II n 11 S:; i ^ E ■1 . id jgnBgtt^; i: i hi- cv2 CO CD to ' r— I w CD "Ofl o ■ o ^ Cm c E2. 1^ CO TRANSACTIONS OF THE WISCONSIN STATE AGRICETURAL SOCIETY, WITH PORTIONS OF THE COKRESPONDENCE OF THE SECRETARY. LIBRARY VOLUME n.-18B2. ^.„„ NEW YOKk botanicai MADISON : BERIAH BROWN. STATE PRINTER. 1853. f ' I o ADVERTISEMENT. In presenting to the Farmers of Wisconsin, the Second Volume of the Transactions of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, the undersioned, for his Associates in the Executive Committee, and in his own behalf, would most respectfully tender to them warm and sin- cere thanks for the favorable reception accorded to the First Volume. The present Volume, it is hoped, will not be deemed unworthy of its predecessor, nor yet of the more advanced age of the Society. In its preparation it has been the aim of the Executive Committee to present such papers as would, if duly considered, be found of use and practical benefit to the Farmer. If they have succeeded in this, and if the present Volume should be found worthy of the attention of those interested in Agricultural advancement, then are their labors fully rewarded. To those gentlemen who have so kindly assisted the undersigned in the preparation of this Volume, by responding to the calls made upon them, he returns his grateful thanks, and as the only return he can make, he gives them the assurance that his best exertions shall be given to the Society with which he is connected, and to the cause of Improve- ment which it is striving to advance. ALBERT C. INGHAM. State Agricultural Rooms, Madison, January, 1853. CO Q^ CONTENTS. 1. List of OflBcere, Life Members, IM Sknatb, March 7th, 1853.) Resolved bt the Se:?ate, (the Assembly concurring) — That the State Printer be directed to publish twenty five hundred copies of the Trans- actions of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society for 1852, to be printed under the direction of the Secretary of the Society, of which five hundred copies shall be for the use of the Members of the Legislature, and the remainder for the Society ; said books to be bound in muslin, with lettered backs, to match the first Volume of Transactions of said Society, provided said books do not exceed in cost the sum of seventy five centa per volume. (Attest) JOHN K. WILLIAMS, Chief Clerk of the Senate. STATE OF WISCONSIN, > In Assembly, March 8th, 1853 ) Tlie above and foregoing Resolution was concurred in by the Assembly. (Attest) THOMAS McHUGH, Chief Clerk of the Astemilr/. TEAXSACTIOXS. TRANSACTIONS OF THE WISCONSIN STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE FOR 1852. To the Legislature of the State of Wisconsin : The Executive Committee of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, pursuant to the requirements of the "Act for the encouragement of Agriculture and its kindred Arts in this State," would respectfully report : That the various operations of the State and of the County Agricultural Societies, during the year just closed, have been in the highest degree gratifying, while the great and increasing interest which has been so generally manifested throughout the State in these operations, gives encouraging assurance t"hat the labor will not be in vain, but that the spirit of agricultural inquiry which has been awakened, will incite the farmer to increased attention to the details of farm management, and to the proper adaptation of his crops to the soils, so as to secure the largest returns with the greatest permanent economy. Hitherto the progress, in this State, of improvement in Agricultural Science has been slow, and has not kept pace with that rapid develope- ment which has, in other respects, been the pre-eminent characteristic of Wisconsin. In part, this may be ascribed to the adverse circumstances Tvhich, almost of necessity, surround the early settler in all new coun- tries J but another great cause may be found in our fertile soil and genial 12 dime. Tlie liardy pioneer, in search of a home for himself and for his family, sees in Wisconsin, spread out before liim by the bountiful hand of Providence, a virgin soil, rich in all agricultural resources — yielding plenteous returns with but little expenditure of toil and labor, and re- quiring no great exertion or care. Habits of neglect and inattention are thus formed — and not because the husbandman is wanting in energy, ekill, and enterprise, for by no people are these qualities possessed in a greater degree than by our own. To arouse the farmer from this condition, — to awaken in him a spirit of agTicultural inquiry, — and to disseminate, as far as possible, practical iand useful information upon kindred subjects, have been the special ob- jects had in view, during the past year, by the Executive Committee. In the beginning of the year, much embarrassment was experienced by the Executive Committee from the want of suitable and commodious rooms for the meetings of the Society and of the Committee, and for the proper arrangement of the books and agricultural papers, the grains, seeds, wools, and implements which the Society had already commenced collecting, and which, Avere proper facilities afforded for preservation and arrangement, would, without doubt, soon be largely increased. Acting, as the Society does, gratuitously, laboring for the advancement of the greatest of our industrial interests, and with the whole State as a field for its labors, it w^as thought that the public authorities would, without hes- itation, grant the use of such accommodations as might be necessary. With this view, application was made to His Excellency the Governor, who promptly placed at the disposal of the Society the rooms which it is now occupying in the Capitol. These have been fitted up in a manner suitable to the wants of the Society, and the care and management of them assigned to the Corresponding Secretary. The Library and Museum of the Society have received from the Com- mittee su.ch attention as the circumstances of the Society would allow, and which, though entirely inadequate, has yet furnished a foundation upon which a noble superstructure may, in a few years, be reared. The correspondence of the Society, which, even during the first j^ear of its labors, had become quite extended and valuable, has, during the past year, under the management of the proper officer, been largely increased. Many new and valuable correspondents have been added to the Society's lists, and the results cannot but prove of value. In com- pliance with the provisions of the law under which this report is submit- ted, a special direction has been given to one branch of this part of the labors of the Society, the results of which may in part be seen from the accompanying papers. The Finances of the Society are in a sound condition, as will be seen by the accompanying Report of the Treasurer. The receipts of the year, amounting to 82,748 45, exhibit a gratifying increase over those of the former year, and have enabled the Executive Committee to put into execution the recommendation of their predecessors, by largely increasing the List of Premiums to be awarded at the Annual Fair. The expendi- tures of the year, aside from the Premium List, have been such only as were demanded by the most urgent wants of the Society, while it has been the constant desire and aim of the Committee to exercise the most rigid economy and prudence in all of the financial operations of the So- ciety. The balance in the Treasury, of about 880, will show that in this desire they have been successful. In the arrangement of the Premium List for the Annual Fair, it was the aim of the Executive Committee to bestow such gratuities alone as pro- mised the greatest good, and which would contribute most to the speedy advancement of the industrial interests of the State. Hence, a large por- tion was made payable in agricultural books of approved value and merit ; as, by the distribution of these, it was thought that much information of great and practical value would be disseminated, which otherwise might not for a long time, if ever, be obtained. To those whose articles and animals evinced superior and marked excellence, the diploma and medals of the Society were sparingly bestowed. These, being permanent testi- monials, and being given as the highest honors of the Society to those whose exhibitions showed exertion and research, upon the various sub- jects upon which they competed for premiums, it was thought, would be esteemed and valued more highly than any other award that could be made. In the award, whenever it was practicable, statements were required from the competitors, showing Avhat was peculiar in the manage- ment of the crop, in the fabrication of the article, or in the mode of keeping and feeding the animal. These will appear in the accompanying papers. The Second Annual Cattle Show and Fair of the Society was held at the Cold Spring Race Course, in the immediate vicinity of the city of u Milwaukee, on the 6tb, 7th, and 8th days of October, 1852. The grounds selected for the purpose were enclosed by a high board fence, the space within affording ample room for the arrangement and display of the articles, and the accommodation of the throngs of visitors. Within the track, which followed the fence for the most of the distance round, was a broad, open space, somewhat undulating in surface, but with sufficient level ground for the purposes required. The main en- trances Avere on the northern side ; and nearly fronting them, at perhaps one hundred yards distance, were several large tents, gaily decorated with streamers, for the reception and exhibition of Domestic Manufac- tures, Dairy and Farm Products, Fruits, Flowers, Paintings, &c. Between these tents, and the track to the west and south, were arranged the various pens for the show of Cattle, Sheep and Swine ; and at the extremity of the line, were a collection of enclosures for Poultry. In a fine grove, still farther to the south, were several tents and sheds, neatly fitted up, and provided with refreshments. Towards the eastern side of the enclosure, roAvs of posts were placed, to which horses could be fastened. A sufficiently large space still remained unoccupied, Avhich was appropriated to the exhibition and trial of Agricultural Implements and various Machinery, and to the Plowing Match. On tAvo sides of the enclosure, a fine Avood, gloAving Avith brilliant autumnal tints, gaA'e variety and beauty to the landscape. Open fields smiled on the eastern, while the avenues of approach Avere on the western front. The enter- prising owner of the grounds. Dr. E. B. Wolcott, had spared neither pains nor expense in putting them in the best order, and it would be difficult to find, Avithin the limits of our State, a finer field for an Agri- cultural Exhibition than the Cold Spring Course afforded. The weather Avas propitious, and at an early hour of the first day, croAvds of exhibitors were flocking to the Fair Grounds with their various entries. The list was very large — nearly thrice that at the First State Fair during the year prcA'ious — and in many of the departments, the competition Avas as spirited as the entries Avere numerous. In conse- quence of the non-attendance of many of those selected to act as judges in the aAvard of premiums, some delay and difficulty was experienced in filling up the Committees. The arrangements, too, for the reception and exhibition of some of the articles Avere unavoidably delayed. Never- theless, in spite of these lets and hindrances, the Exhibition gradually 15 took form and shape, the Committees assembled and made their exami- nations, and by the morning of Thursday, the Fair was formally opened to the public. Notwithstanding the appearance of the weather, which was rather un- favorable, the rush of visitors was very great, upwards of twelve thou- sand persons, as was estimated, having passed into the enclosure during the day. This number was largely increased on the day following, Fri- day, although the clouds looked threatening, and rain fell at intervals during most of the afternoon. On the morning of Friday, the Annual Plowing Match came off, and was closely contested. In the afternoon of that day, the Annual Address was delivered by Judge Hubbell before the Society and an immense concourse of people. The Military and Fire Departments of Milwaukee, in full uniform, and with their entire appara- tus, came upon the ground just before the delivery of the Address, and won high encomiums from the multitude present by their thorough disci- pline and handsome display. After the delivery of the Address, the awards of the several Committees were announced by the Secretary, and the main business of the Fair was over. It had been designed to hold a public auction sale of stock, machinery, farm and dairy produce, &c., on the Fair Grounds on Saturday morning. But the heavy rains which set in on Friday night, and continued throughout the whole of Saturday, mainly defeated this project. Taken as a whole the Fair was eminently successful. The entries were very numerous, and the exhibition in several departments Avas unex- pectedly fine. The show of Cattle and Sheep was good, and of Horses superior. The number of visitors in attendance outran the expectations of the most sanguine. The proximity of a large city, and the facilities by steamboat, railroad, and plank-road, of getting to the Fair, accounts in part for the large gathering. Another reason for it may be found, it is hoped, in the growing pride which the people of Wisconsin take in these Annual Exhibitions, and the interest that all classes feel in contri- buting to the developement of the agricultural resources of our State. Many of the arrangements for the Fair were found insufficient, as was to be expected, in an undertaking so new to our people. The selection of the Committees, to judge of the merits of the different articles exhibited, is a matter of great consequence, not only to a fair adjudication, but for the satisfaction of the various competitors. Great care was taken in the 16 original selection of these Committees, as announced some months pre- vious to the holding of the Fair, but from one cause or other, many of the members so selected "were not present on the first day of the Pair, and the places thus left vacant had to be filled on short notice, and by a hurried selection from among the persons in attendance. This was much to be regretted. A complete list of the premiums awarded, will be found among the accompanying papers. There was a large share of Agricultural Implements upon the ground, all of neat pattern and most excellent workmanship. Atkins' Automaton Beaper and RaJcer, entered by John S. Wright, Esq., of the Prairie Farmer, Chicago, was decidedly the most ingenious piece of mechanism on the ground. This machine cuts the grain, rakes it into bundles, and deposits these, as it passes along, upon the ground ready for the binder. The performance of the Raker was especially curious, imitating exactly the motions of the human arm, with the advantage of never tiring out. This machine excited great curiosity, and received particular attention from the farmers in attendance. We see no reason why it should not prove a valuable addition to the stock of labor-saving Agricultural Im- plements. In many departments, the show of Stock was large and fine. Com- mencing with Horses, the display was highly creditable, there being no less than ninety-two entries under the head of Stallions, Brood Mares and Colts — all of good stock, and many of them remarkably fine ani- mals. In this department, as also in that of Matched and Draft Horses, the show was more than could have been expected, and all that could Lave been wished. Of Cattle, there was a very fine, though not a very large exhibition. Of Swine, the show was small, considering how important '"Wi article Pork has become to the farmers. Of Sheep, the display was large, a- d the quality of the Stock exhibited superior. The improvement in this particular department of Wisconsin farming within the past two or three years, has been as marked as it is gratifying. The experience of five or six years has established, beyond all dispute, the fact that the soil and climate of our State are admirably adapted to the raising of Sheep, and that no pursuit of agricultural industry yields the farmer a more certain or more substantial return. Every one interested in the growth and prosperity of Wisconsin, must have noticed with pride 17 and pleasure the very fine show of Sheep at the State Fair. Of Poultry, there was an unexpectedly good display. Specimens, and fine ones too, were exhibited of all the fashionable, as well as the common varieties. Dorkings, Chittagongs, Shangais and Polands,- were each represented. There were, too, some indisputably good samples of Turkeys, Guinea Fowls, and Muscovy Ducks. The show in the Dairy Department was small, but of excellent quality. Some cheeses were shown which rivalled the best Xew York and Ohio samples, and a few lots of sweet and gulden butter elicited general praise. The high price which cheese and butter have borne during the past autumn, and the probability that with the extending lines of railroad and the constantly increasing rapidity and frequency of communication be- tween the eastern market and the western producers, these prices will be maintained, must lend increased activity and importance to this branch of agricultural industry. Nor can there be any reason to doubt, that with such good and abundant pasturage as Wisconsin affords, our farmers, with pr<^per care and labor, can compete successfully with their eastern brethren in the production of butter and cheese. The samples of Wheat, Indian Corn, Oats, Barley, Flax-seed, and Vegetables were numerous and excellent. In this department the exhi- bition was highly satisfactory. The Hutchinson and Blue Stem varieties of Winter Wheat, and the Canada Club Spring Wheat, were the favorite ones, and the specimens exhibited vindicated the claim of Wisconsin to the first rank among the wheat-growing States. In the Department of Fruits and Flowers, there was an abundance to gratify the taste and delight the eye. The show of Fruit was unexpect- edly large, and the quality and variety alike remarkable. It was grati- fying to find that so much attention had already been paid by our Wis- consin farmers to the culture of Fruit, and that the money and labor bestowed upon it" seemed to have been wisely and profitably invested. There was a numerous exhibition of Flowers, and many of the Floral designs and boquets were arranged with exquisite taste. In the Miscellaneous Department of the exhibition, the show was very creditable. Many of the mechanics of Milwaukee improved the oppor- tunity of exhibiting specimens of their skill and handiwork. In a i-eport like this, it would be impossible to mention by name even a tithe of the exhibitors, or of the articles displayed. We mxist therefore content our- 18 selves with the general remark, that the State Fair afforded most con- vincing and gratifying proof that, in all the useful arts and leading branches of manufacture, our young State has already attained a respect- able rank, and that she can count among her citizens, mechanics as inge- nious and skilful as any to be found in the older eastern communities. Having thus, in accordance with the law, given a brief sketch of their own proceedings during the past year, the Executive Committee, in con- clusion, would urge upon the Legislature the importance of encouraging, by every suitable means, the improvement of the great and paramount interest of Agriculture. To this, the leading interest in Wisconsin, and the true basis of all State and National wealth, it is eminently proper and fitting that the representatives of the people should freely extend the fostering hand, and by wise and judicious patronage aid to place it in its proper position. Our soil is pre-eminently adapted to all the purposes of the Agricultur- ist, but by careless and injudicious cultivation, its virgin strength must soon become exhausted. To prevent this disastrous result, by spread- ing abroad among our citizens a knowledge of Agricultural Science, and the results of Agricultural research, is the special duty of the State Agricultural Society. In the discharge of this duty, it needs the aid and countenance of every good citizen, and of every one interested in the well being of Wisconsin. In resio-ning' their trust into the hands of their successors, the members of the Executive Committee enjoy a satisfaction in feeling that in all their labors and efforts they have been actuated by a sincere and honest desire for the advancement of the Society, and the great interests which it has in charge : and though they may not have accomplished all that could have been desired, they trust that it will be found that in none of their decisions have they greatly erred. On behalf of the Executive Committee, Respectfully submitted, ALBERT C. INGHAM, Corresponding Secretary. 19 ANNUAL ADDRESS. The Society was called to order by the President, Hon. Hekry M. Billings, at three o'clock, P. M., of the third day of the Fair ; and after a very fervent and impressive prayer had been offered, by the Rev. Wm. H. Spencer, of the Presbyterian Church, Milwaukee, the President addressed the Society in a few brief and appropriate remarks, in conclud- ing which, he congratulated the members upon the favorable circum- stances under which they had assembled together, and introduced the Hon. Levi Hubbell to the audience. ADDRESS BY HON. LEVI HUBBELL. Mr. President, and Fellow 3Iembers of the State Agricultural Society ; The field of your labors is not less favored, in its locality, than rich and varied in its products. Forming the apex between the head waters of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, its navigable streams flow alike to the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. On the north, are bound- less fol-ests of pine ; on the west, inexhaustible stores of mineral ; through, the middle and south, fertile prairies and openings ; and everywhere, limpid and bounding streams, pure and healthful airs. To the eye of the stranger, Wisconsin seems the chosen home of Lidus- try. Health, Prosperity, and Peace. Here it would seem that Agricul- ture, Commerce, and Manufactures might establish themselves, with ■every element of nature for their helper, and every interest of humanity for their stimulant and guide. But, gentlemen, though the sun in his circuit, visits no spot of earth lovelier, healthier, or more fertile than our chosen State, I am not here to praise it. I come to speak to you only as working-men, and of your State, as a field of labor. Labor is our common heritage ; our blessino; as well as our curse. When the fiat of Omnipotence drove man from the garden of Paradise, into a world of thorns and briars, we read that " the ground was cursed for his sake," and he was sent forth, "to till the earth, from which he was taken." But his case was not left hopeless. Though 20 the flaming sword of cherubim barred him forever " from the tree of life," and "in the sweat of his brow" he was commanded and compelled to "eat his bread," two pitying angels followed his footsteps and cheered his fallen estate. The one was Religion, and the other Art ; the one pointed his eye to a better world ; the other taught him how to improve and enjoy this. Aided by art, and by mental and physical exertion, man has "taken possession of the earth and subdued it ;" he has cleared away the thorns and briars and made "the wilderness bud and blossom as the rose." Among the ten thousand means which art has devised, for improving the condition of the human family, the enlightened pursuits of Agricul- ture slill remain the most inviting, the most productive, the most noble. The cultivation of the soil still continues the employment of the great mass of mankind ; and whatever lightens its burdens or elevates its vota- ries, must command the ready attention of all right-minded persons. Invited by the occasion, I shall venture a few remarks, not upon the practical details of agricultural employment, but upon the qualities and acquirements which should characterize the enlightened American Farmer. And, in the first place, allow me to say : The xVmerican Farmer should honor and love his calling. It was the occupation of primeval innocence. The purest and greatest of men have turned to it, when the world's wealth and honors and stations palled upon their cloyed senses. Health, strength, competence, and peace attend upon the fai-mer's toils. The sun and the sky smile directly upon his head. The fruits and the flowers of earth spring beneath his feet, obedient to his call. The free breezes fill his lungs and fan his manly brow. His condition is one of practical independence. He sits beneath his own vine and fig tree. He eats the fruits of his own labor. His wealth and his honors depend not upon the smiles of princes or the favor of the populace, but upon his own right arm, and the blessing of that God who has set his bow in the Heavens, as a witness that svimmer and winter, seed-time and har^■est shall not fail. No man prospers long who is ashamed of his occupation. His intellect flags, his hand refuses to do his bidding. Lost to self respect, he feels that the scorn of the world is upon him. Poverty waits at his door, and despondency .sits upon his brow. If such a man be dig- nified by the name of farmer, what can you expect from him ? Though he put his hand to the plow, his own shadow will cause him to faint in the furrow. Pride, emulation, conscious rectitude, honorable ambition, % 21 are requisite to great and successful efforts, alike in the field and the workshop, at the merchant's desk and in the halls of legislation. Our agricultural population can never be what they ought to be, until every man walks abroad, not only in the dignity of his own nature, but in the just pride of his own calling; until every man feels that a farm, worked by his own hands, is better than a patent of nobility ; that a family clothed in articles of their own manufacture, is more respectable than if the jeweled gifts of Princes hung upon their necks, or glistened upon their idle fingers. Let the farmer understand, that in this country, we have no vagabond race of gentlemen, heirs to idleness and successors to pomp, luxury, and vice ; no lineal aristocracy, absorbing the dignity, the honor and the power of all other classes, and yet contributing nothing to the products of the earth or the common good of mankind. But let it be known everywhere — known, practised, and felt, that labor is honorable ; that idleness is disreputable ; that he Avho eats his bread in the sweat of his brow, not only submits to no servitude, but stands justified before God and man, as fulfilling the law of his existence.; as doing that, which if all men would do, earth would be immeasurably relieved of the curse, and its inhabitants made as prosperous, as independent, and as happy as our fallen nature admits. Hence, I say further, that the farmer should be industrious. Idleness is the parent of all the vices ; industry of nearly all the virtues. I have never known an industrious community that was not prosperous, independent, peaceful, and virtuous. Industry promotes not only the health of the body, but that of the mind and heart. Its achievements are almost inconceivable. The constant dropping of water wears away the massive and solid rock. The continued clicking of a single hammer, worked by a single hand, during the hours of labor in one man's life, would beat into atoms the entire Capitol at Washington. Industry overcomes all obstacles. It circumnavigates the globe ; it digs into the bowels of the earth ; it scales with ease the frightful precipice ; it propels the weary ox, slow-footed and heavy laden, from his home in the east, across the continent, over arid plains and deep marshes, up rocky steeps and snowy mountains, till he descends the western slopes and drinks of those streams "whose foam is amber and whose gravel gold." Industry adorns alike the humble cot and the most costly man- sion. It is the magic wand, which, like that of Midas, transmutes all .baser metals into gold. Industry works by system. It has a place for everything, and everything in its place. It has a time for everything, 22 and does everything at the proper time. It is not drudgery ; it is not servitude ; it is cheerful and free. It rises with the lark, when the dew is on the lawn, and begins as merrily the labors of the day. It retires at evening like the setting sun, peaceful and serene, after the accomplish- ment of its appointed task. Industry is labor, guided by intelligence and prompted by free will. It is a sure staff by which all men may walk, by which the farmer must. The warrior wins glory and renown by a single battle. The merchant fills his coffers by a single venture. The miner, sacrificing health, comfort, and repose, amasses wealth in a few months. But the tiller of the soil, by slower and surer processes, aims to better his condition. His labors distribute themselves throughout the year. He lives and enjoys himself as he goes along. His hope and expectation is, to make the years' ends a little more than meet, to find his farm im- proved in condition, his stock enhanced in number and quality, his house better furnished, his family better clad, his debts, if he has any, some- what reduced, and perhaps, his capital at interest a trifle augmented. He ventures cautiously, manages economically, accumulates gradually. To such a man, industry is the very handmaid of prosperity. Though the seasons may be backward — though wet and drought may impair his crops — though disease may infest his cattle — though the rust may blight bis harvest — though prices may be low and the market dull — still indus- try cheers him on — "Sovereign o'er transmuted ills;" still his course, guided by her, is forward and upward, and he carries the whole circle of the virtues with him. The farmers should also he skilful. The condition of the arts gene- rally, marks the progress of civilized over savage life. As light dawns upon the head and hearts of nations, they advance in Agricultural know- ledge, and as this science is cultivated, society uniformly progresses in refinement, intelligence and social elevation. Not many years since, a few implements of agriculture were sent out to a company of Mission- aries established among the Hottentots, near the Cape of Good Hope. Permission was obtained from the swarthy king of the tribe to make an exhibition of the working of the Plow — and his majesty, with his royal family and chief officers, consented to be present and witness the spec- tacle. Arrangements were made accordingly. The novelty of the scene attracted a great crowd of idle and ignorant natives. It was the first time a plow had broken the soil of that ancient realm. One of the Mis- sionaries held the plow, and drove the team after the American fashion j 23 and as it passed around the first and second time, turning over the earth with an easy and graceful motion, the curiosity and wonder of the mon- arch was greatly excited. At the third round he pulled off his cap, threw it upon the ground and exclaimed, "that instrument is worth twenty wives." This is the estimate which a king in Africa puts upon a plow : that is the standard by which a man, unacquainted with the plow, measures value. Farmers of Wisconsin ! surrounded by wives and daugh- ters whom you honor, love and cherish, you should remember that a woman is noAvhere so pure, nowhere so highly estimated, nowhere so nobly influential as in those rural districts where the science of agricul- ture is most highly and successfully cultivated. The best managed farm is almost sure to display a farm-house equally well managed, and a family circle over which woman presides with equal cheerfulness and grace. There, woman displays, within her proper sphere, all the homely virtues as well as all the social refinements for which God and nature fitted her ; there, she presents the happy medium between the vile slavery to which barbarism reduces her, and the imaginary inde- dendence, after which modern Bloomerism is wildly and vainly striving. But I was arguing that skill in agricultural science, demanded the at- tention of the American Farmer. Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth well doing — whatever it is expedient or necessary to do, should be done in the easiest, quickest and most efficient manner. As labor is the source, or constituent, of all capital, it follows that whatever doubles the product of a day's labor, doubles the capital of the laborer. This principle may be extended and carried out through all the branches of agricultural pursuits. Not only the labor-saving implement or machine practically increases the farmer's capital, but every improvement in seed, in the mode of cultivation, in the time and manner of doing work, and in the adaptation of soils to crops, and crops to soils, must add correspondingly to the product of any given investment. So, also, every improvement in the breeds of cattle, horses, sheep, or other domestic animals, and the modes of rearing, training, keep- ing and managing them, must cheapen the cost, while it increases the product and adds to the value. It requires no wizard to teach us that the mode of culture adopted now, in this State, is superior to that of the ignorant savages, whose corn hills still dot the surface of the earth in many places around us. Those savages would have been surprised, could some prophet have informed them, one hundred years ago, what a 2i century would exhibit among their planting grounds, in the way of agri- cultural improvement. So, I fancy would this audience be surprised, could some magic hand cast forward the horoscope, and show to them what improvements, even here, another hundred years are destined to present. The spirit of the age is progress. In every branch of industry, the genius of man is dispelling the darkness of the past, and chaining the elements to his car of triumph. The declaration of the Scripture is being more than fulfilled — not only has man "sought out many inven- tions," but he is asserting his privilege and prerogative to seek out many more. It is time that the farmer woke up to his duties and his privileges. It is not enough that he is as wise as his fathers were. It is not enough that he watches the changes of the moon and the approaches of the doof star — not enouc^h that he waits for the times and the seasons, and even prays to Him who guides Arcturus with his sons, and binds the sweet influences of Pleiades. He must apply practical science to his daily efforts. He must walk by the lights which modern improvement has spread around him. He must profit by example, by precept, by study and by reflection, or he is not as wise as he ought to be, or as successful as he might be. He must not jog on, in the slow, heavy lumber wagon of past days, or the railroad train of the present will sweep by him, and pass out of sight on the track of progi'css. But above all, the American Farmer should not slacken his efforts nor abate his desires to acquire skill in all that appertains to his calling. He should remember that ao-riculture is the ffreat business of the Ame- rican People ; that it is the source of their wealth, and the just object of their pride and glory ; that the American people occupy an eminence above the rest of mankind, in liberty and civilization ; that the eye of the world is upon us, and the sounding tread of the nations, far down in the depth below, echoes in our ears, warning us to press forward and make room for them. Again : — The American Farmer should be a temperate man. All experience and all history demonstrate that intoxicating drinks add no permanent vigor to the limb, or energy to the intellect. In man and in woman, in youth and in age, in toil and in rest, even their temperate use can only be justified as a doubtful luxury and not as a useful beverage. The mother of Sampson was commanded by an angel from Heaven to "Drink not wine or strong drink." 25 The Roman Poet, alludintr to those who wore trained to contend in the Olympic Games, admonishes the emulous youth of his time — " Qui studet optatam cursu coutingere metam Multura tulit fecitque piier, sudavit et alsit Abstinuit venere et viuo." — And the great Apostle of the Gentiles, borrowing an illustration from the same subject, appeals to the Corinthians, as knowing, " that every man who striveth for the mastery is temperate in all things." The greatest General of the past age, perhaps the greatest genius of any age, Xapoleon Bonaparte, was as temperate in living as he was bold in desion, and resistless in execution. But why appeal to the master-spirits of the world for illustration of a principle, which is as universal in application as it is undeniable in utility. Happily the history of our Agricultural population has exemplified the truth, that the virtues are kindred, and that where prudence, economy and industry prevail, simplicity and purity in habits, and, above all, tem- perance in the use of intoxicating drinks, has been found to prevail. Our Agricultural communities, generally, have honored and benefitted them- selves by their devotion to this cause : and it may w^ell be hoped that the past will be but an incentive to future efforts, — that their practices may diffuse yet richer blessings at home, and command more respect and win more followers abroad. Still further : The American Farmer should be an Educated Man. Knowledge is power the world over. We live in an age signalized by the diffusion of mental light, we live in a country pledged by its institutions, and devoted by its tastes, to make popular education thorough and uni- versal. We live in a State upon Avhich the munificence of the General Government has bestoAved the means of educating every man, woman and child. Common school instruction is the birth-right of every son and daughter of Wisconsin. The Pierian Spring bubbles literally at your door-steps, and your children and your childrens' children have but to kneel down and drink of the waters of knowledge. Ignorance among us must be hereafter a disgrace. The will only is Avanting ; the will, on the part of parents, and obedience on the part of children, to make the future population of Wisconsin the most generally, if not the most thoroughly, educated people on earth. And shall that will be wanting ? Shall a people who have their destinies in their own hands ; with whom rests the sovereign power ; who frame and abrogate constitutions ; pass 3 26 and repeal laws ; establish and dispense with courts of justice ; elevate and displace rulers — shall they refuse to qualify themselves for the pro- per exercise of those high functions ? Above all, shall that portion of the people Avho numerically control the ballot boxes ; Avhose habits and tastes and avocations best fit them to cherish, and exemplify those purer and sterner virtues out of which our Republican Institutions sprung — shall they, who have emphatically in their hands the hopes and des- tinies of Freedom, and upon whom Heaven has devolved the high prero- gative of rescuing the face of the earth from its primal curse — shall they prove recreant to their position — to their privileges — to the just expecta- tions of the civilized world ? The thought is not to be tolerated. Once more. The American Farmer should be a man of Taste. His walks are among the beautiful things of Earth. The gew-gaws of fashion, and the gilded trappings of wealth and power, are but dumb shows, compared Avith the sights Avhich present themselves to his eye. For him, the limpid brook gurgles over its stony bed, and steals its wind- ing way along the green and flowery mead ; for him the tender plant bursts from the nurturing earth — first the blade, and then the stalk, and then the full-grown corn in the ear. P'or him, the forest waves in the summer breeze, turning up the silver sheen of its leaves, in unconscious display of beauty : for him the morning sheds its golden light, sprinkles its pearly dews, and breathes its balmy air. The very workshop of the Farmer is the temple and palace of Nature ; and if his heart is not insensate, if his soul is not blinded or dark, refine- ment must grow upon him like a habit, and become a part of his nature. It matters not that his employment is laborious and rough ; that his attire is plain ; that his home is humble. "We do not train the soldier in a drawing-room, nor rear the oak in a hot-bed. We do not complain of the pine-apple because its exterior is rough, nor do we relish the crab- apple because its surface is polished. The mind, the heart, and the soul, are the standard and measure of the man; and if the Farmer is not refined and tasteful and elevated, he is impervious to the quickening influences with which a wise and benignant Providence has bountifully surrounded him. And how palpably do these evidences of taste, or the want of it, display themselves throughout every agricultural community. Pass through the State, and mark the farm where the fences are neglected ; where briars and weeds grow in the corners and around the stumps ; where the cattle stand shelterless in the wind, or feed upon the unfenced 27 stacks of grain ; where the dwelling house parches in the sun, without a tree, a vine, or a flower to shelter and adorn it ; where old hats and old clothes vie with children's faces in the broken windows, and pigs louno-e on the vacant site of the piazza and door steps ; and who does not know that, in this place, the man, and what is infinitely worse, the woman, is devoid of taste, and that, wanting taste, they lack all the characteristics of good and successful farmers ? I will not detain you by painting the more pleasing antipode of this disagreeable picture, but content myself with hoping that among the wholesome influences of this Society, will be the cultivation of a more elevated taste, and that in a few years, our whole State will be dotted over with tidy and comfortable farm houses, which give evidence not only that prosperity has made them its home, but that taste and refinement there preside, shedding beauty and grace, contentment and joy. But it is time these desultory remarks were drawn to a close. I beg leave to mingle my regrets with yours, at the misfortune which deprives us of the anticipated speaker on tliis occasion.- Unexpectedly called, in the midst of pressing engagements, to discharge the honorable duty which has devolved upon me, I feel that I am but strnding as an apology for him, whose fame and genius were invoked to lend interest to your Second Annual Meeting. May the anniversaries of your Society be perpetual, and their benign influences become as pervading as they must be useful. The age in which we live is altogether interesting. To the Agriculturist, the signs of the times are animating, encouraging, inspiring. The power of steam has gone far to annihilate space ; the electric telegraph outstrips time. The people of the earth are becoming practically but one family, and the nations near neighbors. The great marts of the world are our market-places. Railroads are penetrating the interior of even this State, and bringing into usefulness and value vast tracts of land, recently but the desert home of the savage and the wild beast. The bowels of the earth are yielding up unwonted and unmeasured quantities of the precious metals. All the products of the soil find a ready market and a fair price. Riches are increasing and abounding in the land. Thousands and hun- dreds of thousands of persons find themselves in easy and afiluent circum- stances, seeking investment for their capital and occupation for their minds. What more inviting field than that of Agriculture ? * The Hon. William H. Seward was written to, and expected until a late hour, to be present and address tlie Society, 28 The time has gone by when it was thought necessary to force a young man into one of the professions to make him respectable. The profes- sions are crowded with those who are htted to shine in them, and bur- dened with those who are not. Respectability is confined to no particular class — no profession — no occupation. The industrious, the intelligent, the cultivated, the tasteful, and moral, are everywhere respectable. Why, then, overwhelm the professions with those who must fail to realize their hopes, and rob the field of those who might there be independent, useful and honorable ? Let the occupation of the farmer be properly estimated; let it be elevated to the highest ground, and let others look up to it. Tell the ingenuous youth of the country — those who have talent, enterprise, or wealth to employ — here is your appropriate field of exertion ; here you may blend taste and beauty with pleasure and profit ; here you may have employment that strengthens the body and gratifies the mind ; here you may build a home that virtue consecrates, opulence adorns, and hospi- tality renders attractive ; here you will be exempted from the cares and the disappointments that vex the commercial, the professional and the political world ; here contentment and peace, like angel's wings, will overshadow your roof; and around the family altar and the family table, gathering the circle of cheerful hearts and cheerful faces, you may eat and drink, " And ill communion sweet, Quaff immortality and joy." ENTRIES AT MILWAUKEE. CATTLE 65 HORSES 135 SHEEP 331 SWINE AND POULTRY. ...^ 43 FARMING IMPLEMENTS 109 PLOWING MATCH 6 DAIRY 21 FLOUR AND HONEY 16 GRAINS, SEEDS AND VEGETABLES 131 DOMESTIC MANUFACTURES AND NEEDLE WORK.. 112 FRUITS „ 92 FLOW^ERS 45 PAINTINGS 53 MISGELL/.NEOUS 170 1329 29 WISCONSm STATE AGKICULTURAL SOOIETr. REPORTS OF COMMITTEES Made at the Second Annual Cattle Show and Fair of the Society, held at the City of Milwaukee, on Wednesday, Thursday and Friday, 6th, 7th, and 8th days of October, 1852. SHORT HORN?.— No. or Extries, 25. Judges. — Thomas P. Turner, Palmyra ; Martix Field, Mukwanego ; Hiram Barber, Juneau. Best bull three years old and over (Henry Clay) ; Leonard Gage, Hainesville, 111. Diploma, and Stephens' Book of the Farm. "Henry Clay is a thorough-bred animal ; is red and white ; the red more or less mixed with white hairs. He was bred by Horatio N. Cary, of Marcy, Oneida county, N. Y. ; was calved, April, 1848. He was sired by the full-bred Durham bull Oregon ; Oregon by Cortez ; Cortez by Ajax ; Cortez's dam. Conquest, by Washington ; g. dam, Pansy, by Blaze ; g. g. by Charley ; g. «. g. Primrose, by Blythe Comet ; g. g. g. g. Primrose, by Prince ; g. g. g. g. g. Primrose, by Patriot. Ajax sired by Washington ; dam Red Lady, by Washington ; g. dam Pansy, by Blaze ; g. g. Primrose, by Charles ; g. g. g. Primrose, by Blythe Comet ; g. g. g. g. Primrose, by Prince ; g. g. g. g. g. Primrose, by Patriot. Wash- ington and Pansy were imported by Stephen Van Renssellaer, of Albany, and were bred by Mr. Champion, of Engand." Second best bull three years old ajid over (Eclipse) ; Harvey Durkee, Kenosha. ^5. "The bull Eclipse was calved August, 1848; was bred by George Vail, Esq., of Troy, N. Y. ; got by his prize bull Meteor, ( 104 A. H. B.) ; dam Arabella, bred by Thomas Bates, Esq., England. Arabella was got by fourth Duke of Northumberland, a Dutchess bull, (3649 E. H. B.); her dam by Duke of Cleveland, (1937 E. H. B.) ; g. dam by Belvidere, 30 (1706 E. H. B.) ; g. g. dam, a superior short-horned co"w, bought by Mr. Bates in 1828, and possessing some of the best blood of the Collins stock." Best bull two years old and over (Murat) ; J. Rogers, Burlington. Sil- ver Medal. Murat is of white color, flecked with roan, and was got by Eclipse, for whose pedigree see above. Best one year old bull — white ; Samuel A. Thurston, Burlington. Youatt on Cattle. Second best one year old bull (Otsego) ; A. P. Lyman, Sheboygan. Transactions. " Otsego is a red bull ; calved. May, 1851. He Avas bred by Francis M. Botch, Morris, N. Y. Got by Coxcomb ; dam Harebell, by Bertram 2d, (3144 E. H. B.) ; Coxcomb sired by Yorkshireman, (5700 E.H.B.) ; dam Coral, by Bertram 2d; g. dam. Conquest by Washington, (1666 E. H. B.) ; Yorkshireman was bred by Mr. Bates, of England — imported by Mr. Cope; sired by Short-tail, (2621 E. H. B.); dam by Belvidere, (1760 E.H.B.)" Best cow three years old and over (Kate) ; Harvey Durkee, Kenosha. Diploma, and Stephens' Book of the Farm. "Kate is red and white ; nine years old. Got by Ajax ; bred by Gen. Van Renssellaer. Dam by imported Coplow ; g. dam by Comet ; g. g. dam by Nelson. These bulls were all imported animals." Second best cow, three years old and over ; red, eight years old ; A. Blanchard, M. D., Milwaukee. $5. Best one year old heifer ; Adam E. Ray, Troy. Youatt on Cattle. Second best one year old heifer (Rose) ; L. W. Willan, Pewaukee. Transactions. DEVONS.— No. OF Entries, 3. Judges. — Leonard Gage, Hainesville, 111.; H. B. Marsh, Kenosha; H. B. Hawley, Milford. Best bull three years old and over (Bishop) ; A. P. Lyman, Sheboygan. Diploma, and Stephen's Book of the Farm. "Bishop is six years old ; is a deep cherry red ; was sired by Balti- more. His dam was Frozenfoot, an imported cow." CD CO <:: pel P^ tm CO ■ ?) o t^ rp o CO pj ^ -c 1^ ■\s 1=) CD ^ [SI CD p^ « pj OS CD CO en ■:.T5r- 31 Best two years old bull (Sir Henry) ; David Hall, Gaines, N. Y. Silver Medal. Best cow three years old and over (Lucy) ; A. P. Lyman, Sheboygan. Diploma, and Youatt on Cattle. The Judges remark, in their report, that while the show in this class was small, yet the animals presented were perfect specimens, and reflect great credit upon their enterprising owners, NATIVES, AND CROSS BETWEEN NATIVES AND IMPROVED CATTLE. No. OF Entries, 19. Jadfjes. — Joseph Davenport, Genesee ; Elisha W. Edgerton, Summit ; Richard Jones, Genesee. Best two years old bull (Wisconsin Jack) ; Talbot C. Dousman, Ottawa, Silver Medal. Second best two years old bull (Bill) ; red ; Benjamin Bettis, Mequon. Youatt on Cattle. Best one year old bull ; red ; S. C. Hall, Whitewater. Youatt on Cattle. Second best one year old bull (Prince Albert) ; E. F. Weld, Eagle. Transactions. Best bull calf (Young Herod) ; speckled ; Emery Thayer, East Troy. Transactions. Second best bull calf ; dark red ; four months old ; Martin Cogswell, Brookfield. Allen's Domestic Animals. Best cow three years old and over ; speckled ; four years old ; Richard- son Houghton, Milwaukee. Diploma, and Stephens' Book of the Farm. Second best cow three years old and over ; George > C/2 1 so 1^^ ^ |S^ -tk •Jf^-siii^i ' 33 ■whose sire was Ogden Messenger, got by Bush Messenger. Young Messenger's dam was a bay mare, got by Old Eclipse. Badger Boy's dam i.s Old Whitey. Old Whitey was sired by an imported Norman French horse, owned in Washington county, N. Y. His pedigree and excellent stock are well known." Second best stallion over four years old (Vermont Morgan); T. J. Wood, Baraboo. $5. " Vermont Morgan is a dark dapple grey, standing sixteen hands high, and weighing twelve hundred and fifty-nine pounds. He is a thorough- bred Morgan, his pedigree being as follows : Chittenden Morgan ; Green Mountain Morgan ; Gifford Morgan, by the original Morgan, who was got by True Briton, by Wildair ; dam by Sherman Morgan ; and g. dam by Gifford Morgan." Best brood mare over four years old, with foal at her foot, (Kate) ; five years old ; Joseph Davenport, Genesee. Diploma, and Stephens' Book of the Farm. Second best brood mare over four years old, with foal at her foot, (Old Dolly), eight years old; Jacob Burgitt, East Troy. Youatt on the Horse, and $2. Best stallion three years old (Young Henry) ; bay ; D. S. Cady, Mil- waukee. Silver medal. Second best stallion three years old (Charles Wisconsin); deep bay; William Vliet, Milwaukee. American Muck Book, and ^1. Best mare three years old (Fanny); sorrel; Garret VHet, Milwaukee. Silver medal. Best stallion two years old (Grey Messenger) ; Elisha Phillips, Ken- osha. ^5. Second best stallion tAvo years old (St. Patrick) ; sorrel ; Simon Ruble, Beloit. Youatt on the Horse. Best mare two years old (Jessie) ; Enoch Chase, Milwaukee. S5. Second best mare two years old (Fan) ; black ; Peter D. Wemple, Em- erald Grove. Youatt on the Horse. Best stallion one year old (Patrick Henry) ; brown ; Emery Thayer, East Troy. Youatt on the Horse. 34 MATCHED AND DRAFT HORSES AND GELDINGS.— No. op Entries, 35. Judges. — Erastus B. Wolcott, Milwaiikee; Geo. C. Pratt, Waukesha. Best pair of matched horses (Hamiltonian and Messenger) ; seven years old ; brown ; George 0. Tiffany, Milwaukee. Diploma, and Stephens' Book of the Farm. Second best pair of matched horses ; Addison Baker, R,acine. S5. Best pair of draft horses (Grey Sampson and Windflower) ; Simon Ruble, Beloit. Diploma. " Grey Sampson is a dapple grey, five years old, and stands eighteen hands high. He was sired by the celebrated imported draft horse Samp- son, who was brought from England to New York, and from thence taken to Ohio. His dam is Canadian Lion, sired by Old Lion, of Penn- sylvania. Young Sampson weighs 1783 lbs. when in good order. "Windflower is a dapple grey, seven years old, stands seventeen hands high, and weighs 1660 lbs. He is a descendant of the English Coach Horse on the side of his sire. His dam is Lady Jane, got by Highlander. Her dam was got by Duncanan, and her grand-dam by Old Messenger." These horses show many superior points, being not only powerful draft horses, but excellent roadsters. Second best pair of draft horses ; greys ; eight years old ; Richard Richards, Mount Pleasant. $5. Best Gelding (Henry); five years old; Nicholas Ehle, Kenosha. Diploma. Second best gelding (Don) ; sorrel ; five years old ; Joshua Davis, Ke- nosha. S3. Best mare (May Henry) ; four years old ; William Shallock, Milwaukee, Diploma. Second best mare ; sorrel ; five years old ; Sabina Barney, Wauke- sha. $3. JACKS AND MULES.— No. of Extries, 8. Judges. — Erastus B. Wolcott, Milwaukee; Geo. C. Pratt, Waukesha. Best jack ; Spanish ; six years old ; David Williams, Geneva. S5. Second best jack ; brown ; B. A. Jenkins, Genesee. $3. Best pair of mules ; ten years old ; Talbot C. Dousman, Ottawa. $5. o Co to CD ^-C3 1-3 o "-a CD r '""^ CO ^ 1^ ^ CD (CD 1^ bd Lfej 13 ^ IS rD C» an 35 LONG WOOLED SHEEP.— No. of Esteies, 43. Judges. — Thomas T. Whittlesey, Pheasant Branch ; Reuben M. Norton, Racine ; Talbot C. Dousman, Ottawa. Best buck over two years ; Thomas K. Carr, Oak Creek. $4. Second best buck over two years ; John Hinton, Eagle. Transactions. Second best buck two years or under ; John Hinton, Eagle. Youatt on Sheep. Best pen, three buck lambs ; John Hinton, Eagle. 83. " I pen my sheep every night. They have a warm cot where, when it is very cold, they go, but when it is mild, they lie outside. I feed them on timothy and clover hay ; about the beginning of March I add tur- nips. I feed the ewes and lambs on time thy and clover in the spring, and wean the lambs in July, on the lattermath, after the timothy and clover is mowed. John Hinton." MIDDLE WOOLS.— No. of EniEiKi, 58. Judges — Thomas T. Wiiittlesev, Pheasant Branch ; Reuben M. Norton, Racine ; Talbot C. Dousman, Ottawa. Best buck over two years ; A. P. Lyman, Sheboygan. ^4. Best buck two years or under ; N. B. Clapp, Kenosha. $3. Best pen, three ewes, over two years ; N. B. Clapp, Kenosha. 83. Best pen, three buck lambs ; N. B. Clapp, Kenosha. 83. "On several accounts, for this country, I prefer the Southdown sheep to the Merinos. They are much hardier animals, have stronger consti- tutions, and are better calculated for mutton — averaging, at least, one- third larger size than the fine-wool Merinos. For feeding, they are un- surpassed; producing a superior quality, and greater weight of flesh. from the same feed than any other sheep. The ewes are very prolific. The lambs, when young, are usually stout and healthy — much easier raised in cold weatlier than fine-wool lambs. I prefer them to the Lei- cesters or Cotswolds. They cut nearly the same quantity of wool, and of a finer quality ; and with the same feed will produce as much flesh, and of a superior quality. They do not require as much protection from storm, on account of the compactness of the fleece. They are far supe- rior, in crossing with the fine-wool sheep. A. P. Lyman." 36 MERTIfOS — No. or Entries, 141. Judges. — Thomas T. Whittlesey, Pheasant Branch ; Reuben M. Norton, Racine ; Talbot C. Dousman, Ottawa. Best buck over two years ; Alraon Atwood, Waupun. ^4. Best buck two years or under ; Wesley P. Benson, Johnstown. $3. Second best buck two years or under ; David Hall, Gaines, N. Y. Youatt on Sheep. Best pen, three ewes, over two years ; Almon Atwood, Waupun. $4. Second best pen, three ewes, over two years ; Edgerton & McCarter, Summit. Transactions. Best pen, three ewes, two years or under ; David Hall, Gaines, N. Y. $3. Second best pen, three ewes, two years or under ; H. B. Burritt, Mas- kego Centre. Youatt on Sheep. Best pen three buck lambs ; Almon Atwood, Waupun. 83. Best pen three ewe lambs ; H. B. Burritt, Muskego Centre. $3. Second best pen three ewe lambs ; George C. Pratt, Waukesha. Youatt on Sheep. Almon Atwood's Statement. "These sheep I have raised from some pure-blooded Merinos, which I bought of Edwin Hammond, Esq., of Middlebury, Vt., in the autumn of 1847. Mr. Hammond purchased his flock of Mr. Stephen AtAvood, of Litchfield county, Conn., who has bred pure from the Humphrey import- ation of Spanish Merinos. These sheep are noted for their hardiness of constitution, and for the large amount of fine wool they produce, in pro- portion to the size of carcass. Bucks of this flock generally shear from ten to sixteen pounds of washed wool ; the ewes from four to eight pounds. My flock of ewes, sixteen in number, sheared ninety-four pounds of washed wool the past season, and reared sixteen lambs, with ordinary keeping. The fleeces ranged from four to seven and three-fourth pounds. "The bucks, when they have attained their full growth, weigh from one hundred and forty to one hundred and seventy-five pounds ; the ewes, from eighty to one hundred and thirty pounds. The outward appear- ance of this wool, in its natural state, is quite dark ; but when opened, it appears very white and glossy, with a fine, beautiful crimp. Sheep 37 will do well, in summer, on grass alone, in flocks ranging from one hun- dred to two hundred, if kept within enclosures ; but they can be kept, in much larger flocks, by allowing them to run at large on our prairies and openings, where there is an extensive range. When kept in this way, a shepherd should be with them, to keep them from straying, and collect them together at night. In winter, I keep my sheep on our wild hay, and they can be kept very well on hay only ; but I think it much better to feed some grain. I think Avheat bran the best, especially for breeding ewes ; and if I wish to feed heavier, I mix boiled barley and oats. Oats is a very good grain for sheep, and I think feeding in the straw prefera- ble. Potatoes, turnips, carrots, and beets are excellent for sheep, when the weather is mild, but, when very cold, I think grain better. Some method should be taken to prevent the sheep from running over their fodder ; either with racks or boxes. I prefer the latter, made of boards, about one foot in width, with a space, seven or eight inches, between them, and two and a half feet wide. Sheds should be provided, and it is better if they can be arranged so as to feed under shelter, and con- fine the flock there during storms. Sheep require water as much as any • other stock. It should be situated convenient to the yard ; for if it is not, they will go without for days, in very severe weather, rather than expose themselves to the piercing Avinds — which is very injurious. Almon Atwood." Wesley P. Bensox's Statement. "My sheep are bred from two of the most popular flocks of Spanish Merinos in Vermont — (the Brewer and Atwood flocks). The weight of wool of my buck, when one year old, was thirteen pounds ; and his weight of carcass was one hundred and twenty-six pounds. ''From the earliest ages, sheep have been classed among the most val- uable of domestic animals. Previous to the deluge, they were oflfered in sacrifices ; and since that period, their flesh has been used for food, and their wool for clothing, in all quarters of the world. •'No other animal requires so much attention to its food, during win- ter, as the sheep. When first brought in for the winter, they are usually confined in so small a space, and in such numbers, that the air becomes impure, and will soon produce disease. It will be a great preventive of disease, to smear their noses with tar, as often as once in two weeks, 38 during the winter. Although no better food for sheep exists than ripe, well cured, timothy hay and clover, yet they will do well with our marsh hay, and oat straw, when cut green and well cured. Potatoes, turnips, and carrots I find of great advantage to sheep, in this country. My manner of feeding these roots is, to cut them fine and mix them with corn meal. Sheep suft'er much, in winter, by being deprived of green food, and not having access to the ground. It is well to let them have a few feet of turf, loam, or gravel. Should this become frozen, break it up occasionally, with a crowbar or axe. I find it difficult to give the Spanish sheep grain enough to start their wool. I commence with a pint of oats per day, and afterwards increase it to a quart per head. " In order to raise good lambs, I find it beneficial to feed the ewes, before and after dropping, with carrots, turnips and beans. My lambs, at the age of two months, have weighed from thirty pounds to forty -five pounds. This feeding adds also to the weight of the clip from the ewes. My ewes have cut from five and a half pounds to eight pounds per head. Although it may be considered that I take too much pains with my sheep, yet I only pursue my New England habits ; and in this I shall continue until I am satisfied that there is a better way. As soon as mild weather appears in spring, and long before the snow has disappeared, sheep exhibit an inclination to leave their long confinement, and seek their food in the meadow or pasture. It is well, however, to keep them confined until the snow has mostly disappeared, and the ground becomes nearly dry. Sheep at this season should be kept where they can have access to the ground in the day time, and be fed occasionally with pota- toes and turnips. " In summer, sheep require pastures that are dry. They thrive best on high table land, or on mountain ridges, abounding in bitter plants and aromatic herbs. In Wisconsin, we have one of the best climates in the Union for the Spanish Merino sheep. " For six weeks before yeaning, the ewe should be deprived of most of her accustomed supply of potatoes and other vegetables, as these are calculated to produce a surplus quantity of milk, Avhich is frequently injurious. At the time of yeaning, however, a small quantity may be given, as it will tend to strengthen the ewe. If yeaning comes when the nights are cold and frosty, the ewes should be warmly housed. Wesley P. Benson." 39 SAXONS— Nc. OF Entries, 33. Judges. — Thomas T. Whittlesei-, Pheasant Branch ; Reuben M. Norton, Racine ; Talbot C. Dousman, Ottawa. Best buck over two years ; Harvey Durkee, Kenosha. S4. Second best buck over two years ; N. B. Clapp, Kenosha. Transactions. Best pen, three ewes, two years or under ; N. B. Clapp, Kenosha. S3. Best pen, three ewe lambs; N. B. Clapp, Kenosha. $3. CR033 BREEDS.