of the
brain and its functions.

/ UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 69

INVESTIGATIONS IN DEHYDRATION.

BY T. H. ABELL.*

United States Government reports show that 15 per
cent of all the food stuffs produced in this country spoils
before it reaches the markets, and 25 per cent of all that
reaches the markets, spoils before it reaches the con-
sumer. With multitudes of poorly fed people in many
regions of the world, there is certainly a pressing need
to save this wasted food. Food experts tell us that the
solution of this problem is to be found in dehydration.
The canning industry preserves large quantities of per-
ishable products for use in large centers of population;
the dehydration industry will furnish easily transportable
forms of food for the frontiers of the world. Newly
perfected or soon to be perfected methods of dehydration
will furnish a product, light of weight, small in bulk, non-
perishable, which, when properly treated, can be made
to resume the bulk, appearance and flavor that it had
in the original fresh state.

Dehydration has been practiced for at least six
thousand years, it is as old as civilization. The earliest
records from Egypt and Asia refer to dehydration. Dried
foods were found in vessels in the ancient temples of
China. The Egyptians perfected the art of drying to
such an extent that they successfully preserved their chief
citizens that we might excavate and exhibit them in our
museums.

The methods of dehydration used today in different
foreign countries differ only slightly from the older meth-
ods, and differ from each other mainly in the treatment
previous to drying. In Egypt and China the vegetables
are dipped for two minutes in boiling water. In Ger-
many they are subjected to the action of steaming for two
minutes and then dried in rotating drums in which the
temperature goes as high as 500 degrees to 700 degrees
F. In tropical regions where the products are dried in
the sun, they are first treated with warm solutions of

* Assistant Horticulturist, Utah Agricultural Experiment Station.

70 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

salt, bicarbonate of soda, potassium nitrate, or the fumes
of sulfur. In Mexico, the materials are placed in bags,
pounded and squeezed, and then hung in the sun to dry.
When meat is dried, it is first rubbed with some material
which will act as a repellent to flies and insects. With
the exception of China and Germany, there has been lit-
tle progress made in foreign countries in methods of dry-
ing. And even in those two countries the object was not
to produce a vegetable or fruit for table use in the “near
fresh” state, but to make a food that could be ground up
and used as a flour substitute, soup stock, or material
to be fermented as a source of alcohol.

In this country, perhaps the first improvements made
in the methods of dehydration were about 1867 when
Mr. D. Lippy of Ohio invented a small evaporator which
was later improved by Topping. From then on for the
next ten years, many evaporators were invented, mostly
of the kiln, stack and tunnel types in which the princi-
ple involved was that of drying by convected heat.
Other types of driers developed at this time in western
New York were the steam-tray driers, and air-blast driers.
Since then there have been improvements and enlarge-
ments of these types of machines with the addition of
such labor saving devices as power corers, peelers, slic-
ers and bleachers.

Beginning about 1914, there were many evaporating
and dehydrating machines invented. These are all of
a more or less complicated construction and operation.
I will briefly describe six of the more recently invented
machines together with the principle of their construc-
tion and the theories upon which their operations are
based.
No. 1, patented in 1916. The object of this machine
is to eliminate as far as possible the handling of the pro-
duct. This is accomplished by automatically feeding the
prepared material onto horizontally rotating discs across
which are passed currents of air of predetermined tem-
perature and humidity. When the material is dry, a
scraper is lowered onto the disk and the material moves
off diagonally into a receiver.

No. 2, patented in 1917. The theory involved is
that artificial drying should resemble natural drying in

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 71

the sun. That is; there should be the application of
radiant heat, of convected heat, and all the variations
of temperature and humidity found in a solar day. The
material is allowed to “sleep” between periods of dehy-
dration. The machine designed to accomplish this is
one in which air is dehydrated to the proper humidity by
being passed through a spray of brine, then heated to
the proper temperature, then passed into separated cells
containing stacks of trays of the material to be dried.
There are dampers in these cells so arranged as to direct
the currents of air intermittently through the different
parts of the stack.

No. 3, patented in 1917. The operation of this
machine is based on the theory that, first, if a cellular
body is heated, the cell fluid expands, forcing the cell
wall to expand; the cell wall in expanding becomes
thinner thus allowing more rapid exmosis of the cell
fluid; second, when this exuded water is removed by
heated air currents the process of evaporation lowers
the temperature of the cell to the point where exmosis
ceases; third, light, in the form of electric light, aids in
the exmosis of water from plant cells. This idea was
worked out in a machine composed of a revolving drum
made of compartments in which the material to be dehy-
drated is placed. Through the center of the drum run
steam or electric coils which heat the material to 110
degrees F.; after the material reaches this temperature
the air currents are forced through the compartments.
Electric lights are so placed as to illuminate the drying
material. The steam coils in the center of the drum
keeps the material heated up to proper temperature.

No. 4, patented in 1917. This machine was designed
to dry hops and is operated on the theory that materials
dry more uniformly and that there is less physical or
chemical change in the cells when the temperature of
convected heat starts at 120 degrees F. and is raised at
intervals until it reaches 170 degrees F. In this way
the material is dried to such a low moisture content that
there is not enough moisture to allow the enzymes to
become active, but there is still enough left to protect the
oils from rapid oxidation, as would happen if the mater-
ial were to be dessicated.

72 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

~ No. 5, patented in 1918. The object of this machine
is to utilize the heated air until it is thoroughly saturated
with moisture. This is done by using air of determined
temperature and humidity, passing over a portion of the
article to be dried, raising the temperature, mixing it
with fresh air to maintain its original moisture-absorbing
capacity, and passing this mixed body of air over a second
group of material, and so on many times until the air
is saturated with moisture.

No. 6, patented in 1918. The theory upon which
the operation of this machine is based is that vegetable
matter more readily exudes moisture under the action
of radiant heat than of convected heat, the rapidity
also depending upon the degree of temperature and the
amount of air pressure. The material is dehydrated
by so arranging the apparatus that there are intermittent
applications of radiant heat, electric light, and moving
air currents, at definite air pressure.

Many other devices have been invented and many
attempts have been made to dehydrate all kinds of food-
stuffs. They have mostly been failures as will be seen
by the fact that Mr. Sweet, the government expert, says
that “fully 90 percent of the dehydrated materials pur-
chased by the government within the last two years were
very poor and would never have been accepted except
for the stress of war.”

Great success has been claimed for some of the inven-
tions I have described, but it seems to me that there are
two principal drawbacks to the widespread adoption of
these machines. In the first place they are so compli-
cated in construction that they are liable to be quite
costly to install, and what we need today is an inexpen-
sive machine that may be easily installed by a small
group of producers. In the second place, although in
actual operation these machines may produce a high
grade product, some of them are based on theories that
either need proof, or are not applicable to the conditions.

There are many problems still to be solved before
we can produce the right kind of dehydrated goods.
Even the inventor of several of these machines admits
that the problem is not so much one of the extraction of
water from the tissues as it is a problem of the proper

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 73

treatment before and after dehydration. The problem
of treatment before dehydration has occupied the atten-
tion of many investigators. Attempts have been made
to prepare the material by dipping in solutions of salt,
sodium bicarbonate, by boiling, steaming, and sulfering.
Perhaps with vegetables some of these treatments may
be successful, but with fruits no success has been attained.

It is true that for many years apples have been
treated with sulfur fumes before evaporation, but one
can hardly say that the process is sucessful. The color
and flavor of. sulfured apples are anything but inviting.
Unless apples are treated some way before drying, they
lose their aromatic flavor and become discolored due to
the process of oxidation. If the process of oxidation can
be retarded or prevented, a lighter colored and more
highly flavored product could be obtained.

Proceeding upon this theory, investigators have
recently been able to work out a method for producing
a delicious dehydrated apple. This work was carried on
by Mr. James at the Illinois Experiment Station and
by myself at the Utah Experiment Station. The apples
were prepared by slicing into very thin strips by passing
the whole apple through an ordinary apple peeler.
These thin slices dry more uniformly than thick slices or
“quarters.”’ In order to prevent or retard the process of
oxidation the tissues were then treated with a solution
of sucrose and glucose. It was found that the sucrose
solution method could be replaced by using dry granu-
lar sucrose which was quickly dissolved by the moisture
on the cut surfaces of the apple tissue. Varying con.
centrations of solutions and amounts of dry sugar were
used and it was found that in general (especially with the
glucose) that the browning of the tissues decreased ag
the concentration of the solution was increased. How-
ever, disregarding the color of the product, these treat-
ments produced a sweet, pleasantly flavored product far
superior to the ordinary sulfured apple (refer to speci-
mens).

It is evident that the sugar from the solutions pene-
trated into the intercellular spaces of the tissues and
formed a protective covering which at least retarded the
process of oxidation. It was also found that the sugar

74 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

treated apples after dehydration and subsequent treat-
ment with water regained their original shape and con-
sistency more quickly and more completely than did
those dried without treatment. By using large quanti-
ties of sugar a sweet candy-like product is obtained,
which, when thoroughly dried, may be ground to powder
and used as a flavoring matter.

The outlook for dehydration holds wonderful pos-
sibilities; it is a coming industry. The problem in con-
nection with the actual process of the extraction of water
have probably, to a large extent, been solved; but the
problems that will hold our attention for some time to
come will be those of the proper treatment of the mater-
ial before and after dehydration.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 75

DISTILLED WATER AS A MEDIUM FOR
GROWING PLANTS.

BY M. C. MERRILL.

Because of the extensive use of distilled water as a
medium in which to grow plants for comparative pur-
poses in solution-culture work, it was felt that there was
justification for experimental work in order to determine
more definitely the relation of plants to this medium.
This paper will deal with the methods of work and the
results obtained from the standpoint of growth relations
and also by means of the effect produced upon the
medium as determined by means of electrical conduc-
tivity measurements.

1. HISTORICAL.

The relation of plants to distilled water is a matter
that has been under more or less serious consideration
at different periods for a long time. As early as 1691-
1692 Woodward, who first employed the method of water
culture in his interesting experiments, found that plants
grew better in river water than in either rain water,
spring water, or distilled water. The difference was
of course due to the quantity of plant food contained
in the medium, and this idea, coupled also with the char-
acter of the nutrients, has been the basis for a vast
amount of physiological work since that time.

A review of the literature on the subject shows that
three main views have been entertained as the reason
why plants and animals thrive better in natural water
or aqueous media than in distilled water. These views
are:

Because distilled water lacks essential nutrients;
Because it contains deleterious substances;

Because of the extraction or exosmosis of salts, or

Co no

76 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

nutrient materials, from organisms immersed in distilled
water.

Holding each of these views there has been a for-
midable array of scientists at different periods, each
group contending strongly to establish the correctness
of its view-point. Among those holding the first view
may be mentioned Boehm and Deherain.

The second view was associated with the theory of
“oligodynamik” action of copper and other toxic sub-
stances which were found to be present in distilled water
in minute traces and which produced effects simulating
toxicity on the organisms placed in the medium. Kol-
liker, Nasse, Nageli, Aschoff, Loew, Locke, Ringer, Cope-
land and Kahlenberg, Deherain and Demoussy, Lyon,
Bokorny and Hoyt were among those who gave attention

to this phase of the problem at different times.

; Because of finding by electrical conductivity mea-
surements and otherwise that salts are extracted from
organisms placed in distilled water, Plateau, Ringer and
his school, Loeb, Koeppe, Oldham, Peters, True and
others were led to believe that injury to organisms in
distilled water found its best explanation on the basis
of the extraction of necessary nutrient salts.

The results which the writer obtained in this phase
of work led him to a somewhat different conception in
regard to this subject. This conception is that pure
distilled water is not harmful per se, but that because
of the static condition forced upon them as a consequence
of the absence of plant food, the growing cells become
easy prey to bacterial and fungous action. Excretion
of electrolytes does occur but this should be regarded
merely as a concomitant condition and should not be
considered as a cause of degeneration unless the electro-
lytes themselves be toxic.

2. METHODS.

Canada field peas (Pisum sativum) and horse beans
(Vicia faba), the small variety, were selected for this
work because of their splendid adaptability for growth
in solution cultures. After thoroly sterilizing the seeds
they were germinated on galvanized iron “hardware
cloth” which was placed over a pan full of tap water into

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 77

which the roots descended upon germination, thus giv-
ing an excellent lot of vigorous, uniform seedlings with
serviceably straight radicals about two inches long.
Ordinary glass tumblers, the sides of which were
covered with black paper and the top by perforated par-
affined paper, were used as containers. Ten plants were
grown in each tumbler in most cases. Pfeffer’s nutrient
solution and doubly distilled water with a specific con-
ductivity of 2.064x10—* were used as the media. For the
conductivity work a Wheatstone bridge—telephone appa-
ratus was used. The temperature was controlled to 1/10
degrees C. by use of a specially constructed water tank
holding fifty gallons with a pilot flame underneath.

3. RESULTS.

If distilled water injures plants by reason of extract-
ing nutrient materials, then it would be expected that
greater injury would result if the distilled water were
renewed or changed frequently during the time the organ-
ism were in it by virtue of the increase in its extracting
ability. To test this out, both peas and horse beans were
grown in doubly distilled water forty-seven and forty-five
days respectively. For half of the cultures the water was
replaced by fresh water every four days. The water
for the other half of the cultures was not renewed, tho
the small loss by transpiration and evaporation was made
up in order to maintain a constant level in the tumbler.
The results obtained at the end of the period are shown
in Table I.

78 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

TABLE I.

Effect of Renewed vs. Unrenewed Distilled Water
on the Growth of Peas and Horse Beans.

meee eenwocnn—-c--

!

Esk ELE hee PR Le = SCA ES OS ERS SE
Medium Green Wt. of tops Dry Wt. of roots
in grams. in grams
PEAS:
Distilled water
renewed 28.55 1.131
Distilled water
unrenewed 28.08 1.259
HORSE BEAN:
Distilled water

Distilled water

99.56 2.772

renewed | 110.30 3.315
unrenewed |

These results therefore indicate that the so-called
injury to plants in distilled water cannot be entirely or
even satisfactorily explained on the basis of: extraction
of solutes from the plant tissues. If that were the case
we should have the greatest injury and least recovery in
those cultures in which the distilled water was renewed,
the periodically renewed water effecting in toto a greater
exosmosis of the salts than the water that is not
renewed, as will be shown later.

Growing these plants in distilled water for varying
periods from one to twenty days, in half of the cultures
the water being renewed every four days and not
renewed in the others, and then transferring them to full
nutrient solution, showed that in general better recovery
resulted in the full nutrient solution in the case of those
plants whose distilled water medium had been renewed.
The period of five to ten days was found to be the limit
of time peas and horse beans could remain in distilled
water and then recover normally and continue their
growth in the usual way. They could of course be
kept in distilled water for much longer periods than that

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 79

and later continue growth when placed in full nutrient
solution, but their growth would not then be entirely
normal. .

An interesting effect in this connection is the delayed
maturity and prolonged growing season of plants first
grown in distilled water and later grown in full nutrient
solution as compared with those in the nutrient medium
the entire time.

If distilled water is in itself toxic then it should be
interesting to get quantitative data on its effects as mea-
sured by the power of plants so treated to recover.
This power should furnish a good index regarding the
extent of any injury suffered. By comparing the ultimate
time limits for various media of slight toxicity after which
recovery in full nutrient solution is possible, we are able
to get a basis on which to determine the relative toxicity
of each medium. Table II shows the results of experi-
ments along this line, and gives the longest period in the
toxic solution after which recovery is possible:

TABLE II.
Redistilled water 80—40 days.
N/100 MgCl, 4— 8 days.
N/1000 MgCl, about 20 days.
N/1000 CaCl, & N/20 MgCl, about 16 days.
N/12800 H,SO, about 20 days.
N/400 KOH about 20 days.

The solutions used have been considered as approx-
imately the critical concentrations that would have prac-
tically no deleterious effects on plants. That being the
case, the results show that pure distilled water can not
be regarded as toxic. What is here illustrated for dis-
tilled water then is not toxicity but merely the length of
time those plants can survive in a medium without nutri-
ent materials.

Suspecting that bacteria and fungi play an important
role in the deterioration of plants kept for some time in
distilled water, an experiment was performed to deter-
mine the effect on the growth of the plants of sterilizing
the medium by boiling it in a return condenser every four
days. The results are shown in Table III.

80 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

TABLE III.

Effect Produced on Growth of Plants by Sterilizing
the Water in Which They are Grown.

—<$<$_§___.

|
Ca) Medium | Condition of Green Wt. of | Dry Wt. of
0. | medium tops in gms. | roots in gms
—
1s} Dist. BOO | Unrenewed | 1.55 | 141
2 | Dist. H,O | Renewed 1.65 SEX)
3.6 (4) Dist. HO | Sterilized , | 2.40 | 225
4 oes H ,O | Sterilized 3.05 | 233

| SD ree en
was due to the destruction of the bacterial and fungous
floras of the medium, to a decomposition of any
contained toxic substances, or to incidental effects such
as aeration of the water by the boiling process, was not
definitely determined. All things carefully considered,
however, the stronger line of evidence seems to favor
the first-mentioned hypothesis.

The results of the conductivity experiments were
both interesting and enlightening. The first point that was
definitely determined was that there was much greater
total and permanent excretion of electrolytes from the
plants in the renewed than in the unrenewed distilled
water. Table IV shows this result. The reading on the
Wheatstone bridge for distilled water only was approxi-
mately 6.0. That figure is then considered the starting
point for the conductivity readings for exosmosis, and
the values given represent the readings on the bridge.

(See Table IV.)

Another point of interest was the reabsorption of
electrolytes—as seen by the decrease in conductivity of
the medium—in those cultures in which the distilled water
was not renewed. This phenomenon was also fre-
quently observed to be characteristic of normal, healthy
peas when transferred from full nutrient solution to dis-
tilled water. There would be considerable exosmosis
but after one or two days reabsorption would occur.

Conductivity readings of the distilled water medium

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 81

every five days for a period of fifty days show a gradual
rise in the conductivity, which becomes more rapid after ~
the tenth day. This is no doubt due to the results of
bacterial and fungous action on the decomposition of the
tissues and the setting free of electrolytes. The curve
for the green weight of the tops rises for the first ten days
and then declines. After ten days in distilled water
the complete normality of the plants no longer existed,
a growth condition previously referred to.

Believing that the question of injury to plants in dis-
tilled water was intimately bound up with that of lack of
reserve food materials, an experiment was carried out
bearing upon this point. Plants were grown for varying
periods in full nutrient solution and then transferred to
distilled water whose conductivity was then taken at two-
day intervals for twenty days. For comparison, read-
ings were also taken of distilled water the plants in
which had not been in the full nutrient solution at all. It
was found that these latter deteriorated most rapidly and
gave the highest conductivity readings, whereas those
in the full nutrient solution longest before being placed
in the distilled water gave the lowest readings at the end
of the twenty days.

The results obtained seem plainly to indicate that
injury which plants sustain in distilled water is very
closely related either to the lack of available nutrients
in the medium or of reserve food material in the tissues.
A seedling is in an exceedingly plastic state of growth.
If no food materials become available the embryonic
tissues which are in such an active condition of growth
soon become disorganized, possibly suffering partial auto-
lysis and becoming the prey to bacterial and fungous
action. We would expect, therefore that the larger the
seeds (and hence also the supply of stored materials),
the longer the seedlings could remain in distilled water
before deterioration. Comparison of True’s results on
Lupinus with those here presented on Pisum sativum
and Vicia faba seems to fulfill that expectation. We
should also expect that the more nutrient materials the
plant absorbed, the better it would be able later to with-
stand any deteriorating influences in the distilled water,

82 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

and the experiment above noted seems to bear out that
idea also.
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION.

It is believed that the evidence furnished is suf-
ficient to support the conclusion that pure distilled water
per se is not toxic or injurious to plants, and that various
other factors enter in to cause the deterioration noted
when plants are placed in that medium.

Of course by qualifying the assertion to include pure
distilled water only, we have thus eliminated the effect
that may be produced by toxic substances in the dis-
tilled water, no matter from whence derived. The
abundance of work that has been done on the toxicity of
various substances to plant tissues would of course lead
us to expect injurious effects if such substances were
present in any quantity in the distilled water. With that
phase of the question we are therefore not much con-
cerned at present. With a distilled water prepared as
indicated, and with a specific conductivity. which is
approximately 2x10-°, we have a water sufficiently pure
for use in the consideration of other aspects of the ques-
tion, and attention is directed to these.

The evidence presented has inclined us strongly to
the view that the fundamental basis of the deterioration
of plants in distilled water rests upon the food relation of
such plants, but that, on the other hand, an exosmosis of
food materials or nutrient salts is in no way responsi-
ble for the difficulty. It is considered that the question
of the food relation plays an important role in the incip-
iency of the disorder, but that this is quickly followed
by factors which have been initiated as a result of the
inimical food or nutrient relation.

A plant must assuredly have food in order to thrive.
The more food it has stored up in its tissues, the longer
it can survive in a medium devoid of it. But because
of the absence of available food it is believed that the
tissues of the plant begin to become disorganized and
in that condition fall a ready prey to bacterial and fung-
ous action, which may then set in and play a very impor-
tant part in the subsequent decomposition of the tissues.

el a

83

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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84 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

DETERMINATION OF THE NORMAL TEMPERA-
TURE BY MEANS OF THE EQUATION OF
THE SEASONAL TEMPERATURE
VARIATION AND OF A MODIFIED
THERMOGRAPH RECORD.

BY DR. FRANK L. WEST, N. E. EDLEFSEN, AND S. P. EWING.

The normal air temperature is a periodic function of
the time, there being two prominent periods, a twenty-
four hour and an annual period.

The mean daily temperature for the different days
of the year for Utah was plotted and the following em-
pirical equation for the curve obtained by the method of
the Fourier Series.

(1)
T—48.5-22.2 cos(@—19°54’)—2.7 cos 2(@-149°5’)-1.0 cos 3(@-17°3’):

T, representing the temperature, and © the time, ex-
pressed in degrees, e. g. April lst would be 90°, July
Ist 180° etc. The same curves for widely separated
places in the interior of the United States are nearly
identical in shape and when superimposed on the curve
for Utah—in the most extreme case—projected at the
crest but 2 above and at the winter minimum 2 below
the curve for Utah. The first term in the above equation
is the mean annual temperature for the place considered
(a function of latitude and elevation) and simply moves
the curve up or down the page while the shape or ampli-
tude is determined by the differences in temperature
between summer and winter and varies at different places
in the interior of the United States from the Utah value
from 1 to 4 degrees. The equation given above therefore
is of rather general application. Simply insert for the first

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 85

term, the mean annual temperature for the place in ques-
tion, leave the rest of the equation as it is and the normal
mean daily temperature for the day desired at the place
chosen may be calculated.

The curve representing the twenty-four hour tem-
perature change (thermograph record), modifies its
shape gradually each day, flattening out as winter
appoaches. During the summer, when heat is being re-
ceived fast one would expect the rise in temperature to be
greater, for the same time interval, than in winter and
thus we find that the daily variation in temperature is
about twice as much in summer as in winter. However, the
ratio of the hourly temperatures to the mean daily tem-
perature Fahrenheit is nearly constant whatever day of
the year is selected, e. g. the ratio of the maximum to the
mean is very approximately a constant for all days of the
year. Irregularities will be caused by storms and enough
ratios must be taken to eliminate these in obtaining this
constant. These per cents of the mean daily temperature,
range from seventy for the minimum just before sunrise
to 130 for late afternoon, (somewhat smaller range for
humid regions,) and when plotted gave a curve very
similar to the thermograph record of a clear day. The
equation of this curve is

(2)
P—97.3—25.2 cos (@-67°10’) 4.3.7 cos 2(@—-38°)—1.5 cos 3(9—-23°16’)

P, representing the per cent of the mean daily temper-
ature and © the time of day expressed in degrees, e. g.
6 A. M. would be 90°, noon 180°. etc. This equation
is also of rather general application, at least approxi-
mately.

To determine the normal temperature at any place,
say e. g. Denver at any day and hour, say May Ist at
4 A. M.—insert the mean annual temperature of Denver
for the first term of equation (1) and substitute for ©
the May 1st equivalent which is 1/3 of 360—120° and
solve for the mean daily temperature for that day. In
equation (2) insert for @ 4/24 or 1/6 of 360°—60° and
solve for the per cent corresponding to 4 A. M., multiply
this per cent by the temperature obtained from solving

86 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

equation (1) and the 4 A. M. May 1st Denver normal
temperature is obtained.

The errors include the fact that one more year’s
record might change the normals used and the graph of
the equation might not coincide with the plot of this new
data. These errors are very slight. In applying the
method in the eastern part of the United States where
cyclones cause large departures from the normals,
longer records are required, the curve of annual tempera-
ture change has a slightly different shape or amplitude
and the ratio of maximum to mean for the day is
smaller but approximately constant.

One fourth of the earth’s surface is as dry as the
Great Basin of Western U. S., where the precipitation is 12
inches, the humidity 50%, and 80% of the days are with-
out rain. These wide departures from normals are com-
paratively rare and the above method is useful in long
time temperature prediction.

Using the above method it was found that in the
arid west, the chances are one in six that the actual
temperature will differ from the computed value by less
than 2°F., two in five that it will be 5°F., one in four that
it will be around 10°F., and 1 in 7 that it will be as much
as .15°F. Cyclones and anti-cyclones are the main
causes of these departures. By consultation with the
Weather Bureau concerning the location of these “‘highs”’

and “lows,’”’ these differences may be very considerably
reduced.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 87

ALKALI WATER FOR IRRIGATION.
BY F. S. HARRIS AND N. I. BUTT.

With the increasing demand for agricultural pro-
ducts, there is need for the reclamation of more of the
present unproductive lands. Although Utah now irri-
gates more than a million acres, perhaps double this area
could be irrigated if all of the present supply of water
could be utilized. On account of alkali troubles which
developed soon after water was applied, several irriga-
tion projects have failed even though they had an abund-
ance of water. Some soils contain quantities of alkali
which might be expected to give trouble as soon as irri-
gation is commenced and time is allowed for the salts to
be dissolved and accumulated at the surface of the soil
by evaporation. There are some ruined soils, however,
which originally did not contain sufficient alkali to be
troublesome, but have been contaminated from other
sources.

Seepage water often percolates from higher lands
bringing disastrous quantities of alkali. Irrigation
water, which in many cases contains considerable seep-
age, sometimes holds sufficient alkali to make the land
sterile in a very few years. Often irrigation streams
carrying far too little alkali salts to be noticed by tast-
ing, hold so much that without adequate precaution in
their use, the toil in reclaiming the land could easily be
wasted before profitable cultivation began.. Millions of
acres of land in India, the Euphrates Valley, and Africa
have been made unproductive by alkali accumulation.
It is, therefore, important that we avoid the use of water
likely to throw out of use land which, though unused at
present, may be needed in the future.

Since the waters causing injury to lands in other
parts of the country have been somewhat carefully
studied, we know in a general way the approximate
quantities of alkali that may be present without fear of
damage to the soil. The limits which have been set by
the various investigators, however, vary through a wide

88 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

range. Differences in drainage of the soil, the kind of
alkali, the quantity of water used, and several other
factors make definite limits impossible. The water in
streams may hold only a small quantity of salts in the
spring when it comes direct from the melting snows, but
later in the summer when it is most needed for irrigation
the alkali content may have reached a dangerously high
point because of seepage and return waters. This
fluctuating salt content of the streams may further com-
plicate the problem for streams which vary considera-
bly in volume; they may fall within the limits of safe
water during part of the year and be dangerous at other
times.

A soil with good drainage is seldom troubled with
alkali. Such a soil, without being materially injured,
could be irrigated with alkali water too strong to be suc-
cessfully used on more impervious ones. If we can find a
means to make use of the stronger alkali irrigation waters
on the sandy or well drained soils and reserve the purer
waters for the more impervious but richer loam and clay
soils, great good will be accomplished.

An arbitrary limit for the quantity of salts which may
be present in an irrigation water without causing a rapid
deterioration of the land due to alkali, may greatly assist
in classifying waters as safe or unsafe for general irriga-
tion purposes provided the modifying factors are taken
into consideration. In California where there is more
trouble from sodium carbonate, or black alkali, than is
found in Utah, the limit for safe irrigation water is
placed between 600 and 700 parts of alkali salts to each
million parts of water or between 0.06 and 0.07 per cent.
Where the main salt is sodium carbonate, as small a
proportion as 300 to 500 parts might prove injurious.

Utah waters, however, are troubled mainly with the
less harmful sodium chloride and sodium sulphate. Under
Arizona conditions where the salts are mostly sodium
sulphate and sodium chloride in much the same pro-
portion as in Utah waters and where the drainage is
fairly good, as much as 1,000 parts per million is not con-
sidered entirely unsafe to be used for irrigation.

In New Mexico the water of the Pecos River which
contains proportionately more sodium sulphate than the

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 89

majority of Utah irrigation waters, is said to be fit for
irrigation until it reaches a strength of about 1,250 to
1,500 parts per million of alkali salts or where the total
salts are about double this quantity.

Where water known to contain alkali in such large
quantities as to be harmful is flowing past farms threat-
ened with drouth, it is a great temptation to use the
water for a single irrigation with the intention of wash-
ing the salts from the soil when purer water can be had.
In the Bear River Valley on a clay loam soil, a farmer
used the water from the Malad River which contains
over 4,000 parts per million of salts, mostly sodium chlor-
ide, to irrigate a grain field. The grain almost immedi-
ately wilted and the crop was lost. Such water might
have been endured for the season on a lighter and better
drained soil.

Most of the irrigation waters of Utah contain such
small quantities of alkali salts that they may be classi-
fied as good under ordinary conditions. Perhaps a dozen
of the streams and rivers fall in the class which are of
dubious quality, and a few of these are unquestionably
harmful under the local conditions. Springs and wells
vary so much in alkali content in different places that
individual analyses must be made before their quality
for irrigation can be determined. (For analyses of some
of the more important streams of the state, and a number
of wells and reservoirs used for irrigation, Bulletins 147
and 163 of the Utah Experiment Station are instructive.)

Under field conditions, the injury done by alkali
in irrigation water is difficult to determine definitely
because of alkali already in the soil, accumulation of the
salts in the upper strata of the soil, and the interfering
action of various non-alkali salts. To study the factors
separately, a number of experiments were begun at the
Utah Experiment Station in 1915 and continued until
1918.

The first experiment consisted of two series of
earthen jars, one containing loam soil and another sand,
to which the alkali salts were added in pure solutions
somewhat as under ordinary irrigation. To avoid evap-
oration from the jars with its consequent accumulation
of the salts at the surface, the tops of the jars were cov-

90 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ered with paraffine paper as soon as the plants were up.
Field studies are often complicated because of varying
moisture conditions in the soil. In these experiments
the moisture was maintained at 20 per cent of the dry
weight of the soil in both the loam and the sand by adding
the alkali solutions to the plants as fast as they used the
water. The crop in all cases was wheat; wheat being
more easily handled and studied than most other crops
and its action under alkali conditions having been more
carefully studied. Low concentrations of the various
solutions were not used as this would have prolonged too
greatly the experiment. The same conditions. result
from running the experiment with stronger solutions. It
is the quantity of injurious salts in the soil less the quan-
tity held in an insoluble form which determines the tox-
icity to the plant. The conditions reached in the four
years of the experiment with a given strength of solution
could have been obtained in double this length of time
with half the strength. The results are applicable to
field conditions only where the soil is impervious or nearly
so. Also where the moisture conditions of the soil are
different from those of the experiment an allowance
should be made accordingly.

To learn which parts of the plant are affected by
the alkali, studies were made of the dry weight of the
plant, the number of leaves produced per plant and their
length, the number of culms and their length, the number
of heads, and the number of spikelets per head. The
following conclusions have been drawn from the experi-
ments: .

As a general rule, the dry weight of the plants indi-
cated the action of the alkali better than the other deter-
minations. However, as the number of leaves per plant,
the length of culms, and the number of heads produced
were affected much the same as the dry weight, these
factors might be used roughly to estimate the toxicity of
alkali soil. When the conditions were unfavorable to
high production of dry matter so that variation in pro-
duction was not large between the different treatments,
certain of the factors other than dry matter indicated
the quantity of salts in the soil better than did the weight
of the plants.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 91

On a loam soil without good drainage the various
factors show that wheat should never be irrigated with
water containing as much as 1,000 parts per million of
sodium carbonate and that even 500 parts per million
will materially reduce the growth of the plants within
three or four years. The plants receiving sodium car-
bonate in all strengths from 500 to 4,000 parts per mil-
lion wilted in the loam soil and produced a poor growth
during the first year. Water containing an appreciable
quantity of sodium carbonate should not be used on heavy
or impervious soils.

A mixture of the three salts sodium chloride, sodium
carbonate, and sodium sulphate in equal quantities was
not so harmful as the most toxic salt on loam soil but
ranked high in this respect. Such a mixture was appar-
ently stimulating when applied to the loam soil in a
strength of 1,000 parts per million during the third and
fourth years, but for the first two years it was rather
toxic. As much as 4,000 parts per million of mixed
salt solution was too toxic for good growth.

Water containing 1,000 parts per million or more of
sodium chloride proved harmful to wheat on undrained
loam soil in two years.

Applied to this soil water containing 4,000 parts
per million or more sodium sulphate proved to be dang-
erous to wheat in two or three years. When added in
concentration of 1,000 parts per million this salt did not
appear essentially harmful in four years.

In the use of water, plants growing in soil containing
sodium carbonate were very wasteful while those in
sodium chloride were more economical.

The size of the leaves in the loam soil decreased as
the strength of the solution increased. The leaves were
apparently affected both in number and length by small
quantities of alkali in the soil. Mixed salts appeared
more toxic than the single salts to length of leaves and
number of heads per plant.

The length of culture do not appear to be so closely
related to alkali as to other factors, either in loam or sand
soil. In general the number of spikelets per head decreas-
ed with increasing strengths of alkali. The weaker alkali,

92 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

_ especially sodium chloride and mixed salts, apparently
stimulated the production of spikelets.

For the sand soil the salts did not seem quite so
toxic to the plants at a given concentration and time as
did the loam. This was perhaps due to a larger propor-
tion of free water in the sand; both soils containing 20
per cent of water but loam holding it more strongly.
Sand soil withstood up to 1,000 parts per million of sodium
carbonate water for two to three years without a great
reduction in the production of wheat. This strength of
solution reduced the crop to less than one-half for the
fourth year. Water containing 1,000 parts per million
or more of any of the alkali salts when applied as needed
by the plants to an undrained sandy soil made it too
toxic for grain production in three to four years. Pro-
duction was not greatly decreased by sodium sulphate
until a solution with a strength of 4,000 parts per mil-
lion was used.

Alkali irrigation water appears to influence plant
production only so far as it increases the strength of the
soil solution above a point tolerated by plants. More
salts than are ordinarily considered harmful were with-
stood in this experiment before fatal strengths were
reached. This was perhaps because the soil was kept
high in moisture by weekly irrigation.

In another experiment water containing sodium
carbonate proved more injurious to wheat plants after
they had reached the five-leaf stage than the other alkali
salts. Both sodium chloride and sodium sulphate stimu-
lated dry matter production up to a certain concentra-
tion even when the soil contained many times the quantity
ordinarily harmful. When watered with an alkali solu-
tion after reaching the five-leaf stage of growth sodium
chloride caused the plants to produce dry matter with less
water than did other treatments. Wheat growing on
alkali free soil was retarded in growth in a single season
by water containing as much as 10,000 parts per million
of sodium carbonate but 25,000 parts per million of sodium
chloride and much more than this of sodium sulphate
was endured by plants which were past the five-leaf
stage. Wheat appears to be many times more sensitive

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 93

when in the younger stage of growth than it does after
it reaches the five-leaf stage.

An experiment with seedling plants shows the aver-
age order of toxicity for the different treatments to be
sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, magnesium chloride,
calcium chloride and sodium sulphate; sodium carbonate
being most harmful and sodium sulphate least. Solu-
tions containing less than 60,000 parts per million of
sodium chloride apparently stimulated dry matter pro-
duction in seedling plants.

Sodium chloride was slightly more toxic to growth
in height of seedlings than other salts and sodium sul-
phate distinctly favored this development. Highly con-
centrated solutions of these salts tended to reduce the
height of the plant. With the weaker strengths of alkali,
plants withstood sodium chloride better than sodium car-
bonate, but when the stronger solution was applied the
plants were killed at an earlier stage with sodium chloride
than with sodium carbonate. Plants were apparently
little injured at the end of the three weeks when grow-
ing in a soil watered with a 200,000 parts per million
solution of sodium sulphate, the highest strength tried.
The action of alkali on plants does not seem to become
manifest immediately after the salts are added to the soil
in the form of alkali solutions.

For seedling plants toxicity of a single irrigation
with a solution of alkali salts, when based on an average
of the erectness of the plants, wilting of the leaves, brown-
ing and corroding of the base of the stems, and the gen-
eral healthfulness of the plants, was first apparent at a
strength of 0.3125 molecules or where the soils contained
about 1,800 parts per million of sodium chloride 3,300
parts per million of sodium carbonate or 4,400 of sodium
sulphate. Sodium carbonate was most harmful in these
strengths followed by sodium chloride and sodium sul-
phate. The unmixed salts or those diluted only slightly
by the other two salts appeared more toxic than where
all three salts were somewhat more equally mixed.
Mixtures of sodium carbonate and sodium chloride were
as toxic as either salt alone and in some cases more so,
especially where there was a marked toxic effect of the
salts. The condition of the plants was reduced to less

94 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

than half normal when the sodium chloride soil had
received about 2,923 parts per millon, the sodium car-
bonate soil 5,300 parts per million, and the sodium sul-
phate soil 14,207 parts per million of salts in the unmixed
treatments.

It appears that the stage of growth reached by the
plant before the alkali is brought in contact with it, has
considerable influence on the injury that will be done
to it.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 95

THE RELATION OF THE METHOD OF
ANALYZING ALKALI SOILS TO
THE LIMITS OF TOXICITY.

BY D. W. PITTMAN.

The importance of the alkali problem need not be
emphasized here. So large a percentage of our non-
productive land is non-productive because of alkali as to
make the study of alkali of major importance in this
region. One of the first problems to be met with by the
investigator is to be able to tell by examining a piece of
land whether or not it contains enough alkali to prohibit
or lessen crop production. The two phases of this prob-
lem are: to determine by analysis how much alkali the
soil contains, and to determine by experiment how much
alkali the crops will endure. Both these phases have
been studied by many investigators but with methods so
varied that the results obtained by different men are
hardly comparable. There are almost as many methods
of testing for alkali and of expressing the results of the
tests as there are men studying the problem, each man
using a method most adapted to his line of work. On
the other hand, the men studying the toxic limits of the
alkali salts may use salt solutions, may add the salts to
the soil, or may: test natural alkali soils by one of the
various methods. All these methods yield entirely differ-
ent results and a study of the literature in this line gives
such widely different limits of tolerance of crops for the
various salts as to leave one in a state of confusion.

In this work it was the intention to show that differ-
ent methods of analyzing soils gave different results and to
give a little data on the toxic limits of a few salts as shown
by some of the more common tests. Preliminary studies
too lengthy to be included here showed that the different
standard methods of testing soils for alkali salts and of ex-
pressing the results gave differences occasionally amount-
ing to over 1000 per cent in the results. .A study of the
literature on the toxic limits gives still greater differences.
Therefore, only a few of the analytical methods were

-tried out in this experiment.
The tests were arranged in series so that each was re-

96 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

peated many times and the relative deviation of the meth-
ods was determined. The methods used for determining
the salts were as follows: First, the salt was added in sol-
ution in various concentrations to the soil in tumblers. The
soil ranged in this case from sand to clay including many
mixtures with loam and varying organic materials.
Second, at the conclusion of the experiment the soils in
these tumblers were tested by water extraction for the
salts added the method being described later. Third,
these same soils were tested for total alkali with the
electric bridge as described in U. 8. Bureau of Soils Bul-
letin No. 61. Fourth, the soils were tested for total
alkali by determining the freezing point of the soil at
its normal moisture content, a method that has recently
been perfected by Bouyoucos and McCool of the Michi-
gan Station for determining the osmotic pressure and
thus indirectly the concentration of the soil solution at
the normal moisture content of the soil.

The method of water extraction used was as follows:
The soil was dried in an oven and a 50-gram sample
weighed out. This was stirred in 500 cc. of distilled
water with a broad paddle for five minutes, allowed to
settle for an hour and filtered through a Chamberlain-
Pasteur filter. The filtrate was tested for sodium chloride
by titrating an aliquot part with N/50 silver nitrate using
potassium dichromate as an indicator; it was tested for
sodium carbonate by titrating an aliquot part with N/50
sulfuric acid using methyl orange indicator and expressing
the total basicity as sodium carbonate; it was tested for
sodium sulfate by the ordinary gravimetric method. A
rather extensive series of experiments showed that vary-
ing the time of agitation and the proportion of soil to
water had considerable influence on the sodium carbonate
results but had little influence on the other salts. The
method described above was adopted because it was con-
venient and seemed to give as consistent results as any.

