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Py od hb a Wheres rey er enw Ns t wo tn™, ROE 2 @ vO he NN » ~~ o/ Oe Wie Tay Vy VU Wier ; ye Uvvy. ] ~ ‘ IA rd eteer gi tO UN LY 1 osc dh al b POA gerd NTS tf Wpull Py SAND 3 Weeteste APA; e { U rr in Tent watt Wi i Wee tn So ORS inn cea LaWeee BBAmIeS wm “by i "Ean Sone Sic sn lett vane mug sts. " WM bh hkl d 4 a, thy mee SAN ad ¥ "eye > LEAL | ol ethialaehbeL Sao Ag 2 Eng <) Ts e° * u vast bo, | ae {T AY r ™ ‘\ Thy “NS rata tS : Huy Bas Vin AG BI bu pith: , ae j nil on Sry eRer ym PPTDTTNAUIT Tht li i 2 Ky ele tesa abe Ade Nery ght Se bee vngtoqrell in ads “upAd Ah on ODS AA Any Wi ” yiwwy prvrtgelt 5 Fs ely gig vata Kaen sew OVO Nel: vatteggulyty {| nied | Tey a | ere tt | a t wwWOrrectasi.. 4 4 FT wap WHE bry 5 « * NOL Yer, A See to Parad baa} Y AUTHORITY OF LAW. WOOD, ST. TRANSACTIONS OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS. VOR Ve Sites. 273 352. PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF LAW. MADISON, WIE.: DAVID ATWOOD, STATE PRINTER. Oe IEG IB IN Sic PRESIDENT. Roxtanp D. Irvine, E. M., Ph. D., Professor of Geology, University of Wisconsin. VICE PRESIDNT, DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCES. T. C. CHAMBERLIN, A. M., U.S. Geologist, Director Geological Survey of Wisconsin. VICE PRESIDENT, DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS. WESLEY C. SAWYER, Ph. D., Professor State Normal School, Oshkosh. SECRETARY. iE. A. Brree, Ph. D., Professor of Zoology, University of Wisconsin. LIBRARIAN. A. O. Wricut, M.A., Secretary Wisconsin State Board of Charities and Re. form, and Recording Secretary National Conference of Charities and Corrections. CURATOR OF MUSEUM. R. C. HinpDLEy, Professor Racine College. TREASURER. Hon. 8. D. Hastinas, Madison. BIE Or CON i RNS: DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS. I. THE ENGLISH COTTAGERS OF THE MIDDLE AGES — by Prof. W. F’, Allen, State University, Madison ...... ... sie biel wiare evarainletere 1 II. Tae PuritosopHy or History —by Prof. A. O. Wright, Wis- consin Female College, Fox Lake (now Secretary State Board of Charities and Reform, Madison) .................. 12 IfI. Lire Insurance, SAvines BANKS, AND THE INDUSTRIAL SITUA- TION — by Rev. Charles Caverno, Lombard, Ill.............-- 21 IV. DIsTRIBUTION OF PrRoFiITs, A NEw ARRANGEMENT OF THAT SussEct— by Prof. A. O. Wright, Fox Lake.............-. 38 V. Weattu, CAPITAL AND Crepit—by Prof. J. B. Parkinson, States Umiversit ype lad ISOMrcricieeresstclerclmteleteleleic ieleliersiais 5.900000 46 VI. Toe Nature snp Funcrions or CrepIT—by Pres. A. L. Chapin, D. D., Beloit College, Beloit ..............0..----0- 57 VIL. Nature AND THE SUPERNATURAL — by Prof. J. J. Himendorf, 8. T. D., Racine College, Racine.......... aleve eka: oiisisvets) stavereiera’s 66 VIII. First Frencu Foot-Prinis Bryronp THE Lakes — by Prof. J. XI. XII. XIII. XTV. DVS uteri la las) eNUACTS OMG ale\arsiclersince ele ere etersisieveineineteloreciereys 85 . THE Puinosopuy or F. H. Jacosnr—by Prof. W. C. Sawyer, Lawrence University, Appleton (now of the State Normal] School Oshkosh) Meer ce ierleiciscleteielertreerlereciacteiseterel= 146 THE“ Araé Asyouweva OF SHAKSPERE— by Prof. J. D. But- espe Tee) evi SOM veyed sGe orc a isisreve ier inleieieiavereieteralelereisiortelecs aise: LOL DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCES. A List oF THE CRUSTACEA OF WISCONSIN — by W. F’. Bundy, M. D., Sauk City (now professor Eclectic Medical College, (Olniienyao INN Geodauumsosoooapedde Shel sualeeererersiors ae earasrciet ts sect Lae THE CORALS OF DELAFIELD — by Jra M. Buell, Beloit........ 185 On Some POINTS IN THE GEOLOGY OF THE REGION ABOUT Brtoir — by @. D. Sweezy, Beloit (now professor in Doane College, Crete, Neb)...............- Ba rede abe rat kee raccvaieyale séves 194 THE TipEs— by Capt. John Nader, Madison .......++eeeee+e- 207 vi Table of Contents. XV. ONA PROPOSED SySTEM OF LITHOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE — by Prof. T. C. Chamberlain, Ph. D., Beloit College, Beloit; also State Geologist ....... JagognoasadoDée stolevelstel otelere iio eeaete 234 XVI. MENOBRANCHUS LATERALIS — by P. R. Hoy, MU. D., Racine... 248 XVII. Tue Pirestone oF DeEviw’s Laks, by ‘Hon. #. LE. Woodman, arab oO jacsiccrere ears essere wc eae cons oie ceisler tonsTolel etefereiele asteau uate 201 XVIII. Tue Larcer Witp ANIMALS THAT HAVE BECOME EXTINCT In Wisconsin — by P: R. Hoy, M. D., Racine .............. 255 XIX. OBSERVATIONS ON THE RECENT GLACIAL DRIFT OF THE ALPS —by Prof. T. C. Chamberiain, Beloit, State Geologist....... 258 XX. TEMPERATURE OF PINE, BEAVER AND OKANCHEE LAKES — by Llizabeth M. Gifford and Geo. W. Peckham, Milwaukee ...... 273 XXI. A DESCRIPTION OF SOME FossiL TRACKS FROM THE POTSDAM SANDSTONE—Dby Prof. James H. Todd, Beloit College, Beloit. 276 XXII. A Crarrrer on Founpatrons — by Capt. John Nader, Madison 282 XXIII. Primitive ARCHITECTURE IN AMERICA — by Rev. S. D. Pect, editor American Antiquarian, Clinton ............ ........ 290 ADDENDA. Proceedings of the Academy from December 27, 1878, to July 5, 1881.. 321 Hibrarians Report awithycataloouer. rer os ceil seistecieciele cre eiciersecieiee 335 Bristof Members ic misictsieeieiscisic cuss eselmneveleisiecouors aces n ste eesteereie atere erelo ne Cen eeereTone 309 DEPARTMENT LEPITTERS. DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS. THE ENGLISH COTTAGERS OF THE MIDDLE AGKS. By Pror. W. F. ALLEN. In the statute entitled Hxienita Manerit, enacted in the fourth year of Edward I. (1276), three classes of tenants of the manor are enumerated : the libere tenentes or freeholders; the custumarit or customary tenants; and the coterelli or cottagers. In former papers I have inquired into the origin of the two first of these classes, and attempted to show that the customary tenants were representatives of the primitive village community, and that the freeholders were of feudal origin. In the present paper I propose to consider the third class, the cottagers. The class who, in this document, are called coterelli, are known by several other names — cofagit, cotmanni, cotarit, coterit, cotlan- dari. The several manors enumerated in the Gloucester Cartu- lary use these terms indifferently, while the Domesday of St. Paul's, in a passage corresponding to that in the Extenta Manern, uses the word cofagit instead of coterell. The Hxchequer Domesday has coterit and cotmanni, as well as anew variation, coscett or coscez, and the Jaws of Henry I. also mention cotseté. Lastly, the Rectitudines singularum personarum, of the period be- fore the Norman Conquest, has coiseilan, a form which is repeated in the consetl’ of the Abingdon Cartulary, in the latter half of the twelfth century. Here are ten forms of the same word, evidently having the same derivation, and apparently the same meaning, Nor is there any difference discernible in their tenures and services. They generally hold a messuage and curtilage, that is a cottage with a yard, or an acre or two of land, and render therefor some trifling services. Still they occasionally are found with estates of con- siderable size; as, an entire virgate,! twelve acres,” ten, nine and 1 Domesday of St. Paul’s, p. 5. * Boldon Book, p. 566. va ; 2 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. . so on.! Neither are we entitled to assume an absolute identity in the several terms, inasmuch as cotarw and coscet? are occasionally found in the same manor.? To add to the perplexity, Domesday Book regularly uses a word of entirely different etymology, dor- dariz, for the class of cottagers, the terms cotarzs, cotmannit and coscett being only occasionally used, and then being often found on the same estate with bordariz. The differences here indicated were no doubt slight and unes- sential: and at any rate it would be a hopeless task to attempt at the present day to trace them in detail. Let us return to the three- fold classification made by the Hxtenta Manerw ; this classification evidently indicates broad and intelligible distinctions. We will inquire first into the position of the cottagers of tne thirteenth century, and then proceed to trace the origin of the class.) We are here at the start upon firm standing ground. The cottagers of the thirteenth century are sufficiently well understood: in order, however, to make their condition intelligible, a brief re- view of the previous history of the peasantry will be necessary. Tne peasantry of the Germanic nations were, in the earliest times, divided into small communities, each occupying a definite tract of land, called mark, which they owned and cultivated in common. When they reached a more advanced stage of progress, which required the ownership of land in severalty, each member of the community received an equal portion of land, consisting of house-lot and arable land, with rights of user in the meadows, pasture and forest, which he held as his own, subject, however, to the methods of cultivation followed by the community. This share was called in England, hide, on the continent, mansus. At first the proprietor of the hide held it as it were in trust for his family; he could not alienate it, but must transmit it to his heirs. Soon, however,— at a very early time in England,— he acquired the right of alienation; and, as a matter of course, the primitive equality of ownership was speedily succeeded by great inequality. A few became rich, others were forced to dispose of a part, or 1 Exchequer Domesday, i. f. 128. %e. g., Carletone in Wiltshire. Id. p. 67. The English Cotiagers of the Middle Ages. - 3 even the whole, of their land. We have, therefore, rich peasants, poor peasants, and landless peasants.* The name given to the village mark in Latin — the language almost universally used for public decuments in the. middle ages -—— was villa, and its inhabitants were villant. Now in the changes in landed property, so long as a man kept his hold upon his share (hide), or even upon any aliquot portion of it, he was by right a villanus, a “‘towasman,” and entitled to all the political and ezonomical privileges which belonged to the community. Thas, the manor of Sindun’ gives first of this class those who held half a virgate (i. e., one eighth of a hide, the regular share having been reduced to this amount by successive subdivision), then the operari: of ten acres, and then those of five. These three classes, were the villant proper, or, as they were now called, the custumari, or customary tenants. They were the higher order of serfs, bound to labor by an hereditary obligation from which they could not escape; but having an interest in the soil, also hereditary, and of which they could not be deprived. Above them were the freeholders, libere tenentes, also having an interest in the soil, and held to labor; but an interest and an obligation resting upon definite and personal contract. But there was a class below the customary tenants; serfs, like them, held to labor by an obligatioa which they: did not themselves enter into, and from which they could not escape, but having no interest in the soil to compensate for it. They might hold land, even in con- siderable amount; but it was purely at the. will of the lord. These were the cottagers. If the customary tenants may be called villeins reyardant (preedial serfs), the cottagers may be called villeins in gross (personal serfs), with a status hardly better than that of slaves proper. Both classes held their lands nominally “Cat will,” but with the customary tenants the prescriptive rights of the tenant were. effective against the bare legal right of the lord. , : eh ty . It will be noted that there were no slaves in England at this time (the close of the thirteenth century.) There had been at an 1See, on this point, Thudichum, Gau und Markverfassung, p. 211. * Domes2ay of St Paul, p. 18. 4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. earlier time, but they had been gradually emaucipated, and were, of courze, one element of the class of cottagers. Another element was the poorer or more shiftless members of the village com- munity; however low they might sink, so long as they retained, by prescriptive right, a share in the mark, they were vz/lant, or customary tenants: if they lost this, and were dependent upon the lord for grants of land, they were cottagerz, tenants at will. Personal status and tenure of land are two points of view from which every class of persons in the middle ages must be regarded. In treating of the changes in landed property, I have partly antici- pated the companion topic of personal status. While the hide was subdivided, and while many members of the community were losing their share altogether, a parallel process was going on, by which the entire body of free villagers, vidiani, were transformed intoserfs. And side by side with this was a process familiar to all students of social history — the converse process, by which the slaves were elevated in position and became personally free, while still held to obligatory labor. The common freemen, by a process of degradation, and the slaves, by a process of eleva- tion, met on the common ground of serfdom, and were distin- guished from one another, not by any difference in personal status, but by their relation to the land. ‘T’he common freemen, the villant, were now villeins regardant; the landless freemen and the slaves were villeins in gross, or serfs proper. For it should be noted that the distinction made by modern law writers between villeins regardant and villeins in gross is not recognized by the law writers of the time, and must be considered as not at all a difference in per- sonal rights, but in right to the land. Qwuecumgque servus est, says Fleta,’ cta est servus sicut alius, nec plus nec minus. The higher class were attached to the soil simply because they had a prescrip- tive and inalienable right to the soil; the lower class could be transferred from hand to hand or estate to estate like slaves, simply because their obiigation to labor was not joined witha permanent right to a definite estate of land. Therefore, we have a clue to start with — the two fold origin of 1 Book I. 3. 3. The English Cottagers of the Middle Ages. (Oy) the cottagers. We must look to the slaves as well as to the land- less freemen, for their source. For assistance in thisenquiry we must have recourse chiefly to two documents of the 11th Cent.; the Rectitudines Singularum per- sonarum, which gives the obligations of three classes of free peas- ants shortly before the Norman Conques!; and the great or Hx- chequer Domesday Book, which gives the numbers, on every estate; of two principal classes, only in a few cases stating the extent of their tenure and their obligations. Both documents mention also slaves; but it must be undestood that the “slave” of this period was rather a serf than a chattel slave. It will be noted that the passage from Fleta, just cited, uses the word servusat a time (about A. D. 1300) when chattel slavery had been long abolished. Our three principal documents therefore give us the following classification: the Rectitudines singularum personarum, three classes, Geneat, Cotsetel, and Gebur; Domesday Book, two classes, Villani and Bordarii: the Hxtenta Manerii, three classes again, Libere tenentes, Custumarii and Coterelli. Our problem is to reconcile these differences. In the first place, it should be remarked that the Libere tenenise or freeholders, having come into existence since the time of Dom- esday Book, do not correspond to any one of the earlier classes, and may therefore be left out of account. In the next place, it is perfectly well esyablished that the Geneat of the Rectitudines, the Villant of Domesday Book, and the Custumarw of the Mxtenta Manerti, are the same class. We have therefore only to determine the relation of the Coterel/i to the others of these earlier classes; and especially to explain how it is that Domesday Book has only one principal class, the Bordarii, where ‘a few years earlier there were two, the Cotsetel and the (Geburs. Here I must call to mind the fact to which I directed attention a short time ago, that the class of Cvterelli had its origin in two sources — the slaves and the landless freemen. The slaves, there- fore, of the eleventh century were certainly one source of the cot- tagers of the thirteenth century; and so, in all probability, were a part at least of the classes intermediate between the slaves and the Villani —that is, the Bordarii of .Domesday Book and the 6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Cotsetel and Geburs of the Rectitudines. Let us proceed to exam- ine these three classes. The essential features of the Wolseilan-riht, according to the Fec- (itudines, are the following: the Cotsetel is explicitly spoken of as a freeman, but as not paying a land tax, like the Geneat or Vil- lanus; his holding is generally five acres, and his regular obliga- tions are one day’s labor a week. His free status associates him with the V7/anus, but his obligations — labor instead of money or produce — appear to show that his tenure is not one of pre- scription, like that of the full member of the community, but is at the lord’s will. These features all point to this class as that of which we are in search — fieemen who have lost their hold upon the land, and who have received from their lords small and precar- ious grants. The obligation to labor one day in the week seems to have been a very common one in England. In analyzing some years ago the tenants of some English manors at the period of the Extenta Maneri?, I found a class intermediate between the Custue- mari and the Coterelli, which it was difficult to attach positively to either of these classes. These are the Lundinaris or “ Mon- daysmen,” who had holdings ranging from two to six acres, and labored one day a week throughout the year. J pointed out this feature which they had in common with the Coésetel, but did not attempt at the time to pursue the subject further. The Geburs are described, in the same document, in terms, which show that they were not a free class, and were in a rather harsh condition of serfdom. ‘Their ordinary obligation was two days a week (besides numerous occasional services), their hold- ings averaged larger than those of the cotsetel, and they received stock and seed; but at their death everything they had was the property of the lord. This last is the clearest mark of serfdom, and is called mainmorte. : We pass now to Domesday Book. The names of both the classes above described are found in Domesday Book, but in very small number; there are enumerated in all England 1749 cosceta (a'l in the west of England), 5,054 cotart/, mostly in the south» a few cotmanni and 64 Geburs, also in the south. Of course it is impossible that this handful should represent the cottagers as a The English Cottagers of the Middle Ages. a eiass. The class of cottagers are the bordarzi, 84,119 in number, distribute 1 in due proportion in every part of England, and con- stantly associated with the vilanz, 108,407 in number. Tere we have evidently the customary tenants and the cottagers. Unfor- tunately Domesday Book rarely gives any information as to the obligations of the several classes. We have however, a few items of information. In the first place the dordarz are regularly asso- ciated with the villani,* from which it appears that they occupied the village and not the lord’s demesne. In one case their labor is put at one day in the week.” And although as arule, the hold- ings are not given, yet in several manors of the county of Middlesex they are given in detail; and here we find the bordari: holding five and six acres apiece; also holdings in common — 6 bordarit of 80 acres, 16 of 2 hides (acres not given), 36 of 3 hides, 4 of 40 acres, and 8 of 1 virgate (or one-fourth of a hide). [rom these data it follows with certainty that the bordari were an out- crowth of the village community; that they were originally vil- lagers like the villant. They would appear also to have held their lands by prescription and not at will; but this is not a pos- itive inference, and on other accounts seems hardly probable. With regard to the cotarv, we learn just about as much as with regard to the lordarii. We fiad these too associated with the villanz,* and find them holding four and five acres apiece, or mere gardens for a shilling each,* or, in common, 8 with 9 acres, 2 with 4 acres, 22 with half a hide, and 46 with a whole hide. These facts prove that the coturi/ likewise were an outgrowth of the villaze community, and belonzed properly to the class of villant. Bat the colard and coscetv are so few in number and so scittered, that we can iafer very little in regard to them. 1Vol.I,f 4.a; Leminges in Kent; centum et unus villanus cum xvi bor- dariis habentes lv carucas. f.284c; Colingeham in Nottinghamshire; vii villani et xx bordarii habentes xiv carucas. f. 350. Tatenai in Lincolnshire; v villani et ii bordarii arantes v bobus. 2 Vol. I, f. 186. Ewies in Herefordshire. xii bordarii operantes uno die ebdomeda. 2Vol. I, f. 9.a. Wichehame in Kent. xxxvi villani cum xxxii cotariis habent ix carucas. +Vol. I, f.128. Westminster in Middlesex. 8 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Ledlers. The name bordarius, used in this document and in a few other ozcasional cases, may assist us toaconclusion. It is a French term, used by the French officials of William the Conqueror in- stead of the native English term. In France, the bordarius was the tenant of a bordaria, a smaller estate attached to a mansus or hide, upon the outskirts of which it was situated’; the bordarius, therefore, although not a full member of the community, was an outgrowth of the community and belonged, by origin, to the class of villant. He was a cottager, but a cottager of free origin. The French bordarius, therefore, the occupant of a cottage upon the estate of another peasant, belonged by his origin to the class of villani, but did not hold his land by prescriptive right, like the villant proper, but by spezial grant, lik: the serfs. He was a cottager, but a cottager of free, not servile, origin. it does not follow, of course, that the compilers of Domesday Book used the term strictly in this sense. In all probability it meant to them simply cotfager, and they applied it without discrimination to all those English peasants whom this term could properly de- scribe. It is not surprising that they classed together, under this name, the coésetel or free cottagers, and the geburs or serfs, seeing that these classes agreed in occupying cottages with a few acres attached. It must be remembered that Domesday Book does not, as a rule, record tenures but classes of men. It was no object to distinguish between the different classes of cottagers, whether as to tenure or as to status. And if in a few instances we have cotartt or cosceti by the side of bordurii, all we are entitled to infer is that the officials who drew up the report of this particular manor, noted distinctions which other officials passed over as insig- nificant; that the distinctions existed generally, but were not generally put on record. It was not even nezessiry that the bor- darius should hold any land at all. Domesday Book mentions one bordarius who, on account of poverty, had nothing, and ten who had no Jand of their own. 1Lamprecht; Beitriige zur Geschichte des franz6sischen Wirthschaftslebens, p. 38. 8 Vol. I. f. 177 b., Hatete in Worcestershire. Yo). II, f. 299, Gepeswiz in 8S folk. The English Cottugers of the Middle Ages. 9 We are therefore entitled to conclude that under the French name lordarius, Domesday Book includes the two Anglo-Saxon classes of cofsetel and geburs, two classes which were both, prob- ably, of free origin, but one of which had sunk into genuine serfdom, while the other might still be described as free peas- antry. Two hundred years later, the class of cottagers included also the now emancipated slaves, all being equally serfs in status, and equally lacking any interest in the land, beyond that of a tenure at will. But the cottagers of free and of servile origin, although agree- ing in status and in tenure, were nevertheless not wholly identi- cal. They appear to have differed in the locality of their residence and tenure. It has been already said that the cottagers of free origin in the eleventh century, so far as can be traced, being sprung from the class of villagers, had their residence in the village’ among the tenants of higher class. Thisis certainly the case with the French bordarii, and it may be inferred to have been the case in England. But the slaves, being the personal property of their lord, had their residenge, not in the village, on the tenement lands or wéland of the manor, but on the lord’s per- sonal estate, the demesne or zn/and ; just as, on our southern planta- - tions, the negro quarters were in the neighborhood of the “ big house.” When the slaves were emancipated, it was natural that they should continue to live upon the demesne, occupying cot- tages and petty holdings just as the older class of cottagers did upon the tenement lands.” Or if new lands were cleared upon the waste, they might receive patches of this. At any rate they would not be in the village with the customary tenants and their companions. This probability is converted into a certainty by a few isolated facts which we meet with in the period between Domesday Book and the Hrtenta Manerii. The rent-rolls of the end of the 13th century, the period of the Metenta Manerii, class all the cottagers 1See, for the residence of cottagers in the villages of Germany, von Maurer. Geschichte der Fronhéfe, Vol. IIT, p. 198. ?Von Maurer, id. p. 311, speaks of colont upon the Hofléndereden (or de- mesnes.) 10 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Lellers. together. The status and the tenures had now reached their fully developed form. But in the earlier rent-rolls we find these classes clearly distinguised. Thus the Abingdon Cartulary,’ after enumerating the free-holders and customary tenants of the manor, adds (manor of Boxole): 7m eodem hamel sunt xv cotsell’ ad opus, ete.; and then goes on: fi extracti sunt a dominio, giving the names of twenty-six petty tenants. A few years later (1222) is the Domesday of St. Paul’s, edited with Jearning and judgment by Archdeacon Hale. This contains the rent-rolls of twenty-two manors; and in nearly every case the roll begins with Js? tenent- de doninico, to which follows a list of petty holdings upon the demesne; then come the free-bolders and other tenants. Cotari, when there are any, are put after the free-holders and customary tenants, that is, upon the tenement lands. I cannot find any direct evidence to support the view, in itself shown to be prob- able, that these tenants in the demesne were the descendants of slaves. It is noticeable, however, that the handicraftsmen are generally found here;’ and upon the continent it is an established fact that the handicraftsmen were of unfree origin; whether it was so as a rule in England or not, I cannot say. The same document enables us to make a comparison between the tenants of the same manor at two different periods which, so far as it goes, confirms the view here taken. It must be ob- served that the period between Domesday Book (1086) and the Domesday of St. Paul’s (1222) was full of convulsions, social as well as political. During this time the class of free-holders came int» existence, and the class of slaves went out of existence. It is difficult, therefore, to trace any clear connection between tke classes of the peasantry in the two documents. The following will serve as examples. The manor of Sandun in Middlesex had, acecrding to Domesday Book,’® 24 villar’, 12 bordarii, 16 cotanti, and ‘Vol. II, p. 301. * Thus, in the manor of Beauchamp, p. 33, I find textor (tailor), pellépartus (tanner) faber (smith) carpentaréus (carpenter) and pzctor (painter). So in the manor of Boxole, given above, there were a tanner and a miller upon the demesne. 3 Vol. i. f. 136. The English Cottagers of the Middle Agcs. 11 11 servi. In 1222 there are 24 operarii (corresponding exactly to the 24 villanz), only 8 coturti, 23 libere tenentes, and 24 tenants of the demesne, a considerable number of whom are also reckoned ia the other classes. This would appear to show that the free- holders originated in cottagers as well as in willané. In the little manor of Norton, in Essex,’ there were only two bordart ; in 1222 there were six tenants holding from five to ten acres apiece. Here it would appear that the lordarii were petty tenants with no special rank. The conclusion which we seem entitled to draw, is that the Coi- selel of the Fectitudines, lumped together with other cottagers in Domesday book, were nevertheless a quite permanent class, reap- pearing in feudal times, under the name of Lundinurii, or ** Mon- day’s men,” as a kind of aristocracy among the cottagers; that the ‘Geburs were, like the cotsetel, of free origin, but lower in condition, and that they were the principal source of the cottagers upon the tenement lands; while the cottagers of the demesne and the cleared lands were in great part the descendants of the slaves ‘of the eleventh century. UNO leiiesternli ce 12 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, THE PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY. By Pror. A. O. WricuT. Within the last century the study of history has taken a new departure. The materials of history have been sifted more care- fully, and researches have been made in every direction for new material. The monuments of Egypt, of Assyria, and of Baby- lonia have been made,to give up the dead languages buried in them, and to tell the tale of their forgotten dynasties. The ancient language and civilization of Hindoostan reaches across the eastern continent to claim kinship with the sons of Japhet in the West. Historical and antiquarian societies have sprung up all over Europe and America to gather every document and every monument that can furnish material or illustration for history. Historians are beginning to pay more attention too, to the grand forces that move society. History is ceasing to be the annals of monarchs and the story of battles and is coming to be more and more the record of the collective life of a nation or of the whole human race. The scope of history is thus greatly widened. And, thirdly, there is coming into existence a philosophy of history which attempts to explain the causes of the greater movements of mankind. Thus in a history of any nation or epoch we may reasonably ask for three things, accuracy of detail, breadth of view, and a presentation of causes and effects, or the philosophic relation of facts. It is with the last that this paper will attempt to deal. There are three great conditions of history. Hach of these is claimed by one school of historians to be the chief or only cause of human history. And according as we lay stress on one or another of these great conditions will our whole interpretation of history vary from materialism to idealism. The first great condition of history is found in the physical characteristics of the earth. Of these the most important is -climate ; but all the physical conditions that affect commerce agri- The Philosophy of History. 18 culture or manufactures should be grouped together here- The chiei of these are climate, fertility of soil, access to the sea or navigable waters, level or mountainous suiface, and workable veins of metallic ores. There is a school of historians who insist that these physical conditions explain all or nearly all the great movements of history. And one historian of this school has gone so far as to make climate tho sole cause of our civil war, and to prophesy therefore that as north and south have different climates they must always be hostile, and to predict a succession of wars between them. ‘ The physical conditions of the earth wili doubtless explain much of its history. The first civilizations of the earth sprang up in the semi-tropical alluvial valleys of the Nileand the Euphrates, where the conditions of life are so easy that a dense population can be supported. ‘The sea coasts have been favorable to enter- prise, and the mountains to freedom. The tropic and the frigid zones have nourished indolent savages; the temperate zones have been the abode of civilized man. Iron or bronze have been the necessities, and gold and silver the luxuries, that mark the begin- ning of civilization. Had England remained connected with the continent in historic as in geologic ages, Henry VIII and Charles I could have become despots, and Napoleon could have conquered her. Climate and soil made cotton king, and slavery profitable enough to be worth fighting for. But the physical conditions of the earth will not explain every- thing. The valleys of the Huphrates and the Tigris were once the seat of empire, why are they so no longer? ‘The same sun shines on the same soil, watered by the same rivers ; the physical conditions are the same as when Babylon, or Nineveh or Bagdad stood in splendor; but other causes are weighing on that fair land. The creed of Mohammed and the greed of the Turk are stronger to destroy than climate and soil are to build up. Hng- Jand and Japan are strangely alike in their physical conditions, but while Hogland has lived athousand years of healthful pro- gress, Japan lay in the sleep of feudalism, till awakened by American cannon. Other causes must be sought for the growth and decay of nations besides their geography. 14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letlees. The second great condition of history is found in the division of mankind into races, with their various characteristics. Here again, a school of historians is found to claim the characteristics of race as the main-spring of history. The Jaws of heredity and of the survival of the fittest in the stregele for life can be applied to the history of mankind as well as to the history of birds and beasts. But in the one case as in the other there is danger in trying to make these Jaws explain everything. The origin of our free institutions to-day can be traced in the stubborn hardihood and love of personal freedom of the German stock from which we have sprung. The same steady bravery of the Teutonic stock which won the day at Gettysburg and at Saratoga, changed the history of Europe also at Waterloo, at the siege of Leyden, at Mor- garten and at Lutzen. The same love of local freedom, which created the United States of America, created also the kindred Federation of Switzerland and the United States of the Netherlands. But why have a part of the same race in Germany for a thousand years submitted to petty local despotisms, from which they have but just emerged? Why did the Arabs sleep in their peninsu'a till Mohammed came; and what has since become of the old Norse love of daring adventure? What is the secret of the marvellous change now going on in Japan? These are questions which his- tory indeed can answer, but not a history based on race alcne. The law of heredity can best explain the temperaments, features and dispositions of mankind. Leading traits of character will be preserved by nations through every vicissitude of fortune and every change of faith or clime. The Gaul of Cesar is the French- man of to day in disposition, but not in institutions, language or religion. His leading traits have survived the influence of im- perial and of papal Rome and of the German conquest. The Turk on the throne is still the Tartar of the steppes in spite of the Koran on the one hand, and of Hurope on the other. ‘Three thousand years have not sufficed to change the physical or the moral traits of the Greek, the Hindoo or the Negro. The law of race has its limits; but within these it is powerful. The third great condition or cause of history is found in ideas. Man is distinguished from all other forms of life on this globe by The Philosophy of History. 15 his ability to grasp and to carry out an idea. ‘The ideas which have ruled man may be grouped in four classes. The most important ideas and the ones which have had most effect on history, belong to the first class, that of religious ideas. The history of"modern Hurope would not have been written at all had it not been for christianity, which recreated civilization. The great Protestant movement of the sixteenth century has given birth to Anglo Saxon freedom on both sides the Atlantic, and has built up a new German Himpire on the rains of the old. And the events of the past year are opening our eyes to the evil influ- ence of the faith of Islam upon the destinies of the Orient. The second class of ideas are the ideas of government. Until of late the history of the world was the history of its governments. Monarchy, aristocracy and democracy have all had their cham- pions and their martyrs. The divine right of kings, the divine right of nobles and the divine right of majorities to rule, have each, at times, controlled the destiny of nations, and have been only less powerful than religious ideas in making history. The third class of ideas are those concerning the family ; whether it shall be composed of one man and one woman, with their chil- dren, or of one man and several women and their children, or of one woman with several men and their children; whether the union shall be for life, or at the pleasure of one or of both parties to the marriage contract ; what shall be the position of the wife in the household, as a slave or an equal; what shall be the rule of inheritance for the children ; what shall be the education of the sons, to the father’s business or to whatever business they are fit- ted for; and the conceived analogies to the family found in the clan or in the nation. The history of China or of Turkey cannot be written without understanding the Chinese or the Turkish idea of the family. No one ean rightly understand the complete social and political change in France since the revolution without oye ing the effect of the Napoleonic law of inheritance. The fourth class are social causes, such as the tenure of lard, the condition of the laboring classes, the state of general educa- tion and of the higher education and the opportunities for rising in life. No history of the Roman republic can explain its speedy 16° Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Aris, and Letters. decay without telling of the grasping land monopoly of the sena- torial ring, and the consequent change of the Italian peasantry from free farmers to slaves. No history of the new Germany of Stein and Bismark could fail to tell of Prussian schools. And the whole history of our own country for the last half century turns upon the conflict of two systems of labor and two theories of education. There are thus three great sets of causes which govern history: geographical causes, ethnological causes, and ideal causes. In an individual man we should call these outward circumstances, hereditary character and purposes of life. If we know these three things about a man, we know what that man is; and so with a nation, if we know the outward circumstances in which it is placed, if we know what sort of hereditary character it has, and if we know its leading ideas we know its history. Most histo- rians err either by neglecting these underlying causes of history entirely, or by attaching far too great importance to some one of them at the expense of the others. In all ages of the world each of these causes has had some effect upon history. In the earlier ages and in all times among uncivilized tribes, geographical’ causes have had much greater power than among civilized nations to-day. Undoubtedly the differences of climate and locality worked far more rapidly in the first ages of the world, when men first divided the earth between them, than they do now. The whole history of barbarism is a history of adjustment to condi- tions of nature and the whole history of civilization is a history of triumph over nature. Obstacles which were insuperable even a century ago, are now easily overcome. ‘To the barbarians of the Homeric song, a petty expedition against a small Asiatic city in- volved more difficulties and consumed as much time as it required of the later Greeks to conquer the whole Orient. And as civilization is overcoming geographical difficulties by intellectual power, so also it is overcoming hereditary difficulties by moral power. The progress of civilization has been two-fold, in a material progress of subduing nature, and in a moral pro- gress of subduing man. The history of government and of reli- gion is the history of a constant triumph of ideal forces over The Philosophy of History. 