— Xo. of En'thies, 56. Judges. — Thomas T. Whittlesey, Pheasant Branch ; Reuben M. Norton, Racine ; Talbot C. Dousman, Ottawa. Best buck over two years ; George C. Pratt, Waukesha. $4. Second best buck over two years ; W. S. Skinner, Ela, 111. Transac- tions. Best buck tAvo years or under ; H. B. Burritt, Muskego Centre. $3. Second best Buck two years or under ; David Hall, Gaines, N. Y. Trans- actions. Best pen, three ewes over two years ; David Hall, Gaines, N. Y. $3. Best pen, three ewes two years or under ; George C. Pratt, Wauke- sha. $3. Second best pen, three ewes two years or under ; David Hall, Gaines, N. Y. Yuuatt un sheep, Best pen, tliree buck lambs ; Luther Rawson, Oak Creek. $3. Best pen, three ewe lambs ; David Hall, Gaines, N. Y. $3. George C. Pratt's Statement. " I received my original stock of sheep from Vermont. They were said to be a cross between the full blood Spanish Merino and the full blood Saxony. They were quite small sheep, when compared with my present stock, and would shear about three pounds of wool per head. My man- ner of keeping will not differ much, I presume, from other wool growers in Wisconsin, Our accommodations for keeping sheep in Wisconsin at present are poor, at best, when compared with those of older wool grow- 40 ing States. My sheep receive but little attention from the time of shear- ing, which is usually about the middle of June, through the summer and fall, although I always intend to give them good pasturage, and salt them every week. Sheep require but little water in the summer. Some- time.s I have them in a pasture with plenty of water, and sometimes not any. They thrive as well in one case as the other, for aught that I can see. But in the winter they will drink more or less every day, and should have it constantly by them. I keep my sheep in separate yards in winter — not over one hundred in each — and attached to each yard I have a shed of sufficient size, so that all can lie down in it, and con- structed in such a manner that they will be entirely protected from the storms. In case of a bad storm, (especially a rain storm,) I shut them in the sheds, for I consider it better for them to go without food for twenty-four hours, than be exposed to a bad storm. In winter, I keep my yards and sheds well littered with straw, so as to have them all the time dry and clean. I feed my sheep with the best of hay — it cannot be too good — in common box racks, giving them a little at a time, and usually three times in the course of the day ; but I never feed them after dark, nor before light in the morning, as they do much better to be kept as quiet as possible, and sheep are very much afraid of a lantern or light. I have formerly fed but little grain to my sheep, but I find by experience that I get better paid for my grain in feeding it to my sheep than in any other way, for it costs but little more to winter a flock partly on grain and partly upon hay, than it does to give them hay alone. They will thrive much better with a little grain, and shear enough more wool to pay for it. I think barley and oats mixed in equal quantities, gowed together, and fed in the straw is a very profitable kind of feed. I give my sheep a little sulphur occasionally through the winter, mixed with salt. It is an excellent plan to give sheep some kind of roots occa- sionally through the winter, especially towards spring ; beets, carrots and turnips, are all good. Sheep, at first, will not always eat them rea- dily ; but if they are cut fine, and a little corn meal put on to them a few times, they will very soon learn to eat them. •'I intend to have my lambs come about the first of May ; as that is about as early as we usually have grass. I find that those of my lambs that come the first of May, are larger in the autumn than those that come in March, unless the ewes have a good deal of extra feed, to make them give milk. By haying my lambs come as late as the first of May, I find 41 no trouble in raising them. I usually raise about nine-tenths of the lambs. *' I wean my lambs when four months old. I select the largest and best-wooled lambs, every year, to breed from ; and in that way I have increased the size of my sheep full one-quarter from my original stock, and have increased the weight of fleece, from about three pounds to four pounds, on an average ; I think my last clip averaged a trifle over four pounds to the fleece, and my sheep were four-fifths ewes. My bucks, at two years old, will average about one hundred and sixty pounds, and will shear from seven to nine pounds of clean washed wool. I think some of my smaller sheep the most profitable, from the fact that they will shear more wool, according to their size, than some of the larger ones. I think that the sheep that will shear the most wool (of the same quality) in proportion to the food they consume, is the most profitable. I am speaking now of wool-growing — not mutton-growing. I have lately purchased some full-blood Spanish Merinos, and intend to keep them distinct from my cross-breeds, giving them the same keeping, so that I may be better able to decide which is best. I am satisfied that the wool of my cross-breeds will shrink much less than the Merino, in manufac- turing ; it is longer and finer, and almost entirely free from gum. I intend to exhibit a few fleeces of each kind at the next State Fair, and give others a chance to judge. "I think some of our Farmers lose, every year, from two to five cents on a pound, by not having their wool in a proper condition to sell. Some have it done up one side out, and some the other ; some wad it up to- gether in a loose manner, and twist the neck around the rest of the fleece. Wool not only looks better, but it is better, by being done up snug and tight. The packer can get it into a smaller space, consequently it is easier to transport, and when properly packed, it will increase in weight, instead of shrinking, as will be the case when loosely packed. I think, also, that every sheep off'ered for a premium should have its fleece exhi- bited, as the Judges would be better able to decide upon the quality of the wool than they would by examining the wool upon the sheep, as some sheep are shorn a month earlier than others. "I think some of our Farmers are wrong in the idea that the coarse- wooled, or Leicestershire, sheep are the most profitable, either for wool or mutton. They certainly shear heavy fleeces, and have heavy car- casses ; but it requires a great amount of good keeping to make them so. 4 42 I am satisfied that my flock of cross-breeds Tvill produce more dollars worth, of either wool or mutton, from the same amount of food, than any flock of Leicestershire sheep in the State. The mutton may be, and pro- bably is, of better flavor ; but our farmers generally like the flavor of the dollars best. ^ n t> >» George C. Pratt. The Committee, in their report, say that "the Exhibition of Sheep at the late Fair was very fine, and of excellent quality. It was gratifying to see the increased attention paid to this kind of stock. The number of French and Spanish Merinos, both ewes and bucks, was very large — and probably of as good a quality as some which sold in the Merino spe- culation, at from six hundred to fifteen hundred dollars. The South Downs elicited the admiration of the Committee. The long-wooled sheep were excellent specimens of 'their kind, and the cross-breeds were superior. " The Committee found difficulty in approaching the sheep-pens through the crowd of spectators assembled around them. This furnishes undeni- able evidence that there is springing vip a laudable zeal to improve the quality and value of our flocks — and that the importance of sheep- husbandry is rapidly diff"using itself throughout the State. " One Committee is not adequate to inspect and do justice to all the dif- ferent classifications of the various kinds of sheep — and our labor would have been greatly relieved, if the exhibited sheep of the same class could all have been arranged in pens adjacent to each other, so that all of one distinct class could be inspected at once, without the disconnection of pens of cattle, or other kinds of sheep, to distract the atttention. It was hard labor for the Committee to decide, what should be the criterion of excellence when competition was so close. A manufacturer of wool would be an important auxiliary on a committee Avith wool growers. " Sheep are, perhaps, all things considered, one of the most valuable animals given to man. No animal is of greater utility. Sheep not only supply food and clothing to the thousands who cultivate and rear them, but the wool they aff"ord sustain in active employment large and exten- sive manufacturing establishments, thereby contributing in large propor- tion to the productive labor, and to the wealth of the country. In some sections they are reared for their flesh, but here they are grown for their wool. " The properties of wool are various. Fineness, purity, length of staple, elasticity and color, are most important. The quantity of fine wool {?J Avhich a fleece yields, and the degree of fineness, constitutes its value, Th3 quality of wool varies not only in different sheep, but in the same fleece. The avooI on the sides of the neck, and over the shoulders, the ribs and the back, is considered the finest. Together with the fineness of the fibre, Ave examined the length and trueness of the staple — for the more equal in quality the wool is on all parts of the body, the greater is the value of the animal that carries it. "In connection with these qualities, the Committee gave the preference to that which was soft and pliable and elastic. In the opinion of the best judges, the fibre — or, as in the sheep dialect, 'the pile,' — cannot be too soft and silky, provided the strength thereof is not impaired. It is stated, that two packs of assorted wool being taken, possessing the same degree of fineness, but the one having the soft quality in an eminent de- gree, and the other being harsh, the cloth prepared from the first, at the same expense, will be worth more to the manufacturer than the other by- full twenty-five per cent. The color of the wool is of no trifling import- ance. The sheep which gave the best samples of purity and whiteness were preferred, and where other things Avere equal, the Committee re^ garded the frame of the sheep, in forming their opinions. '•' The sheep of Mr. Atwood, of Waupun, possessed all these qualities— and the weight of fleece, groAvn in less than a year, was thirteen pounds'. Some sheep had the record of Aveightier fleeces, but for fineness, length, purity, and softness, the premium sheep, in the opinion of the Committee, excelled ; and yet the competition Avas so close as almost to defy any dis- crimination. " To those Farmers who wish to cultivate sheep for their flesh, the Lei- cester or Bakewell breed is probably the best. Specimens of this breed were exhibited. For beauty and fullness of form, and weight of carcass, and propensity to fatten, it is equalled by no other breed. " The South Downs exhibited were beautiful sheep. " Probably no country possesses advantages for the successful prosecu- tion of sheep husbandry equal to the United States ; and, as one of those States, Wisconsin, from its undulating surface, its fine herbage, and well- watered pastures, sheltered by trees from the summer's sun, is Avell situ- ated for the most prosperous culture of sheep. A Report to Parliament of the state of sheep husbandry in the North American Provinces, prO' nounced the texture of the wool from New Jersey sheep superior, in almost every point of excellence, to that raised in Great Britain. 44 " The reverse is now tlie fact. Great and permanent improvements in agriculture are the results of the enlightened views, judicious and perse- vering efforts of public-spirited, patriotic men. "So long ago as A. D. 41, a Farmer in Spain, Columella, introduced to his farm some fine African rams, and a few of the Tarentine sheep, and laid the foundation of the present improved breed of Spanish sheep. The Farmers of Wisconsin must do the same. Sheep husbandry demands a large share of the farmer's attention. The New Leicester, or Dishley breed, are the successful crossings by Robert Bakewell, of Dishley, Eng- land. The Spanish Merinos are the best, for profit, for though the form «)f the pure Merinos is bad — being small — and the return in mutton deficient, both in quantity and value ; their excellence consists in the un- exampled fineness and the peculiar felting property of their wool. From the closeness of their coat, and the luxuriance of the yolk, they do no t sufiFer much, if any, more than other breeds from the extremes of cold and wet. "The filament of the .wool has scarcely pushed itself through the pores of the skin, than it has to penetrate another and singular substance, which, from its adhesiveness and color, is called the yolk. It abounds about the breast and shoulders, the very parts that produce the best and ^ost abundant wool ; and in proportion as it extends, in any degree, over other parts, the wool is there improved. When there is a deficiency of yolk, the fibre of the wool is dry and harsh and Aveak, and the whole fleece becomes thin and hairy. When it abounds, the wool is soft, oily, and strong. The yolk gives richness and pliability, as vrell as nourish- ment, to the wool. Bad management, or poor keeping, by arresting the secretion of the yolk, or changing its properties, will, in a very great degree, impair the pliability of the wooly fibre. "We know of nothing which Avill give as good return to the Wisconsin farmer as sheep husbandry. By a judicious cross of the Merino with our own sheep, selecting the most vigorous, a breed of fine-wooled sheep will be produced, which will combine both qualities for wool and mutton. The sheep improve the farm. Roots can be easily raised for their nour- ishment. Wool is easy of transportation, and a cash article, and fat mut- ton is, or ought to be, everywhere esteemed a luxury. Sheep require air and exercise in the coldest weather, but they must be sheltered from the storms and cold. This prevents disease during summer. Agricultural Societies will exert a great influence in sheep husbandry. 45 " A fine lot of Merinos was exhibited, from New York, and offered for sale, and each succeeding Annual Fair will exhibit an increased interest in this subject. Wisconsin can be the market for the best breeds, to western wool-growers, if they turn their attention and enterprize to it." SWINE.— XO. OF EXTEIES. IG. Judge. — S. M. Booth, Milwaukee, Chairman. Best boar one year old, and under two years ; Talbot C. Dousman, Ot- tawa. $3. Second best boar one year old, and under two years (grass breed) ; Joseph. Carpenter, Waukesha. Youatt on the Pig. Best boar six months, and under one year, (Suffolk) ; S. F. Field, East Troy. Transactions. Best breeding sow two years old and over ; William Knight, Alto. $5. Second best breeding sow two years old and over ; F. H. Westover, Mil- waukee. Transactions. Best sow six months, and under one year, (Suffolk) ; S. B. Edwards, East Troy. Transactions. Second best sow six months, and under one year ; James T. Walklin, Eagle Centre. $ 1 . Best lot of pigs, not less than five, under ten months ; Benjamin Betty's, Mequon. Transactions. Joseph Carpenter's Statement. *' Grass-breed hogs have been raised in this part of the country for the last eight years. They are peaceful, quiet and lazy hogs, not inclined to get into mischief ; and if a thoughtless child happens to leave the gate unfastened, allowing them to stray away, it is no more trouble to get them back than a pet horse. They are ready for the butcher at any- time after they are six weeks old, being always fat ; at one year of age, weighing from one hundred to two hundred pounds. We milk six cows ; the milk, with a little meal added, makes excellent feed for young pork- ers. When young pigs first leave the sow, if in the winter, we take two bushels of corn and one of oats, and have them ground together into fine meal, and then make it into mush, and feed them with it. When we are short of milk, we take the same provender, pour on boiling water, and 46 when cool, feed it to our pigs for a few weeks before they are butch- ered. Within the last twelve months we have sold ten fat pigs. The youngest was six months old, the oldest eleven months old ; the smallest weighed eighty-four pounds, and the largest one hundred and eighty-two pounds. Two of these six months' old pigs were from a small China soav and a very large boar. They inherited early maturity from the sow, and size from the boar. They weighed one hundred and thirty -five pounds, and one hundred and thirty-seven pounds. We feed {o our store hogs in winter the slop of the house, a few oats or roots, and sometimes a little corn. Last summer my boar and two breeding sows lived in a field of clover and timothy. We fed them one ear of corn a day, giving the boar a quarter of a pail of milk in addition once a day. The AVaukesha butchers were anxious to buy them when living on this pasture. It is far more pleasing to have a breed of hogs that the butchers desire to buy from the pasture, than to have a neighbor come and say, ' Your hogs are in my grain — you must come and get them out, and take care of them.' " Grass breed sows are poor breeders. The pigs are, at first, very small and slim, but with care in feeding the sow, and a good, comfortable pen, the pigs can be raised. I have often been grieved, in passing the pig-sty of a poor Farmer, to see his hogs in a pen with the sky for a covering ; and after the rainy weather, with the mud several inches deep in the pen. It is not surprising that hogs will not gain in such a place, though fed ever so well. If a man is too poor to build a comfortable pen, he had better sell his hogs, for they will only add to his poverty. " Our Farmers here were. accustomed to let a sow raise one lot of pigs, and then fatten her. This soon runs out a good breed. Now, when they ^et a good breeding sow, they keep her year after year, and expressly for breeding. We have now some very fine pigs from a grass-breed sow, and a Mocho boar. ' " If we depended on an Eastern market, we should make heavier pork. We now prefer that breed of hogs that will give an hundred weight :of pork from the smallest amount of feed. Joseph Carpenter." William Knight's Statement. - " The weight of my sow, exhibited at the Fair at Milwaukee, was five hundred and thirty-two pounds, being then in store order. Her breed is one-half Leicester, with a mixture of Irish, Byfield, and several other bloods — as I have, for ten years, improved whatever opportunities were presented of getting good crosses, and had taken great pains prior to raisina: this sow. The excellence of that cross consists in their cfrowinsc large and fat at any age, with ease, and making good pork on a small quantity of feed. The manner in which I have kept my sow, has been the manner usual to good farmers. I always give my breeding sows the liberty of a small field, or the barn yard, or commons. Pigs will not grow in good shape when penned up. I sold one of her pigs, when five months old, for twenty-five dollars — the pigs being half-blood Suffolk. My sow is now with the Suftblk boar. -nr t- >> William Knight. F. H. Westover's Statement. " My hogs are in pasture during the summer, and have no feed but the milk and slop of the house. In the winter, I feed them grain suffi- cient to keep them in good growing condition, and am sure to give them a warm and dry bed. I am now feeding my sow a pail of swill and eight or ten ears of corn per day ; with that feed she keeps quite fat. She will breed once only in the year. She is four years old, and has had four litters of pigs. She had a litter of pigs, sired by a Leicestershire boar, among which was a marked distinction ; a part partaking largely of the Leicestershire, and part of the Byfield. These pigs I fed alike. When I shut them up to fat, the Leicestershires, having the largest bones, were the heaviest, but when they were killed, the Byfields weighed the most. " The pure Leicestershire hogs, if kept till they are full grown, and well fattened, will make more pork than either the Byfield or the crossed- breed that I have ; but what the farmer wants, is the greatest amount of pork from a certain amount of feed. I know some think they must have larger hogs, but I think they are deceived as to the true economy of making pork. We want to employ our feed where it will make the most pork. This is the object I have endeavored to attain in my breed of pigs, the superior qualities of which lie in the following characteristics : Their small bones, and a great weight of pork ; their unusual quietness and easiness to keep ; their fattening equally well at any age ; the small amount of feed requisite for fattening ; and the superior quality of the pork, having a very thin rind. 48< " The Berkshire hogs have too thiclc a rind. The Leicestershire hogs are great consumers, and will not fatten Avell unless kept till they are full grown. The Byfieid have neither of these faults, but are too small. By crossing the Byfieid and Leicestershire, we obtain the good qualities of the former, and something of the size of the latter. Then we have a breed that will stay where we put them, and weigh all we expect of them. By taking a little pains, our farmers will save their trouble, and not be troubled with great consumers and small returners." F. H. Westover." POULTRY— No. OF Entries, 27. Judges — P. C, Hale, Milwaukee, Chairman. Best lot of Dorkings, not less than three, one cock and two hens ; Robert E. Gillett, Milwaukee. Barry's Fruit Garden. Best lot of Polands ; Joseph Carpenter, Waukesha. American Poultry Yard. Best lot of Brahma-Pootra fowls ; Leonard Kennedy, Milwaukee. Tho- mas's Fruits. Best lot of Turkeys ; F. H. Westover, Milwaukee. American Muck Book- Best lot of Muscovy Ducks ; Richard Reynolds, Greenfield. American Poultry Yard. Best lot of Poultry owned by exhibitor ; Robert E. Gillett, Milwaukee. $3. Best lot of Shanghais ; Franklin Ripley, Jr., Milwaukee. Johnston's Practical Agriculture. The Committee, in their report, remark that "they observed with regret the little interest felt by the majority of farmers in this State, in rearing anything but the most common fowls. While there has been a manifest improvement of the animals of the State, during the last five years, the improvement of the fowl kind has been regarded as too small a business to secure the attention of any but women and children. The same breed of chickens have been allowed to run together, unchanged and uncrossed, year after year, until forty of the common hens produce a less number of eggs and chickens in a year than six well bred hens should. *' It costs no more to keep a good fowl than a poor one. A good hen will lay between one hundred and fifty and two hundred and fifty eggs a year^ 49 The average number of eggs laid by each hen now in this State will not, probably, exceed thirty in a year, and the average weight of the hens will hardly exceed two and a half pounds each. An expenditure of five dollars will enable a producer to raise hens weighing on an average seven pounds each ; and the cost of keeping good hens is so little more than the cost of keeping the common kinds, as not to be noticed by a large majority of farmers. The large classes of fowls have been found, by experience, to be more hardy and more easily raised than the common kind, and much better layers. This may, doubtless, be accounted for in part by the extra attention and care usually given them ; but anything which is worth raising is worth careful attention. " There is at present no business in which a farmer can engage, by which he can invest from ten dollars to fifty dollars so profitably as in poultry. An investment of even two dollars will increase the value of a large majority of the poultry yards of our State, in one season, more than three hundred per cent. In this respect, Wisconsin, as a State, is farther behind the older States than in any other particular. While it is an every day occurrence for fowls to be sold in the New England States and in New York at from five dollars to twenty-five dollars a pair, and fre- quently as high as seventy-five dollars a pair, ours are sold at twenty- five cents a pair, and not one in fifty of our citizens ever saw a fowl worth a dollar. " But this state of things is passing away. The present exhibition of owls, although in most States it would have been considered meagre enough, has done much toAvards stimulating admirers of fowls to im- prove their stock. It is, however, a little remarkable that the interest awakened on this subject is principally confined to others than the "tillers of the ground," and to persons who cannot raise fowl with any- thing like the economy a farmer can. Of the fowls exhibited at the State Fair, hardly any were raised by farmers. We trust that this can- not long be said of them. They are not slow in studying their interests, and if the present is not a time for them to engage in this department of a farmer's business, then we misjudge. ' " The following are the varieties most worthy of the attention of our farmers, viz. : Shanghai, Cochin China, Chittagong, Brahma Pootra, Hoang Ho, Dorking, Black Spanish, Bolton Grey, or Creole Game, and Polands. " While we recommend every person who intends to raise fowls for sale 50 to procure the most perfect specimens of pure blood stock, we ought, per- haps, to state that the cross-breeds, if not bred in and in, lay as large eggs, and as abundantly, as the pure breeds, and often produce as large stock ; so that, for the use of the table, or for layers, they are nearly or quite as good as the best imported stock. An individual owning six good hens, weighing from three and one-half to four pounds, by procuring a cock weighing ten pounds, with ordinary care, might raise in one sea- son one hundred chickens, which at eight months old, would average from six to seven pounds each. This fact has led some men, more artful than honest, to exhibit at Fairs a class of fowls to which they give a new name, and enter as a new variety ; while, in reality, they are only a cross of two known classes of fowls, and their progeny may be as ring- streaked as Jacob's cattle. No variety of fowls can be called pure, unless the progeny resemble in color and shape the parent bird. Care should therefore be taken, that the public are not imposed on in this respect. Cross-breeds should be called cross-breeds, and nothing else. On the other hand, some persons having taken pains to procure pure blood fowls, are unwilling to admit that any one else has any pure bloods but themselves, and unhesitatingly pronounce everything they see im- pure, but their own, although no other eye, however practised, can de- tect it. " The season of the year when the State Fair fs held, is most unpro- pitious for exhibiting old poultry, it being their moulting season, when fowls are generally poor, and from loss of feathers are ragged and ugly in appearance. Some of the specimens exhibited, however, were remark- ably fine, and would have done credit to any State. " The following is a list of the varieties of fowls, and the names of the exhibitors : " White Dorking. — There was but one contributor of this variety of fowls. These fowls were young, but promised well. Exhibited by Leon- ard Kennedy, of Milwaukee. This variety is very popular, and much souofht after at the East. " Speckled Dorking. — There were but a few of this specimen of fowls, but those offered were good. One hen was very fine. The owner was offered five dollars for her, but promptly refused to take ten dollars. Exhibitor, Robert Gillet, Milwaukee. "Poland. — There was but one specimen of this variety exhibited, which was very fine ; but we are assured that better fowls might have been ex- 51 liibited ; and hare learned since the exhibition, that the owner, fearing lie might lose his fowls, kept his best specimens at home. The fowl ex- hibited was owned by Joseph Carpenter, of Waukesha. " Chittago>^gs. — There was a choice lot of fowls entered by this name, all young ones except one pair, which were procured last year in Hart- ford for Chittagongs. It has since been ascertained that they are the Brahma Pootra variety, and the owner now calls them by that name. This variety of fowls is comparatively new in the country, and are among the very best imported. Several pairs have been sold in Massachusetts during the present season, for seventy-five dollars per pair. They weigh from eighteen pounds to twenty-four pounds per pair, are excellent layers, their eggs being nearly twice as heavy as common hen's eggs. A cross between the Brahma Pootra and Dorkino- fowl are decidedlv handsome. There were no Chittao-onu- fowls exhibited. " Shanghais. — There was a good show of this kind of fowls, embracing the white, buff or red, brown, and gray varieties ; also, some crosses of the Shanghais with other varieties, which were good specimens. Among the best were those exhibited by Franklin Ripley, Jr., whose stock, taken as a whole, was regarded as superior to any exhibited, embracing white, buff, and brown. Leonard Kennedy exhibited choice buff and brown Shanghais, and Alexander Mitchell a pair of old Shanghais, which, in consequence of moulting, showed badly, but, like many other things, were "better than they looked." John Geib, of ^yauwatosa, exhibited six Shanghai cocks, hatched in May last, which attracted considerable attention, in consequence of their exact resemblance to each other in color and size. The mother of these fowls laid one hundred and twenty-seven very large eggs in the autumn and winter months. The Shanghai fowls are excellent layers. It is not uncommon for them to lay seventy eggs in eighty days. They weigh from seventeen to twenty pounds per pair. " CocHix China. — There was a single pair of this variety exhibited by Charles Douglass, of Chicago, with several pair of cross-breeds, all of ■which were good specimens of their kind. The pair of Cochin China fowls were young, but decidedly handsome. The mother cost fifteen dollars. These fowls are not quite so large as the Shanghai fowl, and some other varieties, and by many are regarded as inferior to none of the imported breeds. , " There were no Game fowls offered, but it is to be hoped that this variety will not be overlooked another season. The hens are choice 53 layers, and their eggs very large in proportion to their size, which rarely exceeds five povinds. The objection to keeping them is their fighting propensity. " Of Turkies, Muscovy Ducks, Small Ducks, Guinea Hens and Peacocks, there was one lot of each exhibited. They were all good, but not supe- rior fowls. We hope that a much larger and choicer variety of speci- mens Avill be ofi"ered another year. , " Of Geese, none were offered. " Your Committee believe that there will be a great practical benefit resulting from the recent show and future exhibitions. Many persons have been stimulated to send East and procure choice varieties of fowls ; and many others will doubtless be induced to do so. Choice fowls of the best varieties can also be procured in Milwaukee at very reasonable rates. " It is admitted by fowl breeders in New England, that the same variety of fowls grow larger in the Southern and Western States than in the Eastern States. We trust that the time is near at hand, when Wisconsin will produce fowls, animals and men, not inferior to any State in the Union. We have the resources — let us use them." PLOUGHING MATCH.— No. of Entries, 6. Judges. — William Burgit, East Troy ; H. B. Hawlet, Milford ; J. D. Merritt, New California. Best ploughing with horses ; E. W. Edgerton, Summit. Silver Medal. Second best ploughing with horses ; Clarke Nettleton, Caledonia. Bronze Medal. Best ploughing with oxen ; George 0. Tiffany, Milwaukee. Silver Medal. The Committee in their report remark, "that the match was spirited and well contested. It was opened by Col. Billings, the President of the Society, who turned a few furrows, setting an example well worthy of imitation by the farmers of Wisconsin, and showing that he was no holiday farmer. He was followed by the competitors, who all did their work in a superior manner. ** Mr. Edgerton, to whom was awarded the first premium, used the Mi- chigan double plough, which the Committee regard as a superior plough, and one that should be in the hands of every farmer. 53 " Mr. Nettleton, to whom was awarded the second pi-emium, used the common steel plough, and performed his task in a workmanlike manner. " But one ox team was entered. There being no competition, your Committee award to Mr. TiflFany the first premium, he using the Eagle plough, and performing the work in a superior manner. FARMING IMPLEMENTS, No. I.— No. of Emries, 86. Judges. — Mark Miller, Janosville ; E. J. Hazard, Lagrange ; Joseph Kerr, Randolph. Best farm waariron for cfeneral use ; Cornelius Morse, Milwaukee. Sil- ver medal. Best harrow for general use ; Richard E. Ela, Rochester. Bronze me- dal. Best corn cultivator ; Stephen Coates, Walworth. Bronze medal. Best fanning mill ; A. P. Dickey, Racine. Bronze medal. Best horse rake ; Thompson Littell, Milwaukee. Bronze medal. Best ox bow pins ; Thompson Littell, Milwaukee. Certificate. The Committee in their report remark that " the Scotch harrow exhi- bited by Mr. Ela, and to which they award the first premium, is the best, in their opinion, for general use ; but they deem it an act of justice to otlier competitors to remark in this connection, that the Geddes har- row is preferable for use on land where stones, grubs, or stumps abound, or rubbish, such as stubble, weeds, &c., tending to clog — and this opi- nion is based upon practical experience. " Four fanning mills were entered for competition, one of which by Richard E. Ela, of Rochester; another by L. S. Blake, of Racine ; ano- ther by A. P. Dickey, of Racine ; another by A. W. Dawley, of Mil- waukee. Between the first three, the Committee found it extremely difficult to make any discrimination in regard to the principles of their construction, in fact, none could be discovered Avorthy of notice, but for beauty of finish, and perfection in the adjustment of machinery, the one exhibited by Mr. Dickey was superior, and on these grounds your Com- mittee award the first premium. The one exhibited by Mr. Dawley is new to your Committee ; and having never seen it in practical operation, they cannot say anything in commendation of it. 5i " Plows. — There were a large number of plows on the ground, adapted to all soils and circumstances. Your Committee have selected six from some fifteen or twenty, and tested practically their relative capacity for work, and our conclusions are, that the Michigan steel plow, exhibited by Kichard E. Ela, is the best for prairie soils. This plough is of excellent model and easy draft, and is, in the opinion of your Committee, the best that has ever fallen under their observation. " For sandy or clay soils, the Committee wovild give the preference to the Peekskill Improved Plow, exhibited by Mr. Spencer, of Watertown. This plow is of good model for the soils named, and is made of cast iron, a material which will do more service in such soils than cast steel. " The attention of the Committee was next called to a list of ag-ricultu- ral implements exhibited by Thompson Littell, of Milwaukee. Number- ing in the aggregate sixty one articles, with instructions to recommend the award of premiums on such of them, as in the judgment of the com- mittee might seem worthy. The greatest portion of Mr. Littell's collec- tion, on a careful examination of the whole, we found made up of implements and tools of great utility, both to the farmer and housewife. The Committee awarded him several premiums, which vdll be found in the accompanying lists." FARM IMPLEMEXTS, Xo. II.— Xo. of Entries, 2. Judges. — A. H. Taylor, Muskego ; Joseph M. Stillwell, Mukwonego. Best churn ; Thompson Littell, Milwaukee. Transactions. " A hay rack exhibited by Ira Blood, of Yernon, also came under the observation of this Committee, and they respectfully report that they, consider it an improvement upon the common hay rack, in saving the scattering of the grain. It also shows the good taste of the owner in getting up a nice article. But your Committee are of the opinion, that it is too expensive an article to recommend for general use among farmers." FARM IMPLEMEXTS, Xo. III.— Xo. of Entries, 21. Judges. — A. F. Cadt, Watertown ; Joseph Gary, Milwaukee ; John B. Yliet, Milwaukee. Best horse power for general purposes, on the sweep or lever principle ; H. F. Cox, Pcacine. Bronze medal. 00 Best horse power, on railroad or endless chain principle ; W. D. Bacon, Waukesha. Bronze medal. Best corn sheller, hand power ; A. P. Dickey, Racine. Transactions. Best corn sheller, horse power ; Thompson Littell, Milwaukee. Ameri- can Muck Book. Best seed planter, for hand or horse power, for hills or drills; Thompson Littell, Milwaukee. Bronze Medal. Best thresher, to be used with horse or steam power ; Marvin Hughes, Kenosha. Bronze Medal. Atkins' Automaton Reaper and Raker ; John S. Wright, Chicago. Diploma. Best and most numerous collection of agricultural implements ; Thomp- son Littell, Milwaukee. Bronze Medal. Best and most numerous collection of agricultural implements manufac- tured in the State of W'isconsin, by or under the superintendence of the exhibitor, materials, workmanship, utility, durability and prices, all considered ; Richard E. Ela, Rochester. Silver Medal. DAIRY.— Xo. OF ExTEiES, 21. Judges. — H. L, Palmer, Milwaukee ; David Merrill, Milwaukee ; E. C. Sage, W^auwatosa. Best fifty pounds of butter ; Mrs. E. W. Edgerton, Summit. Diploma. " This butter was made in September, from a dairy of eight cows, be- ing a cross of Durham with the native. The milk is set in eight quart tin pans, and left to stand twenty four hours before skimming, except in hot weather, when the milk would sour sooner. The churning is done three times a week, in a common stone churn. Two ounces of common salt are added for each pound of butter, and subsequently it is worked twice, with a wooden ladle — once at the time of salting, and the second time twenty four hours thereafter. The butter is worked as little as pos- sible and get out the butter-milk. We use no saltpetre, or any other substance. We make very little winter butter, usually scald the new milk, and set it in a room where it will not freeze for twelve hours. The further process is the same as above. Mrs. E. W. Edgerton." 66 Best ten pounds of butter ; Samuel Bro'W'n, Milwaukee. Diploma. " This butter was made on Tuesday, October 5tli. The cream being gathered three days previous to churning. In summer the cream is kept in a cool place, but in the winter it is kept where it will not freeze. The cream is thoroughly mixed each time the milk is skimmed. Churning is done at least twice a week. The butter, after churning, is washed in water, until the water is clear from milk. Kothing but salt is used in making butter. We use the best kind of fine barrel salt ; the quantity used is as suits the taste. Eight cows are kept on the farm. The cows have had no feed but grass during the summer and fall. Samuel Brown." Best one hundred pounds of cheese ; F. S. Eldred, Johnstown. Diploma. " My dairy numbers thirty-five cows, which are pastured upon timothy and clover. My manner of making the three cheese exhibited, will be seen by the following table : .5 es s o of Gallons of ilk. t of Milk at tting. 0 of curding minutes. e of breaking minutes. be <0 ~ -5 a 0 0 .- "0 9 •5 0 bed weight of eese green. 1^ to -~ in <^ B 0 a S d^ £ .2 £ .S S -S -3 £ £ 0 q5 2 g 9 u ■3":^ H ^ K c-i H H CO H ^ a ^.H ^ CS itj. ttJ. No. I.June 23, 82 *sr.^ 40 25 .50 lOG'^ 30 6 Sweet. 80 75 "2. " 29, 80 SG'-" 35 30 60 lOii- 40 6 Sweet & fine. 76 72 "3. " 30, 80 86^ 40 30 45 10G° 50 6 Sweet & coarse. 75 70 23] 217 " My butter is made from the same cows and pasture — no cheese be- ing made while we are making butter. Butter was made from the 28th September to 4th October. Number of pounds made, eighty-four. Milk is strained in pans and skimmed as soon as sour, then churned imme- diately. Butter is washed until clear from milk, and then salted with common salt. After standing twelve hours it is worked, at which time I add one pound of crushed sugar, and one ounce of saltpetre to each hundred pounds of butter. It is then packed in firkins so as to exclude the air. F. S. Eldred." Fahrenheit, Best single cheese ; A. Smith, Troy. Diploma. " This cheese was m^de in the latter part of June. My dairy is a small one, consisting of but ten cows. In making cheese, immediately after the curd has formed, we cut it up, and as soon as the whey rises, we dip- oflf a portion of it, and put it into a kettle, heating it to about 100® Fah.,, when it is poured back gradually into the curd. After stirring it well^ we put it into a strainer, and let it stand until morning. The morning's milk goes through the same process, and then the cheese goes to the; press-thus making one cheese every day. Augustus Smith." FLOUR, MEAL, SUGAR AXD HONEY.— Xo. of Entries, 16. Judges. — Harrison Ludington, Milwaukee: C. Comstock, Milwaukee ; Best barrel of flour ; B. A. Jenkins, Genesee. Diploma. Second best barrel of flour ; Jacob Brooks, Beloit. Bronze medal. Best barrel of spring wheat flour ; Samuel S. Reed, Kenosha. Certifi- cate. Best ten pounds of hopey ; P. H. Brown, Milwaukee. Bronze medal. GRAIN AND SEEDS.— No. of Entries, 48. Judges. — John Galbraith, Mukwonego ; B. A. Jexkins, Genesee ; William Wilkinson, . Best sample of winter wheat ; Joseph Dibley, Oak Creek. American Muck Book, and 8 1 . • " This wheat was sown after barley, and three and one-fourth acres were grown. The land was manured with rough manure from the yard. I finished ploughing the land on the first day of September. The wheat was prepared for sowing by being soaked in brine, and afterward spread out to dry ; about two bushels were sown to the acre. I finished sowing on tlve 3d of September. The wheat was cut July 25, 1852, and threshed August 29, 1852. It yielded twenty-seven bushels to the acre, being somewhat less than the yield of last year, which was an average of thirty-one bushels of the same kind of wheat. ^ -n ,, ■' JosEPU Dibley. 5 5S Second best sample of winter wheat ; Hiram F. Story, Milwaukee. Ame- rican Muck Book. " This sample of wheat forwarded by myself for exhibition, was the first crop taken from new ground, which was cleared in the month of June, A. D. 1851, and ploughed the first week in July following, with three yoke of oxen, and a heavy breaking plough. " The ground then remained untouched, until about the middle of September following, when it was thoroughly harrowed, with one span of horses. After Avhich the wheat was sown at the rate of two bushels per acre, and the ground was well dragged. " The kind of soil is a mixture of black sand and clay. The wheat was harvested the last week in July last. The yield per acre was thirty -two bushels. I am unable to give an account of the entire expense. HiEAM F. Story." Best sample of spring wheat ; Peter Marlett, Milwaukee. American Muck Book, and $1. " This spring wheat was raised in the town of Greenfield, Milwaukee county. The soil was clay, with a slight mixture of sand and gravel, to which no manure was applied. It was sown after corn. The ground was plowed in the fall, and again in the spring. The wheat was sown the 13th of May last, and dragged twice. It was cut the 15th of August, and taken into the barn the 17th. I threshed a few bundles for the mill during the first week of September, and had three bushels left, of which this is a part. The remainder of the crop is not yet threshed ; I think it will yield between twenty and twenty-five bushels per acre. I weio-hed one-half bushel by measure, and it weighed by my steel-yards, thirty-three pounds. " The expense of cultivation is as follows : Ploufhing ground, two acres, with oxen, one and a half days, at fifty cents per day, team and hand $1 50 Sowing and dragging the same . . . . . . 0 76 Harvesting and taking into barn 3 00 Cost of three bushels for seed, at sixty -two and one-half cents 1 88 Total . ... . ^7 13 Peter Marlett." 59 Second best sample of spring wlieat ; Ira Blood, Vernon. American Muck Book. *' This wheat is the variety usually called the ' Canada club.* It was raised on burr-oak land, inclining a little to clay, which had been for the past five years cropped with wheat and corn alternately. Forty loads per acre of common barn yard manure had been applied. "The ground was plowed once in April last, and wheat sown on the furrows, and then twice harrowed thoroughly, and afterwards rolled. It was injured somewhat by the drought. The expense of cultivation and threshing per acre, was ^5. " The yield per acre was fifteen bushels, weighing sixty-one pounds PeJ- bushel. j^^ g^^^^ „ Best sample of barley ; James T. Walklin, Eagle. American Muck Book, and ^1. " I plow my land in the fall of the year, and sow my grain in the spring, as soon as the frost is out of the ground. The soil is a deep, black, sandy loam, with a clay sub-soil. I manure about ten acres every year, using all the manure made by my stock ; the cost of the same being about five dollars per acre, for labor. I also keep a flock of about two hundred sheep, which I pen on my land every night with sheep hurdles. The cultivation of barley costs about six dollars per acre. The yield is twenty-five bushels per acre, weighing fifty pounds to the bushel. The crop I have sold for sixty-two cents per bushel. James T. Walklin." Best sample of Indian corn ; Wm. E. McClure, Ottawa. American Muck Book, and $1. " In the latter part of May last, I plowed a field of eight acres, upon which my sheep had been pastured for a portion of the previous summer, and the land being well covered with sheep manure — the season being advanced — I thought of planting an early variety of corn, and on this account procured the Ohio flint, or as it is commonly called, the Ohio ten weeks' corn. The corn was planted on the 29fch of May, and was harvested the twenty-fourth day of August. This corn is a yellow flint, having from twelve to twenty-four rows in the ear, and growing to a great length. I have in my possession one ear that has upwards of nine hundred grains upon it. The stalks grow tall and thick, the ear 60 being near the ground. The suckers were numerous, and many bore Tery good ears of corn. " After plowing, and before planting, the ground was harrowed, and laid out in squares of four feet, at each angle a hill of corn being planted. When the corn was up, the cultivator was used each way, and afterwards it was hoed so as to leave no weeds. About two weeks afterward, I again, went through with the same process ; and again, after one week, I went through one way with the cultivator, and the other way with the plow,, finishing with the hoe. I used no manure except as above stated. There had been one crop of wheat raised upon this field before planting the corn. " For this crop, I had summer fallowed the land, plowing but once ; jny preference being for but one plowing for wheat, and that in June, so that it "will be well settled down before sowing. Wheat wants a hard bed. At the place where I turn my team at the. sides of the land, my wheat is imiformly the best. My reasons for plowing but once are, that the weeds thus turned under are more easily decomposed, and when not disturbed, they make an excellent manure for the succeeding crops,. while the vapor escaping from the decaying matter tends greatly to sti- mulate the growth of the first crop. I turn my sheep on fallow land to keep down any weeds that may spring up. Turning sheep upon land is the best way we have to manure the land without cost. " The soil of this field is a sandy loam, of rather a dark color. The cost of my crop of corn is as follows : Plowing the field, one dollar per acre ." . $8 00 Harrowing, and laying out for planting . . 2 50 Seed, one and a half bushels . . . . » • 94 Six days work of man and horse . • • 6 00 Hoeing, three times • ■ 9 00 Harvesting • • 3 00 Husking of eight acres . 20 00 Making the total cost $49 44 *' The crop produced 496 bushels, at a cost of not quite ten cents per bushel, leaving a nett profit of thirty-eight cents per bushel, or of $188 48 from the eight acres, after delivery in the market, and after de- ducting railroad transportation, shelling, &c. 61 " The turnips exhibited by me grew on the same kind of land, pro- ducino- 641 bushels per acre. The turnips grew on what is called 'potato leavings.' The land never was manured. It was plowed about the 7th of June, then harrowed and drilled. My seed was sown in drills three feet apart, and nine inches space between each seed. " The cost of production per acre, is as follows : Plowing, per acre $1 00 Harrowing and planting . . . . • . . . 0 75 Working twice with cultivator and once with plow . . . 1 00 Hoeinir twice . . • • • • • • • . 3 00 Pulling and carting from field 8 00 Making: the total cost of one acre . . $13 75 " This makes the cost of the turnips something over two cents per bushel. They sold readily in Milwaukee for eighteen three-fourth cents per bushel. Deducting five cents per bushel for delivery and expenses of railroad transportation, and two cents for expenses of cultivation, it would leave a nett profit of eleven three-fourth cents per bushel, or about seventy-two dollars per acre. The turnips were the red-top Swedish, and are the best kind I have yet raised. William E. McClure." ^est sample of flax seed ; John Galbraith, Mukwonego. Diploma. This flax seed was raised and exhibited by John Galbraith, Esq., Chairman of the Committee of Judges, who, from motives of delicacy, did not enter it for competition. After the close of the Fair, it coming under the observation of the Executive Committee of the Society, by them it was awarded the Diploma of the Society, on account of its supe- rior quality. For a statement of Mr, Galbraith's mode of cultivation, reference is made to Vol. I. of the Transactions of this Society. Albert C. Ingham, Corresponding Secretary. Second best sample of Indian corn ; Hiram F. Story, Milwaukee. Trans- actions. •' This corn was raised on ground which had been cropped but once before (one crop of wheat). The soil being a mixture of clay and black sand. The ground was plowed in the fall, and again ia the spring. 62 after whicli it was harrowed and then the corn planted, which was about the 20th of May. The corn was cultivated once and hoed twice. About the middle of September it was cut and shocked. There has been no manure applied upon the ground. I cannot give you the yield per acre^ as I have only husked a small portion of the field. Hiram F. Story." Best sample of buck wheat ; Alanson Pike, Jefferson. American Muck Book, and $1. *' The buck wheat was sown about the middle of July on black, mucky ground, cross plowed; after sprouting, the growth was very large, but early frost damaged the top blades very much. No manure was applied to the ground, and the manner of cultivation does not differ materially from that practised by farmers generally. The cost of culti- vation and yield per acre, I am unable to give. . p , >> Second best sample of buck wheat ; Ira Blood, Vernon. Transactions. *' This buck wheat was sown upon rich prairie soil, composed of rich, dark loam with an even proportion of decomposed vegetable matter. The land had been cultivated six years, during which time no manure has been applied. It was ploughed once in June, and the seed was sown upon the furrows, and afterwards twice thoroughly dragged. The crop was injured somewhat by dry weather. The cost of cultivation and harvesting per acre was four dollars. The yield per acre was four- teen bushels, weighing fifty pounds to the bushel. T R " Best sample of hops ; James Weaver, Waukesha. American Muck Book, and $1. Second best sample of hops ; J. F. Antisdel, Janesville. Transactions. "For raising hops, I prepare the ground in the same manner as for the cultivation of corn. Marking the furrows four feet apart each way. I plant alternate rows of corn, and in the remaining rows I plant alter- nately corn and hops, which leaves the hop plants eight feet distant from each other each way. In this way I get three-fourths of a full crop of corn the first year. I weed the hops and cultivate the corn. In the fall, before the ground freezes, I put two shovels full of well rotted manure in each hill. This manure is taken off in the spring, before the hops start, and the poles set immediately. Two poles are set in each 63 hill, and two vines trained to each pole, the rest of the vines are kept trimmed down. The ground should be well cultivated, the weeds kept out, and the time of the last hoeing should be about the time the vines are in blossom, the hops should be well liilled. Before frost comes they should be picked, and afterwards they should be well kiln dried. " My ground is a sandy loam, low but not wet. The yield is about five hundred pounds to the acre, first crop. The cost of cultivation is about twice that of corn. J. F. Axtisdel." Best sample of timothy seed ; Alanson Pike, Jefferson. Transactions, and $1. *• "This timothy seed Avas cut from last year's seeding, on what is called low prairie. Five bushels of seed were raised from half an acre. It was cradled and bleached in the dew for a time, then raked, bound and drawn into the barn, where it was threshed and cleaned Avith a fanning mill. Alaxson Pike." Second best sample of timothy seed ; Ira Blood, Vernon. $2. *' This timothy seed was raised on prairie soil, of dark loam mixed with a large proportion of decomposed vegetable matter. The land had been cultivated two years, no manure having been applied to it. The timothy seed was sown in the spring of 1851, with oats. Cost of culti- vation and harvesting per acre, was three dollars. The yield per acrq Avas seven bushels. Ira Blood." ' Best sample of crops cultivatt-d and raised on any one farm ; Ira Blood, Vernon. Bronze medal. Second best sample of crops cultivated and raised on any one farm ; George 0. Tiffany, Milwaukee. American Farm Book. Best clover seed ; E. W. Edgerton, Summit. American Muck Book and $1. Letter from Mr. Edgerton. ' "Summit, December 30th, 1852. "Mr Dear Sir: — Yours of the 21st inst., containing many interroga- tions, as to our experience and success with the cultivated grasses in this State, was duly received, and I take great pleasure in responding to your inquiries, hoping that our experience may do something towards correcting the general though erroneous impression, that 'the cultivated grasses do not succeed well in Wisconsin.' > 6i • "From remarks made by many Eastern farmers witli whom I have r conversed during the past and present years, I am confident that nothing has operated more to the prejudice of this State than has this mistaken idea, deterring, as it does, many of the better class of farmers at the East, and dairymen in particular, from emigrating to this State. " From my own practical experience, and from the experience of ■■ others, I am satisfied that the difficulty has arisen, not so much from any defect in our soil and climate, as in the system of husbandry prac- tised by too many of our farmers. Through a mistaken economy, many of them have thought that by no possibility could their land be spared .from active and exhausting cropping, and a portion of it set aside for the purpose of stocking it with grass. This course has often been pursued until the land has become covered with pigeon-grass, cow-tail and other noxious weeds ; and then, when they can no longer succeed in raising grain from the much abused field, they have resorted to timothy and clover in order to 'bring the land to,' as they term it, and not with any thought of getting a good crop of hay. ' Oh no,' say they, ' we have plenty of marsh from which to cut grass, without having our good land lie idle, and we have seeded this down merely to give it rest.' Carrying out this idea, they have procured a barrel of timothy seed or clover, and this quantity must perforce be amply sufficient to sow ten or twelve acres ! With autumn, comes their disappointment and chagrin at seeing a few stalks of clover and timothy scattered amid a wilderness of weeds. " Another mistaken idea is prevalent among our farmers, and that is, that ' ^Yisconsin land will never wear out.' I know of no latitude ' where the following extract from an humorous communication published by Solon Robinson, of Indiana, in 1838, will apply more forcibly than ♦ it does here. In conversation with his neighbor upon the subject of farming in America, he says : ' Squire, though our people don't seem to be sensible of it, and you and I may not live to see it, yet, if this awful robbin' of posterity goes on for another hundred years, as it has - for the last, among the farmers, we'll be a nation of paupers ! Talk of the Legislature doing something ! I'll tell you what I'd have them do : paint a great parcel of guide-boards, and nail 'em up over every state- house, church and school-house door in America, with these words on 'em in great letters : ' the best land in America, hy constant croppijig with- out manure, will run out !' And I'd also have 'em provide means to 65 iearn every child how to read it, 'cause it's no use to try to larn the old ones, they are so sot in their ways !' And if our Wisconsin farmers continue in this ' constant cropping' system, and continue to burn their piles of straw, and to move their barns, in order to get away from the piles of manure constantly accumulating about them, we certainly shall do our share, and that soon, towards becoming ' a nation of paupers.' " I will now proceed to answer your questions. Our farm contains 830 acres, of which 600 acres are under cultivation. The cultivated portion is mostly burr-oak openings. The soil is a sandy loam, based on a clayey subsoil. We have about 500 acres stocked down, of which about sixty-five acres are of clover, the remainder being timothy. We mowed about ninety acres for hay during the season just past. The average yield of the timothy Avas one ton per acre ; the season being very dry, the crop was lighter than usual — one and one-half tons per acre being near the usual crop on the natural soil. Lands that are well manured will average two tons per acre. Our clover crop the past season, where we mowed forty acres, gave an average of one and one- half tons of hay per acre. The second crop would have made a ton of hay per acre, but we preferred to save it for seed. Our experience in raising timothy seed is limited, as we have given our attention mostly to clover, thinking that it pays much the best. " You inquire what is the usual profit realized from an acre of clover? In answer I will give you our experience for the last year, and then you •can judge for yourself. The receipts were : First crop, 60 tons hay, $5 per ton Second crop, 123 bushels first quality seed, at $7 Second crop, 6 bushels second quality seed, at S3 Total ** The expense of raising the same was : Cost of hay crop, including board , . . . 5 bbls. plaster, at $1,50 . . . . . Freight and sowing same Showing a nett profit on forty acres of • • $300 00 • • 861 00 • • 18 00 • $1179 00 f 55 00 130 00 7 50 3 00 105 50 X. O kJ k/\J • « $983 50 66 " This shows an average profit of $24,58 per acre. We prefer the June clover to the larger variety, because it will yield more and better hay, and give more seed to the acre. We consider three bushels per acre as an average crop of seed — four or five bushels are not uncommon — and I have heard, from good authority, of six acres of land in this State, producing forty-two bushels of clean seed. ** We clean our seed by horse power. Three men, with Emery's two horse power, will hull from twenty-five to thirty bushels per day. It would require two men, about the same length of time to clean it through a fanning mill. The cost of a huller is forty-five dollars. The cost of a huller and cleaner, is about eighty dollars, being much the best, as it will save the labor of two men in cleaning, and it can be driven by the same power, and will do the same amount of work as the huller alone. "We use for seed, when we stock with clover alone, eight quarts per acre ; when we stock with timothy and clover, we use eight quarts of timothy and four quarts of cloyer. " We consider the autumn of the year as the best time to stock down land. The land should be harrowed after sowing, and should be used as a pasture the following spring. We have used both the New York and Michigan plaster, and have become satisfied that the Michigan plas- ter is much the best for Wisconsin soils. We used half a bushel per acre of Michigan plaster, upon a part of our clover field during the past season, and were satisfied that it doubled the crop of hay, and added one-third to the crop of seed. We used the same amount of New York plaster per acre in the same field, and could discover no beneficial eflFects from it. ** Were a comparison to be instituted between Wisconsin, New York, Ohio, Michigan and Illinois, I am well satisfied that in Wisconsin as much hay can be raised, and as many sheep, cattle, or horses, can be pastured upon an acre as can be done in either of the other named States, the same kind of cultivation, of course, being given. Yours truly, To Albert C. Ingham, Esq., E. W. Edgerton." Sec. of the Wis. State Agr. Society. The Committee in their report say, " The show of grain samples was very limited, but the quality was in general good, as was to be expected of 67 the present season's crops, though on some of the articles we have given DO awards, owing to the absence of competition, or ordinary quality of the article exhibited. Though a considerable quantity of rye and flax- seed was raised in the State this season, none of the former was shown, and only one sample of the latter, not entered for competition. *' There was nothing in our department requiring special mention, except one bushel of clover seed, for which article no premium was offered by the Society. The sample was of very fine quality, and in view of this description of seed becoming of much importance to the agricultu- ral interests of the State, we would beg leave to suggest to the Execu- tive Committee the propriety of bestowing some suitable mark of encour- agement. (This recommendation has been complied with. A. C. I.) " There were two competitors for the prize offered by the Society for 'Sample of crops raised on one farm,' exhibited on a waggon, whose tasteful arrangement and variety of articles must have attracted the attention of most persons on the grounds. Both exhibitors have well earned the premiums awarded by the Society, for the abundant proofs they have given of what can be done on a Wisconsin farm by taste and good management. " Some very excellent specimens of Wisconsin tobacco, of different sorts, were exhibited by the producers, but not offered for premium. The growth and curing seemed perfect, and reflect much credit on the enterprizing pioneers in this important branch of agriculture. These samples leave no doubt of the capability of Wisconsin in soil and cli- mate for the culture of tobacco. *' The hops exhibited were of excellent quality, giving every promise of encouragement for an extensive culture of the article." VEGETABLES.— No. of Extriks, 83. Judges. — Andrew S. Fuller, Wauwatosa ; Benjamin Nute, Milford; S. C. West, Milwaukee. Best twelve turnips ; Wm. E. McClure, Ottawa. $1. Best twelve carrots ; D. A. Putney, Waukesha. $1. Best twelve beets ; Lester H. Cotton, Milwaukee. $1. Best twelve parsnips ; George Sercomb, Wauwatosa. $ 1 . Best six heads of cabbage ; John Becker, Milwaukee. $1 . ♦ 68 Best twelve tomatoes ; D. A. Putney, Waukesha. $1. Best half peck of beans; H. V. Prentice, Genesee. $1. Largest pumpkin ; George Sercomb, Wauwatosa. $1. Best peck of potatoes ; R. W. Parker, Wauwatosa. 