The crop producing power of these soils was deter-
mined by planting ten kernels of New Zealand wheat in
each of the tumblers, maintaining the soil at a uniform,
favorable moisture content and allowing the seed to ger-
minate and grow for three weeks. The growth was then
cut off at the surface of the soil, dried, and weighed.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 97

With each row of tumblers was one which contained the
same soil as the others but no salt added. The dry
weight of plants produced in this was taken as 100 per
cent and the yield of the other tumblers computed on
this basis. To express the relative deviation of the
results the probable error in per cent of the mean was
used. This figure is the percent of the average result
which marks the limits above and below the mean within
which half of the individual results will fall. It is
worked out by the formula

>d°
P. E. (% of mean) = + e745 n
M
‘where ‘‘Sd?” is the sum of the squares of the differences
between each individual result and the mean, ‘‘n’’ is the
number of samples, and ‘‘M’”’ is the mean or arithmetic
average. “n” is at least 150 determinations for each
figure.
The results are summarized in Tables I, II, and III.

TABLE I.

Crop production for soils containing different
amounts of sodium chloride compared with different
tests for the salt.

Ly A IS +P | 39 & Sai
s ~ is) & r) or Ss
Zo] == len |/ee=| or /28ela~/ cee] ax
SH st | pe ea aah BL = yok aie eg | 9
ao 22 (SF .o2 | eh ies) SP saa| sh
o ae. Te Bea] 6 BZ {se xe4| 8
= a Is cee eS Ss | §
| | ‘cee ore
100 || o| 51]) 196{ 91 || 918] 72 || .41 | 55
114 | 200] 49 || 387] 66 || 716 | 61 || .49| 52
104 || 400] 39 492 | 41 || 963 | 50 55 | 42
113 ||} 600] 42 656 | 44 || 1155 | 53 || .61 | 44
104 || 800] 52 858 | 53 || 1484] 62 70 | 53
98 || 1000] 45 || 1082] 47 || 1760 | 51 | 83 | 48
81 || 1500 | 59 || 1544] 60 || 2403 | 63 |] .98| 60
65 || 2000] 54 || 2054] 55 || 3062 | 57 | 1.23 | 55
50 1 2500 | 63 || 2608 | 64 || 3645 | 68 || 1.44 | 65
39 || 3000] 70 || 2994| 70 || 4227] 72 || 1.66] 71
23 3500 | 92 || 3399] 92 | 4704 | 93 1.85 | 93
16 4000 | 115 | 3812 | 116 || 5016 | 117 } 1.93 | 116

98 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

TABLE II.

Crop production for soils containing different
amounts of sodium carbonate compared with different
tests for the salt.

or] © ie) 2 rc) S oe 8 i)
Soll PF low | PS= | owl Plow] 38) ow
BS) PE lee | PSS | SelPee| ce ees) os
+3 : : ° t 09 - wa t
g |) ee |e [Pee | Teese [ess| F
gts fas) ny = sy - r| 3B
| | | | |
100 | 0 51 728 | 62 || 705 67 76 | 55
126 | 500 | 64 | 849 70 | TAT 74 75 66
iba 1000 48 959 | 54 710 59 eT 50
83 2000 | 21+) 1170 28 || 886 37 .83 24
65 || 3000 | 29 | 1710 ; 33 || 1104 35 .89 30
37 || 4000 75 || 2068 | 76 1392 78 1.05 76
21 || 5000 92 2555 93 1925 95 1.18 94
14 || 6000 {| 102 8024 | 108 2298 | 104 1.30 | 104
8 7000 | 152 || 3395 | 153 2695 | 153 || 1.46 | 153
5 || 8000 | 238 || 3944 | 241 3208 | 239 | 1.69 | 239
4 || 9000 | 130 | 4527 | 131 3555 | 132 | Leal) eZ
3 | 10000 | 280 || 4910 | 280 | 3900 | 281 | 191 | 281
| | II
TABLE III.

Crop production for soils containing different
amounts of sodium sulfate compared with different tests
for the salt.

2 uo] e, S | uo} 5 3 & Re 8 oft SS
a0] 2 | ot Fer] owl FPP evi Bel ot
Fei tb | RU rpee | Biter | PL /Oee!| Be
oP ge |e lee ale eee |e ees) ee
ee ~ . rs) iS) “Srg|
= Re |B Gees =} | 5
| | | | |
100 a 51 455.| 68 || 6874] 59 || 81 | St
111 || 500! 46 || 864] 50 {|| 978| 50 || .41 | 70
94 || 1000 | 42 || 1418] 48 || 1850 | 44 || .45] 51
91 || 2000 | 42 || 2474 | 45 || 2098 | 47 || .57 | 46
79 || 3000 | 46 || 3579 | 48 || 2616 | 48 || .72| 49
68 || 4000 | 50 || 4600 | 52 || 323 54 || .87 | 55
55 || 5000} 59 || 5570 | 61 } 3950 | 61 || 1.04 | 62
42 || 6000 | 72 || 6798 | 73 || 4662 | 75 || 1.14] 75
36 || 7000 | 95 || 8099/ 96 || 4998} 96 || 119 | 97
28 8000 | 99 || 9560 | 100 |] 5496 | 100 || 1.28 | 100
- | 9000 | 115 |} 9990 | 116 |} 6345 | 116 || 1.30 | 115
16 | 10000 | 125 |! 10810 | 125 | 6850 | 127 || 1.46 | 126
|

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 99

These tables show little difference in the tests for
sodium chloride and sodium sulfate but sufficient differ-
ence in the sodium carbonate to make this salt show
more or less toxic than sodium chloride according to how
it is determined. None of the regular tests consistently
show over half of the sodium carbonate added to the soil.
The exact explanation of this is still a matter for research.
The deviations are not noticeably different for any of
the methods showing that most of the deviation is in the
crop growth and not in the analysis. This would indi-
cate that in field work it makes little difference what
method is used to determine the salts in the soil so long
as the data on the relative crop growth or toxicity have
been worked out by a similar method.

Summarizing briefly, these experiments show that:

1. Different methods of determining the alkali con-
tent of soils give widely different results, especially with
‘sodium carbonate or “black alkali.”

2. There are great differences in the toxic Seppe
of alkali as found by different investigators.

3. The methods tried out in detail are about
equally satisfactory in themselves.

4. In field studies it is necessary to use figures for
the toxic limits which were determined by the same
method of testing as employed in the work.

5. Tables have been prepared showing the toxicity
of three alkali salts as determined by four different
methods.

100 TRANSACTIONS OF THE i

A THEORY OF CAPILLARY FLOW.

BY DR. WILLARD GARDNER.

Slichter, in the Nineteenth Annual Report of the U.
S. Geological Survey, has given us a theoretical solution
for the flow of water through homogeneous sand under
pressure, and various investigators have measured the
distribution of capillary water at “equilibrium.” Buck-
ingham, in Bureau of Soils Bulletin No. 38, has proposed
an equation for the flow assuming a capillary potential
gradient and a resistance function, both of which depend
upon the amount of moisture present. His solution is,
however, incomplete and involves an empirical evaluation
of the potential as a function of the moisture content.

Slichter’s solution for free water is a rather success-
ful application of Poiseuille’s law for capillary tubes to
the irregular pore tubes in the sand. The case of the
movement of moisture in unsaturated soil is only formally
analogous to free water movement, the cause of motion
being a moisture gradient. Stokes’ law is developed for
the case of an isolated particle moving in a fluid at a
distance remote from the boundary surface, and these
conditions are of course not rigorously fulfilled in the
case of adjacent particles moving relatively through
thin irregular columns of water. With the hope, how-
ever, of approximating a correct solution we have made
the assumption that Stokes’ law is applicable to hori-
zontal one-dimensional capillary flow, substituting in
place of the gravitational constant a variable kinemati-
cal factor which depends upon the moisture content and
the moisture gradient.

While the physical state and properties of
the so-called hygroscopic moisture is an _ unsettled
question, it is believed that the capillary moisture is
located primarily at points of contact of adjacent par-
ticles and the pressure gradient giving rise to capillary

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 101

movement is due to varying surface curvature. For
spherical grains of uniform size the pressure (which is
the product of the surface tension and the curvature) is
a determinate function of the volume of the ringshaped
water wedge and the pressure gradient is therefore a
determinate function of the moisture gradient. Since
the soil particles are not spherical, a rigorous solution of
the problem would perhaps be only approximately cor-
rect as applied to the soil. We have therefore attempted
only an approximate (?) determination of the function,
yielding the tentative relation :-—

dp ee dp.

dx d

dx p v
where p is the pressure, p the density of moisture at a
point whose linear coordinate is x, and k is a constant
involving the radius of the particle and the surface ten-
sion of the liquid.

Substituting this value in Stokes’ equation we obtain
for the velocity,
e dp

hike ela

where c involves the surface tension, coefficient of vis-
cosity and the radius of the particle.

A simple standard rigorous mathematical develop-
ment yields the differential equation :—

jd)
dt Fi

where v is the mean relative velocity between soil par-
ticle and moisture at a point whose coordinate is x and

(1) NOTE.—The curvature of the soil particle was neglected
in the region of the water wedge, and the relation between the two
radii of curvature of the surface was assumed to be of the form,

By =" Gt

102 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

moisture content per unit volume is p and t is the time.
Substituting for v the value given, we obtain finally :—

dp —.— ed dp awe
dt da \gn a

Assuming equilibrium, we may equate the right
hand member to zero and the finite equation thus obtained
is given as follows :—

p =(ax +3)?

where a and b are integration constants. It will be
observed that the surface tension, viscosity, and radius of
particle disappear from the “equilibrium” equation.
This equation is parabolic in character and a negative
value of the coefficient @ will give values consistent with
experimental data at present available (including in par-
ticular that presented by Dr. Widtsoe in Utah Station
Bulletin 115).

We are conducting some laboratory work and hope
to furnish an empirical solution which will be reported
later.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 103

IS ELECTRIC AIR HEATING FEASIBLE?

BY JOSEPH F. MERRILL.

(Abstract).

During the winter season the atmosphere of Salt Lake
City has become uncomfortably smoky. A demand has
arisen for the elimination of this smoke. The question
arises, is there any feasible way of doing this?

Among the suggestions made for the elimination of
the smoke nuisance in Salt Lake City is the installation of
steam electric generating plants at the coal mines and
the transmission of the electric energy to the city to be
used for heating purposes. The question arises as to the
feasibility of this method.

Heat, of course, is a form of energy and is convertible
into other forms—electric, for example—and other forms
of energy are convertible into heat energy. Further,
energy is a measurable entity. The usually employed
units of mechanical, heat and electric energy and power
and the relations between them are the following:
mechanical, foot-pound and horse-power; electrical, watt
and kilowatt; heat, calorie and British thermal unit.

1 ft. pound—the energy expended in overcoming a
force of 1 Ib. through a distance of 1 ft.

1 hp.—33000 ft. fb. per minute.

1 hp.—746 watts—0.746 kw.

1 B. t. u.—778 ft. Ib.

i Kip? hie S8000R60 LS onas Be us
778

1 kw. hr.— 2245 3412 B. t. u.
0.746

These numerical relations enable us to express elec-.
trical energy in terms of heat units or heat in terms of
electrical units, etc.

Now, suppose the most modern and efficient steam-
electric plants yet designed were built at the Carbon
County Coal Mines one hundred miles away and the power

104 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

transmitted to Salt Lake City and used for heating pur-
poses. The losses and efficiencies of the members of this
system under the best operating conditions, that is, when
the system would be fully loaded would be about as
follows:

LOSSES
Individual Overall Ind. Efficiency

Boiler, ash-pit and chimney.......... 25% 25% 75%
ERIN ao a pons steers o 70% 53% 30%
RRR OE snes artnet ace bade 5% 1% 95%
Station uses and minor losses’ .... 10% 2.5%
Transformers, three sets ............---- 5% 1% 95%
Transmission and distribution line

[Ca PSA eer noe ey cerhe Ne aoe 20% 4% 80%
Total loss from coal pile to heating unit......................-...-...------ 86.5%
Overall efficiency ‘of systet. 0 ois ce 13.5%

These are the best results that could be obtained from
the most up-to-date generating and transmission system.
They show, that only 13.5% of the energy latent in the
coal would be delivered to the house electric heater in
Salt Lake City. This conclusion might be stated in a
somewhat different way.

Experience shows that it takes about two pounds of
soft coal consumed in the most efficient modern steam
turbo-electric plant to deliver 1 kw. hr. of electric energy
to a near-by consumer. But two pounds of this coal
delivers 24,000 B. t. u’s giving 1 kw. hr. or 3412 B. t. u’s
in electric heat, or 14.2%.

Now a good house furnace heating system, properly
managed, has a thermal efficiency varying from 50% to
65%, which is at least four times the efficiency of the
steam-electric heating system, and this notwithstand-
ing the fact that the electric heater itself has an individual
efficiency of 100%.

Hence, if it were possibe to install the most modern
steam turbo-generating plants at the coal mines it would
require the combustion there of at least four times more
coal to heat Salt Lake City than is now burned. From
the stand-point of conservation this waste is not permis-
sible.

Now let us look at the problem from the economic
stand-point. The question arises as to how much electric

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES | 105

heat energy would cost as compared with furnace heat
obtainable by means now in vogue. Coal burned in large
quantities at the mines would certainly be much cheaper
per ton than when burned by the small consumer in his
furnace.

Based on the cost of the Conner’s Creek plant of the
Detroit Edison Company, one of the most efficient, eco-
nomical steam-electric plants in the country, modified to
Utah conditions, the electric plant construction-cost at, or
near, our coal mines, assuming plenty of water for con-
densing purposes, (an assumption contrary to fact) would
be at least $75.00 per kw. of plant capacity. A transmis-
sion and distribution system would cost an additional
$50.00, thus making an investment cost of at least $125.00
per kw. of installed capacity.

Interest, depreciation, taxes and insurance, conser-
vatively estimated at 12%, would necessitate an annual
charge of $15.00 for every kw. of installed capacity. And
to heat comfortably in our winter weather would require
1 kw. installation for each 1000 cu. ft. of house space, or
15 kw. for the average sized bungalow. This would
mean a charge of $150.00 for electric heat to pay the fixed
charges alone. When to this amount is added the oper-
ating and maintenance costs the amount would be
doubled, or $300.00.

Now this cottage that could theoretically be elec-
tically heated for $300.00, could be equally well heated
with a good furnace burning 8 to 10 tons of coal, costing
from $55 to $75—less than a fourth of the cost of elec-
tric heat.

Let us look at the problem from another view point,
and find at what price electric energy would have to be
sold to make electric heating as economical as furnace
heating.

Let us assume a house heating plant to have an effici-
ency of 60%, that a ton of coal costs $8.00, and that one
pound of coal has 12,000 B. t. u’s. Then there would be
delivered from one ton of coal 12,000 x 2000 x 0.6=14,
000,000 B. t. u’s, which divided by 3412—4220 kw. hr.
equivalent to one ton of coal. This would have to be
sold at the electric heater for $8.00 or 0.19c per kw. hr.
which is impossible, commercially considered.

106 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

From considerations of conservation of coal and
economical use of money electric air heating by power
furnished from turbo-electric plants is not possible.

' But how about hydro-electric power, it may be asked.

It would require an installed generating capacity. of
at least 500,000 kw., conservatively estimated, to heat Salt
Lake City. Now, in the first place there is not this much
hydro-electric power available or developable in the State
of Utah. In the second place it would cost $200.00, or
more, per kw. to build the plants, lines, etc., to get the
developable hydro-electric power to the city. Hence, when
the fixed, operating and maintenance charges were paid
it would be found that hydro-electric power would cost
practically as much as steam-electric power.

Electric heating is, from an economic standpoint, a
sort of alchemist’s dream. We all know that electricity
does produce heat, and we all realize and appreciate what
a wonderful thing it would be to dispose of our coal piles
and ash pits, and smoke, dust and cinders, and would.
therefore fain think it practicable. But a most cursory.
study of the subject, either from the stand-point of ther-
mal dynamics, or social or economic science, show that it .
is utterly impossible of general application.

Ppa) a UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 107

THE ATOMIC THEORY AND THE ATOM.

BY W. D. BONNER.

The atomic theory had its inception, apparently, a-
mong the early Greek philosophers. Thus Thales, Anax-
imines and Heraclitus, all of whom lived during the sixth
century B. C., argued that all material things are built
up from one fundamental substance. Each one, of course,
chose a different thing to serve as his primitive element,
water, air, and fire, respectively, and each chose poorly.
In the 5th century B. C., Democritus clearly stated that
all things are made up from a primitive element, and that
this element is made up of the smallest particles possible,
the atoms; that these atoms differ from each other in form
and size, but are all of identical composition and that
they all are in a state of continuous motion. Slight vari-
ations on this theme, such as changing the number of
primitive materials, and makng new selections for them,
was the only progress made in developing a theory of the
composition of-matter, until the 19th century A. D. In
1803, John Dalton attempted to formulate a quantitative
hypothesis regarding the composition of substances, as
opposed to the purely qualitative speculation which had
been indulged in up to that time. He had, for a found-
ation, the knowledge of a considerable number of the
chemical elements, as we now call them; he knew that
the great number of individual substances are made up of
these numerically few elements, and also, the Law of
Definite Proportion was, by this time, fairly well es-
tablished. The first question, then, which he asked him-
self was, are the atoms of the elements all exactly alike,
or are they only similar? If they are the latter, then it
is reasonable to believe that one should be able to pre-
pare samples of the same pure substance differing slightly
from each other, just as one can separate fine sugar crys-

108 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

tals from coarse ones. At first sight thisseemed quite prob-
able, for was not river water different from spring water?
Closer examination, however, showed that neither is pure
and that both contain other things than water. When
these other things are removed, river water and spring
water give samples of water which cannot be distin-
guished each from the other. Dalton concluded, then,
that the atoms of any pure substance are all exactly alike.
He assumed, further, that compound substances are made
up of atoms of their component elements in fixed numbers,
and arranged in a perfectly definite manner.

In 1808, Gay-Lussac published his researches on the
combining volumes of gases, and stated what we now
know as the law of Combining Volumes, or the Law of
Definite Proportion by Volume. He did not, however,
state the very obvious corollary, viz:—that the number
of particles in equal volumes of different gases, under
like conditions, must be the same, or at least proportional.
This was done three years later, by Avogadro, who also
pointed out the necessity of a new conception, viz:—that
the ultimate particle of a compound gas must be different
from that of a gas not compound. He used the terms
“integrated molecule” for the former, and “elementary
molecule” for the later, they being the equivalents of the
molecule and atom of the present nomenclature.

The atomic theory, then, as stated by Dalton and
modified by subsequent workers, is that all substances
are composed of discrete particles called molecules, and
that these molecules are in turn made up of one or more
particles called atoms. These atoms are of a limited
number of kinds, but atoms of any given kind are all
exactly alike, and these atoms represent the limit of
divisibility of matter.

About 80 different kinds of atoms are known, and
their relative weights have been worked out most care-
fully, over a long period of years. In fact, our table of
atomic weights is probably the memorial of the greatest
amount of the most exacting scientific work of one kind
ever attempted. A large amount of this work had been
accomplished by the middle of the 19th century, though a
great deal of correction, revision and refining has gone
on since.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 109

The atomic theory still remains much as Dalton and

his contemporaries left it, and nothing to cause any note-
worthy revision of it came to light for many years after
their day. It is true that certain chemists in Europe and
in America turned against the atomic theory, and Ostwald
even went so far as to write a textbook of chemistry in
which the atomic theory was practically ignored. This
movement, however, did not gain a very large following,
more perhaps because of the inertia of the chemists than
for any other reason.
It was not until 1895 that a discovery was made
which had an ultimate effect upon the ideas previously
held regarding the composition of matter, and which
finally occasioned a restating, or perhaps more properly
an enlarging of the atomic theory. This was Roentgen’s
discovery of the X-rays.

It is not within the scope of this paper to take up in
detail this discovery, and its consequences, but for the
sake of completeness I will outline briefly the subsequent
developments. The remarkable properties of the X rays
led, of course, to a thorough investigation of their nature
and of their source. This led to a closer examination
of the cathode rays produced in a vacuum tube, since the
two were apparently connected, and in 1897 J. J. Thomp-
son showed that the cathode rays consisted of a stream of
particles, of apparent mass about 0.001 that of the hydro-
gen atom moving with great velocity. and carrying nega-
tive charges of electricity. One of the peculiar properties
of the cathode rays is to set up phosphorescence on the
walls of the vacuum tube, and it was at one time consid-
ered possible that this phosphorescence was in some way
connected with the production of X rays. This we now
know not to be the case, but the suggestion had most pe-
culiar results. It occured to several investigators that, if
the induced phosphorescence in the vacuum tube could set
up X rays, then perhaps substances which are naturally
phosphorescent give off something similar to X rays. One
of these investigators was Becquerel, and among the sub-
stances which he investigated was potassium uranium
sulphate. This he put in a package with a photographic
plate, but separated from the plate by several layers of
black paper, and the whole was left for some time in a

110 TRANSACTIONS OF. THE

dark place. On developing the plate, it was found to be
darkened, showing that the potassium uranium sulphate
was giving off rays more penetrating than light. He soon
discovered, however, that the actinic effect was not due
to phosphorescence, but was a property of any uranium
compound, or of metallic uranium itself, irrespective of
the phosphorescence of the substance. Becquerel also
found that the rays given off by uranium or its compounds
‘had the property of discharging an electrified body. This
property was examined by Rutherford, who showed that
-the uranium rays were of two sorts, one much more pene-
«trating than the other. ;
Shortly after Becquerel’s discovery, Mme. Curie made
a systematic examination of substances for radioactivity,
as the; phenomena’ shown by uranium compounds were
now called, and found that thorium possessed the similar
property, and in. about the same degree as uranium. She
also found that the radioactivity was a property of. the
uranium or of the thorium, 2nd was not influenced by the
other substances present. Soon after this she began an
examination of uranium. and thorium minerals, and found
.some. which were several times more active than urani-
um itself. This could only be explained by assuming the
presence of .an. unknown substance much more radio-
active than uranium. She set to work then. to separate
chemically, if possible, this substance, and actually separ-
ated not one but two very active substances. The one
which separated with bismuth she named polonium, and
the one which separated with barium she named radium.
So much, then, for the historical development. lead-
ing up to the discovery of radioactivity, and of radio-
active. substances. The subsequent development would
be too time consuming to discuss historically and in detail,
and I shall therefore briefly summarize our present know-
ledge of the radio chemistry. -When the emanations from
radioactive substances had been carefully examined it
was found that they are of three types, called for con-
venience the:.alpha, the beta and the gamma radiations.
Any: radioactive.element may give off one or all of these.
‘They are distinguished by the following properties :—the
_alpha rays. are positively charged, the beta rays negatively
charged, the gamma rays carry no charge. The alpha

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 111

rays consist of particles about four times the size of an
atom of hydrogen, the beta rays consist of particles
about 1/1800 the size of a hydrogen atom, while the gam-
ma rays are probably of the nature of X rays, but of short-
er length. The alpha rays have been shown to produce
atoms of helium, the beta rays are, perhaps, atoms of
negative electricity, electrons, and may be the ultimate
particles of which all matter is composed. In addition to
the above, the alpha rays are quickly absorbed by the
‘atmosphere, the beta rays are able to penetrate thin metal-
lic: foils, while the gamma rays penetrate considerable
‘thickness of metals.

“About 80 radio active substances have been recog-
nized, and some of them have found their places in the
‘Periodic Table of the Elements. Briefly stated, a radio-
active element is one whose atom may become unstable,
“and spontaneously break up. This may happen to many
‘atoms in ‘a:short time, i. e., the decomposition is rapid, or
it may happen to only a few in the same time. When
“Such an atom decomposes, it may give off alpha particles,
‘i e., helium atoms, ‘and it is changed into something else.
‘This new substance may change again quickly into a
‘third, and so on through many transformations, or, the
new substance may be quite stable. On the other hand,
if the atom, on decomposing, gives off beta particles and
“not ‘alpha, its mass remains almost ‘unaltered, and its
chemical and physical properties are’ perhaps unchanged.

We have, then two'very important additions to the
atomic theory made by the radioactive elements. In the
‘first place the chemical atom is not the limit of divisibility.
This place has now been taken by the’electrical atom, the
‘electron. ‘In the second place the atoms of the’ chemical
elements are not all’alike. The second point may best’be
‘understood by following the course of ‘a radioactive ‘dis-
integration, as shown graphically by the chart. It will be
“seen that, beginning with uranium, successive radioactive
disintegrations occur until finally the atomic weight has
‘changed from 238 to 206, and the substance has changed
from uranium into lead. During this transformation
“several new forms of matter have appeared, some of them
‘being very short lived, others relatively stable, and sdme
of them undoubtedly fit into the periodic table of the

112 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

elements. During this same period of disintegration,
eight atoms of helium have appeared, so that the gross
difference between an atom of uranium and an atom of
lead is 8 atoms of helium. The most important point to
be noticed here is that by this decomposition of uranium
to form lead, with the simultaneous production of 8 atoms
of helium, the atomic weight of the lead is put at 206.2,
i. e., uranium of atomic weight 238.2 loses 8 atoms of he-
lium, of atomic weight 4, leaving a material of atomic
weight 206.2. Now the atomic weight of lead has long
been known to be 207.2, and hence one of two conclusions
is inevitable. Either the material resembling lead, and
which is always found in radioactive minerals, is not lead,
or, it is possible to have a substance of different atomic
weight from lead, but yet showing all the chemical and
physical properties of lead. In other words, the atoms
of lead are not all exactly alike. Lead of undoubted radio-
active origin has been very carefully examined, both in
the metallic form and in the form of salts. The spectro-
graphs of radio lead and of ordinary lead are exactly
alike, and the molar solubilities of the salts are also
identical. When, however, these solubilities are expressed
in grams of salt per liter, the solubility of the radio lead
is less, and by an amount agreeing with its lower atomie
weight. Actual atomic weight determinations on the
purest radio lead to be obtained give an atomic weight of
206.08, markedly less than that called for by the calcula-
tion made above. If, however, the radio lead has origin-
ated from radium, of atomic weight 225.96, by loss of 5
helium atoms, the atomic weight of lead should be 205.96,
a still lower value. Assuming that radio lead has arisen
equally from uranium and from radium, the average
atomic weight becomes 206.07, a result in surprising
agreement with the experimental data. The interesting
question arises here, why has radium an atomic weight
of 225.96? If radium is a decomposition product of uran-
ium, by loss of 3 helium atoms, its atomic weight should
be 226.2. Has it then, during this disintegration, given off
enough beta particles to change its atomic weight by
0.1%? This is hardly probable, since the number of elec-
trons in a given atom seems to be of the order of its atomic
weight. Is there, then another radium, not originating

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 113

from uranium, and whose atomic weight is less than
225.96? This explanation is in accord with the behavior of
lead, which is already well authenticated. Another very
interesting question arising here, is why does ordinary
lead have an atomic weight of 207.2? Is it a mixture of
radio lead with a lead atomic weight 208 or greater? If so,
where did this heavy lead originate—from thorium, of
atomic weight 232.4, by loss of 6 helium atoms, or is it a
synthetic element, instead of the decomposition product?
The question of course cannot be answered by speculation,
but some information would be secured by actually sep-
arating from ordinary lead its constituent heavy and light
leads. Work along this line is actually under way.

It follows from this discovery of leads of different
atomic weight, that the atomic weight of the chemical
elements is not the characteristic function it has always
been held to be. Rather, it is the position of the element
in the atomic series which governs its physical and chemi-
cal properties, and any given position in this series may be
occupied by a group of elements, chemically identical,
and inseparable, but of different atomic weights. It may
even be that all of our chemical elements are such groups
of “‘isotopes’’, the atomic weight of the element being the
average for the group.

The decomposition of the chemical atom is, then, a
matter of unquestioned fact. Does the reverse process
occur, and are atoms being synthesized as well as decom-
posed? The answer to this question cannot, at present, be
made with assurance. There are many things, however,
which indicate such a possibility. Nitrogen and hydrogen,
and phosphorus and hydrogen unite to form compounds
which react with acids to give salts very much like cer-
tain well known metallic salts. The negative group in
ammonium salts, for example, gives practically all the
analytical reactions of the potassium ion. This group
certainly is not an element, and this may represent the
limit in which we may proceed in this direction. Atomic
disintegration has proven, so far, to lie outside the influ-
ence of any force at our command, and atomic synthesis
may likewise demand the use of forces at present un-
known, or uncontrolled. It is not at all improbable, how-
ever, that atoms are being continually synthesized, per-

-114 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

haps under our very eyes but at such slow rates, and’so
quietly that it has escaped observation.

Since radioactive disintegration, so far as observed,
always proceeds by the elimination of electrons or of
-helium atoms, it would seem to be suggested that these
two are constituents of all matter. Such is perhaps the
case for the electron, as any substance, apparently can
be made to give off electrons, and the electrons from all
substances are apparently identical. The helium ‘atom,
however, cannot be the only primitive element, and for
two reasons. In the first place we know one element of
“atomic weight less than that of helium, and in the second
place the atomic weights of all the elements are not
multiples of 4. A discussion of the hypothetical’ consti-
tution of the atom:is perhaps not in the province of a chem-
ist, and would be beyond the limit of this paper. It has
-been suggested, however, and with a large degree of rea-
-gonableness, that the atoms of all chemical elements ‘are
made-up of combinations of atoms of two, or: perhaps
three elements.

W. D. Harkins has brought forward such ‘a system
in which he uses hydrogen ‘and helium as the two primi-
tive elements, while Nicholson uses hydrogen ‘and two
hypothetical elements, nebulium, of atomic weight 1.6281,
and’ proto-fluorine, of atomic weight 2.8615. It is to be
noted that the sum of the atomic weights of these two
-hypothetical elements is almost exactly the atomic weight
of helium.

CONCLUSION AND RESUMBP’.

The older conception of the chemical atom was
characterized by its simplicity. The atoms of any’ given
elements were all alike, were homogeneous and indivis-
able. ‘The physical and chemical properties’ of the atom
were a function of the mass of the atom, its atomic weight.

The present conception of the atom, which needléss
‘to say isstill changing in its details, regards the atom as a
‘complex’ system, composed of various units. These-units
“are, (1), atoms of hydrogen, or helium, or of both, ‘or
‘perhaps atoms of substances as yet’ unknown, ‘and €2),
vel@ctrons. The mass of the atom is principally rep-

resented by the first.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 115

The units constituting the atomic system are so ar-
ranged that the system possesses great stability. It may
happen, however, that this system reaches a state of in-
stability, in which case it may lose electrons, the atomic
weight remaining unaltered, or it may lose atoms of its
constituent elements in which case a sensible change in
atomic weight occurs.

Only helium atoms have so far been observed to be
.given off. during such changes.

116 TRANSACTIONS OF THE 4

EVAPORATION AND SOIL MOISTURE IN
RELATION TO FOREST PLANTING.

BY CLARENCE F. KORSTIAN.*

With the great diversity of sites which are available
throughout the Intermountain Region for forest planting,
it has been difficult to select those upon which success is
assured, especially toward the lower limits of tree growth
in the chaparral or oak-brush zone, without a knowledge
of the relation of climate to plant growth. Heat and mois-
ture have long been recognized by plant geographers as
fundamentally important in determining the character
and distribution of plant associations. Only within the
last decade, however, have plant ecologists made material
advancement in the quantitative measurement of the
water relations of plants. The importance of serious
quantitative research to determine the relation of climate
to the growth and development of vegetation can scarcely
be over-emphasized. When the adverse climaticfactorsare
known failures may be largely averted by the judicious
selection of sites and of those species especially adapted
to withstand the limiting factors. With uniformity of the
soil the amount of moisture in the soil available for plant
growth, the evaporating power of the air or the combined
effect of the two factors is very frequently the determin-
ing criterion of a plant association. It has been repeatedly
shown that the evaporating power of the air affords a
rather concise and satisfactory summation of the com-
bined effects of temperature, humidity and air movement
insofar as these factors influence transpiration A detailed
study, therefore, of the evaporating power of the air and
of the available soil moisture for a given site not only af-
fords an expression of the water relations of the plants of
that site but also considers the other factors mentioned.

This problem is being studied intensively on the
Ephraim Canyon watershed of the Manti National Forest
in Sanpete County, Utah. During the last two growing

*U. S. Forest Service, Ogden, Utah.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ~~" 117

seasons the evaporating power of the air has been meas-
ured by means of the Livingston porous cup atmometer
and soil samples were taken at ten-day intervals to show
the march of soil moisture on the five important sites
under study:

1 Manzanita ( Arctostaphyllos platyphylia ) associa-

tion.

2 Wild apple ( Peraphyllum ramosissimum ) associa-

tion.

8 Sagebrush ( Artemisia tridentata) flat.

4 Sagebrush flat, denuded of all vegetation.

5 Oakbrush ( Quercus gambelli) association.

Empirical plantations of 2-1 western yellow pine
(Pinus ponderosa ) transplants were also established on
each site.

The march of the evaporating power of the air and of
the soil moisture were illustrated graphically. The suc-
cess of the western yellow pine plantations does not
correspond very closely with the evaporation intensity be-
cause the latter does not take into account the question
of the available soil moisture. The results secured to
date would indicate that a satisfactory expression of
these factors could be indicated by the ratio of evapora-
tion to soil moisture. The evaporating power of the air
and the available soil moisture appear to be the chief
physical factors in limiting the growth and development
of plants in the chaparral zone.

In order to obviate the necessity of securing detailed
instrumental records on every site considered for forest
planting the native plants indicative of a favorable site
should be determined in the course of the correlation of
the important physical factors with plant growth. From
present indications those plants having deep roots, good
crowns, affording some shade but not dense enough to
cause suppression and which have relatively high trans-
piration rates should indicate the most favorable sites.
Forest extension in the chaparral belt should be limited
to those lands having an assured supply of available soil
moisture and which are protected from excessive evap-
oration either because of their topographic position or
by the presence of a vegetative cover composed of a
goodly representation of favorable site indicators.

118 TRANSACTIONS OF THE iM 4

THIRTEENTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE
UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Physics Lecture Room, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
April 2 and 3, 1920

FRIDAY, APRIL 2, 8 P. M.
SYMPOSIUM ON THE “CONSTITUTION OF MATTER”

“The Theory of the Constitution of Matter,” Presi-

dential ‘Address: 2.000008 By Orin Tugman, U. U.
“The Oil-drop Method of Measuring the Electric

Caray? U2 By Carl F. Eyring, B. Y. U.
“The Electron Theory of the Conduction of Elec-

cia Ce a By Frank L. West, U. A. C,
“The Theory of Valencies.” _..... By W. D. Bonner, U. U.
”’The Relativity Theory.” ........ By E. W. Pehrson, U. U.
“Tne: Emstein “Tieery Soe ah oa Se a a

By Geo. P. Unseld, West High School, Salt Lake City, .
“Matter from the Point of View of a Personalistic

Philosophy... By W. H. Chamberlain, U. U,

SATURDAY, APRIL 38, 9:15 A. M.

“Capacities of Soils for Irrigation Water.”’ ................

PA CN TNS By O. W. Israelson and F. L. West. U. A.C,
“Proper Proportions of Grain and Alfalfa for Fatten-

BR BECO A ie he By W.E. Carroll, U. A. C,
“The Breeding of Canning Tomatoes.” -.................-.

BA td By M. C. Merrill and Tracy Abell, U. A. C,
“The Value of Farm Manure for Utah Soils.” ........

AN AHA NGA DANN NNR UNCAPPED By F.,S. Harris, .U Aww,

(Published in Bulletin 172, U. A. C. Exp. Station.)

‘Research Work of the Experiment Stations of the

US. UB ena DT mee a ts ae

wee |

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 119

*“Hydrometallurgy as Applied to the Mineral Indus-

ou Eat ak A on CE SON APE RTE LE ASS SAG a REED TA Nes ee ARI

By Clarence A. Wright, U.S. Bureau of Mines, U. U.
“Oil Shales and Their Economic Importance.”’ ........

....Bby. Martin J. Gavin, U. 8. Bureau of Mines, U. U.
“Pyrometallurgy and Its Future Possibilities.”’ _.......

Eubon, By John C. Morgan, U.S. Bureau of Mines, U. U.
“Chemistry and Its Relation to Metallurgy.” ............

By Edward P. Barrett, U. S. Bureau of Mines, U. U.

SATURDAY, APRIL 3, 12:00 M.

Complimentary luncheon to members of the Academy
by. the University of Utah at University Dining
Hall.

Address at Luncheon by President John A. Widtsoe,
University of Utah.

SATURDAY, APRIL 8, 1:00 P. M.
‘A Capillary Transmission Constant and Methods of

Measuring It.”’ ......2:.... By Willard Gardner, B. Y. C.
“Mid-Tertiary Deformation of Western North Amer-
17 eS oT AN re By Hyrum. Schneider, U. U.

“Electrical Conductivity of Thin Metal Films.”’ ......

PUA AER GAMER PER rcpt ieee Mone bugmen, U7 iy
‘Ts Disinfection a Reaction of the First Order?” ......

Pes tee reg Sie eR LN BML TEL aR By L. F. Shackell, U. U.
“Some Problems in Daylight Illumination.” ............

By C. Arthur Smith, East High School, Salt Lake City
“Equilibrium Conditions in the System Calcium Sul-

phate-Manganous Sulphate-Water.”’ .......002.00.....

Ny chattels aN By A. G. Kline, and T. B. Brighton, U. U.
“Standardization from Constant Boiling Hydrochlo-

ric Acid.’”’ By J. T. Bonner and T. B. Brighton, U. U.
“Comparison of the Action of Potassium Cyanide

and Sodium Cyanide on Alkyl Halides.” ............

oe Doe sn ze By W. D. Kline and W. D. Bonner, U. U.
“The Determination of Arsenic as Lead Arsenate.” ..

2 aiid li By A. E. Anderson and T. B. Brighton, U. U.

120 iy TRANSACTIONS OF THE ah? aie

THE THEORY OF THE CONSTITUTION
OF MATTER.
BY ORIN TUGMAN.

For a long period of time scientists have believed
that all matter is composed of discrete particles called
molecules. The evidence for the existence of molecules
is so well established it is considered unnecessary to re-
peat all the experimental data bearing on that question.
It is enough to know that molecules have been counted
not one by one, but experiments have been devised by
which it is possible to calculate the number of molecules
in a cubic centimeter of gas with greater precision, says
Professor Milikan, than it is possible to count the number
of people living in New York City. The number of mole-
cules in a cubic centimeter of any gas at a temperature of
zero degrees centigrade and normal atmosphere pres-
sure is calculated to be

N=26.5 x 1078

with a probable error of only one-tenth of one per cent.

That molecules are composed of atoms is also a well
established theory. The great amount of chemical data
is sufficient for this theory.

After we have proved the existence of molecules and
atoms the next logical question is what are the constit-
uents of atoms. We want to know what is the structure
of a carbon atom which gives it chemical and physical
properties different from a nitrogen atom or an atom of
lead or any other atom.

This question has not yet been fully answered but the
research scientists have made a start toward its solution.
The problem is being attacked from many sides and many
phenomena which have hitherto been studied without
thought of atomic structure are now known to be intim-
ately related to the structure of the atom.

As in the study of matter attempts were made to

ae UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 121

find the smallest particle which defied further division,
so efforts were made to find the smallest charge of elec-
tricity which could exist as a separate and distinct entity.
One value for this electrical charge was found in the
conduction of an electrical current thru a sclution of
sulphuric acid. In this experiment hydrogen and oxygen
are set free and the mass of hydrogen and oxygen is
always directly proportional to the quantity of elec-
tricity passed thru the solution. Knowing the mass of
hydrogen liberated and the quantity of electricity used,
it was possible to calculate the electrical charge carried
by one hydrogen ion. .The value obtained was 3 x 10”
electrostatic units. This value was in error because the
number of atoms in a cubic centimeter of gas was not so
accurately known. The name electron was given to this
charge by Dr. Johnston Stoney in 1891.

In the conduction of electricity thru gases, bodies
were found which caused this same charge, some were
charged positively as the hydrogen ion and others were
vharged negatively. While the negative charge had the
same value as the charge on a hydrogen ion in solution
the negative electron was found to have a mass much
less than the mass of the hydrogen ion.

Other sources of negative electrons were soon found.
We now know that all hot bodies emit negative electrons.
The incandescent filament in our electric lamps is shoot-
ing out a veritable hailstorm of negative electrons. Rad-
ium and other radioactive substances are also sending
out a shower of negative electrons. We get an emission
of these bodies by illuminating metals with light. When
violet light is allowed to shine on a piece of zine it
becomes charged with positive electricity showing that
negative electricity has been removed. The negative
electricity is removed thru the expulsion of negative elec-
trons. In all these cases the charge on the negative
electrons is the same and the mass of them is found to be

saz of a hydrogen atom. When this important fact was

fixed it became necessary for us to revise our notions
about the atom being the smallest indivisible particle of
matter. syria

.. Now having found a particle of mass much smaller

{22 AE: te TRANSACTIONS OF THE Peart

than the mass of the hydrogen atom and whose electric
charge, according to the most recent measurements,
always equals 4.7 x 10° electrostatic units we want to
know how this negative electron enters into the structure
of the atom. The answer to this question is not complete.
We are now in a tangle of theory and experimental data
which will require the keenest minds to unravel. It is
my purpose to present the problem as seen by the world
of science today. Naturally the solution is sought by
investigating the phenomena which exhibits a source of
negative electrons.