1% inherited barbarism, and the gradual growth of a hereditary elvilization. Thus if we are to study the laws of history rightly, we shall allow a greater relative power to geographical and to ethnological causes in the earlier ages than in the later, and among barbarian than among civilized men. For instance, the time was when civ- lization was limited to navigable waters, because commerce was thus limited. And the teaching of Ritter that the proportionate extent of coast line on the several continents determines the amount of their civilization is true as far as it goes. But now commerce no longer depends on coast lines, but boldly explores the interior of great continents with its arms of iron, and civilization at once finds a home in Wisconsin as congenial as in the British Isles. The power of thought has conquered the resistance of nature, and ideas have reconstructed geography. Again, in the early . ages of the world tke first great nations were found in a sub- tropical climate under the isothermal of 70°. As men gained in skill in resisting the influences of cold on themselves and their works, the yet greater nations of classical antiquity grew up under the isothermal of 60°. And now the mental, and therefore the material power of the world, is found at about the isothermal of 50°. Or take the rude barbarians over whom Alfred ruled, or the pagan savages, their ancestors of a few generations before, and contrast them with the Englishmen and Americans of to-day, and see what the combined forces of Christian faith, constitutional government, and scholarly learning have wrought, and see how the whole course of our history has been changed and ennobled by these ideas. The ideal force in man is a greatly varying force and is capable of almost infinite growth, while the forces of climate and of race are nearly constant forces. While these are relatively more im- portant factors of history at first, the force of ideas is a growing force which comes to be in modern history by far the most im- portant. The student of history will err if he regards these forces as having a constant ratio to one another, and neglects to note the growing power of ideas. 9 18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. It would be a fascinating subject of inquiry to ask what are the relations to one another of the ideas that have ruled the world, and the relative importance of each; but the limits of this - essay forbid me to enter on that subject. The three great conditions or causes of history, which we have thus far considered, are constant causes always at work. The in- fluence of any one of them may be mo»re or less in different ages or countries, but it is always something. There are other causes in history, which are occasional and temporary in their character, but which sometimes have great weight, and turn the course of ‘history to a certain extent. But because they are occasional and transitory their effects are far less than these constant forces of which we have spoken. There is, first, the influence of nations on one another. Man- kind in past ages have been uniformly so selfish and narrow and -eruel, as to think that one nation can only be happy and pros- perous at the expense of other nations. The arts of war have had the honor-and the service which rightfully belongs to the arts of peace. The hi-tory of the relations of nations has been a record ‘of. war, of conquest and of oppression. And, therefore, the de- cisive battles of the world are of interest to the student of his- tory. Sometimes their results were a foregone conclusion, as when the training of Prussia in schvol and camp was matched with the dJgnorance of Austria on the field of Sadowa, or when Philip planned and Alexander carried out the first united effort of Greeks to conquer the effete Persian despotism. Sometimes they are decided by that class of providences which men call chance, as when the fire at Moscow broke the power of Na- poleon, or the storm shattered the pride of the Armada. And not only the decisive contests, but the indecisive ones a!so have had great and varied effects upon the course of history. Of the -Thirty Years’ War, it is not enough to say that it resulted in a drawn battle between Protestantism and Catholicism ; history ‘must note also that it put back the progress of Germany two centuries, and made her for that time a mere “geographical expression.” The Crusades directly accomplished nothing; but indirectly The Philosophy of History. ~ 19 they made barbarian Christendom acquainted with the civilization of Islam, and gave life to the germs of modern freedom in the free cities of Hurope. And the wearisome and seemingly sense- less wars of modern Hurope to preserve “‘ the balance of power,” have helped to nourish that competition of nations in the arts of peace as well as war, which forms our best guarantee for a con- stant progress of civilization. The influence of greatmen, too, should not be forgotten. That influence is often overrated. Of the heroes of history, many are sham heroes, followers, not leaders, who have made a great noise in the world, but have not perceptibly changed the course of his- tory; and every great man must bein great degree the repre- sentative of his age, and know how to follow in order that he may lead. Yet, after every allowance has heen made, there are certain great men, who have led their times and who have really made history. Such men as Cromwell, Richelieu, Pitt, Napoleon, Bismark, have made the history of modern Hurope read in quite a different way, from that in which it would have read had they not helped to make it. But above all these second causes, stands the first great cause of all history. If we believe that there is a God, we must believe that he has a plan in his government of the world. And if we believe this, history to us ceases to be the result of the conflict of blind physical forces, or the record of trials of strength between contending ideas. A regular purpose is seen to run through the providences of history. Some great idea is being unfolded in scene after scene of the great drama we are playing God's re- demptive government of the world, is seen in the political sphere in the progress of liberty ; in the social sphere in the progress of civilization ; in the scientific sphere in the progress of knowledge, and in the religious sphere in the progress of christianity. To understand history then we must recognize the reign of law there — physical laws, that set the limit of climate and soil and commerce, and thus limit the habits of man, and so modify his character — physiological laws that keep up race peculiarities and thus produce and limit habits and through habits character — psychological laws that raise man above the level of the brute by 20 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. his teachability, and by his ability to conceive and to carry out far-reaching purposes, and finally the influence of a higher power upon the whole race. History is not a fortuitous sequence of events. It is subject to law, and is the working out of a plan in the Divine mind. Says Bunsen, “To write the history of a nation is to recom- pose a canto in that great epic or dramatic poem, of which God ts the poet, man the hero, and the historian the prophetical mterpreter.”’ . Life Insurance, Savings Banks, Hle. 21 LIFE INSURANCE, SAVINGS BANKS, AND THE INDUSTRIAL SITUATION. By C. CAVERNO, Lomparp, Iu. Having occasion recently to borrow five hundred dollars, I ap- p'ied for a loan to one of our successful life insurance companies, which bas amassed assets amounting to many millions of dollars. I was informed that, whatever the security I might offer, the rules of the company forbade a loan for so small a sum. Now that the regulation of the company was not wise, for its own convenience aud protection, and for the interest of all those, myself included, for whom it was acting as trustee, I do not for a moment maintain. But this transaction representsa state of affairs to which I should like to call attention. We may find by inves- tigation upon it some clue to the monetary stringency of the times — possibly some explanation of the malign aspect of the labor horizon. In common with, say, forty thousand other men, I had been paying to this com pany small sums of money for a long series of years. Yet when I, orany oneof my forty thousand fellow policy holders, wanted a loan for less than a thousand dollars, no matter what evidence we might give of financial soundness to the extent of the money desired, we must look elsewhere for it. The funds of this company, as of all other companies, are largely made up from the contributions of the poorer class of young men— young men who are struggling for a competence, and who have taken out one or a few thousand dollars of life in- surance, to secure creditors of whom they have borrowed small sums, or to tide a wife and children over the shoal of poverty in the event of death. Now whatever the intent of life insurance may be, and how- ever excellently it may serve certain purposes, yet here is a state of facts inviting reflection not only from the large army of policy holders in the United States, but from any one who will try to 22 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. vavel intelligently the complications of our industrial condition. The men of humbler means, in putting their little savings into life insurance, have been aggregating vast sums with which large capitalists might operate, but from which they themselves could not get a cent for their lesser and, we shall maintain, equaliy safe enterprises. The capitalists not having legitimate enterprises in which to put the larger sums which the insurance companies have placed at their control, have become speculators, have lost their ven-' tures, and swamped the insurance companies loaded with bogus, insufficient or depreciated securities; and the insured and his money and insurance have been forever parted. The working masses must reflect that the plethoric millions, which they boast of as constituting the assets of their favorite company, are so much money collected from themselves and put beyond the possibility of their own manipulation. More than a billion of dollars within a generation have been gathered from all quarters of the country; from all pursuits and occupations; from farm and country village, and massed for use in the large cities. If this enormous aggregate were distributed to, or could be ‘handled by, the people from whom it came, financial relief would at once be widely felt. The wheels of the humbler enterprises would be speedily oiled. When it becomes possible for them to secure accommodations, we shall start anew in industrial prosper- ity, and out of the sum of small movements we shall reach the possibility of great ones without peril. Tt is in industry as in nature — you cannot have rivers without rills. The facts are the same with reference t» savings banks. They’ may serve the poorer classes well in some respects, but in others, and they are important ones too, they are an injury. They may help each individual to save his own, but they hinder each indi- vidual from being helped with the little surpluses of his veigubor. It is easy enough to deposit five dollars in a savings bank, but no poor man can get an accommodation of five dollars /rom a savings bank. Life Tasurance, Saviugs Banks, Etc. 23 The man who loans the bank a small sum is welcomed. The man who wants to hire a small sum is recommended to the pawn broker. The aggregate sum in a savings bank is just so much money removed from the possibility of use among the poor and handed over to the rich to help them widen the distance already separat- ing the poor and the rich. It is so much contribution to specula- tion under whose influence the value of wages is uniformly depressed as against the commodities the laborer needs to buy. It is easy enough to see the road over which the savings banks have gone to the wide-spread ruin which is their recent history. Many littles have made much; and the bank officers have found themselves in position to enter into operations to which wild times and greedy ambition invite. Before any war of labor against capital, there has been a war of capital against capital — capital bidding against itself for the sup- posed profits of great enterprises. If the best of these great enterprises could not be secured the next best must be and soon. The best has proved to be none too good, and the rest it is useless to try to characterize. The poor in putting their surpluses into savings banks, have simply been standing idly by while capital has been employing their earnings in this interesting game of outwitting itself and them. A savings bank for the poor is a great “‘ How not to do it.” Men of small means need accommodations as well as those en- gaged in larger enterprises. If an institution is for the benefit of the poorer classes, they ought to have a chance to get something out of it as well as to put something into it. This want a savings bank, if managed with ever so good intent, cannot in practice meet. A radical fault io the savings bank system is that it is an at- tempt to relieve the poor from the necessity of taking care of their own funds —from the exercise of their own brains upon their own finances. ‘The system promises to take care of the poor when they should be taught to take care of themselves. It prevents the poor from using what the naturalist would call the providen- tial instinct. 24. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. The good savings banks accomplish is very much over esti- mated. The statistics of amounts deposited are often taken as an ex- hibit of savings which would not otherwise be made. The probability is that almost all that ever appears on the books of a savings bank would have existed as savings, only it would be loaned ont in such ways that no statistician could reach it. A thing that will astonish you, as you become acquainted with the depositors in a broken savings bank, is not the number of imbeciles that have been ruined, but the number of intelligent, capable, saving people that have been duped. Some of us can remember a generation of factory-girls who made close savings when no savings banks were within their reach. The first spare money that came into the New Hampshire town in which I was raised, was the savings of our factory-girls. Al- most every home took on a new appearance from the surpluses sent back by the girls at work in the factory. When fathers and mothers got in a pinch for money to keep a boy or girl at school, the first resort was to the savings of the factory-girls. These young women were their own bankers. They did not ask any favors of savings banks. They found out to whom it was safe to loan and to whom if was not. They knew whether a man who sought to borrow their earnings had a mortgage on his farmn or a chattel mortgage on his stock, and, if so, for how much and to whom. Some of these women remaining single and man- aging their own funds came to possess the large fortunes of their locality. . Now what a savings bank would have done for these factory girls would simply have been to make them babes in finance instead of self-sufficing bankers. It would have led them to surrender to others an intellectual ex- ercise in the highest degree profitable to themselves. Their earn- ings would have gone into a vast aggregate to be swallowed up by a kite-flying banker in the ‘‘down east” speculation which did ruin somany venturesome capitalists; and the clap boards and shingles would have rattled in the wind on the old houses which Tnje Insurance, Savings Banks, Hte. 25 were spruced up, by their thrift, with white paint and green blinds. - If savings banks teach people to save (which is very doubt- ful), they still are an evil in that they paralyze the very faculty we most need to cultivate, and that is the ability to manage savings. When representatives from half the families of a great city abandon the use of their own intellect by delegating to otbers (and these others, all told, numbering no more than a score) problems they themselves ought to sulve, they ought not to be greatly surprised if the end of the transaction is catastrophe. There are moral evils which demand consideration. The moral element plays an important part in finance. And by moral or morals in this discussion I refer to general intent, purpose, quality of life. We substantially tell the poor by the savings bank system that they need take no care, on the score of morals, relative to their finances. The bank stands as a moral insurance company and takes the risk in that department. We say the difficulty of the times is want of confidence. But that want of confidence arises fully as much from fear of the moral meaning of men as from dis'rust of their intellectual ability or executive energy. Whom to trust is the great question, and the ictus of it falls on the moral realm. But morality is strictly an individual matter. You cannot create a moral corporation. Yet respectably intelligent people, by tens of thousands, have acted as though they supposed this had been done. They have gone like birds to the snare of the fowler to put their earnings in a savings bank, unsuspecting and without inquisition as to the morals of the men who were to handle their funds. A bank was a bank, and a bank was safe —a savings bank was safety itself come down to dwell among men, incarnated and apotheosized. When you come to consider the question of safety it will be found that you cannot solve that matter until you have resolved moral elemerts. There the basis of safety will be found to rest in the good sense and honesty of the individual man —a man who can explain himself and his whole financial situation to the lender of money. 26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. If banks are safe, it is because they are officered by such men. It is better to put on each individual the burden of finding out this honest man, in order to deal with him, than it is to delegate the search. There are no safer sums than the majority of srrall loans, such as are made from man to man in the processes of small enterprises. The moral element comes to the front in such cases. There is an element of personal faith in them worth more than any mere pride of financial honor that rules on ‘change—more secure, pro tanto than the property values of the greater capitalists. When men have been trained to find an honest and capable individual, they may be expected to be able to find corporations of similar character, if there is advantage in dealing with corpora- tions. But to create corporations with an implied understanding that by them the poor are to be relieved from the exercise of moral providence, is an ethical blunder on its face, and we might have expected from it just whet the history of savings banks in this country shows, failure distinguished, conspicuous. But there is a moral fault lying behind the one discussed. Now that we have had so many disasters with savings banks, every body has fallen to work to devise some doutle-sure, iron-clad, adamant-bolted system of safety for the poorer classes. We might pause on our way to ask who the poor are for whom we are to make such certain provision. Where is the dividing line between the poor and the rich? Perhaps it is where the insurance companies draw it so that a man who cannot swell his wants to upwards of a thousand dollars, sball be regarded “ hors dz combat financier.” We in Illinois have passed a statute that no savings bank shall receive on deposit more than four thousand dvllars from one individual. Society then to compensate a man for his inability to borrow, will step in and insure the safety of his loans to these amounts. Why is it not the business of society to help a poor man _bor- row as well as to help him to lend ? But the moral question comes up: is the selfishness of the poor to be insured ? Infe Insurance, Savings Banks, Kite. Pali We are pretty careful to teach the rich that they are to regard themselves as stewards, and sometimes to take a little risk to help strugeling worth upon its feet. How far down the scale shall we come in pressing this duty? If a man has five thousand dollars to loan shall he have the moral responsibility of helpfulness loaded on him, while he who has five dollars only to lend shall think only of his own safety ? The truth is, the poor can help the poor as well as the rich, or the rich the poor, and they ought so tu help one another. The men of bumble means ought not to be relieved from the responsibility of helping their fellows in the struggle for exist- ence as they have opportunity. The poor are on the war path against capital. What have they done with their own little surpluses? The chances are that in the scramble for safety they have shut their hands and their hearts against some humble enterprise, which might bave been saved from ruin, in order that their little sums might further in-' flate the balloon of some rascal who ostentatiously paraded him- self as a great capitalist. We are wondering when ‘easy times” are to come again. They ought not and probably will not recur till ‘judgment begins at the house of God ;”” till the poor begin to be willing to help the poor; till they cease to regard safety to themselves as the ultimate good; till they are inspired to help others as well as to protect themselves. When the poor have canonized selfishness by looking only for the safety of their own means, is it any wonder that a selfishness of broader grasp has confiscated ail they have put in its posses- sion? The game has been, ‘‘ keep what you have and catch what you can,” and at that the dozen directors have beaten the forty thousand depositors. Life insurance takes its place in the savings bank system, and in the same way in respect to it the people have gone crazy. The legitimacy of life insurance, under certain exigencies, and within certain rational limi's, I should not wish to deny. I should even want to assert it. But the claim has been made that life in- surance was the best form in which men could lay up property ; 28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. and thousands and tens of thousands of our young men, abdicat- ing their own financial skill, have been cramping themselves and rendering themselves useless to everybody and everything in their own day and vicinity by carrying large policies on their lives. The aggregated premiums have constituted vast sums for which the directors of the company cou!d not or would not find safe in- vestment, and so we have had the recent history of insurance, and the end is not yet. There is absurdity on the face of the matter that the directors of an insurance company can make and keep fortunes for forty or fifty thousand families. Propitious cireumstances in singular in- stances may accomplish prodigies in this direction. But if that style of fortune making can be long and widely carried on with success, then most men were made in vain; manis a botch, and it is idle to reason about him or his affairs. Well, this system of delegating to others what intellectually and morally pertains to ourselves, having failed on the old plans, the air is full of new schems. The only one which we can notice is the one which puts the national government into the breach. The secretary of the treasury proposes a subdivision of the in- terest-bearing national debt minutely enough to put it into the power of the poor to utilize it asa savings bank system. That, for its own purposes, the government did not long ago do this is a wonder. But for the poor it is simply a proposition to tie the times up tighter; to take another twist on the screw of constric- tion under which the poorer classes already groan. The result will be to collect all the little rills and send them just where all the greater streams have gone, to swell the vast amounts locked up in U. S. bonds, insurance assets, securities and stocks of all sorts— amounts removed partially or entirely from participation in the living enterprises by which society is sup- ported and out of which wages are paid. It may be best under our present circumstances to adopt the plan. But let us clearly understand that the policy is a make-shift any way. Suppose, as all honest men mean it shall, the government sets the high exam- ple of paying its debts, what will become of this system of sav- ings banks? Must the government keep in debt in order to main- Life Insurance, Savings Banks, Htc. 20 tain it? Then again, the very last thing we want to do is to add to the force of the feeling among the poor that the government is to take care of them. Hven a government system of savings banks, in the long run, will be no kindness to the poor. We are drifting all tuo rapidly to the notion that the goy- ernment is to take care of usail. Mere is even a religious news- paper of some note, advocating the idea that since we have lost faith in men because of bankruptcies and failures, we must now put the nation where before private enterprise stood. The poor, this journal says, will trust the nation as employer and pay- master. Ilas not all this been tried over and over again to the over- throw of the nation that tried it—its rich and poor together? Rome stood in the gap and found corn for its people till the Goth came and ‘‘ destroyed them all;” and that just because he was up to the problem of providing for himself and the Romans were not. ‘Lost faith in men? ’’ why we have not put faith in men; that is just the thing we have been tryiug to avoid. We have been seeking safety on a property basis only, and have made no ac- count of faith in men; and the men whom we have entrusted with our funds have known it, and have exhibited the same heed- lessness respecting moral considerations we ourselves have shown. We have lost our wits as to where the problem of industrial reconstruction is to begin. We are looking for it to begin at the top instead of the bottom; looking for it to begin where we left off, instead of starting anew. We were looxiog for wars in foreign lands to create a demand for our products. Thank God, the European war last past proved that resource a broken staff ! We are looking for an era of railroad making to sprirg up again. But that era will not come again, as a private enterprise, till we have earned, from bottom dollar to top, the money to put into such kind of expenditure. We are looking for the government to start a great system of internal improvements; to build the North and South Pacific railroads; to embank the Mississippi river ; to dig a ship canal around the lakes or through the heart of the country. 30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. By engaging in such enterprises, in the present condition of things, the government would simply break its own back, and take the burden off the back of nobody. That is not the road to easy times. We shall strike that road when every man, rich or poor, will look abovt him, and try to put in practice in his own neighborhood some very old and hum- ble wisdom, “To do good and communicate forget not.” Then, like Bunyan’s pilgrims in the bogs of the enchanted ground, we may ‘‘make a shift to wag along.” To this line of argument the reply may be made: The divi- sion of labor and the combinations of capital resulting in our large system of industry, have made the system of small savings and their management by individuals, as well as the system of small industries, no longer practicable. It is said that as the factory has superseded the distaff and loom of our grandmothers—the railroad, the postman, the ox cart and the horse waggon—the reaper, the cradle and the sickle — so the bank and the insurance company have put an end to the feasibility of individual manipulation of money. This will lead us to take a look over the manner of our industrial con- dition. It is true we have very largely superseded the individual by the corporation — the man by machinery. But the question will recur, after all, how much we have made by the process. Somehow in spite of our division of labor and combination of capital we are all at the stand still. There is a hitch in affairs evident enough notwithstanding all our power to mass men and money. There is a limit to the Fes of combination, and the question I raise is, whether we have not in a great many things, reached and gone far beyond that limit. The question I raise is, whether our way out of our present complications is not, not by crowding ahead along the lines of combination on which we have been operating, but by taking the back track and paying more attention to the individual and less to the corporation — encour- aging enterprises of individual and local character rather than those which attempt to do the world’s business in the gross. Infe Insurance, Savings Banks, Etc. ol If a colonel can manage a regiment so splendidly, what would he not do with a million of men? Very likely lead them lke sheep to the slaughter. If a drive wheel of so much weight and diameter would d» so much work, what would a drive wheel of a thousand times its weight and diameter do? Fly to pieces. We have been massing men in the industries till the power of our generalship is exhausted, and your industrial army is breaking up into Mollie Maguires and tramps. We have made our drive wheels so large that they are flying to pieces of their own momentum. When coal and iron mining can be carried on only a few months in a year, and then at a rate of wages that would not be very en- ticing to a gopher, it is evident that capital in that business has passed the limits of its own safe management. The same thing is evident, too, when the spindles and shuttles of our factories stand idle half a year, and are only operated the rest of the time by women and children at rates of wages that ean scarcely support life for the time being. Under such circumstances the sceptre of ability profitably to manage large masses of men has passed from the hands of capital, and the sooner that fact is acknowiedged and acted on the better it will be for it and for civilization. So when every one of the savings banks of a great city goes by the board, it is useless to talk about. the profitab!eness of gath- ering up small savings and massing them that they may figure in the combinations of capital. ‘“Suum cuique” would certainly work more satisfactorily than that. And when wrecking and scaling are the order of the day in in- surance, it is about time to take notice that combination in that way has passed feasable limits. It is a pretty tough thing after all to abolish the cedivainal: and we are not so near it as we thought we were with our great process of combination. And all our financial and industrial dis- tress will pay for itself, when once that fact is seen and befitting action taken. There are possibilities in man beyond any possibilities in machinery. o2 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and. Letters. Notwithstanding all the genius that has been expended on the sewing machine, hand sewing is still the most popular. ' The deft hand has still the advantage in the struggle for existence. There are machines to sew and peg boots, but the men are few who will not willingly pay more to have the foot measured and a fit made by a journeyman as of old.. And the journeyman who can meet this want has good prospect of daily bread —a better prospect than the man who tends a machine. __ Notwithstanding the perfection to which the processes-of the reaper have been brought you can find successful farmers who will testify that forty acres of grain are more cheaply secured with the cradle than with the reaper — consideration being had to: the amount of money you must put in a reaper, its interest, and the cost of repair. | The reaper has the advantage on the larger tract. But that larger tract calls for broad generalship, and the tendency of our development must be toward its subdivision. The Hon. Hugh McCulloch called attention the other day to the Gwynn farm in California. It has thirty-six thousand acres in wheat, which is cultivated and secured, we may say, entirely by machinery. But the ability to manage thirty-six thousand acres of wheat with whatever help from machinery, will be as rare as the success of Choate and Webster at the bar, or of Beecher in the pulpit. Agricultural machinery has altered man’s relations to the mar- kets, not essentially to nature. It has made it possible for skillful generals to make large fortunes from farming. But since “ Adam delved and Eve y-span” it has been possible for a man with the rudest implements to make a living from a few acres of ground, and, will be in spite of all machinery, till men “shall hunger no more.” This is society’s answer to the tramp. This fact casts light on the inevitable redistribution of popula- tion between city and country — on the rearrangement of industry between manufacture and trade, and agriculture; and on com- parative property values. ~It is true that in this light the prospects for wealth do not glitter. But we are likely for the next twenty years to talk Life Insurance, Savings Banks, Eic. 33 more of making a living and less of making a fortune, and society will be the healthier for it. One would think that the combination of Aa might secure the monopoly of the cutlery market — that it would be impos- sible for a man without capital to maintain himself against Sheffield and Meriden and Shelburne Falls; yet F. A. Seaver and son of Lake Mills, Jefferson County, in this state, carrying their steel and wares back and forth over-land seven or fourteen miles, with next to nothing for capital, can make a living, and havea nice littie margin to spare, on the single article of butcher knives. The reason is because they bring to every piece that leaves their hands an amount of personal care and skill that cannot be secured in the great establishment:-. Within six monthsa tinner has come to the suburb of Chicago in which I reside —the last piace where you would have said such an artisan could get a living —and has been more than busy every day since his arrival. Personal facileness in his art is the secret of bis success. Mass capital and lose geniusin manipulation is the rule. The civilization that depends on massing its capital and is not alert to foster native talent, sporadic in its appearance as it may be, goes to the wall. It will take only a little more loading cloth with starch, earths, gums and dyes, on the part of the factories to make it profitable to bring the old hand looms out of the garret to make cloth once more that would go from year to year, if not from generation to generation. Capital, in its combinations, has pushed out so far in many directions that it can sustain itself only by fraud, and fraud is an inverted pyramid. When ninety-four per cent. by weight of silk is dye to six per cent. of fibre, it will become profitable and popular to wear hand- made cloths instead of such silks; and the process of making them will be as fashionable as worsted work, perhaps even as fashionable as painting in water-colors. I believe the remedy of our present industrial stagnation is to be found in just the opposite direction from that we have been 3 34 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. pursuing. Instead of trying tomake great combinations in which the care shall be loaded on a few individuals, we shall go back to our local enterprises and put in some care for them. Instead of trying to find some Rothschild —shall I say Jay Cook & Co., Duncan, Sherman & Co., Ralston, Winslow, Spencer, Tappan, some treasurer of « Fall River manuficturing company, or other of “the noble army” of huge bankrupts, innocent or malicious, whose debris, or the plentiful lack thereof, lie ground us “ thick as autumnal leaves that strow the brooks in Vallombrosa ;” — to take care of our funds, we shall see if we real'y cannot trust our neighbor and help some struggling enterprise in our own village. It is said that small enterprises are unsafe and go to the wall soonest. This is partially true and partia'ly false —and when it is true it is not necessarily true. Ii will take a great many of these small failures to aggregate the amount lost in banking, in- surance, by treasurers of companies and corporations, and officers of railroads. When it comes to loss it is just as comfortable to reflect that you have tried to. help some humble affair as that you have gilded the hegira of some of the great financiers. Since the dawn of history there has been a contest to secure the definition of political rights. That contest is pretty much ended in civil'zed nations. The overthrow of slavery and serf- dom demonstrates the basis on which political rights must here- after rest. But while political rights are taking their final form, industrial rights are still in a nebulous condition. We are in the latter about at the point in the former of the secession of the plebs from the patricians. We have yet all the weary way from Mons Sacer down, to travel. Do you think, Mr. President, that we are seeing the beginning of the end in the Jabor agitation? I tell you, nay, we are only seeing the beginning of the beginning. There will yet be a readjus!ment of values as radically differ- ent from any thing that now prevaiis as steam transit from the footman. Take a yard of cotton cloth, if you please, and reason about it a little. (Ji) Or Life Insurance, Savings Banks, Kc. There will be no quiet in the industrial situation till the price of a yard of cotton cloth approximates to that of a bushel of corn, perhaps of a bushel of wheat; unless utterly undreamed of inven- tions and conditions are worked to modify the labor of its pro- duction. Though we have given political freedom to the slave, we have not yet touched his zrdzvidual condition. The price of the production of cotton is still at a point which represents the absolute chattelhood of labor. That will not stand. Jn the manufacture of cotton we are working on an inversion of the family relation, and that will not stand. The condition of no great manufacturing interest will be stable that rests on the labor of women and children. The cotton cloth finds its way to market over railways. Last summer the transportation business was brought to a sud- den halt, the operatives said, because they could not support families on their wages. Blind and foolish these operatives were ; but thousands of men do not enact blind folly without the com- pulsion of some master grievance. This is certain ——no men are more closely worked and more closely paid than railway operatives. The remedy against the troubles of last summer was in promi- nent quarters maintained to be the employment of none but unmarried men. Now look at the condition of things revealed by a yard of cot- ton cloth. Here are three great departments of industry — origi- nal production, manufacture, and distribution — which are carried on, or sought to be carried on, in flat violation of the family rela- tion or in indifference to it. Yet we are all agoe with wonder to know where communism comes from. Its origin may be sus- pected not to be altogether due to the outcropping of original sin in the laboring man. Asif we had not degradation enough in our own labor, we are invited by some capitalists to put labor down to the level of the Chinese system. If there is any one gauge indicating the superiority of our civ- ilization over that of the Chinese, it is the cost of supporting 36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. women and children. The Chinese works so cheaply because he expends next to nothing in the support of wife and child. I be- Heve it is understood that most of the women who have accom- panied our cheap Chinese laborers to this country are not in the marriage relation. That is the one main reason of the cheapness of Chinese labor. The cost of the Chinese wife is at the rate of the simple sup- port of the animal woman. As between the wisdom of the hood- lum and that wisdom which would solve the labor problem by rernanding woman to the position she holds among the Chinese emigrants, commend us to the former; it is not so earthly, sen- sual and devilish. The end of our difficulties will not be by communism as dis- ruptive, nor by the buliet as preservative of the old order. N-ither will settle anything. The one is as irrational as the other. We shall begin to build well when we discern what has gone to pieces under us. Itis clear that the present condition of things has brought into derision the political economy which has paraded its as the columns of statistics —the tombstones of dead acts gauge of human possibilities; which has taught us that there is only one principle — competition — the law of demand and sup- ply, which presides over the regulation of labor. That political economy sounded very well in the mouths of doctrinaires. But society is breaking up under it, capital is shriveling, and labor idle, incommunicative, sullen. We have ex- cellent scientific authority that the will amounts to something in the modification of environment. The statement might have been added that the extent and quality of modification depends on the intelligence and moral intent. Given these in high degree and of pure tone and all things are possible. Given these and we shall cease to speak of labor as a commodity. Itis not commodities we are talking about, “but human creatures’ lives.’ A remarkable commodity this which requires a national army and a state constabulary and local police to keep it from ‘appropriating all the dear earned possessions of man. The end of that wisdom is anarchy. Life Insurance, Savings Banks, te. 37 We have reached in practice this demonstration: You cannot found civilization, preserve capital, organize labor, carry on any of our industrial or commercial functions, simply by the guidance of the self regarding instinct. Notr.— The foJlowing item from “ The Christian Union,” I append to the foregoing essay for ressons that will be apparent on its perusal: “ INDEPENDENT LABor.