81. Best and greatest variety of vegetables raised by exhibitor ; George Sercomb, Wauwatosa. American Farm Book. Best mangel wurtzel beets ; H. V. Prentiss, Genesee. Norton's Elements of Agriculture. Best cucumbers ; George Sercomb, Wauwatosa. Transactions. Superior specimens of new seedling potatoes ; George P. Pfeflfer, Pewau- kee. Transactions. Fine egg plants ; R. JS". Messenger, Milwaukee. Norton's Elements of Agriculture. Best pie plant; B. P. Gaboon, Kenosha. Norton's Elements of Agri- culture. George P. Pfeffer, of Pewaukee, also exhibited a new variety of pea, which he calls the " Black Winter Pea." He remarks concernincr it as follows : " The Black Winter Pea was originated by myself, and is a native, or partly so, at least, of Wisconsin. Two years since, having some small nursing trees planted in rows four feet distant from each other, I filled the spaces between the rows with peas and beans. In one of the spaces, by chance, a vine of the common wild pea had grown, and immediately adjacent to this vine I planted one of the common marrowfat peas, and also a black bean, in shape similar to a kernel of corn. As the vines grew, I placed about them stakes and hoops, so that they were kept in close proximity. On gathering the seed when ripe, I found one pod of a dark green color, containing seven peas also of a dark green color, but ■with black stripes upon them. These peas I preserved, and planted in May of last year. They grew well, but showed no blossoms until Sep- tember, after which pods were formed, and the peas ripened. In Novem- ber, I collected one quart of ripe seed from the vines, and also one quart of green peas, which, after cooking, I found in all respects equal to the earlier varieties. The stocks did not ripen, but were in bloom when the cold weather came. This year I planted one pint of the seed, and the 69 vines are at this time (October 8, 1852,) in blossom, and setting pods rapidly, notwithstanding the heavy frosts we have had. This variety is very prolific." DOMESTIC MANUFACTURES.-No. of Entries, '25. Judges. — Stephen 0. Bennett, Thompsonville ; Champion S. Chase, Racine ; Thomas R. Mott, Watertown ; Mrs. Francis Randall, Mil- waukee ; Mrs. Anson H. Taylor, Muskego Centre. Best ten yards of flannel ; H. B. Burritt, Muskego. Bronze medal. Best ten yards of woolen carpet ; Garret Vliet, Milwaukee. Bronze medal. Best hearth rug ; Miss Lydia D. Ely, Milwaukee. Bronze medal. Best ten yards rag carpet ; Mrs. Eleanor Kinney, Whitewater. Bronze medal. Best pair woolen stockings ; Mrs. A. H. Taylor, Muskego Centre. Transactions. Best pair woolen mittens ; Mrs. David Williams, Geneva. Transactions. Best pair cotton stockings ; Mrs. B. Coates, Spring Prairie. Transactions. Best woolen yarn ; Mrs. A. Smith, Troy. Transactions. Is'EEDLE, SHELL, AND WAX WORK.— Ifo. of Exteies, 87. Judges. — Charles Holt, Janesville ; Mrs. John Catlin, Madison ; Mrs. F. J. Blair, Milwaukee. Best Ottoman cover ; Miss Lydia D. Ely, Milwaukee. Transactions. Best fancy chair work with needle ; Mrs. Alexander Mitchell, Milwaukee. Diploma. Best worked collar and handkerchief; Miss Mary Frances Smith, Mil- waukee. Transactions. Best worked quilt ; Garret Vliet, Milwaukee. Transactions. Best white quilt ; Mrs. J. B. Selby, Milwaukee. Transactions. Best portfolios worked ; Miss M. Cecilia Smith, Milwaukee. American Bee Keeper. Best ornamental shell work ; J. W. Vail, Milwaukee. Transactions. 70 Best specimens of wax flowers ; Miss Mary Ann Cowan, Milwaukee. Transactions, Best embroidered handkerchief; Miss Elizabeth S. Bosworth, Milwaukee. Transactions. Best lace cape ; Miss Elizabeth S. Bosworth, Milwaukee. Norton's Ele- ments of Ao-riculture. Embroidered tidy ; Miss A. E. Stone, Milwaukee. Transactions. Patch work chair cushion ; Mrs. J. H. Crampton, Milwaukee. Trans- actions. Crochet reticule ; Miss Lizzie H. Crampton, Milwaukee. Norton's Ele- ments of Agriculture. Crochet purse ; Mrs. Benjamin McVickar, Milwaukee. Transactions. Basket of wax fruit; J. S. Douglas, M. D., Milwaukee. Transactions. Embroidered dress pattern ; Miss Harriet E. Hatch, Milwaukee. Di- ploma. Knit coverlet ; Mrs. Martha Brown, Madison. Rural Architecture. Pebble frame ; Mrs. T. M. Wilcox, Port Washington. Transactions. The Committee in their report speak highly of the general merits of the contributions in their department, and noticed several articles as possessing positive superiority. Their decisions were in many cases made with extreme difficultv, owing to the uniform high character of the articles coming in competi- tion. FRUIT.— No. or Entries, 92. Judrjes, — Francis R. Elliott, Cleveland, 0. ; Dr. John A. Kennicott, Northfield, 111. ; W. S. Rice, Racine. APPLES. Largest number of varieties of good apples ; Franklin K. Phoenix, Delavan. Silver medal, VARIETIES EXHIBITED. Roseau, Surprise, Flushing Spitzenberg, Pomme Gris, Autumn Straw- berry, Fameuse, Saint Lawrence, Fall Orange, Yellow Ingestrie, Bailey Sweet, Pomeroy Sweet, Seek-no-further, English Golden Russet, Dune- 71 low's Seedling, White Seek-no-further, R. I. Greening, Vandervere, Tolman Sweet, Rambo, Montrose Pippin, Green Everlasting, Limber- twig, Red Romanite, Winter Pearmain, Swaar, Virginia Blush, Pound Sweet or Lyman's Pumpkin, Sweet of Books, Large Yellow Siberian Crab, Siberian Crab, Fall Sweet, Nameless Winter Sweet obtained for Talman Sweet, Lane Sweet, Royal Pearmain, Redling, Spice Sweet, Detroit Red, Hodge's Black, Golden Sweet, Barnhill, Yellow Bellflower, Cheeseboro' Russet, Pownal Spilzenburg, Michael Henry Pippin, Tift Sweet, Spurious Drap D'Or, Camburnathan Pippin, Peach Apple, Pen- nock, Hawthornden, Sack and Sugar, Domine. " My apple trees are generally root grafts, planted on poor, heavy land, sloping north and south, and originally covered with scattering burr and yellow (or jack) oak. The bearing trees were mostly of three seasons growth, some four or five, when planted. Thirty in the spring of 1844, and seventy the spring following, several of which havng failed in transplanting, or in consequence of accidents, injuries in winter, 79 rivalling any grown in warmer, longer inhabited, and more favored sec- tions. " Plums. — Here, one of us — he of the East, where every plum grown is attended with so much labor and trouble to protect it from the curcu- lio, that they may be said to cost a dollar each — could but express the utmost satisfaction ; and here permit the remark, as coming from that Eastern man, that not only on the tables of this Society's exhibition, but in various gardens where he had an opportunity of examining the plum tree in bearing, he saw evidence of the same successful result in the growing of this fruit, free from the stings of the curculio, which has attended one other section of the United States only. Evidence that while it is hardy as a tree in the climate, the fruit will be one of exceed- ing pecuniary profit to the orchardist. " Every variety of this fruit exhibited seemed to have been grown in the greatest perfection, and in calling to it the attention of planters, we desire to name the McLaughlin, Jefferson, Golden Drop, Purple Favor- ite, Bleecker's Gage, Hudson Gage, as among varieties that will pro- duce fruit of the best and most desirable qualities for all purposes, except that of drying ; and for this latter, no better may perhaps be named than "St. Martin's Quetoche." Many other varieties could un- doubtedly be named, but a report like this will not perhaps be thought suitable as a place for an extended record. " Grapes, being next in our schedule, we looked about us expecting in this fruit to see only some imperfectly matured berries, but we were doomed to disappointment, for we had for examination large dishes of heavy bunches and berries of the Isabella, Catawba and Clinton varie- ties. As a whole, the Isabellas were best ripened, giving evidence that for most parts of Wisconsin, it is the variety best suited for cultivation. " Quinces. — The apple-shaped, or orange variety, competed only with numerous seedlings closely resembling it, but such seedlings rarely possessing all the good qualities of the parent, we awarded but one premiun. And here let us remark, that the Portugal Quince, if it can be obtained true, will generally ripen better, and cook more delicate and tender than the orange. The latter, however, is generally gathered long before it is ripe ; and when so gathered, it cannot be made to cook tender. Usually, it should not be gathered earlier than from the 20th of October to the first of November ; as a good, sharp frost or two does not injure it. / 80 " Meloxs. — With this part of our duties, your Committee must be excused if they should ' speak right out,' for after carefully examining the heaps of melons, we marched off with the best we could select, an- ticipating much enjoyment both to ourselves and a few ' invited guests,' while we discussed the merits of the various specimens toward the form- ing of this our report. Well, after obtaining plates, knives, &c., and after all our friends had gathered around, anxiously expecting a rich treat, we slashed away with a tine looking, large so called ' Black Span- ish Watermelon.' On opening its flesh to the gaze of our judges, judge of our discomfiture, for we saw that the grower had selected it from his bed of pumpkins. Thinking, however, that having tasted of so many fruits, our appetite might be somewhat cloyed, we tried to get some of the anxious expectants surrounding us to decide impartially ; but one taste was sufficient — none were favorable to a cross of pumpkin or squash, in what purported outwardly to be a delicious melon. We tried another, and another, all to no purpose ; and our * invited guests' having all re- tired, we wrote down a joint premium for specimens embracing tine size, but which had evidently been grown too near beds of squash or pump- kins. Not less than fifty feet should ever mark the space between the melon and those of any similar class of vines. " Good taste in the arrangement of fruits for exhibition, contributing largely to the interest which such displays are intended to create, your Committee were gratified in finding a premium offered for the best arranged collection. Looking over the collections, we could but feel aware that many had overstepped the very object they sought to gain, in arranging their fruits ; i. e., by so arranging in masses of disorder and in closed cases, beyond the vision of but few visitors, and the reach of your Committee when making their examinations. " Having now made our report, permit us to say a few words to the growers and exhibitors of fruits in the flourishing and rapidly growing State of Wisconsin, relative to gathering for, transporting, and the exhi- bition of their fruits at any sticceeding exhibition of a similar character. In the good appearance of samples offered, you may sometimes win the prize over fruits of the same quality as your own. In gathering these, pick carefully by hand from the tree ; avoid rubbing the fruit, for many varieties have a bloom by which they are at once readily distinguished, but without such natural bloom, or down as it is sometimes called, they are at times difficult to be distinguished, unless by one readily conversant \ 81 ■with the variety. Second — in carrying to the place of exhibition, cotton waddinor is the best for enwrapping them ; above all, avoid packing in saw dust, mouldy hay, or a pine box, for the fruit of a delicate texture immediately receives, through its pores, the flavor of the said hay or pine. Third — in arranging for show, select, as far as possible, the vari- eties, and place them in the order of their ripening, viz : first, the early ©r summer ripening ; next, the autumn ; then, the early winter, and on to the longest keepers. Have plates, if possible, of size, just so that your specimens will cover it, placing one variety only on a plate ; then arrange, in connection with the season, as far as possible, your dark- colored or red fruits at the back of your shelves, placing the light yellow and summer fruits in front ; this serves both to aid the judges, and at- tract the attention of visitors. " Trusting that while we have, in a rapid way, written out the results of our notes made on ' examination day,' we have not overstepped the limits of courtesy, while wishing to aid the cause of Horticulture, as con- nected by an enlightened Society with its handmaid and sister. Agricul- ture, we respectfully submit these remarks." FLOWERS.— No. of Entries, 45. Judges — Johx A. Kennicott, M. D., The Grove, 111.; Mrs. Sarah F. Dean, Madison ; Miss Mary B. Rice, Racine. DAHLIAS. Greatest variety ; B. P. Gaboon, Kenosha. Bronze medal. Best twelve, dissimilar blooms; B. P. Gaboon, Kenosha. Transactions. ROSES. Best six dissimilar blooms ; R. N. Messinger, Milwaukee. Johnston's Practical Agriculture. PHLOXES. • Best six varieties ; Thomas Hislop, Milwaukee. Bronze medal. VERBENAS. Greatest variety ; B. P. Gaboon, Kenosha. Bronze medal. Best six varieties ; Thomas Hislop, Milwaukee. Johnston's Practical Agriculture. GER-MAX ASTESS. Be3X collectjon ; R. X. M^singer, Milwaukee. Bronze medal. FAySIES. Best and greatest varietr ; B. P. Cahoon, Kenosha. Bronze medal. Best six varieties ; R. X. Messenger, Mil-vraukee. Fessenden's Complete Farmer and Gardener. Best collection of green-house plants owned bv one person : R. X. Mes- singer, Milwaukee. Bronze medal. Best basket boquet, with handle ; Miss E. Ogden, Milwaukee. Bronze medal. Tree Cactus ; H. W. Haves, Palmvra. Transactions. The Committee report " that they have performed their duties with as much care as the great press of spectators on the dav to which exami- nations were deferred, would permit ; and, in common with the multi- tude of visitors, at this the Second Annual State Fair of your noble Society, your Commiuee cannot refrain from expressions of regret, that in the delightful department assi^ed to them, so little emulation has been awakened, especially among the amateur Florists of Milwaukee and its vicinity. " The cultivation of ornamental plants and beautiful flowers, is a highly useful as weU as pleasurable employment of the leisure hotirs of the denizens of cities — ^both male and female — for that which we aid in calling into being, or nourishing into beauty and excellence, we instinct- ively love ; and the love of the beautiful refines and ptirifies the mind, and adds to the capacity for the enjoyment of innocent and rational pleastires, exactly in proportion to the increasing satisfaction derived from each new experiment, and every successful result of our heart-felt labors in this department of the poetry of rural life. One who loves flowers, and ctiltivaies them because he loves them, cannot be a bad man, and the person who "ars them for profit only, is always made bet- ter and happier by his humanizing profession. These are truths that few will gainsay, and none can disprove. We, who have seen, know it. Tou, who wotild prove, have but to try it. *' Hortictilture is the religion of nature, as well as the * poetry of rural life ;' and it is the duty, therefore, of every one to practise it in cities, where little of nature is seen ; and in towns, near which great State 83 Fairs like this are about to be held, it is certainly the further duty of all thinking persons, who haye, or may haye, the abihty to do so, to make as large a display as possible, for the benefit of those who yisit such exhibitions, as a rare event in their work-a-day lives, and have seldom or never been permitted to look upon such an accumulation of Floral riches as Milwaukee might have shown, but did not show, on this particular occasion. " And, yet, there were a few noted examples of public spirit, and indi- vidual taste and liberaHty, seen in our department ; and these, too, in a good part by citizens of Milwaukee. And, even one truly creditable individual collection will do much towards redeemintr the sreneral barren- ness, or bad taste of an entire exhibition. The fifty-five varieties of healthy 'Greex-hocse Plants' shown by Mr. Messinger, is one example of what Milwaukee can do — and one worthy of Milwaukee. " There was a little • Basket Boquet with handle,' arranged by Miss E. Ogden, of Milwaukee, a perfect gem in its way, and the happiest illus- tration of good taste in the arrangement of flowers that your Committee remember ever havinor seen in the broad Xorth-west. " The display of Dahlias, Paxsies, • Committee. T. T. WHITTLESEY, ) ANNUAL MEETING, JANUARY 19, 1853. The Second Annual Meeting of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society was held at the State Agricultural rooms, in the Capitol, at Madi- son, on the third Wednesday of January, A. D. 1853, being the 19th day thereof, and the day fixed by the Constitution of the Society for holding the same. At three o'clock, P. M., the Hon. Henry M. Billikgs, President, took the Chair, and called the Society to order. Mr. Ii^GHAM, the Corresponding Secretary, presented and read the re- port of the Executive Committee of the Society, which, on motion of A. P. Dickey, Esq., of Racine, was accepted and adopted as the report of the Society, to be transmitted to His Excellency, the Governor of the State, as required by law.* Hon. SiMEOX Mills, the Treasurer, presented the report of the receipts, expenditures and financial condition of the Societj^, Avhich was read by the Secretary, showing the total receipts of the Society for the year, to be ^2,748 45, and the total expenditures for the same time, to be §2,714 68, with a balance in the Treasury, of ^33 77, as follows: * See p. 11. 05 TREASUEER'S REPORT. To the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society : The undersigned Treasurer respectfully reports : That there has been received into the treasury of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society for the year ending December 31st, 1852, the fol- lowing sums of money, to wit : From State Treasurer ^500 00 " Albert C. Ingham, Esq., Secretary 1,023 50 " Miscellaneous Sources 1,139 50 " Balance in Treasury, December 31st, 1851 . . 85 45 Total $2,748 45 There has been paid out to defray the necessary ex- penses of the Society, and in payment of premiums for the year 1852, the sum of i2,714 68 Balance in Treasury . . . $33 77 There is Silver Plate on hand, valued at SO 00 Total $83 77 Vouchers for each and every item of disbursements made on account of the Society for the year 1 852, are herewith presented for the examin- ation of the Society, or of such Committee as the Society may see fit to appoint. All of which is respectfully submitted, SIMEON MILLS, Treasurer State Agr. Society. Col. Billings, Chairman of the Auditing Committee, presented the Report of that Committee, which was read by the Secretary as follows: Report of the Auditing Committee. We, the undersigned President and Secretary and ex officio Auditing Committee of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, do hereby certify that we have carefully examined the books, papers, and vou<;hers, of the Treasurer of the Society, and find the same to be in all respects correct, and the balance in the treasury for the year ending December 31st, 1852, 96 to be correctly stated at ^33 77 in money, and silver plate for medals valued at ^50. The receipts of the Society for the year have been from the following- sources : From Life Members , $70 00 From Annual Members . . . . • 821 00 From State of Wisconsin 600 00 From Miscellaneous Sources 1,272 00 Balance in Treasury December 31st, 1851 .... 8545 The Expenditures have been as follows For Premiums Expenses of the Fair . . . Postage and Express . . . Salaries Printing and Advertising Miscellaneous Expenses . . ^2,748 45 ^876 04 549 40 81 14 800 00 221 99 186 11 82,714 68 Balance in Treasury, December 31st, 1852 . $33 77 HENRY M. BILLINGS, President. ALBERT C. INGHAM, Corresiy. Secretary. Madisok, January 19th, 1853. A. F. Pratt, Esq., of Waukesha, moved that the Reports of the' Treasurer and Auditing Committee be referred to a Committee of three, which was agreed to. And the President appointed as such Committee, Hon. Josiah F. WiLLARD, of Janesville ; Hon. John B. Smith, of Milwaukee ; and Hon, N. M. Donaldson, of Fond du Lac. The Society then adjourned until 6 o'clock, P. M. Six O'CLOCK, P. M. The Society was called to order, the President being in the Chair. Hon. Josiau F. Willaud, Chairman of the Committee, to whom was referred the reports of the Treasurer and Aiiditing Committee, presented the following Report, which was read by the Secretary : 97 " To the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society. " The Committee appointed by the State Agricultural Society to exa- mine the books of the Secretary, and the books and report of the Treasurer of the Society, have had the same under consideration, and beg leave to report : " That they find the receipts and expenditures, as stated in the Report, correct. They find that the books of the Society are kept on correct principles, and in a neat and business-like manner, and they find nothing but what shows that the receipts and expenditures are stated correctly. The Secretary has afforded your Committee every possible facility in producing vouchers and making explanations to facilitate them in their investigations. " Some of the Expenditures at Milwaukee, during the Annual Fair, held in the month of October last, your Committee look upon as not warranted, or calculated to promote the interests of the Society, howe- ver your Committee feel it due to the Secretary to state, that this was owing to circumstances beyond his control — the particulars being for expenditures at the United States Hotel, and for what is called refresh- ments at the President's tent on the Fair grounds. " Your Committee would further say, that with these exceptions, they are satisfied that the financial affairs of the Society have been conducted with fidelity. JOSIAH F. WILLARD, JOHN B. SMITH, N. M. DONALDSON, Madison, Jan. 19, 1853. Committee. Which said Report was adopted. A. F. Pratt, Esq., of Waukesha, moved that a Committee of five be appointed to select, and recommend the names of persons suitable to fill the various offices of the Society ; which was agreed to. And the President appointed as such Committee, Messrs. A. F. Pratt, of Waukesha ; Mason C. Darling, of Fond du Lac ; Horace A. Tennet, of Madison ; Josiah F. Willard, of Janesville ; and Hiram Barber, of Juneau. 98 The said Committee having retired for consultation, after some time returned, and reported the names of the following gentlemen as suitable persons to fill the various offices of the Society : Presiderit. — Elisha W. Edgerton, of Summit, Waukesha county. Vice-Presidents. — Bertine PiNKNEr, of Rosendale, Fond du Lac county ; Nathaniel B. Clapp, of Kenosha, Kenosha county ; Charles Dunn, of Belmont, La Fayette county.* Mecording Secretary. — Albert C. Ingham, of Madison, Dane county. Corresponding Secretary. — Albert C. Ingham, of Madison, Dane county. Treasurer. — Simeon Mills, of Madison, Dane county. Additional Members of the Executive Committee. — Hiram Barber, of Juneau, Dodge county ; Henry M. Billings, of Highland, Iowa County ; Z. P. BuRDiCK, of Janesville, Hock county ; \ Martin Field, Mukwo- nego, Waukesha county ; S. S. Daggett, of Milwaukee, Milwaukee county. Which Report was, on motion, accepted. Hon. Warren Cha.se, of Fond du Lac, moved that the Report be adopted, which was agreed to, and the officers declared duly elected. The Society then adjourned. HENRY M. BILLINGS, Albert C. Ingham, President. Secretary. * Judge Dunn subsequently tendered his resignation of the Office of Vice-President of the Society, which was accepted by the Executive Committee, and Hon. Jeremiah E. Dodge, of Potosi, was chosen tolilltho vacancy. t Z. P. Burdick, Esq., having resigned the office of an Additional Member of the Ex- ecutive Committee of the Society, Mark Miller, Esq. of Janesville, was chosen to fill the vacancy. CORRESPONDENCE. 101 COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES. COLUMBIA. Otsego, December 6, 1852. Dear Sir : — The first Annual Fair and Cattle Show of the Columbia County Agricultural Society, was held in the village of Wyocena, in November last ; but this being our first attempt, it was, as was to be expected, somewhat meagre ; however, as a starting point and a begin- ning, it was one of which we may justly feel proud. Like our parent, the State Society, we commenced Avithout funds or patronage. Our birth was lowly and humble ; our future — who shall say ? At the session of the Board of Supervisors in November, 1851, a few of our practical farmers, while chatting sociably on this topic, proposed having a primary meeting, for the purpose of getting an expression of public sentiment. It was done. A proposition to organize a County Society was received with favor. Committees were appointed to draft a Constitution and By-laws, and to nominate officers. An adjournment then took place, and on re-assembling, a Constitution was agreed upon, officers appointed, and an address delivered by Hon. Joseph Kerr, of Randolph, and under such auspices, we came into existence; the vital spark was infused into our materiality, and now it needs but little to fan it to the virror of manhood. The notice of our Fair had been issued only a few days prior to the time of holding it, consequently the attendance was thin, and yet large enough to show that, with proper organization and a due share of exer- tion on the part of each member and officer, Columbia will yet take a proud position among her sister counties in this State, in the cause of agriculture. To obtain that point, but one course is necessary. The Society has now taken root ; let it extend its branches into each township, •School district, and road district ; let its members, and all friends of ag- ricultural knowledge, take an interest in its welfare, and it must succeed. 102 The officers elected for the ensuing year, are as follows : — President, Joseph Kerr, Randolph ; Vice-Presidents, Daniel S. Bushnell, Wyocena, and George M. Bartholomew, Lodi ; Secretary, Henry Converse, Wyo- cena ; Treasurer, Frederick C. Curtis, Lowville ; Executive Committee, R. C. Rockwood, Wyocena ; J. Q. Adams, Fall River ; John Converse, East Randolph ; Jesse Van Ness, West Point ; Henry Merrill, Portage City. I remain, dear Sir, truly yours, JOHN A. BYRNE, Sec. ColumUa Co. Ar/r. Society. To Albert C. Ingham, Esq., Sec. of the Wis. State Agr. Society. DANE. Pheasant Branch, November 13, 1852. Dear Sir — The Dane County Agricultural Society was organized in 1851, by the adoption of a Constitution and By-Laws, and the election of officers. The first Annual Fair was holden at Madison, in September last. It numbers now one hundred and twenty members. The receipts of the Society have been ^ 1 20 00, and its expenditures for premiums and expenses ^105 25. An Address was made to the members of the Society by its late President ; and its first Exhibition was altogether creditable to the Society. The Exhibition of sheep was small ; of cattle and horses, good. The first Exhibition of the Society has demonstrated that Dane county possess the means of constituting a large and respecta- ble Society, and one of great utility to the county ; and that an Agri- cultural Society is a public institution, and ought to be sustained as such in view of its benefits to the Agricultural interests of the county. The officers elect for the coming year, are as follows : — President, William H. Fox ; Vice-Presidents, Reuben Winston, W. M. Colliday, Adin Burdick, Walter Waddle, Wm. Douglas, Philo Dunning ; Treas- urer, Jehu H. Lewis ; Secretary, Robert L. Ream ; Standing Committee on Premiums, Simeon Mills, William H. Clark, Abel Dunning. I am, very respectfully yours, THOMAS T. WHITTLESEY, To Albert C. Ingham, Esq. President, ^ Sec. of the Wis, State Agr. Society. 103 ADDRESS BY HON. THOMAS T. WHITTLESEY, PRESIDENT OF THE SOCIETV. Memhers of the Dane Agricultural Society : It gives me great pleasure to meet with you on this occasion, and with all who have come up to witness this, our first exhibition. Your presence is an attestation of the lively interest you feel in our success. If viewed merely as a social gathering, it is beneficial ; as a meeting of farmers, collected for agricultural improvement, we can discern therein the germ of extensive good. The display of agricultural products and mechanical skill here to-day, reflects great credit on the Society, yet in its infancy, and gives strong promise of what it will do in future years. The gener- ous co-operation so liberally extended, cannot fail to encourage and stim- ulate us to increased exertion. Agricultural Societies are essential to our progress in the right culti' ration of the soil. They lead to the dissemination of knowledge, to the concentration of effort, the support of agricultural papers ; and they create a lively interest in the cause in which we have embarked. They are formed in all agricultural States, and agricultural exhibitions are becom- ing more and more popular, fast growing into favor as points of great attraction, enlisting the chivalry, the genius and fashion of society, and unlike the tournaments of feudal times, improve as well as delight the beholder. Agricultural exhibitions must be the farmer's wreat festi- val ; once a year he must come up with his wife and children, to this feast of fat things. This is the time and place for children to acquire agricul- tural tastes. They will insensibly imbibe an interest for an occupation which, at least, once a year, seems to be in such general estimation. The same law governs in this as in all other pursuits, — the heart must be in the cause. A pursuit which does not draw out, and engage the noblest qualities of the man, ought to be abandoned, a pursuit on which the energies of a judicious mind have been expended, and which does not then remunerate the operator, ought to be abandoned. There is no apology for a farmer who spends his strength for that which is not bread. It is the object of Agricultural Societies to give a proper direction to agricultural pursuits, to improve our knowledge in making good crops, good orchards, and to lay the foundation of successful farming, and there- by of peaceful and quiet homes. The farmer must not work for pay alone, but like the volunteer soldier who strikes for liberty, he strives for lOi the attainment of a nobler object ; like the enthusiastic Alexander, he must conquer for the love of it. The cultivator of the soil must have a farmer's education, a farmer's taste, a farmer's dress. The soil, like a fierce animal, seems to be more kind and pliable, when handled by one who understands its nature ; encourage then, Agricultural Societies, as you value your own interest. Notwithstanding some discouragements under which we have all labored, we ought to be grateful for the many advantages we enjoy. In comparison with the older States, our struggles have not been arduous or severe ; we have entered into a land of promise, without fighting our way through hostile States, into a land of the purest fountains and most abundant food. We live in an age when genius and science have worked out wonderful results, in an age of unsurpassed discoveries, and we have now the fall benefit of those results and of those discoveries, and are now springing into the full maturity of life, while other States have had to pass the infant's progress, a state of weakness and imbecility. We have not been obliged to go armed to the church or to the field of labor. All is peace and tranquility, we have a healthy climate, and a soil of easy culture, we have access to a great variety of the most improA'ed agricul- tural implements. We have more within our reach, to gratify taste and luxury than we ought to buy. What State within twenty years of its first settlement, has emerged with less labor and less violence, to as high a state of refinement ? Situated, as we are, in one of the best agricultural counties in the State, containing lands well adapted for tillage, for orchards and for stock raising ; when the railroad penetrates our borders, and gives us, at all times, access to the Atlantic Seaboard, what more can the farmer ask or need, but well directed industry, to crown his efforts ? Distinguished men in all ages have belonged to our fraternity. It is the oldest society on record. The ruling passion of the immortal Wash- ington was for farming, and no vocation has been so honored by the good and the great as that of the agriculturist. Shepherds and hus- bandmen have been the chosen recipients of those divine messages which have brought peace to man. It is an employment congenial to our nature, and it exerts upon it a great moral influence. No farmer can go into his field without observing a heavenly power aiding his own. The man who cannot harmonize with nature's laws, whose perversity runs counter to her great commands, must give up farming, and he gene- 105 rally does. As agriculture is the great source of national wealth, it is the great prop of society. Our lands are divided into moderately- sized freeholds, none sufficient to make their possessors over opulent ; this division of property, and the nature of it, is a great safeguard to society, and a preventive to sudden and violent political convulsions — it is the great conservative shield for general protection. A republic of farmers cannot be overturned. The genuine farmer is always frank and courteous — his heart is full of benevolence. The genial breezes which breathe the fragrance of heaven upon his fields, and wave the golden ears of bending grain, inspire the best feeling of which our nature is susceptible. By a high command, we take from the great lap of nature, what has been for our use so plenteously poured into it. Earth is our mother, and we feel at home on her bosom ; our vocation is an honored one — a hifjh one — a relio-ious one. It must and will take its ancient position in advance of all others which have since sprung up from the vices and follies of mankind — it will be partially obscured so long as the chief good of human life is placed in the accumulation of wealth. When this Pagan error is eradicated, and this vile scramble for dollars is broken down by your Agricultural Socie- ties, the golden age may then return, and as a preparatory step to this glorious epoch, and in order to equalize the exchanges betAveen your own produce and foreign goods, you must from this time begin to sell dear and buy cheap. Control your own market — let your produce supply your wants — contract the fewest possible debts, and these by no means in advance of your produce. Book debts are ruinous to farmers. This in all cases may not be practicable, but aim to make it so ; be not oblio-ed to sell if you can possibly avoid it, but remember that History records no great achievement without great effort, great labor, great privations, and great endurance. Our profession requires a most constant and wakeful attention, and if we are true to ourselves, and work by method and knowledge, as business men do in other trades and professions, and ai-e not able to live on a respectable equality with our fellow citizens, the social system must be revolutionized and remodeled — a screw is out somewhere. We either pay exorbitantly high, and sell egregiously low, or we misapply our labor. It is the object of our Association to promote inquiry and remedy such defects as may be found to exist. Union is strength. We have a good soil, a healthy climate ; and what prevents the farmer from attaining some degree of affluence ? 106 This question, it is important to examine. The farmer cannot, by any process of agricultural labor, attain to excessive "wealth. But if good land and a good climate will not raise an industrious farmer, -with judi- cious systems of management, to competence and independence, a case of hopeless despondency is then presented ; and desperate must be the conditions of the individuals, and of the government Avhich derives, as in this State, nearly all its support from the landed interest. It is true, that for the last two years, great embarrasment has pervaded the farm- ing interest ; it has been felt in the non-payment of domestic and foreign debts, and then, inquiry is made abroad, why do not your farmers, when land is so cheap, make money ? That a great pressure has exist- ed for the want of money, is evident from the great demand for it, and the high interest it has borne. As wheat is our great staple, the low price of that grain, and the expense of transportation, has been assigned as the prominent cause of our depression. Counting upon our wheat crop, we bought more on credit than we could realise out of it ; heavy taxes, by reason of owning more land than we could improve ; paying a high interest for an extended credit ; improvident expenditures, in buying everything and manufacturing nothing ; too much waste land without profit, and a wasteful and injudicious management, with the- successive failure of the wheat crop, have blighted the farmer's hopes, and impoverished his purse. The truth is, we have been buying expe- rience, which, though dearly bought, will prove in the end salutary, and was in fact necessary to correct an error something like that which Dr. Franklin said was somewhere prevalent, that chickens were then flying about, already cooked and ready to be eaten ! We have been too san- guine in our anticipations, beyond the limits of prudence and common sense. Good farming is the exercise of consummate skill and judgment, and is not to be trifled with by unskilful hands. How can we expect other than hard times, if we do not produce what will equal our expen- ses ? We must either produce more and expend less, or produce an article' which has value, or will sell at a remunerating price, aff'ording a nett profit over all expenses. Hard times are simply the excess of expenses over income, and they are about the only thing of home manufacture. It is the policy of the farmer to raise that for which there is demand. Supply and demand regulate the price. In some years there is a de- mand for pork, as at present — now worth seventeen dollars a barrel — then again for wheat, and again for potatoes, barley, oats and corn. Cheese- 107 always brings a good price, and cattle and wool are in good demanc?.. Now the farmer who, when the price is up, has nothing of that article- to sell, consoles himself by resolving that the next year, for instance, he will make pork — he is tired of raising wheat, and his neighbor did so Avell Avith his pork that he is for fattening hogs. The next year, pork is down and wool is up ; he changes for sheep ; and the next season wool ■' goes down and wheat goes up. Now it is sometimes proper to change, but every change, in the first instance, is attended with a new outlay j cattle, hogs and sheep require each appropriate fixtures, and different management and additional experience. A farmer ought first to consult the system of agriculture to which his farm is best adapted ; whether- for wheat growing, stock raising, or for dairying. Having settled this; question, he must prosecute it according to his means ; his implements ©r husbandry must be right and the very best, and adapted to his work ia hand. This question must be raised and settled by every farmer in bis: own mind : what leading product shall I cultivate, best suited to my soil ? To this particular branch of industry, without neglecting others, he must, give his prominent attention ; he must consult agricultural papers and bocks, and converse with intelligent persons on that subject, collect facts-- and experience, as men do in the professions of law or physic, or as me- chanics in their several trades. If he decides on raising wheat, he m^ist ascertain from close and personal attention, the best time for sowing, the- amount of seed per acre, and the best quality, the best mode of pre- paring the ground and securing the grain, and the best market to sell in — but above all, he must learn what constitutes good plowing. And" so of raising horses, cattle, and sheep. The thing must be a matter of profound thought, study and observation. It cannot be left hap hazarxi.. His efforts will then be attended with better success, and he will derive^ all the secret satisfaction which success inspires. Stock, would, in a great measure, at present, supply the place of money as currency. Two-thirds of my labor this season could have beeaa. encfaffed for stock. There has been a cash demand for cattle the past year. Dane county- is well adapted for raising stock, and the prices have been amply remu- nerative. The immigration setting in, and the emigration to California has advanced the price. Cattle have been greatly sought for, and raising • them has paid well. But in answer to the inquiry, why do you not' raise stock ? the answer is, we have no money to begin upon. But iSi\i^ 108 •same eltjection cannot he made to raising hog's,'. - Pork now bring' a high. iCasli price. It is the lowest depth of miscalculation to sell pork in tax paying time at $2 50 per hundred, and buy in harvest at $16. Our county is traversed every year by Illinois farmers, carrying pork to the northern market ; and Milwaukee is supplied from the same quar- ter— when we have, or can have all the materials, as clover, peas, acorns, and corn for making good pork. Take your pork to market at the pro- per time, and buy your winter groceries for cash. Wool has been a 'Cash article, and buyers have come to your doors, cash in hand, for wool. Is there any country more favorable for raising sheep ? Can we not in this branch successfully compete with the East ? These are three leading produ.cts all bearing high cash prices, and foreign money is sent here to purchase them. One cause of the scarcity of money is, we have not value to exchange for money. There has been . a great demand for esculent plants. There has not been a supply of ' onions, cabbages, beans, and potatoes, in our own market. To raise vclover seed and hops Avould pay well. -In addition to this, Ave manufacture very little. This county has paid abroad an immense sum for farming implements. I do not know of a pail manufactory in the county, and many dollars have gone out for mop handles and brooms, while enough has been paid for stoves to build ten miles of rail road. Can it be wondered at, then, that we are low in funds, and yet the direct opposite of all is within our immediate grasp. Blame not the times, blame not your country, but make your industry more productive and more profitable. The division of mechanical labor, renders it more productive to the operator. The manufacture of a pin, employs several hands. Why is not a division of agricultural labor equally useful ? The more mind and attention are bestowed on a single branch of industry, the more it is perfected. In some States are to be found entire districts devoted to separate branches of agricultural labor, denominated the dairy district, cotton, wool or grain growing district. Dane county is admirably adapt- ed to raising stock. Its supplies of water and pasturage are abundant. The demand for cheese will well warrant an outlay of capital for its manufacture. Dane county cheese, might rival the Cheshire or Ham- burgh. Eight or ten cheeses, some twenty sheep, two or three cows, and half a dozen hogs, may furnish a comfortable supply, but not a source of great revenue. Time and tools cost something, and a divided 109 attention to many objects of industry is unprofitable. I think it must be within the experience of every farmer, that when he raises a little of everything, he suffers in his neglect of some, while he bestows unusual care upon others. This mode of farming is more laborious, because labor-saving machines cannot be afforded, nor can the same division of labor be made, by the employment of many hands, as in a larger busi- ness. To such districts purchasers would resort for the best breeds of cattle, sheep and hogs ; for the best butter and cheese ; and such dis- tricts would acquire a local character and a name, which would be worth something to the producers. The county is large and varied, and adapted to diflferent pursuits ; and our position is a good one for market. Flour has been boated down the Wisconsin, and sixteen hundred bushels of wheat within ten miles were recently sold at sixty cents cash for the southern market. The Galena papers advert to the growing trade on the Wisconsin, as important to their section. The wages of labor, compared with the price of grain, are very high. The Dane farmer pays as much for. labor to raise wheat at fifty cents per bushel, as the Genesee farmer at one dollar. As compared with mechan- ical or professional labor, they are low ; about three and five to one. The farmer, as farming is conducted, can scarcely pay his hired help from the proceeds of his farm. There is no just proportion in the wages of labor. While the cost of clearing and fencing a farm, the erection of buildings, the price of plows, wagons and other implements, is more than in the vicinity of the best markets, our grain brings less ; but land is cheaper. I said as farming is conducted ; for it must be admitted, that there is not enough of system and economy, and too much waste- fulness every way from improvident management. I will give you two examples somewhere near the exact truth. A. and B. owned in this county, each a section of fine land, composed of wood, prairie and water, situated not far from each other, and equal in respect to market. A. had capital ; B. very little. A large and about equal proportion of each farm was fenced, and under the ploAV. The farm worked with capital has been sold for debt. The other is out of debt, furnished sixteen hundred bushels of wheat for market, cut fifty tons of timothy hay, and enabled the owner to invest two thousand dollars in the Milwaukee and Mississippi railroad. Now these different results followed from the widely different management. The proprietor out of debt was temperate, was never in a lawsuit, and never courted 110 (Office ; he held the plow or drove, and used a species of plaster which enabled him to stick to his business. To illustrate the same idea in regard to orchards, I will read an extract from a writer in the Albany Cultivator, showing Avhat effect diflerent Ai'eatment produced on trees : " We have often urged," he says, " the importance of clean and mellow ■culivation for young trees, to promote growth ; and for older ones to fur- nkh fruit of fine quality. Young trees in grass ground, from necessity /sko.uld be widely spaded ; but even this treatment is quite imperfect, and Qjecomes nearly useless as they advance in size, and throw out roots far fceyond the reach of any ordinary spaded circle. We have just mea- sured a few trees differently treated in this particular. Small peach trees i^t out six years ago, and kept cultivated broad cast most of the time, Ivave trunks a foot in circumference, two or three feet from the surface. Those in similar soil, but kept spaded in five feet circles, in grass, are ,^niy eight inches in circumference, although ten years old." lA is a prevalent idea that a farmer can do nothing without capital. My observation is, that men without capital in the commencement, have .possessed themselves of what has been brought in by others. The man who takes money out of a farm, is a belter farmer than he who puts it • ia, B. showed his wisdom by investing in the railroad, for without a crailroad to Madison, farms in the interior are comparatively worthless. Madison, with a railroad, will be the Utica of this State, and will make x3-ld Dane the Genesee county. The railroad will soon arrive at our bor- t-ders — will this county do anything to extend its progress ? Decision of character is essential to the farmer's success ; to decide -mud to execute, is an important item in the affairs of life. Decision is the grand secret of success ; it is allied to firmness ; it is never borne down l)y pleasure, apathy, or indolence. The farmer who cannot rise with the glorious sun, and Avho takes no care that his implements are in order until the time of action, will never come off victorious. The loss of one day, in the crisis of affairs, sometimes works a serious loss, besides the ■sinking of those high hopes and that buoyant courage which disastrous ^nanagement always produces. The loss of a crop from neglect at the proper lime to secure good seed, from deferring to some other time, the present duty of replacing a single loose board or a rail, from neglect to manure the soil, or to properly cultivate it, causes the worn, thread-bare aexclamation, " farming won't pay." The Creator gave this beautiful Ill 'earth to man to cultiA'ate, gave him his divine image, and made him lord of this goodly heritage. He endowed him with strength to subdue the thorns and thistles ; with a capacity to plan, to comprehend, and to exe- cute His great command, " In the sweat of thy brow shalt thou eat bread." To live without labor is impossible ; industry promotes longev- ity and happiness, and will most certainly repay a bountiful return, so long as the rainbow decks the heavens, and seed time and harvest do not fail. But at no time of our national existence has there been such a wide- spread effort as at present, to improve the standard of agriculture. Eecently a National Agricultural Society has been formed at Washington. The rural seats of Mount Vernon, Hermitage, Ashland and Marshlield, rich in the display of agricultural taste and beauty, are evidences that war and politics cannot satisfy the mind ; but that it must turn from am- bition and strife to gratify its love of nature. Earth was made for man to cultivate, and man was made to till the earth. It is the material with which we have to do, a great laboratory undergoing ceaseless changes, which the farmer ouorht to understand. Science has done much for agri- culture ; she has multiplied labor a thousand fold, and brings distant markets to our very doors. Patronize science — let the hard-fisted farmer enter and worship in its temples. Do not consider colleges as made for a favored few, or as fitting the young to live without labor — let us march boldly through its portals, and take their key of knowledge to unlock the treasures of earth. Chemical science will analyze our soils, and tell lis what they need to improve their fertility. To counteract the defi- ciency of the unequal value of labor, we must, by a more careful and improved husbandry, treble the quantity produced, make two blades of grass grow instead of one, and stretch forward the internal improvements. Spain has fewer railroads than any other civilized nation ; look at Spain ! The United States has more than any other nation ; and what national prosperity can be compared to hers ? The union is awake to this sub- ject, and Wisconsin must not be in the rear. I adverted to the inequality in the price of labor, as bearing heavily on the farmer. To raise wheat at forty cents a bushel, with a saving pro- fit, the quantity must be increased by superior cultivation. To grow wheat a man must know how to do it, for it requires the same thought and study as an argumentative brief, or an agricultural address, or a pattern for iron castings. Farming is reason in action ; it cannot be 112 conducted without science and method, any better than a tool can be em- ployed in any trade without being fitted to its use. A clay soil is said to be the best soil for wheat, and yet it may be so compact and adhesive, that unless mixed with leached ashes, lime or sand, or unless the sub- soil is mellowed for the top roots to penetrate, the fibrous or lateral shoots of the plant are in danger of perishing by exposure to the frost uncovered as they will be by the winds, without this preparation ; or unless the proper relative elementary proportions are in the soil it will be unproductive, labor is lost upon it. I will in this place mention an experiment made by a farmer, by sowing oats with wheat. He sowed three different pieces of wheat on ground prepared alike. On the first piece he sowed with the wheat, one bushel of oats per acre, on the second half a bushel, and on the third no oats at all. The same kind and quan- tity of wheat was sown on each. The first piece was good without any chess, the second piece was a middling crop, with a little chess, and the third piece was nearly all chess. To remedy the disproportion between the cost of production and the price of the article, we must study to improve its cultivation. Neither grain, nor stock, nor fruit, can be advantageously cultivated without study and observation ; we are not born with any intuitive knowledge ; as well might a farmer attempt to amputate a limb with surgical skill, as to attempt the right management of the soil without education. The manual labor may be done, but the adaptation of means to ends demands as much foresight and quickness of perception, and as much science, though of a different quality, as the projection of a cannon ball at a distant object, or the storming of a fortification ; and though the landed interest pays three-fourths of the taxes, we have no agricultural schools, no model farms, no scientific farmers, supported at the public expense, while military and naval schools are amply endowed. We are an Agri- cultural State. Wisconsin is a commonwealth of farmers, and the State University at Madison presents now a glorious opportunity of connecting; with it, and endowing an agricultural school, and combining practical and scientific farminof. When the Erie Canal was projected, the Eastern farmers were fright- fully apprehensive that the immense volume of freight which it was fore- seen would be transported from the West, would reduce the price of their lands. But it has been made and enlarged,' and yet it is not equal to the task ; but railroads have been constructed at an astonishing ex- 113 pense, to aid in forwarding the enormous burthens which are transmit- ted to and from the West ; and still, lands in all the New England states have aucjmented in value. It is intimated that the lands in Massachu- setts have risen enough in value to defray the expenses of their rail- roads. How is this ? Manufactories have sprung up all over the land. They send iis their clocks, buttons, hats and pins, and every thing we use. Their purses are full of gold to buy our wool, our cheese and our pork. By the census of 1850, from 124,892 sheep, Wisconsin sheared 233,963 pounds of wool, the average weight of fleece was two pounds, less than Iowa by more than 100,000 pounds. Ohio sheared over 10,000,000 pounds. The average weight of fleece in Vermont, was three pounds eleven ounces. We have not capital for manufacturing, though Ave have a good soil. Manufacturers study their own interest ; so must agriculturists. Manufacturers have secrets ; immense quantities of corn are converted into starch, but the art is a secret, and visitors are excluded from that branch. Farmers have no secrets ; but a portion of that knowledge, which is sought for in commerce and manufactures, we must have, that agricul- ture may take its proper rank, as it is the basis and support of all others. Mr. Allen in his Rural Architecture, makes the followinof .sensible remarks upon the necessity of ladies identifying themselves with agri- cultural pursuits, and attaining a knowledge and taste in the business, which their husbands, fathers and brothers are striving to elevate, to make profitable and ennobling : "Nor is this laudable taste confined to men alone. Females of the highest worth, and domestic example both abroad and at home, cultivate a love for such objects and take much interest in the welfare of their farm stock. We were at the annual cattle show in one of our large States, but a short time since, and in loitering about the cattle quarter of the grounds, met a lady of our acquaintance, with a party of her female friends, on a tour of inspection among the beautiful Short Horns and Devons, and the select varieties of sheep. She was the daughter of a distinguished Statesman, who was also a large farmer, and a patron of great liberality in the promotion of fine stock in his own State. She was bred upon the farm, and to rare accomplishments in education, was possessed of a deep love for all rural objects ; and in the stock of the farm she took a peculiar interest. Her husband was an extensive farmer, and a noted breeder of fine animals. She had her own farm too, and 114 cattle upon it, equally as choice as his, in her own right ; and they were both competitors at the annual exhibitions. At her most comfortable and hospitable residence she showed us with pride, the several cups and ■other articles of plate which her family had won as prizes at the Agri- cultural Exhibitions, and which she intended to preserve as heir-looms to her children. From the bottom of our heart, we trust that a reform- ation is at work among our American women, in the promotion of a taste ; and not only a taste, but a genuine love of things connected with country life. It was not so with the mothers and the wives of the stern and earnest men who laid the foundation of their country's freedom and greatness. They were women of soul, character and stamina, who grappled with the realities of life, in their labors, and enjoyed its pleas- ures with truth and honesty. This over-nice, mincing delicacy and sen- timentality in which their grand-daughters indulge, is but the ofF-throw of the boarding school, the novelist and the prude, mere 'leather and prunella.' " One lady horticulturist, according to the Norfolk Va. Argus, is alone cultivating thirty acres of land in stawberries, and employs fifty pick- ers, for the northern cities. Eve was the flower of the garden, and without her it would not have been Paradise. She watered and nourished the plants and trained their growth. No un-wifed farmer can show a clean garden. Like himself, it will always be unwed. The domestic example, comfort and endearment which woman gives to home, is the best volume of memoirs for children to read. The noble second which a good wife gives to the farmer's efforts, stimulates the wavering, revives sinking hopes, and softens arduous toil. ' She layeth her hands to the spindle, and her hands hold the distaff. Her children rise up and call her blessed, and her husband he praiseth her.' " And now, farmers, let us hold fast to our profession, it is one which admits of progress ; you are the bone and sinew of the land ; you stand upon the soil, and every year augment the wealth of the nation,. Other classes are the consumers, the exchangers. You furnish the means and the supply. Our profession demands the highest order of intellect and virtue. We must not discard science, for she is the hand-maid of agri- culture. Investigation is necessary to our progress. Ascertained facts are the data on which we must frame our theories. Agricultural works assist inquiry, and at our next exhibition let us make the Society worthy of Dane county and of ourselves. 