The photo-electron effect is the emission of negative
electrons by matter when illuminated. Practically all
substances exhibit this effect in varying degrees. Sodium
and potassium are very marked in this respect. When ua
surface of sodium is illuminated with violet light negative
electrons are shot out with velocities increasing as the
frequency of the light increaszs. In other words the
shorter the wave tength of light the greater the velocity
with which the electrons leave the metal surface. The:
intensity of the light in no way afiects this velocity but
affects only the number of negative electrons shot out.
The relation between the velocity of emission and the
frequency of electron emission is stated by the equation

14 m V?=h+P

where P is a constant depending on the energy required
to pull the electron out of the surface, m is the mass of
the electron and h aconstant. It appears, therefore, that
for light of any given frequency f an amount of energy hf
must be absorbed before an electron can be expelled
That is, the energy must be absorbed in units not smaller
than hf. The constant h has a value 6.547 x 107’.

We find this constant h annearing from an entirely
different direction. When Max Plauck attempted to
derive an equation which would express a relation
between the temperature of a body and the emitted wave
length which had the maximum energy he assumed that
radiation energy was affected only in units depending on
the frequency of the wave. The equation which he
derived fits the experimental facts better than any other.
It is a most remarkable fact that the constant by which
Plauck multiplied the frequency to find the units in

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 123

energy radiated has the same value as the constant found
in the photoelectric effect.

It appears, therefore, that radiant energy is also in
units which are indivisible, an idea which does not con-
form to our usual conception of energy of wave motion.
But the experiments indicate we have energy radiated
and absorbed in quanta of hf. This forms the basis of
the quantum theory.

It is impossible to study matter without studying
energy and vice versa. We are led to ask what is the
structure of the atom which can absorb or radiate energy
only in quanta of hf. This is another baffling question
which has not been answered. We have been able only
to skirmish a little around the edge of this field of investi-
gation.

When a metal surface is illuminated negative elec-
trons are immediately shot out. The energy of emission
in some cases is over 4,000 times as much as the atom
could possibly have absorbed from the beam of light.
Obviously this energy could not have come from the light.
The electron had the energy before it left the atom. But
we want to know how the light wave releases this energy.
The atomic model which we construct in our minds must
have the property of radiating energy in quanta and have
at least one negative electron which has the energy of a
quantum and so arranged that this energy may be
released by a light wave.

Let us approach the atom from another experiment.
Radioactive substances give out negative electrons as
well as bodies carrying positive charges. Each positively
charged body called an alpha particle causes a charge
equal to twice the charge of a negative electron and its
mass is four times the mass of a hydrogen atom. These
alpha particles are shot off from radium with sufficient
velocity to pass thru thin sheets of metal. When a num-
ber of alpha particles are shot thru a piece of gold foil the
particles are scattered in a way which indicates these pos-
itive charged bodies were being repelled by other posi-
tively charged bodies in the gold foil. By using foil of
other metals a scattering effect is obtained which gives a
measure of the positive charges within the metal. When
the positively charged alpha particle comes near a posi-

124 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

tive charge in the atom we may expect a repulsion. In the
case of a head-on collision the alpha particle is thrown
straight back on its path. The conclusions of these
experiments state that the center of an atom is a nucleus
of positive electrons each positive electron carrying a
charge equal to the charge on a negative electron. More-
over the number of positive electrons in this nucleus is
equal to one-half the atomic weight thus:

What is there around the positive nucleus? We
have a speculation on the hydrogen atom which appears
to satisfy in many respects. N. Bohr, a mathematical
physicist, has conceived a hydrogen atom as made of one
negative electron revolving around a single positive elec-
tron. The attraction between the two charges is bal-
anced by the centrifugal force on the revolving electron.
Bohr assumes the negative electron can move ina number
of different orbits and that it can jump from one orbit to
another. Under stable conditions when the atom is not
radiating any energy the negative electron is revolving
in its innermost orbit. If perchance this electron is
pulled out of its inner orbit radiation is produced by the
electron settling back by jumping from one orbit to
another; revolving, of course, in each orbit before jump-
ing to the next. It is obvious the energy of the electron
is different in its different orbits. Bohr assumes radi-
ation of energy occurs when the electron jumps from any
orbit to the next inner one. Such a model leaves much
to be desired. It does not explain the mechanism of radi-
ation. We know radiant energy is a wave phenomenon
and a wave is generated by a vibrating body. The Bohr
atom does not give us any vibrating body.

In face of these objections the Bohr atom is remark-
ably successful. A mathematical analysis of its mechan-
ism shows the relations between the wave lengths which
such an atom could radiate. It is a significant fact this
relation theoretically derived does not agree with the
relation between the wave length of the hydrogen spec-
trum. When an electric discharge is sent thru hydrogen
gas we get the characteristic spectrum of that element.
Also we know there is a state of ionization in the gas at
this time. That is, we have negative electron knocked
off the hydrogen atoms. A hydrogen atom which loses.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 125

a negative electron becomes charged positively. Con-
sequently there is a tendency for these ions to recombine.
Experiment has fairly well demonstrated that light is
emitted when recombinations are being effected or when
the negative electrons are settling beck to their inner-
most orbits.

While a mathematical analysis of a more complex
atom has not been made we should feel elated over the
progress up to date. The existence of a positive nucleus
for all atoms appears proved beyond a reasonable doubt.
It follows that the number of negative electrons revol-
ving about the nucleus must equal the number of positive
electrons in the nucleus if we are to have a neutrally
charged atom.

126 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THE ELECTRON THEORY OF CONDUCTION
OF ELECTRICITY.
BY DR. FRANK L. WEST.

When a salt, such as sodium chloride, is dissolved
in water, the chlorine atom receives an electron from the
sodium atom and separates from it becoming an ion
(the anion) and the sodium atom, having lost a nega-
tive charge, is left positively charged. (the cation)
Ordinary normal solutions of the common salts dissociate
to the extent of about 65%; i. e. two out of three mole-
cules have broken up into ions. The more dilute the
solution the greater the degree of dissociation. The
strong mineral acids and bases and the strong organic
bases dissociate to the extent of 90 to 95%, the weaker
ones to a correspondingly less degree. The degrees of
dissociation are determined by the amounts of abnormal-
ity of osmotic pressure, elevation of boiling point, depres-
sion of the freezing point, by the electrical conductivity
at the given concentration and at infinite dilution, and
by chemical means such as the rates of saponification
of esters by bases and the hydrolysis of sugars by acids.
These methods give results differing from each other by
as much as ten per cent. The discrepancy is usually
explained by assuming that the above mentioned ions
have a few water molecules attached to them making a
cluster. The molecules break apart into ions before
the electrical force is applied. When the two electrodes
are inserted into the solution, the positive cation migrates
toward the negative pole and the negative anion toward
the positive pole, in other words there is a lateral shift
toward the electrodes and this motion is superimposed
on their otherwise random motions. The ‘degree of
conductivity depends on the number of ions present, their
charge or valence, and their mobility under unit potential
gradient. It increases with temperature even though
there are fewer ions there because of the large increase
in mobility due to diminished viscosity.

The metallic conduction is usually explained by

ak UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 127

assuming that there are approximately as many electrons
as atoms more or less free to move about in the metal—
the electrons acting as if they were a gas and were in
solution in the metal. Rising temperature drives some
of them off. Those metals that are good conductors of
electricity are also good conductors of heat, the ratios
of the heat conductivities to the electrical conductivities
for the metals varying from 7 to 914 x 10°. By assuming
that heat is conducted through the metal entirely by
these electrons, and that the electrical current consists
of a lateral shift of these negative electrons towards the
positive end of the metal superimposed upon their random
motion, two equations for these conductivities have been
obtained, and when the one is divided by the other and
values substituted in them, the ratio comes out approxim-
ately 6 x 10°, which agrees fairly well with the above
mentioned values and suggests that the above assumptions
and explanations of conduction are probably correct.

Gases are normally almost perfect insulators, it
requiring approximately 30,000 volts to get a spark
across a one centimeter air gap. The conductivity
increases with diminished pressure until very low pres-
sures are obtained. At pressures less than 1/100 of 1
mm. of mercury the so-called cathode stream is obtained,
which is a stream of negative particles, called electrons
moving toward the positive electrode with a velocity
ranging from 1/10 to 1/2 the velocity of light.

Gases from around flames, hot metals, arcs, phos-
phorus, X Rays, radium, metals on which ultra-violet
light has fallen, gases from electrolysis, gases that have
pubbled through water, etc., are all temporary con-
ductors of electricity. The gaseous ions may be electrons,
atoms or molecules that have lost an electron, or either
of these with some neutral molecules attached
to them. When an electrical field is applied, these ions
migrate toward the electrodes thus constituting the
electrical current.

128 TRANSACTIONS OF THE Hagin i

MATTER FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF A
PERSONALISTIC PHILOSOPHY.

BY W. H. CHAMBERLAIN.*

I do not see how anyone acquainted with the facts can
longer doubt the existence of insensible realties called
electrons, atoms, and molecules. Electrons are points
of electrical power, and the atoms and molecules which
they constitute are definite complexes of points of elec-
trical power, and so, with the physicist Whetham, we may
refer to the sensible masses of matter which these mole-
cules constitute and into which material nature differ-
entiates itself as complexes of energy.

Philosophy for its purpose of understanding mater-
ial nature most concretely can accept an energy complex
as the unit in terms of which it would explain the nature
of matter if such an energy complex can be supplemented
and made to include the correlative perceptual powers
of persons stimulated and sustained by such energy com-
plexes in any actual experience of matter. Philosophy
would also call emphatic attention to the invariable
presence, as a dependent aspect of any such interaction
of energy complexes and personal powers, of sensations
in spatial and temporal forms of.arrangements, The
simpiest and yet the best understood case of such inter-
action of which we know is perhaps that of the inter-
action of persons in mutual knowing or conversation in
which the powers of each person in confluence with cer-
tain of the energy complexes in material nature stimulate
the perceptual powers of others together with their
dependent sensory aspects.

In inorganic matter, whether this matter is in the
solid, liquid or gaseous state, the motions or changes
dictated by any energy complex are commonly regarded

as determined, mechanical, and as capable of accurate
definition or description. In the higher or complexer

~_——

*Department of Philosophy, University of Utah.

; UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 129

energy complexes known as organic mechanisms, the
changes, going on are also commonly regarded as deter-
mined, or mechanical. In the development of an organ-
ism from a germ cell or even from a somatic cell the
developing organism changes as a whole, the changes
in each part taking place in relation to determinate
changes going on either simultaneously or successively
in other parts so that these changes are also determined
or mechanical and go on in a predictable order. A still
greater complexity is observable in the conduct of these
organic mechanisms in interaction with the rest of mater-
ial nature and with other organic mechanisms. Most of the
changes going on even in the behavior of organic beings
are also commonly and properly regarded as determined,
mechanical, capable of accurate description, and as
going on in orderly or predictable sequence.

But in these higher energy complexes, especially in
the conduct of the human organism, we become aware
of the presence of free, undirected, or non-mechanical
causes, as also directing material changes. For very
commonly men are striving through faith, hopeful of the
achievement in some new outcome of their strivings of
more life, more satisfying ways of using their powers,
higher values. These strivings then are tentative, spon-
taneous, non-mechanical, and, from the standpoint of
the individual striver at least, not determined. Free
causes are here seen to dictate unpredictable, non-
mechanical changes going on in material nature.

_ . In the study of the conduct of the human organism
we may also become aware of the genesis of mechanical
or determined causes. For the almost invariable out-
come of our blind strivings is a satisfactory way of acting,
a way that needs no conscious modification and which by
repetition becomes a habit which henceforth will go on
mechanically when stimulated. A complexer outcome of
this free cause or blind striving is an organised system
of habits which goes on mechanically when stimulated.
This may be easily seen in cases where conduct can be
abstracted from a confusing mass of correlated material
changes, as it can be in the case of learning to speak a
language. In striving to pronounce a new word, say
bourgeoisie, after a chance but satisfactory combination

130 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

of elementary habits has been secured, and then fixed in -
by a repetition of the success, each constituent habit is
mechanically, or without conscious direction or interfer-
ence, followed by its definite successor. A describable
causal series of material changes is here seen to have
its genesis in a free cause. Also such mechanical com-
plexes of habits are the matter or stuff of still higher
strivings and achievements, strivings that stimulate them
to action and keep them in operation. Thus these higher
strivings are seen to be the indispensable stimuli and
support, the free and imminent causes, of the mechanical
or transeunt type of causes.

A completer view of these strivings or free causes
reveals the fact that they go on in immediate interaction
with the strivings of others, with other free causes. In
fact such free causes are most commonly stimulated,
controlled, and sustained in their growth by other and
similar free causes. The strivings and achievements of
others, vaguely apprehended by us, if they are properly
related to our own interests, create in us a feeling of
need. Then they stimulate, correct, and support our own
strivings. The striving to learn to pronounce a word or
to learn to do almost anything else is due to our interest
in others whose imitation by us would fulfil our own
interests, or whose imitation of us would further our un-
selfish interest in their own achievements. Free causes
may be stimulated, nourished, and sustained by other
free causes, and in the process of their fulfilment mechani-
cal causes are bcth an outcome, and a set of powers or
energy complexes that form the basis or material for
still higher degrees of striving and achievemnt.

In the study of this socialized human conduct we
seem to gain a view of but a small section of material
nature. But many philosophers believe that in this section
we have a specimen of matter which reveals to us its
essential and universal nature, that in socialized human
conduct there is revealed the general structure of the
vast system of energy complexes which constitute mater-
ial nature. But they also believe that we must supplement
the strivings of human and sub-human free causes by
the cooperative strivings of a super-human free-cause
confluent with the human and the sub-human in order

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 131

fully to account for the systems of energy complexes
which constitute material nature. They think that the
strivings of such a great free cause in cooperation with the
strivings of lesser free causes are revealed in the evolu-
tion of organic forms, and in the achievement and fixing
in by repetition of the mechanical causes discoverable in
every new species. They also think that the inorganic ele-
ments and compounds, while viewed in isolation they
seem to be mechanical energy complexes, when more
fully viewed are but abstract aspects of strivings whose
outcome has been matter for the construction and nourish-
ment of organic mechanisms, and the conduct issuing
from them.

These philosophers think, then, that material nature
is a system of free causes or persons. Such causes being
free are of course undetermined, and so they are ulti-
mate, uncreated, or eternal realities. Through their
immediate relationship to one another they give rise to
all habits or energy complexes, and so to all changes,
whether free or mechanical, going on in material nature.
And this outcome includes all those energy complexes
arising from an imitative reproducing or a knowing of
the lives of others, or in the slowly developing perceptual
adjustments to the sensory, spatial, and temporal aspects
of the energy complexes which underlie and dictate
these perceptual adjustments.

As each of these free causes or persons is a centre
of freedom and life to all the others, and in striving and
achieving guides and sustains both the blind and the
thoughtful strivings and choices of any or all of the
others, perpetual progress or life would seem to be a
character of all free causes or persons. From the nature
of the material world as a natural system of such free
causes or persons this progress or living must be uni-
versally shared or rational, that is, the fullest living
must be moral and religious. The end, then, of material
nature, without our recognition of which the growing
processes that constitute material nature cannot of course
be fully understood, no more than can a plant without its
flower and fruit, is the establishment of a moral and
religious society of persons each of whom will find his
satisfaction in efficient and loving service.

132 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Physics no longer deals as of old with mechanics,
sound, heat, light, magnetism, and electricity, as with
distinct and unrelated sets of facts. Even chemical and
astronomical facts are now dealt with in physics. This
restoration of a broken unity by physics has, no doubt,
been largely due to the discovery of the electron, a unit
upon which all physical facts are seen to depend. But
biological, psychological, and sociological facts are never
found dissociated from matter. They also are physical
facts.

_ As the psychical nature of all energy complexes
becomes more fully understood, and as these psychical
realities become properly correlated with the strivings
and achieved habits of men, there will be furnished
a unit in terms of which all the heretofore sundered facts
of human experience can be understood; and the unity of
material nature, broken for us because of the piece-meal
way in which the study of it has been approached his-
torically, will be full appreciated.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 133

THE BREEDING OF CANNING TOMATOES.

BY M. C. MERRILL AND T. H. ABELL,

The tomato ( Zycopersicum esculentum Mill.) is of
American origin. According to De Candolle it is prob-
ably native of Peru. Having no name in the ancient
languages of Asia and being introduced in cultivation
in some of the Asiatic countries only within the past
century or so, it is strikingly different from many of our
food plants, which had their origin in southwestern Asia
and have been generalty cultivated for thousands of
years.

Tho not known in Europe prior to the discovery of
America, the tomato has’nevertheless been grown in the
South and Central American countries for a long time. It
was taken to Europe by the early Spanish explorers and
soon spread thruout that continent. In 1596 the tomato
was introduced into England where it was known for a
long time as the “love-apple’, and was grown only for
ornamental and medicinal purposes until well into the
eighteenth century before being used as a vegetable.

Under cultivation to-day there are many types of
the tomato so different from each other that were it
not known that they arose by variation under cultivation,
botanists would undoubtedly place them under different
species, as did Dunal, the great early authority on the
genus Lycopersicum, who recognized ten species of this
genus. At the present time for instance, there are cer-
tain sub-species or botanical varieties under esculentum
which botanists will not accept as species but which
undoubtedly show more striking differences between
themselves and the mother species than are to be found
among some other groups of Lycopersicwm which are
recognized as good species by botanists. Some of these
sub- “species or botanical varieties are:

134 TRANSACTIONS OF THE Dati

vulgare, the common garden tomato;

cerasitorme, the cherry tomato;
pyritorme, the pear and plum tomato;

validum, the upright tomato which looks like a

potato plant;

grandifolium, the large-leaf tomato.

One interesting type which is accepted by botanists
as a good species is Lycopersicum pimpinellitolium, the
currant tomato: This has been grown principally for
curiosity and as an ornamental plant, but has recently
been introduced into garden cultivation under the name
of German raisin tomato. But horticulturists are inclined
to regard it as much more like the species esculentum
than are some of the botanical varieties indicated above,
which botanists will not accept as distinct species.

And so De Varigny’s dream of an experimental gar-
den where new species can be originated at will under the
eye and hand oi the skilled experimenter has come true
and has been true for a long time. But he, in common
with other biologists, has not recognized that fact. No
matter how utterly different a plant may be from its
progenitors, and even tho the new production breeds
perfectly true to its type, if it originated in a garden as
a result of cultivation it must not be considered a new
species but only a variety. Even the great botanist
Asa Gray declared of a certain group of garden plants
that they are “‘too much mixed by crossing and changed
by variation to be subjects of botanical study.”’

The morphological history of the tomato is interest-
ing. Among our cultivated tomatoes ofthe species
esculentum, the nearest approach we probably have to the
wild type is the cherry tomato. The fruit of this tomato
is small, spherical, and two-celled. From it, according to
Bailey, have probably evolved the pear-shaped or oblong
types, the angular, the flat, the yellow, and the apple-
shaped sorts, and finally the red smooth types which in
turn are giving rise to several variations by breeding and
selection. One of the very noticeable phases of this
evolution of the tomato from the small cherry type to our
present commercial varieties has been the increase in the
number of cells or seed cavities, from two to about a
dozen. Furthermore, the shape has changed from regu-

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 135

larly spherical to irregular, flat, oblong, or angular in
certain varieties.

But what we want to-day is a smooth, round, solid
tomato of medium size and of few cells or seed cavities.
It should be attractive in appearance and with a skin
sufficiently tough to prevent ready cracking and conse-
quent injury. It should be a heavy yielding strain that
matures early and that carries a large proportion of
high-grade fruit and a small proportion of culls. Sucha
tomato will meet the demands of the canners as well as
those of the general market. The result will be a better
keeping and a better shipping tomato. These are the
ideals that the tomato breeder of to-day has in mind and
toward which he is working. We predict that time will
see their satisfactory realization.

Tho the tomato is more generally grown in the
United States than any other country, it is even here of
comparatively recent use. A century ago the cherry,
pear, and angular tomatoes were the only varieties
known. The Apple and Tilden varieties were intro-
duced in 1865. In 1870, Colonel George E. Waring Jr.,
of Newport, R. I., developed the Trophy variety, a large,
early, smooth, fleshy, and well-flavored tomato that
really marks an epoch in tomato history. As a result of
Colonel Waring’s production, the cultivated tomato indus-
try took on enthusiastic life and great impetus was given
the art of breeding new varieties of tomatoes.

The tomato is a very plastic organism and responds
readily to changes in its environment. Hence the work of
breeding has progressed with great rapidity. To-day
there are about 200 varieties of tomatoes in cultivation
and the fruit is daily gaining in popularity. There are
estimated to be from 600,000 to one million acres of
tomatoes now grown in this country. But because the
tomato readily responds to a changed environment, new
forms are constantly arising and replacing the old. Thus
tomato varieties tend rapidly to “run out” or disappear.

By nature in its tropical home the tomato is a peren-
nial plant. As grown in the North it is of necessity an
annual. But it is a noticeable characteristic of the
tomato in our climate that if grown under favorable con-
ditions it will continue bearing fruit until the frost checks

136 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

its activity. Breeding and cultural methods are there- -
fore being developed that will most surely advance the
fruiting season in order to get the greatest possible yield
before the coming of destructive frosts.

A considerable amount of notable work has been
done in recent years in ascertaining facts pertaining to-
tomato improvement.

Price and Drinkard of Virginia, (1908) crossed over
twenty varieties and found that the common characters:
of tomatoes, such as shape of fruit, color of fruit, type of
foliage, and stature, conformed in general to Mendel’s
Law.

Wellington of the New York (Geneva) Experiment
Station (1912) ascertained that crossing closely related
varieties resulted in increasing the vigor and yield of the
progeny, particularly in the F, generation, and persisted
in proportion to the heterozygous condition.

White of Maryland, (1913) carried on experiments.

calculated to induce variations in the tomato by culture.
Using the small red cherry tomato and fertilizing with:
dried blood he induced permanent increase in size of both
plant and fruit and an improvement in the quality of
the fruit which persisted to the sixth generation.
. Myers of Pennsylvania, (1914) in testing out num-
erous strains of six varieties of tomatoes, found variations
in yield between strains which amounted to more than
thirteen tons per acre of marketable fruit.

Groth of New Jersey, (1911-1915) published a
series of bulletins on heredity and correlation of. struc-
tural characters in tomatoes. He studied the heredity
of size, shape, and number of leaves, cotyledons, and
fruits, and reached the conclusion that ‘‘the constancy of
unit factors of size and shape must be gravely doubted
in view of the influence which supposedly absent factors
may have upon the development of those present.”

Hayes and Jones of Vermont, (1916) obtained
results in agreement with the fact that the tomato is
naturally almost completely self-fertilized. They self-
fertilized four commercial varieties for three and four
years with no resulting decrease in the size or yield of
fruit. They verified the findings of others—that carefully
chosen crosses gave an increase in both the number and.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 137

weight of fruits over the parental average amounting to
from 3 to 17 per cent. Along with the hybrid vigor
_ they also obtained a hastening of the time of production.

Stuckey of Georgia, (1916) working on disease
resistance of tomatoes found that both resistance and
susceptibility to blossom-end rot were apparently trans-
mitted from parent to progeny.

At the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, we
began in 1918 a preliminary study of tomatoes from the
standpoint of yield, earliness, and quality of fruit. The
work was begun with seeds of sixty-six varieties from
sixteen reliable seed companies and there was a total of
ninety-four strains of these varieties. The object of the
work was to select and breed early maturing, high yield-
ing, and high quality strains of tomatoes more suitable
than the kinds now used in Utah.

One of the outstanding features of the first two
years of study is the difference in yield between different
varieties, the difference in yield between plants of dif-
ferent strains of the same variety, and the difference in
yield between plants of the same strain. In the case of the
“Stone” a difference of nine pounds per plant of ripe
marketable fruits was recorded from separate strains.
On the basis of 6,000 acres of tomatoes in Utah, this
would mean a loss of about 67,500 tons of fruits if all the
farmers bought the poorer strain of ‘Stone’. In the
case of Earliana a difference of twelve pounds per plant
between strains was recorded. Chart No. 1 [Charts
shown but results not here entered] indicates a difference
in yield of twenty-five pounds per plant, between differ-
ent varieties.

Another outstanding feature is the difference in ear-
liness of maturity between different varieties, different
strains of the same variety and different plants of the
same strain. Chart No. 2 shows the relative earliness of
three varieties. ‘“‘Chalk’s Early Jewel” begins its heavy
production September ist; “Landreth’s Red Rock,” Sep-
tember 13th; Stone, September 20th. Up to the mean
frost date, September 25th, these varieties yielded
respectively 12, 8, and 6 pounds of marketable fruit per
plant. Obviously, if the excellent quality and firmness .
of the Stone could be combined with the earliness and

138 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

high yielding character of the Chalk’s Early Jewel, a
very desirable variety would be obtained.

Although the resemblance between many varieties
was striking, there were outstanding differences between
others from the standpoint of shape, size, firmness and
quality of the fruit. There were many variations from
the deeply furrowed and irregular Earliana to the
extremely smooth Favorite; from the one ounce Burbank
Preserving to the eleven ounce Ponderosa; from the soft
Yellow Queen, to the firm Stone; from the acid Earliana
to the sweet Yellow Pear.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 139

EXPERIMENTS ON CAPACITIES OF SOILS
FOR IRRIGATION WATER.

BY O. W. ISRAELSEN} AND F. L. WEST.?

(Abstract).
INTRODUCTORY.

More information on capacities of soils for water
is essential to its economical use. Previous work on
subject largely under laboratory conditions, and results
not rigorously applicable to field problems. Work done
in field heretofore usually on cropped plats and with
variation in time of collecting samples after irrigation,
so that capacity is not completely and fully defined.
Further, samples of soil for capacity observations have
been taken after irrigations, in which the amounts of
water applied have varied greatly and have frequently
been insufficient fully to saturate the soil. The experi-
ments here reported were planned to overcome these
difficulties.

PLAN OF EXPERIMENTS.

Three rectangular plats on the Greenville Farm,
North Logan, 33 feet wide and 38 feet long were sur-
rounded by levees about 2 feet high. The plats were
numbered A, B, and C. To Plat A, 12 surface (*)inches
were applied; to Plat B, 24 surface inches; and to Plat
C, 36 surface inches.

The water was applied thru small ditches in heads
varying from 0.1 to 0.2 cu. feet per second, measured
over a triangular weir. As soon as water disappeared
from surface of plats, an 8-inch straw mulch was applied
to reduce evaporation losses to a minimum.

Soil samples were taken from each foot section

(*) Irrigation Engineer, Utah Agricultural Experiment Station.
(2) Physicist,. Utah Agricultural Experiment Station.
(®) Surface inches equivalent to acre-inches per acre.

140 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

with a 2-inch post hole type soil auger to a depth of 12
feet. The soil taken from each foot was thoroughly mixed
on an oilcloth, and from the mixture a 250 c. c. sample
can was well filled. In the laboratory 200 gm. samples
of moist soil were dried at 110 to 115 degrees centigrade.
The moisture content is reported in percentage of the
weight of water-free soil, and also in acre-inches
for each acre-foot of soil.

RESULTS GF CBSERVATIONS.

The results of the observations show that an appreci-
able downward movement of water continued in each
plat from June 14th, the date of irrigation, to October
Lith, the date of the last sampling. To show most clearly
the amounts of water retained and the rate of capillary
movement, the observations are platted first as percent-
ages moisture in each of the upper 12 feet of soil on the
different dates, and second, as acre-inches of water in
different soil depths as determined by the time after
irrigation.

The first group of curves show that the 12 inches
of water applied to Plat A did not reach the 12-foot
depth of soil for several days, but that some of the 24
inches passed thru the upper 12 feet of soil the third
day after irrigation, and that much of the 36 inches had
gone below the 12-foot point one day after the water
was applied.

The plats reporting inches of water in the various
depths platted against time show that from the upper 6
feet of soil there was a gradual loss of water as the sea-
son advanced. These curves show further that the
quantities of water found in Plats B and C are not
appreciably influenced by the depth of soil selected as
the index of capacity.

The moisture content curves platted against time
also show that the rate of downward movement of water
decreases rapidly after the fifth day after irrigation.
This is brought out by a comparison of the moisture
content in each foot section on the dates of sampling
immediately following the fifth day after irrigation to
the moisture equivalent of the soil taken from the res-
pective depths.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 141

RATIO MOISTURE EQUIVALENT TO MOISTURE CONTENT.

On Plat A the maximum ratio of the moisture equiv-
alent to the moisture content increased from 1.09 on June
20th to 1.17.0on June 26, and the minimum increased
from 0.86 to 0.92; considering only the upper 6 feet of
soil. The average ratio ranged from 0.98 on June 20th
to 1.05 on the 26th of June. The average maximum and
minimum for the individual foot sections in Plats B and C
are almost exactly the same as for Plat A. The average
of the upper 6 feet for Plats B and C being 0.96 to 1.06,
and 0.94 to 1.05, which is also very nearly the same as
for Plat A.

In the soil from 7 to 12 feet of Plat A, the ratio
decreases after June 20th because water was moving
into this soil from the upper 6 feet but it was not during
this time moving out below the 12-foot plane. The
decrease in Plat A was from 1.21 to 1.09, whereas Plat
B increased from 0.86 to 0.92 and in Plat C it increased
from 0.85 to 0.93.

142 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

HYDROMETALLURGY AS APPLIED TO THE
MINERAL INDUSTRY.

BY CLARENCE A. WRIGHT.*

It is rather difficult to cover the field of hydrometal-
lurgy as applied to the mineral industry in such a short
space of time, but I shall try to point out in as brief a
manner as possible just where hydrometallurgy may be
applied in the treatment of ores.

Hydrometallurgy can include, of course, hydro-
mechanical methods in the treatment of ores, but it is
generally referred to as a process or method of treatment
involving the solution of metals by chemical means, such
as leaching or amalgamation, and the recovery of the
metals either in metallic form or as a chemical compound.

The applicability of any solvent process to the
extraction of metals depends largely on the character of
the ore, as the solvents such as acids, react more or less
with the gangue constituents or elements contained in
the ore. These gangue constituents not only consume
the solvents, but elements detrimental to the process are
frequently brought into solution.

The effectiveness of a solvent is generally improved by
roasting the ores and the leaching processes have been
applied principally to oxidized ores. Although the
application of any chemical process may be more or less
limited, higher extractions are generally possible than by
the usual methods of concentration and subsequent
smelting. It also has the advantage in cutting down the
cost of haulage and transportation to a minimum in that
the final product is in the form of metal or chemical
compound desired. Leaching in comparison with smelt-
ing requires little fuel, but on the other hand the cost
of chemicals may prove to be prohibitive so that it comes
down to a case of dollars and cents as to which is the
most economical method of treatment.

*Hydrometallurgist, U. S. Bureau of Mines.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 143

There are many ores containing minerals which are
not only difficult but often impossible of separation by
gravity concentration owing to the intimate association
and fine dissemination of the different minerals. Then
again there are low-grade ores which lack sufficient
mineral values to permit concentration and subsequent
shipment to the smelter on account of the distance of
haulage and transportation. Such low-grade ores may
include gold-silver ores which worked in the earlier days
were free-milling and could be treated by stampmills
followed by amalgamation, but with depth the ore
gradually became more base and could no longer be
profitably amalgamated. This necessitated changes and
alterations in the mills, especially the addition of cyanide
plants in order to effect higher extractions and produce
bullion, thus eliminating the cost of haulage and trans-
portation as much as possible. Cyanidation of gold ores,
however, is by no means limited to low-grade ores but
is applicable to gold ores in general, although its applica-
tion may involve modification of the cyanide process in
order to overcome the effects of detrimental ingredients
present in the ores.

Oxidized copper ores have yielded to hydrometal-
lurgical methods of treatment and the leaching processes
have been especially desirable in the treatment of low-
grade ores as they have effected high extractions which
otherwise would not have permitted economical treat-
ment and on account of the simplicity with which the cop-
per can be recovered from solution. Aside from the appli-
cation to ores, hydrometallurgy has, of course, also been
applied to the refining of copper by electrolytic means
as well as to the refining of some of the other metals. In
fact a solvent process may serve as a process complete in
itself or it may serve only as part of a process in the
treatment of an ore.

A great deal of experimental as well as practical
work has been done in the hydrometallurgy of zinc
during the past few years. Perhaps of greatest impor-
tance to the mineral industry along this line has been
the application of electrolytic methods to zine ores. In
this method of treatment the ore or concentrate is given
a dead-roast the product containing only a few tenths -

144 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

of one per cent of sulphur. The roasted ore is leached
with dilute sulphuric acid and after neutralizing the
solution, precipitating the ferric hydrate, settling and
filtering, and removing other metals, the purified solu-
tion passes to electrolytic cells where the metallic zinc is
deposited on aluminum cathodes. This method, although
it may be limited in its application to zinc ores, especially
as it requires cheap hydro-electric power, has permitted
the treatment of complex zinc ores which formerly were
not amenable to the usual methods of concentration and
retort smelting without prohibitive losses and high costs.

Hydrometallurgical processes by which the metal is
recovered from solutions in the form of a crystallized
salt might also be mentioned. Concentration of the
metals by this method is accomplished ‘by evaporation
which may require redissolving of the crystallized salts
in order to free the crystals from impurities and recrystal-
lizing after clarifying the solution.

The Bureau of Mines has done a great deal of
research work in applying hydrometallurgical processes
to the treatment of low-grade lead ores, and to the
recovery of zinc from low-grade and complex zinc ores.
Such work is valuable in that commercial processes may
be developed by which the metals may be recovered
from ores that are not amenable to present methods of
treatment. It is believed that many of the present com-
plex ore-treatment problems will be solved by hydro-
metallurgical processes.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 145

OIL SHALES AND THEIR ECONOMIC
IMPORTANCE.

BY MARTIN J. GAVIN.*

The twentieth century has often been spoken of as
the age of petroleum, and from many viewpoints it can
be justly considered so. Certain it is that the petroleum
industry is one of great importance to this country,indus-
trially, financially and economically. The United States,
however, at present producing over sixty per cent of the
world’s total output of petroleum, is not producing petro-
leum at a sufficient rate to provide for its own domestic
consumption. For several years this country has been
importing ever increasing quantities of crude and partly
refined oils from Mexico, and has been drawing heavily
on domestic stocks of petroleum. Although domestic
production of petroleum is increasing it is not increasing
at the same average rate as domestic consumption, nor
is it probable that in the future domestic production will
increase sufficiently to satisfy the demands of domestic
consumption, but on the contrary, in the opinion of those
best qualified to know, the peak in the curve of domestic
production of crude petroleum will be reached in a com-
paratively few years, while the rate of increase in con-
sumption of petroleum and its products, will rise at a
continually growing rate. This country then must turn,
and as a matter of fact, as the increasing imports from
Mexico indicate, is turning to other sources than the
crude petroleum produced in this country to make up the
deficit between domestic production and domestic con-
sumption of petroleum and its products.

The chief products of petroleum are motor fuels,
kerosene, fuel oils, and lubricating oils. Of these, the
increasing demand for motor fuels or gasoline is perhaps
the greatest, and that of fuel oils probably next greatest.
The ever growing use of the internal combustion motor,

*Refinery Engineer, United States Bureau of Mines. Presented
by permission of the Director, United States Bureau of Mines,

146 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

especially in automobiles, accounts for the first, and
the increasing use of fuel oil, chiefly for steam raising
purposes, accounts largely for the second. Lubricating
oils are, of course, of prime importance, as machinery
must be lubricated if it is to operate.

To help make up the deficit in our supply of petro-
leum we can expect to draw on the enormous potential
petroleum supplies of Mexico at an increasing rate, and
by the use of new and improved processes of manufacture
a greater percentage of the petroleum products for which
there is the greatest demand will undoubtedly be obtained
from petroleum. The more efiicient utilization of these
products, as for example, through the development and
use of the Diesel engine and the gradual change in the
design of our present internal combustion motors, enab-
ling them to use lower grade fuels will perhaps tend to
relieve the growing shortage. Hydroelectric power or
electricity otherwise produced can be expected to take
the place, to a certain extent at least, of fuel oil instal-
lations on land; but all these expedients have ‘their
practical limitations, and it is to be expected therefore
that in the comparatively near future, new sources of
products similar to those now being derived from oil well
petroleum will have to be developed. As a matter of
fact, some are already being developed.

These are possibilities of importance in the develop-
ment of the production and use of benzol as a motor fuel
and other coal tar products as Diesel engine fuels and
as substitutes for other petroleum products. There are
also important possibilities in the commercial production
of alcohol as a motor fuel. In fact, blends of alcohol,
benzol, and petroleum distillates are being marketed in
the east at the present time as motor fuels, and are giving
satisfaction in use. Taking all these considerations into

ccount, however, it is the opinion of many, including
myself, that the oil shales of Utah, Colorado, Wyoming
and Nevada and possibly other states are extremely
important as new sources of products similar to those
now obtained from petroleum. These states contain
enormous deposits of oil shales which by proper treat-
ment yield gas, oil, and also if desired, ammonia, of value
as a fertilizer. The oil in many respects is similar to oil

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 147

well petroleum and yields products similar to those of
petroleum.

Oil shales have been worked in Scotland and France
for upwards of sixty years. In the former country the
industry has been a succssful one from a financial stand-
point, especially of late years, although it is passing
through a difficult period at present. The industry in
France has not been nearly so successsful as that in
Scotland. The success of the Scotch shale industry has
been brought about by the development of successful
and cheap processes for treating the shales and oils pro-
duced from them, but mostly by local conditions, such
as competition only with high priced imported petroleum
products, low labor costs and the fact that the industry
grew up in a densely populated region, where a ready
market for oil and ammonium products was available.
A recent reorganization of the Scotch shale companies,
combining them into one organization, is hoped to better
the present condition of the industry in Scotland.

Oil shale contains little or no oil as such, but it
contains substances which when the shale is subjected
to destructive distillation yield gas, crude oil and nitro-
gen-containing compounds, notably ammonia, as well as
other products in small and probably of unimportant
value for the most part. Oil shale as a rule must be
mined much as coal is mined, crushed, and heated to a
relatively high temperature in closed retorts, which may
operate continuously or intermittently. These steps are
necessary to produce the gas, crude oil and ammonia,
the latter of which is in solution in the water obtained
along with the oil.

The ammonia water is then distilled, and the
released ammonia passed into sulphuric acid, producing
ammonium sulphate. The crude oil must be refined,
much as petroleum is refined, to produce the various
commercial products. The refining of shale oil is more
complex and in all probability more costly than the equiv-
alent refining of petroleum. The shale oils can be refined
undoubtedly, however, and can be made to yield many
products similar to those produced when petroleum is
refined. The oils produced from the oil shales of this
country will yield gasolines, burning oils, and paraffin

148 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

wax, all of which when properly treated will undoubtedly
be satisfactory commercial products. There is con-
siderable doubt regarding the possibility of producing the
more viscous grades of lubricating oils such as internal
combustion motor lubricants from shale oils, but it may
be possible to do so. Little is known in this country as
to the refining of shale oils at the present time, and
this statement can be applied generally to the possibilities
and technique of oil shale operations in the United States.

The development of an oil shale industry to one of
considerable importance in this country will demand the
expenditure of many millions of dollars and take a period
of many years. Much research work and technical
study will be necessary in its development and it will
require the services of trained executives and experienced
technicians. Nevertheless, when economic conditions
become favorable, it is reasonable to believe that oil
shales will be of great value as a source of oils similar
to those now derived from petroleum. An idea of what
large scale development of the oil shale industry means
may be gained from the consideration that to produce
one barrel of crude oil from shale, on the average at
least one ton of a tough rock must be mined, crushed,
heated to a relatively high temperature and finally the
residue, amounting to about seventy-five per cent of the
original weight of the raw shale must be disposed of,
as valueless. The United States now produces over one
million barrels of crude petroleum per day.

From an economic standpoint our oil shale deposits
practically assure us that come what may, this country
will still have its own sources of petroleum products. We
should never have to be wholly dependent on foreign
countries in this respect. From another standpoint the
shales are also of great economic importance. The oil
shales especially of the Rocky Mountain country, occur
in sparsely settled regions. Their development on a
large scale means the bringing into these regions of a
great number of miners and other laborers, often with
their families, who will earn their living in the shale
fields, and spend their money in the same locality. Mil-
lions of dollars must be spent in erecting plants, develop-
ing mines and the like, much of which will be spent in the

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 149

states in which the oil shales occur. The shale oil refiner-
ies will require sulphuric acid and other chemicals and
supplies which logically will be produced as near to the
shale fields as possible, thus bringing in more capital and
labor. Transportation facilities will be extended to meet
the requirements of the shale operators, thus benefiting
the regions now inadequately supplied in this regard.
Prices of petroleum products in the regions contiguous
to the shale operations can be expected to be relatively
lower than they would be if similar petroleum products
had to be shipped in. The list could be extendec, but it
is impossible to go further in my limited time.