— In spite of-the multiplication of machinery there is still a strong prejudice in favor of hand-made articles of all sorts, and therein lies a suggestion that may relieve much of the distress that now causes such wide-spread dissatisfaction with the existing state of things. The ‘Scientific American’ says: “The chronic superabundance of the labor supply in the older countries had developed some condit'ons full of useful suggestions to us. Wherever we travel, there we are surprised to learn that a large proportion of the smaller articles of manufacture, with which, in some instances, the trade of the world is supplied, are made by artisans in their own houses and with the simplest appliances; aud we find there also, in almost every large town or city long established, business houses whose sole business it is to receive and distribute these goods, to find markets for the handiwork of the independent workman. We know of prosperous firms in England who doa very exten- sive trade in this way on an investment probably of not more than $10,000. Obtaining samples of their productions from the various artisans so em- ployed, they intrust them to their ‘drummers’ or ‘commercial travelers,’ who travel in every direction exhibiting them and soliciting orders; on re- ceipt of an order tne special workman is notified, and soon makes his ap- pearance with his basket or bundle of goods, which are inspected and paid for according to previous agreement. Vhe goods are then put up in the con- ventional packages and shipped according to order.’ “The individual workman may tbus compete with the corporations, but he can only do so by producing an article which will possess some superiority over the product of machine work. If in addition to this he can avail him- self of associated means of disposing of his work, he may create an inde- pendent market for his goods.” C. C. 38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. DISTRIBUTION OF PROFITS. A NEW ARRANGEMENT OF THAT SUBJECT. By Pror. A. O. WRIGHT. The following is offered as a new arrangement of the subject of distribution of profits, differing in some important particulars from the arrangement given in any work on political economy with which the writer is acquainted. In civilized communities nearly all Production requires the union of capital and labor. The proceeds of production are then distributed in various ways between the capitalist and the laborer. In actual practice the capitalist and the laborer may or may not be the same person; but in theory we may separate the shares of capital and jabor. There is still a third party concerned in. pro- duction, the business manager, who stands between the capitalist and the laborer, and by his skill in superintendence increases the proceeds of the business, and thus makes himself a sharer in the proceeds. The share which always belongs to the capitalist is called in- terest, when it is paid for the use of money, and rent when it is paid for the use of real estate. The rate of interest and the rate of rent vary according to fixed laws which I need not give here. The share which always belongs to labor is called wages (or in some cases salary). ‘This also varies according to weli-known jaws. After deducting interest or rent, as the case may be, and wages, including the salary of the business manager, the net proceeds are the real profits of the business. In some cases in- stead of profits we should say losses, but this does not change the conditions of the problem. Whoever receives the profits should also bear the losses, and generally does. There are then two ques- tions in regard to every kind of production: first, what are the profits (or losses); and second, who gets them. In solving these Distribution of Profits. 89 questions I make the following five cases, each of which presents a different phase of the question : CASE I. In this case, capitalist, business manager and laborer are com- bined in one person. Hxamples of this case are farmers who own land and furnish their own labor; mechanics who own their own shops and tools and do their own work; and merchants who own their own stores and stock in trade, and keep no clerks. This case is the simplest in practice and the most difficult in theory. As one person combines the functions of capitalist, business man- ager and laborer, there is no distribution of the proceeds. No one pays interest or wages to himself. The question, who gets the profits, is easily answered. But the question, what are the profits, is much harder to answer, and indeed the producers who come under this class rarely attempt to answer it. They confuse together interest, wages and profits in one lump sum, and often fail to sep- arate their personal or family expenses from the expenses of the busine-s, or to account for the proceeds of the business which they or their families consume. To find the true profits of such a business, not only should all business expenses be deducted from the gross proceeds, but also interest on the capital invested and wages for the labor done. - The farmer, mechanic or merchant, as the case may be, owes him- self as a capitalist interest on the capital invested. He also owes himself as business manager and laborer, wages for labor per- formed. But all products of the business consumed in his family should be added to the gross proceeds cf the business, and charged to family expense account. In this case a real business loss is frequently concealed under the profits of capital and labor. The producer thinks he has made so much out of his business, when in fact the business has made nothing, and his receipts are really less than interest and wages should be. So also a real business profit is frequently con- cealed under extravagant personal or family expenses. Bat it does not always follow that a farmer is losing money who does not clear the interest on his land and stock, and wages 40 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and. Letters. for his labor. He has the advantage, if he is free from debt, of receiving interest without the trouble and risk of lending money or renting a farm, and he has work all the year round. He can put in odd hours and days of labor for himself where he could not in working for some one else. The great advantage of small farms held in fee simple is that more work can be put on them than could be done by hired labor. This is an advantage both for the farmer and for the whole community, as the case of France since the revolution shows. CASE II. In this case capitalist and business manager are the same per- son, employing one or more laborers. This case differs from Case I only in the employment of laborers; and as a farmer’s, me- chanic’s or merchant's business grows, it naturally runs into this case. In this case there is no distribution between capitalist and busi- ness manager. The net profits of the business are found as in Case I, except that the labor is partly or wholly paid for, accord- ing as the proprietor himself works or not. This payment of labor thus makes wages visible as a business expense. But the proprietor’s own labor, as manager or laborer or both, must be _accounted for as in Case I. The remuneration of the laborers hired is generally (a) wages. But it may be (b) ashare in the gross proceeds or in the net prof- its, or (c) partly wages and partly a share in the proceeds or profits. As the gross proceeds are so much more easily estimated than the net profits it is found in practice usually better to givea share in the proceeds in those cases where the laborer receives a share of the results of the business. Thus on the cotton planta- tions in the south, since the war, the negro laborers are often given a share in the crop, a thing which they can easily understand and in which they cannot easily be cheated; whereas if they are to have a share in the net profits it would be easy to cook up the accounts so as to cheat them, and with the utmost honesty on the part of the planter it would be hard for him to make the negroes understand the accounts he kept. But the simplest and most ob- Tnstribution of Profits. 41 vious way is to pay the laborer wages, reserving to the proprietor interest on the capital invested, salary as business manager, wages as far as he performs labor, and the profits, if there are any. In many kinds of business it would be hard to introduce any system of sharing the profits with the laborer. Thus in a printing office, where the workmen are constantly wandering from one office to another, or on a farm where in harvest and threshing extra men must be hired, or in a store where the amount of sales and the net profits are both matters that often must be kept secret from the public and from rivals, —in all these cases it would be hard to introdece any system of giving the laborer a share either in the proceeds or in the profits of the business. But where such a system can be introduced it has obvious advantages over the sys- tem of wages. It p:oduces a greater interest in the business on the part of the laborer and therefore more faithful work and greater care to prevent was’e. It is the usual practice in the great mercantile houses to give the best clerks a partnership, that is, a Share in the profits. The hope of thisis a constant incentive to the younger clerks, and the offer of a partnership prevents the best clerks from carrying their customers to rival houses or set- ting up in business for themselves. CASH III. In this case the capitalist employs the business manager and the laborer, giving them (a) wages or salary, (b) a share in the profits or (c) a combination of the two. The capitalist takes in- terest, and the net profits (or losses) of the business. In this case the interest 1s concealed by the profits, but can be easily separated. Thus if a capitalist builds a woolen mill, and employs a super- intendent and several laborers, he usually pays asulary to the first and wages to the secoud. But he may give the business man- ager a share in the profits, thus virtually making him a partner. Or he may make him formally a business partner, reserving the title to the mill, and rent for it, to himself. Or he may give both the superintendent and the handsa share in the profits. he usual practice on a whaling ship is for the owner to receive one-half the oil and whalebone, and for the other half to be divided among the captain and crew, in so many “ lays,”’ or shares to each. 42 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. A variety of this case is where the capitalist is a corporation, as in the case of a railway company, an insurance company, a na- tional bank, a city newspaper or a manufacturing company. In this case interest and protits combined appear as divijend. In a large corporation there are often several business managers, each with his department of the business. Very generally the manag- ers are also stock-holders, and receive dividends in that capacity as well as salaries as managers. The questions raised by the subject of stock companies and their dividends, areimportant questions in Distribution. But they call for a separate treatment, and are omitted ia this paper. Another variety of this case is when a number of persons are associated so carry on a co-operative store. Usually the capital of each partner is quite small; but for the purpose of carrying on the co-operative store they are capitalists, even if they earn their liv'ng as laborers. They simply club together their individual Savi: gs, so as to make a mercantile association, aod then employ a manager and clerks, and se'l to one another and to outsiders on su: h terms as they choose to offer. In England these co-operative stores have been quite successful. CASH IY. In this case the manager carries on the business, borrowing money or goods of the capitalist or renting land or buildings of him and employing laborers. In this case the distribution is, to the capitalist interest or rent, to the laborer wages, and to the manager salary for his services and the net profits (or losses.) It should be noted that the case is very rare where the business manager can borrow money, buy goods on credit or rent land without capital of his own as a basis of confidence. On that capital he should also have interest. The best examp'e of this case perhaps is the system of agricul- ture in England. There the capitalist is the landlord, who rents land for a term of years, generally now for twenty-one years, un-. der definite conditions in regard to crops and improvements, and for a fixed rentin money. ‘The business manager is the farmer, who receives salary for his services, interest on the capital he invests in the shape of stock, tools, improvements on the land Distribution of Profits. — 43 and advances made to the laborers before his crops are sold, and the profits (or losses) of the business. The laborers receive wages, often miserably inadequate. A very common example of this case in this country is where a merchant as business manager invests a small capital and buys goods systematically on credit, renting a building and hiring clerks. In this instance the capitalists are the owner of the store who receives rent, and the wholesale dealers of whom goods are bought on credit, who receive interest directly, or indirectly in the enhanced price of the goods, and perhaps also the bank of which the merchant secures accommodation loans from time to time, paying a high rate of interest. The business manager is the merchant who receives interest on the capital he has invested, salary as business manager, wages as salesman, and the profits (or losses) of the business. The clerk or clerks receive wages. I need not say that the result of doing business in this way is in nine cases out of ten a net loss, which falls either upon the mer- chant or fully as often upon his foolish creditors, the wholesale dealers. A. variety of this case which almost deserves to be set off as a case by itself, is when the business manager gives the capitalist a share of the proceeds or of the net profits in lieu of interest or rent. The most familiar example of thisis where a farm is rented on shares. This is the usual method in the United States of rent- ing farms, when they are rented at all. It is also, under the name of Metayer rent, the usual method in France and Italy. In this method of carrying on business, the distribution to the laborer is wages; the distribution to the capitalist is rent in the form of a share of the crop, which on the average of years is more than a fair money rent. But this is usually more than offset by the ten- ant’s neglect to keep up the land, as he holds only from year to year. And the distribution to the business manager who in this case is the tenant, is interest on the capital he has invested, if any, wages for bis own labor and net profits (or losses) after paying any laborers he has hired and giving the landlord his share of the crop. 44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Aris, and Letters. CASE V. Tn this case an association of laborers borrow capital and em- ploy a busine:s manager who may or may not be one of their own number. This case is a favorite one with many persons in theory, but it has never thus far been found to work well in practice. To avoid misconception, it should be noted that corporative stores do not come under this case’ The laborers who organize a corpora- tive store, do not as a rule work in the store, and are therefore in regard to that business not laborers, but capitalists. They are really a stock company to carry on a mercantile business and therefore come under case III. as we have already seen. But when journeymen shoemakers, for instance, form a co-oper- ative association, they come under this case. As in all xinds of business, capital is needed to begin it and to carry it on. This capital may possibly be obtained in one of three ways: (a) By borrowing money of some capitalist, which could not be done ordinarily ; or (b) by renting a shop and buying materials cn credit, a hazardous undertaking both for the association and for the capitalist; or (c) by combining their separate earnings, which would be the usual method. In this case the association as a combination of capitalists employs its own members as business manager and laborers. This case in the last form differs from case I only in being the case of a combination of individuals instead of a single individual, that combine in one the three functions of capitalist, business manager and laborer. But in this case, while there is no dis- tribution between the association and outsiders, there is a question of distribution between the members of the association. Of the various methods which might be adopted, the following is the most in accordance with the principles of political economy. Let the members be credited with the capital advanced by each as so much stock in the association ; let the members be paid for their services at the market rates, and if possible, by the piece and not by the day, and after paying these wages and other expenses, let the members divide the profits or losses on the basis of the capital advanced by each, like any stock company. All these five cases have their place in the transactions of business, and every form of Distribution of Profits. 45 productive industry must fall under some one of them. I sum- marize them in closing: Case I. Where the same person is capitalist, business manager and laborer. Case I]. Where the capitalist and business manager are the same person, employing laborers. Case II]. Where the capitalist employs the business manager and laborers. All business corporations are a variety of this case. Case IV. Where the manager carries on the bnsiness, borrow- ing or renting of the capitalist and employing laborers. Case V. Where an associution of laborers employ themselves and furnish their own capital. 46 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. WHALTH, CAPITAL AND CREDIT. By J. B. Parkinson, of Madison. ) Macleod in his “Theory and Practice of Banking” asks why political economy has not yet attained the same rank as an exact science as mechanics, and answers, ‘‘ because the same care has never yet been given to settle its definitions and axioms.” In this answer we are furnished with but a fraction of the truth. A d+ eper reason is, its definitions and its axioms are far more difficult of settlement than those pertaining to mechanics or to any of the more exact sciences. Political economy labors under special disadvantages. Its close relation to the moral sciences, whose circles certainly touch if they do not overlap, brings it continually into contact with feelings and prepossessions which are nearly sure to leave their impress upon the discussion of its principles. Its conclusions, too, from the very nature of the subject matter of which it treats, have a direct and visible bearing upon human conduct in some of the most ex- citing pursuits of life, while its technical terms by a sort of com- pulsion are taken from the language of the people, and must partake in a greater or less degree ot the looseness of colloquial usage. Its growth seems slower than it really is, for it belongs to a class of sciences whose work can never end. The chief data from which it reasons are human character and human institu- tions, and whatever affects these must continually create new problems for its solution. Of disputes about definitions there is no end. ‘They are rife in every science. In political economy they are especially so, and chiefly for the reasons above stated. Disputes of this character are usually harmless, and not uncommonly stale and unprofitable. But there are economic questions of vital import, such as reach to the very essence of things, about which we do not find that harmony which would seem to be essential to healthy and rapid progress. Wealth, Capital and Credit. 47 The subject to which I desire to call attention chiefly at this time is credit, but before doing so, it is important fo pass in brief review two or three other terms which lead up to and are neces- sarily involved in any discussion of credit. - The first of these is value, an important term in Poli‘ical Econ- omy, and one almost necessarily concerned in every economical discussion. A misapprehension of the nature of value will vitiate all reasoning upon questions of economy and finan:e. The term is a relative one, and herein lies the chief difficulty. That which is absvlate the mind can seize and hold, but mere relations are apt to slip the grasp at every turn. Value always implies a co.n- parison. It is the relation which one thing bears to another as made known by an act of free exchange. In other words, ex- change, which is a sort of equalizing of estimates, alone gives ex: pression to value. It would be just as reasonable to attempt to determine a ratio by considering one of its terms only, as to at- tempt to asce' tain the value of a thing without comparing it with something else. Another term closely allied to value, and which is made the cen- tral word in most of the definitions of political economy, is wealth. This, also, like other terms which this science is compe’ led to use, is taken from every-day language, and is sometimes employed in a vague, and often in a metaphorical sense. ‘“‘ Hvery one,” says J. S. Mill, “bas a notion, sufficiently correct for common purposes, of what is meant by wealth. The inquiries which relate to it are in no danger of being confounded with those relating to anv other of the great human interests” While this is true, yet, as Mill him- self shows, the most mischievous confusion of ideas his existed upon the subject, which for generations gave a th ronghly false direction to the whole policy of Hurope. Under the so called ‘Me cantile System,” nations in their intercourse with each o' her assumed, either expressly or tacitly, that money an! the precious metals capable of being converted directly into money were alone wealth — that whatever sent these out of a country impoverished it, whatever tended to heap them up in a country added to its wealth, no matter what or how much of cther commodities was given in exchange for them. These crude notions have in the 48 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. main been dissipated, yet some traces of them still lingerand often crop out in discussions upon what is called the balance of trade. Disputes about wealth still go on, but they are mainly over dis- tinctions of metaphysical nicety. Political economists are sub- stantially agreed as to the nature of the thing itself, and only quarrel about whether this or that shall be admitted to the cate- gory. In the language of the logicians, they differ about the term im extension, not in intension. Prof. Perry, however, holds thatitisimpossible to frame any definition of wealth which wili render the word fit for scientific use. He has written a book about wealth without stopping to de- fine it. It isa work of much merit, but is marred, it seems to me, by the author’s persistent attempt to ignore this term. Nothing is gained by calling political economy the “' science of exchanges,” or the ‘‘science of value.” The question What is wealth? must still be met, for to wealth only do exchanges apply or does value attach. Wealth is usually defined, and I have no new definition to offer, as ‘anything which can be appropriated and exchanged.” The essential requirements are that it shall possess utility, or the capacity to satisfy desire, and be the result or embodiment of labor. Hence, as a generic term, it includes all objects of value and no others. It is usual to include in wealth material things only — such as may be accumulated, stored. Such limitation is more in accordance with the popular notion of wealth, although strictly and logically the term includes more. The question of wealth or not wea'th does not absolutely turn upon the length of time a thing may be enjoyed, nor upon whether it may be seen or tasted or handled. The primary source of wealth is the free bounty of nature. ‘The secondary source is labor which also gives the right of possession. Nature is liberal in her gifts, but she rarely offers them in a condition just ready for man’s consumption. Man be- gins where other animals end. They use nature's gifts as they find them. He, like them, partakes of her fruits, but is expécted to fit them for his use by rational effort. The accumulated wealth of the world is but the result of the application of labor to the materials furnished at free hand. Wealth and capital must not be confounded. The former includes all objects which may be Wealth, Capital and Credit. a8) appropriated and exchanged, the latter, such only as may be em- ployed in production, or at most, such as are set aside for produc- tive purposes. Hence, all capital is wealth but all wealth is not capital. Wealth is generic, capital is specific. Capital-is some- times called labor of the past. Itis the result rather of the combination of past labor and natural agents. The knowledge and skill of workmen also are by some included under the head of capital. There are grave objections to such a classification. It tends to break down all distinction between capital and labor, or rather, between capital and laborers. All labor implies a union of physical and intellectual effort, and the same reasoning which is urged in favor of reckoning the acquired knowledge and skill of the laborer as a part of capital would, if followed to its logi- cal results, include his physical strength also in the same category. Itis claimed that men sell their skill —their intellectual and physical dexterity. If this be true, then they also sell their mere physical powers. ‘The truth is they sell neither. The reswlis of each are bought and sold in the market— not these powers and. capacities themselves. It is a characteristic of the latter that they are retained and used — not parted with at all. Nor is the skill of a mechanic, strictly speaking, s»mething owned. Possession implies something outside of the possessor. Knowledge and skill and physical power go to make up the man,— they are a part of what he zs, not what he has. Labor helps to create capital, and the powers of the laborer, whether natural or acquired, are poten- tial labor. We are now in a better condition to understand the nature and chief functions of credit As the etymology of the word signi- fies, credit is trust—confiderce. Prof. Fawcett defines it as ‘‘power to borrow.” From the standpoint of the borrower this is correct, but back of this power and essential to its exercise is the trust imposed by the creditor. In its generic sense, credit is implied in all mutual dependence and mutual helpfulness. With- out it, society would be impossible and human intercourse prac- tically at an end. As applied in the affairs of life, credit is reliance on the integrity, energy and skill of one’s fellow men, and the extent to which it may be safely carried is one of the highest 4 50 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. tests of civilization. It is neither wealth nor capital—does not of itself create either. It brings wealth into the form of capital and thus gives experience to the industrial talent of a country. All written instruments of credit, when in use, whether in the form of book accounts, bank bills, checks, bills of exchange, or what not, are tangible evidences that trust has been imposed and that the power to borrow has been exercised. But credit may be signified by spoken words, as weil as by written, or even without the use of either. Prof. Perry says “credits are debts not yet realized,” meaning probably that instruments of credit are evi- dences of rights not yet realized, and obligations yet unfulfilled. Credit creates rights and rights imply obligations. The terms are reciprocal. All this seems plain enough, but it is only by holding fast to elementary truths that we can hope to reason clearly upon any subject. More fallacies cluster about and take root in the sub- ject of credit than in any other within the whole range of politi- cal economy. ‘They find expression everywhere, but especially in language and legislation connected with taxation and the cur- rency. Chief among these is the notion that evidences of debt are wealth. It seems to me that some political economists of high standing are not wholly free from responsibility in this matter. Even John Stuart Mill, who usually weighed his words with great care, has used language in the preliminary chapter of his ‘Principles of Political Economy,” which even taken as a whole, if not absolutely inaccurate, is difficult to reconcile with his own teachings elsewhere, and is certainly misleading. He attempts to draw a distinction between wealth as applied to the possessions of an individual and to those of a nation or of mankind. “In the wealth of mankind,” he says, “nothing is included which does not of itself answer some purpose of utility or pleasure. ‘To an individual anything is wealth which, though useless in itself, en- ables him to claim from others a part of their stock of things use- ful and pleasant. Take for instance a mortgage for a thousand pounds on a landed estate. This is wealth to the person to whom it brings in a revenue, and who could perhaps sell it in the mar- ket for the full amount of the debt. But it is not wealth to the Wealth, Capital and Credit. 51 country; if the engagement were annulled the country would be neither poorer nor richer. The mortgagee would have lost a thousand pounds, and the owner of the land would have gained it. Speaking nationally, the mortgage was not itself wealth, bus merely gave A aclaim to a portion of the wealth of B. It was wealth to A, and wealth which he could transfer to a third per- son, but’’—and here comes in a saving clause which contains the essence of the whole matter — ‘‘that which he so transferred was a joint ownership, to the extent of a thousand pounds, in the land of which B was nominally sole proprietor.” The public funds of a country are in precisely the same category. Mr. Mill says they cannot be counted as part of the national wealth, but inti- mates in one breath that they area part of individual wealth, and in the next wipes out the distinction. ‘They are not. real wealth at all, neither national nor individua!. The fundholders are “‘mortgagees on the general wealth of the country;” the funds indicate liens upon that which is real and tangible, to be drawn ultimately from the tax payers of the nation. Mr. Mill also gives countenance to a distincton between the wealth of a nation and that of mankind. “A country,’ he says, “may include in its wealth all stock held by its citizens in the funds of foreign coun- tries, and other debts due to them from abroad.” But, as if not quite satisfied with this statement, he adds, ‘even this is only wealth to them by being a part ownership in wealth held by others. It forms no part of the wealth of the human race.”’ There is in reality no distinction between the wealth of an in- dividual, of a nation and of mankind. Individual wealth is and must be a part of national wealth, and national wealth isand must be a part of the wealth of the human race. If the context were always carefully read in explanation of the text, Mill might per- haps be safely allowed to answer Mill. As it is, his insufliciently guarded words at this point have helped to perpetuate the thou- sand and one fallacies which find expression in discussions about currency, banking and taxation. Professor Perry has taken his stand without qualification on the economic theory that credits, rights, claims are property, meaning by property wealth or capital. The term property is an 52 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. exceedingly ambiguous one. Not to speak of its various second- ary and metaphorical uses, it is employed in two important and totally distinct senses. Ina purely legal point of view, it is the right or title to a thing —ownership. But in the more common and popular sense, and the one in which alone political economy is concerned about it, it is a tangible entity — the thing owned — that upon which the claim is based —that in which the right or title inheres. In this sense there is no difference between property and wealth. “The test of property,” say Professor Perry, “is a sale; that which will bring something when exposed for ex- change is property; that which will bring nothing, either never was, or has now ceased to be, distinctively property.” But Pro- fessor Perry holds that credits, rights, claims, are property ; that property is or may be capital, and that all capital is wealth. It seems to me there is a fallacy here, and that it lies in considering that what are bought and sold are mere rights and claims, separate and distinct from the entities in which the rights inhere, and to which the claims attach. Strike the property out of existence upon which a claim rests, and the claim disappears with it. De- stroy a man’s claim, on the other hand, or all evidences of it, and the property remains — the ownership simply changes hands. If titles are property in the sense of wealth, it would seem that a community has an easy road to fortune. Its farms and other real estate are wealth ; they need only be mortgaged to create as much new wealth in the form of personal property. If mere titles are property, then the wealth of the nation or, is you please, of the individuals of the nation, may at least be doubled without any appreciable expenditure of time or labor. The truth is, wealth is something valuable and which has become so through the application of labor, and a title to it, or a claim upon it, or a representation of it, can no more be wealth than a shadow can be substance. The notion that titles and claims are property finds ample ex- pression in tax-laws. Few countries afford better opportunities for testing methods of taxation than our own, but none certainly can exhibit such an array of incongruities. The ease with which property is accumulated makes us less considerate of expenditures Wealth, Caiplal and Credit. 58 and leakages. Under the plea of equalizing the burden, our gen- eral theory seems to be to tax everything without inquiring whether it be a symbol ora reality, a lien upon a thing or the thing itself. The result is, the very inequalities we would obviate are, aggravated. If political economists of high standing insist not only that real estate is property, but that mortgages upon it are also property, is it strange that legislatures enact that each shall be taxed? Touching this question, the conclusion of Judge Foster, set forth in his dissenting opinion given in the somewhat celebrated case of Kirtland vs. Hotchkiss, heard before the Su- preme Court of Hrrors of the State of Connecticut, seems almost axiomatic. He said:—‘ Property and a debt, considered as a representative of the property pledged for its payment, constitute but one subject for the purpose of taxation. The tax being paid on the property without diminution on account of the debt, noth- ing remains to be taxed. The debt, indeed, aside from the prop- erty behind it, and of which it is the representative, is simply worthless.” We may call what we like, property or wealth, and governments may determine that all property, including im- aginary things and legal fictions, shall be taxed, but nothing short of omnipotence can make something out of nothing, or collect taxes from symbols. ‘It is property in possession, or enjoyment, and not merely in right, which must ultimately pay every tax.” Rights and titles and claims are elements in the distribution of wealth, not in its composition. They attach to pre-existing prop- erty and may be multiplied indefinitely. Any tax upon them is only another means of burdening the property that lies behind them. But it is in connection with the currency that credit wields its chief influence, and may work its greatest mischief. Leading wri- ters upon political economy and finance have done much to instill correct notions of money and its various credit substitutes, and their responsibility in this direction can scarcely be over-esti- mated. In this light, it is at least an open question, whether the views of Professor Francis A. Walker, as set forth in his late work on “Money,” and also in his later one on ‘‘ Money, Trade and Industry,” do not give some encouragement to the numberless o4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. fallacies that are afloat upon this subject. Professor Walker has done excellent service in the economic field. He always writes with clearness and vigor, and whatever he says upon any topic is sure to command attention. “Money,” he says, is that which passes freely from hand to hand throughout the community, in final discharge of debts and full payment for commodities, being accepted equally without reference to the character or credit of the person who offers it, and without the intention of the person who receives it to consume it, or enjoy it, or apply it to any other use than in turn to tender it to others in discharge of debts or payment for commodities.’ This is an almost faultless descrip- tion of money as a fact, and if we were dealing with facts only and not with their interpretation, it might be allowed to pass without comment. ‘The core of this description lies in the words ‘final discharge of debts and full payment for commodities.” In their correct interpretation rests the whole matter in dispute. In the view of Professor Walker the question, money or not money, is, in respect to anything that could be taken, whoily a question of degree — the degree of the extent and facility of its use in ex- change. If the thing be a paper promise, another distinction is called in, which is that the promise must be that of somebody else, and not of the one who offers it. ‘If I purchase a farm from any one,’ he says, ‘‘and give him my promise to pay him at some fu- ture date, that promise, whatever form it takes, whether written on paper or stamped upon brass, whatever my character or compe- tence, whether I be rich or poor, honest or dishonest, 1s not money. The goods are not yet paid for, but are yet to be paid for. I have taken credit; I have not given money. The seller still looks to me for the equivalent of the goods he has parted with, * *. * I buy a horse, and give the owner thirty $5 notes. Have I taken credit? Not at all; Ihave paid for the horse. * * * He takes the notes from me because they are money — that is, be- cause they have such general acceptance throughout the country that he knows men will freely and gladly take them from him whenever he wishes to buy anything.” As a matter of fact, the credit element enters into both of these transactions. In each case it is between the maker of the prom- Wealth, Capital and Credit. 55 ise and the receiver of it. Inthe one case the promise is made directly to a particular person, in the other it is made to bearer. In the one case the maker is an individual, in the other, a collec- tion of individuals or corporation. In each case the maker of the promise is held under the law, more or legs perfectly, to its fulfill- ment. According to one distinction made by Professor Walker, neither the bank bill nor the promissory note is money, as between the bank or the individual maker and the holder of the bill or note. But between other parties and according to the other dis- tinction, which turns upon the degree of currency, he holds that the bank bill is money, and the individual note not money. But aman may beso widely known, his integrity be of so higha character, and his means so ample, that his promise may be just as good and just as current as an ordinary bank note. The one may be called money and the other not. The law may determine that an acceptance of the one shall be a bar to any further re- course upon the party from whom it is received, and that an ac- ceptance of the other shall not be such a bar. All this lies close to the surface. It does not reach to the root of the matter. The question, money or not money, can never turn solely upon the “‘degree of currency” of the thing in use. This depends upon time and place and other circumstances, and attaches even to gold and silver as well as to the different substitutes. The distinction lies deeper. Money pays, but every paper substitute bears upon its face the evidence that it does not pay in the full and complete sense of the term. But, says Professor Walker, ‘‘to say that a bank note is a promise to pay money is to beg the question. A bank note isa promise to pay gold or silver, and therefore, if you please, is neither gold nor silver; but wherefore not money? Money is that money does; and the bank note performs the money func- tion in every particular.” In this last sentence he himself begs the question, and, although unintentionally, gives aid and com- fort to the advocates of “fiat” money. The bank note promises to pay frances or pounds or dollars, and these have a definite and well understood meaning. They are a “material recompense or equivalent’ — are wealth and really pay for wealth. Money 56 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. proper conforms strictly to Prof. Walker’s own description; prom- ises to pay, or orders to pay, of whatever name or nature, do not so conform. Money passes from hand to hand throughout the community in final discharge of debts aud full payment for commodities by no magical process, nor because it is called money, or declared to be money by an edict of the government, but for the reason that it is a complete equivalent. Bank bills, promissory notes, checks, and various other credit instruments, take the place of money in part by serving some of its purposes, and it is because they do so that they become so dangerous in actual use, if not properly guarded. But they serve these pur- poses not through any force of their own, but as representatives. Their energy is not primitive, but derivative. They are not actual equivalents, but claims, only, or evidences of claim, upon that which is an equivalent; and when the principal in whose name thev act disappears, their force and authority is gone. Pro- fessor Walker, in his whole characterization of money, largely ignores its most delicate if not most important function — that of serving as a measure of wealth or standard of value. Almost anything which the parties concerned may agree upon will serve as a medium of exchange — a bank bill, a check, a note of hand, “a chalk mark behind the door, a notch in a stick, a wink at an auctioneer ’”— but very few things will serve well asa standard of value. ‘To do so, they must themselves be valuable, that is, be objects of general desire and the results of labor. They must be something that pays as it goes —that walks by sight and not by faith — that, when accepted, leaves no recourse upon anybody, either in law or equity. No credit instruments can fully meet these requirements. The distinction is vital. Ignore it, and the floodgates are open for all sorts of money and all sorts of notions about money. The Nature and Functions of Credit. 