115 FOND DU LAC. A Meeting was held at Rosendale, on the iifth day of July, 1852, in accordance with a notice previously given, for the purpose of taking measures for the organization of a County Agricultural Society. At . this meeting, H. W. Walcott, Esq., of Rosendale, presided, and Stores Hall, M. D., acted as Secretary. After the appointment of a Committee .to prepare a suitable Constitution, the Meeting adjourned to Saturday, July 17th. On re-assembling, a Constitution was reported and adopted, and the following persons chosen to fill the various offices for the current year : President, Hoii. N. M. Donaldson, Waupun ; Vice Presidents, Charles r. Hammond, 2d, West Rosendale ; Robert Jenkinson, Metomon, and John Elwell, Taychcdah ; Recording Secretary, Storrs Hall, M. D., Rosendale; Corresponding Secretary, Elliot BroAvn, M. D., Lamartine ; ■ Treasurer, S. N. Hawes, Fond du Lac. By the Constitution, these offi- cers constitute a Board of Directors, having in charge the general inte- rests of the Society. At a meeting of the Directors, held July 27th, 1852, it was resolved that the first Annual Cattle Show and Fair should be held at Rosendale, on the 29th and 30th days of September. Of this Fair, the Secretary, Dr. Hall, thus speaks : ' " The first Annual Fair and Cattle Show of the Fond du Lac County Agricultural Society, was held at Rosendale, on the 29th and 30th of • September, 1852. The attendance of the farmers and others interested in the progress of agricultural pursuits, was very large — far exceeding the fondest anticipations of the friends of the Society, Less than three months had passed since the first formation of the Society, consequently a sufficient time had not elapsed for suitable notice to be given, or efficient preparations to be made ; but, judging from this first eflfort of the Society, in its infant state, and laboring under all the disadvantages of circum- stances, we may hope and trust that it will not, in its maturer growth, . and under more favorable circumstances, fall short of the exhibitions of . Societies of a similar character in this, or even in older States. "The county is but newly settled; the Indian's trail is not wholly • -effaced Avithin our bounds, and vast portions of our territory are still 116 unoccupied and uncultivated. Oui* Fair has been but a faint shadow of what it is destined to become ; and yet it goes far to exhibit the energy which characterizes the settlers of this region. " There were entered, in competition for premiums, about two hundred and fifty different articles ; embracing a very large portion of the various products of the farm. "An Address was delivered, extemporaneously, on the first day of the Fair, by Edward Daniels, Esq., of Ceresco. The Address was able and interesting ; and made a good impression upon the agricultural portion of our community. " The Board of Directors hesitated for a long time, as to the expediency of holding a Fair the present year. The want of funds, the unprepared state of the public mind, and the uncertainty of success ; the difficulties which have surrounded the farmers of this region for some years ; and the entire absence of special efforts for preparation, were reasons that weighed heavily against the apparent practicability of the enterprise. The days were named, not without fears for its success. The result, how- ever, shows that the conclusions of the directors were right, for the Fair exceeded, beyond all comparison, their most sanguine anticipations. " The receipts of the Society, since its formation, have been 886 82, and the expenditures have been about the same amount." IOWA. No report has been received of the proceedings of the Iowa County- Agricultural Society, during the past year, and it is believed that but little has been done by it towards carrying out the ends of its forma- tion. JEFFERSON AND DODGE. Watertowx, December 6, 1852. Dear Sir : — A notice appeared in the Watertown papers, for two or three weeks previous to the 18th day of February, 1852, requesting- the farmers and mechanics of the counties of Jefferson and Dodge to meet on the day named, in the village of Watertown, for the pur- pose of forming an Agricultural Association. At the meeting, the attendance was meagre. Some four or five farmers appeared froia 117 Dodge county, and about the same number of mechanics, merchants and manufacturers from Watertown. Those who had been the most active in getting up the meeting, were almost discouraged by the indiff- erence which, it was but too apparent, was felt by those most deeply interested i^ the objects which it had been called to promote. Neverthe- less, it was determined to form an Association, to be known and desig- nated as the "Jefferson and Dodge County Agricultural Society." A Constitution Avas adopted, similar to that of most of the other County Agricultural Societies, with the additional clause that " each hona fide member shall receive, at the expense of the Society, an Agricultural paper published in this State, subject only to postage." The Constitution Avas signed by the eleven persons present ; after which the following officers, for the then ensuing year, were elected : President, Allen H. Atwater, of Oak Grove ; Secretary, J. A. Hadley, of Watertown ; Treasurer, Luther A. Cole, of WatertoAvn ; Executive Committee, William M. Dennis and Benjamin Fuller, of Dodge county ; Linus R. Cady and John Richards, of Jefferson county. The Executive Committee then appointed one Vice-President for each town in the two counties. A meeting of the Executive Committee was held at Watertown on the 21st day of August following, at which it was resolved to hold a Cattle Show and Fair at Oak Grove, on the 2d day of October. At the same meeting. Committees to award premiums Avere appointed. The First Annual Fair was held agreeably to appointment. At this ex- hibition the display of hv./ses, cattle, swine, and sheep, Avas highly credit- able to the f .rmers of the two counties. Of domestic manufactures, farming implements, fruit, and vegetables, the competition was less than had been expected. The amount of \ remiums aAvarded was ^54 63. The highest premium Avas 81 75, and the loAA'est tAventy-iiA-e cents. After paying these premiums, and other expenses of the Society, including papers to its members, the treasurer found in his hand a balance of 85 68. His total receipts had been $75. Sixty-four members were added to the Society on the day of the Fair, making the total number of mem- bers up to that date, seventy-five. The attendance upon the Fair was large. There could not have been less than one thousand five hundred or two thousand persons present. On the whole, the Fair gave very general satiafaction. That it has excited a spirit of laudable emulation on the part of the farmers and me- 118 chanics of the two counties, the good fruits of which will be developed at future Fairs, the members and friends of the Society have the best reasons for believing. Yours truly, J. A. HADLEY, Sec. of Jefferson and Lodge Agr. Society. To Albert C. Ingham, Esq. Sec. of the Wis. State Agr. Society. ' KENOSHA. Kenosha, December 10, 1852. Dear Sir : — The Kenosha County Agricultural Society continues in a. flourishing condition. We hold our meetings quarterly, at which there is generally a good attendance, and an abiding interest is kept up. We feel encouraged to go on in the good work, for we see that the best results are being produced, and we shall claim, ere long, to be the banner county of the State, if Ave are not already entitled to the appellation, for we were the first to begin the work, and trust to be the last to abandon it. By a change in our Constitution, our annual meeting was held on the first Monday in December, Avhen the following persons were elected officers for the ensuing year : President, Leonard Crocker, of Somers ; Vice Presidents, Levi Grant, of Bristol, and G. J. Pease, of Salem ; Treasurer, George N. Towslee, of Kenosha ; Recording Secretary, Frederick J. Brand, of Pleasant Prairie ; Corresponding Secretary, T. J. Rand, of Kenosha. At this meeting, we awarded premiums on field crops, seeds and grain, and voted to hold the next Fair at Kenosha. This Society held its Annual Fair at Bristol, on Thursday and Friday, September 30th, and October 1st, 1852 ; at which time, notwithstanding- the location, which was somewhat oiit of the way, there was a large attendance. The Show lasted two days ; on the second day there was sup- posed to be over four thousand people on the grounds. The show of horses, cattle, and implements, was good. The Floral and Horticultural Show was superior for this new State, and the ladies' department was pecu- liarly excellent ; they, I am happy to state, take a great interest in our Fairs. There were two hundred entries for premiums, and one hundred 119 and fourteen awards, paid in cash and diplomas, without including the entries or awards on crops, seeds, &c. There were some persons who did not take sheep and other stock to our Fair this year, because they had received premiums in previous years, and were not entitled, by the rules of the Society, to compete again in the same class. This is not, in my opinion, a sufficient reason for not exhibiting these animals. Good stock should be shown, whether entitled to a premium or not. We cannot see a handsome animal too often. While on the subject of Agriculture, I cannot forbear to mention the ' Exchange Fairs.' AVe think more of this Fair, in its practical uses, than of any other of our meetings. In my report of last year, I explained its utility and importance, and would again commend it to the attention, of all County Societies. The prospects of the success for some years to come of agricultural pursuits in this State are flattering ; and now is the time to get the far- mers enlisted in the work of Agricultural Societies. And allow me to recommend Farmer's Clubs. Many evenings in the winter might be profitably spent in club meetings for the exchange of views on the sub- jects of farming. As well might a man undertake to navigate a ship to India without a knowledge of the science of navigation, as to undertake to produce favorable results from farming, without books, and without an exchange of opinions with others. The easiest, cheapest, and most direct way of obtaining this knowledge, so important to the successful farmer, is by establishing clubs, with useful libraries attached. We see that almost every profession, business, or trade in life, has its associa- tions for mutual improvement, Avhile Agriculture — the most important of them all — folds her arms, and is content to walk in the paths of her fore- fathers, even as far back as the dark ages. It is time to awaken ; the age of improvement is fast leaving us in the rear. Yours truly, T. J. RAND, Cor. Sec. Kenosha Co. Agr. Society. To Albert C. Ingham, Esq. Sec. of the Wis. State Agr. Society. 120 ADDRESS BY HON. SAMUEL R. McCLELLAN, PRESIDENT OF THE KENOSHA COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SOCIETl'. Ladies and Gentlemen : — Time, in its onward course, has brought about another year. Again we have assembled as the Agricultural Society of the county of Kenosha, and again by your partiality it is made my duty to address you. I could have wished your choice had fallen upon some one abler, and more conversant than myself with that science, which it is the object of this Society to promote. And I can only say that were my knowledge of agriculture equal to my love for it, then could I talk with you upon this theme until your patience were wearied. But this, unfortunately, is not so. The best years of my life were spent in a far different pursuit. " Me they sent To wait on pain, and silent arts to urge, Inglorious, not ignoble ; mj cares. To ease such as languish on a grievious bed, And the sweet forgetfulness of ill conciliate." It is but a few short years since I came among you, a novice in the science and art of agriculture. And I take this occasion to acknowledge the obligations I am under to this Society for the many lessons of practical importance I have learned at our several meetings. Yet, even to this day, I feel that I have but just entered the vestibule of the temple of Ceres, though enough has already been unfolded to my view to satisfy me that the science of agri- culture is of importance sufficient to engage the attention of the ablest minds. The science of Agriculture ! What is it ? It is emphatically the basis of civilization, the foundation of all other sciences, embracing Avithin its scope a knowledge not only of the earth and its minerals, but also of its vegetable and animal productions. This is not all. Everything incident to, or connected with the production and growth of vegetables and ani- mals, their preservation and their diseases, their decomposition and their reproduction are all embraced in the science of Agriculture. What science more interesting ? What science more noble ? What science more neglected ? I propose to say a few words upon the causes of this neglect, and the remedy. An all-wise and beneficent Providence has so ordained that 121 by natural causes, our soil is fitted originally with all the necessary properties for vegetable productions, and from the immense quantities of virgin soil constantly being brought into a state of cultivation and im- provement by the hardy sons of toil, in all parts of our extensive coun- try, our agricultural products are so large, that we entirely overlook the necessity of retaining the natural fertility of our soils, or of increasing the aggregate amount of our products. The consequence is, we have lost at least half a century in agricultural progress ; and although we have outstripped the nations of the old world in many branches of science, yet in agriculture we are far behind them. Still I hazard the assertion, that no nation has originated more new ideas in relation to the science of Agriculture than our own, but owing to the want of popular s}Tnpathy, and a fountain head charged with the duty of collecting and distributing information to stimulate and encour- age enterprise and experiment, thus drawing to a common centre the re- sults of individual skill and observation, and thence difFusingf them throughout the length and breadth of our extended country, these valu- able ideas have been neglected, and in a measure lost. Compared with other nations, what has America done for the cause of Agriculture ? There are in Europe upwards of three hundred and fifty schools and colleges, exclusively agricultural, even despotic Russia has sixty-eight schools of Agriculture, while in the United States, not a single Institu- tion of the kind exists ! By the late census of 1850, it appears that the people of these United States have invested ^552,705,238 in domestic animals; and yet, if a young man about to engage in stock-growing, wishes to study the anat- omy of the horse or any other animal, there is not a museum in all America where this can be done ! No man supposes for an instant, that we can learn the anatomy and physiology of man from books. No, we must make dissections, we must have occular demonstrations, and valuable museums, to illustrate all parts of the system both in a healthy and a diseased condition. And just in proportion to the importance of the subject, the one is as necessary as the other. We have in this country over thirty millions of sheep, and between five and six millions of cows which yield us the pro- duct of the dairy. Will any reasonable man say that a knowledge of all this living machinery can be of no value to the country ? Shall we 9 122 continue to grope our way in the dark, depending upon foreign countries for information upon a subject of so much moment as this ? For the honor of my countrymen I tr'st it will not be. And I am happy to state that within the past few years an increased attention has been paid to the sci- ence of agriculture, and we have reason to hope a brighter day is about to dawn. The importance of estabhshing an Agricultural Bureau was discussed, and found many able advocates, in the present Congress. A National Agricultural Convention was held at Washington during the past summer, the result of which was, the formation of the United States Agricultural Society. And in this Convention no less than twenty three States and Territories were represented. Thus we see that public sentiment has been awakened upon the subject, and we have now but to combine and organize State and County Agri- cutural Societies, and bring our strength to bear on the advancement of this noble science, and our purpose is accomplished. If we remain divided and isolated our moral force will be lost. We must bring the science of combination to bear upon our purpose. State and County 1 Societies, if they would unite their influence, have now the power to Vmduce Congress to do something for us. It is vain to expect politicians ^ take the lead in this matter, they must be pressed into it by public sentiment. Great measures of reform can only -progress ^ari passu with enlightened public sentiment. Individuals, it is true, are frequently in advance of the age in which they live, but their ideas can only be carried out as fast as public sympathy appreciate them. Hartlib pointed out the advantages of a National Board of Agricul- ture to the inhabitants of Great Britain, a century before it was established by the indefatigable exertions of Sir John Sinclair. Washington, the father of his country, and a practical farmer, recom- mended the establishment of an Agricultural Bureau in several of his messages to Congress. It was a subject on which he ever expressed the liveliest interest, and upon which he loved to dwell. In his correspondence with Mr. Sinclair, speaking of the British Board of Agriculture, he says : " From the first intimation you were pleased to give me of this insti- tution, I conceived the most favorable ideas of its utility. And the more I have seen and reflected on the plan since, the more I become convinced of its importance, in a national point of view, not only to your own 123 country, but to all others which are not too much attached to old and bad liabits to forsake them, and to new countries that are just beginning to form systems for the improvement of their husbandry." This was the deliberate opinion of a man, whose name no true American can mention without feelings of profound veneration. In mv last Annual Address, I suggested the idea of a State Board of Agriculture, and although nothing has yet been done, I am still impressed with the importance of that measure. That ;he agricultural interest is one of vast importance to our country, is being more and more realized with each succeeding year; and this not only from the great numbers engaged in it, but also from the various relations sustained by the class who compose it, and the influence of the product < of their industry on our general prosperity as a nation. Subcract from our resources our agricultural productions, and a wide void would be made. The great question, then, as to what will best promote our prosperitv as an agricultural nation, is one well worthy the consideration of the legisla- tors in all the States, and under proper regulations this object may be at tained. At a comparatively small expense each State may be possessed of a knowledge of its own resources, which would be valuable, not only in direciing its own policy, but to exchange for like information from its sister States and from foreign countries. It is a knowledge of these facts, imperfect as they are, that is now giving us an increasing importance in the eyes of the nations of the old world. They are watching us with mingled feelings of admiration and envy. They see and feel the influ- ence we are destined to exert on the progressive march of humanity. Let then, the immense extent, the vast variety of our resources, the elements of our industry, the channels open for our future development, be spread out that they may be known and read of all men. Let facts and figures stand forth, inviting investigation, proving to the world that whatever may be the gush of passion, or the momentary excitement of party feeling, we are still mutually dependent, each State with its sister- hood and that with a wise foresight, our fathers selected our national motto. " E Pluribus Unum." May it ever be borne aloft by our Amer- ican Eagle. " Long be our fathers' temple ours, Woe to the hand bj which it falls Departed spirits watch its towers, While livbg patriots guard its walla," 124: I trust you will not deem it inappropriate at this time to say a few words to the young men who have chosen the profession of Agriculture. It is a noble vocation, and upon you will soon devolve the high responsi- bility, not only of maintaining its present position, but carrying it for- ward in. even pace with the progress of the other sciences. The earth on which you tread is endowed with a thousand capabilities of produc- tion, which require only the fostering hand of intelligent industry to yield you the most ample returns. In this, as in all other departments of science, " knowledge is power," and it is of the highest importance to you to make yourselves acquainted with the constitution and relations of every object around you, that you may avail yourselves of their capabilities of ministering to your comfort and happiness. And I would earnestly impress upon you the advantages of acquiring a taste for reading and habits of investigation. I know that youn^ men are too apt to suppose, when they have finished their preli- minary studies and entered upon the active duties of their calling, that they have acquired all the knowledge requisite for their proper discharge. This is a great mistake. They are then only fitted to pursue with advan- tage a more enlarged course of study. In this ao-e of cheap literature, when knowledge no longer walks the streets, as in days of yore, with uncouth wig and sable cowl, but when the portals of her temple are open wide, that all who choose may enter, you should not fail to form and cultivate a taste that will expand the mind, ennoble the faculties, strengthen the judgment, and open to you innumerable sources of rational enjoyment. Science will inform you of the organization, the uses and the history of animated nature. It will classify, arrange, and make you familiar with every department of the vegetable kingdom. It will analyze the water that fertilizes the earth, and the invisible air by which you are surrounded. It will t«ach you the laws of heat, light, and electricity. It will do more. It will elevate your thoughts to the heavens, and present to your won- dering minds the immensity, the distances, the revolutions and laws which govern the globes and stud the great arch above us. It will teaeh you that an all-wise and beneficent Creator has impressed the same unerrino" law on every portion of the universe, as full, as perfect on the tiny pebble which lies upon the sea shore, as on the globe we inhabit; as full, as perfect in the gentle zephyr that woos us with its soft embrace. 125 V as in the wliirlwinds' crash ; as full, as perfect in the lowest animal instinct as in the soul of man. " 'Tis the same law, that moulds the tear, And bids it trickle from its source, That holds the ocean iu its sphere, And guides the planets in their coui-se." To the ladies Arho have participated in this exhibition, I can but reite- rate the sentiments of my last year's Address. We thank you for the past; we need not bespeak your continuance in well-doing for the future, for it is not in your nature to abandon a good cause when once fairly en- listed. All history, both sacred and profane, abounds with brilliant ex- amples of the disinterestedness, the constancy, the devotedness of woman. The last at the cross, the first at the sepulchre ; in the darkest hour of peril she knows not to falter. I congratulate you that your department in this exhibition has been well sustained. I bid you God speed and hail you as co-laborers with us in the upbuilding of an institution which has for its object the diffusion of knowledge, the enlightenment of society, and the amelioration of the condition of our common country. MILWAUKEE AND WAUKESHA. In consequence of the location of the State Fair, for the year 1852, at the city of Milwaukee, no Fair Avas held by the Milwaukee and Wau- kesha County Agricultural Society. The Society is, hoAvever, in a flourishing condition and will resume active operations at an early day. The Secretary speaks in high terms of the beneficial results flowing from the holding of the State Fair in their midst ; and anticipates that much permanent advantage will accrue therefrom. The list of officers of the Society has not been furnished us. RACINE. The Racine County Agricultural Society, held its Annual Fair and Cattle Show at Yorkville, during the month of September, 1852. The Fair was well attended, and much enthusiasm manifested. No Report lias been received of its proceedings, though it is believed to be in a prosperous condition. 126 ROCK. Janesville, November 25, 1852. Dear Sir : — The Rock County Agricultural Society and Mechanics'" Institute has been in operation for two years. The experiment of sus- taining a County Agricultural Society in Rock county, has novr been fairly tried, and its stability and perpetuity has become one of the fixed facts in the public estimation, as it has succeeded beyond the expecta- tions of its most sanguine friends. It has now reached a point from which one need not apprehend a retrograde movement, or entertain any fears as to its permanent existence. It is well known that our first Annual Cattle Show and Fair Avas held in connection with the State Fair, at Janesville, in 1851. That was an exhibition highly creditable alike to the farmers and mechanics of our county and the State generally. From that time forward, until our last Annual Fair, many not only attributed our apparent success to our con- nection with the State Society at that time, but predicted a failure if we should attempt to act as an independent Society within our own county. But others, with an energy and perseverance worthy of the cause, deter- mined to make an effort, and give a fair trial, at least, to so laudable an imdertaking. Accordingly, arrangements were made for the Fair ; but still the auspices seemed unfavorable, as it became necessary, for reasons which it is not necessary to explain, to hold it at one extreme of the county. This was not only inconvenient for many who wished to nttend, but produced great dissatisfaction in other portions of the county. And again, the time was injudiciously selected, the circuit court beinp' in ses- sion at the time appointed for the Fair, which necessarily detained many influential men as jurors, &c., on whom we had relied for countenance and assistance. But notwithstanding these untoward circumstances, which seemed to conspire against us, the result shows that we have abundant cause for congratulation, and even pride ; for althouijli some departments were not very fully represented, the exhibition was, on the whole, of the most commendable character, and marked through c>ut by ti spirit which augurs well for the future. And so great is our confi- dence in the resources and indomitable energies of the farmers and me- O chanics of our county, that we throw down the gaimtlet to all County- Societies of the kind in the great Northwest ; for we are determined not to be beat in 1853. 127 Here permit me to say that much credit is due to o\ir President, Hon. JosiAH F. WiLLAED, for his unwearied efforts in placing the Society on a permanent basis, and in sustaining it. Also to Prof. S. P. Lathrop, of Beloit College, Messrs. Love and Baekee, and Daniel Bennett, of Beloit; to Vice Presidents Burgess and Burdick, and E, A. Howland, Esq. of Janesville ; to J. P. Dickson, Esq., our Treasurer — not forgetting J. P. Wheeler, Esq., of La Prairie, who may, with propriety, be styled the ' venerable father* of the Society — together with others, whose names we have not space to mention. We do not expect to convey an adequate idea of the extent of the exhi- bition in the brief review which follows. To be appreciated, it should have been seen. We will glance lightly over each department on the show ground. The Fair was held on the 28th and 29th of September. The people of Beloit, with a commendable liberality, fitted up the grounds surrounding their new and spacious Union School House, with- out expense to the Society. The grounds being enclosed by an ample board fence, not only afforded sufficient space for the exhibition of animals and specimens of the mechanic arts, but also for the accommodation of all those who wished to drive through the grounds in carriages. The School House — a beautiful three-story brick building, and an honor to- the town — afforded commodious rooms for the display of articles in the Ladies' Department, the Fine Arts, &c. Horses, — Many superb specimens of this noble and most service- able animal attracted the attention of all. R, M. Wheeler, of Janesville^ carried off the first premium for his fine stalhon, " Hambletonian," which was well deserved. Messrs. Blodgett and Ruble, of Beloit, pre- sented some very superior young stallions ; and several very fine sucking colts, presented by 0. Densmore and others, together with the breeding mares exhibited, all showed that our farmers are awakening to the importance of improving our stock of horses. Several pairs of matched horses were shown, among which those of Messrs. Howland, Trask and Dickey, of Janesville, W. H. Howard, of Beloit, and D. H. Cobb, of La Prairie, were superior. Of draught horses, Messrs. Simon Ruble and Q, B. Sanderson, of Beloit, J. F. Dockstader of Shopier, J. F, Willard, of Rock, and F, S, Eldred, of Johnstown, probably offered the best, although a great number of others on the ground were very fine. On the whole^ the show in this department was very good. 128 Neat Stock. — C. Loftus Martin, of Turtle, received the first premium on Durham bulls, and it was well merited, although "Old Taurus" was well represented by animals presented by M. P. Cogswell and Yost Roberts, of Beloit ; Jonathan Cory, of Centre ; Jesse Mills, of Janesville ; F. Hitchcock, of La Prairie, and others. The working oxen were feAv in number, although several fine pairs were on the ground, especially three pairs presented by Judge C. R. Gibbs, of Harmony. Several fine Durham cows and fat cattle were exhibited which were a credit to their owners, among which we particularly noticed one owned by F. Hitchcock, of La Prairie, which was very fine ; G. W. Bicknell, of Beloit, and Peter McVane, of Kewark, also presented good animals. Sheep. — The exhibition in this department was better than was expected. Several pens were on the ground, among which, those belong- ing to Levi St. John of La Prairie, N. P. Benson and John. A. Fletcher .of Johnstown, and E. Bradley of Turtle, were superior, and gave good evidence of discrimination and skill on the part of the wool-growers of this section. And we may add, though it may not be generally known abroad, that Rock County possesses all the requisites necessary to become one of. the best wool-growing sections of the world. Swine. — This class was also finely represented, both in numbers and quality. Several were large, sleek, and dignified ; and seemed to grunt a hearty vote of thanks to the good people of Beloit, for the bountiful -fare provided for them during their visit. PouLTRT. — Next in order we notice the poultry. This department ■was highly creditable to the exhibitors, individual representations being ■present, with their progeny, from the various tribes of Shanghais, Cochin Chinas, Hamburgs, Chittagongs, Black and White Polands, &c. We think much credit is due to Prof. S. P. Lathrop of Beloit, Messrs, Wil- lard of Rock, Chase of Janesville, and others, for the pains they have taken to introduce the superior breeds of fowls into our county. Fakm Products. — Beautiful samples of winter wheat were presented by several gentlemen. Robert Taylor of Spring Valley, and S. A. Murray of Turtle, made the best show. Mr. Taylor had five acres of red chaff bald, which yielded thirty-one bushels per acre. Mr. Murray had nine acres of Genesee white flint, which yielded about thirty bush- els per acre. In flax raising, Daniel Bennett alone competed ; one acre yielded 2,775 ft of straw and about ten bushels of seed. Many 129 excellent specimens of other farm and garden vegetables were shown, and the show in this department was highly gratifying. Fruits. — The fruit-growers of this county are deserving of distin- guished credit. Among the first on the list is James Caldwell, of Janesville, for six beautiful varieties of plums, of very superior quality and size ; and J. Roberts, of Beloit : William Spaulding, of Harmony, and H. T. Woodward, Jr., for specimens of apples, grapes, &c., prov- ing that our county is capable of producing as good fruit as any other in the same latitude. Farming Implements. — In as brief a report as this must necessarily be, it will be impossible to do justice to the exhibitors in this depart- ment. The Committee say, in reference to the mowing and reaping machines of Messrs. Barker & Love, of Beloit, " that they are excellent, and that the efforts of those gentlemen to serve the farming community, have been highly successful, and creditable to themselves as machinists and mechanics, as well as to the county. Messrs. Parker & Stone pre- sented fine specimens of hoes and hay-forks of their own manufacture ; and J. M. Riker, of Janesville and A. P. Allis, of Beloit, exhibited beautiful specimens of harness work. S. T. Merrill, of Beloit, exhibited a fine specimen of paper, of his own manufacture ; and H. D. Water- man, of Beloit, some elegant specimens of copper and tin ware. Dairy Products. — The beautiful sample of butter, presented by Mrs. Rufus Clarke, of Beloit, will not be soon forgotten by those who saw it. Other very fine samples were presented by Daniel Bennett, Edward Brad- ley, F. S. Eldred, S. A. Murray, E. Thornbury, D. Blodgett, and others. Of cheese, F. S. Eldred, of Johnstown, evidently bore off the palm, both as to quantity and quality, although several very fine samples were presented by others. Farms and Gardens. — In this department the report of the Committee is presented, accompanied by a statement from Mr. J. F. Willard, who ■was the successful competitor, and received the award of the Committee, both on the Farm and the Flower Garden ; [The following is an extract from the report of the Committee on Farms and Gardens] : *' The Committee visited the farm and flower garden of J. F. Willard, Esq., of Rock. This farm is situated on the east side of Rock River, about two miles below Janesville, and contains about three hundred and 130 forty acres, with a road running from north to south through it, leaving about one hundred acres west of the road, on which, and near the road, are located the farm buildings, consisting of an ordinary sized dwelling, known as the * Forest Cottage,' neatly constructed, and admirably arranged for utility and convenience, while within, there seems to be ' a place for everything, and everything in its place.* " There is also a horse-barn, granary, and other out-buildings, the arrangements of which are in excellent taste. On the top of tiie horse barn is an observatory, from which the proprietor can at any time over- look the whole premises, and from which a magnificent view can be obtained of one of those beautiful landscapes, so characteristic of Rock County, and stretching for miles in every direction. There is also, on this part of the farm, a fruit garden, containing a large number of thrifty young trees, well cultivated, among which your Committee noticed the Peach, Plum, Cherry, Apple, Siberian Crab, (fee, all of which, together with the buildings, are judiciously arranged, exhibiting evidence of skill and taste worthy of imitation. This part of the farm is mostly covered with * oak openings,' and is used mostly for pasturage, furnishing a de- lightful shade for buildings and stock. It is watered by Rock River, which forms its western boundary. *' On the east side of the road, the land is mostly prairie, nearly level, with about two hundred and forty acres enclosed in one field. The Committee noticed about a mile of hving fence, mostly locusts, with a piece of native thorn fence ; the balance of about two miles consists of rails, stakes with capping, timber set in a trench, &c. There are a fc-w acres of locusts sown broadcast for timber. There is also a thrifty young orchard, of about one hundred and fifty apple trees, doing well ; and a moveable granary, which can be easily removed to any part of the farm, to receive the grain when threshed, thereby saving a great amount of labor in the hurrying time of harvest, by avoiding the necessity of hauling grain a great distance to any given point. We also noticed the ar- rangement of crops, such as com, oats, wheat, beautiful fields of clover, timothy, &c., all evincing taste in their arrangement, while the excellent state of cultivation of the farm, denotes energy and skill in execution. On the whole, the Committee consider this farm as a very good model. " The Committee also examined the flower garden of Mr. Willard, where we found the Native and White Cedar, the English, American, Norway and Balsam Firs ; the Scotch Pine, the Mountain Ash, the 131 Golden Willow, the Horse Chesnut, the Cypress vine, three varieties of Honeysuckles, the Flowering Almond, double and single Michigan Roses ; the Canary Bird Flower and about thirty varieties of Dahlias ; among which are ' George IV,' 'Russell Anna,' and a thousand et cete- ras, delightful to the eye, and deliciously odorous ; all tastefully arrang- ed, and giving unmistakable evidence, in many instances, of the care of a softer hand, and a finer touch than that of the 'lords of creation.* Flowers and shrubbery intermingled so as to present a tasteful appear- ance, as these were, should be seen to be appreciated." Mr. Willabd's Statement. "My principal crop the present season, has been wheat; both spring and winter. The winter wheat was of the white flint variety, and yield- ed about twenty bushels per acre. The spring wheat was the Canada Club, Hedgerow, Italian and Black Sea varieties ; all of which I have discarded except the Canada Club, which usually yields with us, from twenty-three to twenty-seven bushels per acre. Of corn, we had twelve acres, which yielded about fifty bushels per acre, on an average, without any extra culture. It was planted on wheat stubble, usually plowed once, and cultivated principally with the horse and cultivator. I raise corn on the "flat surface" principle, seldom using a plow in cul- tivating it. I cut it up when it is all well glazed, and put it in shocks to harden. I think the fodder pays amply for the trouble of cutting and putting it up. Of oats, we had twenty acres, which yielded a very light crop, owing to the drought of the past season. I cut with the reaper, when quite green, and threshed with the machine ; the yield was about twenty bushels per acre. Heretofore, our oat crop has reached from fifty to sixty bushels per acre, even on inferior land. Of potatoes, we had about an acre and a quarter. Of a piece of the land, containing one-third of an acre, I kept an account of the expense of cultivation, and subjoin the items : Seed, four bushels at 75c, Plowing and harrowing, man and team Planting, man one day . Cultivating twice, boy and horse Hoeing same twice Digging and storing Cost of cultivating one-third of an acre . S3 00 1 00 0 75 1 00 1 88 1 87 . 69 50 132 "If we add $1 00 for the use of the land, the total cost will be 810 50. The yield Avas about eighty bushels, which at twenty-five cents per bushel, will amount to 820 00, leaving a profit on one-third of an acre of $9 50, The ground was of ordinary quality, and was plowed but once. The variety is what Ave call the Mallory potato. The balance did not yield quite as much per acre, yet they were excellent as to quality. We took a specimen of the Irish pink-eye variety to the County Fair, which drew the first premium as to size, &c. " The usual rotation of crops practised on our farm, is as follows : First crop, wheat on sod ; second, wheat on same land ; third, oats ; fourth, corn ; fifth, spring Avheat ; sixth, oats ; seventh, corn ; then spring wheat again, and so on in the same rotation again, until we seed with grass. Timothy and clover both do excellently. I have a piece of clover ley, which has been seeded two seasons, from which I have taken four crops, two of hay and two of seed, and it shows no signs, that I can perceive, of " running out," but seems to become gradually more and more compact and thoroughly swarded. Of stock, we keep twenty-five head of neat cattle, one hundred and thirty-six sheep, fifty hogs, and flocks of poultry, turkeys, hens, and pea fowls, and milk only four cows. We employ two hired men nearly the whole year. " I also make a practice of keeping observations of the weather, and a general memoranda of events on my farm during the year ; from which, if I had time, I would give some statistics." The ladies, the wives and the daughters of the citizens of our county, with a priseworthy zeal, contributed freely of their handiwork, in domes- tic manufactures, embroidery and Avorsted work, and the large variety of beautiful articles in their department, evinced great taste on their part, and contributed greatly to the success of the Exhibition. It would afford us pleasure to name many who exhibited articles worthy of com- mendation, but space will not admit. Their presence, and the interest they manifested, was not only an honor to themselves, but gave assurance that the Agricultural Society and Mechanics' Institute would prosper, if its success depended upon their countenance and efi'orts. At two o'clock, P. M., of the second day of the fair, the President, Hon. J. F. Willard, delivered his Annual Address to a very large and attentive audience. The production was an elegant dissertation on Agri- culture, its resources, its objects, and the proper course to be pursued by the agriculturists, as viewed by a scientific and practical farmer. It con- 133 tained many views and suggestions -which were not only creditable to the speaker, but which Avill be found useful to the Society, and to the com- munity. Immediately after the delivery of the Address, the Treasurer made his report, by which it appeared that the receipts during the Fair amounted to nearly $350, making the amount in the Treasury $430. After paying premiums, and all other expenses, there is now in the Treasury about i70 00. It is estimated that three thousand persons were present on the Fair grounds. The exhibition passed off well — the utmost good feeling pre- vailed, and it is believed that the multitude, after a friendly and praise- worthy competition for the prizes, dispersed, fully convinced of the utility of the Society. We feel that the people of Beloit deserve the thanks of all for the hospitable manner in which they entertained their numerous visitors, and the exertions they made to make the Exhibition interesting and to contribute to the comfort of those who attended it. At our Annual Meeting, the Board of Officers was chosen for the ensu- ing year, as follows : President, Josiah F. Willard ; Vice Presidents, Charles R. Gibbs, Ezra A. Foote, Daniel Bennett, S. P. Lathrop, Jesse Mills and E. A. Rowland ; Recording Secretary, Orrin Guernsey; Cor- responding Secretary and Librarian, Mark Miller; Treasurer, James M. Burgess. A Board of Directors was also appointed — one from each town in the county. I am, Sir, truly yours, ORRIN GUERNSEY, To Albert C. Ingham, Esq., Rec. Sec. Rock Co. Ar/r. Society. Sec. of the Wis. State Agr. Society. SHEBOYGAN. Sheboygak, December 21, 1853. Dear Sir : — The Second Annual Fair of the Sheboygan County Agri- cultural Society was held at the town of Plymouth, on the 13th day of October last, but owing to the very bad state of the weather and the roads, the attendance was not large, nor the entries as numerous as they otherwise would have been. The entries were composed almost entirely of agricultural products, and the marked improvement that was manifested over the display of the 134 preceding year was such as to cheer and encourage all who feel an interest in the prosperity of this portion of the State, and gave a practical demonstration of the productive capacity of this county, quite beyond the expectations of many of our citizens. It would be gratifying to us to be able to present a particular descrip- tion of some of the entries that were made, but the object of this commu- nication will not, perhaps, admit of details, and we must content ourselves •with the general remark, that many of the specimens shown under the several heads, have not, either in quality or size, been surpassed in any portion of this State or country. Tou will receive from Dr. J. J. Brown, on behalf of this Society, a statistical and analytical report, which we .think will be found very inter- esting and important. Sheboygan Coirnty won some laurels at the last State Fair, and might have won more ; and we take this opportunity to say to our sister Societies in Wisconsin, that if the farmers of Sheboygan County do their duty the present year, and enter the lists in their full strength, at the next State Fair, they will make an exhibition honorable to their County and their State, and very hard to beat. Yours respectfully, CHARLES E. MORRIS, Sec. Sheboygan Co. Agr. Society. To Albert C. Ingham, Esq., Sec. of the Wis. State Agr. Society. The following is the Report alluded to in the foregoing : REMARKS ON SHEBOYGAN COUNTY. Sheboygan, November 10, 1852. Dear Sir : — Settlements commenced in Sheboygan County in 1 835, but the depression following the speculations of 1836, prevented, for the time being, further additions ; so that, in 1840, there were but 133 inhab- itants in the county, and no material advancement was made until 1845, since which time our county has made rapid progress in settlements and improvements. Our population now numbers over 9,000 ; and 54,540 acres of the then dense and unbroken forest, have disappeared before the axe of the sturdy pioneer ; while grains and grasses have waved to the / 135 breeze in their stead, to gladden and repay him for his toil. This region appears to be underlaid throughout with a grayish crystaline lime- stone, containino-, as far as I have been able to ascertain, no fossils. At several places, it comes near the surface, and affords excellent stone for building and for lime. Above the limestone is a stratified bed of clay, from which, near our town, is made a superior quahty of cream-colored brick. This clay forms the sub-soil of a part of the county, and when mixed with the ve- getable and alluvial deposits, forms a desirable and productive soil, A fair sample of this soil furnishes Alumina 70 00 Organic matter 8 16 SiUcious Sand 13 00 Garb. Lime 8 00 Water and loss 84 100 00 Above the clay bed are strata of sand, which also form a portion of the surface of the county. The soil of this formation furnishes Silicious sand 81 00 Organic matter ........ 5 50 Alumina , . 1 1 00 Carb. Lime 2 50 100 00 This gives a warm, dry soil, and when properly cultivated, it becomes a very productive one, and is easily tilled. Another part of the surface of the county consists of ridges or hills ; some of which are, I should think, at least 150 feet high, and are com- posed of sand, limestone, pebbles and clay confusedly mixed. The soil •of this formation contains Carb. Lime 15 25 Organic matter < , . 7 43 Silicious sand 65 32 Alumina , 12 00 This is a dry and productive soil. 100 00 Oak is scattered over the county generally, and in some parts in larger quantities, This timber is just becoming an article of export. \o. 6 During the past summer there has been sold for exportation 3,708,000 staves and spokes, and 1,853 barrels (for pork), besides timber, baskets, wagon-hubs, &c. Ship-building has already commenced on Sheboygan river, which at present offers greater facilities for this branch of business than any other point on Lake Michigan. Fine groves of pine abound generally on the sandy soil. Pine has been extensively exported, but home consumption has materially checked the trade. During the past summer, there have been exported 784,000 feet of pine timber ; 1,218,000 feet of pine shingles, and 1,751,000 feet of pine lath. Beech, maple, elm and basswood are abundant in every part of the county. There has been fitted for shipping, and shipped during the past year, 4,330 cords of wood. Maple, elm and hickory are extensively manufactured into chair and bedstead stuff, rakes, &c., for exportation. Tamarack and white cedar are also abundant. Heavy contracts have been made for tamarack rail-ties for southern railroads. Cherry and butternut supply but little more than is wanted for home consumption. Wild plums, grapes, blackberries and strawberries abound in great profusion. Wild hops are also abundant and very good. We have a few cranberry marshes that produce very well. Owing to the newness of our county, and the long time and vast amount of labor necessary to clear the land of its heavy groAvth of tim- ber, its resources are but just beginning to be developed. But a small portion of the surplus wheat, barley, oats, rye and pork of this year found its way to market before the close of navigation. From this year's exports I select the following items: 427,913 lb potash; 1000 bushels wheat ; 3000 bushels barley ; 206 bushels rye ; 1,600 bushels oats ; 481 bushels potatoes; 119 boxes saleratus ; 251 firkins butter ; 1,041 bbls. flour ; 25 bbls. pork ; 7 bbls. eggs ; 1 5 bbls. tallow ; 40 bbls. beans ; 6 bbls. maple sugar ; 523 bbls. beer ; 61 bundles skins ; 1,116 hides. In connection with the above figures, the fact should be stated, that but three years ago one-half of all the provisions consumed in Sheboy- gan county were imported. Yours, respectfully, J. J. BROWK. To Albekt C. Ingham, Esq. Sec. of the Wis. State Agr. Society, * 137 WALWORTH. Elkhorn, December 3d, 1852, DsAR Sir : — In compliance -with your request, I take great pleasure in communicating to you a brief sketch of the proceedings of tbe Walworth County Agricultural Society, for the year 1852. The Society held its Annual Fair at Elkhorn, on the 28th and 29th days of September. The weather being fine, the attendance of people was much greater than on any former occasion — two thousand persons, as was estimated, were present — thus showing that the interest previously manifested in the welfare of our County Agricultural Society is steadily- increasing. Many towns, entirely unrepresented last year, had a large display upon the grounds at this Fair, and received their due proportion of the premiums awarded. It is to be hoped that each succeeding year,with its Annual Fair, will bring along with it an additional effort on the part of our farmers to extend the influence of the Society, and to increase the number of its members. The members of our Society are one hundred and fifty in number. — The number of articles for exhibition this year was about the same num- ber. The premiums awarded amounted to nearly two hundred dollars, the Dipl6ma being awarded as the first premium in every case, by a resolution of the Society. Two gentlemen of our county were invited by the Society to read addresses on the first day of the Fair, but being dis- appointed in their attendance, several gentlemen, members of the Society, upon short notice, addressed those present upon a variety of subjects ; and some of these impromptu remarks would not suffer in comparison "with more studied efforts upon the subjects of which they spoke. Orra Martix, of Spring Prairie, was called out, and took up the subject of Fruit Culture — a matter heretofore too much neglected in Wisconsin, and especially in our own county — and did himself great credit in its discussion. In former times, Walworth has been noted for the quantity and excel- lence of its wheat ; but for the last two or three years, farmers have turned their attention more to the raising of stock, wool, pork, butter and cheese. Great improvement has also been made in our breeds of horses, and the exhibition in that line at our late Fair, was creditable ia a high degree to the intelligent farmers of the county. Our county is well adapted either for cropping or for pasturage. I believe, however, that the low and inadequate prices which grain has 10 13S 'IiitLerto commanded, will induce our farmers to turn their attention here- after more to stock-raising, the dairy, and wool-growing. The cultiva- tion of the tobacco plant will also engage the attention of many of our prominent farmers, the experience of the last three years having furnished abundant evidence that the labor expended in the cultivation of this plant is better repaid than the most sanguine have anticipated. Broom corn is also extensively cultivated within our borders ; and althouo-h there was no exhibition of this article at our Fair, it was solely for the reason that it was unintentionally omitted in the list of articles, for which premiums were offered. Next year, it Avill occupy a prominent place in the list. Flax is raised to some extent among us, and I believe that it is ■ soon destined to receive its proper share of attention, as well for its fibre as for its seed, and that it will ere long become one of the staple products of the county. Madder is also cultivated in small quantities, ■and I hope it will hereafter receive more attention, as I am of the opin- ion that it would prove one of the best paying articles our farmers can raise. In our neighboring State, Illinois, I learn that it is becoming a staple product with many farmers, and that it pays well. The prospects are now favorable that this county will soon be crossed with railroads, • -affording facilities heretofore unknown to our farmers, for the cheap trans - ].portation of their products to market ; and our farming interests never ^looked brighter than at the present time. The price which pork has commanded the past autumn, ranging as it has from $5 60 to 66 25, has giaddenned the heart of the farmer; and I have not seen, for a period of five years, so many pleasant countenances among those return- ing from the market, as I have seen this year, the farmer having been .adequately paid for his labor and toil. The Officers elect of our Society for the next year are : President, Henry J. Starin, Whitewater ; Vice-President, William Hollinshead, Delavan ; Treasurer, Peter Golder, Elkhorn ; Secretaries, HoUis Latham, Elkhorn ; David Williams, Geneva ; Managers, George "W. Paul, Kichmond ; Seymour Brooks, East Troy ; William Child, Spring Prairie; Lyman H. Seaver, Darien;"Erastus Humphrey, Hudson. With the warmest wishes for the prosperity of the agricultural inter- ests of our State, and my best regards to you personally. I am, yours truly, EDWARD ELDERKIN, Secretary. To Albert C. Ingham, Esq. Sec. of the Wis. State Agr. Society. 139 WASHINGTON. In this county, an Agricultural Society has been formed, and a Fair held during the year. The Fair was largely attended, and much inter- est manifested in the proceedings of the Society. Organized in a large Agricultural county, the Society cannot fail to accomplish much good. No direct report has been received of its proceedings. MILWAUKEE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. This Society has held three Exhibitions during the year, each of which "was well attended. At the Annual Exhibition in September, the display was of marked and superior excellence. The Secretary remarks, that the prospects of the Society are particularly flattering ; arrangements being in progress by which it will receive a valuable donation of land, through the liberality of David Ferguson, Esq., and some others of its members. This it is proposed to convert into a public, ornamental garden ; thus practically inculcating lessons of taste and skill. The officers are as follows : President, Hon. Hans Crocker ; Vice-Presidents, Thomas Hislop and Charles Gifford ; Corresponding Secretary, Riley N. Messenger ; Record- ing Secretary, William H. Watson; Treasurer, David Ferguson. COMMUNICATIONS. RURAL HUSBANDRY IN WISCONSIN. Br George 0. Tiffany, Milwaukee. Vegetable productions, either directly or indirectly, are indispensible to the existence of man. The savage who depends entirely on the success of the chase, and the scientific farmer who summons to his aid the accu- mulated experience of former ages, would alike share a common fate, should our universal mother refuse us her nourishment for a brief period. The domestic animals upon which we depend for subsistence, either for their ability to aid us in tlie cultivation of the earth, or as food to supply the constantly occurring waste, in the complicated organization of our bodies, also demand a prominent place in the mind of the agriculturist. In speaking upon these subjects, I shall advance nothing except what has fallen under my own observation, and shall detail such experiments only as have been tried in Wisconsin, and which, under most circumstan- ces of soil and season, and without any great departure from this latitude would be likely again to produce the same results. In order to treat in a more condensed manner, the several branches of Agriculture, I will arrange them under their respective heads, commenc- ing with the great staple, wheat : Wheat. — For the first few years after the settlement of Wisconsin had commenced, the cultivation of wheat, we may safely say, formed the principal occupation of the agricultural portion of our community. Our cattle and horses were furnished by the neighboring States of Illinois and Indiana, and often as many as thirty thousand head of animals were driven from thoses States and sold in Wisconsin yearly. Wheat forming the only agricultural product that could be exported to an Eastern market and pay for transportation, many sowed from one hundred to three hun- dred acres, while other branches of agriculture were abandoned in a great measure. The virgin strength of the soil was thus transported to an Eastern market, leaving the farmer at best but barely sufficient to remunerate him for his labor, and oftentimes not even that. The profits realized from the crop were apparently fair, but no means were used ta keep the land up to its natural state of fertility, and in ninety-nine cases, out of every hundred, Ave venture to assert that no returns were ever made to the ground for the very large stock of valuable materials carted away to distant markets. Our farmers, fortunately, perhaps providen- tially, were checked in this headlong race to ruin, by the partial, and in some portions, almost entire failure of the wheat crop for three or four years. These failures occurred from different causes. In some of our best wheat-growing districts, the fly appeared and made great ravages. To avoid this enemy to the wheat crop, late sowing was substituted, and. that subjected the crop to rust, and consequently poor and imperfect grain was produced, diminished in quantity and inferior in quality. Finally, many concluded that the wheat crop would not pay, and pretty much abandoned its cultivation, except, perhaps, growing what might be neces- sary for the bread of the family. Had the truth been sought, in regard 141 to tliis crop, it might easily have been seen that no price ever yet paid liad compensated the farmer for abstracting the most valuable materials from his soil, and wasting his capital by diminishing the value of his lard. We look, therefore, upon the partial failure of this crop, as a benefit rather than an injury, because it directed the minds of the farmer to a ^'•reater diversity of products, and turned their attention to those pursuits, •which, instead of diminishing the value of the land by impoverishing it, would, by enriching the soil, add materially to its value. But it is neces- sary that we should raise wheat sufficient at least for our own consump- tion, and in order to do this wisely, let us search for the best means of accomplishing the object, without diminishing our capital by the impover- ishment of our soil. All green crops, when plowed under, have been found to favor the growth of wheat. Clover, perhaps, is as good a crop for this purpose as any other, and it is often resorted to in the best wheat growing districts of the Eastern States. Owing to the uncertainty of obtaining a good stand of clover, either from drought, bad seed, or any other cause, a renovator not at all inferior can be made to supply its place, and, as I believe, at a less cost, while it is more certain and equally valuable as a manure. Sowing corn broadcast and plowing it under is the substitute we propose. Let us here institute a comparison between the two methods of renovation : Clover Seed, one peck per acre, at 88 per bushel - 82 00 Plowing it in, after removing the crop with which it is sown, say next season - - - - - 2 00 Plowing one acre of ground for corn Seed, three bushels . . - Plowing in the crop Yield of clover, three tons per acre. Yield of corn, six tons per acre at least. And here we have three additional tons of green manure plowed in for thirty-seven and one half cents per ton. Corn, sown in this way, is a much more certain crop than any grass seed, and it grows often where grass will not grow. Eight tons of green manure would, in my opinion, be much nearer an actual yield in most soils for corn than six tons, as corn, if cut and drawn ofi" before the grain is formed, does not impoverish the soil. 84 00 82 1 2 00 12 00 ^5 12 142 Mr. J. J. Tliomas, of Macedon, X. Y., says iu a communication to the Commissioner of the Patent Office, on this subject: " Corn soAm broad- cast, appears to add to, rather than diminish the fertility of the soil. Of three successive crops (^vithout manure), each was larger than the preceding one; yielding from four to six tons per acre of dried fodder."" Hence we may safely infer that a large portion of the nutriment of the corn crop, previous to the formation of the grain, is drawn from the atmosphere. The statement of Mr. Thomas, corresponds with my own experience on this subject ; as itpon a piece of ground sowed last year and this year in the above manner, the last crop is one-third heavier than the first crop, and that without any manure. Enriching the soil by barn-yard manure alone, can only be done to a very limited extent, un- less in the vicinity of large towns. From thirty to forty loads per acre are required to produce the beneficial efi'ect of one green crop plowed in as above described. The difference in expense is obvious ; thirty loads, including work of drawing, spreading, (fcc, would cost at least fifty cents per load, or fifteen dollars per acre ; a difference in favor of green crops of at least ten dollars per acre. The usual time for sowing wheat has been from the twenty-fifth of August to the twenty-fifth of September; and sometimes later. We liave found for a series of years that the first week in September is pre- ferable, all things considered. If sown earlier, it is liable to become, in autumn, of too luxuriant growth, and requires to be fed down with cattle or horses, which often injure the crop with their weight, especially if the season is wet ; lighter animals, sheep for example, eat into the roots, of the young plants, and make great havoc, if left for any period. Late sowing leaves the crop liable to rust ; late sowing is the only remedy within my knowledge against the fly ; and so far as my experience ex- tends, it is worse than no sowing at all, being labor thrown away in nine cases out of ten. The fly having disappeared entirely from this part of the country, we may again anticipate good crops of wheat. Smut annu- ally causes much loss ; and smutty wheat often causes severe and some- times fatal sickness. The remedy is simple, cheap and effectual, and it should be widely known. The following preparation may be relied upon, as a specific : 2 oz. blue vitriol, dissolved in hot water, (in which it will dissolve much more readily) is sufficient for one bushel of wheat. Wet the wheat by putting half a bushel in a basket, and dipping it in a tub of water, then put it on a barn floor and pour the solution on the wheat> 143 and stir it up so that the vitriolized water comes in contact mtli eacli. grain of wheat ; which it will do very readily, wetting the wheat aiding very materially in quickening the process, then shovel it aside and take another basket. Two hands will, in this way, prepare forty or fifty- bushels in half a day. The expense is trifling, when compared with, the benefit derived, and the remedy is effectual. Many other recipes have been given, such as the lye of wood ashes, &c., but they cannot be relied upon. Chess can be very much lessened by sowing wheat free from it, and sowing only on ground free from wet or moist spots. The following experiment has convinced me that wet ground will produce chess from wheat: In 1844, I cleaned my seed wheat with a hand seive, by the pint or half pint at a time. With seed thus prepared, I sowed two and a-half acres on ground which had never had a crop of wheat grown upon it, having cleared the timber off myself. Through the centre of this land ran a wet strip, about two rods wide, the leaching of a small marsh. When I harvested this crop, there was not a head of chess in any part of the field, except in this wet ground ; and on that there was nothinsc else save a few scatterino: heads of wheat. The balance of the ground was very dry, -and the wheat on it yielded twenty-five bushels per acre. I have other fields with wet spots in them where corik. has been planted, but I have never known chess to spring up unless, wheat had been on the ground, or chess itself had been scattered. Indian Corn. — This valuable grain is becoming much more generally- cultivated than formerly, and in point of utility is second only to wheats if indeed we should assign it that station. It was extensively cultivated by the aboriginal inhabitants of Wisconsin ; and in times of scarcity of' game, formed their only dependence to shield them from starvation. The remains of ancient corn plantations, cultivated either by the ances- tors of the present tribes of Indians, or by some other people formerly in possession of the land, are often seen in the vicinity of Milwaukee. The hills, now overgrown with trees and bushes, but still perfectly retaining their distinctive shape and form ; and by the age of the trees, furnishing evidence that the cultivation took place at least five hundred years ago. The cultivation of corn is easy, and but little labor is necessary, when compared with that required by the same crop in the Eastern States. Greene- sward, plowed under with two yoke of oxen, which will give strength sufficient to plow to the depth of sis or eight inches, then harrowed lengthwise witli the furrows, and planted in rows from three and a half feet to four feet apart, will make a good corn-field. The plowing may be done either in the autumn or spring, as convenience may require. Plant in the month of May, from the tenth to the twenty-fifth, as the temperature of the season may indicate. Corn should not be planted until the ground has become Avarm. If planted while cold, and espe- cially while wet, it is liable to decay and to require the labor of planting again ; whereas, if planted as late as the first of June, the crop has often been known to mature and yield well. The seasons are, however, seldom so backward as to require the postponement of planting, until that late date. The last year I planted my corn on the twenty-sixth of May, and cut it fully ripe on the twenty-fifth of August. That process of cultivation for any crop which will give the largest return for the amount of labor bestowed, and leave the ground in the cleanest and best state for the subsequent crop, is the one which the agriculturist should adopt. JMore labor is expended worse than uselessly, because injuriously, in the culture of corn, than upon any other crop. The mode of cultivation practised by us, and, as we believe, originating with us, is