It must be emphasized however that development
of an oil shale industry to a scale sufficient to be of so
much economic importance, will require much study,
time and money. The oil shale industry is no game for
the man of small experience and capital. We have often
compared it with the development of the low grade cop-
per ores of this State, and the comparison, in that it is a
large low-grade chemical manufacturing enterprise,
requiring capital, time and trained men, is undoubtedly a
true one. The investor in oil shale operations should
know that he will probably have to wait for a long time
for a return on his investment, and that returns in all
probability will be conservative. In spite of this, I believe
the day of the oil shale industry is coming. When, it is
difficult to predict, but some day it will undoubtedly be
one of great importance to the country and state.

150 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

PYROMETALLURGY AND ITS FUTURE
POSSIBILITIES.*

BY JOHN C. MORGAN.1

Pyrometallurgy is that part of metallurgical pro-
cesses or operations carried on at elevated tempera-
tures. It may consist of steps in the branch of metal-
lurgy known as ferrous metallurgy and having to do with
the manufacture of iron and steel, or of non-ferrous
metallurgy involving the treatment of ores of copper,
lead, zinc, precious metals, rare metals and so on for the
production of these metals in marketable form.

Inasmuch as we of the West are chiefly concerned
with non-ferrous metallurgy, I will limit my remarks to
that branch of the subject. I am also omitting any
remarks concerning the pyrometallurgy of non-ferrous
alloys.

Pyrometallurgy consists chiefly of (?) drying to
remove hygroscopic water, calcining; to remove com-
bined water and other volatile components, roasting to
effect chemical change without fusion, smelting when
chemical change is brought about with fusion, liquating,
crystallizing, distilling, subliming to effect either separa-
tions or purifications.

Modern smelting practice and the operations inci-
dent thereto is a highly developed art. Its problems have
been many in the past. One in particular is the successful
treatment of fine material in the blast furnace, a problem
which has been brought about by the ever decreasing
amount of ore as mined reaching the smelter together
with the constantly increasing amount of finer material
resulting from concentration processes. Sintering
machines and briquetting are so far meeting this situa-
tion.

*Published by permission of the director, U. S. Bureau of Mines.

1Assistant Chemist, U. S. Bureau of Mines.

*Hoffman, General Metallurgy, 1913, p-379.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 151

Of interest in blast furnace practice is the use of
pulverized coal as a fuel. Such use has, during the past
two years, been brought to actual commercial experi-
mentation both in Canada and the United States (*) and
the experiments have been most promising. The pulver-
ized coal is introduced into the furnace through the
tuyeres thus decreasing the quantity of coke which it
is necessary to add to the charge. Results indicate that
a considerable saving in cost of operation can be effected.

Having direct bearing on the utilization of pulverized
coal in blast furnaces is the problem of smelting lead
and copper ores with high zinc content. In the past,
the smelting of ores high in zinc in the blast furnace
has offered considerable difficulty due to. liability to
freezing of the furnaces with continued operation on
such ores. Its direct result has been to exclude lead
and copper ores heavy in zine by a penalty on the zinc
content. Hall has concluded (*) after extensive experi-
mentation that the difficulty is due not to the high vis-
cosity of zinc slag as is popularly supposed but to the
condensation on the coke of zinc oxide brought up from
the smelting zone in the charge which renders the coke
much more difficult of combustion so that proper heat
is not developed later on in the smelting zone. The use of
powdered coal may bring about the solution of this
old problem.

Another phase of present smelting practice which
has in the past few years received much attention, due
in no small part to external pressure brought to bear
by surrounding communities, is the treatment of flue
gases. Such gases carry, besides the ordinary products
of combustion, mechanically carried dust, volatalized
metallic compounds, and sulphur dioxide gas. Large
installations of bag houses and Cottrell electrostatic
precipitators have been made to remove the solid mater-
ial which is retreated to recover the values contained.
As a result quantities of arsenic, so necessary in insecti-
cides, and cadmium are being recovered from material
which previously was belched forth in smoke clouds

sBull. Can. Mining Inst. No. 87, p-737, (1919).
*Hall, Min. and Sci. Press, 1919, Vol. 119, p-699.

152 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

into the atmosphere. Thallium has also been produced
in small amounts from this source. The sulphur dioxide,
however, is still a problem. In some cases sulphuric
acid is now being produced from these gases as well as
some liquid sulphur dioxide. These products find their
way back into metallurgical and other industries and
become a source of revenue instead of a menace. Con-
siderable experimental work has been done with the
production of elemental sulphur from these gases. Fur-
ther advancement in the treatment of smelter gases may
be expected.

Turning now to the pyrometallurgy of ores which
ds not lend themselves to direct smelting or concentration
methods, we are confronted with two general types of
ores, the complex sulphide and the oxidized ore. We
can have a sulphide ore containing sufficient value in
metals to ship if all of that value could be realized but
having its value distributed in lead, zinc, copper and
precious metals. Now such an ore would best be hand-
led by a lead smelter, but its zinc content becomes a
deficit rather than an asset. and the seller instead of
receiving remuneration for the zinc is penalized for it,
an amount dependant upon the quantity present. Two
possibilities of solution of this problem present them-
selves, the initial stage of which is pyrometallurgical.

The first of these is the roasting of the ore followed
by lixiviation and further hydrometallurgical treatment.
The actual roasting of the ore, to accomplish high ex-
tractions of zinc, is not an easy operation; but recent
work, chiefly in connection with the electrolytic zinc
industry, has established a promising practice which
with some modifications for certain ores may offer a
solution to this problem. The residue, after leaching
the zinc, can be smelted or otherwise treated to recover
the other values.

A second line of attack is the chlorination of the
metals of the sulphide by chlorine gas at elevated tem-
peratures, producing a product which should be amenable
to hydrometallurgical treatment. Chlorination should
command more than a passing interest in the next few
years.

The second type of ore which offers particular dif-

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 153

ficulty of treatment is the low grade oxidized ore. It is
too low in value to ship and treat at a smelter and does
not lend itself well to gravity methods of concentration
so far developed. There is an abundance of this kind of
ore awaiting some suitable method for the extraction of
its values. Included with the unmined low grade ore
bodies are also tailing dumps from previous metallurgi-
cal treatment. Two methods of handling such ore
which are receiving much attention give promise; these
are choridizing roasting and volatilization, though of
course there are other possibilities.

Chloridizing roasting is a pyrometallurgical oper-
ation followed by some such hydrometallurgical process
as brine leaching. While chloridizing roasting itself is
not new, its application to extraction of lead, copper,
and silver from oxidized ores in connection with brine
leaching has recently come in for much experimentation.
The process consists in blast roasting a mixture of ore,
salt, pyrite, or other sulphur bearing material, and in
some cases fuel such as coal. The reactions involved are
those taking place between the salt, sulphur products,
gangue, water vapor, and metal-bearing mineral, all or
in part, to produce a chloride of the metal. This renders
the metals soluble in brine and the process from this
stage is a hydrometallurgical one. The Tintic Milling
Company is operating such a process on a copper-silver ore
at Silver City in the Tintic District in Utah.

The volatilization process is a chloridizing process
differing from that just mentioned in that the chlorides
are leached with the furnace gases rather than with the
brine solution. A further difference is that sulphur is
not essential to the chloridizing reaction, and in amounts
much above 5 per cent, is a detriment. The following
steps are involved: furnacing a mixture of ore with some
chloridizer such as salt or calcium chloride at sufficient
temperature to effect volatilization of the chlorides of
the metals as formed; collection of the volatilized chlo-
ride and reduction of the fume with lime and carbon to
form bullion and calcium chloride slag. The calcium
chloride slag may be returned to the first step in the
operation. The furnacing may be carried on in a cement
kiln and the fume may be caught by a standard Cottrell

154 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

precipitator. The type of furnace best adapted to fume
reduction is still a matter of experimentation.

At the present stage of experimental development,
the process seems best suited to oxidized ores, the gangue
of which is of such a nature that it will withstand the
necessary temperature in the roasting operation without
excess clinkering. Zinc is not volatilized successfully,
results so far being very erratic with this element. Lead,
copper, gold, and silver are volatilized readily once the
proper conditions are obtained and work already done
indicates that the process may be extended to some of
the other metals. The leach tailings from the extraction
of zine from certain lead-zine ores should be a promising
source for experimentation though little work has been
done on such material so far as I am aware.

The plant necessary for operation is simple and
composed wholly of equipment which is already well
standardized. It consists of an adequate crushing and
grinding plant with facilities for cheaply handling the
ore, a cement kiln, a flue system, a Cottrell precipitator
and a furnace for the treatment of the resulting fume.
This simplicity and standardization of equipment should
be a thing decidedly in the favor of the process since it
makes possible the erection of the plant near the source
of the ore, a most desirable feature in the treatment of
low grade ores. Further, the plant will require little
water and it can therefore be operated in places where
wet concentrating methods are excluded through lack
of water.

Although the process is as yet in the experimental
stage, four plants of commercial size will soon be in
operation. Two of these will handle an ore carrying
copper, one a zinc-lead product, and one a tailing carry-
ing values in silver, mercury, copper, lead and zinc.

In conclusion it is of interest to note that these
plants are all the direct results of the work carriel on at
the Salt Lake City station of the Bureau of Mines and the
Department of Metallurgical Research of the University
of Utah. Their successful outcome will be a worthy
contribution to metallurgy.

Se UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 155

RELATION OF CHEMISTRY TO
METALLURGY.

BY EDWARD P. BARRETT.1

Metallurgy by definition is the art of extracting
metals from their ores, refining them and separating
them from one another.

From the chemists’ view-point metallurgy is simply
an application of chemical processes and metallurgists
might well be known as chemical engineers or industrial
chemists. In this sense of the word we do not include
mechanical concentration or separation of minerals.

In discussing most metallurgical operations we read-
ily see that these operations depend upon some certain
definite chemical ractions.

One of the most important metallurgical operations
is the manufacture of iron and steel.

In the United States the most common treatment is
smelting in a blast furnace in which the ore is mixed
with proper fluxes which have been calculated from their
chemical analysis to produce a fluid slag of a definite
chemical composition. Sufficient fuel, in the form of
coke, to melt the charge is also added, the amount of
fuel depending upon the temperature required to melt
_ the charge. In burning this fuel a large amount of car-
bon monoxide is formed which reacts with the iron
oxides to reduce them to metallic iron. Some iron oxide
is reduced to iron by direct action of the carbon.

The high temperature obtained keeps the iron and
slag in a molten condition. They separate due to differ-
ence in specific gravity and are then drawn off through
tap holes.

This molten pig iron carries impurities, generally
silicon, manganese, and carbon, which must be removed
in order to change the iron into steel.

The simplest way to remove them is based upon the
chemical reactions of oxidization processes. The molten
pig iron is poured into a large tank-like container so

1Assistant Chemist, U. S. Bureau of Mines.

156 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

arranged that air can be blown through the charge. This
air oxidizes the impurities and this rapid oxidization
‘maintains the high temperatures. After the impurities
have been removed the proper amounts of carbon, sili-
con, manganese, chromium, etc., are added to make a
grade of steel, having a definite chemical composition.

Here we have seen that every step is controlled,
chemically, and depends upon a chemical reaction.

One of the products obtained by smelting of copper
ores in a blast furnace is copper matte, a copper iron
sulphide which is purified by oxidization of the sulphur
and iron. This oxidization process is carried out in a
convertor similar to the one used in the manufacture of
steel from pig iron but in this case the sulphur burns to
sulphur dioxide and the iron oxide combines with the
silica in the lining of convertor and forms a slag which
is poured off. This purification is based upon the chemi-
cal fact that oxygen and sulphur will combine at increased
temperatures to form sulphur dioxide and at the same
time furnish sufficient heat to keep the charge melted.

All roasting operations depend upon the chemical
reaction between oxygen and sulphur at increased tem-
peratures. There are many types of roasting furnaces
in use but they all depend upon the same chemical re-
action for their successful operation.

In the metallurgy of zine we smelt the oxidized
material, either a natural product or one obtained by
roasting a sulphide ore, in a closed fire clay retort in
which the ore is mixed with a large excess of carbon.

Zine oxide is reduced to metallic zinc at about 1030°
C and since the boiling point of zinc is 930° C the reduced
zinc vapors pass off and are condensed as the liquid
metal. By increasing the temperature of the retorts to
1200-1300° C it is possible to increase the capacity of the
retorts. Zine vapors condense to liquid metal in the
range of temperatures between 420-860° C so in practice
the temperature of the condensors is kept about 500° C
so that the zinc can be tapped off in the liquid state.

These peculiar chemical properties of zinc form the
basis for this means of extracting the metal from its
ores.

The separation of silver from lead in lead silver

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 157

bullion by the Pattinson process depends upon the chem-
ical theory of fractional crystallization.

In this case the bullion is melted and upon cooling
we have crystals of pure lead forming and separating
from the mixed crystals of silver and lead.

The chemical reaction between metallic gold and
mercury form the basis for the amalgamation process for
recovering gold from a free milling ore; that is, one in
which the gold exists as the metal. In the recovery of the
gold from this amalgam we use another chemical reaction,
namely, that mercury is easily volatilized at about 360°C
and passes off as a vapor leaving the gold in the retort.
The mercury is condensed and used again.

This ease of volatilization of mercury is used as a
means of extracting mercury from its ores. These mer-
eury ores are heated and the fumes upon cooling gives
us metallic mercury.

The cyanide process depends upon the chemical
reaction of Ag and Au and cyanide in the presence of
oxygen.

All leaching processes are based upon the chemical
solubilities of the metallic compounds in the solutions
used and the recovery of these dissolved metals is again
dependent upon the chemical properties of the respec-
tive elements.

The chloride volatilization process for the recovery
of gold, silver, lead and copper from the lower grade
oxidized ores depends upon the chemical reaction of
these elements with chlorine.

Lead chlorine boils at about 860°C, cuprous chloride
at about 950°C and the chlorides of gold and silver dis-
sociate at temperatures somewhat lower than these.

The most important reagents are salt or sodium
chloride and calcium chloride which melt at 805°C and
780°C respectively, so that they are brought into inti-
mate contact with the ore particles before the tem-
perature of volatilization, 900-1000°C is reached.

These statements show that every one of the pro-
cesses mentioned are dependent upon some definite
chemical reactions and justify the assertion that metal-
lurgical operations are only applications of chemical
processes.

158 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

A CAPILLARY TRANSMISSION CONSTANT
AND METHODS OF DETERMINING
IT EXPERIMENTALLY.

BY WILLARD GARDNER. 1

(Abstract).

In an article on The Movement of moisture in Soil
by Capillarity, published in Soil Science, Vol. VII. No. 4,
April, 1919, the author has implicitly defined a capillary
transmission constant, involving the dimensions and
arrangement of the soil particles, and, as a linear factor
the ratio of the surface tension and the coefficient of vis-
cosity of the soil solution. From theoretical equations
there given, this constant may be expressed,

1
Fg

Dp

where f is the intensity of the capillary stream, i. e., the
quantity flowing past unit area per unit time; p is the
moisture density in quantity of moisture per unit aggre-
gate volume in the soil, and p is the moisture density
gradient. ,

The present article is concerned primarily with
a discussion of methods of measuring this constant,
including a preliminary value for Greenville soil, and
an example of a practical application.

1Utah Experiment Station.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 159

MID-TERTIARY DEFORMATION OF WESTERN
NORTH AMERICA.

BY HYRUM SCHNEIDER.

(Abstract).

It is quite generally conceded {that the Tertiary
period in North America was ushered in by a marked
deformation most conspicuous in the Rocky Mountain
region and was ushered out by another deformation
which probably affected to some extent most of North
America, but in its more marked features was confined
to the Pacific Coast. Somewhere near the middle of the
Tertiary there was a deformation somewhat analogous
to the opening and closing disturbances.

The problems of this thesis are an investigation of
the middle Tertiary deformation:—(a) To locate it as
nearly as possible in time; (b) To investigate its nature
and extent; (c) To determine some of its effects; (d)
To study its relation to Mid-Tertiary deformations in
other parts of the world.

As shown by structure sections there began in Wes-
tern North America, near middle Miocene time, a period
of disturbance which affected profoundly the Pacific
Coast region from Southern California to Puget Sound
and probably extended along the coast to Northern
Alaska. From Southern California it probably extended
south to Central America. Passing east from California
the Great Basin was markedly affected and the distur-
bance practically died out in the Great Plains east of
the Rocky Mountains.

The Coast Ranges, part of the Cascade Range, the
Olympic Mountains, and a part of Alaska were closely
folded. In the Coast Ranges horizontal thrust faulting
accompanied the folding. At least a part of Alaska, the
Coos Bay region of Oregon, the John Day Basin of Ore-
gon and the Western part of the Great Basin were moder-

160 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

ately folded. In the western part of the Great Basin
folding was probably: accompanied by faulting on a
large scale. The Sierra Nevada Mountains were up-
lifted bodily without folding. The eastern part of the
Great Basin and the Rocky Mountain region were up-
lifted and locally faulted.

In the Pacific Coast region the disturbance was most
pronounced with consequently more diverse effects.
Submerged areas were elvated thousands of feet above
sea level while other areas were submerged. In general
there was a marked increase in relief and a new active
cycle of erosion was begun.

In the Great Basin and Rocky Mountain region the
disturbance probably began ‘the (development of the
major topographic features of today.

While the main problem of this thesis deals with
the Mid-Tertiary deformation of Western North Amer-
ica, the disturbance was by no means limited to North
America. It is, for the world as a whole one of the most
profound and extensive recorded in geologic history.
That its effects have not yet entirely died out is strongly
suggested by the close relationship between the area
affected and the present distribution of active or rela-
tively recently active volcanoes. Also the area most
frequently affected by earthquakes is closely related to
that portion of the world most affected by the Mid-Ter-
tiary disturbance.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 161

THE RESISTANCE OF THIN METAL FILMS
WHEN EXPOSED TO ULTRA
VIOLET LIGHT.

BY ORIN TUGMAN.

When a metal is exposed to violet light, negatively
charged bodies are emitted with velocities proportional
to the frequency of the light waves. These electrons are
emitted in all directions. Inasmuch as the electrical
conductivity of a metal is a function of the number of
free electrons in a metal it is expected that the resistance
of a metal will be changed by the action of light. If the
metal is thin the number of electrons liberated by the
light may be large enough in proportion to those moving
in the ordinary conduction to make a measurable effect.

The conductivity is measured by an electrometer.
The metal film is sputtered in vacuo and measured in
place.

162 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

IS DISINFECTION A REACTION OF THE
FIRST ORDER?

(Preliminary Communication)

BY L. F. SHACKELL.

In an extended research upon the velocity with
which bacteria are killed by various disinfectants, Miss
Chick (1) concluded that the progress of disinfection is
similar to that of a monomolecular reaction. Arrhenius
(27) in reviewing the data obtained by Miss Chick and by
others says: “.... on the whole these reactions show
such a regular progress with time, that their monomolec-
ular nature is obvious. This circumstance indicates that
every bacterium or yeast cell or red blood-corpuscle acts
as if it were a single molecule in regard to the substance
reacting upon it. This seems from a biological point of
view extremely difficult to understand.” Although
Arrhenius takes into consideration the question of vari-
ability of the organisms in their resistance to deleterious
substances, he concludes that “the different lifetime of
the different bacteria does not depend in a sensible degree
on their different ability to withstand the destructive
action of the poison. Instead of this a certain fraction of
the bacilli still living dies in one second, independent of
the time during which they have been in contact with
the poison.”

_ In a more recent investigation of this same question
Lee and Gilbert (*) attempt to show that the law of mass
action may be applied to the process of disinfection. In
the majority of their experiments, however, the constants
evaluated by Lee and Gilbert from the equation for a
monomolecular reaction are not convincingly “‘constant’’.
In fact, from the data in Table V of Lee and Gilbert’s

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 163

paper the writer has deduced an expression of the second
degree which describes the progress of the disinfection of
B. typhosus with 0.2 per cent phenol with considerably
greater accuracy than does the expression for a reaction
of the first order. This is shown in Table I below. In
the third column are the values calculated by Lee and
Gilbert for the constant, k, in the general expression for
a monomolecular reaction. In the fourth column are the
values for the constant, c, calculated from the equation
deduced by the writer. In spite of the constancy of
these last values, however, the writer does not believe
that the expression from which they are calculated repre-
sents the true course of the reaction. Rather, could the
distribution frequencies of the micrcorganisms, in res-
pect both of age and of resistance to the poison, be taken
into account, it is not improbable that the course of dis-
infection could be expressed by a simple linear equation
of the first degree. This is indicated in some experiments
made by the writer. |

In the course of an extended investigation of marine
wood borers the writer has collected many data bearing
on the toxicities of a number of phenols for the small
crustacean borer, Zimnoria. This form is admirably
adapted for such experiments. The adults average 2.5
mm. in length, and can be obtained in great numbers.
In Zimnoria all the phenols investigated produced motor
paralysis, the onset of which in any individual could be
accurately noted. When paralyzed Limnoria are washed
and returned to fresh sea-water, the return of motor
activity is rather sharply defined, unless the animals are
moribund.

If, for a given poison, the values of r, the average
time for beginning recovery, be plotted as ordinates
against corresponding values of t, the time the animals
are in the solution of the poison, a discontinuous curve
is obtained. The first, short portion is presumed to cover
the time taken for establishment of equilibrium of poison
between the sea-water and the animals. The next por-
tion of the curve, extending in a number of cases over a
very considerable range of t, is a straight line. In one or
two instances the curve becomes again discontinuous as

164 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

the animals begin to die off in considerable numbers.
Tables II to V illustrate these points. The calculated
values for r are obtained by substitution of the values
for t in the equation for a straight line at the top of each
table. The observed values of r, which lie on the first,
short portion of the curve, are put in parentheses. Each
observed value for r is the mean time of recovery for a
large number of animals (50 to 100), each observed
individually. In this way the factor of variability in
resistance to the poison was largely controlled.

The general agreement between observed and cal-
culated values of r from the writer’s data is such as to
justify the conclusion that the action of a phenol upon
living protoplasm is a simple linear function of the time
during which the poison has been allowed to act. If this
is true, it follows that disinfection is not a reaction of the
first order. Rather, the writer’s data raise the question
whether poisoning by phenols is not due fundamentally
to a progressive physical alteration in the state of aggre-
gation of protoplasmic colloids.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1Chick, Journal of Hygiene, vol. 8, p. 92 (1908); ibid., vol. 10,
p. 238 (1910).

2Arrhenius, Quantitative Laws in Biological Chemistry, G. Bell
and Sons, 1915, p. 68ff.

8Lee and Gilbert, Journal of Physical Chemistry, vol. 22, p.
348 (1918).

ee UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 165

TABLE I.

Disinfection of B. typhosus with Phenol—0.2%
(Lee and Gilbert’s data)

|
1 N,

N—number

marae POT Re log iy C= (11) res

|
sitios,
|

|
B. | | |
| | | |
| 0 | 5800 ee See Pi eae ves ARIST Saved
| 2(t,) | 1800(N,) epic tale = Sec EN | 0.000167
4 1360 | 0.060 0.000180
6 1075 0.056 0.000181 |
8 800 0.058 0.000178
10 670 0.053 0.000177
15 400 0.050 0.000174
20 290 0.044 0.000173
25 180 0.043 0.000171 |
30 110 0.044 0.000170
35 60 0.044 0.000169 |
40 30 0.046 0.000169 |
TABLE II.
Phenol—0.25 %. r—10.85-+1.47t
t r—obs. r—cale. |
minutes minutes minutes
8.5 (16.8) 23.3
17.0 36.1 35.8
34.0 60.4 60.8 |
51.0 85.5 85.8 |
68.0 110.9 110.8 |

Se SSS

166

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

TABLE III.
Orothocresol—0.125%. r—=10.7-+1.98t

| r—obs.

r—cale.
: eee | minutes minutes
| |
| (17.5) 28.9
46.8 A7.1 |
66.4 65.3
82.3 83.6 |
102.4 101.8
119.5 119.6 |
Pee 8 EEG SANTEE SE.

TABLE IV.
Pyrocatechin—0.5 %. r—2.52t-36.3

———————
t | r-obs. r—cale.
minutes | minutes minutes

TABLE V.
Resorcin—0.25 %. r—=9.03-+-0.15t

oF r—obs. r—cale.
minutes minutes minutes
70
140

210

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 167

SOME PROBLEMS IN DAYLIGHT
ILLUMINATION.

BY C. ARTHUR SMITH.

(Abstract).

Only two of the many problems of daylight illumin-
ation were taken up in this investigation, viz. Daylight.
Factor and Distribution.

The work was mainly carried on at the Liberty
school during the summer and fall of 1918. This build-
ing was selected because of the ideal conditions both as to
location and architectural design. It is free from obstruc-
tions, natural and artificial. All rooms except those in
the four corners of the building are unilaterally lighted.
The corner rooms are bilaterally lighted. The desks
are arranged in rows parallel to the windows. The exter-
nal walls of the rooms are mainly occupied by windows
which extend from about 18 inches above the tops of the
desks to within about 2 inches of the ceiling. The walls
are finished in light cream and the window shades are a
light tan.

The daylight factor, i. e. the per cent of light indoors
to that out of doors, was found to be independent of the
time of day, of the season of the year, and of atmospheric
conditions. That is to say, any change in outside illumin-
ation produces an exactly corresponding change inside.
It differs, however, in different places, even in different
places in the same room. For unilaterally lighted rooms,
the variation from the row of desks nearest the windows
to that farthest away is shown by the curve, fig. 1.

For bilaterally lighted rooms, the change in daylight
factor in different parts of the room are not regular, i. e.
taking rows of desks along either side of the room in
which the windows are situated, it is found that the day-
light factor does not diminish regularly to the far side

168 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

of the room. Hence variation in this case cannot be
represented by a smooth curve.

As is to be expected, the distribution of illumination
intensity diminishes regularly to the far side of the uni-
laterally lighted rooms. The ratio of diminition for suc-
cessive rows, starting with the row nearest the window,
is a constant, and found in this investigation to be about
1.3, meaning that the intensity on a given row is 1.3
times that on the next row farther on. The variation for
a unilaterally lighted room is shown in fig. 2. This
curve has the same characteristics as the curve plotted
from the equation I,—I,/N where I, is the intensity on
the row nearest the window, I, the intensity on any given
row, N the number of the row, and k a constant, in this
case 1.3. Hence, by knowing the daylight factor for the
first row, and the value of k it is possible to obtain the
amount of illumination for any row of desks at any hour
of the day, for any season of the year and for any kind
of a day, by merely measuring the outside intensity
adjacent to the room considered.

To illustrate: Let the daylight factor for the first
row be 15% and k~—1.3. Suppose, now, on a certain
day the outside illumination is found to be 300 foot can-
dles. Then I,—45 foot candles. If there are six rows
of desks, the intensity on the last row, I,—45/6'! °=4.38
foot candles.

Distribution is affected by the time of day. It was
found from the average of a large number of readings
that the illumination on the first row was about 114
times as much in the afternoon as in the forenoon and
about 3 times as much on the last row in the afternoon
as in the forenoon. This seems to indicate that the after-
noon sun gives a higher intensity than does the forenoon
sun and that the afternoon light penetrates farther into
the room. This conclusion is further borne out by a com-
parison between the light intensities on the first and
\ast rows for mornings and afternoons. In the morning
iours, it was found that the intensity on the first row
‘was more than four times as much as that on the last
ale in the afternoon it was less than twice as
much.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 169

It goes without saying that distribution is affected
by the position of the shades. We find that by lowering
the shades to where we usually find them in school
rooms, i. e. about 1/3 down from the top, reduces the
amount of light on the remote side of the room about 114
times as much as it does when the window is entirely
exposed, while the first row is affected very little. Frost-
ing the upper part of the window reduces the difference
on the last row somewhat. The important point to note
is that shades, as usually hung, do not cut down the
intensity on the side nearest the window ‘where the
need for reducing is greatest, but they do very effectively
reduce it on the remote side where even under the best
conditions is there ever more light than is needed. Per-
haps the ideal arrangement of shades would be to hang
double shades at the center of the window so ithat
either the upper or lower half could be covered as
occasion requires.

Distribution is affected by the height of the window-
sill. For this study, a room in the new addition at the
Summer school was selected and a comparison made
with a room at the Liberty school. The height of the
sill in the room at the Summer school was about twice
that at the Liberty. The results show that the range of
distribution in the Liberty school is nearly four times
that in the Summer, which seems to indicate that high
sills are better for evenness of distribution than are low
sills. But this advantage is more than offset by the effect
that high sills have on the feelings of the pupils and
teachers who work in these rooms. The general senti-
ment seems to be that high sills give a feeling of prison-
like confinement.

A secondary problem was considered in connection
with those above because of its economic bearing on the
subject of illumination with specia] reference to the
relation of daylight to artificial light. It was found by a
series of careful measurements that when artificial light
is turned on in daylight that the resultant intensity is
the sum of the two intensities. This is an important
point in the matter of compensating for insufficient day-
light which is more or less prevalent in school buildings.
Thus, by employing the daylight factor for the first row,

170 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

the value of k, and the outside intensity adjacent to the
room, it is possible by certain empirical ‘formule to
arrive at a close approximation of the number of lamps
of a given capacity to compensate for any deficiency in
daylight.

For example, in the problem above, we found that
the intensity on the last row of desks was about 4.4 ft.
candles. Suppose it were required to increase this to 7.5
ft. candles, thus making 3.1 ft. candles to be provided for.
By the empirical equation N=AI/LE, where A= area of
the room, I=illumination per sq. ft. L—illumination per
lamp and E= utilization factor, i. e. the effective illumin-
ation to be considered, then N, the number of lamps, is
readily calculated, thus avoiding the wasteful tendency
of guessing at the number of lamps to install. Usually
more lamps are installed than are necessary in order to
be sure that there shall be sufficient light for the worst
possible conditions. This is not only uneconomical, but it
is positively injurious since! too much light produces
brilliancy and leads to a dazzling effect, thus injuring
the eyes. But the problems of brilliancy and dazzling
lie outside the range of this investigation and cannot be
considered here.

Perhaps it has already been noticed that no atten-
tion has been paid to absolute values either in foot candle
illumination or per cent of daylight factor. This study
was primarily made to work out the relations which have
been given above, that being deemed the problem of first
importance. Absolute values may come later.

DAYLIGHT FACTOR.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

CURVE SHOWING VARIATION IN DAYLIGHT
FACTOR ACROSS A UNILATERALLY
LIGHTED ROOM. Liberty School.

Fis 1. ROWS OF DESKS.

171

172

FOOT CANDLES

TRANSACTIONS OF THE

DISTRIBUTION CURVE.

ssiaeeses Si Gest

sass pepiap ]
meade Ager eaTeaHeSt
oe NSS

pe eee aH

ROWS OF DESKS.

rf UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 173

STANDARDIZATION FROM CONSTANT
BOILING HYDROCHLORIC ACID

BY J. T. BONNER AND T. B. BRIGHTON.
(Abstract).

A method for preparing standard solutions from con-
stant boiling hydrochloric acid had been worked out for
altitudes near sea level. There had, however, been no
work done on the problem at this altitude.

The object therefore of this investigation was to
determine the composition and properties of constant
boiling acid at this altitude and to correlate the results
obtained with those obtained at or near sea level, thus
if successful making the method a general one.

To obtain the necessary data we have procured
samples of constant boiling acid, both from chemically
pure and from commercial acid. These samples were
analyzed for chloride content, the specific gravity, and
the coefficient of expansion determined. From the data
on the coefficient of expansion we expect to be able to
plot a graph from which the specific gravity at any
temperature may be read directly. Such a graph will
greatly simplify the process of standardization.

174 TRANSACTIONS OF THE Pai

COMPARISON OF THE ACTION OF POTAS-
SIUM CYANIDE AND SODIUM CYANIDE
ON ALKYL HALIDES.

BY W. D. KLINE AND W. D. BONNER.
(Abstract).

Because of the scarcity of potassium cyanide in the
laboratory sodium cyanide was.substituted when attemp-
ting to prepare ethyl cyanide from ethyl bromide.
Instead of obtaining propanonitrile, as expected, the
mixture yielded ammonia, di-ethyl ether, and a small
amount of ethyl propanate.

A general investigation was therefore undertaken
in order carefully to compare the actions of potassium
cyanide and sodium cyanide under identical conditions.

“i UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 175

FOURTEENTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE
UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Physics Lecture Room, University of Utah, Salt Lake City
April 1 and 2, 1921.

FRIDAY, APRIL 1, 1921, 8 P. M.
SYMPOSIUM ON “FOREST CONSERVATION IN UTAH.”

“Making the Forests of Utah a Permanent Resource,”’........
eA AINA UPA oe By C.F. Korstian, U. 8. Forest Service.

TROLS (DME! LUISE eee eye
....By A. O. Garrett, East High School, Salt Lake City.

“Forests and Fish and Game Conservation”’ ............
PUAN: NONE NOR OOS A By 8S. B. Locke, U.S. Forest Service.

“Forests in Relation to Climate and Water Supply of
LO G8 s ipa By J. Cecil Alter, U. S. Weather Bureau.

SATURDAY, APRIL 2, 1921, 9:15 A. M.
“Analytical Distillation of Shale Oil’? ..0..0.0000.0000000...
PAIS NO By M. J. Gavin, U. 8S. Bureau of Mines.

“The Use of the Microscope in Ore Dressing”? ..........
Sate ez Bele NL Al By R. E. Head, U.S. Bureau of Mines.

“Chemistry of the Volatilization Process” ................
By Thomas Varley, and C. M. Bouton, U. S.
Bureau of Mines.

176 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

“Function of Steam in Retorting Oil Shales”’ ............
By M. J. Gavin, U.S. Bureau of Mines, and J. J.
Jakowsky, University of Utah.

“Reduction of Copper from Chloride Fumes” ........
eA HEN By R. H. Bradford, University of Utah.

SATURDAY, APRIL 2, 1921, 12 M.

Luncheon to members of the Academy and their friends
at University Dining Hall. Address by F. S. Harris,
U. A. C.

SATURDAY, APRIL 2, 1921, 1 P. M.

“Decomposition of Green Manure at Different Stages
of Growth” ....By Thos. L. Martin, Millard Academy.
“The Normal Temperature as a Function of the Time,
Elevation above Sea Level and the Latitude” ......

‘‘Vitamines in Relation to Nutrition” ...........00.....2002......
SCARE 1) AEs beeen TE ae By W. E. Carroll, U. A. C.
“Relation of Precipitation to Height Growth of Forest
Bret: Gap hin teasl? fsri2 00 cyte 8 eto hy Fh ed evi
LISD sty By Clarence F. Korstian, U. S. Forest Service.

Hi UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 177

MAKING THE FORESTS OF UTAH A
PERMANENT RESOURCE.’

BY CLARENCE F. KORSTIAN.?

We read in the ancient Greek and Latin classics
that the need for forest conservation was felt in one
form or another even before the advent of the Christian
era. By the eleventh century before Christ, in the vicinity
of the thriving cities of Palestine, Asia Minor and Greece,
the forest cover had to a large extent disappeard and
building timber for the temples at Tyre and Sidon had
to be brought long distances from Mount Lebanon, where
the wealth of cedar was also freely drawn upon for ship
and other structural timbers. Artaxerxes I, having recog-
nized the impending exhaustion of this mountain forest,
about 465 B. C., attempted to regulate the cutting of
timber. When the Romans brought Macedonia under
their sway in 167 B. C., the cutting of ship timbers in
the extensive forests of that country was prohibited.

The early ordinances restricting the use of timber
issued in the United States in the seventeenth century by
the town governments of Exeter, Kittery, Portsmouth and
Dover, may be likened to the early European forest ordi-
nances. However, they were probably not dictated by
any impending scarcity of this class of material, being
intended merely to secure a proper and systematic use
of the town property. In the United States as in ancient
and medieval times the cutting of ship timbers was one
of the first forms of regulation because of a threatened
depletion of timber resources.

History repeats itself many times, and as was the
case with the advance of civilization and the conquest of
central Europe, the British Isles and eastern North Amer-
ica, so it was in Utah. When the first pioneers arrived in
the State via the prairie schooner route, they found the

1Presidential address delivered before the Utah Academy of
Sciences, April 1, 1921.
2U. S. Forest Service.

178 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

mountains covered with dense bodies of timber and areas
of heavy brush and high mountain meadows in which
tall luxuriant grasses and succulent herbs flourished.
The mountain streams were clear, filled with fish and
maintained a fairly even flow throughout the year. When
Utah was first settled the mountains supported more
natural resources then the people of the State had need
for but as the region developed the utilization of the
timber and forage resources became more intensive.
The local forests supplied all the lumber that was used
in the development of the State up to the advent of the
railroad. Bancroft, the historian, tells us that in 1883
one of the main drawbacks to the industrial development
of Utah was the scarcity of timber suitable for hard
and finishing lumber. The settlers were not allowed
to acquire title to timber lands and even were nominally
forbidden to use timber except on mineral lands, and
then only for domestic purposes. With the continued
development of the State, these conditions were further
changed through the denudation of the mountains as a
result of unregulated timber cutting, unrestricted graz-
ing, fires and the resultant erosion. Floods and uncon-
trolable high water became increasingly and alarmingly
frequent in many localities, reservoirs and irrigation
systems silted up rapidly, washouts were numerous, fields
were covered with boulders and debris brought down
from the adjacent mountains, and the streams became
too muddy during flood periods for fish to live in them.
The denuded watersheds also lost much of their original
grazing value through the dissappearance of many of
the palatable forage plants and on account of the
decreased carrying capacity larger areas were needed
each year to furnish range for the great herds of cattle
and sheep which have given Utah such a prominent posi-
tion in the live stock industry. These are some of the
extreme conditions existing when most of the forested
public domain of the west was placed under federal con-
trol with the creation of the National Forests. They were
authorized by congress under the organic and adminis--
trative acts of March 8, 1891 and June 4, 1897. The
majority of the National Forests were established mainly
through the subsequent untiring efforts and far-sighted

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 179

policy of President Roosevelt. It is thus that the forest
conservation movement came to Utah en masse.

Let us consider for a moment the forests of Utah
in relation to the economic development of the State. The
mountains of Utah form the foundation of the wealth
of the State, and its continued prosperity will depend
to a large extent upon the manner in which these moun-
tain lands are managed. Since the National Forests of
Utah are confined almost wholly to the mountainous
areas or high plateaus, the management of the National
Forests for all time on a permanent sustained yield basis
is of the utmost importance in the economic and socio-
logical welfare of the State. The National Forests fur-
nish irrigation water, timber products and summer range
for live stock, all three of which have a most direct
bearing upon its economic development.

The National Forests of Utah provide summer range
for the grazing of nearly 190,000 cattle and horses and
more than 800,000 sheep and goats. Other uses having
both a sociological and economic bearing on the pros-
perity of the State include the development of forest
roads and trails, the reservation of forest areas for rec-
reational activities and the preservation of fish and game.

The National Forests of the State comprise approxi-
mately seven million acres, the greater part of which is
potential forest land, which is estimated to bear a stand
of about ten billion board feet, composed of pine, spruce,
fir, aspen and cedar. There is now manufactured annu-
ally! in Utah approximately twenty-six’ million board
feet of lumber besides minor forest products. This mater-
ial is mainly rough lumber, being cut by small portable
sawmills from areas already culled over and from those
of virgin timber remote from industrial centers. The
consumption of lumber ‘and allied products in Utah
amounts to over two-hundred million board feet per an-
num, or approximately eight times as much as is manufac-
tured locally. It requires about eighty years to grow a
crop of aspen and in the neighborhood of 200 years to
grow western yellow pine sawtimber. It is of course true
that pulpwood, excelsior material, match stock, railroad
ties and mine props can be grown in a much shorter time,
but for the purpose of the present discussion let us con-

180 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

sider that an average of 150 years is necessary to grow
a new crop of timber suitable for the market. The ten
billion feet then, will give us an allowable annual cut of
sixty-seven million board feet from our National Forests
in Utah without depreciating the present forest capital
or stand of growing timber. On this basis the present
forest resources of the State could meet only about 34 per
cent of the present demand. How will the increased de-
mand which is certain to come with an increase in popula-
tion and further colonization be met? Of the present
demand approximately 87 per cent is now supplied from
the Pacific Coast. The present supply could accomodate an
increased demand of about forty million board feet with-
out changing the amount imported, or it could reduce the
present importations to about one hundred thirty-five
million board feet with the consumption remaining as at
present. It is therefore evident that Utah is not now and
never will be self-sustaining in the matter of lumber and
forest products.

We should here stop to consider the logic of relying
upon the Pacific Coast to supply the greater part or all
of our needs indefinitely. The East is already cut out.
The Lake States are now making large importations of
lumber and other forest products. The best data avail-
able show that the great southern pineries will be cut
over in not to exceed ten years. The Pacific Coast, there-
fore, is the only region left from which the country as a
whole can draw its supply. Will this region, whose
supply is popularly considered inexhaustible (as has
also been the case with the East, the Lake States and the
South) be able to supply the increasing demand forever?
The best statistics available do not bear out this assump-
tion. Itis probable that the Pacific Coast region will also
be cut out in something like 50 years. With prevailingly
high freight rates, increased settlement of agricultural
land and the depletion of the forests of the Northwest, it
is becoming very evident to students of forest economics,
that each State will be required to provide its own timber
to the extent of maintaining all potential forest land in a
productive condition.