57 THK NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF CREDIT. A. L. CHapin, D. D. Some exercise of trust between man and man is essential to the very existence of human society. ‘Trust implies two things; first, an intellectual belief in the truthfulness and integrity of one’s fellow-men; and second, a blended feeling of dependence and reliance in mutual relations and intercourse. As civilization advances, this element of trust enters more and more into all the various intercourse of mankind, and its extent and the soundness of its basis become a sign of the social condition and moral char- acter of a people. Credit is but a technical name for the trust which runs through all the manifold processes of productive industry and commerce. It is indispensable to the effective division of labor and to the free and advantageous exchange of the products of labor. It pervades the business operations of men the world over, as that subtile agent, light, pervades the material universe. Its opera- tions are most minute in their details, most magnificent in their range and most grand and sometimes terrible in their results. It seems a very small affair, when the butcher enters on the poor sewing-woman’s market book a daily bit of meat, expecting the account to be settled at the end of each week. It is nevertheless an operation of credit, not altogether insignificant to the parties concerned. You look with wonder at the silent manipulations of the bank clerks as they pass in procession along the desks of the New York clearing-house, and when you are told that what is done there in that one still hour of the day adjusts thousands of commercial transactions and redistributes a hundred millions of wealth, you get sowie conception of the vast complications of this agency we call credit. And when you hear that the nod of the autocrat of the Rothschild’s bank, settles questions of peace and war between conflicting nations, you apprehend what a power this agency, credit, is in human affairs. The word credit is in common use, employed quite vaguely, 58 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. and the indefinite use of the term has confused the discussion of many economical problems, and led to erroneous opinions. In its correct use, the radical meaning of trust— that mental exer- cise which includes an intellectual judgment and a feeling of reli- ance, must always be kept prominent. Credit is always a sub- jective thing with the man who trusts rather than an objective | quality of the man trusted. We speak loosely of a man’s credit, meaning something in his character or condition which is a power to command credit. The real measure of his credit is, however, the estimate in which he is held by others. Swindlers understand this very well, and their efforts are never to perfect in themselves trustworthy qualities, but by whatever deceptive arts, to mislead the judgment and to win confidence in their favor. Judgment and feeling are very closely identified in the exercise of credit. The normal exercise requires that the judgment should regulate the feeling, but too often this order is reversed; the feeling runs away with the judgment. Hence over-confidence unduly ex- panding credit, at one time, followed by the reaction of panie, when unreasoning distrust paralyzes all business activity. As a technical term in the science of Political Hconomy, ‘Credit is Trust in the promise of an equivalent to be rendered at a future time for values immediately transferred.” It supposes one of the highest acts of human free-will, a contract between two parties, in which a present advantage conferred is balanced by an obligation to be fulfilled in the future. The possibility of thus entering into a contract and its binding force proceed from two capacities of the human mind, viz., foresight and freedom. For a present consideration, anticipating future resources, a man freely binds himself by an expressed intention respecting a future act, surrendering his right to change that intention. It is evident then that the soundness of credit, the strength of trust, in a par- ticular case or in regard to transactions generally must be deter- mined by the care with which such obligations are assumed and the sacredness with which they are regarded. The true basis of credit is real wealth, existing or prospective, which is or is expected to be at the command of the party trusted. Credit is never self-supporting. It does not go alone. It can The Nature and Functions of Credit. 59 neither walk nor fly. The waxen wings of imagination on which like Deedalus, it sometimes boldly starts forth are quickly melted and its fall is swift and ruinous. Credit must ever and anon feel under it the solid ground of real wealth. The promise must meet the test of actual fulfillment. Thus our first thought recurs again. The essence of credit is confidence in these two things which are its inseparable supports, the truthfulness and the prob- able ability of the promisor,—a moral and a material property joined. Money as a commonly accepted measure or standard of value, fulfills an office of the highest consequence in all operations of eredit. Except in rare, special cases, it furnishes the terms of the contract. Values immediately transferred are set down in terms of money, which fix the measure of values for the deferred pay- ment. If meantime a change occur in the purchasing power of money, the actual effect of the contract is materially changed to the disadvantage of one or other of the parties. Hence, what- ever causes fluctuations in the quantity or quality of money, dis- turbs credit. That steady, healthful trust which we have seen to be the essence of credit can never be maintained with unstable currency. To this cause mainly we must refer the distrust which | prevades the business of our country to-day, and in the midst of of abundant resources paralyzes industry and brings thousands of our stalwart, enterprising people face to face with abject poverty. In the very nature of things, the co-relation between money and credit is close and constant. An unnatural increase in the quantity of that which passes for money by turning certain forms of credit into money, as we saw in the issue of the govern- ment greenbacks fifteen years ago, tends to a much greater ex- pansion of credit. The artificial stimulus of this double expansion produces in all business a delirium of intoxication. While the excitement lasts every thing runs wild. But the reaction and collapse are sure to come. Weare living now in the day after the debauch. Oh what headaches, what nausea, what exhaustion do we meet on every hand. We wake as from a dream and won- der how we ever suffered our trust to be imposed upon. We look upon the wrecks lying all around and ciutch the little we can 60 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters. gather of what is left, afraid to trust anybody more. Would to God this sad experience might open men’s eyes to understand the nature of credit and to hold it henceforth within its true limita- tions under wise regulation. As I now pass to speak of the functions of credit, I must no- tice two or three false notions which are more or less current. 1. Credit is not wealth nor capital. It is only a means or occa- sion for transferring wealth from one to another. A farmer takes from the manufacturer a plow, and gives in return his note pay- able at the end of six months. When the contract is made, there is but a single item of weaith, the plow. The note given is but the symbol or evidence of its value transferred. Neither the promise on the part of the farmer, nor the trust on the part of the manufacturer has value in itself. The payment of the note, then, is only the return in another form of the one value. If during the period of the contract new wealth has been created, by the use of the plow, it is only as that item of wealth has been made capital, so as in union with labor to become productive. The credit received has merely adjusted the transfer of the one value. Proceeding on the false notion that credit is capital, ninety out of every hundred merchants fail. The false notion still governs the legislation of almost every state in our land, and leads to double taxation, because symbols, mere evidences of debt, are regarded as of the very substance of wealth. 2. Credit does not of itself create capital. It has no original power to make something out of nothing. Wealth does not grow by the mere act of passing from hand to hand. Its increase comes only from its union with labor. The mere multiplying of promises to pay does not make a man rich, as many a deluded creditor has learned to his sorrow. Can a nation, any more than an individual grow rich by that process? 3. The trusted promises of credit in certain forms may be thrown into general circulation, but they are ever simple evi- dences of debt, and as they pass from hand to hand they do noth- ing more than transfer the debts for which they were originally issued. This is only saying that an item of wealth cannot be used at the same time by both its owner and the man to whom it The Nature and Functions of Credit. 61 is lent. Sixteen years ago, a woolen manufacturer furnished the United States government with four pairs of army blankets, and accepted in return its promise to pay ten dollars, —the term dollars meaning a certain weight of gold or silver. —= DIAGRAM SHOWING =<— QNOUERTADNS JUTE ROE STRATA: BT BELOVE AS, [een oe crete ee ee nee ree nmemamens Dasapemmtiaay, wee Rea, Z SO\FEET >= CHERTY” és SMITHS i af au4 RREM i FuNCHETTS = _SUARRY Hess CURRY ae :LIME KILN Sicg, LI Se Secor a a ae . BELOIT, DAM Be SS WNER LENE, | Me é Geology of the Region about Beloit. — 201 total thickness of the Trenton limestone at one hundred and eleven feet. It will thus be seen that the matching of our Beloit quarries is an interesting problem, somewhat complicated, bnt not too diffh- cult; a class of college students, with a little oversight and direc- tion from the teacher, are able to work it out with interest and satisfaction. We have just about outcrops enough, and very few superfluous; seven of our Beloit exposures are needed to com- plete the ascending scale. Having now matched our exposures and determined the thick- ness of the various subdivisions, we have only to determine the altitude of each in order to learn whether there is any dip or un- dulation in the strata as traced from quarry to quarry ; or whether they are, as shown on the chart, entirely level. The exposures lie mainly on a north and south line in the face of the west bluff of Rock river; moreover, the river, being set back at this point by the dam, affords a level base line; the altitude of the exposures above the river has been repeatedly taken by the aneroid barome- ter, and the average of these results is believed to be correct within a very few feet. The undulations which are thus detected are shown inthe diagram, although of course greatly exaggerated. it will be seen that the four quarries farthest north show a con- siderable and quite regular dip to the south, amounting to eighty feet in seven-eighths of a mile; from here the strata rise again to the second quarry, beyond which they continue with but a slight and nearly uniform dip to the south. North of Scott’s quarry there are two places where the junction of sandstone and lime- stone is shown in the road, from which we learn that the dip is sharp to the ner.h. In the upper diagram the strata are traced still farther south, and also north through Janesville to Fulton; and although we know nothing as to minor undulations, we see that in general the strata are almost exactly level except where they drop down so abruptly at Beloit, constituting a little anti- clinal elevation and a deeper synclinal depression of eighty feet ; indeed, from Fulton to Rockton, a distance of thirty miles, the fall is only ninety-four feet; while at Beloit, as we have seen, the fall is almost as great in less thanamile. Although we know 202 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. nothing about minor undulations between Afton and Fulton, the exposures about Beloit are so numerous that no considerable undulations could exist undetected. The exposures represented in the diagram do not all lie ina direct line by any means, but those which are of most interest as indicating these marked undulations do lie almost exactly in a north and south line. Hess’ and Smith’s quarries lie considerably to the west of this line, but another small exposure to ‘the east of them, and more nearly in line, indicates almost exactly the same slight dip as they. These outcrops all lie in the eastern face of the line of bluffs _ which forms the western boundary of the present Rock river bot- toms. As we have seen, the Galena limestone is only found capping the highest hills. In the corresponding line of eastern bluffs, whose height is about the same, the Galena limestone is everywhere found, and the Trenton occurs only in the bottom of a deep ravine at Turtleville’ This shows that the dip is prevail- ing eastward, which is to be presumed, since Beloit lies in the eastern slope of the north and south geanticlinal axis, which made Wisconsin the oldest state of the American continent, if not — the oldest in the Union. The crest of this great geanticlinal runs down to the west of Beloit, giving our strata a slight slip to the east, amounting to about twenty-five feet in the five :niles between the limekiln and the ravine at Turtleville. The undulations already traced are, therefore, of the nature of small anticlinal ridges and synclinal valleys crossing the main geanticlinal axis of Wisconsin. They are, of course, very small compared with it, but much more abrupt. The existence of similar, but much more extensive, humps on the camel’s back is indicated by the fact that in two localities further south, in Illinois, the St. Peters sandstone comes to the surface; at Beloit it drops about to the river level ; at Rockton the river runs over Treaton limestone; at the rapids south of Roscoe I have not seen the exposure, but from the rock and fossils I judge that it cuts through either the Lower Blue or, more likely, the Birdseye beds. But in Ogle county, Illinois, although the river is not at all abrupt to this point, the sandstone is found far above the river. A similar area is mapped by Worthen further south, in Illinois. Geology of the Region about Beloit. 203 i Without dwelling longer upon the stratigraphical relations of jour rocks we pass on to note one or two points of interest in their \later geological history. i The two lines of bluffs already mentioned which are the (boundaries of the present Rock river bottoms, with their stratified Champlain gravels, were not only tne banks of the Champlain lake into which the river expanded as a flood from the melting (glacier, but they were also the banks of a rather remarkable chan- nel which the preglacial Rock river cut for itself to the depth of over four hundred feet through Trenton limestone, St. Peters ‘sandstone, Lower Magnesian limestone and into the Potsdam ‘sandstone; at least this was the depth as shown by the artesian well at Janesville, and at a point a few miles lower in its course i. could not have been much less. ‘That it is a preglacial valley is evident enough from the fact that the path of the glacier, as : shown by striw at Hanchett’s quarry, was almost exactly west or squarely across the Rock river channel. This fact is in itself in- teresting as being the only case, so far as I know, in which glacial siriee are found outside the Kettle morain to indicate the direction ‘in which the glacier had moved previous to the retreat and subse- quent advance which formed the Kettle morain. The direction of the glacier in our region had been conjectured from some meagre data to be about southwest; the discovery of these markings 1s | therefore of interest as showing that the tongue of ice which pro- “duced them, apparently a continuation of {the Lake Michigan po was, at this point at least, deflected perhaps by a valley to ‘the north of the quarry, so as to move due west ; this being the case, the banks of our preglacial valley were doubtless originally higher even than now, so that this ancient channel must have had rather a remarkable depth. Its width at Beloit is three to four miles; a few miles farther south it narrows to one anda half Tmiles. At Rockton the confluence of the Pecatonica with Rock ‘Tiver constituted quite a lake in the Champlain period, but it does “not represent so large a preglacial valley since the bottoms be- “tween Beloit and Rockton are underlaid by rock as shown in several places, showing that the Champlain floods escaped over 7 the low rim of rock at that point and determined their own limits 204 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. in the unstratified Champlain deposits farther back. But to the east of Beloit the wells even do not strike rock, so far as I know, : and so our deep preglacial valley must have had a width of three to four miles at Beloit, and farther north still greater. This is” explicable from the fuct that the soft St. Peters sandstone would” be easily and extensively undermined by the river, so that the greatest depth of the channel may probably be only along a narrow channel in the middle into which the river cut its way and in which it lay until it was lifted out by the accumulating deposits from the melting glacier, widening as it was lifted higher and higher until it covered the present extensive bottoms. The successive levels through which the river sank from this point are three in number, everywhere observable, besides some other terraces intermediate and not so well marked. The present river lies as a narrow stream, in general closely skirting the west- Ai tie ern bluffs and in places running upon the rock itself. The cause of this isdetected by careful meastrements with the aneroid barom- eter, which shows that the general level of the bottoms is some-_ what higher on the eastern side than on the western, from which we : infer that the rise of land to the north which set the river to cut- © ting its terraces, was also, to some extent, a rise to the east of us, tipping the river over against its western bluff. | These rambling notes are presented not so much in the hope of | enlightening as of interesting you in some of the geological ques- tions which have interested us at Beloit. | mii IPT by sels <7 Geb itimnD The Tides. 207 THE TIDES. By JoHn NADER, Civit ENGINEER. The ocean tide, this mysterious breathing of the sea, has at- tracted the attention of man from the earliest ages, and the cause was often assigned to some mysterious, if not supernatural agency. Pliny, in the first century, must have been studying the phe- nomena before he exclaimed, “Causa in Sole Lundque;” as we proceed in this investimation we will see how nearly correct Pliny was in his remark. Since the announcement of the Copernican’ system of the universe, many theories have been advanced, all purporting to account for the tides. Some of these were very in- genious and plausible, while others, as we will subsequently see, bordered on the absurd. ‘‘ Descartes,” ” as Guillemin says, “ first dared to draw the veil and sound the mystery, and if he failed, it was only because of his preconceived ideas of the solar system.” As we shall endeavor to deduce the cause from the effect, we will first investigate the various phases and features of the phe- nomenon as they actually occur, and then endeavor to assign the cause. Considerable observation and study are required to obtain a clear understanding of the varied features of the tide, of the disturbing influences arising from various sources, and of the form of the true and distorted waves. The first feature observed, is the periodic rising and falling of the surface of the ocean and the movement of the consequent currents. The tidal wave in its simplest form is a long undulation of the surface of the ocean, the length of which is the distance between two consecutive high or low waters; the vertical range is very small when compared with the length, but increases as the length diminishes; the time, however, is and remains the same except- ing in special cases. 1 Nicolaus Copernicus. Born Feb. 9, 1473, Prussia. Died May 24, 1543. System de Mundi, 1507-15380-1543. 2Descartes. Born, 1596; died, 1650; 54 years. 208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. The attending currents are the motion of the water on the slopes of the waves in obedience to gravitation. The excursions ef these currents, at any particular point, are of short duration ; the motion of the wave is so rapid compared with the current that a point in moving down one side is elevated by the advanc- ing wave and left on the reverse slope to return and repeat the journey. Itis not uncommon during still weather, to observe | objects floating to and fro with the currents during several suc- cessive tides. ; The figure of a normal or undistorted wave is nearly equal to a curve of sines of a circle whose diameter extends from high to low water with the center at mean level; if’ the semicircle and the half wave are divided into an equal number of parts, the sines and distances are the co-ordinates of the curve. As a rule the advance slope of the wave is the steeper of the two, for the axis is always inclined forward, owing to the resistance of friction. By comparing a diagram of an observed tide with the theoretical one, the distortion, if there is any, is at once recognized. In the deep water of the ocean the volume necessary to form the wave in proportion to the force meets with little resistance, whereas in shallow water the resistance of friction from the bot- tom becomes considerable, and the wave which is thereby retarded in its progress is modified and the horizontal force is transformed into a vertical one; the water in front of the wave is drawn down to form the wave, thereby making the previous low water lower while the momentum of the wave heaps the water upon the ob- structed portion, making the high water higher; and while the range is thus increased the length is proportionally diminished. The tide is often much distorted by storms, so much in fact at times, as to almost lose its identity. A remarkable case occurred in New York Bay in the summer of 1869; it indicated that a vere storm was raging somewhere on the Atlantic ocean which arrested for a time the progress of a portion of the wave; the entire volume arrived in due time, but in a distorted form. The force of the wind has also a great effect upon the tides in bays and rivers where at times every feature is disturbed beyond recognition. In the Delaware river in the winter of 1851 and The Tides. 209 1852 the tide at Fort Delaware fell continuously for 36 hours in consequence of the wind blowing down stream, and instead of six feet the fall was actually fourteen. The tides have their origin in the oceans and thence proceed to our shores, part of the time as forced and part of the time as free waves, that is to say, they are moving part of the time under the action of the tide-making force and when by the earth’s rotation they are removed from this influence they continue under their own vis-viva until again brought within the influence of the same cause. After investigating some of the peculiarities of the tides on the coasts, we will return to the ocean wave. Alter reaching the coast the tide enters every bay and river within its scope, and, while doing so, undergoes many modifications. The range is subject to change with every change in the cross-section, so that observations along a river will vary considerable even at short distances. In extensive bays the fact is more marked than in rivers, the range, which is increased by the contraction of the inlet, is at once diminished when the wave enters and spreads in the basin, but, while the influx is retarded, the main wave passes by, the ocean falls and efflux begins before the bay is filled to the ocean level, so that the bay never rises to a level with the ocean ‘and for the same reason also, never becomes as Jow. ‘The Dela- ware and Chesapeake bays are cases of this kind; the Mexican culf is one of the most extreme and will receive special notice further on. The time card of steamers carrying on small tidal rivers is a curiosity to those not familiar with such rivers, some of which have scarce one foot of water at their entrance at low tide, so that the boats are obliged to enter and leave the river on the tide wave and their time must vary from day to day as we find the tides do vary. On large tidal rivers the case is different. Vessels will meet several tides during one trip, as, for instance, on the Hudson river, New York. The tide which passes New York city at 8:13 A. M., reaches Albany at 8:30 P. M., with a mean velocity of about 17 miles an hour so that the length of the half wave, from high to low water, is about 100 miles. A boat leaving Albany at bigh water, at say 15 miles an hour, 14 | 210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. on the eb, reaches low water in a little over three hours; then at the rate of twelve miles an hour on the /lsod, reaches high water in 8 hours more 40 miles above New York, which point (New York) it makes in 23 hours more and is then within 20 miles of the next low water. On the upstream trip the conditions would be different. Here it would only be a question of speed between the boat and the wave, and if the boat left at low water on the: first of the jlvod current, it would meet the contrary current about 20 miles below Albany. The fact is that the trip upstream is made in less time than that downstream. The tide of Long Island Sound and the Hast river, is remarka- ble in several respects. That portion of the tide which enters at Sandy Hook moves slowly up the narrow channel of the Hast river and a few miles above New York encounters another por- tion of the same ocean tide which entered the Sound at Montaulc Point and flowed back through the Sound over 100 miles in the meantime. With a reasonably fair idea of the tides, the most remarkable feature may appear to be their regularity, but by the time the novelty has worn off there may also arise some doubts upon that point in the mind of the observer. If the observations should begin at a particular time, there will be two precisely similar waves, in something less than 25 hours. In the course of a few days, during which the tides will appear later each day, the two tides will become unequal in range, at the same time both may be higher or lower than when first observed, the evening tide may be the greater yet it is just as possible that the morning tide will be the greater of the two, depending entirely upon the time when the observations commenced. Before progressing any further we will be obliged to assume some means of comparison to enable us to pursue the subject in- telligently. Now, if we find that the phases of any two or more distinct phenomena run parallel, or in other words coinzide, we may conclude that one is either the cause or companion of the other. The phases of the tide compare in point of time exactly with those of the moon so that the moon is either the cause of the tides or their companion subject to the same laws. The Tides. 211 The two equal tides take place when the moon has no deciina- tion, 1. e., when in the plane of the earth’s equator no matter what its position otherwise may chance to be. When the moon moves north or south of the equator the tides become unequal. In most localities the highest of the two will be the one follow- ing the upper transit during north declinations and lower tran- sits during south declinations; when the tides observed do not succeed the transit which attends their formation, the exact reverse of this is true. Leaving aside the semi-diurnal inequal- . ities, the highest tides occur at new and full moon and are known as spring tides, the least tides occur when the moon is in her quad- ratures and are known as neap tides. The highest of the high tides occur when the full or change takes place during maximum declinations, then one of the waves is much larger than the other, in some localities the inequality is so great as to compound the two waves to such a degree that only one distorted wave is ap- parent in 24 hours. The mean time from the moon’s upper transit to the succeeding high water, during a lunation, is called the ‘‘ Corrected Hstablish- ment” or the “ Hstablishment of the Port.” The establishment is used by mariners and others for calculating the time of the tide from the position of the moon. In the Gulf of Mexico the tides are more complicated ; in Gal- veston Bay two very small irregular tides are observable in 24 yours when the declination of the moon is small, when this in- creases either way, the two become unequal until only one high water is recognizable in 24 hours; this continues several days be- fore and after maximum declination. By careful obseavations the two compounded waves are observ- able unless affected by local disturbances which latter often exceed the range of the tide which is from one-half to two feet. The foregoing facts illustrate the general features of the tides and warrant the assumption that the moon is in some manner ‘connected with the same. If we examine the coast lines of continents we will observe a general similarity in some while in others we may even compare their details and in either case tind remarkable resemblance which 212 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. has suggested the idea, to some of our geographers, of joining the continents and assuming lines of cleavage. b South America, Africa and Oceanica have a strong resemblance ; the locations of such detached portions as the Falkland Islands, Madagascar, New Zealand, Ceylon and Formosa are notable; the Fjords of Norway and Patagonia and the Firths of Scotland re- | semble each other closely, while the serrated S. W. coast of Ire- land is the dunlicate of the to coast of Maine. In these localities the tide impinges upon the coast in the same manner, in each case, both as to direction and impulse. {; We may further observe the work of erosion of the average tide and of the greater at maximum declinations in the double in- dented coasts on the west of the continents, the first impulse of the tile being from west to east in nearly all cases. According to the usually accepted theory of the tides, the moon elevates the water of the ocean by attraction. Now, if we admit of attraction, we must also admit of its laws according to one of which, bodies attract with a force in direct proportion to their masses. The mass of the sunis such that his attraction upon the earth is 170 times greater than the moon’s and the tide should be in proportion to the respective attractive powers of the two bodies. ; Reclus in ‘The Ocean” says that, ‘the solar tides would be 5000-6000 feet high if the true cause of the tides was not to be found in the difference of attraction exercised on the waters of the different parts of the earth.” The difference of the moon’s attraction on the near and remote sides of the earth is just twice the difference of the sun’s, while the sun’s attraction is 589 mil- lionths of the earth’s gravity and moon’s attraction is only 84} millionths. The centrifugal force at the equator due to the earth’s rotation is the 1-289th part of the earth’s gravity and hence only six times greater than the sun’s attraction, while it is more than 1000 times greater than the moon's. The moon’s assumed affinity for aqueous matter we will not consider since we have as yet no reason to doubt that gravitation is the same throughout the Universe. In space, all matter is at- tracted alike, that some bodies are heavier than others is that they, The Tides. PAS on account of their density, contain a greater mass, and gravity acting upon this mass gives them their preponderance, at the same time one volume will respond to the force of gravity as readily as another, nothwithstanding their different densities. A tide occurs at opposste sides of the earth at the same time, that is, one tide follows the upper transit of the moon and another the lower one in the same place. The water is said to be drawn away from the earth on one side and the earth away from the water on the remote side. We know that two forces acting in the same direction are rep- resented by a simple sum of these forces and that attraction act- ing from one side through a body upon matter on the opposite side will only aid gravity in holding that matter more securely on that side, but, it is admitted that matter is heavier on the earth's surface on the side remote from the sun, which fact recalls the argument, that if anything is affected by foreign attraction it will be affected most by the superior force. Argumeet aside, the tide is certainly obedient tothe moon, but the manner in which this is brought about, is the problem to be solved. One feature of the phenomena which is used to show that the tide is raised by attraction, is the difference in range of the sem1- diurnal tides at different pcsitions of the moon, the higher tide succeedirg the superior transit and north declination and the lower transit during south declination, showing that the moon draws the water after it. - Now let us see how true this is. The Atlantic tide is created in the southern part of the South Atlantic ocean, and moving eastward reaches the African coast shortly after the moon’s transit at that place. Thence it moves north and west, reaching the United States coast twelve hours later. The other side of the wave in connection with the Arctic tide moving east and north, reaches Ireland four hours later, and Dover straits twelve hours later still; so that in some places it is the tide after moon’s transit, and in others the previous tide which is observed, so that the facts become reversed. Nearly all authors on this subject— the tides —are satisfied 214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. with nothing less than the great South Pacific ocean, a thousand miles off shore, for sufficient space to create the tidal wave, whence they propagate the same all over the world from east to west. Some think it possible that there is a new impulse given in each ocean, while others think that possibly the origin may be in the Indian ocean. That these speculations are not all correct is evident from my chart of co-tidal lines, which is based upon a collection of actual facts from undoubted sources. One tide reaches the west coast of Africa at the same moment of absolute time that another reaches the east coast of Madagascar. These can by no means be the same wave in any form, for, after reaching the respective cuasts, a por- tion of each moves southward, these meet near the Cape of Good Hope, unite, and move south as one wave. One tide arrives on the west shore of Patagonia at the same time that another reaches the east shore of the Falkland Islands. These move south and three hours later unite near Cape Horn and go south as one wave. These also are two entirely separate and distinct tides coming from different oceans and from opposite directions. A still more remarkable tide is that which reaches the north end of New Zealand from the northeast. This tide travels south be- tween Austria and New Zealand, is met by a tide from the Indian ocean south of Tasmania, is turned eastward and makes the detour of New Zealand in time to pass the succeeding tide off the north end of the Islands. This wave i3 an important one, as it returns just in time to reform the Pacific tide. The Society Islands, where there is no perceptible tide, lie in the node between the ascending and descending tides. The solar tide of 5-6 inches reported at Tahiti is occasioned by the shifting of the node of no tide, and the time, three hours before and after noon and mid- night, is occasioned by what is termed priming and lagging of the Junar tides. The tide of the Indian ocean has its origin near the center of that ocean, first moving decidedly north and east and then spread- ing in a north and west direction. Owing to the great difference indepth of this ocean and the consequent resistance, this tide is subject to movements peculiar to itself. The Maldiveislands are The Tides. sy situate 400 miles west of Ceylon, and occupy 500 miles in a north and south direction by about 40 miles wide. They are divided into numerous groups by navigable channels of various depths. 1t is estimated that the whole number of islands or Atols is no less than 50,000, of which the largest is not more than eight miles in circumference. ‘These islands present an immense barrier to the tide, so that one portion is retarded, while another portion moves on rapidly, making a large detour returns upon the retarded portion like an eddy. The wave moving westward with a great convex front reaches Madagascar, and, passing around both ends, fills Mozambique Channel with high water in half an hour. One portion then passes southwest and meets the south Atlantic tide, the other advances north to Cape Gardafui, then moves eastward with great velocity to the west coast of Hindoostan, filling the Arabian sea, and moving south reaches the Maldives eight hours after the main wave has passed the same point and entered the Bay of Bengal. It will also be observed that the easterly side of this tide moves both north and south of Australia; that on the north meets the Pacific tide coming through Torres straits with a difference of four hours; that on the south travels beyond Tas- mania and joins a portion of the Pacific tide, a portion of both, however, returning from South Victoria along the Antarctic conti- nent to maintain the equilibrium. The tide in the north Atlantic, which had its origin partly in the Arctic Ocean and partly in the south Atlantic, moves eastward with an extensive convex front and divides on the south end of the British Isles; one portion enters the British Channel and reaches Dover Straits in the time that the other portion makes the entrance to. the North Sea. The tidein Dover Straits meets another which entered the North Sea twelve hours before but passes to the east of it and along the coast of France and the Netherlands, and combining with a later tide from the north reaches the Skaw 17 hours after passing Callais, while another portion of this identical tfde travels south along the Haglish coast. _ It will be observed that there is always a whole wave in the North Sea which is necessary to preserve the sequence. The tide passing north to Martha’s Vineyard is met at Nan- 216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. tucket by a tide from the north four hours younger, but of greater range, so that it is superposed on the lesser. The origin of the Arctic tide is not traceable for want of data in these waters, but it ascends Baffin’s Bay. These facts go to show that we have not one but a number of primary tides, created in different ocaans, acting in perfect har- mony and repeating their phases as regular as the moon. Observing the different motion of the tides, we find that they obey in a particular manner certain varying impulses. Primarily they move east, then west, with a general tendency to and from the equator, unless interrupted by obstructions; and on the whole they partake of a circular motion in time to repeat. The original motion isa most decisive one, not as though a stone were thrown into the water, as the comparison is sometimes made, but just the opposite; the greater portion of a whole ocean appears to heave and rise into a wave in the course of a few hours. In particular cases the impulse and its direction are very marked owing to local interferences, such as the Bay of Fundy, where the tide reaches the coast with great rapidity through a tongue of very deep water, then moves endwise to the east, meets with the ob- struction of Nova Scotia, so that the wave is augmented to alarm- ing dimensions. Bristol Channel and a number of other places are subject to similar tides, but of less extent. On the other hand we find some eases of this kind in the other direction, for instance the entrance to Magellan Straits, where the tide attains a range of 40 feet and over. The foregoing are facts obtained from long observation and careful investigation of the phenomena. More than 4,000 reliable data were collected from tables such as “ Bowditch’s Navigator,” Imray & Son’s “Lights and Tides of the World,” and various other equally reliable sources. These were all reduced to abso- lute time (Greenwich time) and platted on charts in their respec- tive places. The true places of the co-tidal lines were thus obtained, and the result shows beyond a doubt that the charts of co-tidal lines now in use are far from being correct. In Pliny’s judgment the cause was the sun and moon. We The Tides. Dik will also examine the remarks of others on this subject and see how they agree. The New Am. Cye. says: ‘The close relation which the times of high water bear to the times of the moon’s passage shows that the moon’s influence in raising the tides must be greater than the sun's. In fact, while the whole attraction of the sun upon the earth far exceeds that of the moon, yet, owing to the greater prox- imity of the latter, the difference between its attraction at the center of the earth and at the nearest and most remote points of its surface, which produces the tides, is about two and one-half times as great as the sun’s attraction at the same points.” The argument might answer if the moon was very near the earth so as to gather the water by tangental motion into a wave beneath it until resisted by gravitation, provided also, that suffi- cient time was allowed, as we are not dealing with a uniform en- velop of water, but with oceans separated by continents, and although the velocity of the tides is great, the translation of the water is very slow, not such as would be required in heaping up the water as the moon overleaps the continents from ocean to ocean, whereas the wave comes up as though impelled by a sud- den blow or stroke. An article on tides by repulgion in Vol. 4 of the South. Litt. Mess. says: “ When La Place! had ascertained the fact, that as the mooon psssed over the Atlantic it was low water under her and the swell was on either side of her, north and south, and the further from the moon the greater the swell, is it not 4 little strange that he should have come to the conclusion that the moon was drawing up the water towards herself,” further from the same; “as whenever the moon is vertical to any place, it is invariably low water.” ‘These remarks, when properly ap- plied, are correct so far as the position of the wave is concerned. Bowditch in Mech. Celeste says: ‘“ By a remarkable singularity, the low water takes place when the two bodies are in the meridian, and the high water when they are in the horizon; so that the tide subzides at the equator, under the body that attracts it.” Is ap- pears that the origin of the tide is lost sight of, and the time 1La Place. Born, 1748; died, 1827. 