as follows : After plowing the ground, for which I prefer greensward, and harrow- ing lengthwise with the furrows, I then mark out rows, three and one- half feet apart each way, with a sled made of oak plank, which is as good an implement as any for the purpose ; then plant from four to six grains at the intersection of each row, which will leave the hills so that a horse can travel through between them each way with a cultivator. As soon as the rows of young corn can plainly be seen, I go through the corn with the cultivator one Avay, and then in a few days go through the opposite way ; this will loosen the soil, destroy the weeds, grass, &c., and no further tillage will be necessary. Hoeing will neither add to the quantity, nor facilitate the growth of the crop. Having tried it, in a field tilled in the same manner with the same soil, and in all respects under the same treatment, that which was not hoed or tilled, produced the best corn. The philosophy of the result is believed to be this : In the tillage with the cultivator alone, the surface of the ground is stirred, and the weeds are destroyed without injuring the roots of the corn, or causing anew set of lateral roots to shoot out, which will in all cases occur if the corn is hilled, these roots require nutriment from the plant, (which would otherwise ascend into the blades, ear, &c.,) without producing any bene- iicial effect, experience having shown that corn stands as well without 145 hilling, as Avitli. The produce of a field of corn, well cultivated in this manner, may safely be set down at from thirty to fifty bushels per acre, and at an expense of, at least, one half less than by the old mode of hoe- ing. The crop should be cut up after the first appearance of frost, if ripe, and if it should be only partially ripened, it will ripen in the shock from the nutriment already in the stalk ; and the stalks thus cured are estimated at one half the value of common hay for keeping stock. The shocks, if well bound, will stand in the field without injury to the grain or stalks, until mid-winter, if it is necessary. It can be drawn and fed to the stock, as occasion may require, which may be done if it is impossi- ble to husk and store the crop in the fall. Corn is one of the best crops with which we are acquainted to prepare land for oats, barley, or any other spring crop ; and wheat, in the case of a wet autumn, often does well after corn. Drawing a large portion of its food from the atmosphere, which inference is deduced from experi- ments related in a former part of this essay, it does not exhaust the soil as rapidly as most other crops, for we see good crops of corn produced in some parts of the country for many years in succession, and upon the same ground. We would not, however, recommend this practice. One important fact should be borne in mind, by those who wish to save labor, and avoid disappointment in the cultivation of corn. The seed should always be selected in the autumn from the field, and the ripest and fairest ears should be selected with a portion of the husk attached to each ear, they should then be braided tocjether, and if hune: i;p in some dry place, and left until planting time, not one grain in a thousand will fail to germinate. If, however, taken promiscuously from the corn-house or crib, much of it will fail, and often the whole planting must be gone over again, and the careless farmer lays the blame to the season or ground, when the fault is entirely his own. Never soak corn to make it germinate quickly. If the ground should be wet after plant- ing, it will decay. Dry seed is longer coming up, but never decays in the ground, if prepared as above. Oats. — This crop, so universally used as food for horses, is probably without a rival, where the safety of the animal is taken into considera- tion, connected with the go-a-head spirit of the age, which has imparted its energy to road traveling as well as everything else, the horse must perform his part in the drama, and thirty miles a day will only do for U6 " hollow pampered jades of Asia," not for the American road horse — from a good specimen of which we may expect from forty to sixty-five miles per day, without injury. Experience has proved that no other grain will compare with oats in giving the horse strength, together with that elasticity of muscle which is necessary to prepare him for rapid travelling, and enable him to perform without danger or illness long and rapid stages. This crop must always command a remunerative price, although acknowledged to be a very exhausting crop to the soil. It can be sown in the spring easier than any other crop, and as soon as the ground is dry enough to harrow it, may be sovrn on plowing of the previous fall at the rate of three bushels to the acre. Being a very strong feeder, it should be sown on rich land. The yield is from thirty bushels to sixty-five bushels per acre, depending of course much xipon the season. Barley. — This crop is grown to a considerable extent in the State, and in all kinds of soils. It does better in deep rich mould, or a warm sandy loam, than in any other, and the amount of the yield depends upon the season, soil, &c. Barley is liable to injury from frosts in the spring, which materially lessen the yield. The first part of May, ia ordinary seasons, is a good time for sowing barley. Two bushels per acre is the proper quantity of seed, and from twenty to forty bushels per acre the average yield. It is valuable chiefly for the manufacture of beer, and is second to no crop as a protector for grass seed, which is usually sown with it in the spring. Its broad leaves protect the young grass from the rays of the sun, and insure its growth, when it woxild fail if sowed with any other grain. Peas. — This crop, although very useful on account of its being avail- able for fattening swine before corn is sufficiently ripe for that purpose, is yet very uncertain, owing to the frequent occurrence of drought when the plant is small ; neither does it sufficiently shade the ground to retain the moisture. Peas should be sown thick ; from three to four bushels per acre is a common quantity. Its yield is from ten bushels to thirty- five bushels per acre. They should be sown as early as possible in the Spring, in rich land, plowed in lightly. They make a good preparatory crop for wheat, leaving the ground very clean and mellow. Root Crops. — The length and severity of our winters seem to admon- ish the farmers that a good supply of food, which will keep his stock in 147 a state as nearly approacliing that produced by good pasture as possible, ■would be very desirable. To attain this end, we must have resource ta roots, such as carrots, rutabagas, &c. Rutabagas. — Having tried the rutabaga, or Swedish turnip, for feed- ing stock for some years, we are disposed to give it the preference as food, either for young working oxen or young growing stock. The ground should be rich, cither naturally or made so by manure. The seed should be sown from the first to the twentieth of June. By sowing about the fifteenth, the danger from the fly is avoided ; were it not for which, this crop might be sown as early as the middle of May with advantage. Drill sowing saves labor, and also insures a larger crop ; for this purpose, Emery's drill barrow is unexceptionable. The quantity of seed required is about one-quarter of a pound per acre. It should be sown in rows, eighteen inches oa* two feet apart, which is sufficiently wide to admit the passage of a horse with a cultivator made for this purpose, with three teeth. This may be passed twice through the rows, and no further tillage will be necessary. Rutabagas can be harvested late in the autumn, after the other crops are out of the way, and can be pulled by hand as easily as by any other method. The yield is from one hundred to three hundred bushels ; and even five hundred bushels per acre, depending upon the soil and season. For working oxen, I con- sider them equal to oats ; and as an article of fiod for human consump- tion, the Maine lumbermen think them next to beans as a strong and healthy nutriment. Carrots. — This crop, to which so little attention is paid by farmers generally, is one of great value, more especially as food for horses. The number of bushels which can be grown upon an acre of ground more than doubles that of any other crop in use as food for animals. In comparison with oats, it is worth one-half the price of that grain^ for horse feed. The grain seed drill (Emery's) is the only one we have seen used, and it works admirably in sowing this kind of seed, which is rather difficult to distribute evenly, unless well rubbed with the hand before sowing, to prevent clogging in the hopper. From three hundred bushels, which is a small yield, to fifteen hundred bushels, have been raised on an acre. Plow as deep as possible, and put on from fifty to one hundred loads of manure, and plow in the second time ; weed while the plant is small, and sow in rows two feet apart, so as to work between us ■with a cultivator. Sandy loam is preferable for carrots, as tlie roots run deep ; and deep friable soil is indispeusible to the production of a good crop. Potatoes. — This valuable and almost indispensable portion of our vegetable food, after a period of apparent decay, which threatened its extinction, has the present season yielded an abundant crop, and the first one for years -which has shovrn no symptoms of the rot. The cause of this disease, so far as we have been able to ascertain, is entirely unknown, and no remedy yet proposed has been of the least service. By a sort of natural order of things, the evil day of the potatoe seems to have passed by, and we may now anticipate a fair return for its cultivation. All soils and situations, and late and early planting, alike, seem to have been visited by this decay, or blight, although sandy loam, and dry, rolling, gravelly land has suffered least. The most easy, and consequently the cheapest and most productive crops we ever raised were, by plowing green-sward in the spring ; if well coated with grass, all the better, as that is equal to a coat of manure. Turn the furrows well over, leaving them as level as possible ; then harrow lengthwise with the furrows, and plant, cover- ing with sufficient earth only to shelter the growing crop, and leave the hill level and flat as possible. Xo grass will make its appearance ; the few weeds will be best disposed of with the hoe, or cultivator, and often neither are needed. Thus cultivated, the crop will be larger, with fewer small potatoes. By the old plan of raising a hillock over them, the rain and moisture is thrown ofi", instead of soaking into the hills. Another objection to the old mode is, that the vines set for a new crop, every time they are hoed ; and again, hills cause evaporation from the ground, after rain, to go on more rapidly, at least one-third more surface being exposed to sun and wind. From forty bushels to three hundred bushels have been raised, per acre ; and from actual experiment, we would recommend the plan of green-sicard level tillage as the cheapest and most productive. Yalue, in Milwaukee, in September, 1852, thirty eight cents per bushel. Domestic Animals. — Standing at the head of the list, and deservedly so, is the ancient ally of man, the horse. Virgil gives us of the Agri- cultural profession, many hints relative to all the diflferent branches of husbandry, from keeping bees to the rearing of horses ; the selection of a sire for the different species of domestic animals,- and the selection of seeds. "With regard to the latter he says: "unless human industry 149 ■with tlie hand should cull out the largest every year, all things will hasten to decay, and gliding away insensibly, be driven backward, like one who rows his boat against the stream, and if by chance he slackens his arms, it is instantly gone, and the tide hurries him headlong down the river." This was the experience of man more than eighteen hun- dred years since, and is confirmed down to the present time. Without constant care and judicious selection of seed and animals, the farmer must, like Virgil's rower against the tide, be quickly swept away. In a national point of view, the horse, in its rearing, breaking, and management, is well worthy the attention of the agriculturist. A large portion of the troops engaged in the protection of our widely extended frontier, are mounted men. High prices are paid for horses suitable for the purpose ; thousands are used in transporting munitions of war, pro- visions, &c. The demand is increasing, and will, in all probability, con- tinue to do so for years. To men embarking in any undertaking, the experience of practical men is of some benefit, if only to confirm and strengthen a correctly formed theory ; and might be of benefit where a man had no experience, but was willing to take that of others for his guide, when it appeared reasonable. In no occupation does a man require more of that knowledge which comes from the experience of others, than in the breeding of animals ; and in this, the observation and experience of others may be made available in the outset. The first consideration is, what kind of a horse will pay best for his rearing, breaking, &c.? Rail Roads and other improvements in locomo- tion, steam power, &c., have given mankind at the present age a mania for fast conveyance, whether on land or water, and slow horses will no longer answer the expectations of purchasers of horse flesh ; they want a good one to go. Those who are not particular about speed, never object to a horse if he happens to have it. The fast horse is the horse for the American farmer to raise with profit. All nature presents to us the fact that like begets like, and when this rule is varied, it is an exception. In the breeding of horses, this law is strictly carried out. In almost every instance, celebrated trotting horses have sprung from fast stock on both sides. Trustee, the only horse who ever trotted twenty miles in an hour, was from a trotting mare, Fanny Pullen, and by imported Trustee, a fast race-horse, who was also the sire of that fast mare, Fashion. Black Hawk was sired by Andrew Jackson, who was also the sire of a great number of trotting horses, Black Hawk trotted a mile in 2 m. 40 s. 150 with a wagon weighing two hundred and fifty pounds, at that time the best heat ever made, considering the weight drawn. Mack, the great competitor with Lady Suffolk, is a Messenger horse, and went in 2 m. 26 s. ; the Lady herself is a full-bred Messenger, for ought any one knows to the contrary. The Abdallah stock are from the Messenger blood, and all of them go — many being remarkably fast. The fastest Western trot- ting horse, O'Blenis, is an Abdallah. Although Messenger was imported into the United States as early as 1791, sixty-one years since, his descend- ants at this day partake largely of his characteristics. Other stocks of horses could be cited to support this position ; the Morgan horse, for instance, is a striking exemplification of our theory. That color, speed, longevity, vice, defective vision, and various malformations in horses are inherited, no observing man will deny. In selecting a brood mare, as much attention should be bestowed, or more, as in selecting a sire. About fifteen and one-half hands has been very near the height of the most celebrated horses of our day. They should have good length of body, with clear bright eyes, small head, long clean neck, oblique shoulder, and withers as high as possible, which position of the shoulder blade allows extensive and safe action. — Such horses never stumble ; and if they trip, will recover, while an ani- mal with an upright shoulder would come down entirely. High withers give room for the attachment and length of muscle which an upi-ight shoulder cannot have. The oblique shoulder is indispensable for rapid, safe and easy motion. The legs should be muscular, and as long from the elbow joint to the knee, and as short from the knee to the hoof as possible ; this will also give extensive action to the fore parts, which a horse could not have with a length from the knee to the hoof equal to the length from the elbow to the knee. The chest should barrel out back of the girth, and be large and capacious, both to give the animal good health, and cause it to keep easy, as the size of the chest is of great con- sequence to the health, longevity and usefulness of the horse. This part is too superficially noticed by purchasers in general. The loins should be broad and well covered with muscle, and the haunch — or as it is generally called, hip — should be long, to the place of its termination. The old saying of a "long-bodied horse, with a short back, and long under the belly " being a good one, was not without truth, as a long oblique scapula, with a long hip or haunch would produce just that con- formation of body best suited for speed. Great length from the hip to 151 the gambrel, and short from the gambrel to the ground is also one of the best indications of speed. We see an example in the form of the rabbit and greyhonnd. Bj- a close and constant attention to the anato- mical conformation of a horse, a person may soon become a better judo-e ■of capability in the horse than any one can, who does not take into con- sideration the important facts that all animal mechanism is upon the same principle — that the weight to be moved, and the facility with which it is moved, depends upon the length of the lever and its advantageous liosition, and the consequent length of the muscles, which are the pulleys, and by their action, contraction, and extension, propel the animal over the ground. The most careless observer has probably noticed a trotting horse beaten by one of much less muscle, the reason of which is, the want of a good anatomical form in the muscular horse ; for muscle is not only necessary for rapid and long continued action, but it is equally necessary that it should act advantageously by a proper arrangement and length of particular parts of the animal. These can be best learned by those who are desirous of information on these subjects, by the attentive study of works on the anatomy and physiology of the horse ; William Youatt's is probably the best. All animal mechanism being constructed upon the same principles, intelligent physicians should be, and in general are, excellent judges of the capability of horses, from two causes : their knowledge of anatomy, and their habitual use of the horse in the practice of their profession. That speed adds to, and often constitutes the sole value of the horse, in the estimation of many, is well known. An instance now occurs to me: Mr. S. B. Davis, of Milwaukee, took to the. New York market last May, a number of horses ; among which were one pair, which he sold for $1,200, and a single horse which he sold for 8600. They could all trot their mile in about three minutes ; and to this fact can be entirely attributed all he realized on them, over $200 each. There is always a market for well broken horses of good size and good age, if they can go in three minutes or less. Another instance, too, is in point : Jack Ros- siter, the celebrated trotting horse, worked in an omnibus in Milwaukee, and could then have been bought for $200, and probably for less. Fall- ing into the hands of a horseman, he trotted a mile in 2 m. 32 s., and sold for $2,000. Lady Jane, a western mare, was bought in Chicago for $100; she was afterwards sold for $1,600 at a dozen years of age. There are numberless examples of a similar nature. The farmer should 152 not hesitate as to whicla of the two to expend his surplus food upon ; an eight-mile-an-hour drudge, that will cost 880 at four years old, and sell for the same ; or a horse bred on scientific principles, worth at four years of age, 8200 to 81000, according to the stock he springs from. One farmer in the vicinity of Milwaukee, raised several fast horses, and from their sale, realized a far greater profit than he realized from ten years of wheat farming ; yet the number was only five. These facts are worthy of the attention of breeders of horses. To enter minutely into the details of rearing, breaking, erations which aini to feed cultivated planis with their ap/propiiate aliment." — Dr. Lee, M. B. in " IntroducUon lo Patent Office Report — Agricxdtural, 1850, Repeated chemical analysis of vegetables has shown that they are composed of two classes of ingredients, which are called organic and inorganic. When any vegetable is burned in the open air, the whole of the so-called organic portion is driven oflf, or escapes in vapor. This •consists of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen, in a greater or less proportion of each. There also remains a certain portion of the original plant, in the form of ashes, called the inorganic, or fixed part of the plant. This portion will not be lessened by the continuance of heat. — This is composed of various mineral matters in different proportions. In general, the organic or combustible part of plants forms a large portion of the whole plant, varying in different instances from 88 to 99 per cent, of their weight when dried. From this circumstance it appeared to the earlier vegetable physiologists that the inorganic part was merely accidental in its presence — that it was taken up into the plant, only because it was found dissolved in the fluid by which the plant had been 155 V nourished, and that it took no necessary part in its organization. It was found, however, that this inorganic part of the same plant was always of the same kind of material, whatever was the character of soil upon which it grew. This, evidently, would not have been the fact were its presence wholly accidental, and not governed by some fixed laws. It was also found that the composition of the ashes of different plants, grown upon the same soil, varied much in the number and character of their elements. It Avas further found that each kind of plant, in selectino- for itself nearly a constant weight of inorganic matter, while it mio-ht choose the same kind or kinds of earthy matters, that some other plants do, to make up their composition, yet it was always in quantities peculiar to itself. Thus, for example, wheat would contain eight pounds of lime in every one hundred pounds of its ashes, while barley, in the same weight of its ashes, would have only about four and one-half pounds. Different parts of the same plant have since been found, also, to have different proportions of the same element — the ashes of the leaves differ- ing in quantity and quality from those of the wood or body of the plant, and both being different from the root or bulb. From the above facts it was inferred that the ingredients found in the ashes of plants were essential constituents. This view was corroborated by the observed fact, that plants will not thrive and come to maturity — properly perfecting their seed, straw, &c. — in a soil destitute of the kinds of matter usually found to be present in their ashes. These facts are the basis of a most important principle to the ao-ricul- turist, and one that should be duly recognized, and fully understood by every cultivator of the soil. Says Prof. Johnston, " It is difficult to conceive the extent to which the admission of the essential nature and constant quantity of the inorganic matter contained in plants, must necessarily modify our notions, and regulate our practice in every branch of aorriculture. It establishes a clear relation between the kind and quality of the crop, and the nature and chemical composition of the soil in Avhich it grows. It demonstrates what soils ought to contain, and, therefore, how they are to be improved. It explains the effect of some manures in permanently fertilizing, and of some crops in permanently impoverishing the soil. It illustrates the action of mineral substances upon the plant, and shows how it may be, and really is, in a certain measure, fed by the dead earth. Over nearly all the operations of agri- culture, it throws a new and unexpected light." 156 It ■will be our aim in this article to point out the relation of the seve- ral crops, usually cultivated in our State, to the soil, by exhibiting their chemical composition, which has been determined by repeated analysis of their ashes, thus showing the materials which they severally remove from the land upon which they are grown, and the condition in which they leave it, when they are removed, and, as a kind of ** improvement " of the subject, to offer such practical suggestions as may be deemed of inte- rest and profit to the agriculturist. The true, or all the relations of crops to soils, require that we should take into consideration also the organic elements of crops and of soils ;• but, as the soils of the several districts of Wisconsin, except, perhaps, the so called sandstone district, along the Wisconsin River, and portions of the districts north of that, have a large portion of organic matter in them — say an average of 10 per cent — (See Dr. Owen's Report to the General Government, as quoted by Mr. Lapham, in the first volume of the Transactions of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, p. 127; also, Prof. Jas. V. Z. Blaney's Analysis of Prairie Soil, in Patent Office Report, Agricultural, for 1849-50, p. 489,) it is thought best, at present, to confine ourselves wholly to the inorganic portion of plants and soils. The following Table, compiled from various sources, exhibits the amount of essential elements in a productive soil. Some crops, it is true, may grow upon a soil destitute of some of these ingredients, or rather of some portion of them ; but the Table is designed to furnish the elements for the generality of crops : TABLE I. IN EVERY HUNDRED POUNDS. Organic Matter 10.00 Silica, Quartz 64.80 Lime 5.90 Magnesia 80 Potash 3.00 Soda 4.00 Chlorine 20 Sul. Acid 25 Phos. Acid 3.05 Alumina 5.70 Ox. Iron 2.00 Ox. Manganese 30 100.00 157 It niay be of much importance to the farmer to possess some know- ledo-e of these elements and their office, both as constituents of the soil, and of the plants growing upon it. They may be divided into two classes, according to their office in the vegetable economy ; those which go to make up the frame work of the several tissues ; among which are silex, lime and magnesia ; and those which go to fill up the interstices of these tissues, among which are the inorganic matters, phosphates, &c. We shall endeavor to give a simple statement of the characters of the inorganic elements of plants, as they are found in the soil, and of their office, both as constituents of the plant and of the soil. These will be spoken of in the order in which they occur in the Table. In doing this, it is taken for granted that they, for whose benefit this article is written, do not noAv know these materials, their characteristics, their nature, or their use, cither in the plant or the soil. Silex. — Under this term are included those of silica and silicic acid. This substance is well known to all farmers by the names of flint, quartz and sand. We see a nearly pure form of it in the clear, transparent quartz crystals, in the agates so common in our gravel, brought from the region of Lake Superior. The fine grains in ordinary sandstone are particles of silex. It exists abundantly in almost all soils. It is without color, taste or smell, and cannot be melted alone by the strongest heat. As it occurs in the state of flint, of quartz or sand, it is perfectly insoluble in water, and scarcely soluble in the strongest acids. It combines with potash, soda, lime and magnesia, and in this manner it forms a large portion of what are called crystaline rocks, (granite, basalt, I • 1 • 1 1 , , i 1 ■ •aojj "XQ X iT, O O t£; o 1 ic — * o 00 SS2S£J5£3!SS"^'^°o=^• down a layer of butter three or four inches in thickness, sprinkle the same with 235 salt and pulverized sugar; and so on in layers till the jar is packed full. The same practice may be adopted in packing it into firkins for shipment. There is no difficulty in putting it down in this way ; if care has been taken to free the butter of the milk, and properly salted. Then, if packed as here directed, it will keep in good condition as long as desirable. There are some dealers who object to the use of any other substance than salt in packing butter, on the ground that such articles as sugar or saltpetre impart a disagreeable flavor ; but the experiment has been tried here in Wisconsin, and salt with sugar has been found to an- swer an excellent purpose. As to saltpetre, I am unable to say anything in relation to it as a preservative of butter — still I apprehend that it is not absolutely necessary that any other substance than salt be used in packing butter; in my opinion, the principal object to be attained after it is thorouglily salted and otherwise prepared for market, is to exclude the air from it as much as possible. This may be done by packing in tight casks. I have been informed that butter is shipped to distant parts — to South America and California — in the following manner : Small casks packed full are stowed in large hogsheads, and then the latter are filled entirely full with brine. Thus prepared it can be transported through a tropical climate in a perfect state of preservation. It is strange that a process so simple as that of making good butter is so little understood by so many who keep cows and pretend to do a little business at dairy- inir. That neatness ouijht, above all things, to be regarded in makinof both butter and cheese is a fact well known to all who have anything to do with dairying, and I simply remark, that if any entertain the idea that butter and cheese made Avith slovenly hands will sell well in market be- cause purchasers happen not to know who are the makers, they labor under a mistake, and the sooner they undeceive themselves the better for all concerned. Let these products of the dairy be sent into market, bearing their own recommendation, and one which will bear a risfid ex- amination. It is pleasing to dealers to see butter and cheese in market that bears evidence of having passed through neat and careful hands. As yet dairying has proved but a small source of profit in Wisconsin. Those farmers who have turned their attention to the business, are many •of them of the opinion that it cannot be made a source of great profit, and consequently do not prosecute it with the expectation of realizing much therefrom ; they regard our soil as not adapted generally to the growth of grass ; the cost of clearing the heavy timbered lands, and the 236 expense of converting the marsh lands into meadows of timothy and clover are regarded as great difficulties in the way of dairying. As the country grows older, and fills up with inhabitants, some portions of it will be found capable of being used for these purposes. At the present time many of our farmers keeping from two to six cows do not even make butter enough for the family use ; they sufifer their cows to range over the country during the summer season, and in the fall, when the feed has become scarce, they have made no provision to enable their cows to hold out in the quantity of their milk. The bad economy of wasting one- third of their time in hunting after cows that have strayed in the woods, or on the prairies, is not seen by them ; and instead of enclosing fields and baving some conveniences whereby time and labor may be saved, they allow the old way to continue. Many settlers, it is true', come into the new States with very limited means for commencing farming, but it is far better to enclose fields, and keep cows and cattle where they can be found, than to spend twice or three times the amount of time requisite to build a fence in searching after them. Every farmer ought to make at least butter enough for his own family use ; it is very bad economy for them to buy it when they can just as well supply themselves from their own farms. For a farmer owning eighty or one hundred and sixty acres of land, three or four cows, and with plenty of means to keep them in good con- dition, to be seen in market purchasing butter for his own family use looks bad, and is a sad commentary on his management. We can sura up all that relates to this matter in a few words : When our farmers more generally realize the importance of dairying, we may look for some improvement in the stock of cows, and better care in their management. At present, every calf is raised, however meager, and what little can be realized from cows, in the shape of milk and butter, by sufi'ering them to roam at large, taking their chance like wild beasts, is considered clear gain. But little is expected, and farmers are not disappointed in their expectations. Let farmers first turn their attention to fitting their lands for suitable pasturage for cows ; let them take some pains to have good stock ; keep only good cows, and keep them well, and they will soon find them not only a convenience as furnishing them a little butter and milk for family use, but also a source of profit yielding a rich return equal to the profits of grain growing. Farmers generally, in Wisconsin, must get into the dairy business gradually ; the best that most of them can do at present is to make a little butter. This they are better prepared to do 23T to advantage than to make cheese. If they will take pains to improve their stock every year, and seed down some portion of their farms with timothy and clover, the time will not be far removed when good dairies may be found in Wisconsin, and we shall no longer have it said that the country is worthless for this business. It is one thing to talk and another to act, and it is no less requisite for farmers to set about this business in earnest, than to discuss the subject, acknowledging the facts which have been here presented, and still suffer year after year to pass, and no efforts to be made to bring about a dif- ferent state of things. But when they shall feel, as well as say, that it is for their interest to give more attention to these matters, we shall look for a better state of things in the stock business. Much depends upon the women in the dairy business ; to them is committed much of the care and management of things pertaining to it, more especially the making of butter ; and it is incumbent on them to give heed to all those matters, which are of so much importance to a proper manufacture of the article. Let it be borne in mind, that there is no need of making poor butter ; it is not a process difficult to be understood, but one of the simplest operations that can be performed. Be not indifferent to what you read, for it may be of some service to you. Be at some pains to learn the best methods of making butter and cheese, and you may find yourselves amply repaid for all the attention thus bestowed. The few thoughts which have thus hastily been thrown together, I present to the friends of agriculture, claiming for them that consideration only to Avhich they are entitled, and hoping that they may not prove entirely unser- viceable. With my warmest wishes for the prosperity of the Society, and of yourself. I am, my dear sir, as ever^ yours faithfully, B. F. ADAMS. To Albert C. Ingham, Esq., Sec. of the Wis. State Agr. Society. FLAX CULTURE. Symington Flax Factory, Mukwonago, Dec, 1852. Dear Sir: — In compliance with your request, I take pleasure in again sending you a communication on the subject of flax, for the next volume 238 of our "Transactions," in the hope that it may be found worthy of inser- tion therein. I fear that I am writing upon a rather unpopular theme. There was, last spring, among our farmers a general movement -towards something new in agriculture, in consequence of successive failures of the wheat crop, and flax was adopted by many as offering the best chance for a profita- ble change. I had shipped off all of my seed to Ireland and the Eastern markets, before the close of Lake navigation, and, therefore, could not meet the demand Avhich poured in upon me from all quarters, for sowing seed ; and, as a flax grower, I should have been glad that little could have been obtained elsewhere, for there is no doubt, but that a great quantity of spurious seed was imported into the State, (I may safely say unin- tentionally by the importers,) which, like the Canada thistle, will not be easily got rid of, and will prove a serious evil when flax and seed are, and not seed alone is, the object of sowing. Good flax cannot be produced from the common run of seed raised in Ohio, Indiana, &c. It is very well, so far as it goes, if the farmers can make the seed pay of itself as a crop, and they never had a better chance of testing that, than this season presented, because, though very unfavorable for the fibre, the stalk being short, in consequence of the drought in summer, there was probably as good a crop of seed as will occur in an average of five years. I say it is well if the seed proves a paying crop of itself, for that shows that no more profitable crop can be raised than flax, when we shall have mills established throughout the country, to use up the straw, which is by far the most valuable portion of it. It has always appeared to me, that turnips may, with equal propriety, be grown for the sake of the leaves, as that flax may be grown for seed alone. I rather fear that a number of our farmers have gone into the culture of flax, without due consideration, and, being disappointed in the result, a for- midable check may be presented to its future extension, simply because we have put the cart before the horse — grown the flax before we had the appliances for its preparation in scutching mills. Why, in the present abundance of capital at the East, the general extension of enterprise of all kinds to employ it, and the pressing demand for flax in our own manufactories, no more attention should have been devoted to -this arti- cle, is beyond my comprehension. There is certainly no lack of encour- agement. A gentleman, interested in the manufacture of threads, who visited me last summer for the express purpose of seeing what foothold 239 flax growing had taken in the West, wrote me on his return, as follows: "On passing through New York, I endeavored to get some of your flax from your agent there, but he had sold out, and failing to get American flax to suit our purpose, we have been compelled to order our supply from Holland." My exertions to introduce, and advice as to carrying on the trade, not recklessly by large sowings, but systematically, with mills to keep pace with the growth, are on record ; and it will be a matter of surprise ten years hence, when flax shall have become, as I doubt not it will, a staple article of agricultural produce, that so much apathy should have been exhibited respecting it at the outset. I do not mean on the part of farmers, for they, I think, have done rather too much, but manufactur- ers East, and directly interested owners of water powers here, might have embarked capital advantageously in this branch of business. I have stirred up all within my reach, still, after five years labor, only one mill, besides my own, is at work in Wisconsin, and that not through my influence. I expect the next published statistics will show an import into the United States of 1300@1500 tons of flax, while we, in Wisconsin, with excellent soil and climate for raising it, contribute only some 40 or 50 tons to the consumption. So far as I have got returns for my flax of 1851, the prices realized have been from twelve and one-half to fourteen cents per pound ; what I have since sent forward, but of which I have not yet advice of sale, should bring in the same proportion from fifteen to seventeen cents, being of superior quality. I send you a sample of flax of my crop of 1849, which has been treated exactly in the manner practised in the celebrated Courtrai District on the frontiers of France and Belgium. This sample is, perhaps, a little better than the rest of the crop which was managed in the usual way in the fall of 1849 and spring of 1850, but nothing appears in it to warrant the adoption of the Courtrai system here. As I said in my last communica- tion, that system is to hold the crop over for three years before rotting ; I believe that this sample owes its superiority to the adventitious circum- stance of having had first a covering of snow and subsequently sunshine when on the grass. I send you a pamphlet on the subject of flax, printed for private cir- culation, by the eminent engineers, Messrs. Fairbairn of Leeds, England, 240 furnished to me by my friend Mr. Hartsliorne of Philadelphia. It con- tains by far the best instructions for the management of all the processes thi-ough which flax has to pass that I have seen in print. Part of it is inapplicable to our present position in Wisconsin, that relative to the hack- ling and spinning ; but probably that portion which treats of the raising and general management of flax as a crop might be instructive to the readers of the "Transactions," if they keep in view the modifications which our soil and climate need, as detailed in my last communication. I would especially direct attention to the simple machine for taking off the seed, described therein, Avhich will do the work well, and speedily, without injury to the fibre. I had a model of one of my own invention ready to send you, but on reading this, I put it aside for the present. I regret I have so little of importance to contribute to the forthcoming volume of Transactions, but knowing, as you do, the Avarm interest I take in the prosperity of the Society, you will take the "will for the deed." I am, dear sir. Yours most sincerely, JOHN GALBRAITH. To Albert C. Ingham, Esq. Sec. of the Wis. State Agr. Society. [Extract from Messrs. Fairhairris Pam^hlet.~\ INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS, AND DESCRIPTION OF THE MODES OF GROWING, RETTING, AND SCUTCHING FLAX. There are few textile manufactures that present more interesting points to the inquiring mind than that of Flax ; whether we consider its rapid extension, or the great changes that have taken place in its mani- pulations during the last twenty years ; that extension and those changes together producing, as they do, a simplicity and an economy which have resulted in placing within the reach of many a comfort, nay, •even a luxury, that was previously attainable by few. For in the linen manufacture are to be found fabrics of greater beauty combined with usefulness, than perhaps in any other. This manufacture likewise affords a most striking lesson of what machinery is capable of achieving. 241 in converting raw produce into finished fabrics ; for few materials have- presented so many difficulties, or required such a variety of mechanical contrivances, to bring them into a useful state, as the one on which we are now about to treat. To trace these processes and point out the me- chanical means by which these difficulties have been overcome, shall now be our endeavor. In a treatise of this kind, it would be out of place to enter very mi- nutely into the agricultural operations required in the cultivation of flax ; though it may be satisfactory to some of our readers to have a general sketch descriptive of such as are now employed. The flax plant, (Linum Usitatissimum,) consists of a woody heart or boon, and the harl or flax fibre covered outwardly with a fine cuticle which encloses the former like a tube ; it is cultivated for two purposes ; first, for its fibrous material, properly called flax; and second for its seed, which is much used for feeding cattle, as well as for making that drying oil extensively used in a variety of arts, known in commerce under the name of linseed oil. The stem of the plant is round and hol- low, and grows to the height of about two to three feet, and then divides into several branches, which terminate in blue flowers, consisting of five petals, and succeeded by capsules divided into ten cells, in each of which is enclosed a bright, slippery elongated seed. The leaves are long, nar- row, sharp-pointed, and placed alternately along the stem and branches of the plant. As the roots penetrate downwards about half the length of the stem, the soils best adapted for its cultivation are those of a deep free loam, such as are not liable to become too much charged with mois- ture, or too dry, but capable of being rendered fine by tilth, such as those situated in a valley bordering upon a river. If there be water at a small depth below the surface of the ground, it is thought by some still better, as is the case in Zealand, which is remarkable for the fine- ness of its flax, and where the soil is deep and rather stiff",, and with water almost everywhere at one and a half feet or two feet below the surface. But if well manured and tilled, and if the seasons are not too dry, fine flax can also be produced on high land ; it should not, however, be in too great a state of fertility, nor be too much exhausted ; as, in the former cace, the flax is liable to be too luxuriant and coarse, and in the other, the produce would be very small. Light, sandy or gravelly soils seldom answer well. With regard to the choice of seed, it should be of a bright, brownish 242 color, oily to the feel, and at the same time Aveighty. The seed from Holland not only ripens sooner, but also yields a greater quantity of fibre than most others. American seed produces a common fine flax ; Riga seed a coarser sort of flax, but a greater quantity of seed than any other, and is suitable to a greater variety of localities. Riga seed, from the circumstance of being generally produced from land of inferior quality, when employed in any other than its native locality, finds an improved situation, and consequently on most soils produces a luxuriant crop, inclining, however, to rankness, but with a great abundance of seed ; this seed, when re-sown on the same land, after the interval of a year, produces crops yielding the best qualities of " fibre," though for subse- quent re-sowing it becomes degenerated. The rapid progress of agricul- ture at the present day, renders it impossible to fix at what period in the rotation of crops that of flax should occur, though the general impres- sion is, or rather was, once in seven to nine years. Experience has, how- ever, proved thai it is never advantageous to re-sow the seed upon the land that has produced it more than once or twice. In preparing land for the growth of flax, the great object should be to render it perfectly fine and mellow. With this view, where grass land is to be prepared direct for this crop, it should be broken up in the autumn, and left exposed to the atmosphere until the early part of the following year, when it should be pulverized and broken down by heavy harrowing, and then in the course of a week or two ploughed again, in which state it may remain till the time for putting in the seed, when another very light harrowing should be given, and ploughing performed afterwards with a light furrow. But as the expense of preparing grass land direct for flax may frequently be too great, it is desirable that some other crops should intervene, of such plants as do not occupy the land long, and which are benefitted by frequent stirring of the earth whilst they grow — such as beans, peas, turnips, &c., because repeated stirrings are required to ren- der the mould sufliciently fine and loose, and to help to kill the weeds, which would otherwise do great damage to the flax. It is asserted that the Livonians, when they clear wood-lands, burn the wood upon them, and in this state prefer them to any other kind of soil for flax crops. If the land be stiS", it should be exposed to the winter frosts to moulder it, and loosen its parts. In the month of February, if the weather be not 00 w et, some very rotten dung (if artificial manures are not used) should be laid on, and immediately covered over with the mould. The 243 seed should afterwards, at the proper season, be sown, and harrowed in with a light or bush harrow, so as not to bury it too deeply. From two to two and a half bushels is the ordinary quantity of seed required for an English statute acre when soAvn broadcast. At this point, however, discretion is required, for when the land is rich and fer- tile, and the season favorable, if too much seed is sown, the crop is in danger of lodging; and when that happens, particularly before the pods are formed, the flax proves inconsiderable in quantity and very inferior in quality. When cultivated in the drill mode, eA en at narrow distances, a much less quantity will be sufficient than in the broadcast ; and in those cases of drill sowing where the intervals are large, scarcely half the quantity is required. When the crop is intended for seed, in whatever manner the sowing is performed, much less will be necessary than where the fibre is the main object of the grower. The time of sowing is considered good from the middle of March to the middle or end of April. But the last week of March or the first ten days of April are best. However, in the south of Europe, it is some- times sown in September and October, so that the plants remain on the ground all the winter. These autumnal-sown are not so productive in fibre, as those sown in the spring, but their yield of seed is better. It may be laid down as a general rule, that land which is intended for flax crops should be brought to an exceedingly fine tilth, in the way directed above, before the seed is put in, and that it should be enriched by some sort of manure suited to the quality of the soil. Lime in a caus- tic state is injurious to flax ; therefore, when it has been used for manure, it is better to intermit the culture of flax for a certain season. The "Royal British Flax Association," in their report of last year, recom- mend as a manure for replacing chemically, the elements of the flax plant, for one English statute acre, a composition of Muriate of potash SOibs. Chloride of sodium (common salt) ... 28 " Burnt gypsum 33 " Bone dust 54 " Sulphate magnesia, (Epsom salts) ... 56 " And by the same authority, the following rotation of crops is suggested : For 1851 ...Flax. For 1855 ... Flax. For 1859 ... Oats. " 1852... Clover. " 1856 ... Barley. " 1860 ... Clover. " 1853... Grass. " 1857 ... Clover. " 1 864 . . . Oats. " 1 858 . . . Grass. 244: As flax, wlien young, is a very tender plant, and is more easily checked in its progress by weeds than any other that is usually cultivated in the field, it is therefore indispensably necessary that this danger should be well guarded against, in order to save future trouble and expense. It is con- tended by some that the drill mode of sowing is the better, where the seed is the principal object of the grower, as less is required to be sown, and better opportunities are afforded for weeding ; the distances of the rows or drills should, however, vary according to the circumstances of the soil and the manner by which the crops are to be kept clean. For hand hoe- ing, ten or twelve inches would be sufficient, but for the horse hoe a wider space, of eighteen or twenty inches, would be required. When thickly sown, flax runs up in height, and produces fine soft fibres ; Avhen thinly sown, it spreads, and by the increase of branches produces more seed, and is not so liable to be beaten down by the weather, as the stems are stronger. When sown broadcast, the crops are rarely afterwards attended to, though it is very useful, and, indeed, necessary, when the plants have attained a height of two and a half to four inches, (which will be in about a month,) that they should be at least once carefully weeded. The custom of growing grass seeds along with the flax is little advan- tageous for either crop, but, on the contrary, is very likely to injure both. Opinions are divided as to the best time for pulling the flax, where the fibre is the principal object. Some think it should be pulled while green, in order that the fibres may be softer and finer; others with the same view, pull it up before the seeds are quite formed ; others again, not till the seed pods begin to open; — certain it is that if pulled too soon the fibres are soft and tender, and go too much into tow, and, if left till quite ripe, they are always stiff and harsh, do not so easily separate from the boon, neither do they bleach well ; consequently it seems the most rea- sonable to pull it in a medium state, which is indicated by the stalks begin- ning to change from a green to a yellow, when the leaves begin to fall, and when the seeds begin to be of a brownish color. It may be as well to observe, that when the stems are short and with many branches, it will be better to make the seed the principal object of the crop, and in that ease to let it ripen before pulling. This period of maturity may be known by the points of the seed pods turning hard and sharp, and the capsulus beginning to crack ; it usually takes place towards the end of July or the beginning of August. 245 In all cases the flax should be pulled up by the roots, and laid in small parcels upon the surface of the land, and great care should be taken to place the root ends even with each other. In pulling the flax, it should always be done with the intention (for reasons afterwards shown) of stripping the seed; for this purpose it is desirable to lay it in handfuls partly across each other, as the process of stripping, technically called "rippling," is thereby facilitated, for the rip- piers thus find the portions ready separated to their hand. It is import- ant, even in this first operation, to separate and sort the flax according to the qualities which various parts of the land may have produced, as it is probable that each quality may require a peculiar treatment. Much loss is frequently caused both to the grower and consumer by neglecting this simple precaution. There arc two modes cf subsequently treating the crop, each of which are alike satisfactory in their practical results ; the choice, therefore, depends upon which may be the most convenient to the grower to adopt. Where labor can be had, and where it is desi- rable quickly to procure a money return, after thus pulling and sorting the crop, the first operation is to ripple oft' the seed. This is sometimes done after twelve or fourteen days' drying, but equally good, if not better, results are obtained by performing that operation immediately after pull- ing, as the flax requires less steeping afterwards, and is more easily sep- arated from its woody stem. The rippling is performed by having the ripple placed on the middle of a large cloth, spread on a convenient piece of ground. The ripple is a sort of comb, consisting of one or two rows of long triangular teeth, placed upright, by which the pods containing the seed are removed from the flax. The manner of usina: this instru- ment is to have it firmly fixed on the middle of a plank of wood, at each end of which a rippler sits, when, by pulling the seed ends of the flax repeatedly through the combs, the operation is executed in a very complete and expeditious manner. The seeds afterwards require drying, when they will separate from the pods of their own accord. In large estab- lishments, where other occupations may render it inconvenient to perform the above operations at harvest time, the flax may be dried without rip- pling, and stacked as corn, till a more convenient moment, say the fol- lowing spring. By this mode of treatment, the seed capsulus become dry and crisp, and thus the seed can be separated from them by crushing them between a pair of iron rollers, so arranged that the seed ends of the handfuls of flax can be passed across the nip of the rollers, with its 246 length in the direction of their axels — thus avoiding at the same time the danger of tearing the fibres, as in the hand rippHng, and the necessity of subsequently thrashing the seeds from the capsules. The flax thus dried may require a little longer steeping afterwards. Even whon there is no intention of saving it, the seed should be still "rippled," or otherwise taken off, as, in the operation of retting about to be described, it causes premature putrefaction, by which the flax is much injured ; the imper- fectly ripened seed thus saved will serve to be pressed for oil, &c. From six to eight, but sometimes from ten to twelve, bushels of seed are pro- duced from an acre. After rippling, the next operation is to expose the flax plants to a de- gree of acetous fermentation, termed "retting" or "rotting," to facilitate the future separation of the woody from the fibrous parts. The two most usual and general modes of doing this are known as water retting and dew retting. In water retting, Avhen the flax has been cleared of its seeds, it is loosely tied up at each end in small bundles, and placed in an inclined position with its roots downwards, in pools or ponds three or four feet deep, filled with soft and nearly stagnant Avater — any water hav- ing mineral impregnations to be carefully avoided. These ponds should be made with facilities to change the Avater at pleasure. It is desir- able that the bands for tieing up the bundles should be of bass, or other suitable material of little or no value, for if the flax itself is used, that part employed for bands becomes of flecked uneven color. The color of the flax generally is improved by a small stream of water continually passing through the ponds during the steeping, which, even from a stream comparatively soft, should be exposed to the atmosphere in these ponds at least a week before being used, in order to be further warmed and soft- ened by its influence ; but if from a spring of hard water, a much longer time of exposure to the air is necessary. The time required for steeping varies from a week to a fortnight, and depends upon the warmth of the weather, as well as upon the state of ripeness of the flax ; the only cer- tain criterion, by which to decide when the flax is sufficiently steeped, is the moment when the boon, or ligneous part, becomes brittle and separ- ates easily from the fibrous ; that is to say, when the rind will strip from a piece of the stem six or eight inches long, without breaking or tearing the fibre, or leaving any adhering. This turn in the operation is very rapid, and therefore requires the most exact judgment and the closest attention ; for if too long steeped, the 247 fibre becomes softened, and consequent!)', weakened, whereas, on tbe other side, if the steeping is not sufficiently prolonged, the boon contin- ues too adhesive to the fibre, and, consequently, creates waste and trouble in the next, or "scutching" operation. As the fermentation is found to proceed better in the absence of light, the ponds should be of such a size as to be easily covered over with straw and sods for its exclusion ; upon this covering a weight of stores capable of easy augmentation or dimin- ution should be laid, in order to keep the flax entirely under water, for if any part rises above, it will become discolored, and, consequently, spoiled ; and as the buoyancy of the flax varies at difterent stages of the fermentation, this weight will require to be regulated, so that while always sufficient to answer its original purpose, it should at no time cause undue compression. When the operation has arrived at muturity, the bundles must be carefully lifted out of the ponds, and placed in a verti- cal position, so that the water will drain ofi", when they should be united, and the flax spread upon the grass. In dew retting the same efl'ects, or nearly so, are produced by. leaving the flax spread upon the ground exposed to the weather for some weeks ; but this mode occupies a longer time, the fibre is less solid, and is often injured by unfavorable weather. Whether water or dew retted, the flax will require the operation of "grassing," which consists in opening and spreading out the bundles thin- ly upon the grass land, where it should remain from one to two weeks, whereby the boon is rendered still more brittle. When well dried, the flax must be tied up in convenient-sized bundles, and the greatest care must be taken to keep the root ends even Avith each other. If this be neglected, the flax is what is termed "badly handled," and wastes con- siderably more in the subsequent operations. A much more scientific mode of retting has recen+ly been introduced into this country by an American gentleman, a Mr. Schenck, who, in a comparatively few hours, by aid of artificial heat, has succeeded in ret- ting flax sufficiently. As this improved method is now being rapidly ex- tended, under the auspices, not only of private capitalists, but also of public companies, the following description of it, taken from the last re- port of the Royal British Flax Association, may be of interest: "Mr. Schenck's method consists essentially in the employment of hot "water. It is strongly recommended by the Royal Belfast Flax Society, "and has been long enough in operation to warrant the publication of * 248 "the opinion which is now almost universally entertained of its merits, "The following is a description of an establishment for the prosecution "of Mr. Schenck's process, situated on the Newport river,- county Mayo. "It is taken from a report on the subject by Mr. M'Adam, the Secretary "of the Belfast Society. He says, 'The tenements, containing the vats "and drying shelves, are simple wooden sheds, of cheap construction. In " one end of the building are four vats, set paralled to each other, the- "length of the house. They are made of inch deal, in the form of a "parallelogram, fifty feet long, six broad, and four deep. There are "false bottoms perforated with holes. Underneath these are introduced "the steam pipes, crossing the vats, and having stopcocks at their en- " trance, by which the steam can be let on from the main pipe, as "required. The steam is generated in a small boiler, which also serves "to turn two hydro-extractors — a patent apparatus used to drive off a "portion of the water with which the flax is saturated, on being taken "from the vats. "The flax is packed into the empty vats, on the butt ends, in a half "sloping position, precisely as in the case of a steep pool, only one layer "being the depth. The water is then let in, and a frame fastened over -"the top of the flax, answering the end of stones and straw, or sods, in "the steep pools — the prevention of the rising of the flax in the course "of fermentation. "The steam is then let into the pipes by turning the stop-cocks, and "the water is some eighteen or twenty hours in becoming heated to the "desired point, 85° to 90". The fermentation then commences, and no "further steam is required, which is in forty hours afterwards, being "sixty from the time of the admission of the water. At the end of the "sixty hours, the flax is taken out, the water allowed to run off, and the *'vat permitted to cool. The same process is then repeated, with fresh "water and fresh flax. When taken from the water the flax is packed *'in the hydro-extractor, which is a round vessel of iron, made to revolve "by steam power with great velocity, the water being driven out of the "flax on the principle of centrifugal force. Thirty beets or small hand- "fuls are placed in this machine at a time, and about twenty lbs. of wa- "ter are extracted in three to five minutes. A few hours suffice for the ''contents of a vat, each vat containing two tons of flax straw. The "hydro-extractor only separates a portion of the water; the flax novr '•remains to be thoroughly dried. In summer, or indeed for six months 249 *'in the year, this can be accomplished as usual by spreading on grass "land in the open air. During winter, however, it is necessary to find "other means of drying. A shed has, therefore, been erected, commu- "nicating by doors, with the vat house, filled with ranges of shelves, "composed simply of railings of lath wood in five or six tiers. The flax "is spread lightly along these shelves by women, and the house is heat- "edby steam-pipes. This house is capable of drying the full of one "vat per diem. The flax when dried is made up in small beets or hand- "fuls, of a size suited for feeding into the breaking rollers of the mill. "About ten vats per week can be steeped in this establishment, say " twenty tons weight of straw, and producing, say two-and-a-half to three **tons of fibre. Thus, in one year, such an establishment would be "capable of turning out 120 to 150 tons of flax for market, being the *' produce of 400 to 500 statute acres. The fuel used for the boilers is "principally 'showes,' with a small quantity of turf. Mr. Bernard esti- " mates the cost of steepnig, drying, heating, and scutching the flax, at *'£10 to j£ll per ton, which is £3 per statute acre. Subtracting say " lOd. per stone, or 6s. per cwt. for scutching, the cost of steeping and "drying would thus appear to be about 24s. per acre, — a sum certainly "less than the usual estimates of these operations, as commonly per- " formed by farm labor." Another method has lately attracted much attention, being supposed by Mr. Claussen, the inventor, and the public generally, to be new. Its intention is to do away with the retting or fermenting process now in use, by substituting a direct chemical action of c^ssolving the substances that unite the fibres to the wood and to each other. This he endeavors to effect by means of a strong caustic alkaline solution, followed by a slight acidulous mixture. After this, he proposes to prepare the fibre for mix- ing with cotton, &c., by cutting it into short lengths, and saturating it with a solution of bi-carbonate of soda ; it is then taken out and immers- ed in dilute sulphuric acid. The action of the acid on the soda contain- ed in the tubes liberates the carbonic acid, the expansive power of which, causes the fibres to split into the proper degree of fineness. The idea of producing Flax Cotton from ordinary Flax, Hemp, and Tow, is by no means new ; a description of a process for eff"ecting this having been pub- lished in the Swedish Transactions for 1747, and the subject has attract- ed much attention in Germany from time to time. Somewhat later, BerthoUet, in his Book on Dyeing, describes a process very similar to 17 250 the one patented by Mr. Claussen, and which, from the curiosity of the coincidence, may perhaps not be found out of place if transferred to these pages. It runs as follows : — "A mode has been discovered of giving to "the dressed hemp, and even to the tow, a division and fineness which "qualify it for the same spinning processes as cotton; so that with this "preparation alone, or mixed with cotton, stuffs may be made which "have a much more considerable value than those of hemp in its natural "state. It may likewise be mixed with silk, wool, and even hair ; and the "yarn resulting from these different mixtures furnishes, in its numberless "variety, materials for new trials interesting to the arts and to general "manufactures. The process consists of the following operations: — " 1. The fibres are covered with water, and left in it for three or four "days ; after which they are boiled in simple water. " 2. They are treated with a ley, and then passed into the oxygenated "muriatic acid ; operations which should be repeated alternately four times. "3. The fibres are now transferred into a bath of water, charared with " 1 -100th of sulphuric acid, and left in it for half an hour. " 4. The fibres, when taken out of this bath, are washed very carefully, "and plunged in soap water. They are then stretched out, without "wringing, on hurdles, and left to dry." Amongst other observations upon the process above described, Ber- thollet remarks that, "whether the finest flax or the coarsest hemp tow "be employed, filaments equal in their fineness and whiteness are obtained." Giobert, in his "Bibliot. Ital.," vol. ii., gives some extended and exact observations on Berthollet's process, and he states them to be "the re- "sult of operations on a large scale, which have brought into the market "cottony cloth, and bales of this hemp-cotton, which were not distinguish- "able from ordinary cotton;" from which it appears that great attention had been paid to the subject, and considerable expense incurred in the experiments. Judging, however, from the fact that these so similar pro- cesses have fallen into desuetude, and also from the very small amount of success which has hitherto attended Mr. Claussen's eflforts, we may be justified in expressing the opinion that no very beneficial or profitable results are to be looked for, and that the manufacture of flax, as at pre- sent conducted, will not be thereby in the least degree affected. After the flax has been "retted," there still remain, in order to bring it into the fibrous state, two operations to be performed, termed "break- ing" and "scutching." In order the more perfectly to perform the Erst . 