The rough, spiral grained, knotty product available

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 181

today is scarcely a fair sample of the class of material
our forests are capable of producing under proper silvi-
cultural management. Our accessible forests have suf-
fered from being repeatedly culled of the best material
so that in many cases inferior trees are left. Clear,
straight-grained spruce and fir grown in the State has
been used in the manufacture of musical instruments
possessing excellent tone qualities, and one familiar with
the earlier buildings erected in Salt Lake City from large
timbers secured on the Wasatch mountains appreciates
something of the potentiality of the forests of Utah.

The continued prosperity of the agricultural com-
munities is of paramount importance to the State. This
is one of the primary aims of the Forest Service and is
being fostered through watershed protection, timber pro-
duction and properly regulated grazing. Watershed pro-
tection and timber production were really the basic
statutory reasons for establishing National Forests in
Utah. The management plans of the Forest Service con-
template adequate fire protection, increasing the produc-
tivity of the present cut-cover stands, and judiciously cut-
ting the virgin timber on a conservative basis with ample
provision for regenerating the stand, the keynote of which
is expressed in the fundamental principle of preserving
the continuity of the watershed cover and still permitting
as great a production and utilization of the timber and
forage crops as is compatible with necessary watershed
protection.

It is very evident, therefore, that every acre of
potential forest land in Utah must be adequately pro-
tected and made to produce the greatest amount of mer-
chantable material’ in the shortest possible time and
improve the vegetative cover, soil conditions and the
streamflow of the watersheds.®

’This paper was followed by a series of lantern slides which
illustrated more clearly what the Federal Government is actually
doing to conserve the forests of Utah through the practice of
forestry.

182 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

FOREST TREE DISEASES.

BY A. O. GARRETT.

The subject of “Forest Tree Diseases” is indeed 2
very comprehensive subject to be discussed in the very
brief time allotted to me for this paper. For such dis-
eases fall under two general heads: those caused by in-
sects and other animals, and those caused by plants, (not
considering still a third type caused by physiological dis-
turbances, etc.)

In order to limit the content of the paper, I shall dis-
cuss only those diseases caused by plant parasites
and saprophytes and further limit this to those which
have been found in Utah.

Of plant parasites which are Spermatophytes, or
flowering plants, doubtless the most conspicuous are those
belonging to the mistletoe group. As occurring in Utah,
these are found on coniferous trees only; and so far as I
can recall, in the southern portion} of the state only, Manti
being my northernmost Utah locality. Mr. I. E. Diehl
informs me that he has collected Razoumofskya divaricata
on Pinus monophylla and Phoradendron juniperinum on
Juniperus utahensis, both in the Tintic Mts., Juab Co. At
Manti is found Razoumofskya divaricata (Engelm.) Kuntze
(Arceuthobium divaricatum Engelm.), the common mistle-
toe on Pinus edulis, the pinyon pine. I have also collected
this species in the La Sal Mts., and it is probably to be
found wherever the pinyon pine is to be found. Another
species, R. americana, is found in Colorado, and prob-
ably occurs in Utah. Along the brink of Bryce’s Can-
- yon all the pines are “shot to pieces” by mistletoe infec-
tion. Pinus edulishas the first named mistletoe; Pinwe
scopulorum (the yellow pine) has 2. cryptopoda (Engelm.)

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 183

Coville; Pinus fexilis (limber pine) and Pinus aristata
(bristle-cone pine), &. cyanocarpa A. Nelson. Pseudot-
suga mucronata (Douglas spruce) is parasitized by AR,
Douglasti (Engelm.) Kuntze, from Bullion Canyon,
Marysvale and southward, being especially conspicuous
in the Abajo Mountains in San Juan County. Our cedar
trees, especially Juniperus scopulorum and J. utahensis
have large bunches a foot or more in diameter of the
cedar mistletoe, Phoradendron juniperinum Engelm.,
especially conspicuous in the southernmost tier of counties
in the State.

Only the barest beginning has been made toward the
collecting and determining of the fungi of Utah that
attack forest trees. This is particularly true of the higher
fungi which are classified together under the popular
name of ‘“‘wood-rotting fungi’—those that caused so
much concern during the war for fear they had caused
incipient decay in the lumber used for airplanes. Conse-
quently experts examined the timber carefully to see if
there was any trace of these insidious foes which would
cause a wreck, possibly at the most critical moment. The
mycelial threads of these fungi penetrate the wood, and
then secrete enzymes which digest the lignin of the cell-
walls. Of course when this is done, the strength of the
piece of wood is a thing of the past. Among the con-
spicuous examples of these fungi occurring in Utah may
be mentioned the “‘oyster-fungus”, (Pleurotus sapindus and
Polystreatus) found on poplar-trees wherever wounded,
especially when pollarded. These fungi are stemless
horizontal mushrooms. One sometimes finds Jomes
ignarius occurring regularly by the old leaf-scars on the
trunks of Populus tremuloides, The writer has made col-
lections in Daniel’s Canyon and in the Fish Lake Moun-
tains. Again, a “punk” found on the birch (Betula fonti-
nalis),is Polystictus cinnabarinus, easily recognized by its
cinnabar-red color in contradistinction to the common
Polystictus versicolor also occurring in the State on the
same and other hosts.: The latter fungus is often known
as “shelf-fungus’”’. Polystictus stuppeus often occurs on
dead poplar stumps—quite common at Payson. Poly-

184 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

porus valvatus has been collected on dead Picea Engel-
manni near Lake Mary, Big Cottonwood Canyon; Poly-
porus adusta on dead poplar stumps at Santaquin; Poly-
porus alboluteus, “cream puff fungus”, common in our
canyons; Polyporus elegans; Fomes megaloma; Fomes
ungulatus (Schaeff.) Sacc.; Homes lobatus Schw.; Fomes
ellisianus on Shepherdia argentea Nutt. (buffalo-berry) ;
Lenzites sepiaria Fr. on coniferous logs. These are but a
few of the “wood-eating” fungi of the State.

Among the lower Basidiomycetes, there are a num-
ber of rusts that do more or less damage to the forest
trees of the State. The list is far from complete, but as
made up at present consists of the following twenty-two
species:

1. Coleosporium ribicola (C. & E.) Arth.

I. (xcial stage) on needles of Pinus edulis. Not yet
found in Utah.

II. (uredinial stage). On Ribes inebrians Lindl.
Beaver Canyon above Beaver; Bears’ Ears, Elk Mts., San
Juan County; Maple Canyon, branch of Coal Canyon, near
Cedar City, Iron County; First Left-hand Fork Parowan
Canyon, near Parowan, Iron County; Fish Lake Mountains
above Fish Lake, Sevier County.

2. Cronartium filamentosum (Peck) Hedg. & Long.

I. On Pinus scopulorum(Engelm.) Lemmon. Known
only in Utah from Bryce’s Canyon, where it is abundant,
and rapidly killing the yellow pines.

II, III. On various species of Castilleja, Orthocar-
pus, fPedicularis. Collected in Utah on Castilleja
linarizfolia Benth. near Monticello, San Juan County.

8. Cronartium occidentale Hedgc., Bethel & Hunt.

I. On Pinus edulis. Collected in Utah at Marysvale,
Piute County; Parowan Canyon, near Parowan, Iron
County; McKee’s Ranch, near Vernal, Uinta County;
Monticello, San Juan County.

II, III. On various species of Ribes and Grossularia

On Ribes aureum Pursh. Collected in Utah at
Santaquin, Utah County; Richfield, Sevier County; Manti,
Sanpete County; Marysvale, Piute County; Panguitch,
Garfield County; Mt. Carmel, Kane County; Currant Creek,
Duchesne County; Morgan, Morgan County; Lewiston,

2 UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 185

Hyrum, and Mendon, Cache County; Beaver, Beaver
County; Parowan Canyon, Iron County; Hinkley, Holden,
Oak City and Scipio, Millard County.

On fRibes inebrians Lindl. Beaver Canyon,
Beaver County;

On Grossularia leptantha (A. Gray) Cov. & Brit-
ton: Beaver Canyon just below Upper Telluride Plant,
about twelve miles above Beaver, Beaver County.

On Ribes odoratum Wendl. Springdale, Washing-
ton County.

On Grossularia inermis(Rydb.) Cov. & Britton:
Monticello, San Juan County.

This rust is of especial interest because the unredinial
and telial stages, found on currants and gooseberries, are in-
distinguishable from the corresponding stage of the very
destructive white pine blister rust of the east, against which
the Federal Government is making such a determined fight.

4. Cronartium pyriforme (Peck) Hedg. & Long.
I. On Pinus scopulorum (Engelm.) Lemmon. One
collection only has been made in Utah—headwaters Provo
River, Wasatch County.
II, lI. On Comandra pallida A. DC. Holiday Park,
Uinta County; Spring Hollow, Logan Canyon, Cache
County; near Vernal, Uinta County; near Salt Lake City.
5. Gymnosporangium Betheli Kern.
I. On Crategus rivularis Nutt. Logan Canyon,
Cache County; and Parley’s Canyon, Salt Lake County.
Ill. On Juniperus scopulorum Sarg. Gilluly Sta-
tion, Utah County.

§. Gymnosporangium clavarieforme (Jacq.) DC.
I. On Amelanchier pumila Nutt. Abajo Mts., San

Juan County; on Amelanchier sp.,Fish Lake Mts., above
Fish Lake, Sevier County. ;

Ili. Cn Juniperus Siberica Burgsd. Not yet reported
from Utah, although the host is abundant in the Fish Lake
Mts. in immediate proximity with the infected Amelan-
chiers.

7. Gymnosporangium gracilens (Peck) Kern & Bethel
I. On Philadelphus occidentalis A. Nelson. Dry

Wash, south of Abajo Mts., San Juan County and Zion
National Park, Washington County.

186 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

II. On Juniperus utahensis (Engelm.) Lemmon:
Witbeck’s Ranch, near Vernal, Uinta County.

8. Gymnosporangium inconspicuum Kern.

I. On Amelanchier prunifolia Greene: Zion Na-
tional Park, Washington County; on 4Amelanchier
Jonesiana ©, K. Schneider: Parowan Main Canyon above
Parowan, Iron County; on Amelanchier utahensis
Koehne: Zion National Park, Washington County, and
head of Dry Wash near Abajo Mts., San Juan County; On
Amelanchier alnifolia Nutt.: Head Dry Wash near Abajo
Mts., San Juan County; Dry Canyon, Cache County;
mouth Weber River.

Ill. On Juniperus utahensis (jingelm.) Lemmon:
Maple Canyon branch of Coal Creek Canyon, above Cedar
City, Iron County; Parowan Main Canyon opposite Second
Left-hand Fork, above Parowan, Iron County.

9. Gymnosporangium juniperinum (L.) Mart.

I. On Sorbus scopulina Greene (mountain ash).
Not yet reported from Utah.

III. On Juniperus Siberica Burgsd.; Bullion Can-
yon, above Marysvale, Piute County.

10. Gymnosporangium juvenescens Kern.

I. On Amelanchier oreophila A. Nelson, Bullion
Canyon, near Marysvale, Piute County; On Amelanchier
JonesianaC. K. Schneider: Coal Creek Canyon, near Ce-
dar City, Iron Co. On Amelanchier polycarpa Greene:
Maple Creek Branch Coal Creek Canyon, near Cedar City,
Iron County.

On Amelanchier utahensis Koehne: Coal Creek
Canyon, near Cedar City, Iron County.

Ill. On Juniperus scopulorum Sarg.: Bullion Can-
yon, near Marysvale, Piute County; Parowan Main Canyon,
near Parowan, Iron County; Coal Creek Canyon, near
Cedar City, Iron County. This rust causes the leaves to
become needle-like, and produces large fasciations or
“witches-brooms”, as they are often called.

11. Gymnosporangium Kernianum Bethel.

I. On Amelanchier, Not yet reported from Utah.
III. On Jumiperus utahensis (Engelm.) Lemmon:

e UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 187

Witbeck’s Ranch, near Vernal, Uinta County; Bullion Can-
yon near Marysvale, Piute County.
12. Gymnosporangium Nelsoni Arthur.

I. On Amelanchier mormonica C. K. Schneider: -
Beaver Canyon, near Beaver, Beaver Co.; on Amelan-
chier polycarpa Greene: Beaver Canyon above Beaver,
Beaver County; on Ainelanchier alnifoliaNutt.: Fish
Creek Canyon, western Sevier County; City Creek Canyon,
Salt Lake County; on Peraphyllum ramosissimum
Nutt.: Asays, Garfield County.

Ill. On Juniperus scopulorum Sarg.: Mill D Flat,
Big Cottonwood Canyon, Salt Lake County; Logan Canyon,
Cache County; McGee Canyon near Santaquin, Utah Coun-
ty; Maple Canyon Branch of Coal Creek Canyon, above
Cedar City, Iron County; Parowan Main Canyon near
Parowan, Iron County; on Juniperus utahensis (Eng-
elm.) Lemmon: Price, Carbon County; Manti, Sanpete
County; head Mammoth Creek above Panguitch Lake, |
Garfield County; Maple Canyon branch of Coal Creek
Canyon, above Cedar City, Iron County.

This Gymnosporangium is probably present wher-
ever its telial hosts are to be found. It is the most wide-
spread cedar-apple of the State.

13. Melampsora albertensis Arthur

I. On Pseudotsuga mucronata (Raf.) Sudw.: Coal
Creek Canyon, about 14 miles above Cedar City, Iron
County.

II. On Populus tremuloides Michx.: Abajo Mts.,
near West Mountain, San Juan County; Spring Hollow,
Logan Canyon, Cache County.

14, Melampsora Bigelowii Thum.

I. On several species of Larix. Not yet reported from
Utah.

II, III. Reported from Utah on various species of
Salix, but probably in many cases confused with the
following species. All collections should ‘be carefully
re-examined.

15. Melampsora confluens (Pers.) Jackson
I. On Grossularia inermis (Rydb.) Cov. & Britton:

Gogorza, Summit County; Brighton Resort, Big Cotton-

188 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

wood Canyon, Salt Lake County; Henry Ranch above
Panguitch Lake, Garfield County. On Grossularia lep-
tantha (A. Gray) Cov. & Britton: Henry Ranch above
Panguitch Lake, Garfield County. On Ribes Wolfii
Rothr.: Brighton Resort, Big Cottonwood Canyon, Salt
Lake County.

II, II. On Salix Watsonii (Bebb) Rydb.: Gogorza,
Summit County; East Canyon, Summit County. On Salix
Schouleriana Barratt: Parley’s Canyon, Salt Lake County.
This is one of the most congenial hosts for this rust.

16. Melampsora Meduse Thum. ?
II. On Populus angustifolia James: Wasatch Re-
sort, Little Cottonwood Canyon, Salt Lake County.

17. Melampsorella elatina (Albert & Schw.) Arth.

I. On Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.: Manti
National Forest, Sanpete County; Strawberry Valley,
Uinta County. On Picea Engelmanni (Parry) Engelm.:
Manti National Forest, Sanpete County; Coal Creek Can-
yon above Cedar City, Iron County. On Picea pungens
Engelm.: Manti National Forest, Sanpete County.

II. On Cerastium scopulorum Greene: Abajo Mts.
near West Mountain, San Juan County; on Cerastium
Behringianum Regel: Gold Basin, La Sal Mts., San Juan
County. On Stellaria borealis Bigelow: Brighton Resort,
Big Cottonwood Canyon, Salt Lake County.

18. Melampsoropsis Arctostaphyli (Dietel) Arthur.
I. Unknown—to be looked for on leaves and cones
of Picea.
Il. On Arctostaphylos Ura-Ursi (L.) Spreng.: Fish
Lake, Sevier County. Very rare.
19. Melampsoropsis pyrole (DC.) Arthur
I. On cones of Picea. Not yet reported from Utah.
Il, Il. On Pyrola uliginosa Torr.: Big Cottonwood
Canyon, Salt Lake County. On /fyrola secunda {,;
Silver Lake, Big Cottonwood Canyon, Salt Lake County.
20. Pucciniastrum Myrtilli (Schum.) Arthur.
I. On Tsuga. Not yet reported from Utah.
II. On Vaccinium czspitosum Michx.: above Brigh-
ton Resort, Big Cottonwood Canyon, Salt Lake County.
On Vaccinium globulare Rydb.: Uinta Mts., Uinta

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 189

County. On Vaccinium sp., Strawberry Valley, Uinta

County.

21. Pucciniastrum pustulatum (Pers.) Dietel
I. On leaves of Abies. Not yet reported from Utah.

Il, III. On Epilobium adenocaulonHaussk.: Red
Butte Canyon, Salt Lake County; Upper Falls, Provo Can-
yon, Utah County; Fish Creek Canyon, Sevier County; on
Epilobium anagallidifolium Lam.: Silver Lake, Big
Cottonwood Canyon, Salt Lake County; on Bpilobium
Drummondii Haussk.: near Silver Lake, Big Cottonwood
Canyon, Salt Lake County. On Kpilobium brevistylum
Barbey: Silver Lake, Big Cottonwood Canyon, Salt Lake
County; on Epilobium stramineum Witbeck’s Ranch,
near Vernal, Uinta County.

22. Pucciniastrum pyrole (Pers.) Dietel
I. Unknown; to be looked for on leaves of Picea
Abies and Tsuga.

II, III. On Pyrola uliginosa Torr.: Red Butte Can-
yon, Salt Lake County; on Pyrola secunda {,,; Silver
Lake, Big Cottonwood Canyon, Salt Lake County.

Among the Ascomycetes, or sac-fungi, perhaps the
most conspicuous is the black knot on wild choke cherries,
etc., caused by Plowrightia morbosa.

Among the Fungi Imperfecti there are a great many
leaf-spots attacking the leaves of the trees, in some cases
doing serious damage. For several years one of these
leaf-spots has seriously affected the leaves of the culti-
vated horse-chestnuts in Salt Lake City. Another (Septo-
ria negundinis Ellis & Everh.) was so bad on the leaves
of the box-elders in front of the entrance to the Wiley
Camp at Zion National Park, Washington County, that
every leaf seemed to be diseased. It was said at the
Park that the leaves “had been frosted’’!

Little can be done toward developing an effective
program of forest conservation until the occurrence and
distribution of the plant diseases in the State are definitely
known. More attention should be given to this phase of
the subject, which offers so much in the way of discovery
to the individual who would follow it, and still so much
more in the way of increased forest yields to the genera-
tions to come.

190 TRANSACTIONS OF THE i

FORESTS AND FISH AND GAME
CONSERVATION.

BY S. B. LOCKE.

THE NATIONAL FOREST POLICY AND FISH AND GAME.

As stated by other speakers the principles govern-
ing the establishment of the National Forests are the pro-
tection of timber and of watersheds. The general policy
as far as is consistant with the above principles is to have
them serve their highest use. There has been a definite
recognition of the value of the fish and game, particularly
in connection with the recreation uses of the Forests.
Although not assuming jurisdiction over the fish and
game, the latter being in the State, the Forest officers
have been expected to give all the attention possible to
game protection, stocking streams and to creating a pub-
lic sentiment favorable to wild life protection. Through
cooperative agreements with the State Game Department
they have received appointments as game wardens and
in many section have been the sole protectors of fish and
game.

The National Forests in Utah include the greater
part of the big game areas and at least the headwaters of
all the best fishing streams. The management of these
areas to perpetuate the forests and maintain a constant
stream flow will at the same time provide conditions
necessary for the existance of our birds, animals and
fish. In fact, there will no doubt be a modification of
the management for timber production purposes, graz-
ing, etc., on areas having a very high value for recreation

1Fish and Game Cooperation, Forest Service, Ogden, Utah.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 191

purposes, which is closely connected’ with ‘the main-
tenance of the fish and game supply.

VALUE OF FISH AND GAME.

There have been reported in 1920 from the National
Forests of Utah, 13,480 deer, 660 elk, 196 mountain
sheep and 5 antelope. Of these the deer and the elk are
on the increase, the others being stationary. The pro-
duction of trout may be realized when a conservative
estimate places the catch from Fish Lake alone as about
thirty tons. With proper management there could be
produced annually a half million pounds of fish and
several thousand big game animals.

The greatest value of the fish and game is unt from a
food production standpoint, however, but from the rec-
reation which is furnished. No matter how wonderful
the scenery in any section, the tourist will enjoy it much
more if there is an abundance of wild animals whose
habits may be observed under natural conditions or if
fishing may be enjoyed. One soon tires of mere scenery
but there is always something new to be learned in wild
life study and the further one goes in this the more
fascinating such studies become. For the fisherman there
is always a big trout to be caught in the next pool; or for
the hunter, a better trophy to be obtained next season.

The fishing and hunting instincts are firmly implanted
in man and their exercise provides recreation highly
prized. It might be mentioned here that as early as 200
B. C., Theocritus mentions ‘‘The bait fallacious suspended
from the rod.” Martial in about 100 A. D. writes “Who
hath not seen the sarus rise, decoyed and caught by
fraudful flies.” This illustrates the antiquity of the fly
fishing which by most people would be considered a
modern development.

Utah has wonderful attractions for the tourist but
the length of time and the amount of money such people
spend in the State will depend on the fishing and the
opportunity for wild life study. Over 90,000 tourists
visited the National Forests of Utah in 1920 and spent
over $300,000. Practically every tourist’s car has its

192 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

supply of fish rods. One of our supervisors in reporting
on the number of tourists visiting his Forest makes the
note, “Every tourist a fisher.”” Each day a tourist stays
to fish or hunt means at least $5.00 spent in the State.

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT.

In order properly to manage our wild life resources,
particularly the fish and game, certain definite action is
necessary. Protective measures, as well as methods to
increase the production of fish and game, must be based
on correct information regarding natural history. The
public and particularly the sportsmen, must appreciate
the reasons for such measures and provide a public senti-
ment that will demand their being carried out. The
administration of the game department must be such as
will sincerely strive to improve conditions and have the
interests of the sportsman at heart.

In this connection let me emphasize the necessity
for the wild life enthusiast and the naturalist to recognize
the great number of men who are just ordinary sports-
men. Working by himself the naturalist plays rather a
lone hand but by active cooperation with the sportsmen
he can give them much information they are anxious to
obtain and can do considerable in encouraging better
sportsmanship. In the end it is the attitude of the aver-
age man which governs the success of protective mea-
sures and it is through him that the greatest results can
be obtained.

RESPONSIBILITY OF SCIENTIFIC MEN.

It will be clear to anyone that if we are to plan
properly for a continuous supply of fish and game we must
have an intimate knowledge of the life history of the
various forms and their reactions to outside influences.
As in other forms of conservation, dependance for such
information must be made on scientific men.

There are very often proposals made and even en-
acted into laws which scientific knowledge can show are
absolutely worthless or even a disadvantage to the per
petuation of fish or game species.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 193

I could list many cases of wasted or ill directed
effort that could have been prevented and also many
unsolved problems. A scientific study of Douglas Lake,
Wisconsin, showed that during August there was insuf-
ficient oxygen below the thermocline at about thirty feet
to support fish life but thousands of deep water fish had
been planted there in an attempt to establish such species.
In fact very few attempts have been made to gather data
that can be used in planning for the future of our wild
life and most measures have been taken in a haphazard
way.
The scientific man has an immense amount of impor-
tant work ahead of him in this line, in investigations,
experiments and education. Why does one game bird
respond to protection while another increases scarcely at
all under absolute protection? To what point may we
allow the killing of the males of our big game animals?
How can we save losing millions of ducks by alkali
poison? In some waters trout thrive wonderfully while
in others they do not. What governs this and how can
we increase the productivity of our fish waters? There
are many such questions and thousands of dollars will
be wasted until we can make such investigations as will
enable us to answer them.

When the scientific man takes an active interest in
such problems and can cooperate with the sportsmen to
enact laws and undertake plans of management based
on correct biological principles, a great step in advance
will be made in providing the opportunity for our sons
to enjoy the rich heritage of wild life which has been
ours.

194 TRANSACTIONS OF THE i

FORESTS IN RELATION TO CLIMATE
AND WATER SUPPLY.

BY J. CECIL ALTER.1

The modifying influence of forests on climate makes
them a refuge in winter for wild fowl and game animals,
and a retreat in summer for domestic livestock, and
vacation seekers. Without their coolness and freshness
in summer the forests would be far less attractive as
resort regions; and without their alleviating influence
on winter storms there would be less haven for the wild
life that inhabits them.

Wind breaks have for many years been scientifically
constructed about the farmsteads of the plains states.
Smaller trees or large bushes are set to windward, and
next to these are successive rows of higher varieties, the
last line to the leeward being trees of some large type.
This barrier causes the winds to glance aloft, and pro-
vide shelter for livestock and the premises to the lee.

Wind breaks and shelters composed of fruit and
shade trees are carefully provided throughout the flatter,
windier sections of Utah, where water is available. Some
of the major projects in hand by certain commercial and
development organizations in western Utah are the
planting of trees to render the region more sheltered for
birds, animals, and persons, in their meteorological
aspects.

The cooling influence of the forests, noted in the
formation of local clouds at times, and in the down-
drafts encountered by aviators, may extend several thou-
sand feet aloft, but the horizontal cooling influence does
not extend far outside the forest confines.

This influence has been credited with causing pre-
cipitation, but while the theory has a few arguments and
factors in its favor, the influence is very slight. The
forests in general exist where they do as a result of favor-

iMeteorologist, United States Weather Bureau, Salt Lake City.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 195

able precipitation, rather than as a result of their influence
in attracting precipitation.

The great unbroken forest covers of the Sierras, and
the Pacific northwest, are a result of the heavy winter
rains and snows; and the beautiful forest blanket over
the Yellowstone region is due to the ample moisture in
both winter and summer. Indeed, there are ‘limited
regions where the canyon air movement prevents the
seeding of trees, though moisture be abundant.

In the process of transpiration the loss of moisture
in conifers amounts to from 100 to 200 times the weight
of dry matter produced, according to an investigator.
This amount is comparatively small, as will be noted in
examining the weight of water actually escaping in this
manner. Even in this western region where precipita-
tion is light, and much needed, the transpiration losses
do not seem greatly important.

A greater loss results from interception, in which
process rain water is suspended on the foilage and sub-
sequently evaporated. The conifers catch much greater
amounts of water in this manner than do the broad-
leaved trees. The amount may, according to a study by
Robert E. Horton, reported in the Monthly ‘Weather
Review recently, amount to from 0.02 to 0.07 inch per
shower, though manifestly the amount per acre will
vary with the density of the forest cover, and the height
of the trees.

The loss is estimated, from studies made by Mr.
Horton, to range from 25% to 100% of the total rainfall,
depending on the rate, duration, and amount of the rain-
fall. The average is given somewhere around 25% to
40%. This loss thus becomes rather important at times,
since the rain interception comes in summer chiefly,
when rain is most needed.

There is a modifying influence of the forest on the
amount of general evaporation of the moisture that is com-
paratively important, due to the diminished wind move-
ment, the lower temperatures, and diminished insola-
tion. Evaporation losses in Utah from a free water sur-
face may reach five feet in a summer. Raphael Zon, in
a paper on forests and water conservation, uses the
statement that the evaporation loss from an area covered

196 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

by low vegetation will be about one-third the precipi-
tation received, and in an evergreen forest about one-
tenth the precipitation. Assuming a Utah mountain side
to receive an average of 12.00 inches of precipitation
in a summer, the forest areas would lose only 1.20 inches.

The greatest influence of the forest in this general
respect is in controlling or modifying the streamflow.
The spring freshet curves are greatly flattened, and the
late summer depressions due to droughty weather are
appreciably raised. The feeder streams that live through
the summer, originate in the forests, as all fishermen and
outdoor men well know.

The cooler weather in the forests retards the melting
of the snows, and there is much less sunshine because
the forests of Utah lie chiefly on the northerly slopes,
away from the sun. Many glacier-like piles of snow
accumulate in the lee of high ridges, and especially in
amphitheatres from which several slopes shed their
snowslides. The seepage from these piles of snow in
important locations, like the district near Spanish Fork
Mountain, maintains a thin cluster of trees a short distance
below the tail of the snow pile. However, even assuming
the drift to be several acres in extent, thirty to forty feet
deep, and of a density of 60% to 75% at most, the actual
number of acre-feet of water is not great, as compared
with the snowfall over the watershed as a whole.

Forests retard surface runoff by offering material
obstruction to the flow, and by preventing gulleying and
hence the formation of large heads of water. They serve
also to filter and purify to a certain extent, the water
collected in the basins. At Jacob’s Lake Ranger Station,
on the Kaibab National Forest in Arizona, an unusually
heavy downpour of rain caused broad sheets of water
broken up by small waves, to advance from the forest to a
natural reservoir.

The pine cones, needles, small sticks and grass
served to keep the flowing water divided into relatively
thin streams, though tiny white caps piled up everywhere
as the heavy flow was temporarily blocked by the debris,
here and there. After the storm ceased the pool of water
was scarcely riled, and nearly clear.

Our camp on the previous night, at a desert watering

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 197

place southeast of Kanab, Utah, was in a region mostly
bare, but supporting some sage brush and greasewood.
The rainfall from previous storms had been impounded
by throwing a dam across an arroyo. This pool was so
befouled by the collection of all the debris for many rods
roundabout that stock drank from it reluctantly.

Cloudbursts, socalled, are reported more frequently
from certain sections than formerly, though this is prob-
ably not so much a fact about the rainfall as about the
condition of the watershed. A badly denuded water-
shed sheds its water abruptly and after heavy rains it
accumulates with great rapidity and great power, befoul-
ing the water supply temporarily, silting reservoirs detri-
- mentally, and endangering controlling works and other
improvements in the path of the flood waters. Settling
tanks are thus necessary in handling Salt Lake City’s
water supply originating in thinly forested watersheds.

An important instance of the effect of a denuded
watershed in causing floods occured near Salt Lake City
July 24, 1916. The shower at the Weather Bureau gage
in Salt Lake City business district amounted to 0.43 inch;
at the University on the east bench, 0.35 inch, and at the
High Line intake in City Creek five miles northeast of
the city, 0.85.

Assuming with reasonable safety that the storm over
the adjacent mountain slopes was fairly uniform in City
Creek and in Dry Canyon next to the south, the latter
should have shown a lighter discharge of water, all
other things being equal, because it is shorter, heads
lower, and consequently would receive much less precipi-
tated moisture.

As a matter of fact, the flood was so great in Dry
Canyon, where forest and brush areas are scanty, and
where grazing has been continuous many years over the
lower sections, that several cattle were destroyed, and
the bodies of some animals were washed out of the can-
yon. The roadways were also badly damaged. In City
Creek, where there has been no grazing for many years,
and the brush and vegetative cover has become compara-
tively heavy, and small areas of forest remain, the runoff
from the storm was so light, as measured twice a day at
the intake, its presence in the records was not observed.

198 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THE ANALYTICAL DISTILLATION OF
- SHALE-OIL.

BY MARTIN J. GAVIN.2

It may be well, before beginning the discussion of
the subject of this paper, briefly to outline the nature of
the investigations of the Bureau of Mines on the oil-shale
resources of the United States. Investigations on oil-shale
were begun by the Bureau in 1916 as it was realized that
the shale resources of the country would ultimately be-
come important sources of hydrocarbon oils, and possibly
other products. Oil-shale studies were only getting well
under way when the United States entered the Great War,
and the full attention of the Bureau was directed to mat-
ters relative to the conduct of the war. After the armistice
was signed, the staff working on oil-shales was increased,
and the work reorganized. At the present time, the
Bureau is conducting work on oil-shales in three laborator-
ies, i. e., The Pittsburg, Pa., Experiment Station, where
microscopic studies of different oil-shales are being made;
The Boulder, Colorado, Cooperative Oil-Shale Laboratory,
where work is being done on Colorado oil-shales in cooper-
ation with the State of Colorado, and the Intermountain
Experiment Station of the Bureau of Mines, Salt Lake
City, Utah, under cooperative agreement with the Depart-
ment of Metallurgical Research of the University of Utah.

The investigational work now being conducted may
be grouped under three headings: First, the microscopic
examination of different shales, which is expected to
throw much light on the nature, origin and composition

1Presented by permission of Director, United States Bureau of
Mines.
2Oil-Shale Technologist, United States Bureau of Mines.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 199

of the shales and the mechanism of the thermo-chemical
process by which the organic matter of oil-shale is con-
verted into oils and gases; second, the determination of
certain physical and chemical constants for various oil-
shales, without which it would be impossible to design
efficient apparatus for the treatment of this material; and
third, the determination of those conditions of retorting—
that is distilling the shale—which will produce the great-
est yields of the best oils from different shales. This
phase of the work is now receiving the greatest amount
of attention at the Boulder and Salt Lake City laboratories.
It might be remarked that all the work is directed by one
technologist and that each laboratory is at all times kept
well informed of the results and progress of the investiga-
ations in the others.

In making studies of the effects of different applied
retorting conditions, it is necessary, of course, to determine
the quantity and quality of products formed in any test,
and from these to determine exactly what the effect of
the applied condition or conditions of retorting has been.
The quantity of gas recovered during the test is measured,
and samples are taken at various intervals during the run,
as well as a sample of the total gas produced. The gas
samples are then examined in the customary manner.
Water recovered from the retort is tested principally to
determine its content of ammonia and other nitrogen com-
pounds. The spent shale is examined to indicate com-
pleteness of oil production, and to determine percentage
of fixed carbon, which gives information as to the nature
of retorting. A high fixed-carbon percentage in the spent
shale usually indicates that conditions of retorting were
not favorable for production of either a maximum quantity
of oil or oil of good quality.

Most attention is directed to the quantity and quality
of oil recovered, as oil is the most important product
recovered from oil-shale, and the quantity and quality of
oil recovered differs with different shales, and with slight
changes in the conditions under which the oil was pro-
duced. It is not difficult to determine the quantity of
recovered oil, although shale oils emulsify with water
with extreme ease, and the percentage of water in the
oil must be determined by distillation of a portion of the

200 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

oil with a light solvent, measuring the amount of water
distilled, and applying this percentage as a correction to
the total oil produced.

The oil is also examined to determine percentages of
nitrogen and sulphur, as these indicate, to a certain extent,
the suitability of the oil for refining or direct use. It may
be said, as a general rule, that the presence of sulphur
or nitrogen in shale-oil is not desirable.

The quality of a shale-oil can be best determined by
subjecting it to a fractional analytical distillation, and
examining the fractions so made.

The method in use in the oil-shale laboratories of the
Bureau of Mines for the analytical distillation of shale-oil
and petroleum has been developed, with the exception of
minor details, by Dr. E. W. Dean, petroleum chemist of
the Bureau, and has been described by him in various
publications. Bulletin 209 of the Bureau of Mines, by
Dr. Dean, now in press, describes the distillation appara-
tus and method in detail. Briefly, as applied to shale-
oils, it is as follows: .

The specific gravity of the oil is first taken, and as
most shale oils are semi-solid at the temperature to which
specific gravities of petroleum oils are referred (60°F), it
is necessary to use a pycnometer or specific gravity bottle
adapted for heavy oils or tars for this purpose. A low
specific gravity ordinarily can be taken to mean that the
oil contains a large percentage of paraffin hydrocarbons.
The setting point of the oil is next taken. The setting
point of the oil is that temperature at which a drop of oil
frozen on the tip of a thermometer bulb melts and flows
down the stem of the inverted thermometer. A high set-
ting point is an indication of a high content of solid paraf-
fin in the oil. Viscosity of the oil at a standard tempera-
ture is next taken, and is of present value as an indication
of the quality of the lubricating oil fractions, and in the
future will be of value in making calculations of pipe lines
for shale oils.

The weight of 300 cubic centimeters of the oil is next
calculated from its specific gravity and this quantity is
placed in a standard fractionating flask. This flask is a
round glass bulb from the top of which springs a vertical
neck. Eight inches up the neck a side neck springs at

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 201

an angle of 15°. This side neck serves as a vapor outlet,
and is connected to a standard vertical water cooled con-
denser with a well fitting cork. After the oil has been
poured into the flask, a wire support is placed in the
bottom of the vertical neck, and the column filled for 614
inches with a small iron chain—jack chain—which serves
as a fractionating tower. The thermometer is then placed
in the proper position through a cork in the top of the
vertical column and distillation started.

The Bureau of Mines uses electrical resistance heat-
ers for distilling petroleum and shale-oil, as the heat
can be regulated closely and conveniently, and there is
small danger of fire. A variable resistance placed in
series with the heater makes for easy control of tempera-
ture.

As the oil starts to distill, the vapor temperature
when the first drop falls from the delivery end of the
condenser is noted, and the rate of heating so adjusted
that about two drops of distillate fall into the receiver per
second. -

The receiver is placed under the delivery end of the
condenser, and is usually a graduated glass cylinder. The
volume distilled is noted beginning at 50°C, and there-
after for every 25°C rise in temperature. Usually, in
the case of shale-oil, the oil distilled is allowed to accum-
ulate in one receiver until the vapor temperature has
reached 125°C, when the receiver is changed. There-
after the receiver is changed for every 25°C rise in
vapor temperature, so after the first fraction, each frac-
tion or cut represents the oil distilled while the vapor
temperature in the still was rising 25°C. Distillation is
completed at a temperature of 275°C, as above this tem-
perature there is danger of the oils decomposing’ or
cracking.

The flask and contents are then allowed to cool so
they may be handled without danger, then the chain is
taken from the vertical neck of the flask, and two copper
gauze cones substituted for it about midway in the neck.
The flask is connected to the condenser as before, and to
the delivery end of the condenser is connected a vacuum
receiver, so the fractions may be taken off under reduced
pressure, and that the receivers may be changed without

202 — TRANSACTIONS OF THE

breaking the vacuum. Distillation progresses, as before,
under a pressure of 40 mm. absolute. The reduced pres-
sure, of course, lowers the boiling temperatures of the oils
in the still and makes possible their distillation without
danger of decomposition.

The first fraction taken off under vacuum is that
boiling up to 200°C at this reduced pressure, then the
tube in the container is shifted by an external connection
and successive separate fractions taken for every 25°C
rise in temperature up to 300°C. As the distillation pro-
gresses the water in the condenser is heated; otherwise
the solid paraffin that distills from many shale-oils at
high temperatures would congeal in and clog the con-
denser tube.

The still and residual oil are then cooled and the
volume of residue is determined from its weight and
specific gravity. The character of the residuum is noted
—whether it is of an asphaltic or paraffin nature—; its
setting point taken as an indication of wax remaining in
it; and a test made to determine the carbon deposited
when it is burned under ‘a definite set of conditions—the
Conradson carbon test. This test serves to indicate the
suitability of the heavy residues for making. certain
heavy lubricating oils.

All the separate fractions are then examined. Vol-
ume and specific gravities of the air distillation fractions
are determined for the purpose of calculating percentages
distilled and to give an indication of the chemical nature
of the oil. Afterwards all the fractions distilled up to
200°C are combined, as are those distilling between
200°C and 275°C, and a test made to determine the
percentage of ‘‘unsaturated hydrocarbons”, or more
correctly speaking, the percentage soluble in an excess of
concentrated sulphuric acid under certain definite con-
ditions? in each combined fraction.

The vacuum fractions are examined; volume and
specific gravity of each cut determined, as are also the
setting point and viscosity of each, the latter two tests

3Unsaturation test is described by E. W. Dean and H. H. Hill,
The Determination of Unsaturated Hydrocarbons in Gasoline: Bureau
of Mines Tech. Paper 181; 1917, 25pp.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 203

indicating the suitability of each particular fraction as
sources of solid paraffin and lubricating oils.

The Bureau of Mines has examined hundreds of
samples of petroleum from the different oil fields of the
United States and has examined samples of shale-oil
made in commercial operations in Scotland. All examin-
ations were made in accordance with the procedure des-
cribed above, and therefore in examining shale-oils a
direct comparison can be made with many other oils
whose properties and commercial products are known.
Certain characteristics of shale-oils have not yet been
directly tied up with corresponding properties of petrol-
eum, but they will be in the course of time. Even now
the method described affords an excellent method of
determining the quality of a shale-oil.

In its oil-shale work, the Bureau is endavoring to
ascertain those conditions most suitable for producing
an oil with a high percentage of paraffin hydrocarbons,
or in other words, a low percentage of unsaturated hydro-
carbons. It is interesting to note that when an oil low
in unsaturated hydrocarbons is produced; or rather an
oil with a small percentage soluble in concentrated sul-
phurie acid, all the other desirable properties of the oil
follow along with it; there is a high content of. solid
paraffin wax; the motor fuel fractions are fairly volatile;
and the viscosities of the lubricating oil fractions indicate
that the oils will be suitable for making lubricants. How
durable shale-oil lubricants will be is as yet not known. In
general, it is possible to say that the percentage of the
oil removed by sulphuric acid under the conditions of the
test applied, as applied above, can be used as an index
number upon which to base the relative values of shale-
oils produced from different shales or the same shale
under different conditions.