218 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. required to reach the position of the moon is not considered, there are times, however, when the tide is under the moon, but, if we find the moon over a low water, we will also find the parent wave in deep water on on the same meridian. The same author, in the Messenger, further says: ‘‘ And as when the moon approaches the meridian of Babelmandeb the the water will fall there but continues its elevation ou each side. as at Tonquin and in the Mozambique channel,” also, “the tide remaining up so long at Tonquin gave rise to the notion, very strangely indeed, that two tides met at that place.” It is merely necessary to examine the facts in both these cases and we will find that the falling water at Babelmandeb is the tide of the moon’s previous transit, while tide in the Mozambique ohannel is that of the immediate transit which culminates with the moon in the Indian ocean in longitude 80° E, but does not culminate in the Mozambique until the moon has reached longi- tude 20° W. ‘The tide at Tonquin is a part of the Pacific tide which enters the China sea through the Bashee and Balintang channels between I’ormosa and Luzon and also a small tide from the Balabec straits, these unite before reaching the Gulf of Ton- quin, leaving a regular tide of 4 to six feet. There is, however, a tide from the Indias ocean through Mallacca and Sunda Straits which causes interferance in the Gulf of Siam, a body of water similar to the Gulf of Tonquin but ten degrees of latitude nearer the equator; the spring tides are only two feet at the entrance but increase at the head of the gulf, so that the tide at Cape Liant is seven feet, the time, however, is disturbed, so that the tide rises three hours and falls nine. The irregularities of the tide in the Straits of Magellan are drawn upon to favor the theory by repulsion. ‘These tides are such as would serve any desirable purpose. When the moon is over the Atlantic the tide of the previous transit begins to rise at Cape Virgins, so also the tide at Cape Pillar on the Pacific side and in Cockburn Channel. During three hours when the mcon is over the Atlantic the tide at Cape Pillar does three honrs of its rising phase, at Cockburn Channel the last two of falling and the first of rising and at Cape The Tides. 219 Virgins the last of rising and first two hours of falling of the pre- vious tide. Now when the moon is over the Pacific, say at 8 hours absolute time longitude 120° W., then it is two hours after high water at Cape Pillar, just high water at Cockburn Channel and seven hours after high water at Cape Virgins or five hours before the high water succeeding the present moon. These con- flicting phases make the problem a very complicate] one and the more so when we consider the difference in range of these irreg- ular tides. The tide at Cape Pillar at the sixth hour rises scarce five feet; in the Cockburn Channel at the eight hour about five (this tide divides into two branches on Clarence Island), while the tide at Cape Virgins at the thirteenth hour has a range of from 88 to 42 feet. Reclus says that Fitzroy has measured tides here as high as 62 feet. When we further consider the variable width of the Straits with two narrows one of which is described as being like the passage of the Bosphorus from the Black Sea into the Marmara Sea we may conclude the hopeless task of attributing these irregular fluctuation to any supposed cause whatever. An article in Vol. 84 of the American Journal of Science says : ‘That the attraction of the moon regulates the times of the tides caused by the gulf stream, is evident.” Further: “ Why does the ocean always run swiftly into the Mediterranean Sea? No doubt to keep up the subterranean stream which passes out of the Bay of Mexico, called the Gulf stream.” Here, in the first place is a confounding of cause and effect, the motion of the tidal wave gives a slow progressive motion to a large volume of water. The waters of the Atlantic set in motion by the tide reflect from the African shore and move in a north west direction; after passing Cape St. Rogue the waters tarry six months under a trop- ical sun before discharging from the Straits of Florida a volume of water equal to 8,000 Mississippi rivers. The constant current into the Mediterranean, which until re- cently was considered to be the consequence of the evaporation of the Sea, is only a surface current, and quite recently a strong eounter-current has been diszovered at the bottom of Gibraltar Straits setting into the Atlantic and accounting for the greater y 220 Wesconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. part of the influx at the surface. This strait is large enough to give freedom to tides and currents, its length from Cape Trafalgar to HKuropa point, in Sprin, is 86 miles and its width from 15 to 24 miles, its depth is as much as 5,000 feet. The spring tides at Lissa Island in the Adriatic are 25 feet and at Tripoli, Syria, at the extreme east end of.the Mediterranean, they have still a range ot two feet. The New American Cycopedia speaking of the age of the tide, says: ‘‘This delay, which even at the Cape of Good Hope amounts to fourteen hours, is still the subject of investigation and is probably mainly due to friction.” If the co-tidal charts by Whewell and others were correct, then the delay would be much greater than that here mentioned, these charts give the origin of the tide in the Pactfic, thence they bring the.tide across the Pacific and Indian ocean and into the Atlantic by way of the Cape of Good Hope. The fact is, that this tide is created in the Atlantic ocean exactly on time with moon's tran- sit, so that there is no delay at this point, but from here the tide is twelve hours in reaching the United States coast, 14 in reaching Spain and 24 hours readhing Dover by way of the British Channel. From the same source we have the following: “Tf the tides arrive at the same place by two different channels and one of them is retarded behind the other by six hours, in consequence of traveling a longer route or in shallow water, the semidiurnal tides will be destroyed by an interference of the waves, that is, by the high water of one being superimposed on the low water of the other.” This phenomenon is common, two waves unite and one is the result, but, this does not prevent a recurrence after 12 lunar hours, the semidiurnal phase is not affected whatever in any case. If the tide divides on, and passes around an island, the two parts unite and reform the wave, or, if the tides meet in a long ckannel the result is a commotion which stops both until drawn down by the succeeding tides, or they may, as at the Isle of Wight, cross each other both ways causing double high tides. In this case the tide from the west enters the “Solent” at ten hours with a range The Tides. 221 of 7-8 feet, and, the main wave having reached Spithead, another tide enters here a little over one hour later with a range of 12 to 18 feet so that there is a second highwater 21 hours after the first at Southampton; the second tide passes also to the west from “'Cowes,’’ after the first has passed making a second highwater at Lymington. The two parts of the tide wave remain distinct. The point of meeting or crossing at Cowes is such as to leave the general direction of the tides at rightangles and it can be prac- tically demonstrated that two sets of waves may travel in this manner without any serious interference. | When, however, two tides .aeet in the ocean, they will form one wave which will progress in a direction which will be the resultant of the previous direction and velocity of the separate tides. We must also bear in mind that in all, excepting rare cases, the tide in questiou supplants a wave whica occupied the same location twelve hours before. The semi-diurnal tides may differ to such an extent that the high water of one corresponds with the low water of the other, and may leave the impression of but one or a diurnal tide, the appellation however is a misnomer, there being really no diurnal tide; the distortion can be recognized in every case so that there is no question of there being two tides. This compounding is not due to a meeting of tides but to the location and time of the orig- inating impulse as we will see further on. It happens at times that one of the semi-diurnal tides is entirely lost and this is, when the wave is small and travels free by its own vis viva after the force is removed, being constantly retarded in its movement and at length unable any longer to overcome the resistance of friction the wave finally stops and is lost. This is the case in the guif tides when the moon’s declination is maxi- mum, one of the waves is so small that it is scarcely distinguisha- ble and is at times lost before reaching the coast. Where two tides of the same type but of nifferent origin meet as at Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope, they unite and become one wave. The meeting of the tide off the capes will account for the turbulent condition of the sea in these localities. Only a few of many tidal theories are noticed tn the foregoing 222 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. remarks and it appears that in every instance the authors had a very indifferent knowledge of tidal phenomena. Reclus was not far from correct when he said: “ Cotidals ac- cording Whewell are accepted, but it is not certain that things occur in this way, in fact, it is ascertained that in each oceanic basin the tide seems to start from the centre and be propagated in all directions parallel to the general direction of the coasts.” Fhis remark was a welcome discovery when the accompanying chart began to develop into its present form, so also a statement from an unknown author, that the tide possibly had its origin in the middle of the Indian Ocean: also the report of a British naval commander who stated “that instead of a constant current westward around the Cape of Good Hope he had known vessels to remain stationary for days and even to drift to the east.” Now it is safe to say that had the tide been constantly in one direction around the cape, as it was supposed to be, then the current would also have been constant in the same direction. The tides of the British Channel and North Sea have already been mentioned but owing to so singular phenomena a special in- vestigation will be interesting. The accompanying chart shows every feature of these remarkable tides. The cotidal lines represent the progress at each hour of absolute time; the age of the tide is reckoned from its origin in the South Atlantic when the moon transits the meridian of Greenwich at 12 o'clock noon or.midnight (this is at full and change). A tongue of deep water, over 2,500 fathoms deep, extends far ‘into the Bay of Biscay, and when the tide arrives off this point ‘it makes a decided lateral move into the bay with great velocity, from the 14th to the 15th hour, at the same time approaching the shores of Ireland and England, dividing on Cape Clear at the 16th and Lands End a little before the 17th hour; the southeast portion passes through the British channel and Dover straits in a northeast direction at the 24th hour, and it here passes a tide on its west 12 hours older. Meeting as they do, these tides reflect and preserve their individuality on opposite shores in opposite directions. The tide from the channel keeps along the east shore and meets a tide.off the coast of Jutland 12 hours younger than The Tides. 2s the one we have followed thus far. But where is-our associate? While we were lingering in the channel, and the straits, he went around the longer way with great strides and met our predecessor at the point where we now are, just as we were tasting of the Dutch Rhine, and combining with him made the passage of the Skagger Rack and washed the shores of Gotheborg Sweden at 30 hours as we shall when 42 hours old. From Cape Clear the tide moves along the west shore of Ireland, the Western Isles and coast of Scotland, reaching the Orkney and Shetland Isles at the 2Ist hour. Here it divides, never to meet again; one part passes be- tween the Islands and moves south along the coast of Scotland and England and at the mouth of the Thames at the 36th hour passes a Channel tide 24 hours old, its own associate is already approaching Jutland. The tide between the Shetlands and Nor- way moves rapidly southeastward through a belt of water over 100 fathoms deep, and at the 26th hour meets a channel tide 12 hours older, as we have before observed. When this Norway tide departs eastward a portion breaks to the westward and fol- lows the main wave along the coast of Scotland, but, being de- layed by several hours, causes a second high water, thus making apparent four highwaters as far as Peter Head. These four tides were attributed to the channel tides, but it 1s evident that if this was the case, the tides would be observed along the English rather than the Scottish coast. The middle of the North Sea has no tide, which is corroborated by careful soundings made by the British navy over a shoal where no oscillation was observed. [rom this it will be observed that there can be not less than two tidal waves in the North Sea at any time, and as many as four at one time during each phase, the resulting confusion of currents can easier be imagined than described. A portion of the tide which we have been considering enters St. George’s and Bristol channels, also the North channel into the Trish sea. The waves by St. George’s and North channels meet near the the Isle of Man about the 28d hour, their range along the Irish coast was moderate, but the meeting produces a range of 20 feet and over. ) The tide in the Bristol channel, charging straight from the sea 224. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. into a nearly uniformly contracting channel, increases rapidly in range as it ascends the Severn. Entering with range of 20 feet it increases to 27 at Ilfracombe, to 85 at Bridgewater Bay, to 37 at Cardiff, 88 at Chepstow and to 40 feet at Bristol. Above Bristol the entire rise occurs in about two hours, and the fall in about ten. Here the resistance of friction is such that the axis of the wave is — much inclined by. the dragging of the front, and the impulse from the momentum of the volume. The front of the wave becomes steeper and the rear slope much longer, the latter being drawn to supply the next wave. The JMJascarret Huger or Barre is an exaggerated distortion due to excessive contraction either lateral or vertical. The immediate cause of this phenomenon is, that a sufficient quantity of water to preserve the form of the wave is unable to rise in front before it is overwhelmed by the heaped up water of the wave whose axis is inclined so far from the vertical that it breaks over and rolls along upon the surface. When occasioned by excessive lateral contraction, the eager ferms at and follows along the shores of the stream, but when caused by shoals in the middle grounds it forms and follows up the middle of the stream, preserving its identity for a considerable time after passing the cause of the abnormity. A few short waves generally follow the eager, leaving high water immediately behind them. While investigating the various phases of the tidal phenomena, it must be noticed that there always has been a determination to have the tide move with the moon from east to west, and owing to this desire many aspects have remained unnoticed, or have been disregarded because they happened to conflict with some theory under construction. In nearly all articles on tides the common remark is, that ‘‘in tidal rivers the tide always moves up-stream, even when this is in the opposite direction to that in which the moon appears to move.” This would imply that tide should re- main under the moon while the earth revolved to the east, and that the tides on the east shores are produced by the advance of the solid earth against the suspended mobile waters. It is true, the tide moves south along the east shores of Scotland and Kng- land, but, as we have seen, it is also true that at the same time The Tides. 225 there is a tide on the west shore of the Netherlands in the same latitude. The course of the Severn, before noticed, is eastward from the sea, so also the direction of the Bay of Fundy, with 70 feet tide. These facts are sufficient to show that the tide does not follow the moon in her apparent course from east to west, while the earth is revolving on its axis from west to east. For the purpose of attracting attention to coincidences, a few -of the principal mountain chains are given on the chart of which the tides and the conformation of the coasts are, however, the principal features. It will be observed that after forming in the deepest part of the oceans, the first point of impact of the tides is against the foot of a chain of mountains. The indentations of the coasts are not wholly the effect of tidal abrasion, as is indi- cate! by the parallel position of the mountains, but indicate that the tide producing force now operative was active in contributing towards the formation of continents in a fluid much denser than that which it now propels By observing the beginning and progress of a storm at sea, we may form some idea of how nature has grown into equilibrium. When the storm begins the waves are varied in form and size and their motions are tumultuous, but when at length sufficient matter is set in motion to satisfy the conditions between the force acting and the surface under action, then the waves become perfect in form and their regularity will bear comparison with the tides. The tide producing force necessarily acts upon all bolies of water, either great or small, but its effect is very different in lakes and inland seas from what it is in the oceans. In the former there is a constant and ineffectual effort to produce regularity, in the latter the oscillation is established. The mass and extent of surface must be proportioned to the force. In inland lakes and seas there are continued fluctuations, but small, and the intervals are short, the duration béing from a few minutes to several hours. These oscillations are the result of the tide producing force and the irregulaiity is the effect of interference and reaction, the’ sur- face, mass and force not being in correct proportion. The lake and also ocean tides may be illustrated by a simple 15 226 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. experiment and the various pbases and interferences may be pro- duced just as they occur in nature. © Tf we take a basin of water and agitate the same, we may pro- duce one or more waves; if now we regulate the impulse while we observe the motion, we may time the same so as to produce - regular oscillations which will continue until a change of force takes place; whenever such change takes place either in amount ~ or duration, interferences will appear which after a time will cause the wave or waves to come to a state of rest, but if the same im- pulse continues, the oscillations begin again, increase to maximum, diminish and again cease. This will be the case whether the impulse be greater or less or the time faster or slower than that necessary to produce regularity. This is practically true of the great lakes, the oscillations observed are the effect of the tide producing force which is entirely dispro- portioned to the extent of the volume acted upon, the resulting irregularities recur in periods from which the tide may be deter- mined by elimination. There are many peculiarities attending the tides as they meet with the varied obstructions of the coast, prominent among these is that the range of tide is less at the most advanced portions of a continent than at either side. The advancing tidein these cases meets with the resistance of the submerged portion of the Cipe long before reaching the coast and departs to either hand, thereby diminishing the tide at the cape, which, having reached the coast, divides, and by its momentum crowds upon that part of the tide already making in the bays or indentations of the coast on either side. We have thus far followed the tidal phenomena through all their principal phases with the moon as the cause or companion of the same. In order to deduce the cause of the tides we will refer to first principles and then compare facts with the laws of nature. Ac- cording to Keppler’s' two first laws, based upon the observations 1Johan Keppler, Wurtemburg. Born 1570, died 1630. Ist and 2d, 1609; 8rd, 1618, May 15. The Tides. 227 of Tycho Brahé' and published in 1609, the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits and their radii vectores describe equal areas in equal times. The moon is supposed to revolve about the earth in this manner, the orbit being elliptical with the earth occupying one of the foci. Now, Keppler’s laws are strictly true when only one planet and the sun are considered, but ina system, they are subject to complicated pertutbations. Newton’s” Principle, based upon Keppler’s laws half a century later, is con- sequently subject to equally complicated modifications. According to the laws of gravitation, all bodies attract each _ other in proportion to their mass and inversely as the squares of the distance, also, bodies which mutually attract each other re- volve around their common centers of gravity.. These apply to ‘our whole system, and we may say, to the whole universes Between the earth and moon there will be a point which will de- seribe an orbit around the sun while the earth’s center will describe a circle around this common center of revolution, _ There will appear some complication, for while the two bodies revolve about a*common center, the moon is describing an ellip- tical orbit whose excentricity varies between 1-18 and 1-15 and whose major axis makes a complete revolution in about nine years in direct motion, and although both conditions cannot be entirely true at the same time, yet this will not alter the law while it modifies the results. When the moon is in quadratures both bodies are affected alike by the sun, as the common center hes in their mutual orbit. At this instant either law will apply as the respective orbits of the moon due to either law coincide at this point, and although it may be said that the earth has actual control, its force being at right angles to that of the sun at this ‘point, the moon is actually performing a planetary orbit about the sun. As soon however as the moon moves out of quadratures in the ellipse, the earth yields to the law of mutual attraction, on account of the dominant force of the sun, its center describes an undu- 1 Tycho Brahé, a Dane. Born 1546, died 1601. Rejected Corernicus. ? Newton, born 1642, died 1727. Principia, 1627. 228 Wasconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. lating course about the sun and the common center or point of revolution between the earth and moon describes the orbit. The ultimate result of these antagonistic efforts is, that the point of revolution between the ‘earth and moon fluctuates be- tween the earth’s center and the common center of gravity of the two bodies. The earth revolves about the common center of revolution, which lies within its own volume, with the same regular velocity that the moon revolves in her orbit. Th's motion produces a centrifugal force, which, owing to eccentricity, is tangent to the — earth only in the plane of the moon and the axis of rotation; the | constant change of the axis causes this force to fluctuate between nil and maximum twice in a lunation, that is, nil at quadratures and maximum at syzygies. ‘The force thus produced, which I will call centrifugal prepon- derance, varies between the 1-900 and 1-500 of the centrifugal force due to the earth’s rotary motion. The effect of the earth’s rotation was to produce the spheroidal form of the earth and its present office is to maintain it with a flattening at the poles of nearly 26 miles; if this force were to cease, the oceans would retire to the poles. Now a force equal to 1-900 part of this, acting uniformly and constantly, would, if we simply consider the result proportionate to the force, cause a flattening of 150 feet, but as we shall see, this force does not act uniformly or constantly, neither have we a continuous mobile surface to consider acted upon, so that this change of form is impossible. Should we however assume a unt- form surface of water and taking this force as acting in the mean one half the time on one-tenth of the surface on opposite sides, we would have a tide of seven feet which agrees with the pro- tuberances of the Elipsoid of water produced by some highly scientific investigations. The eccentricity of the force causes the same to deviate from the centrifugal force due to the earth’s rotation everywhere on the surface excepting at two points; these are, the p»int directly under the moon and the point opposite. At other points in the plane of the moon’s orbit it has a tendency of only slightly de- the Tides. 929 flecting the earth’s force, and in the endeavor to overcome the superior force of gravity the waters are thereby depressed shortly before being presented to the point of activity and hence are pre- pared to leap forward to meet the moon at its transit as the tides are known to do. The centrifugal force is greatest in the plane of the moon’s or- bit and diminishes towards the poles of rotation in proportion to the cosine of the angular distance so that at the distance of 60 degrees it is reduced to onehalf. The centrifugal force of a rotating sphere is everywhere parallel to the plane of the equator; the components of this force at any point are: a force acting in Opposition to gravity and a force at right angles to the same, hav- ing a tendency to move matter towards the equator. This is the case with the tides, for no sooner have they formed, in fact during their formation, they depart toward the equator. To follow the recurring impulse upon the tides as they depart from their origin on their respective journeys must here be omitted for want of time, by comparing the cotidal lines on the chart with the moon’s hour at the top and bottom of the chart, the effect can easily be traced. In order to connect several other features of the tide with this tide-producing force, it will be necessary to define more closely the moon’s position and the variable orbit which she pursues. The moon’s orbit is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic about 5i degrees so that her latitude cannot exceed this quantity, but the earth’s equator is inclined 23° 26’ to the ecliptic, thence the moon’s declinztions will vary from 0 to 28° 40’ north and south of the equator. The maximum declinations also vary by twice the latitude by reason that the nodes of the orbit are not constant but have a retrogade motion so that the moon may occupy every possible position in a zone of 10°40’. The declinations will be greatest when the line of nodes coincides with the equinoctial line, for here the earth’s declination plus the moon’s latitude will be the moon’s declination. These maximum declinations coincide with the moon’s quadratures at the equinoxes and with the syzygies at the solstices, and vary between these points in the interval. 230 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. We have seen how the moon assumes various positions from south to north of the equator in each revolution about the earth, and we will find that the oceans are differently affected during inferior from superior transits. For we will first suppose the moon in the plane of the equator which occurs at new and full moon in the equinox and in the quadratures at solstices. Itis evident that the moon holds the same relative position to the sea under her as the lower transit does to the sea on the remote side, and the result is the same; but when we consider the moon in maximum north or south declinations then the conditions are entirely changed ; the lower transit of north declination and upper of south declia- tion affect the sea further south than the upper north and lower south so that the results must be different for each pair. In order to illustrate, several tides of Cape Flattery on the Pacific coast are added to the sketch ; these are sketched according to the reported observations of the U.S. coast survey. The wave A | arrives arrives ahead of mean time after transit ; B11 is behind time; A 2 is separated one lunar day from A 1, and so on. These are the tides of max. decs. The tides A 1, A 2, etc., were formed by an upper transit with the moon at U, N. dec., or by a lower transit with the moon at L, S. decl., and the ocean at EH will be affected alike by either; but since the line from the moon pierces the ocean north of the equator, the tide will be formed north of the mean origin and will come ahead of mean time. On the other hand, the tides B 1, B 2, etc, are formed by an upper transit with the moon at L, S. decl., or by a lower transit with the moon at U, N. decl., and the ocean at Q will also be affected equally by either ; but since the ]ine from the moon pierces the ocean south of the equator the tide will be formed south of the mean origin and will be behind time. The result is obvious ; the wave B 1 being behind its proper place and the wave A 2 in advance, an overlapping takes place and the tides assume a mixed type. The tide travels by the rising of the water in front and the falling to the rear of the crest, hence the tide A in raising the rear slope of the tide B draws upon the volume and causes a degradation of the latter, the distance be- tween B land A 2 being greater than the mean interval, the The Tides. 231 depression also becomes greater as the water which should belong to one is in part taken up by the other. If these intervals were not oscillating as they are; but continuous in pairs, the result would be the same as in inland lakes. The highest spring tides should take place during the equinoxes when the oceans are affected alike for both upper and lower tran- sits by the maximum force for several days in succession, but from four years careful observations I have found the mean rise and fall greatest during the five months, August to December inclusive; also the highest and lowest tides and maximum and minimum rise and fall from November to February inclusive. The tides are known to rise higher as the moon approaches the earth. As the moon approaches, the common centre comes nearer the earth’s centre and the centrifugal force increases as the moon’s motion increases from its closer proximity, hence the tides increase. The tides on opposite sides, or corresponding to different transits ‘of the moon, are practically alike when the moon is on the equa- tor, now since the impulse on opposite sides is about as 500 to 900 the question will arise why the effect is not in proportion to the cause. As the pendulum will return nearly to the point from which it has fallen so these oscillations would also nearly repeat themselves, but since other waves approach to form the succeed- ing tide it is only necessary that the impulse should be repeated at the regular intervals necessary for equilibrium. -There are those who deny the existence of the force at the side remote from the moon, but the inequality of the semidiurnal tides is sufficient to prove the existence of tiat force. . Tt has been stated that the force is nil at the moon’s quadra- tures, then why any tides at these phases? The nil force exists but an instant and as before remarked, these oscillations will nearly repeat themselves even when they are changing with an increasing ratio as they change when approaching quadratures at the equinoxes, in fact Newton said, that when these oscillations were fairly established, the luminaries might be removed, and the tides would continue for an indefinite time. We also find that the effect does not immediately follow the cause, for the inverse order of tides does not take place for several days after change of 282 Wrsconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. declination neither do the highest tides occur at full and change of the moon, nor the least tides in the quadratures. A singular fact in nature, which is attributable to the tides, is ‘the existence of the Sargossa seas in mid ocean. The tide in mid ocean is very small as has been ascertained at islands along the ‘course of the tide. At the shores however, the tide is retarded and its range increased, so that the surface of the ocean is practi- -eally lower than its limits, forming a sort of settling basin whence the singular seas. A current chart by Bowditch shows a current from all directions towards the Sargossa sea in the Atlantic. There is another question which arises and that is, why, if there is a primary tide in each of the southern oceans, there is not also the same in the northern oceans ? In the first place, the southern oceans are the largest and deep- ‘est and the effect produced upon them would preponderate over that produced on the smaller oceans. In the second place, the origin was not a matter of chance or choice but necessity, for as soon as the condensation of ayueous matter was sufficient to fill or to partly fill an oceanic basin, the tides began to move and as the oceans continued to increase, the motion was imparted to the increasing waters, the regularity of the impulse had the effect of produciog the regular succession of tides of the oceans as the earth in its diurnal revolutions presented them successively to the tide producing force. To sum up this investigation we have: First. A primary tide in each of the southern oceans, and one “in the Arctic ocean. .These rise twice a day, and their appear- ance corresponds in time exactly with the moon’s apparent motion. The semi-diurnal tides differ in magnitude with the moon's de- clination from the equator, showing that there is a tide force under the moon and also one on the remote side of the earth giv- ing a tide following the inferior as well as the superior transit of the moon. The tides are greatest at the full and change and least at quadratures, and the range varies perceptibly with the distance of the moon. ‘Second. The moon revolves about the earth in an eliptical orbit, and by mutual attraction both reyolye about a common: The Tides, "Gao center. This common center is the point attracted by the sun and describes the orbit common to both bodies. The earth's center describes an undulating line, bzing part of the time within and part of the time without the common orbit. The common center is a variable point, on account of the variable attraction of the sun on the two bodies, and varies or fluctuates between the earth’s center and the common center of gravity of the two -bodies. The earth revolves about the common center with the same angular velocity that the moon revolves in her orbit. The resulting eccentric motion of the earth begets a centrifugal force which coincides with the centrifugal force of the diurnal revolution only under and opposite to the moon in the plane passing through the moon. ;At other plates it tends only to de- flect the line of gravity. When the common center coincides with the earth’s center the force ceases, and is maximum when these points are at their greatest distance. When the moon ap- _ proaches the earth her velocity increases, also the angular velocity /about the common center, hence also the centrifugal force. This force tends also to move matter towards the equator in the plane . of its activity. From the foregoing argument the following is deduced as the cause of the tides: In the first place it is evident that every phase and feature points direct to the moon as the cause of the phenomena, but in the next place the Jaws of nature show very clearly that the moon is only the implement by which the superior controlling force operates, the moon’s efforts as the satellite of the earth being due to the sun’s influence. The sun is therefore the prime cause operating in accordance with the grand principle discovered by the great Newton and announced to the world 193 years ago, the principle of UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. 234 Wasconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. ON A PROPOSED SYSTEM OF LITHOLOGICAL NO- MENCLATURE. By T. C. CHAMBERLIN, Ph. D., Director of the Wisconsin Geological Survey. ‘That our present system of lithological nomenclature is in some important respects uusatisfactory, it is needless to assert. It is inadequate, in that it falls far short of properly designating all the mineral ageregates that have now become subjects of descrip- tion, and of not infrequent reference in geological literature. It is ambiguous, in that certain terms in common use are differently _ used by different writers. So comnion a term as syenzte, and the not infrequent ones melaphyr and gabbro, are striking examples. It is inaccurate, in that it groups under the same term, rocks whose ultimate chemical composition varies widely, or those whose origin is diverse. It is mischievous, in'that the individu- ality of its naming inevitably implies hard and fast lines which do not exist in nature. Itis etymologically objectionable, in that terms are wrested from their derivative sense, and forced into in- congruous applications. Thus the term granite is driven from its popular, and, as it happens in this case, proper application to a wide class of grained crystalline rocks, and restricted to a certain nuneralogical aggregation. | That these objections are felt in greater or less degree is shown (1) by the drift in the signification of terms, (2) by the efforts made to restrict and define old terms, (8) by the introduction of new terms, (4) by the compounding of lerms, and (5) by the use of ‘mineralogical names as defining adjectives. As examples of compounding may be cited such terms as quartz-syenite, oligo- clase-trachyte, quartz-augite-andesite, labradorite-diorite, horn- blend-andesite, dioritic-gniess, hornblendic-biotite-gneiss, and so on through the long list of complex térms that characterize the later and more precise lithological discussions. The essential features of the proposed system lie in the direc- tion of this manifest tendency, and consist, essentially (1), in an Lithological Nomenclature. 235 effort to separate lithological terms into distinct classes, having reference to the several different attitudes from which the char- acter of rocks may be viewed, as physical, chemical, mineralog- ical, petrographical; and (2), the introduction of a series of contractions, and a system of compounding terms, which shall render lithological names at once specific, self-explanatory and measurably quantitative. At the same time the mischievous im- plications attached to prevalent terms, fashioned after those ap- plied to definite mineralogical species, are avoided. Lithological terms are either adjective or nominal in character, and a complete series of each would greatly‘facilitate expression. The following classification of terms, embracing mainly those already in use, will make more clear the place and function of the changes and additions proposed : LITHOLOGICAL TERMS. A. ADJECTIVE. Class I. Basis of Olassification— The Physical Nature of the Con- stituents. ( Conglomeratic. 