251 , of these, the bunches of flax must be brought to a suitable degree of dryness and crispness, as the object of crushing and breaking the "boon"' into short lengths is thus more completely attained, and the subsequent separation of the fragments from the fibre facilitated. The ordinary and primitive hand machine is extremely simple, but not so effective as that now generally in use, which consists of a series of pairs of fluted rollers-, the rollers of each pair being placed vertically to one another. These rollers are of iron, about two feet long and one foot diameter, and are' horizontally placed nearly to touch each other ; each succeeding pair, from that end of the machine where the flax enters, is made with somewhat finer flutes than the preceding one, and revolves at a somewhat slower speed, in order that the '"boon" may be more effectually broken. Con- venient-sized handfuls of flax are placed upon a board in front of the first pair of rollers, (great care still being taken to keep the wool ends level, ) and are pushed endways into the bite, by which means they are conducted to the next pair, and so on till they finally emerge on to an inclined plank behind the last pair of rollers, from whence they are col- lected and arranged by a second attendant, and delivered to the scutcher. The scutching is performed, both by hand and by machinery, by beating the stricks in the direction of their length, so as to divest the fibres of all their extraneous matter. By hand, this operation is performed by grasp- ing convenient portions in the left hand near the middle, and passing them into a transversal slit cut in an upright board ; the flax is struck repeated blows with the edge of a flat piece of wood, formed something like a sword, being turned from time to time during the operation, and when one end is sufficiently cleaned, the ends are changed. By this method, however, a man cannot clean more than five to seven pounds per day ; therefore the following machine is preferable, as by its assist- ance four or five times the work can be accomplished in the same time, and by an inferior class of work-people. This machine consists of a number of circular discs, upon each of which are fixed the sword or scutching blades, the slitted boards being still retained to support the flax, as well as to protect the workman's hand. It is better to employ three discs to work together, following each other, by which means the tow can be sorted into three different qualities by the machine itself, and the position of the blades can thus be varied so as to act in different ways upon the strick. After being thus scutched, the flax is sorted and tied up in bundles, in which state it is ready for the spinner's use. / 252 THE CULTURE OF VEGETABLES AS FARM PRODUCTS. BY JOHN W. PROCTOR, DAN VERS, MASS. Grass, grain and vegetables are tlie staple products of the farms of l^ew England. The culture of vegetables includes all that class of plants growing annually, such as beets, carrots, parsnips, turnips, &c., which are chiefly used for the feeding of stock. Experience in the growth of these ihas shown a much more valuable produce than can be obtained from grass or grain. Rarely will the gross value of an acre of grass or grain exceed the sum of fifty dollars : when the nett proceeds of an acre, of vegetables, after deducting all expenses, often amounts to one hundred dollars. The growing of vegetables has greatly increased within the last thirty years, and is destined to increase further, as their culture : and comparative value is better understood. It is not my purpose to go .fully into this culture, but simply to notice such facts as have come under ^my own observation, and such as have a tendency to show the benefits to be derived from their culture. The carrot is very generally cultivated, though not in large quantities. Rarely do the fields of carrots exceed one acre ; they are generally less. Twenty or more tons are grown to the acre, when the land is pro- perly prepared. After they have been twice hoed and weeded, their tops spread and cover the ground, so that weeds find little opportunity to grow. They are generally sowed in rows, about fourteen inches apart, and thinned out, so as to leave the plants four or five inches apart. "When thus arranged in a good soil, and well prepared, the roots will so expand as to touch each other, and yield nearly three plants to each square foot of land, or thirty tons to the acre. I have known thirty-four or thirty- six tons to the acre to be produced in the county of Essex, Massachusetts. Col. Pickering says: "I am inclined to think a preferable mode would be to sow the seeds in double rows, about ten inches apart, with inter- vals of three feet between the double rows. In this case a deep furrow being opened by the plow, the manure should be regularly thrown into it, and covered by four back furrows, so forming a ridge over the manure ; and the ridge being laid level, by a light harrow or roller, will then be ready to receive the seed." The short, chunky, yellow carrot is the kind generally preferred, both for quantity and quality, and because it is more readily harvested. Car- 253 rots are used for feeding horses, cows, and every species of stock, and generally estimated, per hundred pounds, about half the value of English hay. The present season they sell readily at from nine to twelve dollars per ton — hay selling at twenty-four dollars. Carrots are considered .a good preparative of the ground for other crops, particularly the onion. In some instances, carrots are grown in intermediate rows, between the rows of onions, and then fair crops of both are obtained from the ground at the same time, but we do not believe such a mode of cultivation desirable. The Beet, in its several varieties of mangel-wurtzel, sugar-beet, and blood-beet, is much praised, and often recommended as a valuable escu- lent for the support of stock. Mr. Colman, in his European Agricul- ture, vol. II., p. 503, so speaks of it. Occasionally large crops, amount- ing to thirty tons to the acre, have been obtained. Still, for some cause or other, it is not extensively cultivated. Those who have grown them a few years are apt to discontinue the cultivation. That the beet is one of the most nutritive and palatable of vegetables cannot be denied- Accurate experiments, continued for a series of weeks, have demonstra- ted that cattle fed on beets will gain twice as much as when fed on the same quantity of turnips. Beets will not do well, year after year, on the same soil ; and no crop, to my knowledge, is favored by the growth of the beet. It may be considered a great exhauster of the nutritive quali- ties of the soil. It demands deep culture, and liberal manuring. The turnip, with many, is the "crop of crops" — the one thing need- ful on the farm. In England, it appears to be an almost indispensable part of their cultivation. Such has been the impression of citizens of 'New England, who have visited that country ; such was the impression of the farmer of Marshfield, on his return from it. I remember to have heard him dilate on the turnip-culture of England, with eloquence most persuasive. His practice has corresponded with his professions. No one, who has visited his extensive fields at Marshfield, can have failed to notice his verdant acres of English turnips, growing in neatly arranged TOWS, and yielding a dozen or more tons to the acre, even on that shal- low soil. How much of a dressing from the sea-shore had been applied^ I will not say, I think it must have been liberal. The ruta-baga, or Swedish turnip, is the variety that finds most favor in this vicinity. It is often grown in great abundance, with less expense than most other roots. This, like every other variety of turnip, is exposed 254 to the ravages of insects, which materially lessens the crop. A small black &j, and in dry se.isons, plant lice, are often extremely annoying to the culture of the turnip. It is not easy to find any crop that will not have some items on both sides of the account, when fairly stated. On the whole, it is believed that the culture of the turnip, in its several varieties, is destined to be an essential part of New England husbandry ; and where better understood, to be more admired. The labor and expense of growing turnips is much less than other vegetables. Accurate esti- mates, by Mr. Brewer, of Springfield, Mass., the last season, show the costs of turnips, to be only one-third that of carrots, and carrots can be grown quite as cheap as beets, taking several years together. The parsnip is a highly nutritious vegetable ; readily grown, and an abundant producer. I have known square rods of this vegetable as pro- ductive as any other. Why it is not more generally cultivated, I cannot explain. Mr. Colman says he has looked in vain for it, among the Eng- lish farmers, but understands it to be grown in abundance in some of the islands adjacent to England. That it may be grown with good success, in deep, rich soil, I cannot doubt; and that it is worthy the attention of cultivators, I have great confidence. For productive value, as a farm crop, no vegetable within my know- ledge can be compared with the Onion. This has been treated so fully, in an essay published in 1845, that little can now be said respecting it. Still, as what was then said, has to some seemed almost incredible, it may be useful to re-affirm what is certainly known from long and continued observation. The culture of the onion may be continued on the same ground for an indefinite length of time, with proper attention to pulveri- zation of the soil, and manuring. It is a mistaken idea to suppose because the bulb of the onion grows on the surface, that the soil does not need stirring beneath. Any one, who will take the trouble to exam- ine, will find the tender fibres of the plant extending to the depth of twelve inches, at least, where the ground has been properly prepared. It is one of those crops, that in a peculiar manner, reward diligence and care in its culture. The great secret of the success, in this culture, in the East- ern part of Massachusetts — where five, six, seven, and even eight hun- dred bushels to the acre are raised — is to be found almost entirely in the care applied, and not in any peculiar quality of the soil. Any land that will grow Indian corn, with proper management, will grow onions. In many places, it is thought that onions cannot be grown on their soil, and 255 accordingly their supplies are procured from abroad. Hundreds, I may- say thousands, of bushels are sent annually from this county to Vermont. I have known one hundred thousand barrels of this vegetable to be grown in a single year, at the town of Danvers, in which I reside; occa- sionally the crop is cut off by insects. ON THE BLIGHT AND CULTURE OF THE POTATOE. BY JOHN TOWNLEY, MOUNDVILLE, MARQUETTE CO., "WIS. A celebrated French naturalist, whose vanity kept pace with his ac- quirements, desired to have inscribed on his tomb, "a genius equal to the majesty of nature," but, as was well said, a blade of grass was sufficient to confound his pretensions. Great undoubtedly is the progress made in science and art during the present century : "we travel by vapor, correspond by lightning, and paint ■with the sun ; yet amid all our boasted achievements, now and again cir- cumstances arise as if to remind us of the still limited extent of our intel- lectual vision, that we yet see as through a glass darkly. We have wit- nessed, for instance, the potatoe plant suddenly stricken with disease; the leaves prematurely shrivelled and died ; the food of the people perished. The mysterious visitation formed a prominent topic in speeches from thrones — in debates of legislators, and in leaders of newspapers. Essays and treatises, almost without number, were written on the subject, and when we call to mind the various conjectures which have been hazarded; the explanations which have been advanced to account for the malady, surely there is cause for humiliation. In no country was greater excitement caused by the disease than in Britain ; the loss of the crop there in one season was of the estimated value of upwards of ^50,000,000, and hundreds of human beings who had subsisted chiefly on potatoes were hurried to premature graves. The Government was necessarily alarmed and perplexed at the appearance of so formidable an evil. What •can be the cause of it? How long is it likely to continue? Can we by any means subdue or prevent it? were their anxious inquiries. Unable to solve these questions themselves, they appointed a Royal Commission to inquire into the matter. Grave savans, botanists, chemists, doctors of philosophy, proceed to Ireland; they inquire into the condition of the 256 potatoe in the field ; select and take some specimens ; these were exam- ined with the microscope ; probed with the dissecting knife ; dried in wa- ter baths ; treated with reagents ; burned in crucibles ; their very dust was analysed ; finally the Doctors compared notes ; the mountain brought forth its mouse ; they pronounced the disease to be temporary, arising chiefly from cold, cloudy, wet weather. The sagacious Sir Robert Peel, however, who was then at the helm of affairs, had obviously little faith in their conclusions ; he manfully avowed in his place in parliament his conviction that the disease was not likely to be transitory in its duration — that the people must have bread — the corn laws must be abolished. The Royal Agricultural Society of England offered premiums for the discovery of the cause of the disease and its remedy, and knoAving how much misery had then been produced, and believing as I did most firmly that the disease was not of a temporary character, nor yet owing solely or even chiefly to anything peculiar in the weather, and fearing that the Agricultural Society should coincide with the views of the Royal Com- mission, I had the temerity to write to the Council of the Society on the subject, not with a view to compete for their premiums, as I told them knowing that I was precluded by one condition, but trusting the facts I had to communicate might prove useful to them in forming their decision. I quoted authorities, proving : 1st. That the potatoe was formerly considered the palladium against famine, producing with certainty tolerable crops in adverse seasons when most other crops were deficient, and that the failure had occurred in a year when all other crops, wheat perhaps excepted, were abundant. 2d. That a moist season, such a one as suited the oat crop, had hitherto been found most favorable to the growth of the potatoe, and the oat crop of 1845 was one of the most abundant ever reaped in the country. 3d. That a reference to meteororological tables and to agricultural re- ports, proved that the summer of 1829 in England was so cold, nearly twice as wet, more cloudy, and much more unfavorable to vegetation gen- erally, than the summer of 1845, yet no such disease of the potatoe was then developed. 4th. That the disease did not appear simultaneously throughout the country, like the diseases of animals, arising from a peculiar state of the weather, but like the epidemic diseases of animals, it commenced on its. first appearance, at a certain point and travelled,. 257 5th. That the disease was experienced in Kent in the autumn of the fine dry summer of 1844; and nearly destroyed the whole crop in a part of the United States, in the midst of an intense and long-continued drought. 6th. That it had been experienced in St. Helena, an island within the tropics, five or six years, and in North America three or four years in succession ; I inquired if it was proved, or could be considered probable, that precisely the same adverse weather had been experienced in so many different countries so far apart, and this for the first time during the two centuries, the plant had been in cultivation. Burns sings "facts are chiels that winna ding and dare na be dispu- ted." These however Avere of no avail. The Royal Agricultural Society endorsed the opinion of the Royal Commission, the malady was the result of the cloudy and wet weather of the summer of 1845; but in the following season, however, which was comparatively bright, the disease was again developed ; every year, indeed, from its first introduction, it has been experienced more or less, and in the last season, as I learn from the press, and from private sources, it has been as virulent as ever in England. Some have supposed that frost was the cause of the disease, as if it had become icy cold in so many countries, especially in St. Helena and Madeira. Thunder and lightning have been charged with this grave offence, as if there had been no thunder for 200 years before. Guano was condemned by many, as though the disease had only appeared where guano was applied. Telegraph wires were shrewdly suspected of hav- ing something to do with the mischief — a plausible explanation, seeing that the appearance of the wires and the disease were nearly contempo- raneous. With many, insects were considered to be the cause. A doc- tor detected some aphides peculiar to the turnip, strolling over a potatoe leaf, they tasted here and sipped there, but did not, as he remarked, sit down quietly to their victuals, as when on the turnip plant. He stated that they evidently preferred the turnip to the potatoe, said they had the power of destroying both plants; and yet, in 1845, when the potatoe was first extensively blighted, the turnip crop was so abundant and excellent generally, that in many instances, turnips had to be sliced and put upon the land as manure, for the want of stock to consume them ; yet despite of this important fact, a costly volume was published, to make us believe that the turnip aphis was the cause of the potatoe blight. 258 There was one explanation, however, advanced on the first outbreak of the malady in Europe, which carried conviction to my mind, that the immediate or exciting cause of the disease was discovered beyond boubt, and I will briefly explain the facts, which I consider conclusive on that point. The disease was attributed by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley of England, Prof. Morren of Belgium, and I think M. Payen of France, to the attack of a minute parasitic fungus, Botrytis iyi/estans. Before I proceed farther it may be well to explain the habits of fungi, and how they injure plants. Some species flourish on decaying matter and hasten its decay. The blue mould observed in stale bread affords a familiar instance. Others spring from the living tissue of plants and destroy it. Of the parasitic tribe, the rust and smut of wheat are well known examples. The Ruta- baga, if grown on a dry soil in this climate, appears liable to mildew. The lower leaves may be seen to shrivel prematurely and die, and this, as I have observed, may take place repeatedly, so that the leaves instead of springing nearly direct from the crown of the root, are elevated on a short stalk, and these roots are not unfrequently hollow and decaying. The way fungi effect the destruction of plants is this : the substance of a plant is composed of minute cells and vessels — cellular and vascular tissue. Some contain air, some convey the crude sap, and others are de- positories in which the elaborated products of the plant are stored up. While the plant is living and in health the varied contents of the tissue are under the control of vitality, but when attacked by a fungus the cells are ruptured by its mycelium or spawn, the contents are mixed together, released from the controlling power of vitality, and become subject to the laws of chemical affinity ; hence, putrefaction and death of the part at- tacked ensues. Most will have observed white threads or filaments run- ning through decaying horse manure, this is the plant of some fungus, suppose a mushroom, the mushroom which rises to the surface is the fructification, the reproductive part of the plant which contains bodies analgous to the seeds of plants of higher organism. When first the po- tatoe plants are attacked by the parasite, small brown blotches may be noticed on the leaves, generally towards the edge ; if these are carefully observed they will be found to increase gradually in size, and on a moist dewy morning, or in damp weather, there may be perceived just outside the margin of the blotch on the underside of the leaf, a greyish appear- ance, this is caused by the fructification of the parasite. It commences 259 at a poiut, and its spawn spreads like fire in nitrous paper. So exceed- ingly small is the plant that with the aid of a good lens I am not able to see the fructification distinctly, but when examined with the higher pow- ers of the compound microscope it is a beautiful object, the fructification having something of the appearance of bunches of grapes — hence the generic name Botrytis. In an inquiry like this, it is a matter of some consequence to know the qualifications of the men who decided that a fungus is the cause of the potatoe blight. Were they qualified by their previous knowledge and by their opportunities to be competent observers ? The Commissioners appointed to inquire into the matter by Sir Robert Peel, of whom the celebrated botanist, Prof. Lindley, was one, acknow- ledged that Mr. Berkeley was eminent above all other naturalists of Britain for his knowledge of the habits of fungi. When the disease ap- peared in England in 1845, Mr. Berkeley was residing in the country in the midst of potatoe fields. On the 23rd of August Dr. Lindley pub- lished an article, in which he hastily and most unfortunately ascribed the rot to atmospheric influences, to the cold, cloudy, and wet nature of the season. On the 26th of August, Mr. Berkeley received from his friend. Dr. Montague, of Paris, some potatoe leaves infested with the parasite, and at that date Mr. Berkeley wrote to Dr. Lindley apprising him of this, and said, that he had inquired in every direction and could hear of no tidings of the disease in his neighborhood, and that his own crops were never more abundant or finer. A few days afterwards the disease reached Korth amp ton shire, and Mr. Berkeley, like Prof. Morren, followed its progress in various potatoe fields. The result of his observations at that time and afterwards may be briefly summed up. He found that the same fungus which had been forv/arded to him by Dr. Montague, from France, which Prof. Morren found preying upon the plants in Belgium, and which was a species new to all of them, in every case preceded the work of destruction. It attacked the leaves when green, or yellowish green, and caused them to decay. The attack on the leaves preceded the putrefaction of the stems. The partial decay of the stems preceded the decay of the tubers, and those tubers nearest the stem or surface of the soil were generally first tainted ; and the same mould which springs from the substance of the leaves uniformly bursts forth from the tubors exactly at the spot where the decay originates. That the mould pro- ceeds from within, Mr. Berkeley can state from personal observation, and 260 he believes it to be a fact that it could not establish itself on a decayed substance. The parasitical fungus, botrytis infestans, is, therefore, to my mind, most unquestionably the immediate cause of the potatoe blight. — It is well known to be a power perfectly adequate to accomplish the eflfect under certain conditions. It may be well to notice the chief objections which have been urged against this explanation. Many assert that fungi have not the power to destroy plants : and even well-informed men, certainly not botanists, but men having some pretensions to scientific knowledge, have said that fungi prey upon decaying matter only, therefore, it is to them incompre- hensible how they could possibly cause the disease. But instead of prov- ing the fungal theory to be erroneous by such statements, they only proved their own ignorance of facts of every-day occurrence, for no truth can be better established, than that some species of fungi do attack plants before there has been any visible appearance of decay, that they spring from the living tissue and destroy it. Others have said that in order to have produced the disease of 1845, the fungus must have attacked every plant, and some fields in an unhealthy condition were examined, without finding the least trace of it. I have noticed fields of potatoes in a diseased state which was obviously not due to the fungus ; the symptoms were altogether different. But then, I have examined field after field for miles, attacked by the mildew ; I. have seen the parasite commencing its ravages ; I have seen crops, which at the first glance, presented an uniform healthy appearance, when the lower leaves on examination were found to be attacked by the para- site. And because, I have met with instances of disease not apparently caused by the fungus, am I then to conclude, despite the evidence of my own senses, and of the testimony of observers like Berkeley and Morren, that the fungus, botrytis infestans, is not the immediate cause of the blight ? The only conclusion that I feel justified in arriving at, is, that another disease co-exists with that of the blight. The potatoe has, indeed, been afi'ected by several distinct diseases of late years, and it is owing to the want of a knowledge of this, and to the vain attempt to find one cause, which will account for all the forms of disease that have tended so much to perplex the question. If cholera was decimating the popu- lation of a country, and a man were to find in certain localities, cases of typhus and scarlatina, would it be considered a valid objection that 261 cholera could not be the cause of the epidemic, or excess of mortality, because some were affected with other diseases. The English Commissioners doubted whether fungi were the cause of the disease. The theory did not appear to them well established ; not because botrytts infestans is a species of fungus which preys exclusively on decaying matter, and not a parasite which produces decay ; but, said they, "if fungi were the original cause of the disease, it is difficult to conceive why fields of potatoes, placed very near each other, should be differently affected, or why certain varieties of the plant should be much less injured than others." But what reasoning is this ? Surely it did not occur to them that this objection might be urged with equal force against their own explanation of adverse weather. Might we not as reasonably object that fungi could not be the cause of a patch of mildewed wheat because the whole field was not attacked. And the fact that the varie- ties which the Commissioners said had offered the greatest resistance to the disease were previously known to possess greater constitutional vigor than those which signally failed, was sufficient to account for the different powers of the parasite over these varieties. The Commissioners were also "unable to reconcile with the theory of the disease being caused by fungi, the remarkable fact that in its present form it is certainly of modern origin. We must assume the botrytis to have been co-existent with the potatoe itself, and therefore we must con- clude that some recent causes must have come into operation favorable to its increase to the present alarming degree." But why these "ifs and doubts," upon a point which is capable of being decided by direct obser- vation? If the fungus be a true parasite and not a species which preys on decaying matter only, what does it matter whether we can understand or not why different fields or varieties of potatoes should be differently affected, or why the disease had not before been developed? If the foundation be secure — if the main fact be placed beyond dispute, which is the first thing to be considered, we may then be assured that all our doubts admit of being satisfactorily explained, and our next endeavors should be to find these explanations ; to discover, if possible, what are the causes which have recently come into operation, favorable to the increase of the parasite to the present alarming degree, and not to doubt the habits and power of the parasite, simply because we cannot immedi- ately find these explanations. As if, however, no longer to leave any room for doubt or cavil on this 262 point, Mr. Berkeley, in his elaborate treatise published in the London Horticultural Society's Transactions for January, 1846, said in language as plain and decisive as it is possible for language to be, "The decay is the consequence of the presence of the mould, and not the mould of the decay. It is not the habit of the allied species to prey on decaying or decayed matter, but to produce decay ; a fact which is of the first impor- tance. Though so many other species have this habit, these have not.'* Again, " I do not know of any single instance in which any of the nearly allied species have been found in any other situation than growing from the tissues of plants. Were this ever the case, they could not have been overlooked, as their pores are so much larger than any other species of the genus. The species are, in fact, as peculiar to the living tissues of plants as are the several species of Puccinia and Uredo, which could not exist, or at any rate be perfected, elsewhere. My task now is to explain, if possible, why the disease is certainly of modern origin, and what causes have come into operation favorable to the increase of the parasite to the present alarming degree. Different plants, as well as different animals, have their peculiar para- sites. Some parasitical fungi will indeed prey upon many difterent plants, but the attack of a species is generally confined to a certain natu- ral order or family of plants, or to a genus, or to two or three species of a genus, whilst some, as with parasites in the animal kingdom, exist on a particular part only of one species. The parasitical fungus which attacks and mildews wheat in unfavorable situations or seasons will not live upon turnips. That which infests the turnip will seize upon the cabbage, they being nearly allied plants ; but it will not touch the potatoe, yet the para- sites of the turnip and the potatoe are nearly allied. For a plant to be affected by mildew two things then are requisite : the presence of its peculiar parasite and the conditions favorable to the growth of fungi. As the potatoe is an exotic, is it not probable that tubers of the plant may have been originally introduced into Europe without its parasite. In the same way it may have been carried by Europeans, to other coun- tries, of which it is not a native, and have, consequently, until lately, remained free from the parasite in those countries also. M. Boussingault stated to the Academy of Sciences of Paris, on the authority of M. Joachim Acosta, that the malady is well known, in rainy years, at Bogota, where the Indians live almost entirely on potatoes 263 The potatoe is said to grow wild on the table land of New Granada, and M. Acosta believes that the disease has always been familiar to the Indians. It is probable, therefore, that the parasite has co-existed with the potatoe in its native country. By a note to Mr. Berkeley's treatise, I learn that Professor Morren considers that the fungus is of American origin. Mr. Berkeley also evidently inclines to the opinion, that it is a recent intro- duction. Next to South America, the disease seems to have been first developed in St. Helena. In the Gardener's Chronicle, for January 22, 1842, and again in June 1, 1844, this disease of the potatoe, from the symptoms mentioned, is evidently referred to, the rot had been experi- enced in that island several years previous to 1842, causing, as was said, great misery and distress to the inhabitants, potatoes being their chief arti- cle of produce. St. Helena is in about the same latitude as Peru, the native country of the potatoe, and nearer than any other place, in which the disease has been subsequently experienced ; and when we consider Low exceedingly minute and buoyant must be the seeds of this fungus, when the plant itself is so small as scarcely to be visible to the naked eye, is it not probable that some may have been conveyed by the wind to St. Helena. Thence, it seems to have been carried to Madeira and North America, and so has gradually progressed from country to country. It reached England late in the fall of 1 844, and was confined chiefly to Kent. There the premature decay of the foliage was observed, and a large proportion of the tubers decayed. The blight was first noticed in England in 1845, in the same locality where it was observed in the autumn of the preceding year. Thence it travelled through England and Ireland, halting mid-way in Scotland ; so that the crops in the ex- treme northern parts of Scotland were free from the pest. In 1846, it proceeded throughout the Highlands of Scotland, and on to the Shetland, Zetland, and Feroe islands. In some instances the disease seems to have been communicated from one place to another by means of seed-tubers. A fact which has proved fatal to many theories, and which seems to indicate that the chief cause of the disease did not previously exist in these places, but that it was in- herent in the seed-tubers. At Bermuda, Oporto, the Cape of Good Hope, and in Poland, the crops which were observed to be first or exclu- sively attacked were those raised from seed-tubers obtained from America or England. Mr. Berkeley has observed young plants of the fungus springing from within the cells of a potatoe. The germs of these could 264 not have immediately vegetated on entering the plants, but were probably- carried by the elaborated sap of the leaves and deposited along with it in the cellular tissue. Mr. Berkeley states that, "it seems to him most cer- tain, from observations on those fungi which grow from the tissues of plants, that minute particles, too small to be distinguished by the highest powers of the microscope, must be carried about with the juices, and when fitting circumstances concur, proceed to act upon the tissue with which they are in contact." The disease was observed to progress on the Continent of Europe, as in Britain ; it was said in a letter from Bologna, that the geographical limits of the disease, as well as its intensity, had extended in that part of the world very far beyond what they were the previous year. Another most important fact is, that the fungus, which is the cause of the blight, is a species new to cryptogamic botanists. If it had been co-existent with the potatoe in these parts, it is hardly probable that the parasite of so common a plant should have escaped the attention of the botanists of Europe, or that it should not have attacked the potatoe partially in for- mer years, instead of making such an universal onslaught as of late in very different seasons and situations ; for whether the conditions favora- ble to the growth and increase of parasitic fungi, be atmospheric, or an unhealthy condition of the larger plant, we have had seasons when fungi have prevailed to a considerable extent on other plants, and varieties of the potatoe have certainly been in a very unhealthy condition previous to the appearance of the disease, and yet it has been observed to be a plant peculiarly exempt from blights and mildews. It seems, therefore, proba- ble, if not certain, that botrytis infestans is a recent introduction, and if so, this affords a very satisfactory explanation of the remarkable fact that the disease is certainly of modern origin. Our next inquiry is a most important one. What are the conditions required for the growth and increase of parasitical fungi, and which have led to such an extensive and unprecedented attack, on one plant only, in so many different countries, under so many different circumstances, and in some instances during several successive years ? Are they some elec- trical or other peculiar unknown atmospheric influences, as stated by Mr. Berkeley, or chiefly an unhealthy condition of the larger plant, as I have ventured to suggest. Fungi have evidently not the power to destroy healthy vegetation, if they had, the superior plants on which they prey would shortly be swept 235 from the face of the earth. They are essentially scavenger plants. The two tribes into which they may be divided have separate tasks assigned to them in the grand scheme of creation. The office of one is obviously to hasten the decay of matter already decaying. The office of the other, I believe is to hasten the death of that which is unhealthy. Those which flourish on dead organic matter appear only when decay has commenced, a, fact well known to most. "Fungi," says Mr. Solly, "are only devel- oped in those solutions which are in that state of putrefaction favorable to their growth ; moreover they do not appear till the solution has acquired that stale." There must, I believe, be unhealthy action, possibly some slight chemical change in the fluids of superior plants before parasitic fungi can successfully attack and destroy them. Is this view of the case then supported by facts ? Is the state of the superior plant consequent on certain atmospheric or other influences, the condition requisite for the attatck of the parasite, or does the growth of the parasite depend on cer- tain atmospheric conditions only ? There can be no doubt whatever that the state of the weather has considerable influence on the development and increase of parasitic fungi in ordinary cases. In moist dull seasons, crops are observed to be always more or less aff'ected by mildew. Any sudden check in the progress of vegetation, such as is caused when hot sunny weather is succeeded by calm, dull, foggy days, or by a sudden transition from weather favorable to rapid growth to weather cold and wet, is generally considered to be the precursor of blight and favorable to the fjrowth of funiri. Now, circumstances like these would exercise an injurious influence on the health of the larger plants ; it is therefore doubtful whether it is not the state of the plant attacked rather than any peculiar atmospheric con- dition which favors the growth of the parasite. Other facts seem to indi- cate very clearly that circumstances of soil, situation, manure, &c., pre- dispose plants to an attack of fungi independent of atmospheric influen- ces. Almost all our cultivated crops are known to have their peculiar parasites. "In favorable seasons," Mr. Berkeley observes, "the fungi which infest grain crops are not developed ; in unfavorable seasons thejr spread like wild-fire." Since the appearance of the potatoe blight hare the seasons been favorable to the growth of fungi or otherwise ? Were grain and other field crops universally, or to any considerable or unusual extent attacked ? It is well known this has not been the case. Then comes the puzzling question — if this universal attack on the potato© be 18 266 solely the result of peculiar atmospheric conditions, favorable to the growth and increase of parasitic fungi, how is it that there has not been a similar extensive attack on other species of plants also? The alterna- tives presented by this question are these : — either the parasite of the potatoe requires for its rapid development certain atmospheric conditions, diflfering from those required by the parasites of other plants, or there must be some inherent predisposition in the potatoe plant Avhich has led to this extensive attack of its parasite, and which is not the immediate and exclusive result of atmospheric influences. Want of space will not allow me to enter more fully into this branch of the inquiry. I sent a paper on the growth of fungi to the lamented A. J. Downing, which ap- peared in the Horticulturist for July 1851, and if any one should desire to pursue the inquiry further I would respectfully refer him to it. The question is one of considerable importance to farmers and gardeners, and it has received little attention hitherto. Is there any evidence that potatoes generally were not in a healthy condition, previous to the appearance of the present malady ? It has been said there are no data on which to found a conclusion of this nature. At the meeting of an Association for the Advancement of Science, it was said, "debility was supposed to exist," but no proof was given of the existence of debility, and what, it was triumphantly asked "is the proof of debility in a potatoe ? " This betrays a lamentable want of knowledge of the previous history of the potatoe ; and it is requisite that a man should know that history before he can be qualified to see the question in all its bearings, give due weight to facts, or arrive at sound conclu- sions. Formerly the potatoe was considered the most certain of all crops, but it has gradually become, of all crops, one of the most preca- rious and troublesome. Formerly the tubers would bear almost any treatment without injury ; as an old writer observed, it was "a plant, if possible, more tenacious of life than couch grass." Of late years, and before the appearance of the blight, innumerable consultations have been held, experiments made, and essays published, with a view to discover, if possible, how best the tubers can be preserved from premature decay. And yet, we are asked "where are the proofs of debility?" I spent a week or two in the Library of the British Museum hunting tliroufrh piles of musty old volumes on farming and gardening for infor- mation respecting the diseases of the potatoe, and more especially whe- ther the blight had ever been experienced before. And I can prove by. 267 I believe, most satisfactory evidence, tliat tlie plant, considered as a spe- cies, has progressively deteriorated. For a long time it appears to have continued free from any observable disease ; and the first mild form of disease "curl," and the more recent and fatal "dry rot," I found could not be attributed solely to any peculiarity of soil, season, or mode of cul- ture, but were peculiar to, and therefore inherent in, certain varieties for the time being. And not only are there abundant proofs that the pota- toe generally is in a degenerate condition, but there is evidence that ^ ari- eties have been mostly injured by the mildew in proportion to the symp- toms of debility which they had previously exhibited, whilst some recently obtained from seeds, more especially in Germany and Prussia, are said, to have remained entirely unharmed, though growing in the vicinity of others which were affected. If the facts be so, can any thing be more obvious than that a most certain means of preventing or mitigating the effects of the blight, is by increasing the constitutional vigor and hardi- ness of our potatoe crops. How then is this to be accomplished? " We could answer this question with most confidence if we knew the precise causes which have led to the deterioration of the potatoe. Over-manu- ring, cutting the tubers into sets, planting the sets on raw manure, imper- fect storing of the seed-tubers during winter, have each been supposed to be the cause of degeneracy. These, with many other causes, may have contributed to the bad health of varieties, and may thus have hastened the deterioration of the plant as a species. The present condition of the potatoe is probably the accumulative result of not one, but several ad- verse influences operating through successive generations. The degeneracy of the potatoe plant is, I believe, owing chiefly to the mode in which it is usually propagated. Plants propagated by extension, that is, by buds, cuttings, laj^ers or roots, are but the extension of an in- dividual, possessing the same constitution, properties and tendencies, and are not a renewal or reproduction as by seed. A variety so propagated bas a determinate existence, there comes a time sooner or later, accord- ing to the original vigor of the parent plant, and to the treatment its progeny receives, when it will become comparatively worthless, and cease to deserve the attention of the planter. Andrew Knight, who first estab- lished this fact, by numerous experiments on various plants, continued through many successive years, said, in the last letter he wrote on the potatoe, "that varieties, which have been long cultivated, cease to be equally productive, is placed beyond the reach of controversy. I baye. 268 in several instances, tried to renovate the vigor of old and excellent,, ^nearly expended varieties, by change of soil and mode of culture; but I never, in any degree, succeeded, all become unproductive and worthless." ■Dr. Lindley, also, in speaking of thepotatoe, says, "it is certain that the productive power of a given variety of the potatoe,^is in proportion to its youth, and that all varieties cease, after a few years, to be as produc- tive as they once were. When Mr. Knight's seedlings Avere originally , tried, they yielded, in one case, at the rate of sixty-eight and seventy for one; no such crops can now be obtained from them." This hypoth- esis, till within the last few years, made but little progress, and, I believe, -it is owing to the want of a knowledge of, or faith in, the truth of this law, and to the consequent neglect of frequently renewing the vigor of .the potatoe, by raising a succession of seedling plants, from seeds saved ihom vigorous and healthy varieties, that the degeneracy of the potatoe 'considered in the mass, or as a species, is chiefly due. All other agricultural plants have progressively improved, the potatoe alone has progressively deteriorated. The former are propagated exclu- sively by seeds, the latter chiefly by divisions of the tuber ; and this difler- €nce in the mode of propagation furnishes a key to the true explanation of the cause of the bad health of the potatoe, as compared with other crops. There is no other instance of an entire species of plant having degener- ated like the potatoe. The varieties of the ranunculus and anemone, which are propagated by their tubers, are equally short-lived plants, but great attention has been paid to raising new varieties from seeds. To raise new sorts of these flowers is a most bewitching, and, moreover, a profitable pursuit, and florists know Avell, that in order to reach nearer to perfection, they must start from the most perfect flowers they most recent- ly obtained. But there have been no inducements for continued efi"orts to improve the potatoe, by raising new varieties from seeds year after year. Other plants had far higher attractions for those who followed the pursuit as an amusement: and as a commercial speculation, there was little prospect, indeed, of its paying ; hence, we have been trying over and over again, with a marvellous perversity, to make individual plants live for ever, which nature intended should only live for a time, and then from parents feeble or old, we have vainly expected ofi'spring hardy and strong ; herein we have violated the laws of nature ; by these practices we have gradually reduced the constitution of successive gener- ations of the potatoe ; and we have consequently gradually increased th« 269 activity and power of those influences provided by nature, to rid the earth of feebleness, and to admonish and correct those who act in oppo- sition to her immutable laws. If the foregoing premises are well founded, we may infer that the ex- tent or virulence of the disease in future, will depend partly upon the nature of the season, partly on the adoption of various expedients known to be adverse to the growth of fungi, and chiefly on the progress which is made in regenerating the potatoe plant. I propose to consider in the first place, how we should proceed in rais- ing a succession of progressively hardier varieties from seed. Whenever potatoe seed is required, plants should invariably be grown especially for that purpose. A few middle sized tubers, of say about four, of the most healthy varieties we possess, should be selected for the seed-bearing plants; and as the autumn months are generally more favorable to the attack of parasitic fungi than midsummer, early and second early varieties should be preferred ; because unless we had late varieties, which had been prov- ed to be able to resist the disease, the chances would be greater of the plants being destroyed before they had perfected their seeds, than if early" or second early varieties only were used. The plants m\ist be grown froaa the first in the open ground, in a situation sheltered from strong winds,, yet not confined or damp, but freely exposed to the sun. Enrich the soil with decayed leaves, or chopped grassy turf; on no consideration what- ever apply liquid manure, or a heavy dressing of animal manure. In favorable seasons most late varieties will produce a crop of berries as well as tubers. Intermediate varieties generally blossom, and some- times bear a few berries ; but the earliest sorts, owing to the early forma- tion of tubers, seldom blossom, and very rarelj'^ ripen seeds. These will obviously require diff"erent treatment. In order to obtain seeds from the early varieties, we must adopt the practice of Mr. Knight, who found that if the plants are prevented from forming tubers, an abundance of blossoms and seeds will be the result. Having made choice of a situation and manured the soil according to the foregoing directions, fix stakes in the ground about three feet apart, where each plant is to grow, then place a tuber on the newly dug soil, and in contact with the south side of a stake, cover the tuber by a mound of earth about five inches deep. Sufi'cr only one stem to grow, and as it advances in growth, tie it to the stake to avoid accidents from the wind, &c> When the plant is about five inches high, wash away the mound of soil 270 by a current of water, till the base of the stem is visible. The fibrous roots by which the plant is nourished will have made their way into the enriched soil below the tuber, these must be disturbed as little as possi- ble; they may be readily distinguished from the runners which generate tubers, every one of which must be destroyed. The ptant will shortly make an effort to produce other runners, which must be again nipped off as soon as perceived ; and the plant being thus foiled in its endeavors to propagate itself in this manner, will ultimately direct its energies to the production of blossoms and seeds. I consider it advisable to fertilize the flowers of one variety with the pollen of another. Some facts seem to indicate that a result of this practice is a more vigorous seedling than could have been obtained from either of the plants without the crossing. Some who may be desirous of trying the method may not know much about the sexual organs of plants. To such the following instructions may be of use: Take a full-blown potatoe flower ; in the inside of it you will find six small upright bodies, five of AA^hich are alike ; these are the stamens or male organs, which produce the yellow fertilizing dust called pollen. la the centre of the flower, and surrounded by the five stamens, is the pistil or female organ ; this may be known by its light green color, and by its diff"ering in shape from the stamens, or, by carefully tearing away the corolla or flower leaf and the stamens, the pistil may be still further dis- tinguished by its being seated upon the miniature berry containing the embryo seeds. To cross-fertilize, it is of course requisite that the parent plants should be in blossom at the same time. A flower intended for the female parent should not be sufiered to perfect its pollen ; to prevent this, it must be carefully opened just before it naturally expands, and the five stamens must be removed by a pair of small pointed scissors, taking great care to leave the pistil uninjured. When the flower has expanded gather per- fect flowers of the variety intended for the male parent, and with a camel's hair pencil gently dust the pollen on the pistil of the flower you have previousl)' deprived of stamens, or shake the pollen on to a sheet of writing paper, and so scatter it on the summit of the pistil. The best time for this operation is in the middle of a dry sunny day, and to avoid failure it should be repeated every favorable day till the flowers begin to fade ; the petals of flowers having been observed to shrivel and fall sooa I 271 after the seeds were fertilized, and to retain their petals for days longer if this had not taken place. When about four berries are set on each plant, nip off the remainder of the flowers. At this stage of growth the plant will have completed its feeding organs, and a greater quantity of sap will probably be elaborated than is required for the support of the seeds, consequently one or two tubers may now be suffered to grow, or the plant will form them in the axels of the leaves higher up the stem. If the parasite should appear on the leaves of the seed-bearing plants, as soon as the spots are perceived, dust them with the flowers of sulphur on the underside of the leaves when moist. This may possibly destroy the fungus or otherwise stop its progress. A Silesian agriculturist, who is reported to have aucceededin regenera- ting the potatoe, takes the seeds from the berries in autumn. Zander, a Prussian, who has been equally successful, objects to this practice, and advises that the seeds should be preserved in the berries, in a dry place, secure from frost, till spring. Zander's plan may prove the best, espe- cially, if the seeds were not thoroughly ripe when lue berries were gath- ered. When the seeds are to be extracted, crush the berries with the hand, and if fresh, put them in a tub or other vessel ; as soon as a slight fermentation is observed, Avash the pulp in luke-warm water ; pick out the seeds and wash them gently in one or two other waters, till they are perfectly clean and free from pulp ; then scatter them on a sheet of paper to dry, when dry, place them loosely in small canvas bags ; suspend the bags in a bed-room, or some equally temperate dry place, until the time of sowing. As soon as all danger from frost is passed, prepare the seed- bed; the previous year's onion-bed, or some plat equally well manured, and which has grown a crop, equally diff'erent from the potatoe, the pre- ceding year, should be preferred. Sow the seeds thinly and shallow, in rows six inches apart : when the plants are four or five inches high, prepare the ground into which they are to be transplanted, apply a mod- erate dressing of charred vegetable matter, or well-rotted stable manure, broadcast. Remove the plants carefully, disturb the roots as little as possible, and select a dull moist day for transplanting. Let the rows be not less than two feet apart, and the plants eight inches from each other in the rows. To save after trouble, reject all plants which exhibit mark- ed symptoms of constitutional weakness, and all which have soft pros- trate stems. Carefully observe the remaining plants throughout their 272 growth, in order tliat the healthiest and the best may be selected to he the parents of the seed-bearing plants in the following year. Those which exhibit the greatest hardiness, which suffer the least from adverse weather, &c., must be marked by labels ; and, if, in addition to this indis- pensable property, any possess other good points, such as rather dwarf, stolet, rigid stems, good shaped tubers, and ripen somewhat early, a preference should be given to them. The tubers of the seedling plants must be carefully preserved during the winter. When the time for plant- ing has again arrived, and the ground prepared, and the stakes fixed where the seed-bearing plants are to grow, select two or three of the largest tubers and plant them at once ; and so proceed till the allotted space is occupied. These plants to be managed, in all respects, same as those of the preceding year. And when, by persevering in this process, the main object is attained, hardiness of constitution and freedom from disease, we may then more especially endeavor to obtain varieties unit- ing excellence of quality, and other desirable properties, with robust health. A careful and practised experimenter will, indeed, have an eye- to this from the beginning. He will, at the outset, consider the various points which constitute perfection in the potatoe, and to this ideal stand- ard he will constantly aim. With a view to forward the young plants and to obtain large tubers from them in the first year, many will be induced to sow the seeds in a hot-bed ; but as our chief aim is to increase the constitutional hardiness of the plant, this mode of raising the seedlings cannot be too strongly- condemned. Sir Joseph Paxton, who is eminent as a gardener, as well as a designer of Crystal Palaces, says, "Seeds ripened or germinated in heat will never produce such hardy plants as those matured and vegetated in open air. This has been abundantly corroborated id practice, and proofs of its accuracy are constantly transpiring." The experience of the Silesian Agriculturist, acquired in his endeavors to regenerate the potatoe, exactly coincide with Paxton's observations. "I have," said he, "made successful attempts to obtain already in the first year perfect potatoes by sowing the seeds in a hot-bed. I prefer, however, a regular biennial growth ; if I reap a twelvemonth later I get a durable article, which answers all the expectations which may be form- ed, and is safe from the prevalent disease." Some who have raised a few plants from seed, and found they were blighted, have hastily concluded that there is no hope in seedlings. I have 273 contended from the first, that if I am right in my conclusion respecting the degeneracy of the plant as a species, it would not do to depend on the first or second year's seedlings, however healthy they might seem to be; as I said, in 1845, in a letter on the blight, in the London Morning Herald, "it is only by improved culture, judicious selection, and several succes- sive generations that we can have any just grounds for hoping to restore the potatoe to its pristine state of vigor and health if it ever can be ac- complished by this means with these plants." It is a fact observed in America and Europe, that some varieties offer much greater resistance to the disease than others ; now, whether this is owing to a difference in constitutional vigor, or to some idiosyncracy of these varieties, how but by having recourse to seedlings, is their number to be increased, or how are they to be superseded when in the course of time their energy de- clines, or how can we be sure that others may not be obtained by careful and skilful management which