204 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THE USE OF THE MICROSCOPE IN
ORE DRESSING*

BY R. E. HEAD.1

The microscope as an instrument for use in research
work has long been recognized and its value in this capa-
city has been established in many branches of scientific
endeavor. As an example of one of the more recent applic-
ations of the microscope in the field of research, the
science of metallography or physical metallurgy is worthy
of mention. This science is comparatively young, having
been developed within the last fifty years, yet at the pres-
ent time the use of the microscope as a means of observ-
ing and assisting in the determination of the physical
properties of metals and alloys has been adopted and used
by scientists and manufacturers the world over. Its use as
a means of studying the physical characteristics of rocks
and minerals has been recognized by geologists as a
source for obtaining information which would otherwise
either remain unknown or require the use of devious
and uncertain methods of investigation for its acquisition.
The almost universal use of the microscope in these
branches of research has been given much publicity in
numerous papers that have appeared in the scientific
journals, and in view of the fact that the problems
encountered in the treatment of ores possess many fea-
tures in common with those described in these writings, it
appears strange that so little has been published con-
cerning its application and use in ore dressing.

The economic value of an ore deposit depends pri-
marily both on the market price of its metallic content
and also on the percentage of this value that can be
recovered by general or special reduction processes. The
metallic values may be readily ascertained by chemical

*By permission of the Director, U. S. Bureau of Mines
1Metallurgical Assistant, Intermountain Experiment Station of
the U. S. Bureau of Mines, Salt Lake City, Utah.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 205

analysis. The treatment of the ore, and the recovery
and separation of the minerals into commercial pro-
ducts are matters that in many instances can only be
determined by experimental testing and research investi-
gation. While the combined value of the minerals con-
tained in an ore may make quite a respectable total yet
the clean-cut separation of minerals from each other is
extremely difficult. There are many causes for failure
in the treatment of ores, some of which are perhaps un-
avoidable, but as the underlying principles on which the
science of ore dressing is founded deal not only with the
chemical nature of the ores but also with their physical
properties and characteristics, a thorough knowledge of
these factors is essential to intelligent and. scientific
concentration practice.
Since in so many instances the successful treat-
ment and recovery of the values in the ores depends on
the physical condition of the minerals composing them
it is of the utmost importance that this information be
obtained and placed at the disposal of those engaged in
experimental ore testing. The general character of the
minerals in an ore may perhaps be deduced from the
appearance of the material together with the information
gained by a study of the chemical analysis but there is
often no means available for checking up on the deduc-
tions so formed without recourse to a visual examination
of the ore itself by means of the microscope. Chemical
analysis serves as an accurate and reliable method for
ascertaining the percentage amounts in which the sev-
eral elements exist in the material which is to be treated
but it does not give the remotest clue to the manner in
which the minerals, representing these values, are
associated. In some ores the character of the constituent
minerals is at once apparent from a casual examination,
but ores in which the values exist in two or possibly three
states of chemical combination it may be practically im-
possible to determine the relative amounts of the various
minerals except by microscopic examination. Even
though the ore which is to be treated is known to contain
all the value carrying minerals in the sulphide form
there is no assurance that these minerals are associated
in such a manner that their separation and recovery may

206 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

be successfully accomplished. It may be that the gangue
minerals are of such a nature as to interfere materially
with the treatment proposed as indicated by the charac-
ter of the ore, or that the respective minerals exist in
a condition of such intimate association that ordinary
methods of treatment would prove unavailing.

The most logical way in which many of the physical
characteristics of an ore and its components may be
determined is by microscopic examination and it is im-
portant that these features should be known before ex-
perimental work has actually been commenced. A knowl-
edge of the physical characteristics of an ore and the
minerals composing it, gained by microscopic study, to-
gether with the information supplied by chemical analysis
should form a basis for the experimental testing work
which is to be conducted. Cut and try methods of ore
testing are expensive since they not only consume con-
siderable time but also require making hundreds of
chemical analyses which are expensive and in the end
the deductions based on these methods of procedure may
be open to grave and well founded doubt. The diffi-
culties encountered in testing may be caused by unknown
physical characteristics of the minerals in the ore or
their mode of association or may be of a mechanical
nature. In many instances it is only after considerable
sums of money have been spent in cut and try experimen-
tal work leaving results still in doubt that the microscope
is applied as a means of last resort. While the micro-
scope will not prove a means of solving all the problems
which may arise in the treatment of ores yet it can be
relied upon to furnish information that cannot fail to
prove of value and when this information is available
for application during the preliminary testing the value
of its use is proven by the elimination of unnecessary
time and labor involved in costly chemical analyses. If
the physical characteristics of the minerals in an ore to-
gether with their mode of association are known the
selection of a proper method of treatment and the crea-
tion of conditions most favorable for obtaining good
results are a matter of much less experimentation.

It is only after all the obtainable information con-

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 207

cerning the physical characteristics of an-ore is in the
possession of those engaged in conducting testing work
that they are properly qualified intelligently to diag-
nose the difficulties which may arise in the actual testing
operation and when thus equipped they may rest assured
that in so far as a knowledge of the ore itself is con-
cerned the work is being conducted in a logical and
scientific manner.

During the time spent in microscopic work on ores
from many widely separated localities the conclusion has
been reached that except to somewhat limited extent
too little attention has been given to obtaining detailed
information concerning the character of the ores under-
going treatment or that when this information is known
that it has been acquired only after the expenditure of
large sums of money and time in the working out of
innumerable cut and try expedients, much of which might
have been avoided by applying scientific and logical
methods from the beginning.

There are many works (*) published containing
detailed descriptions of microscopic methods that have
been used with success in the various sciences and are
the result of years of careful and painstaking investi-
gations by men who have devoted their entire energy
to the field of microscopic research. Many of these
methods may be applied to the study of ores and minerals
from an ore dressing standpoint, some of them without
any change or modifications, while others must be varied
slightly to conform to the conditions existing in this
particular field.

All ores do not present the same problems and in
consequence many variations and combinations of micro-
scopic methods may have to be applied during the pre-
liminary work on any particlar ore. Much of the min-
eral wealth of the United States is represented by ore
bodies whose exploitation is beset with difficulties, the
greater portion of which are encountered in ore dressing
and concentration. The complex sulphide ores are
especially typical in this respect. These ores as a rule

2Manual of Petrographic Methods, Johannsen; Elementary
Chemical Microscopy, Chamot; The Microscope, Gage.

208 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

are not particularly high grade, some of them being of
such a lean character that it is a question whether means
for their profitable treatment are at present in existence.
There is one characteristic that these complex sulphide
ores possess in common, that is, the minerals of lead, zinc,
and iron which carry the values are very intimately
associated. It is scarcely possible to conceive the extent
to which this intimate association of the minerals exists
without recourse to microscopic examination. The
microscope shows that it is necessary to resort to ex-
tremely fine grinding to liberate the individual minerals,
which is necessary in order that they may be recovered
and separated into marketable products of lead and zinc.
When polished surfaces of specimens of complex sulphide
ores are examined under the microscope the nature and
extent of this intimate mineral association is readily
seen and in order to apply this knowledge in a practical
manner it is but a logical step to apply the principles of
micrometry.

The average size of the mineral grains as they exist
in these ores can be measured by micrometric methods
applied during the examination of polished surfaces pre-
pared from representative specimens of the ores in ques-
tion and with this information as a guide it is not a
difficult matter to determine with approximate accuracy,
the degree of grinding that will place the ore in a condi-
tion in which the mineral grains composing it are most
amenable to recovery by the treatment selected. Thus
by a small amount of preliminary investigation the basic
requirement for successful concentration has been met,
i. e.; the mineral particles are freed or unlocked and in
a condition in which their separation and recovery is a
matter of the application of proper methods of treat-
ment. Nothing could be more simple than this method
of gaining the desired information and since it is one of
the vital essentials to success in actual practice this pro-
cedure should be made use of in mills and ore testing
laboratories as a prerequisite to experimental or pre-
liminary testing of ores by the processes of gravity con-
centration or flotation.

The same method of procedure is indicated in the
case of ores in which the value-carrying minerals are

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 209

disseminated in small grains and particles through the
gangue matter. In occurances of this nature the grain
sizes may be measured and their average size determined
either by a study of polished sections of the ore or the
same information may be obtained by the microscopic
examination of representative thin sections. This latter
procedure is indicated in the case of the disseminated
ores, since it permits the determination of the non-metal-
lic minerals composing the gangue and these minerals
may have an important bearing on the after treatment
of the ore. As a matter of fact the study of thin sections
should constitute a preliminary method of analysis almost
as essential as that of the study of polished sections.

It is a recognized fact that all sulphide minerals do
not respond to like conditions of flotation treatment to
an equal degree, some of them being much more readily
floated than others which require the application of
special methods of treatment together with the use of
certain combinations of oils and other reagents which
apparently render them more amenable to treatment and
increases their recovery. Taking for example a copper
ore in which the copper exists in the sulphide condition
and is carried by the three minerals, chalcopyrite, chal-
cocite, and bornite. Each of these minerals contain cop-
per in a different amount and it may be desired to ascer-
tain the relative amounts in which these minerals occur
in the ores, both from a mineralogical standpoint and also
from a basis of copper content so represented. It may be
desired to obtain these data for use in experimental test-
ing, having for its aim the improvement of the flotation
practice in use. In addition to the copper sulphides the
ore may also contain pyrite and it is obvious that the
application of chemical methods in this instance do not
offer a direct or satisfactory method of obtaining the
desired data. Since the questions involved have a direct
bearing on the physical character of the sulphide minerals
in the ore visual examination by means of the microscope
and the use of microscopic methods of analysis appears
to offer the most satisfactory means to obtain the inform-
ation required.

A modification of the Rosiwal (*) method can be

‘Methods of Petrographic Research, Johannesen pp. 291-2.

210 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

applied to the case under consideration and the infor-
mation gained from this mechanical analysis, if properly
conducted, should be sufficiently accurate to be used as a
basis for conducting the proposed experimental work.
The Rosiwal method is by no means new and has been
used by petrographers and others for making mechanical
analyses of the rock constituents in thin sections and in
the determination of the relative amounts of coarse
gravel, sand, and cement in concrete. Briefly stated it
consists of the measurement or estimation of the respec-
tive areas of the constituents in the material being studied
and reducing these figures to terms of 100 which is desig-
nated as the relative volume percentages of the com-
ponents as they occur in the areas studied. Multiplying
these volume percentages by the specific gravities of the
respective constituents and converting the results into
terms of 100 gives the relative weights of the constituents
which is the information required. In order to apply this
method of mechanical analysis to the study of crushed
sulphide material or products obtained by screen sizing
or concentration, it is first necessary to briquette the
crushed material with sealing wax. The briquette is
ground and polished in the same manner as an ordinary
ore specimen and can be examined and studied under
the microscope and when thus prepared the application
of various microscopic methods of manipulation to
crushed sulphide grains is no more difficult than their
application to solid uncrushed material.

A detailed discussion of the uses of the microscope
in ore dressing is beyond the scope of this paper which
is intended to treat the subject in a general manner only,
but the emphasis placed on the necessity for a thorough
understanding of the physical characteristics of the ores
and the minerals composing them, together with the
examples given, serve to illustrate its usefulness in this
field. It may be stated that those engaged in ore dres-
sing and concentration both from a research standpoint
and in practice can ill afford to ignore the microscope
and that the intelligent application of microscopic
methods in these fields will prove to be a profitable
investment.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 211

“~

DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF OIL-
SHALES.*

BY LEWIS C. KARRICK.?

INTRODUCTION.

In studying the destructive distillation of oil-shales,
it is desired to know primarily the nature of the pyrolytic
influences of heat on the organic components of the shale.
The impracticability of isolating the kerogen of the shale
from the mineral matter in which it is imbedded so as to
conduct separate experimentation on the kerogen, leaves
the problem extremely complex.

The behavior of the kerogen of the shale while
undergoing the heating process, is not what it would be,
if it were isolated, under similar temperature conditions
due to its own thermo-chemical properties, but is actually,
that which is induced to take place under the influence
of the mineral matter in contact with, and surrounding
it. It must be remembered that the inorganic material
of the shale is a heterogeneous mixture of minerals, and
each mineral has a particular thermal conductivity which
will differ from that of the kerogen, and hence heat will
be conducted inwardly at rates which may greatly ex-
ceed that required in the heat consuming reactions of the
pyrolysis of the kerogen. Furthermore, within the heat
range of the shale distillation are included the tempera-
tures of dehydration of gypsum and some hydrous sili-
cates, these minerals being frequently present in the
shales. The evolution of water vapors from them will

*Published by permission of the Director of U. S. Bureau of
Mines.
1Assistant Oil-Shale Technologist, U. S. Bureau of Mines.

212 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

affect the partial pressures of the hydrocarbon vapors
evolved from the kerogen, probably to the improvement
of the quality of the oil distillates. Carbonates as well
as sulphides, begin to decompose within this range of
temperatures and the concentration of the gases pro-
duced may alter the chemical constitution of the oils pro-
duced from the kerogen. The mineral aggregation of
the spent shale may be difficultly penetrated by the
escaping oil vapors as they work their way from the
inside of the distilling shale lump to the surface, and
hence pressures will develop within the shale pieces
with the result that the oil vapors will escape at higher
temperatures than is necessary for their formation; con-
ditions conducive to unregulated decomposition of the
oil. These are a few of many possible effects on the
products of decomposition of the kerogen that may be
caused by the presence of the mineral matter of the
shales, and consequently, results are very difficult to pre-
dict when new and unfamiliar shales are being destruc-
tively distilled.

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS OF THE BUREAU OF MINES.

The individual problems of destructive distillation
or the retorting of oil-shales, therefore, must be solved,
largely, by “cut” and “try”? methods. In the research
work of the Bureau of Mines, oil-shales are treated in
various states of fineness and under many conditions in
which the temperature, duration, rate and method of
supplying heat are varied. Conditions are brought about
wherein the atmosphere surrounding the shale, while it
is distilling, is made to contain definite proportions of
certain auxiliary gases and vapors, which are used for
their chemical influences and as scavenging mediums.
The gases and oils evolved during distillation are caught
and analyzed, and their properties are tabulated against
the known conditions under which they were produced.
The accumulation of data pertaining to any shale can be’
correlated finally and data valuable for use in the design
of retorts is thereby obtained, wherein correct principles
of chemistry, thermo-dynamics, and engineering prac-
tice may be employed.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 213

Many varying products can be obtained from the
destructive distillation of kerogen. The character and
quality of the materials produced depends greatly on
the temperature to which the vapors produced from the
kerogen are heated within the retort. The duration of
the time that the vapors remain in the retort seems also
to have a decided decomposing action on the vapors and
resulting products. It does not follow, however, that all
shales will yield the same products when heated simi-
larly, because shales differ physically, and the oil-forming
material may be of an entirely different origin in different
shales. The organic, matter of the oil-shales of the
eastern part of the United States, occuring in the Devo-
nian formations, is made up almost entirely of spore mat-
ter, as are also some of the Scotch shales. The western
shales of the Green River formation seem to be more
complex, and contain, in addition to the spore matter,
resenic and cellulosic materials. Some of the cannel
coals and cannel slates of the east belong to this latter
class. All of these give different oils under the same
retorting conditions, which facts have been brought out
by much experimental evidence. However, information
is in no wise complete as to whether the principal cause
of difference is due to the character of the included
organic material, or to the percentage and character
relation of the minerals associated with it.

INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF SHALE ON
DISTILLATION PRODUCTS.

It is quite probable that in all shale retorting
methods, the actual decomposition range for a given
shale, begins at comparatively low temperatures, but the
ultimate products produced owe their characteristics prin-
cipally to chemical and physical reactions occuring while
the products of distillation are passing from the primary
decomposition state, which is probably a viscous fluid, into
the vapor state, or while in the vapor phase. This alter-
ation from the primary decomposition state is evidently a
cracking phenomenon and the products will be influenced

214 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

largely by some of the causes mentioned above, but such
changes may also be due to properties inherent in the
retort design.

The first action of heat upon the shale begins to
take place at a very low temperature and results in the
removal of some of the occluded gases which exist in
very small quantities. Next the actual distillation of the
kerogen or change of state takes place, wherein a heavy
fluid apparently is produced which is soluble in organic
solvents. The decomposition temperature range of this
substance may be influenced to some extent, as has been
attributed, to the influence of pressures developed within
the shale pieces so that the evolved vapors are produced
at excessively high temperatures. Finally as the vapors
are produced within the shale pieces they immediately
become subject to the destructive or damaging effects
caused by their passing through zones of higher tempera-
tures before they escape from the retort. The vapors are
certain to become superheated somewhat, since they will
readily absorb heat from the hotter shale surrounding,
due to their low specific heats. The vapors on passing
outwardly from a lump of shale will move in a direction
opposite to the flow of heat, and will obviously become
hotter as they pass outwardly through the lump, since
the lump is transmitting the heat inwardly. Consider, for
instance, that a piece of oil-shale the size and shape of a
brick, is being heated and that the heat is being supplied
equally to all portions of one of the larger faces. When
the temperature of oil production is reached, neglecting
side radiation, the entire surface starts distilling simul-
taneously, it being the first part to reach distillation tem-
perature. If the temperature of the heat supply does not
increase, the distillation on the heated surface will soon
become negligible although only a portion of the total
possible oil has been produced from the kerogen, which
was first subjected to the distilling temperature. How-
ever, the distilling zone will work on through the shale
until the entire mass has reached the same initial degree
of decomposition. An increase of temperature will re-
new the evolution of oil vapors, but the final oil will not
be produced until the temperature reaches approximately

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 215

525°C., about 200°C above the temperature of first oil
production.

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE LAG.

Commercial considerations require that the heating
of the shale be fairly rapid and that the heat be supplied
increasingly. Given these requirements, the tempera-
ture difference between the hot surfaces of the
shale pieces and the inside temperatures where distilla-
tion is in its early stages, will become increasingly greater
until a state of equilibrium is reached, whereby the tem-
perature difference between the inside and outside sur-
face of a lump becomes constant. Now this temperature
difference for unit depth of heat penetration will depend,
to a large degree, on the amount of heat supplied, the
thermal conductivity and specific heat of the shale, the
heat consuming reactions, and the heat carried out by
convection in the escaping oils and gases. As experimen-
tal evidence of the amount of the temperature lag, the
writer has performed retorting tests on shales where the
temperature was taken at the hot surface and at a point
within the charge’ two inches from, the hot surface.
Data taken showed that there was a lag of 250°C between
the remote shale particles and those next to the heating
surface. Had lumps of shale four inches in diameter
been heated similarly, there would have been oil vapors
liberated in the center, which on working to the surface,
would have passed through a layer of partially spent
shale two inches thick, and up to 250°C hotter than that
at which the vapors were produced. Obviously it is
probable that the superheat received by the vapors in
penetrating the hotter exterior, will alone greatly decom-
pose the oil vapors, but there are present factors work-
ing simultaneously to augment the cracking. Some of
these factors are, the finely divided or capillary condi-
tion of the vapor streams, the pressure which the vapors
must be under before being released from the shale
pieces, and the catalytic influence of the carbon deposi-
tion in the pores of the shales.

Economic considerations prevent the employment
of extremely long retorting periods, which would largely

216 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

remove the causes of decomposition outlined in the pre-
ceding paragraphs. Another alternative will accomplish
the same results as increased retorting time, that is, the
grinding of the shale extremely fine and thereby reduc-
ing the depth for heat penetration in the individual
shale particle. This could actually cause the pyrolysis
practically to become a surface reaction. This expedi-
ent has its economic objections also, but for the sake of
research possibilities, it offers an opportunity to elimin-
ate many of the deleterious factors of retorting, the
extent of whose importance is not yet fully known.

The oil-shale assay retort which was developed by
Mr. L. A. Anderson, “Research Fellow’, University of-
Utah, in cooperation with the writer was designed for
extreme accuracy in quantitative determinations of oil
yield, and to produce oil of good quality. The dimen-
sions of the shale container, which is a pint capacity
amalgam retort, are small in order to minimize the dis-
tance for the heat to penetrate. The time for comple-
tion of a retorting test is only four hours when treating
the richest shale. The method of operating the retort
requires that the shale used be ground to minus one-
quarter inch size. The result is that during the distilla-
tion, in no piece of shale will the vapors have to travel
more than one-eighth of an inch, (one-half the thickness
of the shale granules), toward the source of heat, before
reversing their direction and moving into a cooler zone
and thence to the exit. The vapors from the finer shale
particles will move a much shorter direction toward the
source of heat before reversing direction. Variations in
rate of retorting are employed in order to study the dif-
ferent properties of oil produced.

When shale is retorted very slowly and there are
no means provided for scavenging, the gases and vapors
tend to stagnate within the retort and are thus subjected
to prolonged pyrolytic effects resulting in much decom-
position. The Scotch process uses lumps of shale the
size of building bricks and consequently the shale is
allowed eight hours in which to complete distillation.
Under this condition of a long period of heating, there
would be ample time for much decomposition of the

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 217

vapors were it not for the fact that a great quantity of
steam is used in the retort as a scavenging medium and
also for its chemical benefit to the oil. If the shale is
retorted very rapidly the destructive results which char-
acterize the high temperature coking of coals are ap-
_ proached, wherein all the oil vapors are decomposed to
gas, tars, and carbon.

Any oil-shale retort that exposes a large heating
surface to the vapors, whether it be a horizontal, inclined,
_or vertical type, and though the shale be rabbled, rotated
or stirred, unless it uses an efficient scavenging medium,
will probably produce much gas, much carbon deposition,
and inferior oil in relatively smaller quantities.

218 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

CHEMISTRY OF THE VOLATILIZATION
PROCESS.*

BY THOMAS VARLEY? AND C. M. BOUTON.

To the lowlands dweller an excursion to the high-
lands may prove both adventurous and instructive, and
a prolonged stay in the strange environment may com-
pel a sweeping reconstruction of fundamental ideas—
not so much a substitution of new ideas for old as an
expansion of the old ideas to accomodate new facts and
conditions. The chemist accustomed to reactions at
ordinary temperatures may be pardoned a somewhat
similar feeling when he ventures among the peaks of
high temperatures. Our everyday experiences lie within
a rather narrow temperature range, from about forty
degrees below zero to forty-five above on the centigrade
scale. Any temperatures outside this range are ordinarily
the result of a definitely planned excursion which offers
elements of novelty and appeals to the imagination. It
is true that history hardly reaches back beyond the time
when men made use of fire for the cooking of their food,
and the smelting of their metals, but the formulation of
exact laws governing the behavior of matter and energy
at high temperatures is strictly a modern achievement,
while the mere obtaining of very low temperatures at will
is altogether recent.

The formulation of such laws is necessary for con-
tinued metallurgical progress. Through all time up to

1Published by permission of the Director U. S. Bureau of Mines.
2Metallurgist, U. S. Bureau of Mines.
3’Physical Chemist, U. S. Bureau of Mines.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 219

and including the present, recovery of metals from ores
has been a wasteful process, the amounts of metal lost
in.slags and dross and in fumes ranging from a fraction
of a percent in the rare best instances to fifty percent
or more in the worst cases. So great is the world’s de-
mand for metals that the easily worked deposits are
rapidly being exhausted and economical and conserva-
tive treatment of the vast deposits of low grade ores is
becoming absolutely essential.

The history of metallurgy is that of an art and not
of a science. To be sure the facts of metallurgy have
contributed much to science but progress in the working
of metals has been very largely through the efforts of
men who knew little and cared less concerning the
sciences. Much progress may still be expected from the
same type of empiricists. But more and more the art of
metallurgy is looking for guidance to the sciences of
chemistry and physics.

The traditional method of securing pure metals from
ores has been to mix the ore with certain substances
which experience had shown to be appropriate, to subject
to heat and to obtain the metal first in a molten state
and finally in solid form. This is the typical metal-
lurgical process applied to all the most important metals:
iron, copper, lead, gold, silver and tin. In the case of a
few metals, however, the practice reaching back into
antiquity has been to separate the metal by converting it
into vapor and condensing the fumes. This is notably
true of zinc and mercury. In the treatment of all the
metals certain reagents, certain appliances and certain
procedures, have been found best adapted to each ore.
No one method has been developed which would free all
the common metals which might be present in a mixed
ore, though methods for separating metals from each
other after they have been reduced to the metallic state,
have been very well worked out. Temperatures suitable
for the reduction of one metal are not suitable for an-
other; reagents which are helpful in one case are harm-
ful in another, etc.

Among pyrometallurgical processes the alternative
of converting the metals into the vapor state and con-

220 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

densing the vapors seems to offer possibilities. The pro-
cess of thus separating the mixed metallic content of an
ore from the other constituents by converting the metals
into chlorides and vaporizing these chlorides has been
under experiment for about thirty years. It shoud be
borne in mind that to present smelting processes are
economically satisfactory for the richer grades of ore,
but that to meet the world’s future demands for metals
it is becoming increasingly necessary to do two things;
first, reduce losses in the smelting of ores, and second,
develop methods of economically treating poorer grades
of ore. Present experimentation on the chloride vola-
tilization process is directed rather more to the second
of these objects, but it is to be noted that success is
hardly to be achieved in any treatment of low grade ores
unless recoveries are fairly complete. The fact that
metal chlorides may be vaporized from ores of several
types is well established, but this is not sufficient. It
must also be established that the vaporization, and sub-
sequent recovery of the vapors can be quite complete.
Pure science may perhaps be of assistance here in des-
cribing the conditions under which the maximum com-
pleteness may be expected. Let us first consider briefly
the physical principles which underlie the process of
vaporization.

Every solid or liquid substance may be considered
to have some tendency to send out molecules from its
own body into any space surrounding it A- metal, such
as gold, appears to have no tendency to waste its sub-
stance by evaporation, for an actual decrease in weight
of a piece of gold has never been authentically recorded.
Our belief that it is, nevertheless, continually wasting
away by evaporation, though at a rate far too small to
detect, rests upon an abstraction.

The first general law of evaporation is to the effect
that evaporation into any enclosed space continues until
a certain fixed pressure of vapor is attained, after which
a condition of equilibrium persists unless the temperature
is changed or part of the vapor is removed.

The change in the characteristic vapor pressure with
change in temperature is of great importance. The law

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 221

governing this relation is capable of mathematical expres-
sion and may be stated in words as follows: The logarithm
of the vapor pressure is a linear function of the recip-
rocal of the absolute temperature. That is, if we plot the
logarithms of a set of vapor pressures of any substance
against the reciprocals of the corresponding absolute
temperatures, the curve connecting the various points
in order will be a straight line. Since two points only
are necessary to define a straight line we need know the
pressures ‘corresponding to two temperatures only, in or-
der to determine the pressure at any temperature. Al-
though the law thus stated is only approximate the ap-
proximation is so close as to be of great value. If, now,
having determined from the above plot the pressures cor-
responding to a wide range of temperatures, we plot pres-
sures as ordinates directly against temperatures as abscis-
sas, the curve rises imperceptibly from the origin at abso-
lute zero until at a certain temperature it begins to diverge
and from there it rises at a constantly increasing rate.
In other words, the pressure-temperature curve is at
first coincident with the temperature axis, and then con-
cave upwards. This means that if we wish to volatilize
any substance we must heat it to such a degree that its
vapor pressure becomes appreciable and that relatively
small increases of temperature above that point will pro-
duce constantly increasing rates of evaporation.

The vapor pressures of several metals have been ex-
perimentally determined and those of others have been
estimated by assumptions of greater or less validity. J.
Johnston‘ has tabulated these and finds the temperatures
at which the vapor pressure is equal to that of one mil-
_ limeter mercury, barometer column to be as follows: Sil-
ver 1320°C; copper 1520°C; iron 1590°C; lead 960°C;
zinc 500°C; mercury 123°C.

To obtain vapor pressures of 50 mm. the tempera-
tures must be about 400° higher in the cases of silver,
copper and iron, 300° higher for lead and 200° for zine.

These temperatures seem too high for practical ap-
plication of a distillation process except in the cases
of zinc and mercury. However, the vapor pressures of

4Jour. Indus. and Eng. Chem., Vol. 9, 1917. p. 874.

222 _TRANSACTIONS OF THE

the chlorides of the metals are in general much higher
than the pressures of the metals themselves at the same
temperatures and if the metals can readily be converted
into chlorides volatilization of these compounds may pos-
sibly prove a desirable process.

The vapor pressures of but few metal chlorides have
been experimentally determined. The Pacific Station®
of the Bureau of Mines has found the vapor pressure of
lead chloride to be 1 mm. at 567° and 50 mm. at 747°.
The vapor pressure of Ag is 1 mm. at about 850° and 50
mm. at about 1200°. Since silver is usually present in
minor quantities it is not so essential that it should have a
high vapor pressure. The vapor pressures of cuprous
‘chloride, of zinc chloride, of iron chloride and of gold
chloride are not known but it is known that these com-
pounds volatilize even more readily than lead chloride.
Temperatures of 1000° Centigrade or even higher are
readily obtainable and the mere volatilization of the
metal chlorides therefore, offers no theoretical difficul-
ties.

Formation of the metal chlorides and keeping them
undecomposed once they are formed present more dif-
ficult problems.

The process of forming metal chlorides by subject-
ing them to the action of chlorine gas has long been
known and it is entirely feasible in the laboratory but
the engineering difficulties associated with the handling
of this very corrosive gas as well as its relatively high
cost and small production have thus far prevented its
wide application. Instead, attention is centered on the
direct metathesis of metal compounds with the compara-
tively cheap sodium chloride.

Formation of copper chlorides by the roasting of
calcined cupriferous pyrite mixed with common salt has
been in use for over seventy years as the Longmaid-
Henderson process for the lixiviation of copper. The
chloridizing roasting of gold and silver ores prepara-
tory to lixiviation has been practiced nearly as long.
It is thus evident that gold, silver and copper minerals

5Located at University of California, Berkeley, California.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 223

may be converted into chlorides by merely heating with
sodium chloride. Beyond the fact that the heavy metal
chlorides are formed, however, comparatively little is
known as to the actual chemistry involved. Rarely is
all the gold, silver or copper extractible by leaching.
A part is almost always retained because of physical
or chemical reasons not at all obvious and the partic-
ular ore used, the mechanical preparation, such as de-
grees of fineness, and the details of roasting procedure
all affect the recoveries.

The various explanations offered as to the chemistry
of chloridizing roasting,—and these have been rather
numerous and conflicting, must therefore be regarded as
hypotheses only. It has, for example, been claimed that
the presence of a certain small percentage of sulphur in
the ore is essential and that this sulphur by first form-
ing sulphates of the metals makes possible the formation
of chlorides by direct metathesis. Others claim that the
chlorine must be liberated as free chlorine gas to be ef-
ficient in combining with the metals. The hypothesis has
also been advanced that the formation of sulphur chlo-
rides is an essential intermediate step in the process.

In order to make progress in a problem so complex
it is necessary to analyze it and subdivide it into as
many and as simple problems as may be necessary for the
securing of convincing answers. The obvious primary
subdivision in this case is a study of each metal in its re-
actions with sodium chloride. In the studies of the Bu-
reau of Mines the greatest progress has thus far been
made with silver. It has been shown that all the commonly
occurring silver minerals, with the exception of the chlo-
ride, dissociate at elevated temperatures in the presence
of oxygen giving metallic silver. The problem then be-
comes how may metallic silver be converted into its
chloride. If chlorine gas or hydrochloric acid gas is pas-
sed over heated silver, chloride of silver is formed. If
water vapor is passed over heated silver chloride metal-
lic silver is produced and hydrochloric acid, oxygen and
chlorine gas pass off. The reaction between silver chlo-
ride and water vapor is therefore a reversible reaction
and the complete volatilization of silver chloride depends

224 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

upon the relative concentrations of water vapor, hydro-
chloric acid, oxygen and chlorine in the gases passing over
the chloride. Too great a concentration of water vapor
and too small a concentration of the chlorine gases will
convert silver chloride into metallic silver and prevent
its volatilization. The value of the equilibrium constant
for this reaction has been obtained by the Bureau of
Mines at the Pacific Station, Berkeley, California, and it
is found that the concentration of water vapor sufficient
to hydrolyze silver chloride and produce metallic silver,
lies well within the range of possibilities in current metal-
lurgical practice.

The hydrolysis of lead chloride or of copper chlo-
ride has so far received less attention because experience
with ores shows that it is probably a less important factor
with these metals. Experience in chloride volatilization
with zinc-containing ores has demonstrated that the zinc
is very little volatilized. This fact is not due to non-vola-
tility of the zine chloride for this compound is very
readily liquified and boiled. It is undoubtedly largely
due to the readiness with which zinc chloride hydro-
lyzes, though other causes may be contributory.

The problem of the chemistry of the volatilization
process may also be attacked from another direction,
namely, by studying the behavior of sodium chloride at
high temperatures. The vapor pressure curve of salt has
never been determined. Data do exist which show that
salt hydrolyzes to a considerable extent with water vapor,
but more information is desired upon these problems
and experiments are under way to secure it.

To summarize, it seems that physical chemistry may
contribute to the development of the chloride volatili-
zation process by stating the conditions under which each
metallic chloride will be formed from mixtures of common
salt and the commonly occurring minerals of that metal;
the chemical stability of the chloride in the presence of
oxygen water vapor and other substances which may pos-
sibly react with it, and the vapor pressure of the chloride
at various temperatures.

The question of recovery of the vaporized chlorides
has not been discussed here. Originally the weakest link

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 225

in the chain of operations involved in the volatilization
process, it is now, thanks to the Cottrell process of pre-
cipitating fumes, probably the least uncertain step.
Treatment of the precipitated chlorides in order to re-
cover the separate metals has also been passed over in
this paper. This is not because the step is not important,
but rather because the questions involved are more those
of practical metallurgical procedure than of theory, for
example, what is the best type of furnace to use to avoid
losses by revolatilization.

226 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

METALLURGY OF THE CHLORIDE VOLATIL-
IZATION PROCESS.

BY C. C. STEVENSON.2 =

GENERAL STATEMENT.

The chloride volatilization process is a metallurgical
method, which experiments have indicated to be especi-
ally well adapted to the treatment of low-grade, oxidized
and semi-oxidized complex ores—those classes of ores
which are difficultly treated with methods employed in
our present practice. Furthermore, there are vast quan-
tities of such ores, as are found in our western regions,
that are lying idle for want of a suitable metallurgical
treatment and which are most probably amenable to the
volatilization process.

HISTORICAL BRIEFS.

Chloridizing roasting of metalliferous ores has long
been in practice. In 1854 M. Becquerel, of Paris, roasted
argentiferous galena with salt and extracted the silver
chloride thus formed with a brine solution. Owing to
the lack of a suitable means of recovering the silver from
the salt solution, the scheme at that time had no economic
value. Later investigations, however, resulted in effect-
ing improvements that have made chloridizing roasting
an important metallurgical process.

The main disadvantage that accompanied the chlor-
idizing roast preparatory to leaching was the loss of
metals due to volatilization. The losses sustained during
the roast are usually high, in some cases 30 per cent of
the metal values have been dissipated and lost, depending
primarily on the temperature of the roast.

1Assistant Metallurgist, Department of Metallurgical Research,
University of Utah.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 227

INVESTIGATIONS BY STUART CROASDALE.

It was about 1892 when Stuart Croasdale?, while
working on flue and stack deposits from a chloride roast-
ing plant, first recognized the possibilities of making
volatilization a major instead of a minor event of the
roast. Subsequently Mr. Croasdale conducted experi-
ments on a,large number of different ores; results of
which showed that a high percentage of the metalliferous
values could be chloridized and volatilized with compar-
ative ease. In concluding his exhaustive investigations,
which were made to include semi-commercial tests in a
rotary kiln 25 feet long and 314 feet inside diameter, Mr.
Croasdale’s chief difficulty was éxperienced in not being
able satisfactorily to collect the fumes from the fur-
nace gases.*

INVESTIGATIONS OF BEN HOWE.

Mr. Howe’s experiments were conducted during 1910
and 1912, on antimonial gold ores from the Gwalia Con-
solidated Mining Company’s properties in western Aus-
tralia. Uninformed of Mr. Croasdale’s work in America,
Mr. Howe conducted an original investigation and pub-
lished* the results of his experiments, believing at the
time that he was introducing a new metallurgical method.

The experiments made by Mr. Howe were very
similar to those conducted by Mr. Croasdale. Also the
size and kind of equipment employed by each was practi-
cally the same. A most interesting feature in the com-

*Eng. & Min. Jr. Aug. 29, 1903, vol. 76, p. 312, and Sept. 19,
1903, vol. 76, p. 420.

RELATING PATENTS.—U. S. Patent No. 741,712, issued
October 20, 1903, to Edwin C. Pohle and Stuart Croasdale, Denver,
Colorado. Assignors to Metal Volatilization Company, Philadelphia,
Pa., a corporation of New Jersey. U.S. Patent No. 811,085, issued
January 30, 1906, to Edwin C. Pohle.

3Mining Magazine, March, 1914, vol. 10, p. 200.

4Western Australian Chamber of Mines, December, 1912. Ac-
cording to Editor, Mining Magazine, Howe is fully quoted in Mining
Magazine, March, 1913, and Min. & Sci. Press, March 29, 1913.

228 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

parison’ of their results, is the fact that both were able to
volatilize a high percentage of the metal contents from
their ores, and that both concluded their experiments
facing the same principal difficulty, of being unable satis-
factorily to collect the metallic fumes from the gases.

COTTRELL ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR.

It was about 1912 when Dr. F. G. Cottrell successfully
developed the electrostatic principle of separating solid
constituents from gaseous bodies‘.

The use of the precipitator as a fume condensor,
found a ready application in connection with the chloride
volatilization process.

METALLURGY OF THE CHLORIDE VOLATILIZATION
PROCESS.

PREPARATION OF THE ORE CHARGE.

The ore is first crushed to a size depending on the
physical occurrence of the metal-bearing minerals in the
ore gangue, usually .046 inch or 14 mesh is sufficient.

The ore with part or all of the chloridizing reagent
or reagents, usually sodium and calcium chloride, are
thoroughly mixed and admitted to the furnace for the
chloridizing roast.

CHLORIDIZING ROAST.

The roast is usually conducted at a temperature
ranging from 850 to 1000° C. Most experiments have
been conducted in a rotary furnace similar to the cement
kiln type. The ore charge is continuously fed into the
furnace at one end and the roasted product discharged
out of the opposite end. The ore charge in the kiln
becomes heated as it approaches the discharge and heated
end of the furnace. Asa result there is a chemical reac-

5Mining Magazine, March, 1914, vol. 10, p. 200.

6U. S. Patent No. 1,016,476, issued Feb. 6, 1912. U.S. Patent
No. 1,035,422, issued August 13, 1912.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 229

tion caused to take place between the chloridizing re-
agents and the metal bearing minerals. The metallic
haloids thus formed are volatilized and carried away, by
the furnace gases.

DUST CHAMBERS.

The gases from the furnace are passed through
suitable dust chambers where the heavier dust particles
that were mechanically carried from the charge are
deposited; this dust being recovered and returned to
the furnace.

FUME PRECIPITATION.

From the dust chambers the gases carrying the metal
chlorides are passed through a Cottrell electrostatic pre-
cipitator, where the metal chlorides together with all
other solid constituents are deposited.

There are several types of electrostatic precipitators,
the most common of which is the tube treater. The so-
called pipe or tube treater is quite simple in construction;
the essential features being an iron pipe usually four
or six inches in diameter with an insulated metal wire
suspended through the center. The suspended wire is usu-
ally charged with 25,000 to 50,000 volts of direct cur-
rent electricity, while the pipe is simply connected to the
ground. The electrostatic pressure on the insulated wire
causes an electric corona brush discharge which sweeps
the gases clear of all solid constituents.

METAL CHLORIDE FUMES.

The character of the product from the treaters
depends on the metal values carried in the ore. In gen-
eral, however, the metals thus recovered are present as
chlorides, oxychlorides or in the elemental form. Gold is
usually present in the latter state. Other constituents
of the fume may be small quantities of iron, lime and
insoluble, together with relatively large quantities of
salt (sodium chloride). Considerable salt is dissipated
during the roast, which is due to hydrolysis or direct
evaporation.

230 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

TREATMENT OF CHLORIDE FUMES.

Three principal methods may be used for recovering

the metals from fumes:
(a) Reduction by fusion.
(b) Leaching with subseqeunt precipitation.
(c) Combination of leaching and fusing.

The method employed will usually depend on the
metal content of the fume; however, as each individual
ore will constitute a problem, it is not feasible to discuss
details of these methods in this paper.

ORES IN GENERAL.
TECHNICAL CONSIDERATION.

The process may be applied to the treatment of
both oxidized and sulphide ore. The latter, however,
usually requires a preliminary desulphatizing roast,
in case it should contain a high percent of sulphur.

ARSENICAL ORES.

Ores of any kind carrying appreciable quantities of
arsenic, antimony, or bismuth, are readily treated by
volatilization. The procedure is to give the ore a pre-
liminary roast at about 850° C for the purpose of expel-
ling the arsenic, antimony, bismuth, etc. This can usually
be accomplished in about thirty minutes of heating, the
fumes from the roast being recovered either in an elec-
trostatic precipitator or by filtration of the gases through
woolen bags.