1. Fragmental. (Detri- J Sandy or arenaceous. tal, Clastic. ) Clayey or argillaceous. | Compact, ete. Granular or phanero-crystalline. 2. Crystalline. « Crypto-crystalline. Porpbyritic, (the above combined.) Class I. Basis of Clussification — The Structure of the Mass. Massive. Schistose. Shaly. Slaty. Laminated, etc. Class Ill. Basis of Classification — Coherence. Tenaceous, firm, compact, etc. Incoherent, friable, uncompacted, ete. 236 Wrsconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Class IV. Basis of Classification — Chemical Nature. Silicious. Calcareous. Ferruginous. Carbonaceous, etc. Class V. Basis of Classification — Mineral Constitution. (Quartzose. Micaceous. . Pyritiferous. Garnetiferous. Staurolitic. Chloritic, ete. Class VI. Basis of Classification — Lithological Character. Granitic. Basaltiec. - Dolomitic. Porphyritic. Trachytric. Dioritic, ete. Class VII. Basis of Classification.— Origin. Igneous, Aqueous, Metamorphic, Pseudomorphie, Kolian, ete. B. NOMINAL. Class I. Basis. — Physical Form of the Constituents, (AMainly.) Pudding stone. Conglomerates: + Gravel, (incoherent conglomerate). Breccia. Grit, grit-rock, sand, sandstone, sandrock. Clay, mud, silt, earth, alluvium, soil, Till, Tufa, etc. Lnthological Nomenclature. 237 Or, again, Crystallites, Clastites, A ggregites, A morphites. The term: of the last named group may be defined as follows: Crystallites, those rocks that are crystalline in structure ; Clastites, those which are fragmental or detrital in origin ; Aggregites, those which are simply accumulations of individ- ualized particles of matter, coherent or incoherent, neither crys- talline nor detrital in origin, as infusorial earth, or chalk, when it is composed of uncomminuted Rhizopod shells ; Amorphites, those rocks in which there are no discernible indi- vidualized constituents. Clauss Il, Basis of Classification.— Structure of the Mass. Schist, Shale, Sate, ete. Or, again, Stratified, Unstratified. Class IL, Basis of Classification.— The Crystalline Character of the Constituents. Granite, (crystals distinct). Granulite, (crystals minute). - Aphanite, (no visible crystals). Porphyry, (crystals in compact base). It is proposed to restore the term granite to a proper etymo- logical use, and apply it to rocks consisting of distinct, crystalline grains of medium or large size, and to deprive it of mineralogical signification, making it a term denoting simply a certain class of cry-tailine aggregates. It is proposed to designate minutely granular crystalline rocks, 238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. by the diminutive term granulitz. Aphanite may then be more freely used to include all erypto-crystalline rocks, while porphyry will embrace combinations of the last with the two former. Class 1V. Basis of Classification — nes Characters. Trachyte. Rhyolite. Pumice. Scoria. Phonolite. Buhrstone. Pearlstone, etc. Class V. Basis of Classification — Origin. Lava. Trap. Meta ( ) Teno ( 5) Aguo ( 5) There is a very prevalent, and, for the most part, just prejudice against the use of the name /rap, arising from the frequent use of the term as though it conveyed a mineralogical signification, whereas the term really has none, and, in its proper application, includes rocks of various mineralogical and chemical constitution. But this abuse is really but an aggravated instance of what is common, indeed, almost universal, under the present system of nomenclature. To merely specify that a rock is granite, may be to use that term as a ‘cloak of ignorance” in the same sense, though perhaps not to an equal degree, as to rest with the asser- tion that a rock is a “‘trap;” for the term granite embraces a scarcely less wide range of minerals or of ultimate chemical con- stituents, and the wresting of the term from its primitive and proper application, is scarcely less violent. If, however, the term trap be stripped of all pretension to mineralogical signification, and ccnficed to the simple designation of rocks formed of matter that issued through fissures, either constituting dikes, or spreading ‘out into sheets, and so incidentally giving rise to step-like topog- Lithological Nomenciature. 209 raphy, as distinguished from lavas that have arisen from craters and flowed away in radial streams, with the attendant structural distinctions between the two, it will serve a convenient function in the literature of the subject, without being a “cloak of ignorance ” in any other sense than Java is, or many other general, very con-. venient and necessary terms. There will, doubtless, arise many cases in which it will be im- possible to determine the method of issuance of a given igneous rock, and neither the term Java nor trap could be used in the resiricted sense here proposed, and there may be little funda- mental distinction between the phenomena in the two cases; but both the distinction and the terms. are serviceable in geological literature, when stripped of the pretentious clothing to which they have no title. Prof. Dana has suggested that metamorphic rocks be designated by the prefix meta. If this were generally adopted it would doubtless be serviceable; but the limitations of knowledge being such as they are, it would seem almost necessary to introduce a corresponding prefix to indicate similar rocks of igneous or aqueous origin. Vor if the simple name, as diorite for example, be understood to imply igneous origin, and the compound term, as meta-diorite, a metamorphoric one, it would be necessary, in the very naming of the rock, to assert an opinion as to its origin. But in many cases it is impossible to positively determine the origin of a rock, whose other characteristics may be very well known; and there would be no convenient term to express this knowledge, without implying knowledge not possessed. In respect to gran- ite, for instance, it is contended, severally, by able geologists, that it may have an igneous, an aqueous, and a metamorphic origin, and yet, in many instances, the working geologist would not feel at liberty to assert that a given granite belonged to either class; and it would be a sore inconvenience to be obliged to make an implied assertion upon the subject, or else be shut out wholly from the use of the term granite. If, therefore, the system of introducing prefixes to designate origin be adopted at all, it should be complete, and yet leave the working geologist at liberty to use the ‘fundamental term, free from the added signification. 240. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. It is hence suggested that the term me‘a- be used as a prefix, when it is desired briefly and conveniently to assert a metamorphic origin; that the prefix zgno- be usad similarly to assert an igneous origin; and aguo- in like manner, to imply an aqueous origin ; while the simple terms shall have merely their own mineralogical, or other appropriate, signification. Class V will then embrace the terms, lava and trap, used to designate rocks of certain special eruptive origins, and a long list of terms to which the prefixes meta , ingno- and aquo- are attached to signify, respectively, metamorphic, igneous and aqueous origin. The foregoing terms furnish fair, though somewhat inadequate, facilities for the designation of the several classes of properties indicated under the headings. There remains to be added a series of terms which shall express the mineralogical constitution of rocks, which is by far their most important characteristic. It is in respect to this that our present system is weakest, and, from the fact that it attempts to impose fixed names upon indefinitely vary- ing ageregations, must necessarily ever remain unsatisfactory. It is, therefore, proposed to escape this difficulty by the use of a svstem of flexible compound terms, which shall admit of varia- tion to express varying composition, and, roughly, the varying quantitative relations of the mineral ingredients. As above in- dicated, the growing tendency in lithological literature is toward the employment of compounds of mineralogical names. The advantage of this, in clearness and precision, as well as in the con- venience of the reader, is manifest. But it results in cumbersome terms, and if carried sufficiently far to overcome the defects of the present system, becomes burdensome. This, however, may be obviated by a series of contractions which shall retain a sig- nificaut portion of the mineralogical name, without the burden of its entirety. Jor the sake of euphonious combinations, these con- tractions may be varied somewhat ia their several combinations. The following are suggested as available abbreviations of the names of the leading minerals that enter into the composition of rocks, and it will not be difficult to extend the list to any other minerals that may, in given instances, become prominent litholog- ical constituents. Lithological Nomenclature. 241 ABBREVIATIONS OF THE NAMES OF MINERALS CONSTITUTING Rocks. Quartz — Qua., or qu. Feldspar — Fel. Orthoclase — Orth., or ortho. Microcline— Micr., or micro. Oligoclase— Olig., or oligo. Labradorite — Lab., labra., or labrad. Albite — Al., alb., or albi. Andesite — And., or ande. | Nephelite— Neph., or nephe. Leucite — Leuc., or leuci. Sodalite— Soda., or sodal. Mica — Mi. Muscovite— Muse., or musco. Biotite — Bio., or bi. Hydromica — Hydrom., or hydromi. Amphibole — Amph., or amphi. Hornblende — Horn., or ’orn. Actinolite — Act., or actin. Smaragdite — Smar., or smara. Tremolite — Trem., or tremo. Pyroxene — Pyr., pyro., or pyrox. saA.ugite — Aug., or augi. Sahlite — Sahl. Diallage — Dial. Hypersthene — Hypers., or hypersth. Saussurite — Saus., or sausu. Hpidote — Ep., epi., or epid. Garnet — Gar., garn., or garne. Chrysolite — Chrys., or chryso. (Olivine — Oliv., or olivi.) Calcite — Cale., or calci. Serpentine — Serp., or serpe. Chlorite — Chlo., or chlor. | Pyrite — Pyri., or pyrit. Magnetite — Mag., magn, or magne. 16 242 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Hematite — Hem., or hema. Menaccanite — Menac., or menacca. Tourmaline — Tour., or tourma. Graphite — Graph., or graphi. Apatite— Ap., or apa. Andalusite — Andal., or andalu. Cyanite — Cy., or cyan. Sericite — Seri., or seric. Zircon — Zir., zire., or zirco. In the combination of these it is suggested that the leading constituent stand first, and that the remaining constituents follow in the order of importance. In crystalline rocks there will often be present minerals in small and varying quantities, which it will be neither convenient nor desirable to include in the compound name of the rock, but which should be regarded, as they com- monly are, as accessory minerals. There may be little philo- sophical basis for this distinction, since the rock is at best but an ageregate, and is what it is by virtue of the total aggregation, and not by virtue of any definite composition, as in the case of a mineral or chemical compound. Nevertheless, these minor min- eral constituents do not, in the main, represent any distinctive condition in the formation of the rock, but rather some of those accessory circumstances common to a wide range of rock-forma- tions. They are, therefore, geologically incidental, rather than essential, conditions, and their products may, therefore, be omitted from the compound name and classed as accessory minerals, and as such receive attention in exhaustive descriptions, without burdening the more general discussions. It will of course be within the discretion of each writer, in the case of a given rock, to decide what are its essential and what its trivial constituents. In this system no uniform terminal syllable is proposed. It may be doubted whether lithologists will take kizdly to this innovation, since it is at variance with the prevalent custom of terminating rock names with an 7te or an ye, after the fashion of mineralogical terms. A grave objection to the usage, however, arises out of the very fact of this imitation, since it implies, in the rock-aggrega- tion, something of the same definiteness of constitution that the mineral possesses; and this, I believe it is universally conceded, Lithological Nomenclature. 248 is a false and mischievous idea. It seems to the writer, therefore, best that the name should imitate the complex aggregation of the rock which it designates, rather than the individualized character of a mineral to which it has only the semblance, not the sub- stance, of a true likeness. The first, therefore, of the following series of proposéd names will consist of a bare aggregation of ab- breviations of the names of the mineral constituents of the given rocks, in the order of their relative importance, thus both repre- senting and defining the rock without pretension to individualiza- tion. The oddness of the names may at first be mistaken for uncouthness, which will indeed be justly chargeable in some cases, but the quaint elegance of other instances will offer some, if not full, compensation. The uniformity — not to say monot- ony — given by the fashionable suffix will be Jost, but a vivacious variety will be gained. An alternative series, however, is proposed, more in harmony with the present habit, both in respect to uniformity of termination, and the order of arrangement of the constituents, which is that of the inverse order of importance, the most abundant mineral being last and receiving the termination. The suggestion of Prof. Dana in respect to a distinctive orthography is here adopted. The application of the system may be illustrated by the familiar rock granite. Its composition is generally stated as quartz, feldspar and mica. Assuming, for the moment, that no more precise statement is desired, and that the relative amounts of the ingredients are in the order given, its name under the first form of the proposed system will be qua-fel-mi (quafelmi). If, however, as is very frequently the case, feldspar is the leading in- gredient, and quartz second in order of importance, the name will be fel-qua-mi (felquami), Should mica stand second in impor- tance, the formula would be fel-mi-qua (félmiqua , and so on for other variations. In this instance, mica rarely assumes the lead- ing place without removing the rock from the present category of granites. But under the proposed system the nomenclature will strictly adhere to the mineralogical constitution and the compound terms mi-fel qua (mi-felqua), and miqua-fel (miquafel), will rep- resent the preponderance of micain this mineral aggregation, and the structure will be represented by an appropriate adjective, as O44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. foliated mifelqua, or schistose miquafel, or miquafel schist, or otherwise, as the case may be. | But the mere indication that the granite is compossd of quartz, feldsparand mica, may be quite too genera! for precise discussions, since it does not indicate which feldspar, nor which mica, nor whether more than one of either or of both is present. The more precise of the text-book definitions of granite rarely go- beyond the statement that it is composed of quartz, orthoclase and mica. If this is the degree of precision chosen to be asserted the new terms will be, qu’orth-mi (quorthmi), ortho-qua-mi (orthéq- uami), mic-ortho qua (mic rthoqua), qua-mic-orth (quamicorth), ortho-mi-qua (orthomiqua), or mi-qu’orth (miquorth), according as the relative proportions may be. But the mica, instead of being common muscovite, which would doubtless be understood by the general term, may be biotite. In this case the names will be qu’ortho-bio (quérthobio), ortho-qua-bio (orthoqudbio), bi-ortho- - qua (bidrthoqua), and so on, according to the relative proportions. By modifications of the abbreviations which will not destroy their distinctive, representative character, difficult vocal combina- tions may, for the most part, be avoided, and euphonious terms secured. The system, it will be observed, is quite analogous to that adopted by chemists to meet the complexities of carbon com- pounds, but will rarely need to approach it in cumbersome combinations. Under the alternative system proposed, similar combinations will result, but the order will be reversed, and the termination yte added to the leading constituent. When the usual order of naming the constituents of granite,— auartz, feldspar and mica — represents the relative abundance of the constituents, the name will be mi-fel-quartzyte (mifelquartzyte). This extension of the use of the the term quartzyte appears not unjustifiable when it is considered that, in addition to the preponderance of free quartz, silica forms a large constituent of the remaining ingredients; and that there is a not uncommon class of rocks, intermediate between the old_classes quartzyte and granite, to which such a term would be happily applicable. But among the granites feldspar is often the leading‘constituent. The name will then be mi-qua-felsparyte (micafelsparyte). The more precise names will be mic-ortho- Lithological Nomenclature. 245 quartzyte), mi-qu’orthoclastyte (miquorthoclastyte\, qu’ortho-mi- eatyte (quorthomicatyte), qua-mic-orthoclastyte (quamicorthoclas- tyte), ortho-mi-quartzyte (orthomiquartzyte), ortho-qua-micaty te (orthoquamicatyte), biortho-quartzyte (biorthoquartzyte), bio- quorthoclastyte (bioquorthoclastyte), qu’ortho-biotyte (quortho- biotyte), qu’ortho-muscovyte (quorth»muscovyte), ete. ~The foregoing, perhaps, sufficiently illustrate the method of the system, its extreme flexibility, and consequent adaptiveness to the variations of rock combinations, the self-definitiveness of the terms, and their monemonic advantages with students, as well as, on the other hand, something of the cumbersome complexity and quaint- ness which will sometimes arise where exact momenclature is attempted. In the following lists no attempt is made to exhibit the complete variation under the several rocks, but simply to give leading names under the two systems, assuming, usually, that the common order of naming the ingredients is that of their relative abundance. The verbal combinations that would arise with other proportions can readily be constructed. Class V. Basis of Classification — Mineral Composition. — PRESENT NAMES. First Prorosep Form. | SECOND PROPOSED Form. Limestone.......... Iaimiestone} Or. «<<. .....| Calcityte. IDol@mnite.6 eosbeaos MOOWMNNIE oonsoc-daqeace Dolomyte. amtZtel are. 214 0's Quartzite.. ... de sadeour Quartzyte. GirAniite) ee wc. eis Mowiiellranil) Oho eacaccsodoc | Mi-fel.quar'zyte, or. iM eraltavataisyoisvehcrescucia tis so) QUOI scoscacsoonece | Mic-ortho quartzyte. ood D0Cb Ob Da0000 ..--| Ortho qua-mi............| Mi-qn’orthoclastyte. aE eRe 6 HO ROE Mone Q@uortho-bio............| Bi-ortho-quarizyite: gobbo05 GounadG sasco || QW? OHINOSINING ao cccdsqa58 Musc-ortho-quartzyte. poObKeb OSD Sanaoooe be Ortho-qua-muse, etc...... Musc-qu’orthoclastyte, ! ete. Granulite........ gal) INEGI, OR od0s0| sopconoe | Qua-felsparyte, or A Saar eee ssoscoos| QUAM cegeadpecencecoaos| HEL Gmentinamie, GiGi csc cedduacne Foliated fel-qua-mi....... Foliated mi-qua-felsparyte. cdo SPU cED OEMS UMROOE Foliated fel-mi-qua.......) Foliated qua-mi-felsraryte. : Saat at HereVese mietaistspatate cas Foliated qua fel mi...... Foliated mi-fel-quartzyte. Foliated qua-mi-iel, etc... Schistose mi-fel-qua, or .. Schistose miqua-tel Schistose Hydro-mi-qua- fel, etc Foliated {e!-mi quartzyte, etc. Schistose qua-fel-micatyte. Schistose fel-qua-micatyte. Schistose fel-qua-hydromi- catyte. LEROWONNG caonc aneos Qu’-orth-michlor.......... Chlor-mic-ortho.quartzyte. NANTES coo G06 OMINOI0OI@ > cosooooonds .-.| Bi-orthoclastyte. (Gieise neste Aodoae Granular.qui-mi......... | Granular mi-quartzyte. save ar tte aioe SEE MME Sltme sy aayerasisicciyes cers! Melsy te: 246 ” Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Class V. Basis of Class*fication — Mineral Composition — con. PRESENT NAME. Quartz-felsite Leucitite Kinzigite Miascite..... S cejetoks Ditroite Syenite. eee ore ees one ceo oe ee ee cee cece e & wot ees oes eerste eeeee e Syenite Gneiss..... Hornblende Schist.. NIN PON TOWNIGS So ocooe Actinolite Unakite Foyaite eee ecaoce eee nilelaleleiniicleleiete's e@seoeee ce ~ one oe meee ee eseeceocsrssear eo eet ee e@e2eece eee ese ee ee eto ee oeeeceetcecee ese oes eo: OOTSite kere rectectats Euphotide...... doce Augitic. andesite . Norite Hypersthenite MOVERS. ssh eoes eee coco cees ecnee Eucrite Amphigenite Nephelinite IDGUOHMIE Ss c56 00 00n60e Hpidosite «0... ..6- ID WUK EM co Goo oDGDOs Eeiiemitanartersyeite srelteter- Ophiolite ... sere eee ae ee eeeoe First Proprosep Form. I GNSTE Qt air aiemy tesetericiarels eke Leucitite .......... Skorsaiere Roane age cee Micro-nephe-soda-bio ... Micro nephe-sodal....... OMVALOM, Olt sooond Sideat Orth-amph Orthorn-qua, or...... Orthsam'phieqiulae rere Schistose Orth-’orn .. Schistose Hornblendite . Amphibolite Actinolite Sri Ortho-qu’-epido.......... Ortho-neph-’orn Alb-(h)orn, or HMormsahb 22ers IDBaeKoHON\ONe ao gbdccooKc Olig-(h)orn, or OPNOMNE oocacooococosas Anorth-’orn, or . Horn-anorth (Amphi-lab) (Atmip heanoynth)) escy-ecree Alb-(h)orn-qua Horn.albi-qua Obicz(h) onn- quate ee Horn-oligo-qua INTOKOMUES Oo oqoddocdnac Andehorn ... ANMGIERINOMIN-G(WE5 Go gocanb. ANNOYS OND, go5cb000 o0Kae eececes-ceccceee eo ersceece ee eoeneceeeos ecoeoe sees IN NOCANIVES Ge cooootoocDEde | Labra-pyr sacgoo0 bas sooc Tabr-yperth = =... Labrad-aug, or.......... Haibr= aug. Soe. Wiaweeteetss Labrad-aug, oOr........... Labr’ aug ANTONE S Song sogasods Augi-leuc ENVISION Go Gaonac0oc0d. Horn-garni-smar......... IDOICWFEMEA, 6 asconccco0 506 Chryso.dial-garn........ (CHGS: Ss «ele create Ei eisi Serpe- -cale Serpe-dol, or..... : Serpe-mag.... eecrereesesesoce SECOND PRorPpOsED FORM. Qua-felsyte. Leucityte. Oligo-biotyte. Garn-oligo-bioty te. Bio-soda-nephe-inicroclin- yte. ; Soda-nephe-microclinyte. Horn-orthoclastyte, or Amph-orthoclastyte. Qu-’orn-orthoclastyte, or Qu-amph-orthoclastyte. Schistose Horn-orthoclas- tyke: : Schistose Hornblendyte. Amphibolyte. Actinolyte. Epido-qu’-orthoclastyte. Horn-’eph-orthoclastyte. Horn.albyte, or Alb-hornblendyte. Horn-Jabradoryte. Horn. oligoclastyte, or Olig-(b)ornblendyte. Horn-anorthyte, or Avorth-’ornblendyte. (Lab-amphibolyte). (Anorth-amphibolyte) Qw orn albyte. Qu’-alb-hornblendyte. Qu’orn-oligoclastyte. Qu’-olig-hornblendyte. Andesyte. Horn-andesyte. Qu’-orn.andesy te. Horn-avorthyte. Smara-sausuryte. Dialli-sausury te. Dial-labradoryte. Labro-diallagyte. Augi-andesyte. Pyro-labradoryte. Hyperth-labradoryte. Aug blab e Augi-anorthyte. Leuci-augyte. Neph-augyte. Smara.garni hornblendyte. Qu’-epidotyte. Garne-diallo-chrysolyte. Augi-chrysolyte. Calc.serpentyte. Dolo-serpentyte, or Magne-serpentyte. Lithological Nomenclature. 247. In pronunciation, the accent should be placed upon such sylla- bles as will best retain the original sounds of the abbreviations, so far as convenience of utterance will permit. Since a gradual transition, advantageous at all stages, is to be preferred to a sudden revolution, it is suggested that the new terms may be introduced in lithological discussions in parenthesis after the usual names. The new terms will thereby not merely serve as definitions of the old as used, but as succinct statements of the composition of the special rocks described, which is often but vaguely indicated by the common names. This will often permit a shortening of descriptions, and will certainly foster pre- cision of observation and statement, while (if a brief explanation of the system and a list of abbreviations are given until they become well known) it will greatly serve the convenience of students, semi-scientific readers, and not a few geologists who may not be specialists in lithology and freshly familiar with its terms. ‘The system would thus have opportunity to perfect itself while growing into general use. 248 Wrosconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts,and Letters. WATERS ea ea Ve (Menobranchus lateraizs say.) By P. R. Hoy, M. D. DESCRIPTION. Entire length of large female 14 inches. Head 2 inches long and 13 broad. Body, including head, to vent, 10 inches. Tail 4. inches to vent; breadth of tail, 1# The male smaller, from 10 to 11 inches in length. Head large, flattened above. Snout truncated. Hyes small, placed far apart. Nostrils lateral, near the margin of the upper lip. Two rows of smali teeth in the — upper, and one single row in the lower jaw. Mouth large. Lips fleshy. Tongue broad, entire, free at the point. Neck con- tracted and provided with a deep cutaneous fold at the throat. Three rows of external piumose gills on each side, they are placed on the posterior margin of a corresponding fleshy prolon- gation, and supported by three branchial arches between which there are two gill openings into the mouth somewhat fish like. Body elongated and stout, covered by a soft skin, permeated by many pores. ‘T'ail broad, flattened, emarginated eel-like Feet four, all have four toes each without nails, vent a longitudinal fissure. Color light brown, with numerous dark spots and blotches, beneath lighter, with fewer and smaller spots. Heart two-chambered. Lungs rudimentary, not functional. Eggs large and much like those of fish. This species of menobrauch inhab- its large rivers and lakes in the northern states, especially numer- ous in Lake Michigan. They feed on small fish, crustaceans aad molusks. They frequently commit depredations on the spawning beds of fish, and thus doing considerable damage. They inhabit rather deep water with stony bottom, over which they crawl in search of prey. They seldom, or never rise to the surface. ‘They swim with considerable velocity, however, when occasion requires. They take the baited hook, and dire is the consternation uf the boy who hooks the fish with legs. I have little doubt that the flesh is well flavored and nutritious; certainly it is true that when a cat once gets a taste of the flesh of the water puppy it is well nigh crazy to repeat the experiment In Water Puppy. 249 nature the menobranchus occupy nearly the lowest piace among Amphibians, which class stands between fish and reptiles. Physi- ologically they are fish having legs in place of fins, if such a monstrosity could be admitted in jish aristocracy! They cannot live out of water as long as some other fish, for the reason that the gills are exposed and dry more readily in consequence. If. the body is kept moist life is sustained for a greater length of time, proving that aeration is, to a slight degree, carried on through the skin. Tt is an interesting fact that the early tadpole stage of salaman- ders resemble the adult menobrach. Ino early life the Amblis- toma lurida —the life history of which I havecarefully studied — is strictly aquatic, has a tricamerate heart and rudimentary lungs. However, when the legs and feet are being developed the gills. begin to wither and the lungs to assume functional duty, imper- fect as yet though it may be. The second auricle to the heart is now being developed in this transition stage. In this condition the young salamander has been considered a privileged animal — that while in water branchial respiration was sufficient, and again, when on land pulmonary respiration was all sufficient — a per- fectly amphibious animal. But we may withhold our admiration of this privileged condition, for in fact it cannot live in, or out, of water, the gills being partly absorbed, while the yet imper- fectly developed lungs render aerial respiration quite imperfect. So the poor animal has to come to the surface for a mouthful of air and plunge back into the water in order thus to secure the full benefit of the imperfect gills; so they have to play at shuttlecock from one element to the other, not being able to live in either ele- ment alone. I am persuaded that the central organ of the circu- lation (the heart) indicates the mode of respiration, as no air- breathing vertebrate has less than three chambers in the heart, and no aquatic vertebrate has more than a two-chambered heart. Now as the menobranch cannot live out of water — is strictly -aquatic—has only branchial respiration —reason sufficient to prove that they are provided with a bicamerate heart. On dis- section we found the two-chambered heart, as anticipated. In studying the salalemanon I found when a leg was amputated it 250. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. would be reproduced in precisely the same manner—toes ap- peared in like order, as in the original development. But if a branch of the gill was removed it was not reproduced, for the reason, it would seem, that the gills were only a temporary organ, only to serve the animal during its embrionic state, while if the feet were to serve the animal through the adult state, their repro- duction became a necessity. But, we anticipate, when we clip off a portion of the gills of the menobranch, those portions ampu- tated, that portion was reproduced promptly, so th>t in three weeks the gills were again perfect. The gills being essential to adult life, they were restored. The water puppy is a most beauti- ful object, as it appears in its favorite surroundings, with the long scarlet plumose gills, continually waving backwards and for- wards. The behavior of the menobranch wher confined in an insufficient quantity of water is interesting. As the oxygen be- comes exhausted, the animal rises to the surface, opens the mouth and takes in a portion of air, bubbling it out through the gill openings, thus bringing a portion of air in contact with the gills, or rather by this movement the water is aerated, near the surface, precisely as do fish in similar circumstances. I have frequently seen puddles of water, where the mud fish, melanura limi, abounded, entirely covered with small bubbles formed by these hardy fish in their partially successful efforts to obtain a sufficient amount of oxygen. The Pipestone of Devil's Lake. 251 THE PIPESTONE OF DEVIL'S LAKE. (Read before the Wisconsin Academy of Sc‘ences, Arts, and Letters, February 14, 1877.) By E. E. Woopman, BaragBoo. A rock found in the vicinity of Devil’s Lake has not, so far as I am aware, been properly classified. The local and popular name for it is soapstone, derived, doubtless, from several qualities which it possesses in common with steatite, and especially the greasy feel of that mineral. From the presence of the elements of soapstone it is talcose, but the primary object of the present paper is to identify it as an argillite of the variety called pipestone. Two specimens are herewith presented. The red one is from the widely known quarry in south-western Minnesota, the other from the neighborhood of Devil’s Lake, Sauk county, Wisconsin. On a superficial examination they will be found to possess several properties in common. In their feel, hardnggs, susceptibility to polish, earthy odor when moistened, freedom a. crit, ia most of their obvious properties except color, they agree. Also their be- havior before the blow-pipe is the same, both being infusible without a flux, but with borax yielding a green glass. In these characteristics they answer to the description which Nicollet ({Itinery 1842, Senate Document No. 237) gives of the red pipe- sione of Minnesota, as quarried under his personal direction and observation: “Compact; structure slaty; reseiving a dull polish; having a red streak; color blood red, with dots of a fainter shade of the same color; fracture rough ; sectile; feel somewhat greasy ; hardness, uot yielding to the nail; not scratched by selenite, but easily by calcareous spar; specific gravity 2.90. The acids have no action upon it; before the blow pipe it is infusible per se, but with borax gives a green glass.” I am indebted to Prof. W. W. Daniells, of this Academy, for a qualitative analysis of these specimens which completes the evi- dence of their identity. He finds the principal component of each to be silicate of alumina. This is combined with small percentages of lime, magnesia and oxide of iron, the last being a larger constituent of the red than of the gray specimen, as might be inferred from its color. The specific gravity of the red speci- 252 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. men is by his determination 2.752; and of the gray one, 2.829. The agreement in this regard also is quite close, though perhaps accidental; for Nicollet’s determination of 2.90 for the red variety shows that specimens from the same quarry may vary considera- bly in this particular; and so, likewise, they do in color. The stone from the Minnesota quarry is not uniformly of the blood- red color on which the species Cudlinite is founded, but often is mottled with lighter shades of red, running into yellow; while that from Devil’s Lake, as thus far discovered, is all variegated, gray, black, yellow and red being intermingled in the same speci- men, producing the veined appearance of some marbles. One part of the gray specimen here submitted gives a red streak undistinguishable from that of the red specimen, and I have seen specimens from Devil’s Lake in which the dark color greatly pre- dominated, though such examples are as yet rare. This diversity in weight and color indicates that a quantitative analysis of speci- mens from differenf$ources would be scarcely more valuable, as a means of identification, than a qualitativeone. I however take from Silliman’s Journal, 1839, the only analysis to which I have access, that of the Minnesota pipestone, by Dr. Jackson of Boston: Grains. Wialerirealsiceaelels, ceurero siento o cliieiehs Mace nieces coats «ee eae eee 8.4 SUNCS wep cbaceiniee eae eei sieve cyaihatis eles ye cate ae araveh oi Rayer cee keneee taoteee svetehenee Pepa 2koae SANT UMA INA yates se cs ayes sists sae (oe aise vecemotanere fare lolatore iltetelsreteds jetehedterevercte sioniaieceienetene 28.2 BUYS I ene eBIa Toco Hoe Or ood & oO aUoie GOCOOU too ocioo Gd os Go oc 8: 6.0 Peroxwiron che ees RE SOC CoE Crema OG oO iaigieee 5.0 Ox. Mano amese sdiaeicsicit iene sichenejetsiasese 'siereio ce wimlevelussseroletetslouerere sere ei ereme tates 0.6 Carts Tite ooo ie aves uals crstavelbus eo ecocetenen we lol ohne Sieg isle sexes ohtrsl abe eteke eG eee 2.6 MEOSSH( PLOW ably: Mla SWS ah) jereletoieis sn) i). We Pe nee reals Gola cvolle oc FAA Sees a) Copeealen Cae UAE allbirae | Cesta s:s GO ecko | serra rer cuell eroters sail GEES ale (i y-tr | ene ees! lsesetiloaocalis coc wee) 44 [441 BB al ye 5] te oes |e etal etal yal Petrelli orale) Ges no ye ql Gy) apy) Seb | GB lo 555) 282 59 |. $80 lead ao) AOE) 2s Sate AGN es esellnieierelte sveusil dO leee all eterete 34 ASG rs Satallese tees ; we AY) aoe 3 mete 39 1 Average of ten observations. 3 Average of five observations. > Two observations. 2 Average of five observations. 4 Two observations. 6 Two observations. Temperature of Pine, Beaver and Okanchee Lakes. 275 BEAVER LAKE, WAUKESHA Co., WISCONSIN. # TEMPERATURE OF WATER. TIME or | © Day. S i i . |g 3 = Date. E Sa |S (ssa (lane ft S ae sty [os ae (eS Hheoa Wiwen Late [bs SN issued = 4 a) ll 2S te o > o me o i S & 3 2 ia) ° SS te a & _ A. M.| P.M. | Aa} ie = gd |}ag) 2 >! mls] a oe eS Sy PO Ae ey eae ae ee] 2 o) =) |) oS ) = ee SEH ast iS) Se) satel IS SBil_m |e] ea |] eae Ie BS |e | 1m |a 1879. | fo} ° ° ° fo} ° ° fo} ° ° ° MIE We enigoalee Sep ell ZESOO Hh 7) A HS Nee Ne ea eon [oben aed eel eect ere ecient escics Maya eden st atslateiele ove 4:30 | %8 | 63 |... Erdal hae Oil tares [ies epeaceetepere Sealvet sete eccleiusets « 4:00 | ETP Dil eevereekevers 65 i) 4) Woo cloowblaos OKANCHEE LAKE, WAUKESHA COUNTY, WISCONSIN. July 14.. 6:45 | eee | 79 | 80 | 80 | 80 “10 | 64 | 49 be 46 | 44. 1 Two observations. 276 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. A DESCRIPTION OF SOME FOSSIL TRACKS FROM THE POTSDAM SANDSTONE. By Pror. JAMES EH. Topp.! 1Atthe winter meeting of the Academy in 1879, a verbal description and discussion of these tracks, illustrated by photographs, was presented by Prof. T. C. Chamberlin, but the pressure of other work preventing the preparation of a description for the press, the matter was placed in the hands of the writer. The names here adopted are those then proposed. The specimens on which the descriptions are based — in all about half a ton of slabs — are in the cabinet of Beloit College, and were procured through the kindness of Mr. Young and at the expense of Mr. Chamberlin. Several months since, Rev. A. A. Youngof New Lisbon, Wis., called the attention of the state geologist to some very interesting fossil tracks, that occur at two quarries located near the Lemon- weir river. They are about four miles north of the village of New Lisbon. The geological horizon is the upper portion of the Potsdam. The rock upon which they are impressed is a medium- grained, compact, hard, silicious sandstone, which splits readily into flags, three or four inches in thickness. The conditions of its deposition are indicated by distinct, and often oblique lamina- tion, and by ripple marks. No animal remains have yet been found associated with the tracks, though these are remarkably well preserved. 1. The general appearance of the tracks is of , broad serpentine bands crossing the stone, and sometimes so thickly as to obscure one another, and give the appearance of an irregularly rippled surface. The margins of the tracks appear to have been originally un- broken lines, and parallel. The whole surface between these lines has evidently been in contact with the animal making the track, and there are no signs that any part of the animal reached beyond these lines. 2. The most conspicuous element of the track consists of a clesely consecutive series of nearly parallel, transverse ridges, Fossil Tracks from the Potsdam Sandstone. 200 which, moreover, are not usually straight and exactly transverse, but most frequently V-shaped with the apex of the V pointing forward. This form, though the prevailing one, is nevertheless subject to the following modifications: The angle varies in the PLATE 1—Fossin TRAcKS ON POTSDAM SANDSTONE. .(From photograph.) typical cases from the extreme limit of 110° to 135°. When the V becomes distorted, this angle appears to vary further, through larger angles, till, in various cases, it disappears, and the ridges are straight. This occurs somewhat more commonly in the smaller tracks. Another frequent variation is in the relative length of the arms of the V, and the consequent shifting of the point towards one 278 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters. side of the track. When the V remains at all regular this is toward the convex margin when the track is curved (vid. plate 1). The surfaces of the ripple-like ridges are usually regularly con- vex, and this convexity is so nearly equal to the concavity of the furrows between, that from this feature alone, it would be impos- sible to say whether, in a particular case, you were looking upon the track itself, or upon the cast of it, found on the upper slab. Not infrequently the ridge is narrower than the furrow. -Some- times the converse is true. If either slope of the ridge is more inclined than the other, itis usually the posterior one, unless it has been modified by longitudinal lines, when the converse may be true. With this character may be connected the fact that from the way in which the stone breaks in the ridges, there is addi- tional evidence that the ridges in their formation were. pressed and moved backward somewhat. Not infrequently the arms of the V are not Fomad fusion sometimes they alternate for a time, sometimes an extra arm 1s intercalated between two V’s, which are distorted, to adapt them- selves to the case. Such cases occur more frequently in curves, but are not confined to them. Sometimes the V-form of the ridge changes to a wavy line, a low W, a regular curve, or a straight line, and that within a short space, in the same track. | Sometimes the transverse ridges appear to fade out, asif the consistency was insufficient to sustain them after they were formed. 8. The third element of the tracks are the longitudinal lines. These are seen frequently modifying the tops of the ridges, and forming the most reliable guide, in determining which impressions are the tracks, and which the casts; also, in which direction the animal moved. The track may also be sometimes distinguished from its cast, by its transverse section being a little concave or depressed. These markings may be divided into three kinds. First, those quite closely parallel with the sides of the track, as though formed by some appendages dragged over the ridges after they were formed. Of these, some seem to be made by rigid, Fossil Tracks from the Potsdam Sandstone. 