will resist the disease better than any we now possess ? In an article on the potatoe by Prof. Lindley, written before tho appearance of the blight, he said, "finally let us point to the immense importance of renewing the vigour of potatoes, by raising new varieties from seed. This has been tried over and over again, and always with some advantage, sometimes with a great deal." I may here state my conviction, that when the potatoe has been restored to the highest state of health it is capable of attaining, that specimens of the fungus may be found on plants in some situations, even in the most favorable seasons. I conceive it would be mere quackery to hold out any hope, that botrytis infestans, now that it has established itself in this country and Europe, will be entirely banished, when the general health of the potatoe plant has been restored. We can only infer what may be the future power of the parasite over the potatoe by the data afforded by other plants ; and our knowledge of the causes which induce partial at- tacks of fungi on wheat, turnips, and even plants in a state of nature, forbid the hope that our potatoe crops will ever be entirely exempt from the pest. All that we are justified in expecting is this : that in the most unfavorable seasons we are likely to experience, there will be no such general attack as of late years, and that when local or transitory influ- ences are sufficiently powerful to render certain plants unhealthy, and thus to favor the attack of the parasite, there will not be that rapid decompo- sition of the plants as now, but that the parasite will be confined chiefly to spots on the leaves. In ordinary seasons I anticipate the fungus will 274 scarcely be noticed, and that it will cause no more apprehension for the safety of the potatoe crop, than the fungi which attack wheat and turnips now cause for the safety of those crops. It is essential that this should be distinctly understood and borne in mind; hasty and erroneous con- clusions may thereby be prevented, as it is probable many seeming in- consistencies will be observed, which this knowledge alone will satisfac- torily explain. Our next consideration is, what expedients should now be resorted to in the general cultivation of the potatoe to enable our plants to oflfer the greatest resistance to the action of adverse influences and thereby miti- gate the effects of the blight. We should in the first place select those varieties for cultivation which have been proved to be the most hardy and healthy, and therefore least affected by the disease. It may be well here- after to grow potatoes specially for sets in order that we may have the most healthy and vigorous plants which the variety cultivated is capable of affording. A somewhat open airy situation should be selected for the seed-bed. If the land has been manured for the previous crop, and is in good condition, plant without manure. But if the land is not in good heart, then apply, broad-cast, a slight dressing of well-rotted stable ma- nure, or guano, and where they are to be had, use in preference, charcoal dust, charred turf, or partially decayed leaves ; the object being to pro- mote a steady, healthy, and vigorous, but not over-luxuriant growth. — Plant the tubers whole, not less than six inches deep, and let the rows or hills be about two feet and a half apart. The same distance between the plants is of course not suitable for all varieties ; this must be regulated by the planter's knowledge of the habits of the varieties he cultivates ; the point he should aim at is, to have the whole of the ground covered by foliage during the bright days of summer, but so that the plants of one rov/ shall not interfere with or shade those of another. Plants grown for seed-tubers should never be suffered to blossom. If a plant produces many blossoms and seeds it will be at the expense of the tubers; that is, the sap which would be expended in sup- port of the flowers and fruit, would contribute to the growth of the tubers if the flowers were destroyed. But that is not my reason for recommending this practice with plants grown specially for sets. Many facts observed in various kinds of plants, lead me to suspect that the pro- duction of seeds has a peculiarly exhausting effect on vitality, and I am much inclined to believe that if ever the experiment is tried, it will be 275 found that a variety of the potatoe which bears seeds abundantly will maintain its health and vigor for a much longer period if the blossoms are annually destroyed, than if it is permitted to ripen its seeds each year. Our next inquiry is, how and where the main crop should be planted — what soils, situations, and modes of culture are best calculated to miti- gate the effects of the disease ? Clays and heavy wet loams are known to be least favorable to the growth of the potatoe, and in these soils the disease seems to have been most virulent. But the evidence respecting all soils is very contradictory, and the difference in the results observed, was probably owing, in many instances, to a difference in situation, &c., rather than to any peculiar property of the soil. That a given variety of potatoe may suffer more from the blight in one situation than another, is what might have been expected, from the known conditions which favor the growth and increase of parasitic fungi. Many have observed that the disease was first developed, or proved most destructive when potatoes were growing under precisely the same circum- stances, which predispose wheat plants to the attack of mildew on damp, low-laying soils, Avhere the air could not circulate freely. On land natu- rally rich, or highly manured, on the sites of dunghills, or on portions of fields where dung heaps had been laid, the plants have been very much affected. Light loams, in rather elevated or open situations, should therefore be selected for the potatoe crop, and much less than the usual quantity of manure should be applied, if it would not be much more ad- visable to manure the previous crop instead, where practicable. It is probable the disease may be influenced, to some extent, by the nature of the manure ; gross animal manures, when applied in quantity, are well known to produce in plants a tendency to decay. On the other hand partially decayed leaves, or charred vegetable matter, are highly favora- ble to healthy vegetation. We may also, by other means, contribute to the health of our plants. I have observed, in many instances, potatoes have been grown in hills much too near each other. The climate of this section of the country is somewhat peculiar. In the earlier part of sum- mer, we have usually much dry sunny weather, during this period the o-rowth of the plants is slow, much of the ground remains uncovered by foliao-e and exposed to the sun ; a great amount of heat necessarily accu- mulates in the soil. When rain falls, if the temperature continues high, the combined influence of the warmth and moisture of the soil and air, 276 }iave a forcing effect on the potatoe plant, which causes the haulm to grow "with excessive luxuriance, so that the foliage of the plants of one hill, soon interfere with that of another. Whenever this happens, the plants, instead of quietly attending to the formation of tubers, become engaged in a struggle with each other, fighting, as it were, for the precious light. The invariable result is, that all are more or less injured ; these stems are drawn up, the sap has further to travel in its ascent and descent ; many of the lower leaves become shaded, and, therefore, useless ; the stems are also more brittle and liable to be laid, and the produce of plants so situ- ated, whether they be potatoes or forest trees, will, invariably, be found deficient, as compared with crops grown at proper distance apart, and owing to the want of a free circulation of air around them, and the unhealthy condition, induced, they become a more easy prey to the parasite. When I Avas a boy, I had observed that potatoe plants, with stout stems, had invariably the finest tubers, so, when walking round the garden with my grandfather, and seeing a plat of potatoes, with stems as tall as myself, I ventured to congratulate him on the large crop he was likely to obtain, when he puzzled me considerably by saying, that I was much mistaken, for they were all running to tops. How in the world the pota- toes could run into the tops, I could not imagine ; many a time since, I have heard this remark, and possibly there may be some now, who would be as much puzzled to account for it, as I was then. The expla- nation is this : The matter which constitutes the tubers of the potatoe, the roots of carrots and turnips, the seeds of grain, the fruit of our orchards, and the wood of trees, is elaborated or prepared in leaves, by the action of light. The fluid absorbed from soil by roots, ascends through the woody part of the stem, circulates through the upper surface of the leaves where it undergoes certain chemical changes, and then descends by the bark; and it is considered that the mature leaves only, and of those, such only as are not shaded by others, are efficient ; hence the deficiency in produce, when the leaves of one plant shade those of another ; and of the indifferent crop of tubers, compared with the growth of the stems, when the plants are so crowded, as to be drawn up, their stems laid pros- trate, and much of the foliage rendered useless. There are two or three other questions rel iting to the culture of the potatoe on which I may venture a few remarks, viz : What is the best mode of applyinging mannre to the potatoe ? Is it advantageous to 2TT pluck off the flowers ? Should tubers intended for sets be thoroughly or partially ripened ? The usual mode of applying manure is to place it below the sets. Mr. Knight advised that it should be spread upon the soil and so plowed in. Doubtless this is the better practice and is gaining ground. A soil in a state of nature is of a nearly uniform character, but one soil differs from another in quality ; and we may observe how wonderfully plants in a state of nature accommodate themselves to the circumstances in which they happen to be placed. If a seed germinates in a poor soil, the young plant may be seen acting as wisely as if it had reason or instinct to guide it ; it does not aim at too much but fashions all its organs on a moderate scale. In a rich soil there is a corresponding increase in all parts of the plant. In both there is an unity of action — and adaptation of means to a crtain end. Plants being thus constituted, by placing the whole of the food immediately surrounding the young potatoe plant, and none in the soil beyond, we evidently practice a sort of deception upon it, we induce it to make exertions at the commencement of its growth which its after means will not enable it to carry out; therefore, as Mr. Knight observed, abundant machinery will exist Avith a scarcity of raw material, and the crop of tubers will naturally be found defective, comparatively, with the growth of the plants. The time will p.rrive when farmers Avill inquire how manure can be most equally diffused throughout the soil, especially for such crops as grain, in which unity of action, or equal ripening, is a point of considerable importance. Mr. Knight advised that the flowers of potatoe plants should be pluck- ed off, and he was very desirous to obtain varieties, which, owing to some malformation of the floral organs, or peculiarity of habit did not natural- ly blossom ; because the production of blossoms and seeds must tend to diminish the weight of tubers, or they must be formed by an increased expenditure of the riches of the soil. There can be no doubt that the crop of tubers would be increased to some extent by plucking off the blossoms as soon as they were visible. If a Dutch florist wishes to prop- agate a hyacinth, he adopts means to prevent its flowering, and a progeny of young bulbs is the consequence. If an English tulip grower has a bulb which grows too strong, producing seven or eight petals instead of six, the required number, in order to tame it he allows it to ripen its seeds. An onion forms its bulb one year, blossoms and seeds the next, and so dies ; but persist in not allovring the plant to blossom, and the 278 formation of other bulbs will be the result. The sap which these plants would have naturally employed in the formation of seeds, is thus made to contribute to the growth of bulbs. By depriving the potatoe plant of its tubers we cause it to blossom and seed abundantly ; obviously the same sap gives existence alike to tubers and seeds ; therefore, by prevent- ing the growth of flowers and seeds, we must add to the growth of tubers. Many experiments have been made from time to time with a view to determine whether any and what benefit is to be derived from plucking off the blossoms of the potatoe plants, and very different results have been arrived at. Some maintaining that they have proved experimentally that it is highly beneficial to remove the flowers; others, with equal confidence, refer to their experiments and contend that no advantage whatever is gained by the practice. Both may be perfectly right as to the result of their experiments. The difference of opinion, I conceive, arises from not takmg into account the influence of certain circumstances, which must interfere with or vary the results. The benefit or otherwise of plucking off the flowers, will depend partly upon the habits of the variety of the potatoe, partly upon the quality of the soil, and partly upon the nature of the season. The greater the number of berries a variety naturally produces, the greater will be the gain of removing the flower buds. Second early varieties seldom produce many seeds, consequently little or no advantage could be gained by removing the floAvers of these, as compared with late varieties, which generally bear seeds abundantly. The quantity of berries pro- duced by a given late variety will also depend upon the quality of the soil. The better and more suitable the soil may be, the greater will be the health and productiveness of a plant. The reproductive powers of a plant also depend upon the nature of the season. If the weather of June and July should be warm and bright with frequent showers, we may ob- serve that even intermediate varieties are enabled to elaborate a quantity of sap equal to the wants of tubers and seeds, and in such a season the crop of berries of a late variety would be most abundant. The greatest amount of benefit to be derived from plucking off the blossoms, will therefore, obviously be from a late variety, growing in a soil and seasoa favorable to the potatoe. Much also depends on the degree of care observed in nipping off the blossoms. The plants are nearly full grown when they flower, and if 279 many stems are broken or laid by the children employed, this must tend to neutralize the benefit of destroying the flowers. In the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland it is said the difference in favor of plucking off the blossoms as soon as they appear, instead of allowing them to remain, was nearly one-sixth of the crop. Tliis may be consid- ered an extreme case ; but from a late variety favorably situated we may safely calculate on a gain of tubers of not less than one ton per acre. — Much difference of opinion exists as. to whether potatoes intended for sets should be partially or thoroughly ripened. Under-ripe sets have proved highly beneficial in mitigating the curl and dry-rot diseases ; and I believe it is certain they invariably produce more vigorous and productive plants than perfectly ripe tubers of the same variety. I was first taught this lesson by some villagers who were noted for the earliness of their pota- toes. For two or three successive seasons I obtained my seed-stock from them, and was always assured it was of the same early variety they grew themselves. But I could not produce my crops so early as they, by at least a fortnight ; and being unable to account for this difference, I re- solved to buy the first potatoes they brought to market having the appearance of being nearly ripe. I did so, and the tubers were so imma- ture that they shrivelled almost like prunes before the time of planting; but I found I was now enabled to grow them not only nearly as early aa the villagers, but larger also ; and the increased size of the tubers I con- sidered to be a consequence of the greater vigor of the plants afforded by these under-ripe sets. Mr. Knight planted an early variety in July ; the tubers produced were soft and watery, and unfit for food ; but, as he anticipated, they afforded the best of plants; "they presented the appearance of a differ- ent variety, and afforded a more abundant crop and larger tubers than he had ever before obtained from the same variety." But the crop was not quite so early : Mr. Knight attributed " this variation in the periods of maturity of the crops, solely to different degrees of luxuriance in the plants, and to the increased size of the tubers in the one." But I suspect that the difference was not solely owing to these causes. We see in a backward spring, how impatient vegetation seems to be at the restraint which is imposed upon it, and with what rapidity and energy plants grow in such a season, when the weather becomes favorable. A peach tree which Mr. Knight had grown under glass, he afterwards planted out by the side of a tree, of the same variety which had always 280 been grown in tlie open air. And Mr. Knignt observed, that the former unfolded its blossoms nine days earlier, and ripened its fruit three weeks earlier than the latter. The forced plant commenced and finished its annual growth much earlier in the preceding year, than the plant which had been constantly grown in the open air. Its season of rest, therefore, sooner expired ; it became sooner excitable in spring, and thus with the same stimulus of heat and light, it was enabled to make greater progress and mature its fruit in less time. And so it is with potatoes. The villa- gers, as I learned afterwards, grew two crops in the same year ; the seed- tubers they sold, were from the second crop, but the sets they planted, were from the first crop; and this accounts for the diflerence in the period of ripening. The earlier the tubers are ripened, the sooner will ;the produce of these tubers come to maturity in the following year. To obtain an increase of a ton per acre, but a few ounces will need to be added to the produce of each plant. When cultivators think of this, and of what Mr. Knight has said that soft and watery sets afforded more vigorous plants and more abundant and larger tubers than he had ever before obtained from the same variety, they must be convinced that this is an inquiry which demands their best attention. If an increase of one or two tons only could be added to the produce of an acre by this means, it would be so much clear gain — obtained without any additional expense of seed, labor, or manure. By attending to this point, by a judicious selection of varieties, by using middle sized tubers for sets, by a proper application of manure, by planting at the proper time, and at the proper depth, and by nipping off the blossoms, it is not improbable that the produce of an acre may be increased several tons. Attention to what may be considered trifles in cultivation involving little or no additional expense, may increase, in a very considerable degree, the aggregate result. The average produce of potatoes in England is estimated at 10 tons per acre, some say it is only about 8 tons. I need only mention in order to show how much remains to be done generally, (and what a striking illustration it affords of the truth of the axiom "Knowledge is power,") that the produce of a crop grown by Mr. Knight, was pronounced by- several gardeners and farmers in whose presence it was raised and weigh- ed, to be equivalent to 34 tons, 8 cwt., lOTjbs. per statute acre. And Mr. Knight felt satisfied that still larger crops may and will be obtained from an acre of ground. 281 ON THE ALLEGED TRANSMUTATION OF WHEAT INTO CHESS. BY JOHN TOWNLEY, MOUNDVILLE, MARQUETTE CO., WIS. As a set-oflF to the toil and inconveniences of one sort or another which must be encountered for a few years by those who hew out for themselves a home in the back woods, I thought there were at least three advanta- ges which they would possess over farmers in older settled States. The cost of the land would be much less ; they would have a virgin soil to cultivate, whose fertility, with judicious management, might be main- tained, if not improved; and as most of the weeds which infest our crops interfere with their growth, and diminish their produce, are not natural to the soil but introduced plants, I considered, that by careful culture from the first, it would be no difficult matter to keep them within due bounds. The first crop of wheat I raised, convinced me, however, that so far as wedds were concerned I had been reckoning somewhat without my host ; for when the crop came into ear, I was mortified to find a considerable proportion of it consisted of a worthless grass, which my neighbors told me was called chess or cheat. Its appearance in the crop they assured me was no fault of mine, as the wheat had been changed into chess by the maoic of frost. This view of the case afforded me small comfort : I saw reasons to doubt the accuracy of this explanation then, and my sub- sequent experience has convinced me, that it is a most erroneous and mischievous doctrine to believe in. If I had not abundant opportunities for knowing how tenaciously this opinion is held by many, I should scarcely have thought it necessary to trouble you with my reasons for concluding, that no such change ever takes place. " What can't be cured, must be endured ;" but let a man be once persuaded, that chess does not belong to this category of evils, and endeavors will then be made to get rid of it. Wheat, in this climate, appears to have too many enemies to contend with, over which we have no control, ever to make it a very remunerative crop, it is therefore the more imperatively necessary that we should sub- due an evil like this within our power, which lessens the quantity and degrades the quality of our wheat crops — more especially when this may be accomplished without the expenditure of much time or money. 19 282 One of the most weighty objections which may be urged against the notion that chess is wheat in a degenerate or abnormal condition is the fact, that chess is a distinct species of grass, known to botanists as Bromus Secalinus, affording seed which Avhen sown produces chess plants, under all circumstances, and never wheat. A thousand plants may be examined and the probability is that not one would be found to differ materially from the botanical description of the species. Now if by the action of frost one plant is transformed into the other, how is it that there is no gradation in the change observable, that the metamorphosis should in all cases be so uniform and complete ? Of late years much has been written by botanists on the metamorphosis of plants, or vegetable morphology, as it is usually called. Like most novel views, true though they may be, this met with considerable opposition, hence botanists who embraced this hypothesis, (a class of men second to none for accuracy of observation,) ransacked the vegetable world for specimens of plants in an abnormal state, in support of their position ; but all that their investigations have enabled them to establish, all indeed that they were required to prove is, that all parts of a plant may be referred to the leaf as a type, that the floral envelopes and organs of reproduction, calyx, corolla, stamens, pis- tils, and seed are formed of the same elements and arranged upon the same plan as leaves; hence, when growing under peculiar circumstances, the different parts of a flower may be changed into each other, or into true leaves, and such changes have been very frequently observed ; but I am not aware that there is an instance on record proving that any cir- cumstances have so altered the character of a plant as to make it appear to a botanist not only specifically but generically distinct. 2nd. Chess is well known to be a British grass ; it is found in the grain fields of England where the winters are seldom severe enough to injure the wheat plant. It is true, however, that chess is much more abundant here than in England. Being familiar with all the British grasses, excepting two or three very rare species, I could not remember having noticed chess frequently in wheat crops in England; and I find on referring to some works on British husbandry, that it is not generally included in the lists of the weeds of agriculture. Sir William Hooker in hia British Flora says of the plant "not rare" thereby implying that it is far from common; but Dr. Gray, in his Botany of the Northern United States, very truly remarks "grain fields, &c., too common." gone may be ready to conclude that chess is more abundant in wheat crops here. 283 because of the greater severity of our winters. But chess is not the only- introduced plant which seems to thrive better in the United States than in its native country. The Berberry I noticed in some of the New Eng- land States, especially in the neighborhood of New Haven, much more common and vigorous than I had ever noticed in any district of England or Scotland. Verbascum Tkapsus, the Moth Mullein, is far from being a common plant in England ; I never met with it in quantity except in one or two localities on calcareous soils ; here it grows with extraordinary vigor and seems as intent upon pushing its way westward as man him- self. Erigeron Canadense, known as horse- weed, or butter- weed, is a native of both countries. In England, however, it is confined chiefly to one or two of the south-eastern counties. I never found the plant but in Kew Church yard, where my attention was directed to it by a notice in a London Botanical Journal, the Phytologist ; here it is one of the most abundant and vilest of weeds the farmer has to contend with. We should not be justified then in concluding that chess is more abundant ia the United States than in England owing to the wheat being more injured, by frost, seeing that other plants are similarly aflfected by the diflference in the soil and climate of the two countries. 3rd. If chess was originally a plant of wheat transformed by the action of frost, or other adverse causes, why are chess plants frequently seen so vigorous by the side of weak plants of wheat, both of which must have been subject to the action of the same external influences? One plant of chess, which I pulled up in the summer of 1850, had for- ty-three stems, yet in the same clump, a wheat plant was growing with only two stems. I omitted to count the seeds of each, but we may pre- sume if the wheat plant yielded sixty grains for one sown, the reproduc- tive powers of the chess plant would have been at a low estimate, seven- teen hundred for one, a somewhat strange result, truly, of the action of adverse influences. 4th. I have examined crops of wheat, which, in some parts, had been more injured by frost than others, and in these parts the number of chess plants compared with wheat plants, was greater than in other parts of the field, but if a square rod of land had been measured in these differ- ent parts, and the number of chess plants counted in each, my observa- tions lead me to conclude, that there would have been found a nearly- equal number of plants in one as in the other. Chess is obviously a hardier plant than wheat, it is better able to withstand the action of frost; 284 thus, when a considerable number of wheat plants perish, the chess plants which remain, not only actually bear a greater proportion to the wheat, than in other parts of the same field not injured ; but the difference does not end here, these plants have now a more extensive pasture for their roots, and a greater share of light for their leaves, than if they had vig- orous wheat plants to contend with, they consequently grow more luxu- riantly, throw up more numerous stems, and cover a greater space of ground. The chess thus not only actually bears a greater proportion to the wheat, but it seems more abundant, the number of plants greater than in parts where the wheat has been less killed or weakened by frost ; hence I suspect the conclusion has been arrived at, that wheat, by the action of frost, has been changed into chess. 5th. I have carefully taken up many plants of chess, and I have usu- ally found the husks of the seed from which they had sprung ; these I have examined by the aid of a good lens, and they appeared to me in all cases, the seed-coats of chess and not of wheat. 6th. Where I am is new land ; wheat was first sown here in the fall of 1849, and as chess is not indigenous to the soil, nor yet introduced into the land by manure, I have, in the last three seasons, had a favorable opportunity for observing the effects of frost on the wheat crop, and whether the appearance of chess depends on the severity of the weather, or the injury the wheat plant has sustained during Avinter, or whether the quantity grown is not due rather to other circumstances, under our control. In the first year or so, fanning mills were somewhat scarce here, much wheat was, consequently, indifferently cleaned, and in some instances, sown in that state ; others had taken extra pains to procure clean seed, and two or three patches were raised from wheat gleaned in the field ; in some cases, wheat was sown after wheat, and from the same sample, on newly broken-up land adjoining. The proportion of chess, I found in all cases, all other circumstances being similar, was greatest where wheat followed wheat, because, in addition to the chess sown with the wheat, there was a considerable quantity of self-sown seed already in the land, from the previous year's crop. In one instance, some very clean purchased seed had been sown, it was put through the mill, till it seemed free from chess ; the seed not being sufficient, a strip was sown with other wheat, which had been merely chaffed ; the former produced a compara- tively pure crop, the latter a nearly equal proportion of chess, rye and wheat. / 285 I was told of a crop in the summer of 1851 that was said to be per- fectly free from chess, and it certainly required a very close examination to detect a plant of chess in it ; in the same season a crop was grown on the adjoining quarter section so foul, that when the plants came into ear, the proportion of chess to wheat was so great that it was considered advis- able to mow it green for foddder rather than let it ripen. The former was the produce of wheat gleaned in the field, the latter was admitted to be largely mixed with chess when sown. Apart from all theoretical consider- ations, the result of my observations and experience here is, that Avheat crops are pure and clean in proportion to the cleanness of the land, and to the purity and cleanness of the seed when sown. If this be so, then the obvious remedy for this evil is, first, to thoroughly clean the land, and secondly, to obtain perfectly clean seed. I may venture to suggest, whether we may not derive advantage in various ways by paying greater attention to the purity and excellence of the seeds for our various crops — for my own part, so far as regards wheat, I intend, by comparative ex- periments, to determine which of the various kinds of wheat I can pro- cure, is best adapted to the soil and climate, and then endeavor to raise a pure crop by commencing Avith a single grain, or at all events with a single ear, for not only is it a matter of consequence to rid our crops of chess, but it is of some importance that a crop should consist of one variety, for not only is there a difference in the productive powers and quality of different varieties, but there is a difi'erence frequently of some days in the periods of ripening, and a crop Avhich is a mixture of diflferent varieties, some ripening sooner than others, cannot yield so well, or afford so equal or so fair and heavy a sample as a pure crop, adapted to the soil and climate. Although wheat has been cultivated from time immemorial by the most civilized nations of the world, there yet appears to be many ques- tions relating to the culture of the plant respecting which no very precise or satisfactory knowledge exists. Experiments indeed remain to be made on the wheat plant alone which would take a life time to determine. Who, for instance, has proved what is the best mode of obtaining more produc- tive and valuable varieties, whether by cross-breeding or judicious selec- tion through successive generations ? or who can at present say where is the limit to improvement in hardiness, quality, and productiveness ? — Again, can an improved variety be continued pure and equally produc- tive for an unlimited period when obtained, and if so, what are the like- 286 liest means for effecting that object ? Bcfoi-e this can be satisfactorily answered we must inquire further, what are the causes of the deteriora- tion of varieties of grain ? May it be owing to a variety not being suited to the soil and climate? Are some varieties better adapted to one soil and climate than to another? Do some thrive better in one soil than another in the same climate ? What are the precise effects of soil and climate on different varieties ? What are the effects of a change of soil independent of climate ? What is the result of raising seed-wheat on the same farm, but with a different or special manure ? May the deterioration of an improved variety be owing chiefly to the mixture of other varieties in the crop ? Do varieties of distinct habit and character when mixed and grown together cross-breed. Is wheat, like most of our fruits, and what are called florist's flowers liable to "sport" into varieties, that is, M^ill it produce plants differing om each other and from the parent stock, and this without the action of the pollen of a second variety ? Will not a variety raised to a high state of perfection, by selection and skilful culture, gradually deteriorate when grown a num- ber of years by the ordinary methods ? In addition to hardy and pro- ductive habits, is it possible to obtain varieties having some constitutional peculiarity which will enable them to resist diseases, especially diseases arising from the attacks of parasitical fungi ? In what state of ripeness does seed-wheat afford the most vigorous plant? What are the effects of different depths, times and modes of sowing, and of different quantities sown per acre ? WILD RICE. Willow River, December 11th, 1852. My Dear Sir : — The Wild Rice of this country grows usually on the borders of small lakes, but sometimes, when the water is not too deep, and the bottom apparently soft, it will extend over a whole lake, literally filling it ; so that when it is luxuriant, it is with difficulty that a canoe can be worked through it. It usually grows in water from six to nine feet deep, and rises about the same height above the water, with a straw and head very similar to oats ; in fact, in many places, when nearly ripe, it has the appearance of a large, luxuriant oat field. The kernel, after the husk 187 is taken off, in appearance resembles both the oat and a kernel of smut rye ; it is larger than the former, but not as large as the latter usually grows. In color, it is almost a transparent green. The method which the Indians take to gather it, and prepare it for food, is as follows : A short time before it is fully ripe, two squaws will go amongst it with a canoe, and gather a handful of the straws together, tie them so, and then break down the heads and leave them hanging till it is dry enough to thresh. They have a double object in thus tying the straws together : one is to prevent the waving of the heads together by the action of the wind, and thus threshing out the grain, and the other to prevent the straws from settling down into the water when they have become fully ■ ripe. After it has remained tied in this way for about two weeks, and become fully ripe, and dry enough to thresh, the two squaws again start with their canoe, one of them armed with a crooked stick about three feet long, and the other with a paddle to steer or propel the canoe. Ar- rived at the rice field, the one with the stick seizes the clusters of heads, and bendinsr them over into the canoe, strikes them two or three blows with the stick, and in this way threshes out the grain. In this manner they will gather several bushels in a day. It is then taken to where the lodge is for the time being, and kiln-dried thoroughly, (usually enough to cook it, ) after which it is emptied into skins, and undergoes a process of beating with sticks, to take off the husks, when it is fit for use. It then enters into, and becomes a part of all, or nearly all, their cookery, In spring, when sugar-making commences, and the Indians are about to start on their spring hunt, they take a quantity, and mix some grained sugar with it to carry with them as their principal supply of food. They then eat it without any further cooking. I have used it, and consider it far preferable to the Southern rice for soups, or boiled to eat with molasses or butter. ' Whether it would improve by cultivation, I am not able to say, but think not. I am now, and have long been of the opinion, that the culti- vation of it might be made very profitable, by having dams, so as to flow the land at pleasure. When the Indians wish it to grow in some favor- able place, they gather some of it when it is fully ripe, and scatter it in the water, when it grows without any farther trouble on the part of the rude airriculturist. It is usually worth two dollars per bushel. I have none now by me, but will endeavor to get some and forward to you soon. I can get none 288 fit for seed until the next harvest, as the germinating power is killed ia the drying. Yours truly, JOSEPH BOWROIS'. To Albert C. Ingham, Esq. Sec. of the Wis. State Agr. Society. THE MORAL INFLUENCES OF HORTICULTURE. The Grove, Northfield, III., December 20, 1852. My Dear Sir: — A compliance with your request, that I furnish a hor- ticultural paper, for your forthcoming volume of Transactions, is ren- dered difficult, by circumstances not necessary to mention ; and, yet, I do not feel at liberty entirely to neglect your flattering call, inasmuch as I acknowledge your right to command the aid of my pen, and perhaps believe that the example of professional writers may prove of some avail, even, though, their communications contain little or nothing of practical value to the well-informed reader. Now, the three or four pages of argument, floating in my mind, may not reach the paper in a way to convince a single individual, but I may excite thought, and that thought may cause investigation and application. My theme is the Moral Influences of Horticulture ; though I may in- cidentally glance at other phases of the question. I consider Horticulture, not only "the fine art of rural life," but as the primary school of taste and refinement, and the normal school of practical country life. To begin with the familiar and unquestionable branches ; all who stop to think will admit, that a well-tilled garden is in reality a model farm ; and from the results there, the large farmer can readily take practical lessons, on the general efi'ects of improved fertility, by the use of man- ures, depth and fineness of tilth, thoroughness and extent of after-cul- ture, incidental protection, irrigation, 1 ^ a fourth to half a mile distant, they need wells of water at or near their houses. In other portions of the State, springs are but "few and far between," and running waters often fail in a drought ; so that if wells cannot be dug with success, both man and beast are doomed to suffer from thirst, and the farm, however rich and productive may be the soil, or however near to a market, becomes almost valueless. In all these cases, well-diffaino- ;s of more importance than gold ; for of what avail is gold to a man per- ishing with thirst ? If wells can be obtained, with tolerabe certainty, many portions of our State would admit of more dense settlement, and some portions, now of little value, would be greatly enhanced, both in value and comfort of occupation. This subject, then, is of vital import- ance to the atrricultural interests of the State. But the question is, who can tell where and how deep to dig for water ? To say, to most people, that some men can tell — with a certain- ty, too, which justifies belief in it — not only as a fact, but as a science, is, with such, only to meet with a contemptuous sneer and incredulous cant of the head. And such unbelievers are often condemned already to do without good and handy water, or obtain it at great expense. The strong reason offered against this theory is, "We cannot under- stand it, and we will not believe in a theory wc cannot understand." Upon this mode of reasoning, you would believe nothing — not even your own existence. "Facts are stubborn things," is an old adage, and a true one ; and the sound sense and philosophy of a man who will deny the truth of a thing because he cannot understand it, is a very question- able matter. To deny one's own senses, is to be bordering upon insanity. The fact here affirmed has been witnessed by thousands who, until they saw it, were unbelievers in it, and the truth of it is being almost daily tested and established. There are, at this time, probably one hundred wells in Western Wisconsin, which were dug by the direction of what is called the " divining rod," the " dowser," the " water witch," or "water philosopher." This rod consists of a fork taken from the tip ends of the limbs of a peach, hazel, or any fruit-bearing trees, the fruit of which has pits or stones in them. The operator holds the fork in his hands, so that the but-end is upward, and the tips one in each hand — the palms of which being upward and on a level — and when brought over running water, which is in a vein under ground, or over a crevice filled with mineral or 21 q 14 mineral clay, the but-end will turn down, and with such force, if resisted by the operator, as to twist the stem and crack the bark. It was this twisting and cracking of the bark that removed my doubts, or rather settled unbelief in the theory some forty years since. And then digging for, and finding water exactly as told by the operator, both as to depth, quality and quantity, I must show symptons of insanity, or yield a full faith in the fact which I saw with my own eyes, and proved by my own hands, in digging, and by my OAvn mouth in the delicious drinks of good cold water, raised from the well. My own testimony, whatever it may be worth Avhere I am known, is but one among many thousands, a few of which only can be here given, without extending this paper to a greater length than is intended. But having seen it proved in scores of cases, and heard of even hundreds of such, I am and must be a believer in this mode of procuring water, the science of which will be hereafter explained. But I will first give two historical facts to establish the theory. About the commencement of the present century. Dr. Adam Clark, one of the greatest linguists and philosophers of the age, was stationed on Guernsey Island, in the British Channel, as a Wesleyan Methodist Minis- ter. The people there had suffered much from want of water. But few springs had been discovered; the streams were short, and subject to en- tire failure from drought ; and, as a matter of course, they were depend- ent upon their cisterns, which often failed also from want of rain. Under these circumstances, the discovery of water at a moderate depth in the soil, or in the rock, was as a God-send to the people. Dr. Clark found in his Society a man Avho professed to make this dis- covery. But not believing in the truth of the profession, because he could not understand the why and wherefore of the thing, he arraio-ned the member on a charge of humbuggery. He would not allow a mem- ber of his Society to humbug the people. The accused man, however, proved by some half dozen reputable witnesses that it was no humbuo- ; that he had told them where to dig, and they had dug and found water as he had told them. This was a poser for the Doctor. He had too much sense, and too great a degree of justice to dispute and deny facts thus clearly proven. But still doubting, he required the operator to per- form in his presence. This was done, and the water obtained. But as this might have been a chance case, he would have the experiment renewed, which was done with like success. There now were a score or 315 more wells, of good, living spring water, whicli were so many standing monuments to the truth of the theory. But how to account for it was the mystery ! Science, at that time, had not investigated the matter, and he concluded that it was a merciful and benevolent provision of the Crea- tor, to supply the human race with this very necessary beverage. These facts, and his deductions therefrom, the Doctor published in a pamphlet for the benefit of others, a copy of which fell into my hands some forty years since, and from my recollection of which, I make this statement. About the same time, last mentioned, I saw a communication from a Quaker in the interior of the State of New York, taken, I think, from the Albany Cultivator, the substance of which was as follows: The writer owned a large farm, under a high state of cultivation, having fine brick buildings, orchards, shrubbery, &c., but no living water. He had dug several wells, some of them ninety feet deep, but no good water could be found, and it being difficult to obtain water from such depths, he be- came discouraged, and offered his farm for sale at half its value, or cost. A friend of his, on a visit to his house, was admiring the farm, buildings, and other improvements, when the owner informed him of his willing- ness to sell at half price, for want of water. His friend inquired why he did not dig? "I have;" said the owner, "but no good water can be obtained, and what I do get is at such a depth, that it is costly getting it. "Why don't thee get a water philosopher, to tell thee where to dig?" asked the friend. "Because I don't believe in such nonsense," was the reply. "But thee may believe it, for I can assure thee that a good gen- uine philosopher can tell thee where to find water ; and if thee will get one, and follow his directions, if thee does not find water, I will pay thee all the expenses thereof." Uopn this, the owner, to gratify his friend, agreed to try the experiment. He did so, and was informed by the oper- ator, that water was abundant, within twenty feet of the surface, and near the corner of his house, fixing a mark by which to dig. He paid the operator a dollar, having come some distance, and said to him: "I have done this to please my friend, not because I have any faith in thy skill ; But if I find water as thee has said, I will give thee fifty dollars." The well was dug, and water found as indicated ; the operator got his fifty dollars, and the farm was valued at double its price three or four days before. But the reader is probably impatient to know the why and wherefore of this mysterious business — how it is that the rod will work in the hands 316 of one, and not of another. Well, I will say, it is not clairvoyance, mes- merism, spiritual rappin admirably ad.ipteti to the purpose intended, so effectually concealed, so light and airy, that it would be almost impossible to suggest an improvement, and is certainly one of the most interesting specimens of ornitholo- gical architecture. Ths eggs, four or five in number, are white, with a band of light brown spots near the greater end ; they measure 5 by 7}^ lines iu diameter. The youngleave the nest about the first week in July. Stlvicola Canadensis, Linn. Spotted Canada Warbler. Abundant from the 5th to 25th of May, and again from the 1st to 20th of October. SrLvicoLA Formosa, Bonap. Kentucky Warbler. Rare. Shot one near Racine, May lOth, 1851. *SrLvicoLA CcERULEA, Wilson. Blue-grey Warbler. Not common. A few nest with us. Stlvicola Maritim A, Wilson. Cape May Warbler. By no means a rare bird during the month of Maj'. It frequents the vicinity of streams and swamps that abound with tall willows, in the tops of which this inter- esting warbler is commonly seen flitting about, busily saarching for insects and their larvse. It is probable that a few nest in this vicinity. *Teichas Marylandica, Wilson. Yellow Throat. Common. • Trichas Agilis, Wilson. Not uncommon. I shot a pair on the 23th of May ; they had mated, and were about to nest. Teichas Philidelphia, Wilson. Mourning Warbler. Rarely seen. Shot one May 10th, 1851. *Vermivora Pennstlvanica, Svrain. Worm-eating Warbler. A few nest in this section. Rare. *Vermivora Chrtsoptera, Linn. Golden winged Warbler. Not uncommon. Nests with us. 'O YiaiMivoRA RuBRicAPiLLA, Wilson. Nashville Warbler. Common for two weeks in May on tlieir passage north ; they return in October, at which time the male is without the chestnut crown. *Vermivora Celata, Say. Orange-crowned Warbler. Not an uncommon species. Frequent the most secluded swamps, where they nest. 351 Yermivora Perkgrina, Wilson. Tennessee Warbler. Some seasons, about the middle of May, this plain bird is met with in great abund- ance. This was particularlj the case May 14th, 15th aiij 16th, 1349, when I could have procured any desired number ; tliey literally thronged on the tops of the bush oaks in an adjoining grove. For the last two years I have not procured a single specimen. *Mniotilta Yaria, Yieill. Yaried Creeping Warbler. Common. Mniotilta Borealis, Nutt.? I have met with specimens that answered to 2f uttall's description, yet I am inclined to consider it a variety of the preceding. In order to give some idea of tlic abundance and great variety of the warblers which visit us, I append a list shot in the forenoon of May 5th, 1852, by Rav. A. 0. Barry and myself: 6 Sylvicola Americana, 1 Sylvicola .Tstiva, 1 ' pin us 4 ti canadensis. 1 ' striata, 1 iC petechia. 5 ' icterocephala. 4 « maritima, 4 virens, 1 it Setophagia canadensis. 6 • Blackburnia, 2 Verniivora rubricapilla. 5 ' maculosa. (•' Trichas marylandica, 1 ' coronata, 3 a Mniotilta varia. 47 All, except three, males in unusually fine plumage, the females not having yet .•irrived. We could have obtained many irorc of most of the species, had it been desirable. *Troglodvtes ^dox, Yieill. House Wren. ' Common. First appearance 15th of Ajjril. *Troglodytes Hyemalis, Yieill. Winter Wren. Common. Nest in abundance on the shores of Lake Superior. *Troglodttes Brevirostris Nutt- Short-billed Wren. A few nest in the vicinity of Racine. Not abundant. * Troglodytes Palitstris, W^ilson. Marsli Wren. Abundant on all reedy flats. Troglodytes Ludovicianus, Bonap. Mocking Wren. I met a single wren of this species, July 5th, 1852. Undoubtedly nests sparingly in the southern part of the State. Rare. Rkgulus Calendula, Linn. Rtiby-crowned Kinglet. Abundant spring and fall. Regulus Satrapa, Liclist. Goldeu-crested Kinglet. Abundant. Arrives 1st of April, and remains until May 10th. 352 SiALiA WiLSONii, Swains. Blue Bird. The first arrival of this harbinger of sprhig at Racine, was — In ISIG, - - March 25th. " 1847, - - " iillth. " 1848, - - " 17th. " 1849, - - " 11th. " 1850, - - "21st. '• 1851, - - " l.')th. " 1S52, - - " 12th. CERTHIAD.^, (6 species.) *Certiiia Americana, Bonap. Brown Creeper. Common throughout the year. *SiTTA Carolinen.sis, Linn. White-breasted Nuthatch. Common, remains during the winter. *SiTTA Canadensis, Linn. Red-bellied Nuthatch. This species does not remain with us during winter. A few nest near Racine, a greater number in the pine regions in the northern part of the State. *Pards Atricapillus, Linn. Black-cap Tit. Abundant, remain during winter. Parus Hudsonicus, Lath. ■ A small party of this northern species visited Racine during the unusually cold Januajy of 1852. AMPELID^E, (2 species.) BoMBTCiLLA Garrula, VieiU. Black-throated Waxwing. Arrives in large parties from the first to the last of November, and leaves by the 15th April. The first arrivals are all young birds, destitute of the yellow markings on the wing, and with less of the wax-like appendages. These young birds gene- rally proceed further south to winter, while the old birds, in perfect plumage, arrive later, and seldom, if ever, go further. I never have seen an individual entirely des- titute of wax ornaments. The only perceptible diiference between the sexes is in size, the females being slightly the larger. lu fifty specimens accurately measured the average was : Females, - - - 8 5-12—W4 Males, - - - 82-12—1334 They are unsuspicious, permitting a near approach. Their fare consists of a vari- ety of berries, but those of the moantain ash, {Pyus Americana,) appear to be pre- ferred to all others. They are frequently seen to eat snow as a substitute for drink. *Bombycilla Americana, Swain. Cedar Bird. Common, does not remain during winter. ALAUDINtE, (2 species.) *Otocoris Alpestkis, Linn. Horned Lark. Abundant on the prairies. A few remain during the entire winter. 353 *Otocoris'Rufa, Aud. \ Not an abundant species wlj us ; becomes more'ntanerbus as you go vest FEINGIILID^, (33 species.) Plectrophanes Nivalis, Lim. White Snow Bird. Abundant from November to ^pril. Plectrophanes Lapponica, i/ln. Lapland Snow Bird. Met witli in great abundanccon the prairies, from the middle of October to tlie middle of Aiay, Before they lave us in the spring they are in full eorig and per- fect plumage. They sing in concert like blackbirds, either •while on the wing or settled on lences. Plectrophanes Smithii, Aud. Occasionally met with in cousicerable numbers on the prairies. *ZoNOTRiCHiA Iliaca, Bonap. Fox-colored Sparrow. Common during October and April. *ZoxoTRicHiA M^LODiA, Wilsof.. Song Sparrow. Common. ZoxoTRiCHiA Pennsylv.-^-ica, Latli. White-throated Sparrow. Abundant during spring and fall. *ZoNOTRicHiA Leucophrys, t^el. White-crowned Sparrow. Met with in great abundance iii^ompany -with the preceding. A few nest in the vicinity. ZoNOTRiCHiA Graminea, Ginel. Bay-vino-ed Sparrow. Occasionally seen, but rare. *ZoxoTRicHiA Passerina, Wilson. Yellow-Wriged Bunting. Not uncommon in the reedy slews on the prairiei. *ZoNOTRiCHiA PusiLLA, Wilsou. Field Bunting. Not an abundant species with us. *ZoNOTRicHiA SociALis, Wilson, Chip Bird. Common, arrive 1st of May. ZoNOTRicHiA Pallida, Swain?. Not unfrequently met with about the middle of May. ZoKOTRicHiA Canadensis, Lath. Tree Bunting. Very numerous autumn and spring, but few remain through the w'nt«r. *ZoNOTRicHiA Savanna, Bocap. Savanna Bunting. Common on high prairies. 354 ■*ZoNOTRicHiA LiNcoLNii, Aud. Blue Stripe(fi^unting. Not uncommon spring and fall. A few reniai/duiing summer, aud nest vritli us. *NiPHEA Hyemalis, Linn. Snow Bird. I Common spring aad autumn. Do not remaialirougb the ■winter. Nest on Lake Superior. ] *Ammodromus Palustris, Wilson. Swamp Finch. Common. LiNARiA Minor, Aud. Lesser Red-poll. Abundant every winter. LiNARiA BoREALis, Teium, Mealj Red-pollJ The onlj time I «ver met with this bird wai in December, 1850. *Chbysomitris Trtstis, Linn. Yellow Bird Common, • | ^Chrysomitris Pinus, Wilson. Pine Finch. Abundant. *Chondestes Grammacea, Say. Common. , Frequently met with in the roads, exi'-^nding and closing their fan- like tails at every hop. " One of the most agreeablcsiuging birds. Their song is a singular combination of the Thrush, Finch, and^'ohe-Buntmg. They build their nest in the open field or high prairie, under thc/i'^^tection of a weed or small shrub ; it is constructed externally of fine grass place' i" ^ slight excavation in the ground, and finished with a lining of hnir. The e>S^> f*^^'"' ^^e bluish-white, marked with straggling hair streaks and serpentine lin^ °^ dark-brown, closely resembling those of the orchard Oriole, but less pointed *EuspizA Americana, Grael. BKl^'^^roated Bunting. Not uncommon. *Spiza Cyanea, Wilson, -^digo Bird. Common. *PiPiLO ERYTHROpi^'rHALMA, Wilson. Ground Robin. Abundant. *Carpoda^"s Purpureus, Gmel. Crested Purple Finch. Common during spring and fall. A few nest with us, many more on the shores oi Lake Superior. Corythus Enucleator, Wilson. Pine Bull Finch. Numerous during severe winters. *LoxiA CuRviROSTEA, Linn. American Cross-bill. Abundant in the pine forests. Large flocks occasionally visit our vicinity during fall and winter, feeding on the seed of the sunflower {Hclianlhm annuus.) 355 \ LoxiA Leucoptera, Gmel. White Winged Crossbill. Occasionally visit us — not common. ^PiTVLUs Cardinaus, Linn, Cardinal Grosbeak. A few stragglers nest with us — rare. *CocoBORus LuDoviciANus, Wilsoii. Rose-breastcd Grosbeak. Common. Arrive 1st of May. CocoBORUS Vespertinus, Cooper. Evening Grosbeak. ' Not an uncommon bird. During winter and spring they frequent the maple woods, feeding on the seed of the sugar raaple {Acer saccfiariman,) in quest of which they spend much time on the ground. I liave noticed this bird as late as the 15th of May, In all probability they nest within the State. Unsuspicious, ea,sily approached. Thsir song lacks the melody of our other species of Grosbeaks. '*Pyranga Rubra, Wilson. Black-winged Red Bird. Common. STURNID^, (10 species.) *Stcrnella Ludoviciana, Linn. Meadow Lark. Common, but docs remain during winter. *Sturnella Neglecta, Aud. A few visit the Lake shore in early winter, wo liave a .specimen examined by Prof Baird and pronounced to be undoubtedly this species; it was shot on the24tUof December, when the preceding were all gone. *Yphante3 Baltimore, Linn. Golden Oriole, Abundant. Yphantes Spurius, Gmel. Orchard Oriole. Common. *DoLicHONYx Oryziyora, Linn. Bob o'link, or Rice Bird. Abundant. MoLOTHRus Pecoris, WilsoD. Cow Bunting. Common. I found the egg of this bird, in one instance, in the nest of the Red- winged Blackbird. *Agelaius Xanthocephalus, Bonap. Yellow-headed Troopial. A few nest within fifteen miles of Racine, in an extensive marsh. Seldom visit the lake shore. *Agelaics Ph(eniceus, Linn. Red-winged Blackbird. Abundant every where. *ScOLECOPHAGUs Ferrugineus, Lath. Rusty Blackbird. Common fall and spring. Arrive 15th of March. A few remain during summer. 35G *QuiscAi,tjs Versicolor, Vieill. Common Crow Blackbird. Coinmon. CORVID.^, (5 species.) *Cyanocorax Cristatus, Linn. Blue Jay. Common through the year. OzANCcoRAX Canadensis, Linn. Canada Jay. Occasionallj, during severe winters, visit the A^icioity of Racine. Pica IHelanoleuca, Aud. Magpie. 'Occasionally a straggler visits lis. Two were shot in Caledonia, ten miles from Rax-iue. December, 1848. A genlleman of this city obtained one at Bailies Harbor, on Laiie Michigan, November 15,* 1849. *CoR\'us Americands, Aud. Common Crow. A singular fact in relation to the Crow is, that it never takes up its quarters with- in fifteen or twenty miles of Lake Michigan, within this State. At Racine it may b(! considered one of the rarest birds. *CoRrus CoRAx, Linn. Raven. More numerous than the preceding. Remain through the winter, f TPtOCHILDyE, (1 species.) *Trochiltts Colxjbris, Linn. Hnmminof Bird. Common. PICID^E, (9 species.) *Picus PiLEATus, Linn. Crested Woodpecker. Common in heavy timber districts. Dendrocopds Canadensis, Grael. Occasionally met with during winter— rare. *Dendrocopus Villosus, Linn. Abundant through the j-ear. *Dendrocopus Pubescens, Linn. Downey Woodpecker. Common — remain during winter. •^& *Dendrocopus Varius, Linn. Yellow-bellied Woodpecker. Common. Leave us 1st of November, arrive 15th April. This Woodpecker visits the orchards during September and October, to feed upon the inner bark of the peach and cherry, girdling the stems so effectually as not unfrequently to kill the trees. I have watched them while thus engaged in my own garden, and have care- lully examined, under a microscope, the contents of the stomachs of numerous- specimens. 357 *Melanerpe3 Erythrocepiialcs, Linn. Red-headed Woodpecker. Common, migratory. Apternus Arcticus, Swaius. Arctic "Woodpecker. I have specimens of this Woodpecker shot near Racine in the month of Novem- ber. *CoLAPTES AuRATUS, Linn. Golden- -winged Woodpecker. Common. *Centurus Carolinus, Linn. Red-bellied \Voodpecker. Not an abundant species with us. They remain during winter. CUCULID.E, (2 species.) *CoccTzc3 Americanus, Linn. Yellow-billed Cuckoo. Not so numerous as the folloTving. *CocCYZus ERYTHROPHTHALiius, Wilson. Black-biUed Cuckoo. Abundant. PISTTACID.E, (1 species.) •r CoxuRUS Carolisensis, Linn. Paraket. Formerly Parakets veer ecommon on the Mississippi, within this State, latterly they are seldom met with. COLUMBID.^, (2 species.) *EcTOPiSTES migratoria, Linn. Wild Pigeon. Abundant. *EcT0PisTES Caholixexsis, Linn. Turtle Dove. Common. Keniain during winter. PAVONID.E, (1 species.) *Meleagri3 Gallopayo, Linn. Wild Turkey. Formerly Turkeys were common in this section, but now none are to be found. — The last noticed near Racine was ia November, 1846. Abundant in the south-west- ern countries. TETRAOXID.-E, (6 species.) *Ortyx Vikginiana, Linn. Quail. Within a few years this Partridge has become remarkably numerous. *Bonasa Umbellus, Linn. Partridge. Common in all the timber districts. 358 *Tetrao Canadensis Linn. Spruce Grouse. Common on the bead waters of Wolf River and vicinity of Lake Superior. *Tetrao Cupido, Linn. Prairie Hen. Greatly abundant. Two sportsmen, with one dog, generally bag from fifty to eighty in a day. We challenge tlie world for finer sporting grounds than the prai- ries of Wisconsin furnish during August, September and October. *Tetrao PnAsiANELLis. Linn. Sharp-tailed Grouse. Formerly quite common near Racine — now seldom met with. Abundant in all the north-western counties. *Laqopus Saliceti, Swains. Willow Grouse. In December, 1843, two specimens were caught in a trap ten miles from Racine. Nest in the tangle of evergreen swamps of the north-western parts of the State. — Not numerous. RALLID^, (6 species.) *Gallinula Galeata, Lich. Florida Gallinule. Abundant as far north as Lake Winnebago, latitude 44°" *FuLiCA Americana, Gniel. American Coot. Common in all large marshes. *Rallus Elegans, Aud. Meadow Hen. Abundant, nest in the praii ie alewn. * *Rallus Virginianus, Linn. Mud Hen. Common. *Ortygometra Carolina, Linn. Sora Rail. Greatly abundant spring aud fall ; a few remain during summer to nest. *Ortygometra Noveboracensis, Lath. New York Rail. By no means uncommon. The young of this and the preceding three species of Rail, are fully fledged by the 15th of August. GRUID^, (10 species.) Grus Ameircana, Forster. American Crane. A few white sand-hill cranes are occasionally seen in the western part of the State, near the Mississippi, but never approach the Lake shores, where the following spe- cies is common. It would appear that the white is a more southern species than the brown. *Grus Canadensis, Temm. Brown Sand-hill Crane. Found on all our large prairies. . Although we have seen large flights of these birds, we never saw, or heard of, a white individual within one hundred miles of Lake Michigan. A pair has nested regularly for fifteen years in a swamp nine miles from Racine, (we have noticed them ourselves regularly for the last seven years,) and they still continue in color unchanged. The locality of this nest is in a few tus- socks of grass, in the midst of an almost impenetrable swamp, the nest is composed of ciiarse grass, built up in a conical form eighteen inches or two feet high, so sit;ia- ted t'.hat when the parent bird sits upon, or rather astride of this pyramidal nest, her feet hang down on either side into the water. The old nest is regularly repaired every spring. 