Basic fumes are best separated from basic gases by
filtration through bags. In case the electrostatic precip-
itator is used, there is a non-conducting film of the basic
fume that covers the electrodes and prevents the essen-
tial functioning of the corona discharge. What really
happens is a condenser effect in which there is an inter-
mittent building up of potential and electrical discharge
which is not effective in precipitating fumes from gases.
In the presence of an acid gas, basic fumes are readily
precipitated electrostatically.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 231

ZINC ORES.

One of the many valuable features of the process
is the fact that zinc in oxidized ores is practically non-
volatile in an oxidizing atmosphere. Thus with an ore
carrying zinc, silver, and lead, the object of the treatment
would be to chloridize and volatilize the silver and lead
and to leave the zinc in the calcines.

The decrease in weight of the ore, due to heating,
causes a concentration of the zinc in the calcine. Thus
an ore assaying 30 per cent zinc, after such treatment,
would in some cases assay 36-38 per cent zinc, depending
of course on the character of the ore.

ADVANTAGE OF THE PROCESS.

1. The plant can be installed and operated near
the mine, as the water consumption is not great.

2. Transportation costs are greatly reduced.

Importation of fuel and chloridizing, reagents
together with the exportation of bullion and possibly some
by-products, would include the bulk of transportation.

Relative weights would be, for each ton (2000
pounds) of ore treated, it would require not to exceed
200 pounds of fuel and 300 pounds of chloridizing re-
agents.

The bullion to be exported would possibly not exceed
300 pounds. Thus for each ton of ore the transportation
necessary would in all probability not exceed 800 pounds.

3. Elimination of smelter charges.

4. High per cent recovery of the metal values from
the ore could be effected with relatively low operating
costs.

5. The advantage of converting practically all of
the valuable contents of the ore into commercial products.

6. Laboratory experiments indicate that the process
is flexible and can be applied to a large variety of ores.

232 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

THE USE AND FUNCTION OF STEAM IN
RETORTING OIL-SHALES.*

BY MARTIN J. GAVIN? AND J. J. JAKOWSKY.?

The increasing demand for petroleum and its prod-
ucts has turned attention, during the past few years, to
the oil-shale deposits of the United States. A consider-
able amount of material has been written regarding the
methods of treating the shale for the recovery of the crude
shale-oil and many processes and methods have been
advocated.

Outside of different mechanical arrangements and
devices, the proposed retorts and methods for treating the
shales by destructive distillation may be grouped, in a
general way, under one of two heads; dry destructive
distillation methods, and distillation in an atmosphere of
superheated steam or gas.

There are at the present time, a large number of
shale retorting processes and methods being advocated,
some using steam and others claiming that a good oil can
be secured without the use of steam in the retort.

Scotch oil-shale processes and practices may or may
not be a criterion to be followed in this country, but since
these plants are the only ones operating today on a large
commercial scale, a brief description of the Scotch retorts
is presented to make more clear an understanding of the
discussion to follow on the uses and purposes of steam in
retorting oil-shales.

1Presented by permission of the Director, U. S. Bureau of Mines.
2Oil-shale Technologist, U. S. Bureau of Mines.
3Assistant Chemical Engineer, Dept. of Metallurgical Research.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 233

«“The modern Scotch retorts are all of one general
type, the main points of difference between those used
in different plants being in the shape of the cross section
of the retort and the means used for discharging the spent
shale from the bottom of the retorts. Time will not
permit a complete description of the Scotch retorts, but
briefly, they are vertical and consist in descending order,
of a (1) fresh shale hopper attached to a (2) cast iron
retort, which is fourteen feet high, and tapered, being
smaller at the top than the bottom. At the juncture of
the hopper and the iron retort a vapor discharge line,
protected by a lip to prevent its being clogged with shale,
leads to the vapor main. The iron retort is usually round
or oval in cross-section and is, if round, two feet in diam-
eter at the top and two feet four inches at the bottom. At
the bottom of the iron part of the retort it is joined to
a (3) brick part, also vertical and tapered, and made of
a single tier of specially shaped fire brick. The joint
between the iron and brick parts of the retort is made of
a special kind of fire clay, and in operation considerable
care must be exercised in firing, to prevent the joint from
pulling apart or cracking. The brick part of the retort
may be rectangular or round in cross section. If round,
the diameter at the bottom is about three feet; usually
the height of the brick part is about twenty feet.

‘Below the brick part, and attached to it, is the (4)
spent shale discharge mechanism, which differs in differ-
ent types of retorts. In one type of retort the discharge
apparatus is either a pair of toothed cast iron rolls, which
rotate slowly towards each other and drag the spent shale
from the retort. The discharge mechanism in a more com-
monly used retort, consists of a flat iron plate, on which
the shale column in the retort rests, while a curved arm
moves slowly over the plate and forces the spent shale
from the plate as the arm rotates. The arm is operated
by a shaft passing through the plate and actuated by a
system of ratchets and pawls, as are also the other types
of discharge mechanisms, the motion of the lever arms

4Garvin, Martin J., The Past, Present and Future of the Oil-
Shale Industry: Unpublished manuscript to appear in an early issue
of California Oil World.

234 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

driving the ratchet wheels, and thereby the rate of dis-
charge, being controllable at will.

“The discharge mechanism drops the shale into the
(5) spent shale hopper, into which exhaust steam is
passed, and as the hoppers fill, the spent shale is dis-
charge into cars which carry it to spent shale dumps or
‘bings’. No practical use has ever been found for spent
shale in Scotland.

‘Shale feeds continually from the fresh shale hopper
into the cast iron part of the retort, and in this part the
bulk of the oil is distilled, at a temperature of about
900° F. Descending, the shale, in the brick part of the
retort, gradually heats up until at the bottom of the
retort its temperature may reach 1500° to 1800° F.”

In Scotland, large quantities of steam are used in the
oil-shale retorting process but accurate data are not avail-
able regarding the percentage of the steam decomposed
during its passage through the retorts.

“The exact chemical role of the stexm in producing
increased ammonia recovery and oil of better quality is
not definitely known. The following purposes,’ however,
are fairly definitely established and agreed upon in the
use of steam: (1) to reduce the temperature of the spent
shale at the bottom of the retort; (2) to carry the heat,
which has been recovered from the spent shale up into
the retort, in the form of superheated steam; (3) to form
water-gas from the fixed carbon remaining in the shale;
(4) to aid in the recovery of ammonia from the shale; (5)
to add greater volume to the oil vapors, thereby giving
them a greater velocity in the retort and causing them
to be swept out of the hot zone of distillation, preventing
their further decomposition to a large extent; (6) de-
creasing the partial vapor pressure of the heavier hydro-
carbons and allowing them to be vaporized or removed
at a lower temperature; and (7) to counteract, by con-
vection, the poor thermal conductivity of the shale,
thereby allowing a better transfer of heat from the walls
of the retort to the center of the shale column.”

‘Jakowsky, J. J., Uses and Supply of Water for the Oil-Shale
Industry: Unpublished manuscript. The remainder of this paper
has been abstracted from this manuscript.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 235

Taking up the purposes enumerated: we find that
the first two are important from engineering and thermo-
dynamic viewpoints. Reducing the temperature of the
hot spent shale just before its discharge from the retort
simplifies the problem of designing the mechanical dis-
charge devices and also allows a better recovery of heat
than could be obtained by the use of any practical form
of heat exchange device to recover and utilize the heat
from the spent shale before its discharge from the retort.
The design of the Scotch retort is such that the heat recov-
ered from the hot spent shale is almost wholly utilized in
the retorting process.

The third purpose enumerated: the formation of
water-gas from the fixed carbon remaining in the shale,
may make the use of steam, or possibly air, advantageous.
Present available data indicate that the uncondensible
gases recovered during the retorting process where steam
or air is not used in the retort, will usually not furnish
enough heat when burned as fuel to carry on the distil-
lation process. The volume of gas recovered during the
retorting probably depends upon the-nature and charac-
ter of the shale undergoing distillation and the conditions
of retorting. Different volumes of gas, due to dissimilar
pyrolytic conditions, are usually recovered from the same
shale undergoing distillation in different retorts. It seems
probable that shale retorting processes recovering large
quantities of gas, during dry destructive distillation, do
so at the expense of the quantity and quality of recovered
oil. A minimum non-condensible gas production shoul
make toward a better grade of crude oil and especially
will this be true in retorts where the hydrocarbon vapors
are subjected to undue decomposition before condensa-
tion. The formation of large quantities of inflammable
uncondensible hydrocarbon gases is usually an indication
of excessive decomposition or cracking of the heavier
hydrocarbons of the shale oil.

The use of steam or air in the retort will, by the for-
mation of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, increase the
quantity of combustible gases recovered during the retort-
ing process, and not at the expense or decomposition of
the hydrocarbons.

236 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Exact data regarding the action of steam or air upon
incandescent spent shale are not available at this time,
but the effects of each upon carbon, coal and coke, are
known. The amount of carbon monoxide and hydrogen
formed from each of these substances, at a given temper-
ature, depends largely upon the time of contact. Under
similar conditions and during equal intervals of time, the
percentage of carbon monoxide formed from coke is less
than that from charcoal, while the percentage formed
from anthracite coal is less than that formed from coke.
It will be noted that the surface exposed to the action of
the gases is greatest in charcoal, less in the case of coke,
and least in anthracite. Where the time of contact is
great enough to allow equilibrium to be reached in the
reaction, the percentage of carbon monoxide formed is
practically the same in every case. When superheated
steam is passed through incandescent carbon, the com-
position of the gas obtained as well as the quantity of
steam decomposed in a given time depends largely upon
the temperature, rate of flow or time of contact, and the
nature of the carbon. Practically 100 percent of the
water vapor can be decomposed at a temperature of

1100°C. where the time of contact is great enough.

Investigations indicate that the fixed carbon content
of American oil-shales varies from less than three to
possibly 28 per cent; the average for most average Ameri-
can shales varying from 7 to 9 percent, and this amount,
together with the uncondensible hydrocarbon gases will,
in most cases, be sufficient to furnish fuel for the retorting
process, if the retort is of average thermal efficiency.

The amount of ammonia recovered during the retort-
ing process seems to depend almost directly, up to a
certain quantity, upon the amount of steam used. Exper-
iments indicate that as high as ninety-five percent of the
total nitrogen content of a shale can be recovered as
ammonia by the use of proper amounts of steam at correct
temperatures. In the Scotch retort about sixty percent
of the nitrogen in the shale is recovered as ammonium-
sulphate under their conditions of operation.

The fifth purpose enumerated: to add greater volume
to the vapors, is an important function of the steam.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 237

Present knowledge of the pyrolytic distillation of the
kerogen—the source of the oil—in the shale indicates
that the dead vapor space within the retort should be
reduced to a minimum. Excessive decomposition or
cracking results when the vapors are allowed to stagnate
or form eddy currents in hot pockets. Good oil can be
recovered from small laboratory and assay retorts where
comparatively fine ground shale is used and the vapor
space reduced to a minimum by carefully filling the
retort to its maximum capacity, but for large scale con-
tinuous commercial operation some form of gaseous
sweeper or scavenger probably will have to be used in
order to clear the vapors from the larger interstices and
dead vapor pockets which form constantly during a con-
tinuous movement of the shale mass and the use of steam
or the uncondensible gases recovered during the retorting
process will probably prove one of the most successful
means of increasing the velocity of the hot hydrocarbon
vapors distilling from the shale column.

In the sixth purpose enumerated, steam serves an-
other important function during the distillation process
by decreasing the partial vapor pressure of the heavier
hydrocarbons. There is little doubt but that the boiling
point of the kerogen of the shale is above the decompo-
sition or cracking temperature of the hydrocarbons pro-
duced, and since cracking is a dehydrogenation process,
it seems hardly possible to secure a good saturated
paraffin base oil from a retort where excessive thermal
decomposition of the vapors takes place. Microscopic
study of the decomposition of the kerogen under the influ-
ence of heat shows that the solid kerogen first softens or
melts and then vaporizes. Generally speaking, the tem-
perature at which an oil dissociates or cracks, depends
mainly on its molecular weight and constitution; and
speaking broadly, the more complicated the molecule, the
easier it undergoes dissolution, and also the more unsatur-
ated the compound, the more easy it disintegrates. The
velocity of the dissociation reactions during cracking is
greatly dependent upon the temperature, and even a
slight increase in temperature may greatly accelerate the
dissociation reaction. In other words, the distillation

238 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

should be carried out at as low a temperature as possible
in order to recover an oil as little decomposed as possible,
and which, commercially speaking, gives the maximum
amount of refinable products. The hydrocarbons formed
from kerogen, boil at a lower temperature by a decrease
in the external pressure on the system and the use of
steam or gas in accordance with the law of partial pres-
sures, will give an effect similar to a reduced pressure
or a vacuum. Generally speaking, the evaporation into
a vacuum is, to a certain extent, a measure of the escaping
tendency of the molecules of the liquid. Kinetic theory
sets a superior limit to the rate of evaporation.

“Evaporation is a rapid process approximating with-
in, at most, one or two powers of ten the maximum rate
of evaporation as calculable from kinetic theory. The
apparently slow rate of evaporation is really due to the
slowness of diffusion of the vapors from the liquid sur-
face.’® The use of steam in the retort will increase the
diffusion of the heavier hydrocarbon vapors, and because
of the different characteristics of the different shales,
the amount of steam used will likely vary with the shale
being treated and the type of retort used. In addition, the
use of steam, by lowering the partial pressure of the oil
vapors, undoubtedly prevents, to a large extent, the con-
densation of vapors which many believe takes place in
the Scotch retort when the outgoing vapors come in
contact with the incoming cool shale. Thus the use of
steam largely prevents the condensation and redistillation
of oil in the retort, which would undoubtedly take place
without its use.

Because of the scarcity of water in some of the shale
regions, it has been proposed to re-use the water recov-
ered during the retorting process. A large percentage
of the water in the form of steam used in the retort will
not be decomposed and will be condensed and collected
with the hydrocarbon and other vapors. <A few experi-
ments have been run where the untreated water recovered
during previous retorting tests has been used to furnish
retorting steam. The data available at the present time
are not complete enough to warrant the drawing of defin-

6Bouton, C. M., Personal communication.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 239

ite conclusions regarding the effect of such water upon
the quality of the oil recovered. It seems probable,
however, that the use of water containing large amounts
of sulphur, nitrogenous and other compounds, such as
is recovered when oil-shale is distilled, will have a
detrimental effect upon the oil produced. The use of
such water will increase the concentration of these com-
pounds within the retort and probably accelerate the
formation of undesirable sulphur and nitrogenous oil-
compounds. As the water is re-used the concentration
of these compounds in the water will increase.

Fresh water, in the form of steam; introduced into
the retort may (in addition to other effects) hinder the
formation of some of the undersirable oil compounds by
decreasing, by dilution, the concentration of the deleter-
ious sulphur and nitrogenous compounds in a unit vol-
ume. Besides the effect of steam, upon the sulphur
content of the recovered oil; a decided difference is
noticed in the composition of the uncondensible gases
recovered. During the retorting process, considerable
quantities of hydrogen sulphide and other sulphur com-
pounds are formed and the percentage of these undesir-
able sulphur compounds in the gas and oil can be greatly
decreased by the use of excessive quantities of steam. Dur-
ing dry destructive distillation, the gas recovered contains
many times the sulphur content than gas recovered during
the distillation when using steam. Many of the sulphur
compounds are soluble in the water.

As stated previously, the ammonia recovery, up to
a certain percentage, can be increased by the use of
steam, but the actual chemical effect of the steam upon
the nitrogenous compounds in the shale cannot be stated
at this time. In the Scotch plants the waste waters from
the retorting process are not usually re-used but are
allowed to trickle over the spent shale dumps, and then
waste.

240 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

COMMERCIAL REDUCTION OF COPPER FROM
COPPER CHLORIDE FUME.

* BY ROBERT H. BRADFORD.1

Copper is extracted from its ores by fire methods, by
wet methods, and by methods involving the gasification
or volatilization of the copper compounds.

We have been dependent mainly on the furnace
methods or pyrometallurgy for many years. At present
there are important reduction plants extracting copper
by wet methods, and continued service may be confidently
expected from such processes in the future. Up to date
there have been no commercial installations making
copper at a profit by the gas methods—volatilization.
This latter statement should not carry with it the infer-
ence that no early work was done on volatilization of
copper, for such is not the case.

In the sixties of the last century Henderson of Eng-
land received letters patent for a process which aimed at
the recovery of copper as well as other metals from ores
by volatilizing the metals as chlorides.

Others followed him with experimental work in the
same line and the U. S. patent of Pohle & Croasdale,
issued in October, 1903, describes quite fully the volatil-
ization of copper from sulphur-bearing ores as chloride
by heating such ores with salt or other halogen com-
pounds. Attempts at practical reduction of the red metal
under these patents did not meet with success.

The metal chloride was driven from the ore and a
tailing of satisfactory grade was obtained but economic
means for collecting the chloride fumes were not avail-
able. Research investigation has been prominent of late
to adapt the Cottrell precipitator and the bag-house to the

1Professor of Metallurgy, University of Utah.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 241

work of collecting the copper chloride fumes from the
chloridizing furnace.

The results of these efforts have been decidedly
promising. The copper chloride fumes are readily col-
lectable and the dry material is obtained in a convenient
form for further treatment.

Copper is quite readily eliminated from coarsely
ground ore and the tailings disposed of in granular con-
dition. ‘The temperature of dull redness required is not
sufficient to melt nor even to sinter ordinary silicious
copper ore.

The operation of grinding the ore and mixing with
salt, the feeding of the mixture to the rotary kiln of
ordinary cement-burning type, need not be more than
briefly referred to, nor need I do more than to mention
the settling of mechanical dust, and the precipitation of
the copper chloride fume in the Cottrell treater or the
bag house. These are operations already standardized
and their uses with the chloride fumes need no com-
ment here.

The fume recovered from whichever collector is
used is a light fluffy powder cf yellow-gray to green
color. Its content in copper when free from the ore dust
suggests a predominence of cuprous chloride, the cupric
material seems to be present in greater or lesser amounts.
Analyses show that the copper content may reach above
50% of the whole. The remaining half of the collected
fume is largely chlorine. The presence of sulphate of
copper, and of silica may be expected but each of these
is dependent upon the nature of the ore and the conditions
of treatment.

It is entirely possible to get a favorable extraction
from an ore carrying no appreciable amount of sulphur,
and the settling chambers may be designed quite satis-
factcrily to eliminate the mechanically carried siliceous
fine ore.

Now the treatment of these chloride fumes presents
to the metallurgist a set of new problems. Can this new
concentrate of fifty per cent metal be sent to the smelter
for further treatment? What is the process in pyro-
metallurgy ordinarily employed on a fifty per cent copper

242 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

product? The reverberatory furnace or even the blast
furnace may produce a copper matte of this grade
copper. This matte is then reduced to metal in a copper
converter by having a blast of air blown through the
molten stuff, the oxygen burning the iron and sulphur to
their oxides. The copper resulting is called blister cop-
per and assays as high as 98 to 99 per cent pure. What
would happen if this fifty per cent chloride fume were
melted and treated as a similar grade matte? The fact
that the fume was entirely volatile in the process of its
formation would suggest that it would not be consistent
to try to reduce it to metal by blowing air through it,
because it no doubt would in larger part revolatilize; and
again, of course, there is neither the sulphur nor the iron
in sufficient amount to supply the combustible matter for
heat. What fire method does suggest itself? The chlo-
ride of copper must be decomposed by some reagent with
affinity for chlorine. Calcium, it is known, has such affin-
ity but the cheap calcium salt has oxygen with it and
simple replacement will produce copper oxide. The
oxide of copper is readily reduced by introducing some
carbon into the mixture.

The reduction to metal involves the reaction:
Cu,Cl,+Ca0+C=—CO-+CaCl,+Cu,

Hither limestone or burned lime will answer the purpose.
With limestone there is produced from cuprous chloride
1.28 parts of copper for one part of limestone and from
cupric chloride 0.64 parts of copper for one part of lime-
stone. But 3/32 of a pound of pure carbon is needed
per pound of copper in reducing cuprous chloride while
3/16 parts are needed with the cupric salt.

The reactions take place at a temperature below the
melting point of copper. The thermo-chemical calcula-
tions show but a reasonable amount of heat consumed.
The reduction of the chloride to metal by this method
therefore is perfectly feasible.

The slag produced in the fusion method is principally
calcium chloride. This chloride is readily fusible to a
watery liquid. It is low in specific gravity enabling the
copper readily to settle through it. It carries a high

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 243

percentage of chlorine and is an active chloridizing agent
that can be used on a further batch of raw ore. At
least one-half of the chlorine necessary for the volatiliza-
tion may thus be regenerated.

The calcium chloride slag is a very different material
from the ordinary silicate slags dealt with in regular
furnace methods for copper extraction. The pure chlor-
ide melts at 780°C and boils at a temperature not much
above the melting point of copper. Care must be taken
to carry on the process of reduction at a temperature not
too high because of the danger of volatilizing and decom-
posing the chloride slag. The decomposition is fostered
by hydrolysis of the calcium chloride in contact with the
moisture of the gas or oil flame.

While the chloridizing furnace requires a non-reduc-
ing atmosphere in order to guarantee complete volatiliza-
tion, the furnace for fume reduction requires a non-
oxidizing atmosphere in order to prevent revolatilization
of the chloride fume. The most satisfactory furnace to
furnish the required conditions has yet to be determined.
A reverberatory furnace promises satisfactory results.

In order to avoid any mechanical dusting of the fume
mixture, we are experimenting with a feeding device to
introduce the mix into the reverberatory by feeders
arranged to discharge their product just underneath the
surface of the slag layer. The design provides for melt-
ing the horizontal tube of fume and lime as it comes in
contact with the slag on entering the furnace, so that the
raw material may not come in contact at all with the
direct flame or draught of the reverberatory.

The best kind of refractory lining for the furnace is
yeta question. The chloride of calcium is neither a basic
nor acid slag in the sense in which these terms are ordin-
arily used. The corroding action of the slag is not to be
considered on the same principles that govern the action
of acid and basic slag-forming and refractory substances.
Chromite for example, which is neutral to acid and basic
fluxes; is attacked by the chloride, while fireclay and silica
bricks are more nearly neutral.

The per cent recovery of metal from the chloride
fume is quite satisfactory, above ninety percent of the

244 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

total copper in the fume appearing in the metal that
results from the reducing fusion. The metal is crude
metal carrying around 95 per cent copper with 2 per cent
or so of each of the other elements, iron and sulphur.
Gold and silver, if present in the copper ore, are volatil-
ized and reduced to metal with the copper. Copper
bullion that carries the precious metals should be partially
refined in the reverberatory furnace where they are
formed and then sent to the electrolytic plant for com-
plete refining.

If the precious metals are not present in amounts
sufficient to cover the cost of electrolytic refining, the
crude copper may be completely refined in the reverbera-
tory furnace by the usual processes of oxidation and
poling. Such refining treatment of the crude metal gave
a refined copper metal of above 99 per cent purity.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 245

EFFECT OF GREEN MANURE AT DIFFERENT
STAGES OF GROWTH UPON THE RELA-
TIVE ABUNDANCE OF ACTINOMYCES,

NON-SPORE-FORMERS AND SPORE-
FORMERS IN THE SOIL.

BY DR. THOMAS L. MARTIN.

(Abstract).

PURPOSE:

According to some investigators there are three
groups of organisms in the soil. Actinomyces, Non-
Spore-Formers and Spore-Formers' constitute these
groups. They exist in a certain numerical relationship
to each other. Every external influence affects the rela-
tive abundance of these organisms. It was desired in
this work to determine what the effect would be on the
relative abundance of these organisms when green
manures at different stages of maturity were added to
the soil.

METHOD:

Rye, oats and buckwheat were harvested at three
different stages of growth. This material was cut into
small pieces and incorporated at the rate of five tons of
green manure to the acre in gallon pots filled with a clay
loam soil. After decomposing for five months samples
were taken, tap-water gelatin plates poured and counts
made after ten days’ incubation.

246 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

CONCLUSION:

1. Addition of manure resulted in an increased
number of organisms.

2. The three groups were not affected to the same
extent.

8. Actinomyces group was affected to the greatest,
and the Spore-Formers to the least extent.

4. Younger the manure added, greater were the
numbers of Actinomyces and Non-Spore-Formers. The
percentage of increase was the greatest in the case of the
Actinomyces.

5. These results, together with the works of pre-
vious investigators suggest the idea that Actinomyces
are probably associated with decomposition of organic
matter.

E , UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 247

THE NORMAL TEMPERATURE AS A FUNCTION
OF THE LATITUDE, ELEVATION, TIME
OF DAY, AND DAY OF YEAR.

BY FRANK L. WEST.

The following empirical equation,
T=M+ + cos t+ cos ® (1)

represents the normal temperature as a function of the
time for the United States except for the arid west, where

we must add the term oe cos t cos ®). The constants

are the mean annual’ temperature, the range of the
annual march, and the range of the daily march, and are
obviously easily obtained from the Weather Bureau Data
for the place desired.

These constants may also easily be obtained from the
following empirical equations,

M=—110-1.4L-.002h (2)
where M is the mean annual temperature, and L is the
latitude, and H is the elevation in feet above sea level.
It applies to the United States east of the Rocky Moun-
tains. For the arid west, the following equation applies.

M—121-1.4L-.0033h (3)

For the eastern part of the United States the follow-
ing equation applies:

A= -24+1.8L (4)
where A stands for the difference in temperature between
winter and summer. The other values in the first equa-
tion (1) are sensibly constant.

248 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

Equation (1) becomes on substitution of these values

T—110-1.4L-.002h-+ (.9L-12) cos t+-9 cos © (5)
which holds for the eastern division and
T—121-1.4L-.0033h-+-23 cos t+11 cos ©+3 cos ® cost (6)
for the arid west.

The equations assume that the annual and daily
march of temperature are cosine functions, and that the
mean annual temperature and the annual range ‘are linear
functions of the latitude and elevation. The facts justify
these assumptions. The mean evror in using equation (1)
was +214 deg. F. and in using equations (5) and (6)
+314 deg. F.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 249

VITAMINES IN RELATION TO NUTRITION.

BY W. E. CARROLL.

The adequacy of the human diet has until recently
been measured by the amount of protein and mineral
salts and the number of calories it could supply to the
body during digestion. As investigations progressed due
consideration has been given such questions as the source
of the protein in its relation to the kind and amount of the
amino acid supplied; the distribution of the total calories
among the protein, carbohydrates, and fats; and the
maintenance of the proper balance between the acid and
basic constituents of the mineral ingredients. Many other
factors have received attention and many dietetic fads
have been advocated, but at the foundation of them all
has been the question of how much protine and mineral
salts are available as building materials, and how many
total calories does the diet provide. The work of recent
years, however, has proved beyond question that a diet
meeting the above requirements may result in nutritional
failure because of the absence of small amounts of as yet
unidentified substances called vitamines.

Even before this discovery was made difficulty had
been experienced in maintaining laboratory animals on
rations of purified nutrients which supplied ample protein
mineral salts, and total energy. The cause of such con-
ditions was then unknown and the reason back of the
remedy could not be explained.

Certain diseases, as beri-beri and scurvy, have been
common in different countries and under different condi-
tions for a long time. Attempts to discover a bacterial
cause for these diseases failed, and the idea gradually
developed that they were due to one-sided or deficient
diets. Just what was lacking was not well understood,
and the reason recovery followed certain changes in food

250 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

intake was not at allclear. Sections of the world popula-
tion, therefore, continued on their racial diets and con-
tinued to develop these diseases.

In 1897, C. Eijkman, a Dutch scientist working in
Java, made the observation that chickens fed for a few
weeks on polished rice developed a polyneuritis which, as
he observed, closely resembled human beri-beri. Eijkman
also discovered that this condition could be prevented
and even overcome by the addition to the ration of the
husks of the rice which are removed during the polishing
process.

A case is also recorded where a newly appointed
warden in a penitentiary in a rice-eating country deter-
mined to be more humane to his prisoners than his pred-
ecessor had been, and accordingly substituted white rice
in their diets for the less favored unpolished kind. By
this supposed kindness he brought on a severe outbreak
of beri-beri among the prisoners.

Cases are also reported in which a diet made up
very largely of highly milled wheat flour resulted in beri-
beri. Substitution of whole wheat flour relieved the con-
dition. As the diet is more largely restricted to flour and
its products, this substitution is of course more necessary.

Eijkman’s rather accidental discovery opened up a
field which subsequent investigation has found to be
very fertile, and from which has been built up our entire
conception of socalled deficiency diseases and vitamines
in relation to nutrition.

No attempt will be made to give a complete historical
sketch of the development of the question, but rather a
brief survey of its present status.

The name “vitamine’” was suggested by Casimir
Funk, of England, about 1912 from his researches with
the anti-beri-beri substance of rice polishings. His results
led him to believe that this substance was an amine or
that it was chemically very closely related to them.
Hence the name, “amine essential to life, or vitamine.’’
Unfortunately the chemistry of the vitamines is not so
simply solved, and we seem no nearer an understanding
of their chemical nature than we were in 1912.

At present vitamines can be recognized only by their

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 251

physiological action. Based upon their effect in the body
three vitamines are at present recognized: (1) Fat-
soluable A, essential to growth, occurring with, if not
actually dissolved in, fats from certain sources, as butter-
fat, cod-liver oil, egg yolk, green leaves, and certain other
foods. (2) Water-soluable B, essential for growth and
for the prevention of beri-beri. It is rather widely dis-
tributed in nature, occurring in abundance in yeast and the
germs of most seeds, fruits, many vegetables, greens, and
other food materials. (3) Water-soluble C, or the anti-
scorbutic vitamine, prevents and cures scurvy. It is pres-
ent in living vegetable material as greens and to a smaller
amount in roots and tubers. Orange, lemon and tomato
juice contain it in abundance.

FAT-SOLUBLE A,

Function.—Fat-soluble A, as mentioned above, is
essential to growth. Continued lack of this factor results
also in xeropthalmia, or keratomalacia, a disease of the
eye which may ultimately result in blindness. It is
thought by some investigators that rickets may also result
from lack of this factor in the diet. Others feel just as
strongly that absence of this vitamine is not a cause of
rickets. Some recent work by McCollum, however, re-
ports increased deposition of calcium in the bones in cases
of rickets, even on low calcium rations, upon the addition
of fat-soluble A in cod-liver oil. In human rickets the
calcium content of the blood remains approximately nor-
mal though the bones seem to lose their power to metab-
olize it. Whatever the cause of rickets, however, it has
been shown rather conclusively that it can be prevented
and cured, with rare exceptions, by cod-liver oil, which
seems to be practically a specific for the disorder. In-
creased calcium utilization, even on lower calcium intake,
has also been observed when cows have been turned from
a dry ration to green pasture.

Occurrence. —Butter fat is the standard and usually
the most convenient source of this factor, though its
amount in butter fat depends upon the amount of A in
the feed of the cow, being less on winter and dry rations
than on summer grass. Cod-liver oil is also relatively

252 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

rich in A. Whale oil contains it to a somewhat less ex-
tent as do fish oils generally. It is present, though by no
means abundantly, in oleo oils and would therefore occur
in oleomargarines made from these oils. This substitute
cannot, however, be looked upon as being even in the
same class with good butter as a source of this important
factor. Nut margarines, on the other hand, made entirely
from vegetable oils have been shown to be practically
devoid of the fat-soluble growth promoting substance.
It is present in egg yolk and in much less amounts in beef
fat and in certain seeds, especially those carrying an abun-
dance of yellow pigment. It is even present in yellow
corn and absent in white.

It has been shown to be present in the oil from pig’s
liver, the liver and kidney tissue, and is thought by some
to be present in all glandular tissue. Muscular tissue that
we eat so abundantly, however, seems to carry this factor
to a very slight extent. Lard lacks fat-soluble A, as does
cottonseed oil and most other vegetable oils, red
beets, parsnips, potatoes, etc.

Leafy vegetables and green plant tissue of many
kinds such as spinach, alfalfa, clover, timothy have been
shown to carry the A factor. Tomatoes carry it in con-
siderable abundance, cabbage, carrots, and sweet potatoes
to a less extent, and it seems to be present in peas and
possibly bananas. Unsweetened evaporated milk and
milk powders probably also contain it.

Stability.—Fat-soluble A seems to be relatively stable
to the ordinary processes to which food products are
usually subjected. Drying and ordinary cooking may
destroy it to some extent, though substances which are
relatively rich in it originally are not rendered completely
inert by these ordinary processes. It can be destroyed
by heating to 100°C or above for one hour or longer.
Lower temperatures for longer periods, especially if the
substance is exposed to light and air, seem detrimental.
In fact, the length of the treatment seems to be as impor-
tant as its intensity. Most of the above generalizations
come from experimentation with butter fat.

In plant tissue this vitamine seems to be relatively
stable and withstands ordinary heating and drying pro-

UTAH ACADEMY, OF SCIENCES 253

cesses, and has been reported present after undergoing
fermentation in the silo.

WATER-SOLUBLE B.

Function. —I\t will be recalled that the water-soluble
B vitamine seems to be essential for growth and also
prevents and cures polyneuritis in pigeons and chickens
and beri-beri in human beings. These two functions are
rather distinct and have led certain investigators to feel
that more than one vitamine is involved. In fact, recent
experimental evidence indicates that the antineuritic fac-
tor of unpolished rice may be destroyed without destruc-
tion of its growth-promoting property.

Occurrence. —W ater-soluble B is found in general
much more abundantly in plant sources than in foods of
animal origin, though milk is a fair source of this factor.
It is still present in pasteurized, condensed, and evapor-
ated milks. Neither does the change from summer grass
to a dry winter ration seem to affect its content in milks,
probably because it is still present in the ration of
the cows.

Lean meat contains relatively little water-soluble B,
though liver, kidney, heart and brain tissues are satisfac-
tory sources. Eggs also contain it. It is found in prac-
tically all natural foods of plant origin. In seeds it is
found chiefly in the embryo or germ and may be entirely
absent in highly milled flours, bolted corn meals, polished
rice, and other prepared foods. In flours it is of little
use to include the bran and omit the germ. On the con-
trary the bran might be omitted without danger if the
germ and endosperm are included. All fruits, nuts, and
vegetables so far tested are valuable sources of this
vitamine. Orange, lemon and grape fruit juices are
especially rich. Dried orange juice is as valuable as the
fresh. Canned tomatoes are comparatively rich in B.
Pears and apples contain somewhat less, and those who
have worn mourning since prohibition became effective
should find solace in the fact that even grape juice—
Welch’s brand—may legally, and does contain signifi-
cant amounts of the water-soluble B vitamine.

Yeast is by far the richest known source of this vit-

254 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

amine—a fact that was not long left idle by manufactur-
ers of fresh yeasts, until now grocers, as they sell a yeast

cake, are beginning to ask, ‘‘Will you take it with you or
eat it here?”

Stability.—wW ater-soluble B is apparently relatively
stable to cooking heats. Wheat germ has been heated to
100°C. for two hours without noticable loss of this factor,
yet when heated to 113°C. for forty minutes a loss of one-
half of its power is recorded, and when heated two hours
at 118°-124°C. as much as nine-tenths of its protective
power was lost. These results point to the safety of our
ordinary processes of cooking so far as the temperature
is concerned. Pressure cooking and canning, however,
may destroy this vitamine. Canned meats have been
~ shown by laboratory tests to lack water-soluble B. The
British Army in the Dardanelles and Mesopotamia veri-
fied this in a practical way when they developed beri-beri
on a ration of white bread, canned meats and jam. The
Indian soldiers in the same regions escaped because their
ration included not white, but a coarsely ground wheat
flour containing the germ and the aleurone layer of the
kernel, and also a daily allowance of four ounces of small
lentils. Another point which may need attention, however,
is the fact that a large part of the water-soluble B is found
in the cooking water. This indicates that steaming
should replace boiling wherever possible.

This factor seems to be more sensitive to an alkaline
than to an acid medium. In fact, experiments are re-
ported in which it has been destroyed by cooking in rela-
tively weak alkaline solutions. The results on this point,
however, are extremely conflicting, indicating that pos-
sibly the source of the vitamine and the kind of alkali may
be influencing factors.

Lack of B:.—It is reported by some investigators that
the amount of food eaten is influenced by this vitamine,
in other words, that the appetite is dependent upon the
presence of water-soluble B.

Even before definite symptoms of polyneuritis and
beri-beri developed, pronounced changes in the system
take place. Male rats on a diet adequate except for B

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 255

prove sterile when mated to normal females properly
nourished. Menstruation ceases in women whose diets
lack in this factor. In Germany this secession of menstru-
ation because of incomplete diet has come to be known as
“war amenorrhea” and is mentioned in recent publica-
tions with considerable concern. Much work along this
line and upon the pronounced histological changes of the
sex organs and other tissues due to lack of this factor is
now being reported.

This particular vitamine is being used with marked
success in cases of malnutrition and failure to grow in
infants.

WATER SOLUBLE C.

Function. —From its power to prevent and cure
scurvy, water-soluble C is called the antiscorbutic vit-
amine.

Occurrence .—W ater-soluble C is probably present
in most, if not all living plant and animal tissue. It is
reported especially abundant in fresh fruits and green
vegetables, and is present in smaller amounts in root
vegetables and tubers. It is found in relatively small
amounts in meats and milk and has been reported absent
in yeast, fats, cereals, pulses, prunes, bananas, and cod-
liver oil.

Vegetables are usually a cheaper source of this fac-
tor than fruits. Raw cabbage is reported as even better
than orange juice as asource of C. The juices of swedes,
beets and carrots if uncooked are valuable sources of this
vitamine. Cooked as well as raw rhubarb is reported
effective for C. Young or fresh vegetables are more val-
uable than old orstale ones. The water-soluble C content
of milk of both the human and animal mother can be
increased by vitamine-rich food.

The relationship between a failure of the potato crop
of a region and scurvy has been repeatedly observed in
Europe and our own country. Scurvy was a common
thing on board the old-time sailing vessels on long
voyages where fresh fruits and vegetables were not
available. Because of restricted diets, scurvy developed
among the inhabitants of Paris during the siege of 1871.

256 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

A recent striking illustration of the lack of fresh
vegetables in the diet is reported in connection with the
Indian troops in Mesopotamia. From “July 1, to Decem-
ber 81, 1916, 11,000 cases of scurvy occurred’? among
them. The British met the condition by sending over a
“Gardner’s Corps” of 256 men. Infantile scurvy, which
is rather common in the United States, seems not to have
been so well understood until recently.

Stability.—The antiscorbutic vitamine is reported
much less stable than the other two. Ordinary cooking
probably destroys this to a considerable extent. Cab-
bage,which will be recalled is very rich in C, lost 70 per
cent of its antiscorbutic value on being cooked one hour
at 60°C. or twenty minutes at 90° to 100°C., and over
90 per cent when cooked for one hour at 90°C. Potatoes
cooked at 100°C. for fifteen minutes were effective anti-
scorbutics, but when cooked for one hour had lost this
property. Long cooking at low temperature seems more
injurious than quick cooking at higher temperatures. With
young vegetables cooked while fresh the loss of vitamine
is not so complete.

Added acids or alkalis hasten the destruction of
water-soluble C.

In line with these results canned fruits and veget-
ables have been found so far to retain little if any of their
antiscorbutic value. Tomatoes seem to be an exception
to this and commercial canned tomatoes retain a consider-
able abundance of this factor. They are being very suc-
cessfully used in infant feeding. A teaspoonful of the
juice may be fed to babies only a few weeks old and
the amount can safely be increased as the child grows
older.

Drying also practically destroys the antiscorbutic
properties of most foods. Orange and tomato juice
seem to be exceptional in this regard, though dried veg-
etables practically without exception are valueless.
Young vegetables blanched and dried while still very
fresh retain some of this power for a short time.

Nutritive Results without C.—A diet deficient in water-
soluble C ultimately produces scurvy. This is probably
the minor portion of the danger. 'Those who have given

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 257

this question a great deal of experimental and clinical
attention report that it takes about six months for a case
of infantile scurvy to develop to a point where it may be
clinically recognized, and further that profound changes
may take place in certain structures, especially the teeth,
before the ordinary symptoms of scurvy appear.

From such experiments it is found that the teeth are
one of the first if not the first structure to be affected by
lack of water-soluble C in the diet. Even when scurvy
symptoms are so slight as to be almost unrecognizable very
profound and detrimental changes were found to have
taken place in the teeth. A degeneration develops in the
growing bone cells at the base of the pulp of the teeth,
and may result in a complete replacement of the fine cel-
lular structure of the pulp of the normal tooth by a fibrous
growth devoid of cells and nuclei. The growth and
composition of the protective enamel is also materially
interfered with. Conditions very closely resembling
pyorrhea in its various stages have been observed in lab-
oratory animals on a scorbutic diet.

These results were obtained by experimentation on
- guinea pigs and monkeys, but are felt to apply almost
wholly to human beings as well, especially as apparently
identical conditions have been observed and described
in human teeth.