359 Tantalus LocuAtor, Linn. There is a'ne specimen of tlii? soutlern bird in the museum of the 'WiscoDBin State Histoycal Society, at Madtson, which was shot uear Milwaukee, Sept. 1852, *Ardea Heiodias, Linn, Gieat Blue Heron. A common species. i *Akdea V.'Rkscens, Linn. Green Heron. NoUincommon in the woded swamps of the timbered districts, never met with in theprairie marshes. *r;0TAusu3 LENTiaiNOsus Swalns. American Bittern, ibundant in the marsies and slews of the prairies. The young are fully fledged bi* the 20th July. Weaave witnessed the bittern emit his peculiar call, "pump-au- sdh ; " the head is dj-arn up to the breast, xhe neck being much dilated, when the nrst syllable pump is utercd in a heavy low tone, the second syllable au is emitted with .-i partial extonsia of the neck, aud the final ^«A is accompanied with a violent darling forward of thchead to the full extent of his long neck. This ludicrous per- formance is repeated hree or four times in succession. *Ardeola Exilis, Bmap. Small Bittern. Abundant on thrreedy marshes, never found in the dark, shaded, woody smamps. Eqbbtta Leuce, Jadins. Great White Heron. A single indiviual shot near Racine, June, 1851. *Egretta Candijissima, Gmel. "Wblte-crested Heron. Not an uncrnmon species along the borders of small lakes. Nest in communi- ties, on trees ii Tamarack swamps. Egretta CAEuaLEA, Jartl. Blue Heron. Shot one iugust 28th, 1348, on Root River. CHARADRIAD^. (6 species.) Charadrius Marmoratus, Wagler. Golden Plover. Visit is in great numbers spring and fall. CnARADRias Melodius, Ord. Piping Plover. Occasionally met with in the fall, not numerous. *CiiARiDRius Vociferus, Linn. Kill-deer Plover. Common, arrive from 18th to 25th of March. Charadrius Semipalmatds, Bonap. American Ring Plover. A few only met in May and October. Rare. Cii.^RADRius Helveticus, Linn. Whistling Plover. Not abundant, April, May and September. Strhpsilas IkterpreSj Linn, Turnstone, Common, spring and autumn. \ 360 • <•• SCOLOPACDJ^, (21 species.) Tkinoa Alpinl-3, Linn. Black-breasted Sand Piper. Only met with sparingly, April and October. V Tkikoa Shinzii, Brehra. Scliiutz's Sand Pipe!, A rare species with us, spring and fall. Tkhtga Pectoralis, Bonap. Pectoral Sand Pipe\ We have only noticed thia species in autumn. Tkotoa Rufescbns, Yieill. Rough -breasted Saad Viper. ^' Quite commoa from September 15tb to October lOtU Never met in the tWng Tketga Maritime, Bninnich. • Purple Sand Piper. Greatly abundant from 15th of April to 20th of May, Tjrixga Minuta, ( ?J Leister. JN"ot common. A few found on the borders of small lak •Teinga Pusilla, Wils. Wilson's Sand Piper. Common. Nest in the reedy marshes. Tbisga Cinerea, Wils. Red-breasted Sand Piper. We have only met this bird in October. Rare. Tbixga Semipalmata, Wils. Semipal mated Sand Piper. Shot several October 1st, 1850. Eare. Trikga Douglasii, Swains. Long-legged Sand Piper. 'v Shot two April 10th, 1843. Rare. A CA1.IDRI3 Arenaria, Illiger, Sanderlino-. \ Common on the Lake Shore spring and fall. ' ToTAsus Semipalmatcs, Lath, Willot. We hare met this species as late as the 10th of June. Xot numeroua ToTAKirs VociFERUS, Wils. Varied Tatler. Abundant. Nest in all large marshes. *ToiAirus Flavipes, Lath. Yellow Lesrs. Common. *ToTAWU3 SoLiTARius, Wilsou. Solitary Tatler. ITot uncommon. •ToTANtrs Macularius, Wilson. Spotted Sand Lark. Common, \ 361 *ToTANU8 Bartramius, Wilson. Grey Plover. Abundant, Xest on the high rolling prairies. LiMOSA Fedoa, Linn. The Marlin. Not an uncommon bird. We saw a pair on a marshy Blew near Wisconsin riTer, June 15th, 1848, where thej were probably nesting. LiM03A HuDsoNicA, Lath. Ring-tailed Marlin. We shot a single bird of this well marked species November 1st, 1850. Macrorhampcs Griskus, Leach. Dowitchee. Found sparingly spring and fall. *ScoLOPAx WiLSONii, Temm. Coinraon American Snipe. Common, neat abundantly with us. *Ru3TicoLA Minor, Vieill. American Woodcock. The first woodcock noticed in this section was in 18-17, since which time they have been rapidly on the increase. Recurvirostra Americana, Linn, American Avoset. vVe saw a pair on a marsh n ar Fox river, July 26th, 1846, where they had proba- bly nested ; we also met with a small party on the Des Plaiue, May, 1847. HiMANTOPCS NiGRicoLLis, Vieill. The Lawyer. Met a small flock of these singular birds near Racine, April, 1847. *NuMENiu3 LoNGiROSTRis, Wilson. Long-billed Curlew. Common on large thinly settled prairies. We found them nesting in abundance on Sun Prairie, Columbia County; also within six miles of Ceresco. *NuMENirs HuDSONicus, Lath. Jack Curlew. Common spring and fall. We found a few nesting near Fox Lake, June 15, 1848. ITuMENius BoREALis, Lath. Esquimaux Curlew. iMet with in company with the preceding in early spring and fall. Rare. PINNATIPEDES, (2 species.) Phalaropus Fulicarius, Bonap. Red Phalarope. Met with a small flock first of November, 1847. Rare. *LoBiPES WiLSONii, Jardin. Not an abundant species. Prof. S. F. Baird shot one near Racine, July 15, 1853. Nests sparingly in marshes. ANATID^, (29 species.) *An8er Canadensis, Linn. Wild Goose. Greatly abundant spring and fall, and not a few remain during the summer to neat. 24 363 Anser Hyperboreus, Grael. Snow Goose. This spei'ies is seen late in the fall in large flocks, numbering sometimes not less than two hundred. Anser Albifrons, Bechst. White-fronted Goose. Met in large numbers spring and fall. AusER Leucopsis, Bechst. ■ In December, 1850, there was a single barnacle goose kept about the harbor for two weeks. Anser Bernicla, Linn. Brant. Occasionally met on the lake shore. Rare. Anser Hutchinsii, Rich. Hutchinson's Goose. Large flocks of this species occasionally visit us in the fall; rarely seen in the spring. Cygnus Americanus, -Sharpless American Swan. Visit us regularly spring and fall. Cygnus Bcccinator, Rich. This larger swan is frequently seen, and occasionally shot in our vicinity. *Anas Clypeata, Linn. Shoveller. Not uncommon. A few nest in the prairie slews. *Anas Boschas, Linn. Mallard. Common. *Anas Obscurus, Gmel. Black Duck. Numerous in the interior — seldom visit the lake. Anas Strepera, Linn. Grev Duck. Shot 2d March, 1843, the onh^ specimens we ever met wi'.b. Dafila Acuta, Linn. Pin-tail Duck. Common only early in spring and late in the fall. Mareca Americana, Gmel. American ^yido•eon. Abundant. *QuERQUEDULA DiscoRS, Linn. Blue-winged Teal. Very abundant. Nest in all the large slews. *QuERQUEDULA Carglinensis, Steph. Green-winged Teal, Common. *Denronessa Sponsa, Linn. AVood Duck, Common. 363 FuLiGULA RcBiDA, Wilson. Ruddy Duck. Met occasionally fall and spring. Not abundant. FcLiGULA Valisneria, Wilsou. Canvass Back. Rarely met. March and October. FuLiGULA Ferina, Liun. Red Head. Not uncommon. ^FuLiGULA Marila, Lann. Broad Bill, Common. *FuLiGULA RuFiTORQUES, Bonap. Bastard Broad Bill. Common. Nests on tbe borders of grassy lakes. Claxgl-la Vulgaris, Fleming. Whistler. Common on the lake in winter and early spring. Clangula Albhola, Linn. Buffle-headed Duck. Common. Clangula Histrionica, Linn. Harlequin Duck. One shot in Racine harbor December 15th, 1851. Rare. Harelda Glacialis, Linn. Old-wife. Common on the Lake during winter and early spring. Mergus Merganser, Linn. BufF-breasted Sheldrake. Common ; remain during winter. *Mrrgu3 Serrator, Linn. Red-breasted Sheldrake. Common. A few nest with us. *Mergus Cucculatus, Linn. Hooded Sheldrake. Abundant. Nest on the reedy flats. PELECANID.E, (2 species.) Phalacrocorax Dilophus, Swain. Double Crested Cormorant. Occasionally visit our rivers and small lakes Rare. Pelecanus Onoceotalus, Linn. Pelican. About the 10th of March the pelicans arrive, and after spending a few days in the small lakes, go further north. LARID^, (11 species.) Sterna Cay ana, Lath. Cayenne Tern. Rarely visits us. 364: *Sterna NigtvA, Linn. Black Tern. ' Abundant about lakelets and- marshes. Never found on Lake Michican. *Sterna Anglica, Montague. Marsh Tern. We have but seldom met the marsh tern in tliis vicinity. *SrERNA HiRUNDO, Linn. Common Tern. Abundant. Nest on a small rockj island in the northern part of Lake Michigan Larus Franklinii, Rich. Visit us only in severe winters. Rare. Larus Bonapartii, Rich. Bonaparte's Gull. Associate with the common Tern fall and spring, in great numbers. Lar0s Tridacttlus, Linn. Three- toed Gull. Met on the lake, Nov., 1853. ■ Labus Sabini, Sabine. Saw two in company with the preceding. Larus Glaucus, Brunnich, Another rare winter visitor. ' *Larui Agentatus, Brunnich. AVinter Gull. The common Gull of the lakes. Nest on a rocky island in company with the common Teru. Larus 2oNORHYXcnu3, Rich. Common American Gull. A rare species with us. Mr. Samuel Sircomb has a specimen shot tt Milwaukee. COLYMBID.E, (G species.) ■*CoLYMBUs Glaccalis, Linn. Great Loon or Diver. Common. . CoLYMBUs Septentrionalis, Linn. Red-throated Loon. Not uncommon during winter. .PoDiCEPS Rudricollis, Lath. Red-necked Grebe. Only found in winter. Rare. PoDiCEPS CoRNUTus, Linn, Horned Grebe. Common spring and fall. *PoDicEPS Carolineksis. Dipper. Common. Nest in marshes. *Podiceps Cristatus, Lath. Crested Grebe. A common species ; nests on the margin of small lakes. 365 KEPTILES. ORDER TESTUDINATA. Cheloxura, Fleming. ■^serpentina, Say. Snapping Turtle. Emys, Brongniart. *picta, Gmelin. Painted Tortoise. Milwaukee. CiSTUDA, Fleming. Blandingii, Holbrook. Blanding's Tortoise. Prairies of Wisconsin. (Holbrook.): ORDER OPHLDIA. Crotalus, Linn. *durissu3, Linn. Banded Rattle Snake. Grant Co. Crotalopiiorus, Gray. tergeminus, Holb. Massasauga. Racine. EuTAiNiA, Baird & Girard. *sirtalis, B. & G. (coluber sirtalis, Linn. Tropidonotas taenia, De Kay.) Striped Snake. Milwaukee, radix, B. & G. Racine. Nerodia, Baird & Girard. *sipedon, B. & G. "Watcrsnako. Milwaukee. ScOTOPnis, Baird & Girard. vulpinus, B. & G. Racine. Opiiibolus, Baird & Girard. eximius, B. & G. (Coluber eximius, De Kay.) Milk Snake. Milwaukee. Bascanion, Baird & Girard. *constrictor, B. & G. Black Snake. Milwaukee. Chlorosoma, Wagl. *vernalis, B. & G. (Coluber vernalis, De Kay.) Green Snake. Raeina^. DiADOPHis, Baird & Girard. punctatus, B. & G. (Coluber punctatus, Linn.) Ring-necked Snake. Milwaukee. Storeria, Baird & Girard. * Dekayi, B. & G. (Tropidonotus Dekayi, Holb.) Racine, occipito-maculata, B. & G. Racine. 366 OEDER AMniLDIA. Kana, Linneus. *palustris, Le Conte. Marsh Frog. Milwaukee. *sylvatica, Le Conte. Wood Froi Family. Plantago, Linn. Plantain. major, Linn, cordata, Lam. PRIMTLACE^. The Ppjmrose FAiiiLY. Primula, Linn. Primrose. farinosa, Linn. Lake Supericr, Dr. Houghton. Mistassinica, Michx. Dells of the Wisconsin, Mr. B. F. Mills, DoDECATHEOx, Lino. Meadia, Linn. Shooting Star. 398 Trientalis, LiuD. Americana, Pursh. Lysimachia, Linu. Loosestrife. stricta, Ait. Marquette Co., Mr. John Townlej. quadiit'olia, Linn. ciliata, Linn. lanceolata, Walt. L. liybrida, Michx. Brookfield, Mr. M. Spears. angustifolia, Lara. L. revoluta, Nutt. Naumburgia, Moench. tbyrsiflora, Reicli. LENTIBULACE^. Tue Bladdervvort Family. Utricularia, Linn. purpurea, Walt. Lac Cbetac, Dr. HougLton. vulgaris, Linn. minor, Linn. intermedia, Hayne. Eroolsfield, Mr. M. Spears. cornuta, Michx. Lake Superior, Dr. Houghton. OROBANCHACEtE. The Broom Rape Family. Epiphegus, Nutt. Beech Drops, Virginiana, Bart. CoNOPHOLis, Wallr. Orobanche, Linn. Americana, Wallr. Aphyllon, Mitchell. uniflorum. Tor. &. Gr. Marquettee Co., Mr. J. Townley. ACANTHACEiE. The Acanthus Family. DiPTERACANTHus, Nees. lluellia, Linn. hybridus, Nees. Beloit, Mr. T. McEl Henry. SCROPHULARIACE^. Tub Figwoet Family. Verbascum, Linn. Mullen. Thapsus, Linn. Introduced. Linaria, Tourn. Toad Flax. vulgaris. Mill. Waukesha, Mr. G. H. Cornwall. ScROPnuLARiA, Linn. Figwort. nodosa, Linn. S. Marylandica. 399 COLLINSIA, Nutt verna, Nutt. parviflora, Dougl. South shore of Lake Superior, Dr. Z, Pitcher. Chelone, Tourn. Snake Head, glabra, Linu. Pentstemon, Mitchell, pubescens, Solander. MiMULus, Linn. Monkey Flower. ringrens, Linn. Jamesii, Torr. & Gray. Gratiola, Linn. virginlana, Linn. Wisconsin River, Grant Co. Synthyris, Benth. Houghtoniana, Benth. Veronica, Linn. Speedwell. ^ Virginica, Linn. Leptandra, Nutt. Angalis, Linn, scutellata, Linn, peregiina, Linn. Gerardia, Linn. purpurea, Linn. tenuifolia, Vahl. setacea, Waltr. pediculaiia, Linn. Wisconsin River, Prof. Douglass. Neenah River, Dr. grandiflora, Benth. [Houghton. Castilleja, Mutis. Painted Cup. coccinea, Spreng. sessiliflora, Pursh. Euchroraa grandiflora, Nutt. Pedicularis, Tourn. Lousewort. Canadensis, Linn, lanceolata, Michx. Melampyrum, Tourn. Cow Wheat. pratense, Linn. M. Americanura, Michx. VERBENACE^. The Vervain Family. Verbena, Linn. Vervain. hastata, Linn. urticifolia, Linn. • ' ' ano-ustifolia, Linn. bracteosa, Michx. stricta, Vent. Upper Mississippi, Dr. Houghton. 400 Phryma, Linn. Lopseed. leptostachya, Linn. LABIAT.^. The Mint Family. Mentha, Linn. Mint. Canadensis, Linu. M. borealis, Micbx. Lycopus, Linn. Virginicus, Linn. Bugle Weed, sinuatus, Ell. L. Europreus, Ph. MiCROMERiA, BentL. glabella, Benth. Hedeoma glabra, Nntt. Lake Michigan to Lake Supe- [rior and Upper Mississippi, Dr. Houghton, Blephilla, Raf. ciliata, Raf. MoNARDA, Linn. Horse Mint. fistulosa, Linn, punctata, Linn. Nepeta, Linn. Catnip, cataria, Linn. LoPANTHus, Benth. anisatus, Benth. Falls of St. Croix, Dr. Parry. nepetdides, Benth. scrophulai'iasfolius, Benth. PrcNANTHEMUM, Michx. Mountain Mint, lanceolatura, Pursh. Prunella, Linn. Heal-All. vulgaris, Linn. Scutellaria, Linn. Scullcap. parvula, Michx. galericulata, Linn. lateritloia, Linn. Mad Dog Scullcap. cordifolia, Muhl. Puysostegia, Benth. Dracocephalum, Linn. Virginiana, Benth. Dragon-Head. Leonurus, Linn. Motherwort. Cardiaca, Linn. 401 Galeopsis, Linn, tetrahit, Linn. Lake Superior, Dr. Parry. Stachys, Linn. Horse Nettle. aspera, Michx. Teucrium, Linn. Germander. Canadense, Linn. BOIIAGINACE^. The Borage Family. Onosmodium, Michx. Virginianum, DG. 0. hispidum, Mx. LiTHOspERMUM, Toum. Gromwell. officinale, Linn. hirtura, LeliHi. Marquette Co., Mr. John Townley. canescens, Lehm. Batschia canescens, Mx. Pektalophus, DC. Batschia, Nutt. longiflorus, DC. Beloit, Mr. T. McEl Henry. Mertensia, Roth. Pulmonaria, Linn. Lungwort. Virglnica, DC. Beloit, Mr. McEl Henry. Myostis, Linn. Stricta, Linn. Marpuette Co., Mr. J. Townley. EcHiNosPERMUM, Swartz. Lappula, Lehra. Cynoglossum, Tourn. Hound's-Tongue. officinalis, Linn. Virginicum, Linn. Jlorisoni, DC. HYDROPHYLLACE^. The Water-Leaf Fawily. Hydrophyllum, Linn. Water-Leaf, Virginicum, Linn. appendiculatum, Michx, Beloit, Mr. T. McEl Henry. POLEMONIACE^. Polemonium, Tourn. reptans, Linn. Jacob's Ladder. Phlox, Linn. « glaberrima, Linn. P. revoluta, Eaton, pilosa, Linn, divaricata, Linn. 402 CONVOLVULACE^v. Calystegia, R. Brown. Convolvulii?, Linn, sepiuno, R. Biown. spitbamsea, Pursh. CuscDTA, Touru. Gronovii, Willd. C. Americana, Pursh. SOLANACEtE. The Nightshade Family. Datura, Linn. Jamestown "Weed. . Stramonium, Linn. Introduced. NicANDRA, Adans. physaloides, Gsertn. Physalis, Linn. Ground Cherry, viscosa, Linn. SoLANUM, Linn. nigrum, Linn. Night Shade. GENTIANACE^. The Gentian Family. Gkntiana, Linn. quinqueflora, Lam. crinita, Frsel. detonsa, Fries. rubricaulis, Keating. Waukesha, Mr. G. H. Cornwall. saponaria, Linn. Halenia, Borkh. Swertia, Linn. deflexa, Griesb. Mauvaise and Bois Brule Rivers, Dr. Houfrhton. Menyanthes, Tourn. Buckbean. trifoliata, Linn. APOCYNACE^. The Dogbane Family. Apocynum, Tourn. androsaemifolium, Linn, hypericifoham, Ait. ASCLEPIADACE^. The Milkweed Family. AscLEPiAs, Linn. Cornuti, Decaisne. A. Sjriaca, Linn, pbytolaccoides, Pursh. 403 (ASCLEPIAS.) variegata, Linn. obtusifolia, Micbx. rubra, Linn. Waukesha, Mr. G. H. Cornwall. 'incarnata, Linn. verticillata, Linn. Beloit, Dr. S. P. Latbrop. tuberosa, Linn. ButteiHy Weed. lanuginosa, Nutt. Eagle Prairie, I. A. Lapham. ACERATES, Ell. viridiflora, Ell. longifolia, Ell. Marquette Co., Mr. J. Townley. OLE ACE ^E. The Olive Family.' Fraxinus, Tourn. Ash. Americana, Linn. White Ash. sambucifolia, Lam. Black Ash. ARISTOLOCHIACE^. The Birthwort Family. AsARUM, Tourn. Cauadense, Linn. Colt's Foot. CHEN0P0DIACEJ5. The Goosefoot Family. Salsola, Linn. Saltwort. kali, Linn. Lake Shore, Milwaukee. Chenopodium, Linn. album, Linn. Pigweed, hybridura, Linn Goosefoot. Blitum, Tourn. capitatum, Linn. Indian Strawberry. Ambrina, Spach. Botrys, Moquin. Brooklield, Mr. G. H. Cornwall. AcNiDA, Mitchell. Water Hemp. cannabina, Linn. St. Croix, Dr. Parry. AMARANTHACE^. The Amaranth Family. Amaranthus, Linn. altissimus, Riddell. hybridus, Linn. Red Root, hypocondriacus, Linn. Prince's Feather, tamariscinus, Nutt. 40-1: NYCTAGINACE.-E. Tue JTrcxAQo Family. Allionia, Linn. albiJa, Wallr. St Croix River, Dr. Houghton, nyctaginea, Micbx. St. Croix River, Dr. Houghton. OxYBAPHus ANGusTiFOLius, Torr. St. Croix, Dr. Parry. POLYGONACE.E. The Buckwheat Family. Polygonum, Linn. Pennsylvanicum, Linn. Persicaria, Linn. Hydropiper, Linn. P. punctatura, Ell. hydropiperoides, Michx. aruphibiiim, Linn. aviculare, Linn. Knot-Grass. articulatum, Linn. Lakes Michigan and Superior, Dr. Houghton. Virginianum, Linn. sagittatum, Linn. Convolvuhis, Lion. cilinode, Michx, Lake Superior, Dr. Houghton. dumetorium, Linn. P. scandens, L. RuMEX, Linn. Dock. Britannica, Linn. crispus, Linn. Curled Dock. Acetosella, Linn. Sorrel. hydrolapathum, Hudson. St. Croix. Dr. Parry. THYMELEACE.E. The Mezereum Family. DiRCA, Linn. Leatherwood. palustris, Linn. EL^AGNACE^E. The Oleaster Family. Shepherdia, Nutt. Canadensis, Nutt. SANTALACE.E. The Sandal Wood Family. COMAXDRA, i!^Utt. umbellata, Nutt. ULMA.CE.E. The Elm Family. Ulmus, Linn. Elm. Americana, Linn. White Elm. fulva, Michx. Slippery Elm. 405 Celtis, Tourii. occidentalis, Linn. Hack Berry. SAURURACE^E. The Lizard's Tail Family. Saururus, Linn. Lizard's Tail. cernuu?, Linn. Upper Mississippi, Dr. Hougliton. CALLITRICHACE>'E. Callitriche, Linn, verna, Linn. EUPHORBIACEyE. The Spupge Family. Euphorbia, Linn. corollata, Linn, maculata, Linn, hypericifolia, Linn. St. Croix, Dr. Parry. EMPETRACE.^. The Ceowberry Family. Empetrum, Tourn. Crowberry. nigrum, Linn. Lake Superior, Dr. Hougliton. JUGLANDACE^. The Walnut Family. Juglans, Linn. Walnut. cinerea, Linn. Butternut or White- Walnut, nigra, Linn. Black-Walnut. Carya. Nutt. Hickory. alba, Nutt. Shag-Bark Hickory. glabra, Torr. C. porcina, Nutt. Pignut Hickory. CUPULIFER^E. The Oak Family. Quercus, Linn. Oak. alba> Linn. While Oak. obtusilpba, Michx. Q. stellate, Willd. Post Oak. Upj^er Mississippi, macrocarpa, Michx. Burr Oak. [Dr. Houghton. bicolor, Willd. Swamp White Oak. Prinos, Linn. Swamp Chestnut Oak. Near Janesville, I. A. L. rubra, Linn. Red Oak. palustris, Linn. Pin Oak. Fagus, Tourn. Beech, ferruginea, Ait. 406 CoRYLUS, Tourn. Hazel-Nut. Americana, Walt, rostrata, Ait. Carpinus, Linn. Hornbeam. Americana, Micbx. OsTRYA, Micheli. Iron Wood. Virginica, Willd. , MYRICACE^. The Sweet Gale Family, Myrica, Linn. Sweet Gale. Gale, Linn. Lake Superior, Dr. Houghton. CoMTONiA, Solander. Sweet Fern. asplenifolia, Ait. Dells of Wisconsin River. BETULACE^. The Birch Family. Betula, Tourn. Birch. papyracea, Ait. Canoe Birch. pumila, Linn. B. glandulosa, Mx. Low Birch. Alnus, Tourn. Alder. incana, V\'^illd. A. glanca, Mx. St. Croix River, Dr. Houghton, serrulata, Willd. SALICACE^. The Willow Family. Salix, Tourn. Willow. Candida, Willd. tristis, Ait. humilis, Marshall. S, Muhlenbergiana, Barr. discolor, Muhl. eriocephala, Michx. S. prinoides, Ph. Mauvaise River, Dr. Houghton. sericea, Marshall. S. Gr.sea, Willd. rostrata, Ricbardson. lucida, Muhl. longifolia, Mubl. Upper Mississippi, Dr. Houghton. pedicellaris, Pursh. St. Croix, Dr. Parry. PoPULUS, Tourn. Poplar. tremuloides, Michx. Quaking Aspen. grandidentata, Micbx. candicans, Ait. Balm of Gilead. • PLATAN ACE^. The Plane-Tree Family. Platancs, Linn. Sycamore, Buttonwood. ^ occidentalis, Linn. 407 URTICACEiE. The Nettle Family. HuMULus, Linn. Hop. Lupulu3, Linn. Urtica, Tourn. Nettle. dioica, Linn. Canadensis, Linn. PiLEA, Lincll. Adike, Raf. pumila, Linn. Parietaria, Tourn. Pellitory. Pennsylvanica, Muhl. CONIFERS, The Pine Family. PiNus, Tourn. Pine. Banksiana, Lambert. Dells of the Wisconsin, resinosa, Ait. Red Pine. niitis, Miclix. Yellow Pine. Dane County, L A. L. Strobus, Linn. White Pine. Abies, Tourn. Spruce. bal-thonia, DC. "Wild-Oat Grass, spicata, Beauv. A VEX A, Linn. Oat. striata, Michx. Trisetum purpurascens, Torr» HoLCus, Linn. Velvet Grass. lanatus, Linn. Upper Mississippi, Dr. Houghton. HiEROCHLOA, Gmelin. Seneca Grass, borealis, Eoem. & Sch. Milium, Linn. Millet- Grass, effusum, Linn. PA>ncuM, Linn. Panic Grass. capillare, Linn. virgatum, Linn. latifolium, Linn. clandestinum, Linn. dichotomum, Linn. pubesccns. Lam. crus-galli, Linn. Barn-Yard Grass. lonsrisetum, Torr. Xeenah River, Prof. Dougrlass. xanthophysum. Gray. Beloit. Dr. S. P. Lathrop. depauperatum, Muhl. Beloit, Dr. S. P. Lathrop. Setaria, Beauv. glauca, Beauv. Cexchrus, Linn. Burr-Grass. tribuloides, Linn. Upper Mississippi, Dr. Houghton. Akdropogox, Linn. Beard- Grass. furcatus, Muhl. scoparius, Michx. 417 Sorghum, Pers. nutans. Andropogon nutans, Linn. EQUISETACE^. The Horse-Tail Family. Equisetum, Linn. Horse-Tail. arvense, Linn. eburnura, Sclireb. Lake Superior, Dr. Torrey. sylvaticum, Linn, limosum, Linn. hyemale, Linn. Scouring Rush, laevigatura, Braun. variegatum, Schleicher, scirpoides, Michx. FILICES. The Fern Family. PoLYPODiuM, Linn. vulgare, Linn. Blue Mounds, I. A. Lapham. phegopteris, Linn. St. Croix, Dr. Parry, dryopteris, Linn. Dells of the Wisconsin. Struthiopteris, Willd. Ostrich Fern. Germanica, Willd. Allosorus, Bernhardi. gracilis, Presl. Dells of the Wisconsin. ASPIDIUM. fragrens, Sw. Falls of the St. Croix, Dr. Parry. Adiantum, Linn. Maiden Hair, pedatum, Linn. Pteris, Linn. Brake. aquilina, Linn, atropurpurea, Linn. Cheilantiies, Swartz. Lip Fern. ^ vestita, Willd. Falls of St. Croix, Dr. Parry. Camptosorus, Link. Asplenum, Linn, rhizophyllus. Link. Walking Leaf. AsPLENiuM, Linn. Spleenwort. trichomanes, Linn. Dells of the Wisconsin. thelypteroides, Michx. Filix-femina, R. Brown. Aspidium asplenoides. Cystopteris, Bernhardi. Bladder Fern, bulbifera, Bernh. 418 WooDsiA, R. Brown. ilvensis, R. Brown. Blue Mounds, I. A. Lapham. Dbtopteris, Adans. Aspidium, Linn. Wood Fern. thelypteris, Gray. dilatata, Gray. Falls of the St. Croix, Dr. Parry. cristata, Gray. Goldiana, Gray. Onoclea, Linn. Sensitive Fern. • sensibilis, Linn. OsMUNDA, Linn. Flowering Fern. spectabilis, Willd. Claytoniana, Linn. 0. interrupta, Mx. cinnamomea, Linn. BoTRYCHiuM, Swartz. lunarioides, Sw. B. fumarioides, Willd. Virginicum, Sw. LYCOPODIACE^. The Club Moss Family. Lycopodium, Linn. Club Moss. lucidulum, Michx. annotinum, Linn. Lake Superior, Dr. Houghton. dendroideum, Michx. Lake Superior to Upper Mississippi, Dr. clavatum, Linn. [Houghton. complanatum, Linn. Selaginella, Beauv. rupestris. Spring. Lye. rupestre, Linn. Blue Mounds, apus. Spring. L. apodum, Linn. CHARACEiE. The Chara Family. Chara, Linn. vulgaris, Willd. Feather-Beds. MUSCL Mosses. FuNARiA, Schreber. bygrometrica, Hedwig. Lake Superior, Dr. Parry. DiCRANUM, Hedwig. scoparium, Hedwig. Leucobryum, Hampe. •«. vulgare, Hampe. St. Croix, Dr. Parry. 419 Atrichcm, Beauv. angustatum, Beauv. Lake Superior, Dr. Parry. Bartramia, Hedw. pomiformis, Hedw. Montreal River, Dr. Parry. MiNUM, affine, Blandon. Lake Superior, Dr. Parry. Brvum, Linn. roseum, Schreber. Lake Superior, Dr. Parry. Hypnum, Linn. Feather Moss. populum, Hedw. Lake Superior, Dr. Parry. Schreberi, Willd. Lake Superior, Dr. Parry, tamariscinum, Hedw. Lake Superior, Dr. Parry. CuMACiuM, Weber & Mohr. Tree Moss. dendroides, W. & M. Lake Superior, Dr. Parry. HEPATICJE. Liverworts. RicciA, Mitchell, natans, Linn. Marchantia, Linn. polymorpha, Linn. LICHENES. Cladonia, Hoffm. Reindeer Moss. rangiferina, Hoffm. Falls of St. Croix, Dr. Parry. Umbilicaria, Hoffm, Tripe de Roche. Muhlenbergii, Ach. Falls of St. Croix, Dr. Parry. WOODS OF WISCOKSIX. Racine, November 25, 1852. Dear Sir : — Your letter, inviting me to prepare a paper for the State Agricultural Society, upon the "Woods of Wisconsin," and making sug- gestions as to the manner in which the subject should be considered, came duly to hand. In reply, I cannot but say, that were I to consult my other engage- ments, I should find it impossible to comply with your request ; yet in 420 view of the importance of the subject you suggest, and believing also, as I do, that the State has a claim upon every citizen to contribute his part, so far as able, to the fund of information on any subjects immedi- ately important to that class whose prosperity is of vital importance to the -welfare of all. In view of these considerations, I will endeavor, in a brief manner, to comply with your request, so far as possible, in the short time given. It will not be my purpose, in this communication, to give a botanical description, but merely brief notes on the principal qualities and value of the woods, and the fitness of the various trees for the purposes of orna- ment. I take great pleasure in tendering my thanks, to a much esteemed friend, and accomplished botanist, I. A. Lapham, Esq., of Milwaukee, for his CataloGfue of the Flora of Wisconsin,* which embraces a more complete list of our Forest Trees, than can elsewhere be found. TREES INDIGENOUS TO WISCONSIN. OAKS. This family bears transplanting rather poorly, unless quite small. They are readily raised from seed, which should be kept in a cool, dry place, till March or April, when they must be planted, two inches deep, in rich vegetable mould. o White Oak — Quer^us Alba. This noble tree is the largest and most important of the American oaks. The excellent properties of the wood render it eminently valuable for a great variety of uses. Wherever strength and durability is required, the White Oak stands in the first rank. It is employed in making wagons, coaches and sleds ; staves and hoops of the best quality for barrels and casks, are obtained from this tree; it is extensively used in architecture, ship -building, &c., and vast quantities are used for fencing. The bark is employed in tanning. The domestic consumption of this tree is so great that it is of the first importance to preserve the young trees wher- ever it is practicable, and to make young plantations where the tree is not found. The White Oak is a graceful ornamental tree, and worthy of particular attention as such — found abundantly in most of the timbered districts. •See ante, page 337, 421 BuRK Oak — Q. Macrocarjpa. This is perhaps the most ornamental of our oaks. Nothing can exceed the graceful beauty of these trees, when not crowded or cramped in their growth, but left free to follow the laws of their development. Who has not admired these trees in our extensive Burr Oak openings? Its large leaves are a dark-green above, and a bright silvery-white beneath, which, gives the tree a singularly fine appearance when agitated by the wind. The wood is tough, close-grained, and more durable than the White Oak, especially when exposed to frequent changes of moisture and dry- ing ; did the tree grow to the same size, it would be preferred for most uses. Abundant, and richly worthy of cultivation both for utility and ornament. SwAiip White Oaic — C). Bicolor. Another valulable and ornamental oak, rather larger than the Burr Oak. The wood is close-grained, durable, splits freely, and is well wor- thy of cultivation. Not quite so common as the Burr Oak. Valuable for fuel. Post Oak — Q. Oltusiloba. A scraggy, small tree, found sparingly in this State, The timber is durable, and makes good fuel. Not worthy of cultivation. S'sva:mp Chestnut Oak — Q. Prinos. This species of Chestnut Oak is a large, graceful tree, wood rather open-grained, yet valuable for most purposes to which the oaks are applied ; makes the best fuel of any of this family. A rare tree, found by Mr. Lapham, growing near Janesville. Worthy of cultivation. Red Oak — Q. Rubra. The Red Oak is a well known, common and rather large tree. The wood is coarse-grained, and the least durable of the oaks, nearly worth- less for fuel, and scarcely worthy of cultivation, even for ornament. Pin Oak — Q. Palustris. One of the most common trees, in many sections of the State. The wood is of little value, even for fuel. The tree is quite ornamental, and should be sparingly cultivated for this purpose. 422 MAPLES. A family of beautiful trees, which bear transplanting well ; even those of from six to eight inches in diameter, can, without difficulty, be suc- cessfully transplanted. Grows in almost any well-drained soil, free from stagnant water. The seed should be planted in the fall, as soon as ripe ; they require but a slight covering. Sugar Maple — Acer Saccharinum. This well-known and noble tree is found growing abundantly in many sections of the State. The wood is close-grained and susceptible of a beautiful polish, which renders it valuable for many kinds of furniture, more especially the varieties known as Bird's-eye and Curled Maples. — The wood lacks the durability of the oak ; consequently, is not valuable for purposes where it will be exposed to the weather. For fuel, it ranks next to Hickory. The sugar manufactured from this tree aflfords no in- considerable resource for the comfort and even wealth of many sections of the northern States, especially those newly settled, where it would be difficult and expensive to procure their supply from a distance. As an or- namental tree, it stands almost at the head of the catalogue. The foliao-e is beautiful, compact, and free from the attacks of insects. It puts forth its yellow blossoms early, and in the autumn the leaves change in color, and show the most beautiful tints of red and yellow long before they fall. — Worthy of especial attention for fuel and ornament — well adapted for street planting. Ked Maple — A. Riibrum,. Another fine maple, of more rapid growth than the foregoing species. With wood rather lighter, but quite as valuable for cabinet-work — for fuel not quite so valuable. The young trees bear transplanting even bet- ter than other maples. Though highly ornamental, this tree hardly equals the first named species. It puts forth, in early spring, its scarlet blossoms before a leaf has yet appeared. Well adapted for street planting. Mountain Maple — A. SpicaUim. A small, bj-anching tree, or rather shrub, found growing in clumps. — Not worthy of much attention. 423 Box Maple — Negundo Aceroides. This tree is frequently called Box Elder. It is of a rapid growth ; quite ornamental. The wood is not used in the arts, but is good fuel. — Should be cultivated ; grows on Sugar and Rock rivers. • ELMS. These are tall, fine trees, more remarkable for ornament than for the value of their wood. They grow to the greatest perfection in deep, moist soils, but will flourish to a considerable extent in almost any productive grounds. They endure transplanting admirably. The seed should be sown immediately after ripening, which is in June. Whitu Elm — Ulmus Americana. This large and graceful tree stands confessedly at the head of the list of ornamental deciduous trees. Its wide-spreading branches and long pendulous branchlets form a beautiful and conspicuous head. It grows rapidly ; is free from disease and the destructive attacks of insects ; will thrive on most soils ; and for planting along streets, in public grounds or lawns, is unsurpassed by any American tree. The wood is but little used in the arts ; makes good firewood ; should be planted along all the roads and streets, near every dwelling and on all public grounds. > Slippehy El:,i — U. Fuli^a. This smaller and less ornarnental species is also common. The wood, however, is much more valuable than the White Elm, being durable and splitting readily. It makes excellent rails, and is much used for the frame work of buildings. Valuable for fuel ; should be cultivated. CHERRY. A valuable class of trees, which flourish best in a deep, moist, sandy soil. They all bear transplanting well. The seed should be planted immediately when ripe, which is the case with all stony seeds. Wild Black Chekry — Cerasus Serotina. This large and beautiful species of Cherry is one of the most valuable of American trees. The wood is compact, fine-grained, and of a bril- liant, reddish color, not liable to warp, or shrink and swell with atmos- pheric changes ; extensively employed by cabinet makers for every spe- 424 cies of furniture; is next in value to mahogany. It is exceedingly dura- ble; hence is valuable for fencing, building, fera. This grand and noble forest tree is found in great profusion in Michi- gan, Indiana, and most of the adjoining States, where it is called White Wood or Poplar. The wood is of a yellowish color, easily worked, and sufficiently close-grained to admit of a good polish — strong enough for most uses, even where a considerable degree of strength is required. It is used extensively in the mechanical arts for a great variety of purposes, and grows rapidly. It is a beautiful tree, especially when covered with its large, tulip-like blossoms. It flourishes best in a rich alluvial soil. Chestnut — Castanea Vtsea. A well-known, large and valuable. tree, of remarkably rapid growth. It flourishes best in light, sandy, or gravelly soils. The wood is one of the most durable, capable of resisting a succession of heat and moisture for a considerable length of time; a valuable quality, which renders it especially suitable for fencing. In favorable situations, this tree pro- duces an abundant crop of delicious nuts. There are many other trees worthy of introduction, but to the three species mentioned, we would more especially call the attention of arbor- iculturists. Should either of these be known, to grow within the State, "we should be glad to be informed of the locality. Locust — Bobinia Pseu-dacacia . One word in relation to the Locust, so much cultivated as an orna- mental tree. Its rapid growth and durable wood, is all it has to recom- mend it. It is the last tree to put forth in the spring, and the first to shed its leaves in the autumn ; which wither and fall Avithout displaying any of those dying beauties so charming in many of our indigenous forest trees. The Locust is liable to the attack of the " borer ;" an insect which is extensively destroying it in the Eastern States. The branches are so fragile, that the tree is frequently blown literally to pieces by the wind; to obviate which, to a considerable degree, we should "shorten in" all long and slender limbs. We cannot recommend its extensive 4-32 cultivation, when so many better and more profitable trees can easily be obtained. RAISING FOREST TREES FROM SEED. In preparing seed-beds, a well drained, light, rich, sandy loam is best for nearly all trees. Dig deep, at least eighteen inches, and prepare as carefully as you would for a bed of choice vegetables. Plant in rows, three or four inches apart one way, and two feet the other. It is of great advantage to cover the surface of the ground, after planting, with decayed leaves, in imitation of nature. By this mulching, the ground will be kept moist, and thus facilitate the germination of the seed. The seedlings should be transplanted in the nursery, when one or two years old ; six or eight inches by three feet is the proper distance in the nur- sery. It may, perhaps, be as well to plant the .seed in the nursery at once, and save the first transplanting. Planting. — In a timber plantation, the proper distance that trees should be planted from each other, must vary with the species and size of the young tree. The medium distance for trees of four or five years' grovvth, is four feet each way. It must be remembered, that many more must be planted than can grow to any great size. The object is to plant the trees so close that they will mutually afi'ord protection to each other from the sun and storm. They must be thinned out from time to time, to give room for the most valuable, as they advance in size. Time for Transplanting. — All deciduous trees — those that shed their leaves in autumn — may be removed any time when the leaves are ofif* Early spring is generally to be preferred. Evergreens are more success- fully transplanted, when the new shoots are just springing, which, in this climate, is about the first of June. Choose a damp, cloudy day, if pos- sible ; otherwise cover the roots from the sun with straw, moss, or mat- ting. This precaution is indispensable when moving Evergreens, for if the fine rootlets ever become dry, the tree will surely perish. Preparations for Planting. — Dig the holes before you procure the trees, in order to avoid unnecessary delays, for the sooner the trees are planted after they are dug up the better. Dig the holes for large trees six feet in diameter, and eighteen inches deep — smaller ones in proportion. Deposit the surface soil by itself, and if the sub-soil be poor, procure enough of good to replace it, so as not to be under the necessity of using 433 this worthless soil dug from the bottom of the pit. Have ready good substantial stakes, sufficiently stout to effectually prevent the trees from motion. Do all this before you start for your trees, and not leave it to be done when your "poor trees, like so many fish out of water, are pantinf and suffering for a return to their native element." Selecting and Digging up. — Procure trees of low and rather stalky growth, from open grounds, if possible. Avoid those of tall and slender form growing in deep and shady woods. Be sure the trees are healthy, young and growing. Having selected your tree, dig a trench two or three feet from the body all around it, deep enough to cut off every root; then dig under until it is easily loosened and turned out of its bed. Be careful and preserve every small root within the circle, for upon the pre- servation of the rootlets principally depends your success. Lay the trees upon a long wagon ; protect the trunks and roots from being bruised and barked ; cover the roots if the sun shines, or if there is a drying wind at the time. Trimming and Setting out. — Cut off all the bruised and broken roots ; next, cut off not less than one-half the top by shortening some, and cut- ting other limbs entirely away, as the shape of the tree may require. Set your trees no deeper than they originally grew, unless the soil be light and sandy, when you may set them three or four inches deeper. Having adjusted the roots in their natural position, drive your stakes before the roots are covered, that you may avoid injuring them; then fill up with finely pulverized surface soil, gently pressing it in every cavity. After the roots are lightly covered, pour in one or two pails-full of water; then finish by filling and treading it firmly. Mulching. — Take half a bundle of straw to each tree; if the tree is of a large size, spread it evenly about the roots, then cover slightly with soil, leaving it a little "dishing;" this will prevent the evaporation of moisture, and keep the soil light and porous, permitting the water to penetrate freely. Old tan-bark or rotted chips will answer quite as well for this purpose as straw. You must not water your trees too often. Once a week, even during a protracted drought, is enough ; daily water- ing is positively injurious. Do not consider the work completed until the trees are secured from motion, by firmly fastening them to the stakes ; for be assured, if they are permitted to move about with every wind, they will perish. Transplanting trees in winter, with a ball of frozen 434 earth attached to the roots, is the most successful method of removing large trees. Concluding Remarks. It is truly lamentable to see how much time and money is expended in planting trees, which for the want of information as to the lohat, how, and when, have already perished, or are in a most unfavorable state of decline, manifest by the sickly foilage, denuded trunks, or already dry and withered stems. And how could it be otherwise, since the trees have been kidnapped — forcibly taken from their damp and shady forest homes — the roots sadly mutilated, and then their long and slender trunks cut in two in the middle, and one end, (but little matter Avhich) rudely thrust into a "post-hole" in the ground, and there subjected to the scorching rays of a midsummer sun ; and then, as if to add insult to injury, they are asked to live, grow, and reward the perpetrator of all these outrages against vegetable life, by a luxuriant, healthy shade, and lovely ornament ! It has been truly said, that "judicious planting, and the skilful culture of plantations, combine national and private interest in an eminent degree ; for, besides the real or intrinsic value of the tim- ber or ostensible crop, with other produce of woods, available for the arts and comforts of life, judicious forest-tree planting improves the gen- eral climate of the neighborhood, the staple of the soil as regards the gradual accumulation of vegetable matter ; affords shelter to live stock ; promotes the growth of pasture and of corn crops ; beautifies the land- scape, and thus greatly and permanently increases the value of the fee simple of the estate and adjoining lands." There is no country to which these remarks would apply with more truth than to this. How naked and cheerless those dwellings situated on the broad prairies, without a single tree to enliven the scene, and speak of shady comforts ; but we hope to see a different picture when the farmers turn their attention more to the comforts and luxuries of Home. Finally, we say, plant trees young and old, and recollect, " What is worth doing at all, is worth doing well." Yours very faithfully, P. R. HOY. To Albert C. Inguam, Esq., Sec. of the Wis. State Agr. Society. 435 LAYING OUT GROUNDS, FLORICULTURE, &c. MiLWAUKEK, December 10, 1852. Dear Sir — It is with great pleasure that I comply with the re- quest with which you honored me, to furnish a few ideas on the above subjects, for the use of the State Agriciiltural Society. Deeming these to be highly subsidiary to the great objects which the Society has in view, I only wish the task had fallen into more competent hands. How- ever, I trust my attempt may at least have the effect of stimulating others, who have the capability to espouse the cause, and treat it more thoroughly and scientifically, on a future occasion. Laying out Grounds. — Under this head may be comprehended all the operations requisite to the production of a finished residence, embrac- ing the site for building, the embellishment of the grounds, and the judicious disposition of the fields, garden, orchard, &c. After the land is selected, the next important point is to choose the most eligible site for building. The mansion and offices demand peculiar attention, as they ought to form the centre of attraction, and present the prin- cipal feature of the homestead, for there are assembled all those scenes of usefulness, convenience, or elegance, which form the constituents of a country residence. In selecting the situation, a variety of circumstances, both of a local and general character, must be taken into consideration. Proximity, or otherwise, to the boundary line, or public road, the suita- bleness of the grounds contiguous for garden scenery, and trees, if any, and their capability of aiding in the general effect, belong to the former; to the latter, the prospect from the house, the view of the house from a distance, shelter, facility for drainage, &c. A pleasant aspect for the prin- cipal rooms is always desirable, and in the absence of any local objection, perhaps that of the south, or south-east, would be the best. A south- west aspect is objectionable from the constant dazzling rays of the sun throughout the greater part of the day in summer, and a west aspect from the prevailing icy winds of winter. A north aspect for the front part of the house would at all seasons be too gloomy, although the view from the windows in that direction might be the most pleasant, as all vegetation looks the most luxuriant on the sunny side. A mere square, or oblong house, can, therefore, have only one really good aspect, and it naturally becomes a question as to what style of architecture would best 436 seciirc a variety of aspects, consistent with the irregularity of offices, and other necessary appendages to a country mansion. The spirit of the Gothic style, more than any other, admits of this irregularity ; and hence, the prevalence of that style in modern country residences. Among the advantages of this irregular style, one is, that it readily admits of addi- tions in almost any direction, without compromising the character of the tout ensemble. When, however, a rigid adherence to the principles of good taste is aimed at, this style may not be always in keeping with the character of the neighboring grounds or surrounding country. Perhaps the more regular style of the Roman, or the simple style of the Grecian, would be more in place. In this case, the offices and erections for farm- ing purposes might better form a distinct and distant feature in the land- scape, or otherwise be concealed by trees, shrubbery, or walls behind the house. The Lawjt. — Whatever may be the style of the house, it is almost indispensable to a good residence to have a greater or less breadth of lawn extending in difl'erent directions from the principal front. This may be comprehended in one, or a series of terraces, or on a level, according to the position of the house and taste of the owner. Thanks to modern taste, and modern gardening, it is no longer considered necessary to have a square, or quadrangular hedged-in, or walled-in depository of plants to be called a garden. The whole lawn, or a portion of it, may be made available for a flower-garden, and will aflford scope for a display of tas-te either of the most simple or the most elaborate — but this part of the sub- ject I shall resume in iLs proper place. At this juncture, it is to be presumed that the woodman has spared many trees, either single specimens, or groups, or both — for that reck- less demolition of every tree and shrub round many settlements is lament- able to behold, and cannot be too highly reprobated. Well may they be called clearings ; to-day, the noble denizens of the forest proudly wave their heads in stately grandeur, impressing the beholder with the power and majesty of nature ; but to-morrow, alas, reveals another scene ! The ruthless age has robbed fair nature of her ornaments, and left instead a wilderness of ghostly stumps, guarded on every side — as if in very mockery of their stability — with bristling lines of zig-zag fences. Here, amidst this desolate array of stumps and rails, a family of young chil- dren have to be reared, and what else can be expected but that the minds of the latter will be as destitute of ideality and refinement as the aspect 43T of the former is of comeliness. After a few years have elapsed, an em- bryo orchard shoots up to relieve the general monotony, distinguished by a number of green lines, so formally and abrubtly defined that it looks like a thing per se, having no connection or harmony in itself, or with anything else in nature. Few States in the Union can compare with Wisconsin in the capability of furnishing materials for creating beautiful landscapes ; nor need we go out of it to seek for the choicest models. The world-renowned parks of "Old England" do not afford better opportunities than our own oak openings — with their graceful and flowing outlines, and their gently un- dulating sweeps, the noble vistas — here contracted, there extended — in this direction, radiant with some gleaming lakelet half concealed; in an- other, reflecting sombre shadows from some lazy stream ; and as a whole, producing such harmony of coloring, so rich a distribution of light and shade as cannot fail to delight, but never cloy, the most artistic eye. — When a dwelling is located amidst the oak openings, the occupant can have no difficulty in laying out his grounds, for the scenery around will, be suggestive of the character of all his out-door embellishments, and his aim will be to make them tend to the idea of connectedness and con- sistency with that. In such situations, to make startling: contrasts is attended with no small amount of expense, and a demand of no common- place skill. In this State, nature is so lavish of the materials for verdant decoration that little or no expense need be incurred in furnishing, but rather in thinning out, and only subduing a reasonable portion of the land foi usefulness or convenience, without impairing any of the natural or local beauties. When it is desired to give a park-like appearance to a whole farm, where the land is well timbered, nothing can be more easy. The square, or quadrangular form, may generally be the most convenient for fencing off" the various fields, but it is not necessary that they should assume that form. By a little management, the fences at a certain point may be so concealed by clumps of trees left standing as to take away any formality, and obscure the real boundary of a field. The size of the fields, and the distance and distribution of the clumps, will of course de- pend on the extent of the farm, and the purposes to which it is devoted. The clumps of trees should consist of irregular, detached masses, or oc- casionally single trees, when they possess individual beauty to recommend them, and can maintain the idea of connectedness. Under this arrange- ment, a farm would partake of the character of a forest scene subjected ' 438 to the plow; and if extensive, and really forest-like, resemble those woody districts in Germany where "cultivation smiles in the glades and recesses of eternal forests." Fbnces. — Of all kinds of fences, the common rail or zig-zag fence presents to the eye of strangers the most uncoiith appearance, as well as that of a prodigal waste of the "raw material." Perhaps they may be, in many instances, the most economical, as regards cheapness of con- struction, strength and durability ; but where facilities exist for sawing timber, these qualities might be made to combine with a more agreeable form, and a tithe of the amount of material. The improved state of the manufacture of iron, affords new and desirable accommodations in the way of light, cheap and durable fences, desiderata of no small impor- tance in districts, where wood is not abundant. Planting. — When a necessity exists for planting young trees, either near or remote from the house, as a general rule, a selection from those found in the neigborhood would be best ; as they will not only better harmonize with those around, but grow and thrive with more certainty than others, transferred from a different soil and climate. As to the best kinds for planting on the rich, black soil of our prairies, I have had no opportunity of forming an opinion ; but I should expect that most of the soft-wooded, rapid-growing kinds would succeed. As fencing must be a comparatively expensive undertaking on extensive prairie lands, it would be well for settlers thereon to provide themselves at the outset, with seeds of such plants or shrubs as will most rapidly or permanently afford them live fences or hedges. Of these may be mentioned the Osage Orange, Locust, Buckthorn, Hawthorn, Beech, o o a C3 1-3 P=^ ^ < S ►^ t-3 < W O "R o >^ Barometer (inches) At Sun rise 29.36 29.33 29.31 29.24 29.43 29.43 29.49 29.53 29.52 29.45 29.39 29.33 29.40 9 A.M 29.37 29.34 29.36 29.25 29.45 29.44 29.51 29.56 29.53 29.46 29.41 29.33 29.42 3P.M 29.34 29..33 29.30 29.23 29.42 29.42 29.49 29.53 29.49 29.43 29.38 29.31 29.39 9 P.M 29.33 29.36 29.30 29.25 29.44 29.43 29.49 29.53 29,51 29.45 29.40 29.34 29.41 Maximum 29.80 29.97 30.20 29.59 29.81 29.75 29.71 29.73 29.78 29.72 29.84 29.78 30.20 Minimum 28.79 28.34 28.51 28.73 28.90 29.03 29.17 29.22 29.07 29.06 28.83 28.61 28.34 Meau . . 29.36 29.34 29.32 29.24 29.44 29.43 29.49129.54 29.51 29.45 29.39 29.33 29.40 Temp, of Baromet. At Sun riso .30.81 39.00 41.00 44.80 57.32 57.32 69.32 68.16 60.80 56.93 42.23 37.87 50.46 9 A.M 31.10 39.00 41.13 44.30 57.26 57.26 70.32 68.29 60.53 56.10 42.23 37.51 50.42 3 P.M 35.23 43.38 44.19 47.73 60.71 60.71 73.77 72.00 64.00 58.78 ^U.33 40.82 53.80 9 P.M 30.77 44.3146.19 45.60 60.87 60.87 72.77 70.35 63.70 58.87 45.37 41.93 53.88 Meau 33.48 41.42 43.13 45.61 59.04 59.01 71.54 69.70 62.26 57.67 43.54 39.53 52.16 Temperat. of Air. At Sun rise 17.71 23.90 27.81 33.67 47.71 58.53 C2.S7 G0.52 51. .57 48.71 31.10 23.93 40.67 9 AM 19.51 27.31 31.55 39.77 .57.74 68.50 73.74 71.68 61.47 53.07 33.03 25.39 46.90 3 P.M 25.13 3317 .36.10 42.10 60.80 72.07 76.00 73.90 64.90 58.94 36.67 30.13 50.83 9P.M 20.55 27.78 32.45 37.13 52.32 63.63 08.68 (.6.45 57.37 51.77 32.90 26.64 44.64 Maximum 48 54 57 52 84 89 .91 .85 85 <36 .75 .48 .43 .91 Minimum -19 3 1 21 30 45 .46 .51 .32 .16 .1 -19 Mean 20.72 28.03 31.98 38.17 54.65 65.66 70.32 68.13 58.82 53.12 33.42 26.52 45.80 Clearness of Sky." At Sun rise 323 397 471 533 707 630 665 643 637 409 430 329 515 9 A.M 358 431 429 487 684 727 667 600 653 523 337 429 .531 3 P.M 368 548 307 343 643 570 660 710 653 584 290 274 495 9 P.M 507 669 316 483 764 673 765 790 677 497 353 319 568 Mean 389 511 381 461 701 650 692 687 655 503 365 338 528 Wind, (No. of Obs.) 1 t_From tho North.. 1 ■3 1 5 1 3 4 2 3 4 3 1 31 South.. 5 2 0 0 2 2 5 7 4 8 4 6 45 East.... 5 4 6 7 10 12 1 5 5 6 7 0 68 West.... 33 34 10 12 6 20 11 13 19! 29 28 40 255 N.E.... 11 3 27 47 29 14 29 28 17! 15 11 4| 235| S.E 4 8 25 16 17 13 24 36 27 6 12 20 208 N.W.... 46 33 35 18 24 17 19 10 26 27 45 28 328 3.W.... 18 28 20 13 29 35 29 17 16 28 10 24 267 Calm, 1 1 0 2 6 4 2 6 3 1 0 11 271 Rain (JcMeltedSnow Inches 1.13 1.00 4.56 2.64 1.95 2.46 3.27 0.58 2.30 4.87 2.72 1.85 29.33 * Entire clearness, being 1,000. 450 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Made at Aztalax, Wisconsik, for the Tear 1852. Latitude 43' 04' N. Longitude 88° 30 W. Elevation above Lake Michigan, about 230 feet. By James C. Brattox. c a: ■-3 14.90 31.77 a 47.52 d 53.43 68.03 X 5c < 57.39 9 E S a. 47.53 0 44.45 > 2553 c 0 0 0 Q 17.71 >< 38.09 ^San rise 22.35 26.87 i 9 A.M 20.23 •2S.55 32.48 39.35 58.00 68.69 73.97' 67.97 61.17 53.55 30.33 24.07 46.55 u 3 P.M 25.29'33.34' 33.03 49.33 70.10 78.50 S4.00 80.19' 69.30 61.00 34.83 29.55 54.04 1 <;9P.M 19.52 26.66 31i>0 35.00 54.80 67.90 67.23 65.81 53.17 5271 29.43 23.65 43.93 g Mean 19.9S 27.72 32.14 38.86 57.60 67.13 72.06 68.34 57.79 52.85 29.95 24.24 45.72 e-i Maiimum.. 50 54 62 58 84 92 92 91 88 78 47 53 92 l^Mitiimum.. -21 2 -12 20 28 40 43 44 30 32 6 -3 -21 'Sunrise... 374 465 345 437 735 716 545 736 757 607 457 374 546 9A.M 357 486 345 437 733 723 568 736 710 616 420 419 552 il< 3 P.M 468 541 338 443 739 670 693 746 747 619 403 440 571 11 9 P.M...-. 543 645 298 477 790 733 735 836 880 563 433 433 615 s^ l^Me.-in 444 534 331 461 749 711 635 764 773 602 428 414 571 Days entirely clear 0 4 0 2 8 4 0 6 10 1 2 44 Entirely cloudy... 5 4 7 ^ 0 1 0 0 1 6 3 5 37 ' From theX. 7 3 3 5 1 4 2 3 5 4 0 3 40 . rf E. 0 1 2 2 3 0 0 0 0 1 0 2 11 " s. 0 3 3 2 3 2 0 0 11 0 9 3 5 4 8 3 3 3 4 0 6 5 1 1 53 36 " N.E. 4 2 4 6 1 0 4 3 4 5 0 3 36 "c'r '■ S. E. 1 2 4 6 9 i ^^ 5 7 3 1 1 3 5 57 " S.W. ' 10 8 4 7 7 2 3 6 5 1 4 12 9 4 8 7 6 15 10 10 1 18 ! 11 1 9 78 99 LCalm 3 4 3 12 20 22 3 20 14 17 13 ; 8 139 Eain and ilelted ) Snow (inches) ^ 1.69 0.90 a9o 2.07 i.a4 3.70 4.75 1.50 2.02 3.75 a80 i 1.75 31.17 451 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Made at Baraboo, Wisconsin, for the Year 1852. Latitude 43'' 29' N. Longitude 89=' 14' W. By B. F. Mills. b e p B a 14.17 g February. a 23.66 < 32.89 52.93 c B 3 62.04 "p ►--, 63.85 tc 3 < 59.41 53 B ST 50.45 o S o O £ o 12 . o .a a o o o Q 19.11 38.86 'Sun rise... 44.21 23.61 ti 9A.M 19.41 27.05 31.61 41.76 63.18 73.29 77.25 74.86 60.90 52.45 30.31 23.01 48.75 g 3P.M 23.91 33.61 37.04 4840 69.95 78.42 83.13 78.97 67.83 60.29 32.62 26.69 53.40 9P.M 16.84 23.84 28.93 37.13 54.62 60.6? 66.66 61.00 52.32 47.99 25.44 21.11 41.38 Mean 18.46 26.03 30.09 40.04 60.15 68.58 72.75 68.08 57.56 51.12 28.00 22.54 45.28 H Maximum.. 52 51 65 63 89 93 95 88 85 77 44 49 95 Minimum.. -23 -6 -7 18 30 45 50 42 30 26 -2 -9 -23 ^ . 'Sunrise... 261 472 396 300 558 706 500 540 543 241 256 219 416 9 A.M 267 434 401 306 525 630 530 583 551 409 193 209 419 rs^ 3P.M 377 354 206 316 519 566 519 600 496 500 226 193 406 C "3 9P.M 429 520 251 493 648 666 583 696 640 412 411 145 491 ^Mean 333 445 314 354 562 642 533 605 570 393 271 191 434 Days entirely clear 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 6 Entirely cloudy 8 6 9 G 2 0 0 0 1 6 10 10 58 rPromtheX. 2 0 4 0 0 0 1 0 0 8 6 0 21 — ; ^ S. 0 5 1 1 8 14 7 3 3 4 3 1 50 ^1 Cm ^ '• E. 3 34 2 38 14 33 18 35 7 24 0 11 1 9 2 11 0 12 3 20 8 26 10 41 68 294 iM< " KE. 8 3 5 2 0 0 4 5 4 15 4 4 54 .2 0 " S.E 11 0 22 19 23 7 4 17 15 19 3 7 147 o o •* N.W. 37 21 9 2 3 12 4 12 16 8 3 1 128 " S.W. 16 18 14 8 9 28 45 24 30 19 17 18 246 ^Calm 13 29 22 35 50 48 .49 50 40 28 50 42 456 Rain and Melted ) Snow (inches) ^ » 1.420 4.183 3.465 1.630 3.665 3.980 2.445 1.700 4.857 2.407 1.510 31.26 452 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Made at Kenosha, Wisconsin, for the Year 1852. Lat. 42" 35' N. Long. 87" 50' W. Elevation above Lake Michigan, 35 feet. By John Gridlet. w o OS » a 'Sun rise... 9 A.M 3P.M 9P.M Mean Maximum. ^Minimum.. San rise... 9 A.M O g S'g <(3P.M CO Q) I— i 9 P.M. Mean.. a! c ca 1-3 22.09 25.G3 31.2C 28.04 26.25 45 -18 o o Days entirely clear Entirely cloudy... fFromtheK S. E. W. . TO c o S re qO W.E. S. E. N.W. S.W, Calm 409 429 532 441 4 ■5 5 6 1 31 11 0 9 17 33 24.62 30.00 35.41 29.00 29.76 57 5 29.13 ^ ^ 34.60 393 345 540 617 707 552 6 3 1 6 10 36 o 0 20 7 26 33.6340.93 40.20 42.36 34.60 36.43 34.39 57 5 490 567 416 361 458 2 3 3 6 24 32 10 6 10 6 23 38.5S 51 19 683 496 473 550 550 7 2 2 2 16 27 ^4 2 1 3 25 '43.32 53.61 57.74 30.93 52.45 86 33 658 713 648 670 672 7 0 4 12 13 15 29 6 5 6 30 30 6 56 63.87 65.87 61.10 61.78 85 40 723 803 626 616 692 3 34.00 73.55 72-36 68.70 69 45 89 49 790 832 751 739 778 6 6 9 33 9 4 5 7 25 3 3 I 0 0 9 10 27 28 l' 3 8 30 p.. xn 57.61 68.03 71.64 63.70 65.24 81 50 674 703 780 703 715 7 1 2 2 24 7 25 1 2 4 52 52.83 62.43 63.40 54.00 58.14 80 37 740 663 643 643 675 8 2 5 7 22 24 8 6 6 2 32 q o O £ c S o Q 49.90 28.96 23.51 40.16 50.83 34.47 26.39 46.91 51.71 35.G6 30.35 49.83 48.84 32.60 26.39 45.11 50.32 32.92 26.66 45.16 79 47 49 89 35 17 7 -18 468 384 342 557 471 348 416 580 507 220 374 540 461 448 445 573 475 350 394 562 4 2 3 67 6 8 4 34 8 2 3 41 10 0 5 71 11 10 3 153 20 21 21 294 16 1 2 ■175 0 9 8 43 10 22 28 121 7 7 10 84 26 34 32 368 453 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Made at Emerald Geove, Rock County, Wisconsin, for the Year 1852. Latitude 42° 3r N. Longitude 88° 54^ W. Elevation above Lake Mich- igan, 408 feet ; above the Atlantic Ocean, 986 feet. By Orrin Densmore. § 14.63 3! 3 22.31 i 26.16 1 April. o 47.48 d 5 •-5 56.06 63.32 2 So ■< 58.71 b^ September. a X> c o O 46.03 o a 3 o 12; 25.90 o c a 19.64 a 38.59 'Sun rise d 9 A.M 17.42 26.65 32.22 40.36 59.64 69.90 75.22 71.45 59.53 52.32 29.87 22.35 46.41 s 3P.M 24.22 32.14 38.84 46.23 68.80 76.83 80.87 78.58 65.63 58.68 33.36 28.13 52.69 ? ^ 9 P. M 16.58 24.58 30.48 37.36 52.00 61.13 66.16 63.90 55.20 43.51 27.70 20.87 42.04 § H Maximum.. 47 49 73 60 84 91 92 91 83 73 47 52 92 H Minimum.. -24 -7 0 16 31 40 51 49 37 31 8 -2 -24 ^Mean 18.21 26.42 31.84 39.06 56.49 65.97 71.39 68.14 57.75 51.38 29.20 22.91 44.89 'Sunrise... 261 399 371 333 671 610 603 555 590 377 233 232 411 2-^ ^ a 9 A.M 264 520 383 346 532 533 464 516 573 403 223 255 418 |1^ 3P.M 322 520 287 270 561 523 506 574 513 503 223 227 419 9P.M 545 545 293 413 564 646 684 745 623 471 350 251 510 O ^Mean 347 495 333 340 582 570 564 597 575 439 257 233 442 Days entirely clear 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 6 Entire ily cloudy... 1 5 7 6 1 0 0 1 1 7 8 11 4& 'From theN. 17 4 9 16 7 4 3 19 9 9 10 13 120 • CO S. 11 3 18 2 24 13 25 23 25 30 2 11 187 .S.2 E. 4 10 20 29 20 4 7 21 9 9 10 12 155 W. 16 23 15 14 11 19 9 9 19 21 25 28 209 " X.E. 6 1 13 9 8 6 9 11 12 14 16 5 110 " S. E. 8 2 6 8 11 3 15 9 10 8 14 21 115 «l " N.W. " S.W. 31 28 36 32 29 13 22 8 15 23 25 29 12 26 1 9 14 10 15 13 21 16 10 23 231 230 .. Calm.... 3 5 1 12 5 17 18 22 12 5 6 1 107 454 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Made at Platteville, Wisconsin, for the Year 1852. Latitude, 42° 45' N". Longitude 90° W. Elevation above the Mississippi, about 200 feet. By J. L. PiCKARD. p •-3 6 a P 1 < 35.07 >> 53.58 d p 58.93 >-> 59.10 to 3 biJ < 62.26 CJl i^ September. o o O 46.61 a o 24.50 a s a 17.74 39.36 'Sun rise.... 14.61 21.34 26.68 i 9A.M 19.01 27.49 34.74 43.03 62.45 70.09 71.15 73.45 61.43 54.58 28.97 20.35 47.22 14 3P.M 23.13 34.97 41.19 51.57 72.74 79.23 78.14 83.87 71.80 61.52 34.13 23.97 54.68 o ^ 9P.M 16.58 25.72 32.45 33.80 58.36 64.53 66.18 69.58 58.90 51.22 27.60 19.42 44.11 Mean 18.35 27.38 33.76 42.12 '61.78 68.39 68.64 72.29 61.03 53.48 28.80 20.37 46.36 Maximum.. 54 54 80 74 87 96 95 96 93 85 46 46 96 ^Minimum.. -2S -6 -4 16 30 42 43 47 34 34 2 12 -28 ^Sun rise.... 300 500 450 300 500 650 600 600 600 400 200 300 450 ^-3 9 A.M 400 550 275 300 600 600 600 600 600 500 200 300 450 o a Sg-o<(3P.M 400 500 350 400 600 550 500 700 500 500 300 .300 475 "1 9P.M 400 575 300 500 700 700 700 600 600 400 400 300 525 gh-H 3 Mean 375 531 345 375 600 625 600 625 575 450 275 300 473 Prevailing Winds. N.W. W. N.W. N.W. S.E. S.W. S.W. E. W. S.E. N.W. N.E. N.W. Rain and Melted ^ Snow (inches) 5 1.08 0.20 5.00 2.57 3.56 2.90 3.00 1.50 2.00 5.63 2.63 1.00 32.07 No. of days Rain ? fell 5 6 3 17 16 11 8 6 7 8 12 14 16 124 Whole amount of Snow, 45 inches. The more remarkable phenomena of the year are — Very brilliant Aurora, Feb. 17, 18 and 19th; Snow accompanied by vivid Lightning and heavy Thunder, April 10th ; Rain night of June 1st and 3d, 3.65 inches ; First Snow, November 10th. A peculiar rustling noise was observed on the evening of the 27th of October, as of a large flock of birds passing rapidly from N.W. to S.E. I am contident it could not have been produced by birds, as it was time of full moon, perfectly clear, and no birds were to be seen, though the noise produced was immediately over our heads. 455 METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS Made at Summit, Waukesha Countt, AVisconsin, for the Year 1862. Latitude 43« 05' N. Longitude 88'' 30' W. Elevation above Lake Michigan, about 300 feet. By Edward W. Spencer. o '^Sun rise.. 9 A.M.... 3 P.M.... |-|^9P.M. g Meau , a u. cd C9 3 >H a ^ ra a 1-3 tq a o .2 0 a> . I ^P 1 Maximum.. .Minimum.. From theN. S. E. W. N.E. S.E. N.W. S.W. (^Cloudy " Fair Rainy LSnowy 1468 17.39 24.03 19.71 18.94 42 -22 0 4 1 5 3 2 13 3 19 10 0 2 20.97 24.67 32.17 26.13 25.99 52 0 1 3 0 8 3 3 7 4 13 13 0 3 24.97 2D.55 36.94 31.8- 30.84 62 -14 1 3 2 3 4 0 8 4 13 9 7 2 a, 31.60 39.23 46.20 38.30 38.83 65 20 0 0 4 2 8 2 10 4 14 10 6 0 47.16 59.51 66.51 54.55 57.00 82 28 0 1 5 4 4 4 7 6 3 23 5 0 ^ ►^ .4J 3 tc < s CO 0 0 0 s 0 © e 0) 0 0 Q 54.30 59.84 57.39 49.13 45.58 26.10 20.00 37.64 67.40 71.93 69.70 59.70 51.68 29.73 2297 45.29 72.47 78.10 76.42 66.27 59.32 33.63 27.35 51.64 64.73 69.93 67.84 58.50 52.29 28.07 23.65 4463 64.72 69.96 67.84 58.40 52.47 29.84 23.50 4486 88 88 88 85 76 43 51 88 36 40 46 30 28 9 -2 -22 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 6 3 1 5 1 2 1 4 28 2 0 2 4 1 2 4 27 3 o 0 4 7 6 9 53 ■2 7 11 3 4 3 0 52 1 2 4 6 0 5 4 39 8 7 3 7 6 8 5 89 10 9 5 5 9 4 5 68 3 3 11 8 8 22 18 135 24 21 17 16 16 2 5 166 3 7 3 6 .7 4 1 49 0 0 0 0 0 2 6 15 Total depth of Snow, 35 inches. New York Botanical Garden Libra 3 5185 00257 5874 vw i m i