Dental writings have many times recorded the fact
that the teeth of primative races are not subject to decay
to the same extent found under conditions of more highly
developed civilization. For example one study reports
that 68 per cent of the children of one of the tribes of the
Philippines had perfect teeth. In the other 32 per cent
the abnormalities were so slight as to escape entirely the
notice of the layman. The Scottish Highlanders are re-
ported practically free from tooth decay, while the con-
dition of the teeth of the Lowlanders is extremely poor.
These differences are ascribed to the simple diet of
natural foods in the one case and to the more highly
refined nature of the foods composing the diet in the other.
Jt has been rather commonly observed by dentists that
Swedish girls who came to this country as domestics have
excellent teeth upon their arrival, but that our American

258 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

diet of highly refined and cold storage foods soon brings
about rapid decay.

Cases of abnormal and deformed dentition in young
animals are reported on vitamine free rations and evi-
dence indicates very strongly that many of the troubles
which beset the teeth of our children today could be
largely eliminated if proper attention were paid to the
vitamine content of their diets.

And what of the practical application of all these
recently accumulated facts? Are they of chief impor-
tance as weapons to ward off xeropthalmia, beri-beri, and
scurvy? Certainly not, for these disturbances are already
very rare among us locally. This newer knowledge of
nutrition is of great importance to us, however, in its rela-
tion to growth, vigor, efficiency, general tone and resis-
tance to disease.

Civilization has made some very dangerous changes
in its food products and dietetic habits. Meat, cereals
and especially sugar have been introduced in their pres-
ent large quantities at the expense of vegetables, nuts and
other natural products. The changes which have been
introduced in the methods of milling cereals since earlier
days, call especially for thoughtful planning of the new
diet. Not only do the outer seed coats and the germ (which
are so carefully and completely discarded as fit only
for the lower animals) contain practically all of the vit-
amines of the seeds, but most of the mineral salts as well.
Of course, both of these losses can be made good from
other sources if care is taken. To accomplish this, how-
ever, will necessitate the adoption of a diet containing
larger amounts of dairy products, eggs, vegetables—
especially the leafy varieties—and raw fruits and veget-
ables than is now customary in many Cases.

Fortunately as these various changes found place in
the diet, man also became a dairy farmer and is thereby
producing a very valuable supplement for the factors
which these other changes crowded out.

Especially is a knowledge of vitamines necessary for
those who supervise the growth and development of
children. Adults also frequently develop a narrow appe-
tite because of dislikes for certain classes of foods. The

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 259

diet in such cases needs careful planning in order to avoid
danger.

A lack of vitamines will prevent proper growth and
may lay the foundations for weakness and disease in later
life; which would materially reduce the efficiency and
service of the individual. With the ordinary contagious
diseases we either have them or do not have them, while
the nutritional disorders become manifest without par-
ticular warning and only when conditions have become
desperate and after irreparable damage has already been
done. Especially does this seem true in relation to pre-
vented growth and the early and unrecognizable stages
of scurvy.

In conclusion, then, it must be recognized that a diet
may contain protein, carbohydrates, fats, and mineral
salts in proper proportions and still be deficient and dan-
gerous. In addition to these, adequate amounts of the
three vitamines are necessary to insure the most favorable
state of nutrition.

Shortage of fat-soluble A in the diet can be prevented
most easily by a liberal use of milk, milk products, eggs,
and leafy vegetables.

An adequate supply of water-soluble B can be had in
vegetables in general, eggs, liver and other glandular
organs, and in flours and meals which contain the germ
of the seeds. Danger of lack of B comes chiefly in cases
where highly milled cereal products (not including the
germ) are allowed to make up too great a proportion of
the diet.

The supply of water-soluble C will probably need
closer attention than that of the other vitamines. Veg-
etables should find a place in the diet as early in life as
possible; and even earlier than this, the milk diet of the
infant, whether breast fed or not, should be supplemented
with orange juice or cooked tomato juice as a preventive
against the unrecognizable, though none the less danger-
ous, early stages of scurvy. Later life can be safeguarded
by a liberal use of fresh, uncooked fruits and vegetables.

260 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

RELATION OF PRECIPITATION TO HEIGHT
GROWTH OF FOREST TREE SAPLINGS.

BY CLARENCE F. KORSTIAN.1

In passing through stands of coniferous saplings five
to twenty feet tall, surprising variations are noted in the
distance between the whorls of branches. The dis-
tance between whorls, usually corresponding with
the internodes, represents the amount of height growth
made during a given growing season. The growth of
each season for the past thirty or forty years can be deter-
mined by measuring the length of the internodes. Var-
ious explanations supported by experimental data have
been offered as to the cause of these variations, the most
common and logical of which have taken into account the
environmental conditions, especially the moisture relations
between the plant and its habitat. The relation between
the loss of water from the plant, or transpiration, and the
available moisture supply of the soil is of vital importance
in regions where arid or semi-arid conditions are prev-
alent. Probably the most satisfactory expression or sum-
mation of moisture conditions is to be found in the ratio
between the evaporating power of the air and the avail-
able soil moisture as proposed by Fuller.2 Unfortunately
neither of these factors can be used in the discussion at

1U. S. Forest Service.
2Fuller, Geo. D. Evaporation and Soil Moisture in Relation to

the Succession of Plant Associations. Botanical Gazette 59:
198-234. 1914.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 261

hand because continuous records are not available. How-
ever, Shreve® has shown that in physiological plant geog-
raphy, where soil moisture data are not available, the
annual and seasonal distribution of precipitation has been
used to good advantage as criteria of soil moisture and in
conditioning the distribution and growth of various types
of vegetation.

Mr. F. S. Baker and the writer‘ have found that the
seasonal amount and distribution of precipitation is of
unusual importance as a factor limiting the distribution
of western yellow pine ( Pinus ponderosa and P. ponderosa
scopulorum) in the Great Basin. Douglass® has found
that the width of the annual rings is a reliable index of
rainfall and that double rings are indicative of the distri-
bution of precipitation throughout the year. The writer®
in a symposium on site classification, pointed out that the
majority of foresters recognize relative height growth of
young trees as a more sensitive indicator of the quality
of habitat than diameter growth or any other single
criterion.

Kirkwood,’ in seeking evidence on the relation of the
growth of western yellow pine and Douglas fir (Pseudo-
tsuga taxtfolia) to the distribution of rainfall, made a ser-
ies of measurements in the vicinity of Missoula, Montana.
After correlating the current annual growth of fifty wes-
tern yellow pine and twenty-three Douglas fir saplings

3Shreve, Forrest. Rainfall as a Determinant of Soil moisture.
The Plant World 17: 9-26. 1914.

4The report of this investigation is awaiting publication.

5Douglass, A. E. A Method of Estimating Rainfall by the
Growth of Trees. Bulletin American Geographical Society 46: 321-
335. 1914.
Climatic Cycles and Tree Growth: A study of the annual
rings of trees in relation to climate and solar activity. Pub. 289,
Carnegie Institution of Washington, 127 pp., 40 figs., 12 plates.
Wash,, D.C. 1919.

6Korstian, Clarence F. Native Vegetation as a Criterion of
Site. The Plant World 22: 253-261. 1919.

7Kirkwood, J. E. The Influence of Preceding Seasons on the
Growth of Yellow Pine. Torreya 14: 115-125. 1914.

262 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

for the seasons of 1909 to 19138, inclusive, with the precip-
itation records for Missoula, the author concludes that
the current growth is conditioned by the rainfall of the
preceding growing season, namely, April to September,
inclusive. This theory is supported by the argument
that, in view of the fact that the main growth of trees
is completed during the early part of the growing season,
the season’s growth must be largely dependent upon the
nutritive substances which are elaborated and stored
mainly in the buds and the extremities of the main shoot
and branches during the preceding growing season. The
author contends that the greater the supply of moisture, up
to an optimum amount, the greater is the reserve of stored
food and consequently the more vigorous are the shoots
of the following season. The work of Pearson® at the
Fort Valley Forest Experiment Station in northern
Arizona is somewhat contradictory of Kirkwood’s con-
clusions. Pearson’s results, based on 95 carefully selec-
ted saplings and covering the period from 1909 to1917
inclusive, clearly show that the April and May precipita-
tion is most important in determining the amount of
height growth and presumably also the amount of avail-
able moisture in the soil during the period in which height
growth actually occurs.

Brewster,’ after correlating 153 measurements of
height growth in western larch (Larix occidentalis) with
temperature, relative cloudiness, and precipitation records
at the Priest River Forest Experiment Station in northern
Idaho for 1912 to 1916 inclusive, concluded that the
most favorable conditions for rapid height growth in that
region are produced by a combination of temperatures
somewhat above average, coupled with a high percentage
of clear days, with a normal amount of precipitation
evenly distributed in the form of good rains at intervals

8Pearson, G. A. The Relation Between Spring Precipitation
and Height Growth of Western Yellow Pine Saplings in Arizona.
Journal of Forestry 16: 677-689. 1918.

Brewster, D. R. Relation Between Height Growth of Larch

Seedlings and Weather Conditions. Journal of Forestry 16: 861-
870." T9138,

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 263

of four to ten days preceded and followed by lighter
showers.

The previously mentioned work on the occurrence
of western yellow pine in relation to the seasonal distri-
bution of precipitation led the writer to believe that in
northern Utah, central and southern Idaho a correlation
of current height growth with rainfall might give results
more nearly agreeing with the conclusions of Kirkwood
than with those of Pearson, because the seasonal distribu-
tion of precipitation resembles more closely that of Mon-
tana and northern Idaho, where the maximum amount is
received in the winter months and the minimum in the
summer, than the Arizona type, where the maximum
occurs during the middle of the summer and the minimum
in late spring.

For the purpose of throwing additional light on this
subject, the writer in 1919 secured measurements on 143
western yellow pine and 111 Douglas fir saplings from 5
to 10 feet tall growing within a few hundred yards of
the cooperative Weather Bureau station maintained at
Grimes Pass, Idaho, at an elevation of 5,000 feet. The
locality is toward the upper limit of the western yellow
pine type and not far below the transition zone between
the western yellow pine and Douglas fir types. No other
convenient station within the western yellow pine type
of the Intermountain region could be found having a
continuous precipitation record for the period under
study. The current annual height growth and precipita-
tion for various periods of the year are shown graphically
in Figure 1. The precipitation for other periods was also
analyzed, but no correlation could be found. In general,
a fairly close correlation is noted between the rate of
growth and the rainfall during April and May of the same
year, which in the main agrees with Pearson’s findings.
Similar results were secured near Garden Valley, Idaho,
which is near the lower limit of western yellow pine,
but the data could not be used because of the incomplete
precipitation records.

A striking exception is seen in the case of Douglas fir
in 1914. An analysis of temperature conditions for the
spring of 1914 revealed the prevalence of high temper-

264 TRANSACTIONS OF THE

atures during most of April, the very last part of which
was marked by freezing temperatures. May was also
characterized by high temperatures, but with a heavy
freeze the last of the month which did considerable dam-
age to tender succulent vegetation. The writer’? has
recently described the effects of somewhat more severe
conditions on the growth of Douglas fir in central Utah
in 1919. From all information at hand this appears to
be a parallel case, in which the greatly decreased growth
is due to frost injury the latter part of May, 1914. Doug-
las fir appears more sensitive to changes in the moisture
relations of the habitat mainly because of the higher
moisture requirements of this species; the trees used in
this study were growing near the lower altitudinal limit
of Douglas fir and toward the upper limit of western
yellow pine. The response to the unusually heavy rain-
fall in April and May, 1915, is found in an increased
growth in both Douglas fir and western yellow pine.

It is also interesting to note that Engelmann spruce
(Picea engelmanni) growing on a northern aspect in Big
Cottonwood Canyon, twenty-five miles southeast of Salt
Lake City, Utah, as its lower altitudinal limit in associa-
tion with Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia), alpine fir
(Abses lastocarpa), white fir (Abzes concolor) and limber
pine (Pinus fexilis), showed a decided reduction in the
length of leaves formed on the tips of the growth of the
dry season of 1919 in contrast with those formed either
in 1918 or 1920. The leaves of the 1919 growth aver-
aged only 0.36 inch long, while those of the 1918 growth
averaged 0.71 inch long, and those of the 1920 growth
were 0.71 inch long, based on the measurement of
thirty typical leaves of each year’s growth. The terminal
twig growth also showed a similar and very noticeable
shortening of the 1919 growth, although no measurements
were secured.

Kirkwood’s!! data was analyzed and to afford a

10Korstian, Clarence F. Effect of a late Spring Frost upon
Forest Vegetation in the Wasatch Mountains of Central Utah. LKc-
ology 2: 47-52. 1921

11Loc. Cit.

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 265

graphic comparison with the Grimes Pass data they are
also plotted in Figure 1. It also appears to bear out
Pearson’s conclusions as well or possibly better than it
does hisown. Following his conclusions one should also
expect to find a small amount of growth in 1912 following
the low precipitation of 1911. On the other hand, the
high growth rate in 1912 is accompanied by a heavy rain-
fall in April and May of the same year. Furthermore,
it is difficult to conceive how the carbohydrates elaborated
and stored during the preceding season are adequate for
the main growth of the current season. It appears to the
writer more logical to consider that the stored food
materials are largely, if not wholly, consumed in the incip-
ient stages of the current growth, and that, because the
moisture originating from the winter snows has been
largely dissipated, the amount of precipitation falling in
April and May is largely responsible for the growth
during the main part of the growing season, and there-

fore, largely determines the total amount of growth fora
given year.

266 TRANSACTIONS OF THE hi

FIG. /£,

Current annual height growth of western yellow pine
and Douglas fir saplings and seasonal precipitation from
1909 to 1919, at Grimes Pass, Idaho:
a—current annual height growth of western yellow pine.
b—current annual height growth of Douglas fir.
c=spring precipitation (April-May).
d—growing season precipitation (April-September).

At Missoula, Montana:
e=current annual height growth of western yellow pine.
f—current annual height growth of Douglas fir.
g—spring precipitation (April-May).
h—growing season precipitation (April-September) -
(e-h inclusive after Kirkwood.)

UTAH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 267

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INDEX.

Abell, Tracy H.: Investigations in Dehydration .............222222-2--- 69

Abell, Tracy H., M. C. Merrill and: The Breeding of Canning
PPOMNACOR BY clk EU UN LAY Oa Oy ee 133

Alkali Soils, The Relation of the Method of Analyzing to the
Limits of Toxicity, ; by Di). W. Pichman ep) oN aes a 95

Alkali Water for Irrigation, by Frank S. Harris and N. I. Butt ..... 87
Alter, J. Cecil: Forests in Relation to Climate and Water Supply 194
Analytical Distillation of Shale-Oil, The, by Martin J. Gavin .... 198
Anderson, Mark: Detection of Overgrazing by Means of Indi-

GauOw Eueteibe yee Lt RR nL ee Sa a 56
An Equation of the Density Exposure Curve of a Photographic

Plate Taking Reversal into Account (abstract), by Orin

eg a PEO OS SEV USE A ALURRR PH EU SER aS OVA pO ME Ne 21 ULE 36
A Theory of Capillary Flow, by Willard Gardner .................2..---- 100
Atomic Theory and the Atom, by W. D. Bonner ........2....2.2......-- 107
Automobile Headlights, Intensity and Distribution of Illumina-

tion from, (abstract), (by Orson Smith ea ey eis 37
ey GOS RO TIEIO MOR iN SR OAD yea UN A ig 0 Pe SUA 4
Barrett, Edward P.: Relation of Chemistry to Metallurgy ............ 155
Beeley, Arthur L.: The Problem of Handedness .......0...2..222222222----- 59

Bishop, Francis M.: Personal Reminiscences of John W. Powell 16
Bonner, J. T., and T. B. Brighton: Standardization from Con-

stant) Bolling (Hydrochloric Aetd 1) 00 nena ee eee a 173
OnHeT!) Wier s| MOENELOMEG iesene uate ete) hla tee ey aes 2 UCU 5
Bonner, W. D.: The Atomic Theory and the Atom .............-...-..-- 107

Bonner, W. D., W. D. Kline and: Comparison of the Action of
Potassium Cyanide and Sodium Cyanide on Alkyl Halides .... 174
Bouton, C. M., Thos. Varley and: Chemistry of the Volatiliza-

ETON) ETO GES BI tears eee eee a Oe eho SOLAR te ee UN ea a eee Re 218
Bradford, Robert H.: Commercial Reduction of Copper from

Copper -Chioride unite ee eee ae ametitne ae 240
Breeding of Canning Tomatoes, The, by M. C. Merrill and

Pracy Es Amer ee ee Cy) calaneahlo ptt aU Babies 133
Brighton, T. B., J. T. Bonner and: Standardization from Con-

stant! Bolling Hydrochloric ‘Acid Uw 173
Butt, N. I., Frank S. Harris and: Alkali Water for Irrigation ..... 87
1 a 5: AU eu PEE RIE eA EAR AHSAN WSS RIE Oe 12
Canning Tomatoes, The Breeding of, by M. C. Merrill and

Tracy H. Abell -....-.2.2.----------css0---eecenencennnncnnseenennnnncenesnesecnennnne 133

Capacities of Soils for Irrigation Water, Experiments on, by
O. W. Israelsen and F. L. West .....--...------seees--ee-ne-eeenenecenenennee 139

270 INDEX

Capillary Flow, A Theory of, by Willard Gardner ........................ 100

Capillary Transmission Constant and Methods of Determining

it Experimentally, by Willard Gardner .............2..--2---222---0--- 158
Gardift, Ina 1D. mentloned i as ee oe 4
Carroll, ‘Wy Gis mrentionad }4 0 02M ct eet ae Aes Le eee 5
Carroll, W. E.: Vitamines in Relation to Nutrition .....................- 249

Cases of Exceptional Growth of Certain Species of Mammals,

Reptiles and Insects (abstract), by L. Moth Iverson ........ 28
Chamberlain, W. H.: Matter from the Point of View of a Per-

Sonelisnie Philastihiy ose l ec censschusnns connasesee Tae aatiue eaten eee 128
Chemistry of the Volatilization Process, by Thos. Varley and

Oo) NE ROTOR: dev ladak Cute Wile irs: tana caseeecs tae thee ate ts au See ese eee 218

Chemistry to Metallurgy, Relation of, by Edward P. Barrett ...... 155
Climate and Water Supply, Forests in Relation to, by J. Cecil

YS fot Apne ie nae. ea ee pir ar Ue ee SUMAN EA LLC, SOR ebb Pe Ceti 194
Commercial Reduction of ‘Copper from Copper Chloride
ame, by..Bs Hy Bradtords oi eee ee ee 240

Comparison of the Action of Potassium Cyanide and Sodium
Cyanide on Alkyl Halides, by W. D. Kline and W. D. Bonner 174
OQOnmsteatIen | ga ee Eee he ie 8 SA A Sep cee ene 9
Constitution of Matter, The Theory of the, by Orin Tugman ...... 120
Copper, Commercial Reduction of, from Copper Chloride
Fumes, by (R: By Bratiford 's.22:...2255. See ce ee 240
Cyanide and Sodium Cyanide on Alkyl Halides, Comparison of
the Action of Potassium, by W. D. Kline and W. D. Bonner 174

Dehydration, Investigations in, by Tracy H. Abell -......................- 69
Desert, The Second Reclamation of the, (abstract), by R. A.

US Cris rh the A he UE RMM tena ee essa SS ARE CORR UIpea Es te Pee ee baer Bee ae EP 40
Destructive Distillation of Oil Shales, by L. C. Karrick -............... 211
Detection of Overgrazing by Means of Indicator Plants, by

Mark’ "Anderson: 2. 2oi:22 5 eo oneness ee puma ae eee eeae

Determination of the Normal Temperature by Means of the
Equation of Seasonal Temperature Variation and of a
Modified Thermograph Record, by Dr. F. L. West, N. E.
Bidletsenvands Si Pe Hawi eso oon oes oe eo tuscan Ua caeeeape eee eee eee 84

Diseases, Forest Tree, by A. O. Garrett ....2...2..22..2--2pss-scencncedeeese 182

Disinfection a Reaction of the First Order, Is? by L. F. Shackell 162

Distillation of Shale-Oil, The Analytical, by Martin J. Gavin .... 198

Distilled Water as a Medium for Growing Plants, by M. C.

5 PT cra Fav eT ROR pa GTN DMRS IER DE MaMa SPI 5.5 SF ISSIORTE CORY | cet 75
Ebaueh, W,.\C.¢ aemtiomed j 2 jc..scd. ot nats ced beenesnegepeead icra 4
Edlefsen, N. E., and S. P. Ewing, Dr. Frank L. West: Deter-

mination of the Normal Temperature by Means of the

Equation of Seasonal Temperature Variation and of a

Modified Thermograph: Record: 25.-sicve-nos caste caveepenesemsenaseee 84
Effect of Green Manure at Different Stages of Growth upon

the Relative Abundance of Actinomyces, Non-Spore-

Formers and Spore-Formers in the Soil, by Dr. Thomas

| es ee een made elma, Ped. OT a Anh see 245
Electric Air Heating Feasible, Is? (abstract), by Jos. F, Merrill 103

INDEX 271

Electricity, The Electron Theory of Conduction of, by Frank

hi eee aE NORA Y BRR 7 ok ARUN MORN RM ARE Be) PORT” (ore Py WAR 126
Entomology, Historical Outline of the Development of to 1800,

Ba EIBrole Ry TABOR oc hte. siiiee cscs suds bndcehv tse secdeeieesen sede! 47
Evaporation and Soil Moisture in Relation to Forest Planting,

TO Dr Or ae ee i i rs os eal 6 ae 116

Ewing, S. P., Dr. Frank L. West, N. E, Edlefsen and: Deter-
mination of the Normal Temperature by Means of the
Equation of Seasonal Temperature Variation and of a

Modified Thermograph Record ...............----.cccecescoosseoeoeeoecenceece 84
Exceptional Growth of Certain Species of Mammals, Reptiles

and Insects, Cases of, (abstract), by L. Moth Iverson .......... 28
Experiments on Capacities of Soils for Irrigation Water, by O.

NW, TeeGIseN, GWM. West i. eee OO Or ae 139
riage Creel 5 TR MULOTION boobies ccdce cncd averse eudekcs oe eeccecets 5
Fish and Game Conservation, Forests and, by S. B. Locke ........ 190
Fledglings, Food and Feeding of (abstract), by Newton Miller.... 45
Dretcuer, marvey: mentioned iiiicko/ Cee ee te 4

Food and Feeding of Fledglings, (abstract), by Newton Miller.... 45
Forest Planting. Evaporation and Soil Moisture in Relation to,

WOT Mca MATT, Ge EE ee Ao ee a 116
Forests and Fish and Game Conservation, by S. B. Locke .......... 190
Forests in Relation to Climate and Water Supply, by J. Cecil

DAT eae De ade NE Areca EER ee is EOE LiPo RiphCy 2C 194
Forests of Utah a Permanent Resource, Making the (Presiden-

tia) aooress), by C. B, TKOpstaan : <.i5.-)-sseesecaneceecessntens snes 17%
Porest Cree. Diseases; by A. O,; Garrett ....:..0j00.:- ohh cp eae 182
Forest Tree Saplings, Relation of Precipitation to Height

Growin of, 09 CyiF. Morsuan:::...c2: 4205-225 no a eee 260
Game Conservation, Forests and Fish and, by S. B. Locke ........ 190
Gardner, Willard: A Capillary Transmission Constant and

Methods of Determining it Experimentally .................-.-....-- 158
Gardner, Willard: A Theory of Capillary Flow ..........................-. 100
Garrett, A. 0:7 Forest Tree Diseases 2.06.02 182
Garrett, A’ 0.) mentioned rac ote ee 4,5
Gavin, M. J., and J. J. Jakowsky: The Use and Function of

Steam in Retorting Oil-Shales ..::..00..0-2.2.cccteccstececteneenebwarensacee 232
Gavin, M. J.: Oil Shales and Their Economic Importance ............ 145
Gavin, M. J.: The Analytical Distillation of Shale Oil ................ 198
Hagan, Harold R.: Historical Outline of the Development of

Entomology fo USO os: cucpcened soon Hence seen eeparecenenenoee 47
Hagen, Harold: Res Menuoned 2225 eno ocpacct bance ot teeteneanlh tenpenet eae 5

Halides, Comparison of the Action of Potassium Cyanide and
Sodium Cyanide on Alkyl, by W. D. Kline and W. D. Bonner 174

Handedness, The Problem of, by A. L. Beeley .............-.....-.------+ 59
Harris, Frank S. and N. I. Butt:Alkali Water for Irrigation ........ 87
Matris, Prank /Sis MCN WIONC ) ... cieceressepsssctecbeqtananansncieenibinpintemiras ions 4
Piret: |B. Ass meribiemed | soit sh le snc lieceabelnceepinennn 5

Hart, R. A.: The Second Reclamation of the Desert (abstract) 40

272 INDEX

Head, R. E.: The Use of the Microscope in Ore Dressing ............ 204
Heating Feasible, Is Electric Air, by Joseph F. Merrill _............ 103
Historical Outline of the Development of Entomology to 1800

by \Elawold) | Ri (aap iu ie an a ul hi ahd Na 47
Hydrochloric Acid, Standardization from Constant Boiling, by

J.T. cRonner amd: Pi Bk Bret bam) 2 Vee a aN lg 173
Hydrometallurgy as Applied to the Mineral Industry, by

Clarence\A../Wrent eee ieee 2D) OL aa 142

Iilumination from Automobile Headlights, Intensity and Dis-
tribution! of, (by (Orson! Savon Ce Me Nir re a

Illumination, Some Problems of Daylight, by C. Arthur Smith 167
Indicator Plants, Detection of Overgrazing by Means of, by

Diario Minders 1b iilr se Mi Ui. SOMTOe aa Re CO pene ER 56
Insects, Cases of Exceptional Growth of Certain Species of

Mammals, Reptiles and, by L. Moth Iverson ...............-..-.------ 28
Intensity and Distribution of Illumination from Automobile

Headlights (abstract), by Orson Smith ....020000.022eeeec eee Si
Investigations in Dehydration, by Tracy H. Abell -....-..0220.2020022.... 69

Irrigation, Alkali Water for, by Frank S. Harris and N. I. Butt.... 87

Irrigation Water, Experiments on Capacities of Soils for, by
OW. Tsraelsen) and! FR Ey Wiest iis) e ack ay nee Tae ae ay 139

Is Disinfection a Reaction of the First Order? by L. F. Shackell 162
Is Electric Air Heating Feasible? (abstract), by J. F. Merrill... 103
Israelsen, O. W. and F. L. West: Experiments on Capacities of

Sons) for Irrigation: Watery 2p ons Wey AON FUL eee 1389
Iverson, L. Moth: Cases of Exceptional Growth of Certain

Species of Mammals, Reptiles and Insects (abstract) ........ 28
Jakowsky, J. J., M. J. Gavin and: The Use and Function of

Steam in Retorting Oil-Shales ~............0.........- Sa PRYING SIH an Le 32
Jones, Marcus Wey Mentone UN uBR OLAS Oe alas REBUM Sata) 4
Karrick, L. C.: Destructive Distillation of Oil Shales -............... PAI ti |

Kline, W. D. and W. D. Bonner: Comparison of the Action
of Potassium Cyanide and Sodium Cyanide on Alkyl Halides 174

Korstian, C. F.: Evaporation and Soil Moisture in Relation to

Horest Pe mites La Rs ak OUR ead ee Melee ae Be 116
Korstian, C. F.: Making the Forests of Utah a Permanent Re-

source) \(Presidential \addmess))| iii) utes k Ue ee ya ae
Horstiany |G. ibs aMenGiomed pa kee ciel Neil) ave S00 a on Hote Ren pile, 5
Korstian, C. F.: Relation of Precipitation to Height Growth of

Porest: stree) \serphrm is ui c VE SEH A Ay Se See ele cer tae 260
Locke, S. B.: Forests and Fish and Game Conservation ............-- 190
Making the Forests of Utah a Permanent Resource (Pres-

idential address) by) We Hie orsthe ne ey eee 177
Mammals, Reptiles and Insects, Cases of Exceptional Growth

of Certain Species of, (abstract), by L. Moth Iverson ........ 28

Manure at Different Stages of Growth upon the Relative
Abundance of Actinomyces, Non-Spore-Formers and
Spore-Formers in the Soil, Effect of Green, by Thomas
Bis (SRE BR) (eA A DU Waa UA SIN I LEE 245

INDEX 273

Martin, Thos. L.: Effect of Green Manure at Different Stages
of Growth upon the Relative Abundance of Actinomyces,
Non-Spore-Formers and Spore-Formers in the Soil,

CHUERCC) FiO en eter en ouerren. dL ravius Wola ca cust Sree a tee 245
Matter from the Point of View of a Personalistic Philosophy,

Dy Wie een a ee ea eee ae en en een 128
Matter, The Theory of the Constitution of, by Orin Tugman .... 120
Matthews, A. L.: Some Uncommon Plant Pests ...-......-...------------ 41
Mebetrri term ie), FOGRLCI Ge cot tee a as ea cae tienen ieeLee RAO EE 6
Merrill, Joseph F.: Is Electric Air Heating Feasible? ..............-.-.-- 103
Merrill, M. C., and Tracy H. Abell: The Breeding of Canning

AL OMAUOGHT oc: ccc. cinerea cate aa een a eee eka ete) ca eae eee ee 133
Merrill, M. C.: Distilled Water as a Means for Growing Plants .... 75
Merrul Mot. ! teniionem ut al en eae ee 5
Metal Films when Exposed to Ultra Violet Light, The Resis-

tancexot, Thin. by, Orine Wuoman. ae ae ee eee 161
Metallurgy of the Chloride Volatilization Process, by C. C.

DSLEVENSON) (enc tec. eu aise unc toe yee es Meal. fete eco ene MD SRN oe 226
Metallurgy, Relation, of Chemistry to, by Edward P. Barrett ...... 155
Microscope in Ore Dressing, The, by R. E. Head ...-.-...............----- 204
Mid-Tertiary Deformation of Western North America, by Hy-

rum Semeider 05602. kee es sab Ak ee eee eae 159
Miller, Newton: Food and Feeding of Fledglings (abstract) ........ 45
Pirller, Newton? smMenclonedey. se ee ee ee el a a 5
Mineral Industry, Hydrometallurgy as Applied to the, by Clar-

ence As Wirleht, ks she ie epee here eealte oe eer, a am eee ae See 142
Morgan, John C.: Pyrometallurgy and its Future Possibilities .... 150
Nealy Wield nentioned) jee esser rier = 0 As ae i ok See 4
Neal, W. D.: Our Country—a Retrospect (Presidential address)

CEE sy \1 2 7 Rae nee a 1) Mee Bee IT SCRAPS HA Cinna COTO RD FRAN 5 2 33
Normal Temperature as a Function of the Latitude, Elevation,

Time of Day, and Day of Year, The, by Frank L. West .....- 247
North America, Mid-Tertiary Deformation of Western, by Hy-

PUM SOHNE OR gots kote ee ean 2 Le ge ee Ee eee 159
Nutrition, Vitamines in Relation to, by W. E. Carroll ................ 249
Officers; ist: Of 4 22)55.. 52 see ee ae nots ae Sa ee eee eee 4
Oil and Gas in Salt Lake and Cache Valleys, Possibilities of,

by): Byram: Selneider -. 2c. sec seedeacian esha ana eee ears 38
Oil Shales and Their Economic Importance, by Martin J. Gavin .. 145
Oil-Shales, Destructive Distillation of, by L. C. Karrick -............. 211
Oil-Shales, The Use and Function of Steam in Retorting, by

Martin J. Gavin and J, J. Jakowsky \:22.-20-24231 Steet 232
Ore Dressing, The Use of the Microscope in, by R. E. Head ........ 204
Our Country—a Retrospect (abstract). Presidential address,

By” Wis De RGA, eee eet el ate a eateries 33
Overgrazing, Detection of by Means of Indicator Plants, by

Mark “Anderscn eects te ee eee cee hee 56

Personal Reminiscences of John W. Powell, by Francis Marion
Bishop, 2255S es ae eh cr ah ache tenia ay eee dee eae 16

274 INDEX

Philosophy, Matter from the Point of Vi f isti
by W. H. Chamberlain... Oe Fer ee 128

Photographic Plates, Reversals in (abstract), by C. Arthur Smith 34
Photographic Plate Taking Reversal into Account, An Equation

of the Density Exposure Curve of a, by Orin Tugman ........ 36
Pittman, D. W.: The Relation of the Method of Analyzing

Alkali Soils ‘to the Limits of: Toxieity a 95
Plant Pests, Some Uncommon, by A. L. Matthews .........002...-0.0...-. 41
Plants, Detection of Overgrazing by Means of Indicator, by

HEB Al A 6 i Eh | 0): eM a i RO aa DL ua soon ster NC EAs el 56

Plants, Distilled Water as a Means for Growing, by M. C. Merrill 75
Plummer, Dr. Charles G.: The Quest of the Student of Nature .... 29

Possibilities of Oil and Gas in Salt Lake and Cache Valleys, by
PPVTiUIMN (Beh nender cere ices eres ee Eee eee oe aang 38

Potassium Cyanide and Sodium Cyanide on Alkyl Halides, Com-
parison of the Action of, by W. D. Kline and W. D. Bonner 174

Powell, John W., Personal Reminiscences of, by Francis M.

A E71} 010) 1 PRP abla hucete) hiv ithe 0h 6 2 Aon hubhen aan lap Ween, fa Bape pam onmee. WE 2 16
Program of the Eleventh Annual Convention of the Utah
Academy ef | Sci@nees i202). 02 ok ee et ad Se eae 15
Program of the Twelfth Annual Convention of the Utah
Aeademy of Seiences.: i.cuiesihecstets ee ke 46
Program of the Thirteenth Annual Convention of the Utah
Academy of Sciences <.e0! oak a ear 118
Program of the Fourteenth Annual Convention of the Utah
Academy of. Selences \iieisieus. ccc te ee 175

Pyrometallurgy and its Future Possibilities, by John C. Morgan 150
Quest of the Student of Nature, The, by Dr. Chas. G. Plummer.. 29
Relation of Chemistry to Metallurgy, by Edward P. Barrett ...... 155
Relation of Precipitation to Height Growth of Forest Tree

Sapintes, The; by .C. Fi Rorstian oo ee ee eae ape caae ease 260
Reptiles and Insects, Cases of Exceptional Growth of Certain

Species of Mammals, (abstract), by L. Moth Iverson ............ 28
Reversals in Photographic Plates, (abstract), by C. Arthur Smith 34
Roster: Of Welt bersni. 23.0 Legg lc NUE Ee eet Dee ea See aa 6
Sehneiler: Ey rity: Wertionece: Ae yeh es na ceeeee 5
Schneider, Hyrum: Mid-Tertiary Deformation of Western

INGEN JA PASI Ce ec tin lhe einai oS SN aT abe NGL Lee Ne le Been em gee 159
Schneider, Hyrum: Possibilities of Oil and Gas in Salt Lake

and Cache Valley <i 00 e228 ty a ue ON itbiaa tee aeeeeeee 38
Shackell, L. F.: Is Disinfection a Reaction of the First Order? .. 162
Shale-Oil, The Analytical Distillation of, by M. J. Gavin .......... 198
Smith, Cl. AT tnurs IGRLIONEU tes. ccc eu Ne Sta Nae Way Wee ea 4, 5
Smith, C. Arthur: Reversals in Photographic Plates (abstract) .... 34
Smith, C. Arthur: Some Problems in Daylight Illumination ........ 167
Smith, Orson: Intensity and Distribution of Illumination from

Automobile Heaglivhts (abstract) oo eee oe 37

SHoddy, Gee. Suz MENON see eee ee dann 5

INDEX 275

Soil, Effect of Green Manure at Different Stages of Growth
upon the Relative Abundance of Actinomyces, Non-
Spore-Formers and Spore-Formers in the, by Dr. Thomas

Lj. Misetin? Ca seriget eso ee eS Sn a ee 245
Soil Moisture in Relation to Forest Planting, Evaporation and,

Wary Ga a a ila a ee eels 116
Soils for Irrigation Water, Experiments on Capacities of, by

0.) W: denaglgen anil Bi Las) Wrest ccicteec caster dot -radeens 139
Soils to the Limit of Toxicity, The Relation of the Method of

Analyzing ‘Alkali,/ by Di; Ws. Pittman: -.25-..22.205.06.00.-ccchecisei 95
Some Problems in Daylight Illumination, by C. Arthur Smith .... 167
Some Uncommon Plant Pests, by A. L. Matthews .................--..--- 41
Standardization from Constant Boiling Hydrochloric Acid,

by 4. 8: /Bopner'6nd TB Brighton (7. ee 173
Steam in Retorting Oil-Shales, Use and Function of, by M. J.

Gavin ands IP Or Saowainy a eee PFO Le eee 232
Stevenson, C. C.: Metallurgy of the Chloride Volatilization

Proge@pe, | fl) QUOI CAR ee ACU PAR Ek 2 | UNE tare 226

Temperature as a Function of the Latitude, Elevation, Time
of Day, and Day of Year, The Normal, by Frank L. West .... 247
Temperature by Means of the Equation of Seasonal Tempera-
ture Variation and of a Modified Thermograph Record,
Determination of the Normal, by Dr. Frank L. West, N.

E. Hdlefaen and! Sei Bs Binet ed aN 84
The Electron Theory of Conduction of Electricity, by Frank

Ta, WieSG a sacgeg hcl Le ela tS ee ee Cr a 126
Theory of the Constitution of Matter, The, by Orin Tugman ........ 120
The Problem of Handedness, by A. L. Beeley ...-.............--------------- 59
The Quest of the Student of Nature, by Dr. C. G. Plummer ........ 29
The Relation of the Method of Analyzing Alkali Soils to the

Limits of Toxicity by Di Wy ae Ween, Se 95
The Ristance of Thin Metal Films When Exposed to Ultra

Violet: Laps bp Orta, Terragen asad cpt na tase catoeoeuseoasiaes eee ekbae 161
The Second Reclamation of the Desert (abstract), by R. A. Hart 40
bis, Bs: Gy <M VC aa ue 8 ee eee 4
Tomatoes, The Breeding of Canning, by M. C. Merrill and

Tracy Fie Alen ee ens eel ee ai Uae ck ge de ag na Rent 133
Tree Diseases, Farest, by As Ov Garret®, .2.3..0s e 182
Tree Saplings, Relation of Precipitation to Height Growth

of Forest; Big 0s iiss imei oon pet ae i eke eee oes 260

Tugman, Orin: An Equation of the Density Exposure Curve of
a Photographic Plate Taking Reversal into Account,

(abstract) cit aicaiscst sas oe ceseece ak aes wee ee Be ae ee eae 36
arena, OTUs 5) IIENEL nbs enlesotencsacten tt mere cae mtd neice ely 5
Tugman, Orin: The Resistance of Thin Metal Films When Ex-

posed to’ Ultra: Violet Tei 20 eos esos aheceacicwts 161
Tugman, Orin: The Theory of the Constitution of Matter,

(Presiclei Gill ire ee eee eee eee eee ge 120

Uncommon Plant Pests, Some, by A. L. Matthews ....................--.- 41

276 INDEX
Use and Function of Steam in Retorting Oil-Shales, by M. J.
Gavin end: Dee sT GROWS) ei iesewinlescunesaesee podecesec cau esaee ee eee
Use of the Microscope in Ore Dressing, The, by R. E. Head ........
Varley, Thos. and C. M. Bouton: Chemistry of the Volatiliza-
TION PrOCESS eee hee Gs NT LA Ea ee a a
Vitamines in Relation to Nutrition, by W. E. Carroll -.................
Volatilization Process, Chemistry of the, by Thos. Varley and
COPAY BAND BYe yt Ho} «Tempe ae alee! MCD MERED ut TP PUL Sats Bie ep ae 208 yea
Volatilization Process, Metallurgy of the Chloride, by C. C.
SECVCT ROI) ti stelec cee uaa se aE oo els eae ei cue ee eeeenenes ce
Worhies, 0. 0.2 mentioned 20. hies sua ace ae ee
West, rant: Gi: mentioned iicitie vo gtgledte IN ce otl hee tae

West, Frank L., N. E. Edlefsen and S. P. Ewing: ‘Deter-
mination of the Normal Temperature by Means of the
Equation of Seasonal Temperature Variation and of a

Modified. Thermograph Record,. ...-.-cs0ccceceincesecostanenucptocasonesies
West, Frank L., O. W. Israelsen and: Experiments on Capac-
AtIES1Ois HOUS LOPMrrigationy VW ALCL ies. u tee eee eae
West, Frank L.: The Electron Theory of Conduction of Elec-
ot 2g NU OS LR a RTO gta NAC eel AAA SERPS YEN WER
West, Frank L.: The Normal Temperature as a Function of
the Latitude, Elevation, Time of Day, and Day of Year ......
Wright, Clarence A.: Ele inomicaan uray as Applied to the Min-
GPA) Tasty beeen hse ecese lea cchs stk: codapcam ace cobs bnuanen teed seaamereeamneee

84

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