279 posterior points, or by the lateral edges on some kind of a caudal shield. This appears in pl. 1, toward the left above, and in un- figured examples. The most common ones appear as if formed by flexible bristles dragged over the track. They are sometimes wavy, as though the appendages swayed from side to side. The third kind of markings is best seen near the sides of the curves, and then only in rare instances. These cross the trans- verse ridges more nearly at right angles and appear to have been formed by bristles of some kind attached to whatever formed the ridges. : As to the dimensions of the tracks, it may be said that they vary greatly, though all may be grouped in three sizes. The largest are 4-43 inches wide,.with a distance of 1g—14 inches be- tween the transverse ridges, when of the normal form. When there is a curve, the ridges may be much closer towards the inner side of the curve and more distant on the outer side. This size includes the most conspicuous tracks on pl. 1, where one presents a curved course over five feet in length; also upon pl. 2 and pl. 3, 1 below, and 2. The three kinds of finer markings are found only in tracks of this size. The next size is 2-24 inches across, about $ inch between the ridges, and the smallest size is from 1} tol? inches in width. All of both these sizes show the cross ridges with the V more or less clearly marked, intercalations, and the usual convex surfaces, with perhaps one exception, which is seen at the bottom of pl. 1. In this one the ridges are flattened with a slicht dip forward. This may be formed by a distinct species ; while the others may be conceived as formed by different stages of the same species. These tracks closely resemble some described by Sir W. HE. Logan, from Perth, Canada, and named by him, Climactichnites Wilsont (vid. Geological Survey of Canada, 1863, p. 107). A figure presenting more of the details, is found in Dana’s Manual, p. 176. They have ‘been ascribed by different geologists to Mol- luses, Worms, and Trilobites. These under consideration differ from the Canada tracks, however, in lacking the marginal ridges in all cases, except one very equivocal one. So far as we are aware, they are also without the finer longitudinal markings. 280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. It is possible, however, that the difference is owing mainly, if not entirely, toa difference of the medium in which they were found. These Wisconsin tracks, as before implied, were formed: in loose sand, composed of rounded grains. Similar animals, moving upon mud, would probably push up, on either side of the track, a ridge of sufficient consistency to stand. We are not. informed as to the character of the rock in which the Canada tracks are found. - For convenience for future reference, the larger tracks described, showing occasional longitudinal and wavy markings, we would provisionally name Climactichnites Young; and under this would include all thesmaller ones, showing regular convex and V-shaped transverse ridges. They may prove to have been formed by im- mature individuals. The solitary track, pl. 1, below, with flat and usually straight ridges, may be a variety of the same; but these differences, with others not easily expressed, seem sufficient reason for designating it by another name, viz.— Climactichnites: Fostert. It should be distinctly understood that the names may be discontinued, whenever the name of the species of animals which formed them can be definitely and satisfactorily substi- tuted. This paper would doubtless be considered incomplete, did it not give at least some conjecture concerning the character of the ani- mals which formed these tracks. (We say animals, for the sug- gestion of Prof. Chapman, of Toronto, that Climactichnites are impressions of Fucoids (vid. American Journal of Science, vol. 14, p. 240), clearly cannot apply to thesé under consideration. The longitudinal lines and variations of thé transverse ridges, ap- pearing with such irregularity, forbid the idea.) Hndeavoring to confine ourselves strictly to the facts, and the most patent inferences therefrom, we conclude that, whatever the nature of the animals and whatever the form of their anterior ambulatory organs, those leaving the last impressions were very perfectly flexible. This is shown in the very variable form of the transverse ridges, as noted above. They must have been in pairs, and each capable of motion, in- dependent of its fellow. Thisis proved by the intercalated ridges. fossil Tracks from the Potsdam Sandstone. . 281 Hach separate organ seems usually to have been moved back- ward, and inward, in that way forming the V-shaped ridges. The deepness and smoothness of the impressions may be partly the result of similar movements of successive organs, pressing into the same furrow. The longitudinal lines may have been easily made, it would seem, by a rigid candal shield, furnished, in some cases, with bristles, or slender spines. The finer traces, nearly transverse to the ridges, may have been produced either by the ‘“‘ recover of the paddles, or by the flowing of the mud,” caused by their motion, or the onward movement of the animal. The latter supposition is strengthened, by their ap- pearing only in places, where, from the lowness of the transverse ridges, and apparent washing of material into the depressions, the sand appears to have been of very slight consistency. On this supposition, the long curved track in pl. 1 passes at its sharpest turn, over a firmer spot, but elsewhere the bottom seems to have been much softer. So also in plate 3, 1 below, the track seems have been formed across a series of low ripple-ridges. After all, we must frankly admit, that of thelength, the weight, and the morphological structure of those ancient animals, we learn nothing decisive; and that with a scientific use of the imagination we get little more than a glimpse of the posterior part of their ventral surface. 282 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. A CHAPTER ON FOUNDATIONS. By J. Naper, Ciy. Ene., Mapison, WIs. The subject of this paper is perhaps one of the most difficult and uncertain problems which comes within the province of the Civil Engineer. , | In treating on the subject of foundations, I will endeavor to review the whole practical series, from the ordinary foundation daily required and constructed, to such as tax the ingenuity of man and call forth the efforts of the highest quality of genius and talent. | The earth’s surface, consists of all grades of solidity from the rock, to inpalpable mud ; for this reason we have to be governed by circumstances, and where nature fails us we must supply the want by artifice. lst. Beginning with the most stable, the rock, it is only neces- sary to prepare the surface so that it may receive the intended structure and all requirements are satisfied. Cases may, however occur where the rock bed is of such nature that it will disintegrate by the action of the elements, in all such it is simply necessary to excavate beyond the influence and replace the excavation with enduring material. Where the rock is of sufficient strength, the superstructure may receive considerable strength against lateral motion, as in the case of Hddystone and Bell rock lights, Hngland, also Minot’s ledge light and others in this country, by bolting the structure securely to the bed rock. ° 2d. Next to solid rock is a bed of hard gravel; this will in nearly all cases resist any amount of pressure that can be brought to bear, provided that in cold climates, the substantial work is carried to a depth beyond the influence of the frost. 8d. I shall presume to place sand next in order, to gravel, for solidity. In sand, it is only necessary to go beyond the frost line and to guard against lateral motion; in every other respect it will support weight equal to rock: itself. l A Chapter on Foundations. 283 4th. Next to sand, impervious clay may be in order of resist- ance to pressure. This is a very common earth which yields only to the pick, is not plastic and does not become so from effects of moisture. A solid rock is scarcely more reliable against pressure than this clay. 5th. We now come to the less resisting soils among which the first are the plastic clays. These earths give good resistance when dry but undergo a soaking process from the effects of moisture and becoming plastic they yield to a considerable degree and many fine buildings have unaccountably failed a few years alter their erection, while the fact was, that their very presence con- ducted the moisture to the bed of their foundations and became the means of their own destruction. 6th. And last brings us to the treacherous yielding alluvial beds among which the engineer is obliged to flounder with uncer- tainty in seeking a solution of the problem of stability. Having touched upon the various earths and soils which come into practice, the problem is, how to construct with safety and economy under varying circumstances. _ As before remarked, with a rock bed it is only necessary to prepare the bed to receive the desired structure. With the second class, i. e., gravel bed, it is necessary toextend the base beyond the thickness of the wall to guard against lateral motion; as a rule an increase of about one-half the thickness of the wall will give a sufficient base. In some ordinary founda- tions in gravel, trenches are dug to the desired depth and filled with irregular fragments of stone and then grouted with thin mortar of lime or cement, in many cases the dry stone foundation alone is relied upon. The foundation of Fort Hamilton, New York Harbor, a granite battery of two tier of guns, is built of dry stone. The Fort has stood about fifty years with no sign of fail- _ure. The ground is gravel and hard clay. In case of bridge piers or abutments it is of course necessary to protect the bed from erosion by the force of ice gorges or freshets. This portion of the subject will be treated further on. In the case of sand for foundations, J have presumed to place the same next in order to gravel. As before stated, sand is equal 284 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. to rock if lateral motion is prevented. ‘There is, however, one precaution necessary, and this is, that the thickness of the bed of sand and the substratum should be examined and very carefully, as many cases have occurred in which the superstrata of sand was not of sufficient thickness to give reliable resistance. In such cases, as in the fifth class, resort to artificial support must be had as will be noticed as I progress. In the 4th class there is no particular precaution necessary as it is presupposed, as already stated, that the bed will give sufficient resistance. | In considering the sixth class we arrive at that portion of our work where we may expect to meet the unusual difficulties, where science is often at fault, and where extensive practical knowledge is necessary to overcome the difficulty. It would perhaps be a loss of time for me to go over the ordinary methods of construct- ing foundations in what are considered substantial beds, excepting where I may have occasion to touch upon foundations for partic- ular structures, my purpose is te review the best methods of overcoming the greatest difficulties. General Delafield, ex-Chief of the U.S. Engineer Corps, has written a work upon foundations in yielding soil, in which he gives conclusive proofs of failure, in every case, of grillage or platform foundations. These foundations are made by excavating to a sufficient depth and placing two or more courses of strong timbers at right angles over the ground to be occupied; the spaces between the timber are then filled with béton composed of cement, sand and broken stone or gravel. Over this is placed one or more courses of strong plank placed in close position and securely fast- ened to the grillage, and the structure is erected upon the floor thus resulting. As before stated, these foundations have failed in every instance where extensive permanent buildings have been erected upon the — same, and it was the opinion of General Delafield that the same should not be used unless in connection with some more reliable supports. , The platform foundation being a failure, our next resort is piling, and the different manners in which this may be applied, is one of the particular points I wish to touch upon in this paper. A Chapter on Foundations. 285 Major Sanders of the Engineer Corps and Mr. McAlpin, Civ. Ener., have had perhaps the best opportunities of investigating this class of foundations and supplying reliable practical formule. Major Sanders has experimented and successfully constructed at Fort Delaware and Reedy Island on the Delaware river, on the most treacherous alluvium, upon which a permanent extensive building has perhaps ever been erected. Borings were made at these places to a depth of about 50 feet, and nothing but a liquid impalpable sea of mud was found. Piles were driven from forty to ninety feet deep with the greatest ease. Trial piles were driven and loaded with great weights and the effect of these weights was observed and recorded during a series of years; from these obser- vations a formula was deduced which became a basis of the con- struction of the foundation of Fort Delaware and similar, structures. Mr. McAlpin, eminent in his profession, had charge of the con- struction of the United States dry dock in the Brooklyn navy yard, and had to contend with a treacherous bed of quick sand and springs, where the difficulties encountered are almost inde- scribable and the engineers were at times almost driven to despair. The results of the labors of the aforementioned engineers were almost identical and the application of their formulae, will, in doubtful cases, be liable to err on the side of safety. At Fort Delaware, the possibility of reaching a bottom support for piling was out of the question, on account of the expense. The alternative was to consolidate and compact the super strata in such a manner as to support the weight of the design by driv- ing as many piles as the ground would admit of; the piling was substantially capped, the spaces filled with béton and covered with a strong timber floor, upon which the Fort now stands, without any failure. ad there been a hard substratum at a reasonable depth, the piles would in that. case be only so many columns sup- porting the superstructure. Major Sanders’ formula is as follows : Divide the fall of the ram in inches by the motion of the pile at the last blow in inches; multiply the quotient by one-eighth of 286 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. the weight of. the ram in pounds, the product will be the weight the pile can bear with safety. RX (h+ ; (w= =" 2) Mithel’s screw piles have been used with good success; they consist of iron piles in sections of desirable length, the bottom section having one turn of a broad iron screw; these are forced into the ground by turning them around by means of levers moved by man or horse power. The government of Great Britain has built a number of bridges in India upon screw pile piers, which have all been successful. The screw cylinder I consider a great improvement over the screw pile. The cylinder is made of cast iron of convenient lengths ; the lower section is provided with a screw on the outside, of a foot or more in width, the sections are screwed and bolted to- gether by flanges on the inside; the earth is removed from the inside by suitable implements as fast as the cylinder progresses. The cylinder is afterwards filled with concrete. The Triger system of foundations (so named from its inventor) and largely improved and applied by Mr. Hughes in England, is in reality an enlared hollow pile, and ultimately led to the use of very large cylinders and caissons. I present herewith a plan of an iron centre-pier for a swing bridge, the process of the opera- tion of lowering, excavating, under pinning and filling is shown in the drawings. The centre pier of the iron swing bridge over the Harlem river at New York was constructed in this manner by Mr. McAlpin. There was one central and nine circumscribing cylinders of six feet diameter, these were put down from 60 to 80 feet until the bottom was considered sufficiently resisting to bear the great weight. When the cylinders came to rest, the base was enlarged four feet in all directions, this ingreased the resisting area to forty-nine as against nine without this precaution. If there is much trouble from leakwater, the Plenum and Vacuum process may be applied by putting an airlock on the top of the cylinder and forcing in air under sufficient pressure to expel the water. When the excavation has proceeded as far as possi- ble, the process is reversed and the air exhausted, the atmospheric pressure will then force the cylinder onward. A Chapter on Foundations. 287 At the building of Skilligalee Light House, a great deal of dif- ficulty was encountered. The shoal upon which the light is situ- ated is in the northern end of Lake Michigan some miles from the east shore and is composed of gravel and boulders. As it was impossible to drive piles and the mass so irregular in consistence other means had to be employed in order toget a safe foundation. The area was first enclosed by a secure cribdam, inside of this an iron cylinder sufficiently large to enclose the foundation of the tower was placed, open at top and bottom. It was supposed at first that the water could be kept down by means of pumps and the excavation be made it the open cylinder. It soon appeared that this was impossible; sheet piling was out of the question, and no matter how tight the cribdam might be made, the leaks through the boulders and gravel from below would still remain. A diaphragm was constructed in the cylinder and the excava- tion continued under the plenum process until the cylinder reached about 13 feet below the lake water level. Stone and other materials were passed through an air lock to the workmen below, and the lower part of the cylinder was built up with solid masonry until there was sufficient weight to exclude the water; the diaphragm was then cut away and the work con- tinued from above. ‘The unavoidable manner of operating brought the work into what we know at present ‘“‘caisson,’’ an ex- ceedingly expensive and tedious plan, and, as in the case above mentioned, should only be a last resort when no other plan will promise success. The latest wonders in construction are now before us. One the great steel arch bridge so successfully completed across the Mississippi at St. Louis, and the other now in process of construc- tion across the Hast river at New York. In the case of the St. Louis bridge, the certainty of reaching bed rock was a great in- ducement to the engineer to adopt the caisson and place his work thereon, although a stratum of good earth was found under the river drift, which continued the same to the bottom. Had it been impossible to reach rock, a coffer-dam enclosure would have enabled the excavation to be made and bearing piles to be driven and would, in my estimation, have made a foundation as safe as the present one. ; 288 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Aris, and Letters. The Brooklyn caisson of the Hast river bridge rests for the most part on a bed of boulders and hard-pan at a depth of 444 feet below mean high tide and the top of the caisson at 20 feet. The depth of water is from 12 to 16 feet in front of the tower; the river drift was perhaps 12 to 14 feet deep. This leaves us but 80 feet from mean high tide to a good foundation, if properly treated. | This Brooklyn caisson cost something over $300,000; a coffer- dam would have cost less than $100,000; the excavation would have cost less also than the masonry; so that it is very evident that there would have been a considerable saving in cost. The weight resting upon the bottom is about 54 tons per square foot, and is considered entirely safe. The settling at the water line has upon close observation barely exceeded one inch at any point. The consideration of these two extraordinary structures -has brought us to the subject of foundations in water. Many of the plans mentioned in a preceding part of this paper are applicable to piers and abutments in water. The solid and hollow screw pile and iron cylinder can be applied with success. A very com- mon plan for piers consists of a sufficient number of bearing piles surrounded by timber cribs and the space filled with loose stone to support the piles against lateral motion. ‘The crib is not per- mitted to rest upon the bottom but is supported some distance above so that the stone may roll out and assume a position which will give a broad base to the filling. A very exéellent plan for building piers and permanent wharves has been extensively applied by the U. S. Hug. Corps, where the bottom was of substantial material: A scaffold is erected upon piles driven by a floating pile driver, upon this the exact location of each pier is determined. Loose stone or bowlders are removed from the site and a sufficient number of bearing piles are driven and sawed off perfectly level close to the bottom. See plan of saw. The bottom course of the pier of 4, 6 or 8 feet square and 2 feet or over in thickness is composed of one stone, this stone is lewised at the corners and supported by chains to which are at- tached large screws which pass through timbers on the staging. The first stone being placed«in the slings it is lowered to the level A Chapter on Foundations. 289 of the staging. The second course composed of two or more stone is then built upon the first and set in mortar and clamped and doweled together. The screws are then slacked down until the top of the course is level with the staging, and so continue until the’ work reaches bottom. The several piers are then con- nected by iron beams and brick arches covered with concrete, the surface may be paved with any suitable material. I can state from my own experience that such piers have teen built in from 12 to 20 feet of water without the least difficulty. Gen’! Richard Delafield’s memoir on foundations in compress: ible soils is probably the ablest investigation on the subject. 19 ) 290 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. PRIMITIVE ARCHITECTURE IN AMERICA. The Different Stuges and Modes of Life Hxhibited in the Pre-historte Works of America. By Rey. 8. D. Pret, Epitorn AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN. One of the most noticeable things in the prehistoric works of America is that they present native architecture in various stages of development. The study of these works furnishes a clue to the states of society in pre-historic times. It also affords us many hints as to the pre-historic races, and their origin, growth and de- velopment. There is need, however, that we have a better under- standing of these stages themselves. Now we propose to study the pre-historic works of America, so that, if possible, we can trace the line of development of society, or if not, so that we can discover various grades which have been presented by it. One of the difficulties in tracing a connected development is that these works are so separated from one another by geo- graphical lines, that we cannot ascribe them to the same people. This is favorable in one respect, because the lines which separate the grades are distinct, and we can thus determine the character- istics which belong to each. There are all the differences between the pre-historic works found on this continent that have been supposed to exist in the works which have been so faithfully studied in the Huropean countries. But the differences here are marked by peculiarities of architecture, rather than those of art; the cultus here being exhibited by the works, rather than by the relics. There are no names which define or describe the stages of society here, such as are used in Hurope, but those stages, never- theless, exist, being shown here by primitive architecture, as they are there by primitive art. The ages which have been so clearly distinguished, and which depend upon the material of the relics found in Hurope, have not been identified here, but the grades of society are shown by the material used in architectural struct- wikia Primitive Architecture in America. 291 ures, and so the lines of distinction are somewhat similar. The geographical lines separate the works, and the material distin- guishes them. In Hutope the different relics are found in the same locality, and successive stages of cultus have been discov- ered, being identified by the material used, as well as by other characteristics. It is supposed that successive waves, of popu- lation have thus left their tokens; possibly different races have overrun the same locality. But the growth of society has been much more connected in Hurope than in America. Here wide districts have separated the races and their works, and the ruins which are discovered in these districts are so unlike, that they indicate different lines of development, if not different ethnic origin. Wherever a succession of races has been discov- ered, we have found that some of the races had prevailed else- where, and intruded themselves upon the domain of others. The study of the works, peculiar to each geographical locality, has revealed this fact, for it is easy to trace the resemblances and so identify the works with the races. If there are earth-works found in Mexico and Central America, they are not the charac- teristics or predominant structures. If there are stone cysts and occasional stone-walls in the Mississippi Valley, still the earth works are the prevailing structures here. This identifying the ar- chitectural peculiarities of one locality, in the midst of the works belonging to another, has this advantage; it enables us to see the grades which architecture has reached and associate them with the different states of society. The only disadvantage is, that it prevents us from tracing any connected development; in other words, instead of blending together, as they do in Hurope, the works are here separated in wide gaps; great difference im archi- tectural forms being discovered. It is not difficult to trace the grades, but it is difficult to discover the connecting links. We propose to examine the works which are peculiar to the different geographical localities and to compare them with one another, and so endeavor to ascertain if there was any separate line of development. The first class of works which we shall ex- amine will be those which are known to have been erected by the Indian tribes and which prevailed, extensively, both on the Atlan- 292 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. tic and the Pacific coast. The second will be those found in the Mississippi valley which are generally known by the name of the Mound Builders works. The third, those found in the Great Plateau of the West, known as the Puebloes. The fourth class are those which belonged to the civilized races of Mexico and Central America. We might, indeed, also examine the works of the different geographical ‘localities, and compare them, and so endeavor to ascertain whether there was any connection between them ; that is to say, whether there was any development of one into the other. {If the development is continental instead of local, it should be recognized. The transition from one to the other is 80 abrupt, that it is difficult to trace any connection. The architectural forms follow different types, and the whole character of the pre-historic works, in the separate localities, show a development so distinct that we can hardly find anything in common. I. We shall consider first, then, the House Architecture, and, — afterward, the Military Works, which are known to belong to the various Indian tribes. | In considering the works of this class, however, we shall exam- ine them in all localities, wherever the Indian tribes are known to have prevailed, and so compare them with the works of each locality. 3 We shall not, then, in this paper, undertake to trace any com- mon type through the different geographical localities, but shall refer to those which are characteristic of the separate localities, and shall, by this means, undertake to show what different grades of architecture have appeared in the different portions of this continent. : . We may see, also, that these different grades are associated with the different states of society ; the first, with the hunter life; the second, with the agricultural; the third, with the village life; the fourth, with the civilized state. In taking this position, we do not deny but that these different states of society and the corresponding architecture prevailed to a certain extent outside of the particular localities to which they B= hi [ea — Ss eer rian 4 = zx a SS ae = ae re a a Ui! et Hi 5 a CLIFF DWELLERS, is h Bele SNe hy eee Ae 9 alepooral si bio \ ) : ay eS i Ke” i Beh ee az ; 0 - ; te & ‘ j : F 7 ; ata ¢ + : ; é = | + : " (toe 4 a » ay * Pen ane aa sek 1 ib » Sab. i > : 7 Ny rps : Ce ae Liens yg } ng ete A Y Ad tai letee ately caste ST < me JEM RN a TORE | See aa Cs Bb Ee Ae Na oe hot Maat 5 : i ‘ i eke ig r ; . $ ‘ L ; U _ ; j , mie, I ; Prinutive Architecture in America. . 315 Houses, have, from time to time been published. We present herewith, a a restoration of the Pueblo of Bonito, which was pub- lished in Morgan’s work, and previously in Hayden’s Annual Re- port. This restoration was made by Mr. Simpson, after the study of a large number of houses of the same type. The Pueblo houses varied in size, some having a main building 250 feet in length, some, 300, and some even larger. They are generally erected with wings of proportionate length, and. contain often- times 120 and 140 rooms. The lower stories were used for store- houses; the upper stories for the residences of the families, and the highest story as the residence of the cacegue or head man of the village. ‘The walls on the outside were solid and inaccessible : on the inside, toward the court, there were no doors, but the upper stories were reached by ladders which could be taken up, and thus leave the house like a castle, isolated and raised above the plain, and inaccessible. There is no doubt that the communistic system prevailed among the Pueblos. . The cliff-dwellers’ dwellings differ from these very much in appearance, and yet they are built on the same plan, and indicate the same mode of life. The residences were not always connected, and village life was not as compact. The inhabitants clung to the cliffs for defense, and scattered their store houses, their estufas, and their dwellings along the sides of the precipice and on the edge of the mesas, wedging in their abodes wherever a shelter was afforded by the rocks. The style of architecture prevalent among the cliff dwellers seems to be in great contrast to that prevalent among the Pueb- loes, but if we analyze and take the component parts of the Pueblo, and then scatter them over the cliffs, we shall find that all the elements are here. Sometimes the estu/wu is placed on the mesa, and sometimes it is crowded in between the cther chambers under shelter of the cliff. Small rooms are divided off and used for store rooms. The buildings are not often more than one story and lack the terrace form which is peculiar to the Puebloes. But it is evident that the same mode of life was prevalent in each ; the valleys below furnished the provisions for the people, and the inhabitants issued from their rock shelters, just as they 816 Wisconsin Académy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. did from the many storied Puebloes, to cultivate the soil below, and then transported the products to their store houses, high up — among the rocks. The ascent to these cliff houses was sometimes quite difficult, the height at which they were erected being in places several hundred feet. A cliff house visited by W. S. Jackson has a height of 600 feet above the bottom of the cafion, 100 feet of it almost perpendicular wall. The ledge was ten feet wide by twenty feet in length. The same party discovered a cave village, perched up upon a recessed bench, 70 feet above the valley ; the total length of the town being 546 feet, with a width in no place more than 40 feet, an estufa or council hall being - built also into the cliff in the midst of the town; and two rows of rooms also erected in the shelter, the outer row for residences and the inner row for store houses. . On the San Juan river, thirty-five miles {below the mouth of the La Plata, and ten miles above the Mancos, Mr. Holmes ob- served an interesting combination of cave-shelters and towers united in a system for giving signals upon the approach of the enemy. In the face of a vertical bluff 85 feet high, and about half way from the trail below, caves had been quarried or weath- ered in considerable numbers in the shales which constitute one of the strata in the bluff. A hard platform of rock formed the floor, and afforded sufficient protection for a narrow platform in front of these openings. Immediately above these caves upon this summit of the bluffs, a system of ruined circular towers, enclosed with semi-circular walls, with the open side of the semi- circle facing the precipice, was observed. ‘The caves were acces- sible from the valley below only by means of ladders, and the towers, in turn, only by ladders from the caves, through the open. side of their semi-circular enclosures. The walls of these encios-. ures presented no openings to the plateau above, und it is inferred that the towers which they enclosed served as outlooks, from which the sentinel could signal the people who were engaged in tilling the valley below to flee to their cave-shelters at the ap- proach of the enemy, and when too closely pressed by an enemy upon the plateau, the sentinel himself could make his retreat by means of his ladder to the caves beneath. _ Primitive Architecture in America. 317 _ The most remarkable cliff-dwellings discovered by Mr. Holmes are shown in the cut. These extraordinary fortresses, lodged in caves 800 feet above the level of the valley, are situated in the canon of the Mancos, a few miles from its mouth. The first 500 feet of the ascent from _ the level of the stream is over a rough, cliff-broken slope; the remainder of massive sandstone full of inches and caves. The upper house is situated in a deep cavern with overhanging roof about 100 feet from the clifi’s top. The front wall of the house is built upon the very edge of the giddy precipice. The larger house is lodged ina niche or cave 30 feet below. The lower house was easily accessible. The wall was built flush with the precipice, and remained standing to a height of 14 feet at the highest point, though other portions had crumbled away consid- erably. The house occupied the entire floor of the niche, which measures 60 feet long by 15 wide. III. We draw this paper to a close, with a few words in con- clusion, concerning the architecture of Central America. It was the effort of our distinguished friend, Mr. L. H. Morgan, to take away the glamour and correct the falsehoods which had gathered around the antiquities of this region. It has seemed to us, how- ever, that he went to the other extreme, especially when he rep- resented the ancient inhabitants as Indians, wearing breech-clouts and scarcely different from those whom we know as the ‘‘ savages ” of North America. There may have been indeed many imaginary pictures of the condition of the cities which the Spanish Con- querors entered, but there are enough ruins of these cities to in- dicate that a barbaric magnificence did prevail there. We are convinced that the national life had begun, for a much higher grade of architecture certainly existed there, and the ruins show that the people had passed out from the village life, into a state which resembles, in many respects, the artificial and magnificent state which is peculiar to civilization. City life may better ex- press the idea than any other term. We do not propose to argue this point, but refer to it and leave it to our readers to decide whether the sculptured and highly adorned buildings were not in fact, as they are called in name, paiaces. The communistic mode 818 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. of life will account for many things, and is a good, working hypothesis, but we cannot class all the pre-historic inhabitants together, and call them Indians, for the works which they have left behind them, and the different grades of architecture seen in these show to us clearly that different modes of life and a differ- ent social status prevailed in each geographical district, the grades of architecture being correlated to them. There has been, in our opinion, too much said about the builders of the pre-historic works being all of them Indians. We might as well talk about the historic works of the east being built by man. One term is about as generic as the other. In Australia the word natives denotes the white residents born in the island, but the word aborigines signifies the races which were found there. If we could make the distinction between Indians and Aborigines, caliing only those Indians whoare known to history as the hunters, and savages, and call the rest by some other name, we should be saved a great deal of confusion. They were, no doubt, a!l of them Indians and Aborigines, hav- ing similar ethnological peculiarities and possibly the same origin. But there was as much difference between these same Indians as between the races of whites. Wetalk about Irish, Dutch and English, and understand that the social life and architectural taste of these races are very different. But they were not so different as those found among the Indians. In fact, the Huropean races are a good deal nearer to one another, both in territorial proxim- ity, ethnic affinities, and social status, than were any of the native American races. The Europeans have, to be sure, reached the position where property in severalty is held, and where landed estates and family names separate households. The American acres were in that tribal condition, all of them, where the com- munistic principle prevailed. The tribal organization was uni- versal, but the social status in the different geographical localities and among the different tribes, was very distinct. If America were compared to Hurope in the times of Julius Czesar, this would be better understood. At that time Britons, Gauls, and Goths were occupying the north of Europe. They were the uncivilized races. Primitive Architecture in America. 819 The civilized races were found in Italy, Greece and a part of Spain. They were all Indo-Europeans and had a common origin. In fact, they all belonged to the White race. The American aborigines all belonged to the red race. Some were civilized and some uncivilized. The works of the Britons and of the Iroquois may be com- pared. The Gauls or Celts may be considered the Mound Build- ers, or what is better, perhaps, the Iberians. The German tribes may be compared to the Pueblos, and the Romans to the Mex- icans. There was a great difference between the Cis-Alpine and Trans-Alpine races. Civilization prevailed at Rome, and much of it was borrowed from the far east. Barbarism prevailed north of the Alps, and the races came from another stock. So the civilization of Mexico and Central America may have been de- rived from across the water, in one direction or the other. The Aztec, Toltec, and the Chicrinec races may have come from a dif- ferent stock from the uncivilized races, situated north of Mexico; the grades of society and the stages of architecture were very different, not so different as those which prevailed in Hurope, yet different enough to be recognized now in the ruins and monu- ments. We present a cut with this article which represents one of the palaces which were common in Central America. Mr. H. H. Bancroft has, in his Native Races of the Pacific Coast, referred to a large number of just such structures. The ruins of Uxmal and Palenque are often described, but these are only types of many which were common. The elaborate carving on the facades of these palaces, the many and complicated halls — and chambers which were within, the magnificent corridors and courts which were without, and the whole style of architecture peculiar to the region, show that the people had reached a high stage of development. There must have been a barbaric magnifi- cence which was impressive and strange, and we do not wonder that the Spanish historians represented them in such glowing colors as they did. Whether evidence will be presented, in the course of time, that this skill and culture were trained by those who had known something of the civilization {of other continents or not, we can 820 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. not deny that the architecture of this region shows a very differ- ent condition of life from that presented elsewhere. The soil and climate may have been favorable, and the increase of wealth and ease may have resulted in just such magnificence without any borrowed skill. . But certainly there is a great contrast between these works of the civilized races, and the rude wigwams of the savages. All these different styles and grades of architecture may have had a common origin. Possibly the growth may be traced from the one to the other, but we can no more compare the Montezuma of Mexico to the Hiawatha of the Iroquois, than we ~ can the Julius Czesar of Rome to the Ariovistus of the Germans. It is very fashionable to follow an idea, and to imagine that one system will explain them all; but the plain facts disprove all theories. Indian or not, modern or not, the works of Mexico and Central America show that the races there certainly reached a very different state of development from what prevailed north of this region. There is no wonderful mystery about it, and nothing improbable. The Seven Cities of Cibola, situated as they were in the deep inierior of this continent, struck the Spaniards with as much surprise as did the palaces of Mexico. The strange works of the Mound Builders have not yet ceased to excite our wonder and baffle our investigations. Only the familiar and rude ways and works of the Indians excite our contempt. But all of them are important, as showing what different states of society have existed on this continent, and how one dark-skinned, copper- colored race have developed into’so many different stages of cul- tus. We take the four or five classes of architectural works and trace in them four or five different modes of life and social con- ditions, and so have a picture of the pre-historic ageson this con- tinent which cannot be excelled. The study of primitive archi- tecture is really the main source of information in reference to this age, PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY SINCE JULY, 1878. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. NINTH REGULAR ANNUAL MEETING, Held at Madison, December 27, 28 and 29, 1878, tn the Senate Chamber of. the Capitol. First SESSION. THuRSDAY, December 27, 1878, Academy met at 7:30 P. M., Dr. P. R. Hoy, presiding. Reports from the sec- retary, treasurer and varlous committees were read and accepted. Pres. Hoy then delivered his retiring address. After thanking the members for their kindness manifested toward him during his term of office, Dr. Hoy proceeded to briefly relate some of the wonderful discoveries of the recent past, rather than jgive the usual review of the work of the academy. The labors of Edison, Prof. Draper and various‘travelers were noticed. Dr. Hoy alluded to the rapid growth of the Academy, which started eight years ago with but eleven members. The address closed with afeeling tribute to deceased mem- _ bers, including the late Prof. Carpenter, whose recent death was severely felt at Madison. “Did Bacon Write Shakspere?’’ a paper by Prof. Albert Hardy, of Mil- waukee, followed. The question of the authorship of Shakespere’s plays was one of recent growth. Carefully collected facts were introduced to show the high regard which was accorded Shakespere by his contemporaries. The growth of the ‘drama was depicted. A large number of passages taken from Shakespere and Bacon were cited to present the similarities and difference of the two writers. Academy the names of all members whose accounts are not square upon his books. WHEREAS: The general secretary, the librarian and the curator of the Museum have duties to perform in connection with their respective offices for which no compensation is provided; therefore be it Resolved, That the treasurer be instructed to credit the annval dues of the persons holding the offices above named during the period they discharge the duties of their respective offices. WuEREAS, Several gentlemen who in former years have been active and useful members of the Academy, have removed from the state and cannot, therefore, be expected to continue the payment of their annual dues, and WHEREAS, It is desirable that some connection be continued between the Academy and the gentlemen referred to, therefore be it esolved, That the following named gentlemen, formerly active members of the Academy, be elected as corresponding members: Rev. G. M. Steele, ex-president, Lawrence University; Rev. Bishop Sam’) Fallows, Chicago; Col. 8. V. Shipman, Chicago; Judge J. G. Knapp, Florida; Rev. Chas. Ca- verno, Lombard, Iil.; Rev. F. M. Holland, Massachusetts. The following amendment to item 1, section 7 of the constitution, was also submitted by Mr. Hastings: That the fees of annual members be reduced to one dollar. Prof. Irving read a paper upon the “ Higher Scientific Education,” urging that it was of the utmost importance that the teacher of each branch should he a specialist in it, even as to the implanting of the elementary ideas. Adjourned, Report of the Secretary. 327 THIRD SESSION. December 30, 2:30 P. M. The session opened with a paper by Prof. T. C. Chamberlain, on “A New System of Nomenclature in Lithology.” [See page 234.| He afterwards lectured in a very interesting manner upon the fossil tracks in the Potsdam Sandstone of Wisconsin. [See page 276.] Prof. Irving introduced Mr. Magnus Swenson, a student of the University, who read an admirable paper, on “A Syenite from Grand Rapids, Wiscon- sin,” illustrated by a diagram coloured to show the appearance of the Micro- scopic section of polarized light. This paper was the fruit of much careful original chemical and physical work. Dr. Hoy read a paper on “ Menobranchus Lateralis,”’ illustrated by a spec- Imen. [See page 248.] A paper on “ Miracles in the Light of Modern Science and Philosophy,” was read by Dr. J. J. Elmendorf, D. D., of Racine College. [See page 66.] An able paper on “The Relation of Woman’s Suffrage to Society and Domestic Life,” was read by Mrs. Olympia Brown Willis, of Racine. During this session a special session of the Department of Natural Sciences was held at Science Hall, where Prof. R. D. Irving lectured on the “ Micro- scope in Geology,” illustrated by the aid of the Calcium light. Adjourned. FouRTH SESSION. December 30, 7:30 P. M. The Academy met in joint session with the Teacher’s Association in the. Assembly Chamber, and listened to a most interesting lecture on “The Arts of Engraving and Etching,” by Prof. James McAllister, of Milwaukee, | illustrated by numerous examples from the great masters. Adjourned. Firth SEssION. December 31, 9 P. M. Academy met in the Senate Chamber. Routine business transacted. The following is the programme of papers read: “On the Economic Principles of the Distribution of Profits,’ by Prof. A. O. Wright, Fox Lake. [See page 38.| “Wealth, Capital and Credit,” by Prof. J. B. Parkinson, Madison. [See page 46.] “Food Adulterations,” by I. M. Buell, Beloit. “The English Cottagers in the Middle Ages,” by Prof. W. F. Allen, Madi- gon. [See page 1.] Adjourned. SixTH SESSION. SENATE CHAMBER, December 31, 2 P. M. Prof. W. W. Danielis made some remarks on the “ Recent Results in the Decomposition of the Elements.” 328 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Charles I. King of the University followed on the Heeroma Value and — Analysis of Indicator Diagrams. Prof. J. D. Butler presented a paper on the “ draé Aeyomeva of Shakes- pere.” [See page 161.] Adjourned. SEVENTH SESSION. December 31, 7:30 P. M. The academy met in joint session with the Teacher’s Association to listen to an exposition of the “Methods of Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb,” by W. H. DeMotte, L. L. D., illustrated by class and individual exercises by pupils from the state institute at Delavan. President Chapin followed with a few remarks, and the meeting adjourned sine die. ELEVENTH REGULAR ANNUAL MEETING, Held in the Agricultural Rooms of the Capitol, at Madison, December 28, 29 and - 30, 1880. First SEssIon. TuESDAY Evrenina, December 28, 7:30, P. M. In the absence of President Chapin, Prof. R. D. Irving, Vice-president of the Department of Sciences, called the Academy to order. Prof. J. H. Davies, secretary, read the minutes of the previous meeting. Report accepted after a few minor corrections. Hon. 8. D. Hastings submitted his report as treasurer of the Academy, as follows: Maprson, December 28, 1880. Report of the treasurer of the Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts and Letters for the year 1880: 1879. Dec. 30>) Balance(on hand-asiper last ineport. esse eerie $617 64 Decks 0seheceivedstromulinC VWioosterseemecer a ceeerereenaoee 5 00 Dec. 80. Received from Alex. Kerr ..62.....05..c.0cc00e0 eee 5 00 Dec. 30. Received from Ira M. Buell ............. PE eR Aialeas e 5 00 Dec; 30 Received strom yAt pus, @hiapimierre iste stecteleleloialesteisiel= Boo so6 5 00 iDYxG, Bey creaikeol sion Sy IDS Jeeta so oocaccoo oooobodusecoood oo 5 00 Decws0: | eceived from PACA pYOuUn ees omensieee cca emer 5 00 Deesrsl. Received from A C1C@hamiberlinkeenneccecicece cece: 3 00 Wec role heceived tromubwh Ove aeeenece cen toe 5 00 Dec. 31. Received from D. B. Fiaukenbaeeer Saleisiislei telaicteceteR ier 5 00 IDyaxo, Bil, Ieoaireel hroyor Wye INE IMG 6 oka nooodooosaonoboadoses 4 00 Decals aenecalved trom Wisi Cy Sawiyiel wseeeise aici icicle ieisiereeetele 5 00 eee ol neceivedstrom Lucius) Herifacensemrice ceeds seen ene 5 00 1880. Alertig Sh TROSIN ACL ioral df, IBY IETHER Gb os no dhaacnodbuoo6oeouDD 5 5 00 JiNOH Re CenVednom!: WELAG En IVOnnisierererciteieicirs eicicererceieeiciens 5 00 ewe Gy IRGesiy ee) iron Vac Shibelks ooogsadcsugduaoedende Hoo as 3 00> Jiant19) Received ifromih. Gavkeach amma sneici teeta wisisieleniceistcls 5 00 Jans os Vecelvedmnomae Ge Miecach an eirneeimcie ici clecteleieeeiet: 5 00 Jarl Owe C CLVECMTOTMPE Epes ails Nip eeptvaletettereretereieieteisteletetonetete 5 00 Jan. 10. Received from B. EB. Hutchinson..............6....--. 5 06 Jan ON MREceivedmnromayVeneieu smut heoeeepeteteerereirelciteetenictemere 5 00 Report of the Secretary. 529 1880. anh OFemhnecenvedetromiebimensonmcacnsceeiaeececeniecereore: $5 00 Jan. 10. Received from Thure Kumlien ..................-.... 5 00 JAnheeleeeecelved {rom Minss iN le rAG Sit cieleecee eet 3 00 dia, 8}, Reese! itroyan ©), Wil, (Clom@yvee Gouonuoancocdoooacncseue 11 00 Nam, 1B, INecennecl foram Jie WW UIOMGS poconoanucoscodocoscuoe 5 00 Jan. 13. Received from W. OC. Whitford .......... SA UNL teen 5 00 dipin, WS, laveerel aon, 18. S) Orion S55 deegoaooeecd SAO Stacie ts 5 00 diam, Wes IRkecahyeul tino JJ. INOW@assoconoo0pasHodunocoD0douGKS 5 00 davn, ist Leecerhyeol spronin \y/a lee WKelbRaNgoosged Hoodoacuosouuoas 3 00: digra, iS IRewataxel worn Olnaic, A\y AEME GoddogcosoGo Goboaodbe- 5 00 Jan 1d. dreceived trom) Mi: He Simmons ..o.00.c:2+ orccossss se 5 00 DAME CELVEGeshOMeSOlOM Alans mrcmtere cise cleleicis sleiere/a erctelerests 5 00 Jan. 13: Received from Mrs. Geo. Gordon ............-+-- vse 3 00 dain, Be, Ihecoakvnadl trom 18L JB. IRSlKiimgesodone co socono4odogubaN 5 00 Jan. eo. keceived from Henry Sueiding. <6... ..-csccces- <5. 5 00 Jan. 23. Received from Marion Y. Dudley..... ..... ......... 5 00 Jan. 23. Received from Delaplaine & Burdick, interest......... 4 22 Jan. 23. Received from Delaplaine & Burdick, two notes each OL OKO ANGI ones st ants AIS A To aire ae Re Se ee eee 1,000 00 dain, BB, -lReeertvacl tropa IB, Wyo ebANGin bo anon ecooonn cdoosaue 5 00 Jane 29, Received trom) Henry Beaty concise vctese) weccace ee « 5 00 Feb. 4. Received from John Bascom ...............0-0e-se0.- 5 00 Hebe Received trom Jide HEimendonk sec ciieiecsineeclesce nels « 5 00 Mebuel2qnecei ved trom) Hy vee Komp... cheranietetsicletesiete) slelelereraie'-> 5 00 Mar. 8. Keceived from Mrs. Sarah F. Dean ..................- 5 00 Aus lOumivecelved from, Mis. O: By Willi ghmecret tates <)<'ololesicielelele') +1 3 00 Ociaininecellv.edsiroml He Wie AcuHalliikapsoeeresierisieiereraceieicsienterce 5 00 Oct. 19" Received from Ry Di Irving sy... ci = ce HO ete Ab Bca.ais 5 00 INiovANDainecelved fromiJiass) Dy) Butlers. cece cess ccceecle scsi: 5 00 Deci OEE ceived afrom ava OnvAII emis srciiscisigvel stories sleteron cise helene 5 00 Declan ecelveduiromeEOwsyVViesCOttqucmaceieniclmciiicetciiscric 8 00 Dec: 1G) Received from Mary iJ. Lapham 2.002020. o. o ee es 3 00 Dec. 16. Received from Mrs D. A. Olim.............ecccceesss 3 00 Dee: IY, levsesinyael limon Creo, Ieee. sodscaccogdoKod0cacundcde 5 00 Dee. Ish IRecehvec! rows 1s IEG IDEN? $6 66545 ooo ds bocuoodeonboddG 3 00 Decw2ieeAccelved: irom diy Ce Draper s acl sjeleisejelclalalera+/elclelsloreliciere 5 00 Dec wu aecelved! (romeytya Cy ENUaG eye sare cla)s)-10 «)elclslele~ clolela sielae)- 5 00 Dag, Bio Wtxoaryeol iixoyocy Yo VVvn IDEN) B65 GéGbouusnoee odcous 3 00 Meer 2a Received irom ey Hendriekson)..oseeeesde ced ss cess 5 00 Mo tale Sits! -hajecavs aaielive cietes Siena sie) aves olapelaisicis cistecstale: everstennieveie’e $1,882 86 Disbursements. Payments on the order of the President and Secretary have been made as follows: 1879. Dec. 30. To Henry Mason (current expenses)..... Q00.000900000 po 00 Dec. 30. To Henry Mason (clerk hire)......... S06 box000. 60008 5 00 1880. Dec30: 7 To AY LE: Chapin ((POstage) iam. ce eslee isis poles es «et 1 00 HMebwe O40) Renmrament pen yey oss waercosmee asin erevereiele ecee crore seis 1,000 00 E> USE WOE AL, IBibRAS (DOMME) coaccoasuncoocodoooEBocUedoDo 2 50 luisa, ke, Atoy Wolo Jamiel ea Cos (olahines) .ooonoouseoosnoesecnan 65 25 duileves, 105), Aho) Joi, Jake: Levorats (Ede OREN) Sb olbocaccaddecn ‘sbuoUbauon 1 85 vune 91. Lo MM: J. Cantwelli\(printinig)) ja... 2 eee Ue ere 12 00 July 2. Yo David Mason (expenses) -..............-$.6-.---%- 10 00 Dec. 28. To Julius Nelson (clerk hire and expenses).........- 56 12 20 Roalidishursementigneirics awe cae eee oieieaccua eee $1,114 80 Deduct from receipts above leaves balance on hand Dec. 28, 1880. 768 06 Respectfully submitted, SamugL D. Hastines, Treas. 3380 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. The report was referred to the Finance committee, consisting of Prof. W. W. Danells, Hon. Burr Jones and Gen. Geo. Delaplaine. The paper announced for the evening was not read, owing to the absence of the author, Mrs. Willis. The Academy then adjourned to listen to the address of Pres. Bascom, of - the State University, before the state teachers’ association. SECOND SESSION. Wednesday, December 29, 9:30 A. M. Academy called to order by the treasurer, Hon. 8. D. Hastings, he being the only officer present. On motion of Prof. W. F. Allen, Dr. P. R. Hoy was elected to the chair, and Prof. A. O. Wright elected secretary pro tem. Tne report of Prof. E. A. Birge, librarian, was presented by Julius Nelson, acting librarian, and was adopted. The following resolution was offered by Hon. 8S. D. Hastings: WHEREAS, Prof. J. H. Davies and Gen. Geo. P. Delaplaine have rendered some eight years valuable service to the Academy, the first named as gen- eral secretary and the other as treasurer, therefore as an acknowledgment of our appreciation of their faithful labors they are hereby elected life members of the Academy. The resolution was referred to a committee consisting of Hon. 8S. D. Hast- ings, Hon. Burr Jones and Prof. T. C. Chamberlin, who were to report on the legality of adopting the resolution. Prof. Butler read a paper on “The French Pioneers of the Northeeah Bs [See page. 85.] Discussed by Prof. A. O. Wright, Prof. W. F. Allen and the chair. Academy adjourned until 2 o’clock. THIRD SESSION. December 29, 2 P. M. Prof. R. D. Irving in the chair. Several names were proposed for membership and referred to the com- mittee on Nomination. A paper was presented by Mr. J. C. Arthur, of the Oniversity, on ‘ The True Form of Pollen Grains,” to which he appended a paper on ‘“ The Vari- ous Forms of Trichomes of Echinocystis lobata.”’ Both papers were illus- trated by drawings. In the first Mr. Arthur contended that in general the observations upon pollen grains are made when these have lost a considera- able portion of their moisture and are consequently wrinkled. Inthe second he showed the many and curious forms which the vegetable cell assumes in the hairs or down upon the leaves, stem and fruit of the plant. Prof. T. C. Chamberlain, of Beloit, state geologist, gave a lecture illustrated by drawings, on ‘A New Element in the Preliminary Estimates for Artesian Wells.” The professor held that the water contained freely in the microscopic crevices of rocks would, when these lay above the valley, give a resultant pressure which must be recognized in determining the height to which the water would rise in an Artesian well. Prof. J. E. Davies took exceptions to Report of the Secretary. 331 this, maintaining that the capillary attraction would neutralize all the down- ward pressure. The paper was further discussed by Dr. Hoy, Prof. Irving and Prof. Wooster. Prof. A. O. Wright concluded the diseussion by calling attention to certain metamorphic rocks in Vernon county not noticed in the State Geological Survey. Prof. T. C. Chamberlain read a paper on “‘ Recent Pseudomorphic and Chemical Changes in the Minerals of the Lead Region” illustrated by spec- imens. The paper was discussed by Prof. Daniells. Prof, Daniells reported for the finance commityee that the treasurer’s report had been audited and found correct. Report adopted. A motion was carried that the treasurer be included with those officers who are relieved from their annual dues. The nominating committee consisting of Hon. 8. D. Hastings and Prof. Alex. Kerr, recommended the ‘following persons as annual members: J. M. Olin, Madison; Dr. U. P. Stair, Black Harth; C. F. Viebahn, Manitowoc. The above named persons were elected. The following amendment was carried: To amend item 1, section 7 of the constitution, so that it shall read as follows: 1st. Annual members who shall pay an initiation fee of two dollars and thereafter an annual fee of one dollar. The following resolutions were adopted: WuHerREAs, The initiation fee for membership has heen reduced to two dollars and the annual dues to one dollar, therefore Resolved, (1) That any person, who in previous years has been elected to membership to the Academy but who has not consummated his or her mem- bership by the payment of the initiation fee, be allowed to do so by the payment of two dollars. Resolved, (2) That the treasurer be authorized to balance the account of any old member of the Academy to the first day of January, 1882, on the pay- ment of two dollars. The treasurer was instructed to devise a plan for equalizing the amounts paid by the members as annual dues to conform with the new rules. Hon. G. H. Paul, vice president, in the absence of the president was re- quested to make the annual report to the governor of the state. It was suggested that the letter of the law be more closely adhered to than formerly, viz.: that the report be annual instead of semi-occasional. FourtTH SESSION. December 29, 7:20 P. M. Academy called to order. Prof. R. D. Irving in the chair. The Academy listened to a paper by Capt. John Nader, city surveyor of Madison, on the “ Tides.” The paper was illustrated by numerous drawings and a new co-tidal map. [See page 207.] FirtH SEssion. December 30, 9:30 A. M. Academy called to order by Dr. J. E. Davies. On motion of Prof. Butler Dr. Hoy was called to the chair. 332 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Aris, and Letters. Minutes of preceding meeting read and adopted. The following report of Hon. 8. D. Hastings was read and adopted: The undersigned having been appointed to devise some plan by which the members of the Academy who have been longest in connection therewith and have borne the chief burden of its financial support in the past may be placed somewhat upon an equality with the members now coming into the Academy at the greatly reduced rates for initiation fees and annual dues, would suggest the following: ; That tte treasurer ascertain the amount paid into the treasury of the Academy by the preseut members, and also ascertain the amount they would have been required to pay in case the initiation fee and annual dues at the - organization of the Academy had been what they now are and then ascertain what each member has paid in excess of what he would have paid had the fees and dues been at the present rate. and that he credit each member on his annual dues for the future one year for each two dollars he has paid in excess as above stated; provided, that in the case of members who are now in arrears in the payment of their annual dues, two dollars shall be deducted from the amount of the excess payment. Respectfully submitted, 8. D. HASTINGS. A motion was carried to the effect that hereafter the initiation fee be ac- cepted by the treasurer as covering the dues of the new members for the first year. Hon. O. 8. Wescott presented the necessity existing for the appointment of a state entomologist, and introduced the following preamble and resolutions, which were carried: WHEREAS, The State of Wisconsin suffers annually from the depredations of noxious insects to an extent measured by a loss of not less than fifteen or twenty millions of dollars; and, WHEREAS, It is the part of the wisest economy to expend money for the prevention, rather than cure; therefore, Resvived (1), That the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters hereby earnestly recommend to the legislature of the state the appointment of some competent scientific person, whose time and service shall be entirely devoted to investigating the insects of the state, and communicatiog the re sults of such investigation to the people thereof in the interest of her agri- culture, her hortitulture and her forestry. Resolved (2), That Gen. Geo. E. Bryant, Prof. W. W. Daniells and Hon. 8. D. Hastings be requested to act as a committee to take this matter in charge, and secure, if possible, proper legislative action thereon. To this committee were added Prof. O.S. Wescott and Prof. T. C. Cham- berlin. The secretary and Prof. Wescott were elected a committee to advise with the officers of the State Teacher’s Association with regard to joint sessions of that Association and the Academy, or other means of working in common for the advancement of education in the state. The summer meeting was appointed to be held in Appleton at sueh a date as would be fixed by correspondence by the secretary. Prof, A. O. Wright, Prof. J. D. Butler and Prof. J. E. Davies were made a committee on the publication of the proceedings of the Academy. Dr. Hoy read a paper on the “ Hygiene of Drinking Water.” Prof. O. 8. Wescott, of Racine, read a paper on the “Orthoépy and Ety- mology of Entomological Names.” Discussed by Professors Allen, Wooster, Parkinson and Wescott. The Academy adjourned sine die. co Report of the Secretary. Si) THIRD SEMI-ANNUAL MEETING, Held at Appleton, Wis., July 5 and 6, 1881. APPLETON, July 5, 1881. The Academy met in the College buildings. In the absence of the president and the vice-presidents, Prof. W. F. Allen ~was elected president pro ten. In the absence of the secretary, Prof. A. O. Wright was elected secretary ‘pro tem. Prof. Allen and Hon. 8. D. Hastings were made a committee on Nomina- tions, to whom were referred several names for membership. Rev. 8. D. Peet of Clinton, delivered an address on “ Buffalo Drives among tne Mound Builders,” which was illustrated by charts. APPLETON, July 6, 1881. Academy called to order. Acting president Prof. Allen in the chair. The following persons were elected members: Rev. Stephen Bowen, Clin- ton, Wis.; Wm. Jones, Clinton, Wis.; W. H. Beach, Beloit, Wis. Prof. A. O. Wright offered the following resolution, which was adopted: Resolved, That the Publication Committee be authorized to expend a sum not to exceed eighty dollars for engravings for the forthcoming volume of the transactions in addition te the amount allowed by the state. The following resolution also offered by Prof. Wright, was adopted: Resolved, That the librarian be authorized to expend one hundred dollars for binding. Prof. W. C. Sawyer of Appleton, gave an unwritten address upon the “Phonetic Hlements of German,”’ which was discussed by Prof. A. O. Wright and Rev. 8. D. Peet. “The Prehistoric Architecture of America’ was the title of a paper read by Rev. S. D. Peet of Clinton. [See page 290.] The paper was discussed by Prof. Wright and Prof. Allen. The Academy adjourned until the afternoon. The afternoon session was opened by a paper by W. H. Beach on the “Limits of Thought,” discussed by Prof. Wright, Prof. Sawyer, Dr. Hoy and Dr. Meacham. A paper on ‘“‘Shakespeare as a Cicerone,’’ by Prof. J. D. Butler of Madi- son, was read in his absence by Prof. A. O. Wright. Dr. R. Hoy of Racine, followed wit a paper on “The Growth of Trees.” The Academy adjourned sine die. LIBRARY CATALOGUE. REPORT OF LIBRARIAN. Mapison, December 29, 1881. To the President of the Wisconsin Academy: Str: Ihave the honor to submit the following report of the state of the library of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences at date. Having been left in charge of the library during the absence of Dr. Birge in Europe, it has fallen to me as clerk of the Academy to prepare a list of the additions to the library since the publication of Vol. IV. Vol. IV contains a catalogue of the library, but owing to the increase of the library and to the errors, omissions and other faults of this catalogue naturally accompanying a first attempt to bring order out of the chaos of publication in various languages which had accumulated, it was not found a practical guide to the librarian in the distribution of our own publications. Moreover, many publications had made their way upon the shelves without the knowledge of the librarian, so it became necessary to recatalogue the library. In connection with this work, the publications themselves have been classified and arranged so faras our limited accommodations would admit. The use of the catalogue to the librarian has been made the primary aim in its preparation. For this reason there remain considerable possibilities of improvement in other directions; but to have made these would have re quired more labor than could profitably be expended at this time. When the library snall have grown to be the repository of the leading scientific memories of contemporary progress, and our specialists who are able to read all the modern EKuropean languages, more numerous, then a catalogue which can be used as a subject-index, will be in order. That the library may increase healthily, it is essential that the librarian or his clerk, first, receive all the gifts sent to the Academy; secondly, that he Keep a journal of such donations; and thirdly, that he acknowledge their re- ceipt. These three points really govern the methods which may be used by the acting librarian, the importance of which can be fully appreciated only by one who has attempted to fulfil the duties of this office. These points have been neglected in a measure and the consequences have been three fold. First, we receive but one-half as much matter as could be received ; secondly, many parts which have been sent us are not now upon our shelves. Wherever I could obtain direct knowledge of such fact, the catalogue has been made to include such parts, out of simple justice to the donors. It may be taken 336 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. as a general rule that where a series is tolerably complete as seen from the catalogue, all was at some time sent us; and thirdly, many societies entitled to them, lack our transactions in whole or in part. To give an idea of the size of our library which began but ten years ago, I will state that it crowds about 160 feet of shelving. All complete volumes are either bound and labelled or are in process of binding. ‘ The catalogue includes no publications received later than Jan. 1, 1882, a which time new officers, including librarian, had entered upon their duties. Foreign exchanges are effected through the mediation of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. It 1s customary with most foreign societies to send with each donation a printed notice and a blank form for acknowledgment, to be returned to the donor signed. I would recommend that with the donations made in connec- tion with this volume, we have something similar printed which shall con- tain a list of our publications, from which all those parts received by the societies may be checked off. The returned slip will enable us to give said societies its lacking volumes. In this connection, we might also send list of parts Jacking in our library to the society concerned. Respectfully submitted, Juuius Newson, Clerk for KH. A. Brran, Librarian. PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES NOW IN THE LIBRARY OF THE ACADEMY. DENMARK. KyOBENHAVN — Det kongelige danske Videnskabernes Selskab. Oversigt over Forhandlingerne, 1874 to 1881. Bul. Soc. danois de la Copenhagne, 76; 1 and 2, V7; 1. NORWAY. KRISTIANIA — Kk. Norske Videnskabs Selskab og Frederiks Universitet. Die Culturpflanzen Norwegens— Schiibeler, program, Ist Semester, 62. Remarkable Forms of Deep Sea Life — M. & G. O. Sars, Ist Semest., 69. Recherches Chronologie Egyptienne — Lieblein, Ist Sem., '72. Skuringsmaerker — Kjerulf, II Sem., "72. Egyptischen Denkmaler — Lieblein, I Sem., 74. QGriindtraezkene i den Aeldste Norske Process — Hertzberg, I Sem., "74, | Report of the Librarian. KRiIsTIana — continued. Enumeratio Insectorum Norvegicorum, I to IV; Siebke, Ist Sem., DAL Tite) ETc Transfusion u. Plethora — Miiller, I Sem., ’75. Rem. Forms Animal Life, No. 2, Brisinga,—G. O. Sars, IId S. %5. Pflanzenwelt Norwegens — Schiibbeler, IInd Sem., ’%5. Windrosen Siidlichen Norwegens —Seue, Ist Sem., ’76. Etudes les Mouvements de l’Atmosphere — I, Guldberg & Mohn, IInd Sem., "76. Poncelet’s Betydninug for Geometrien — Holst, I Sem., 79. Beretning om nogle landbrugschemiske Undersdgelser ved Aas hdiere Landbrugsskole — Rosing, 1870. Det Norske Landbrugs Historie, 1815 to 1870 — Smitt, ’76. Stratifikationens Spor — Kjerulf, 1877. Runelndskriften paa Ringen i Forsa Kirke — Bugge, 77. Department for det Indre. Aarberetning, Landbrugets Fremme, 1875. Indberetninger, 1858, 1864. Norges Officielle Statistic, No. 6. Landbiipekolen i i Aas, 1868-70. Beretning om Landbrugskolen i Aas, 1870-71. Beretning om Landbrugskolen i Aas, 1871-2. Beretning om Landbrugskolen i Aas, 1874-5. Polyteknisk Tidskrift —Térkehus for Korn — Dahl, 1867. Rugekasser for smaafugle — Collett, 1870. Beretning fra Agronom —T. Wiel, 1855. Les Peches de la Norwege — Baars, Expos. Univ. Paris, 1867. Beretning om Ladegaardsoens Hovedgaard, ’62-3. Anden Beretning om Ladegaardsoens Hovedgaard, I, 72; II, '75. Meteorologiske Institut. Norges Vind og Storm Statistik — Prof. H. Mohn, 1869. Den Norske Nordhavsexpedition, 1876-78. (Hditorial Committee for.) Chemi, Torn6e. Zoologi, Fiske, Coilett. Gephyrea, Danielssen og Koren. SWEDEN. StockHOLM — K. Svenska Vetanskaps Akademi. Ofversigt 6fver Forhandlingarne, XX XIII, 1876. Bihang til Handlingarnze, ITI, 76. Handlingar, XI, °%2; XIII, °%5; XIV, part 1, 75. UrsaLa — K. Svenska Vetanskaps Academi. Handlingar, II, 70. Plates XI, 72; XIII, 74; XIV, 75. Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Scientiarum, IX, 74-5. XI, 76; II, 79. Nova Acta Reg. Soc. Scientiarum, Volumen extra, 1877. 22 888 Wasconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. UpsaLa — continued. L. ’Observatoire de Universite d’Upsal. Bulletin IV-VII, ’72-75; VIII, 76; IX, 77. RUSSIA. HELSINGFORSs — > Finska Vetenskaps Societat. Forhandlingar, 70-71. Ofversigt, XIV, 71, ’72. “ Natur och Folk,” XVII, XVIII, XIX, XXI, XXII, XXIII, XXIV, XXXII. Finland’s Officiela Statistik, V, 1, 1846-65. Acta Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae, IX, X, XI. Observationes magnetiques et meteorologique de soc. des sciences de Finlande, V, ’73. Observationes Meteorologique, 1873, 1878. Gediichtnissrede auf Alex. Nordman, ’67. Sr. PeTERsBURG — K. Akademie der Wissenschaften. Journey to Turkestan, XI, 4. Recherches Zoographique, II, 5. Annalen des Physikalisches Central-Observatoriums, 1874, 75, 76, 77, 78, JE 0G 87 ANG Repertorium fiir Meteorologie. H. Wild, 1874; I,°75; I1, %6; III, 77: TV, 1 and supp. 2, °78; V, 1 and 2,’79; VI, 1 and 2,’80; VII, 1,and supplement in two parts, ‘“‘ Die Temperatur Verhiiltnisse des Russisch. Reichs,” with Atlas, 1879. Acta Horti Petropolitani (K. Botanischer Garten.) I to VII each in 2 parts (Supplem. to III, 2), 1871-80. K. Freie Okonomische Gesellschaft. Mittheilungen, °55, 2-6; °56, 1-5; ’57, 1, 2, 4-6: ’58, 1, 2, 4-6; °59, 1-4, 6; °60, 4,6; ’61, 1-6; 63, 1, 3-6. AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE. AgRram — ; Akademie der Wissenschaften u. Kunsten. Abhandlungen, XXVIII, 74. BrRUNN — Naturforschender Verein. Katalog der Bibliothek. Verhandlungen, XII to XIV, 738-5; XVII, XVIII, 78, "9. Prag — K. Bohmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaft. , Sitzungsbericht, ’79, ’80. Jahresbericht, ’78, ’80. ‘ Cat. des fossiles Siluriennes (Soc. de Boheme). freport of the’ Librarian. 339 Prag — Joachim Barrande. Cephalopodes, II, ’77. Brachiopodes, V, 79. Defense des Colonies, V, ’81. WIEN — K, Akad. der Wissenschaften. Sitzungsberichte, Math. Naturw. Classe. I. Abtheilung: mineral., bot., zool., geol., paleont. IT. Abtheiluag: math., phys., chem., mech., meteor., astron. ITT. Abtheilung: physiol., anatn., medicin. Band, LX; LXI: Adth., FT, IT; LXII: I, 1-8, TI, 1-8; LXVI: I, TT EI RNG to) ee) RCV TN i LEDER DIG, 1AL9 1Ox6 6 J; 1-5, Ff, 1-5, ITT, 1-5; LXXT: TEC IS TT sTROXGING« IIT; LXXV: Ih JS WO ts TALE RODS Ih 1-5, IT, 4-5; LXXX: J, 1-5, I, 1-5, 177, 1-5; LXXXI: TF, 1-3, IT, 1-3 —’69 to ’80. Register, ’51-’60. Anzeiger, 1875 to 1881 each, XXVI to XXIX parts. Misc.: Catalogue livres de fonds sciences medicinales, ’67. Austria at the International Exhibition — Arenstein. Urtheile itiber Gremers Schreibhefte fiir Volkschulen. K. Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaft. Verhandlungen, XX to XXX, 70-80, except XXI, XXII. K. K. Geologisch-Reichsanstalt. (Institut Geologique D’Autriche.) Exposition universelle de Paris “ 1867. K. K. Landwirthschaft. Gesellschaft. _Verhand. V, 1,2; VI, 1, 2. 705, 756. GERMANY. Born — Naturhistorischer Verein der Preussischen Rheinlande und West- falens. Verhandlungen XXVII, 1870, 1 and 2; XXIX, 2; XXX to XXXVIII, 1 and Sup. 1881. ‘ Niederrheinische Gesellschaft.fur Natur u. Heilkunde. Sitzungsbericht, 1876, pp. 80 to 225 missing. Westfalens Correspondenzblatt. No. LARC re BRAUNSCHWEIG — Verein fur Wissenschaften. Jahresbericht, 79, °80. BREMEN — Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein. Abhandlungen ITI, 73, 8te J ahresb.; IV, 74, 75; V, V6 to 78, parts 1-4; VI, 1 to 3, 1880; VII, 1, 2, 81. Beilage, Nos. 2-8, °71 to °79, 340 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Aris, and Letters. BRESLAU — Schlessische Gesellschaft fur Vaterlandische Cultur. Jahresbericht, LI to LVIII, ’%3 to ’88. Abhandlungen, 73-4. Register 1804-76. Fortsetzung der Verzeichnisse. Danzia — Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Schriften, 1871, II 3, to 81, V 2, exc. 738, III 1. DRESDEN — “Tsis.” Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft. Sitzungsberichte, 74, Apr.-Sept.; 75, Jan.Jun., Jul—Dec.; 76, Jul— Dec.; 77, Jan.—Mar.; °78, Jan.—Jul.; 79, Jul—Dec.; ’80, Jan.—Jul., Juwl.—Dec.; ’81, Jan.—Jun. Diekau, “‘ Die Kaukasuslinder.”” Schneider. K. Blinden Anstalt. Jahresbericht, 1859. K. Deutsche Leopoldinisch-Carolinische Akademie der Naturforscher. Abhandlungen, 1876. ELDENA — K. Akademie der Wissenschaften. Katalog der Universitit Greifswald, 1870. EMDEN — Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Jahresbericht, 56 to 65,°1870 to ’80. Kleine Schriften, XV to XVIII. FRANKFURT — Aertztlicher Verein. Jahresbericht, XXII, 1878. FRANKFURT A. M.— Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Jahresbericht, VI, 1, °77-’8; 2, 79-80. FREIBURG — Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Bericht iiber Verhand., VI, 1 and 4, ’74-’%6. GIESSEN — Oberhessiche Gesellschaft fur Natur u. Heilkunde. Bericht, XV to XX, 1876 to ’81. GOTTINGEN — K. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaft und George upuete Universitat. Nachrichten, 1877 to ’81. GoRLITz — Naturhistoriche Gesellschaft. Abhandlungen, XV to XVII, ’%5 to ’81. Report of the Inbrarian. 341 HALE — Zeitschrift der Gesammten Naturwissenschaften der Universitat, C. G. Giebel, Redaktor. 1874: TX, 1-6; X, 7-12; 75: XI, XII; 76: XIII, XIV; 78, 2-9; 79, 1-6; °80, 3-6. Hanover — Polytechnische Hochschule. Program, 1873 to 1881. HEIDELBERG — Naturhistorischer u. Medicicinischer Verein. Verhandlungen, Neue Folge, I: 1, 2, 3,5; II: 8, 4; III: 1874~81. JENA — Gesellschaft fur Medicin u. Naturwissenschaften. Jenaische Zeitschrift, X, 1876. Denkschriften, II, 1, 2, 1878. KARLSRUHE — Polytechnische Schule. Program 1872, 7 to ’79. KIEL — Schriften der Universitat 1856 to 1881 exc. 1877 and 79; also thirty-one ‘“ Dissertations’ for 1881. KONIGsBERG — Physikalisch Okonomische Gesellschaft. Schriften, 1873; 14th year, I and II abtheilung to 1880, I. LErezie — Verein fur Erdkunde. Mittheilungen 1878, ’80. Prospektus Botanisches Centralblatt. Katalog Deutscher Zeitschriften — Kohler. MANNHEIM — Verein fur Naturkunde. Jabresbericht, XXXVI to XXXIX, 1870 to 74. Mertz — Academie de Metz. Bulletin Mensuel, 1871-2, °72-8, etc., to 1875-6. Tables Generales, 1819, ’71. Societe d’Histoire Naturelle. Bul. XIII, 1. Mincuen — K. Baierische Akademie der physikalischen Wissenschaften. Sitzungsberichte, ’70, 1-2; °74, 1-2; °75, 1-8; °76, 1-3; °77, 1-3; °%8, 1-4; ’79, 1-4; °80, 1-4; ’81, 1-4; °82, 1. Festreden u. Denkschriften, °70, 78, ’74, 75, °77, "78, °80. K. Sternwarte bei M. Annalen, XX ’74 and XXY. 842 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Nteneerc — Naturhistorische Gesellschaft. Abhandlungen, 4, ’67, VI and VII, ’77 and ’81. OBERPFALZ U. REGENSBURG — Historischer Verein. Verhandlungen, XXXIV and XXXYV, ’79, ’80. WIESBADEN — Naussauischer Verein fur Erdkunde. Jahrbuch, —C. L. Kirschbaum, XXIX, XXX. SWITZERLAND. BasEL— Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Verhandlungen, VI 1-4, 1874 to °78. BERN — Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Mittheilungen,'1870-72, 684-711; °73, 827; °73-5, 828-905; 76-7, 924~= 936; 78, 937-961; °79, 962-978; °80, 979-1003. Verein der Allgemeinen Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesell- schaften fur Gesammten Naturwissenschaften. (Societe Commune Helvetique de Sciences naturelles.) Verhandlungen u. Denkschriften (memoires). LI. Reunion at Solothurn, 1868-9. LVI. Reunion at Schaffhausen, 1872-3. LVII. Reunion at Chur, 1873-4. LVIII. Reunion at Andermatt, 1874-5. LVIX. Reunion at Basel, 1875-6. LX. Reunion at Bex, 1876-7. LXI. Reunion at Bern, 1877-8. LXII. Reunion at St. Gall, 1878-9. LXIII. Reunion at Brieg, 1879-80. LAvsaNNE — Societe Vaudoise de sciences naturelles. Bulletin, No. 77, XIV, 1877; No. 78, XV, I877; No. 79, XV, 1878s | XVI, No. 81, 1879; No. 83, 1880; XVII, 84, 1880. Soc. Helvetique des sciences naturelles. Actes, 1877, XII, 1, 80. NEUCHATEL — Societe histoire des sciences naturelles. Bul, 1874, °%5, °%6, "77, 78, °79: X, 1 to 4, XI, 1, 2. St. GALL — Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft. Bericht iiber Thitigkeiten, "74-5, ’76-7, °77-8. Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Vierteljahresschrift, XII, 67; XIII, 68; XVII to XXV, 1880. Misc.: Souvenir ? Amphiorama, 1880. Trafford, Notice sur Toilette Nationelle, 1879, Lambuc. Report of the Inbrarian. 348 FRANCE. . AMIENS— Societe Linneenne du Nord de la France. Memoires, IV, "74°77. Bulletin Mensuel, No. 31 to 98; 1871 to 1881. BorDEAUX — Academie national de B. Actes, 1872, 1873. Acad. Imperiale des sciences, Lettres et Arts. Actes, 3d series, X XIX, 1867; 3rd Trimesire. CaEN — Academie national de C. Memoires I to VIII, 1788 to "77; except IV, ’78. Dison — Acad. des Sciences, Arts et Belles Lettres. C Memoires IV to VI, 1877 to ’80. Lyons — Acad. des sciences de L. Memoires, Lettres, XV and XVI, 1870-75; XVIII, '%8-’9; XIX, "79-80. Memoires, Sciences, XVIII to XXIV, 1870 to 1880. Lz Mans — Soc. d’Agriculture Sciences, Arts et Lettres de la Sarthe. XIII, 1-4; XIV,1 to 4; XV, 2-4; XVI, 1-4; XVII, 1, 2 and Sup. 3.4 and Sup.; XVIII, 1-4.and Sup.; XIX, 1, 2 and Sup. XX, 2. 1871 to ’82. MONTPELLIER — Acad. des Sciences et Lettres. Memoires, Science, VI, ’64-’66; VII, ’67-'71; VIII, 72-75; IX, 76-80. Memoires, Medicin, IV 8, ’66 to V 2, 79. )’Histoire de Kyster d’ovaries. Paris — l'Indicateur de l’Archaeologie. No. 13, 1874. M. Richard. Conformation du cheval. Leopold Hugo. Les Crystalloides elementaires, 1867. Les crystalloides a directrice circulaire, ’66. Les crystalloides complexes, ’72. Essai sur la geometrie des crystalloides, 73. Introduction a la geometrie descriptive des crystalloides, ’74. PEquidmoide et crystalloides geometriques, 1875. La Valhalla des sciences pures et appliques, ’75. Astronomie geometrique, 76. La theorie Hugodecimales, ’77. Ministere de l’Instruction publique. Catalogue, I, II, III. 844 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Roven — Soc. d’Amis des sciences naturelles. Bul. 1879. 15th year, 2d ser., 1st semestre. BELGIUM. BRUXELLES — Acad. Royale des sciences et des beaux arts de Belgique. Principles de l’everage des animaux domestiques, 74, Fragmentes paleontologiques de Belgiques — Crepin. Quelques plantes fossiles, 1875 — Crepia. Notes sur les Pecopteres Odontopteroides. Notes sur Coccyzus, 1875. Lizen — Societe Royale des sciences. Memoires VII, ’77; VIII,’ 78; IX, 81. Soe. Geologique des Belgique. Annales, Tomes, I to III, 1874~’6. Mons — Soc. Sciences, Arts et Letters du Hainaut. Memoires, IIId Ser, IV, VIII, X, 1870 to 1881. Memoires, IV Ser., I to V. Program, 1879, 1881. THE NETHERLANDS. AMSTERDAM — Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen. Verslagen, Naturkunde [ to XV, 1866 to 1880. Verslagen, Letterkunce IV, 1874. Verhand. Naturkunde XIV to XVI, ’74 to ’76. Verhand. Lette:kunde VIII, X, °75-76. Jabhrbeek, 1873 to 1875. Proces Verbal, Naturkunde, ’73-4, ’74-5, ’75-6. Catalogus I, III, 1. Roy. Acad. of Netherlands: *¢ Musa,” ’74. “ Carmina Latina,” 75. “ Hollandia,” ’76. K. Zoologisch Genootschap “ Natura Artis Magistra.”’ Catalogus van het Bibliothek, ’81. “ Linneeana ” Zentoongesteld, January 10, 1878. Rede ter Herdenking van Carolus Linnzeus, ’78, Oudimaus. Opening Splechtigheid van de Zentoonstelling, I to 1X, ’68—6. Anwijzningen Zentoonstelling, 1878. Plechtige Herdenking van Linnzeus Leven en Werken, 1878. freport of the Librarian. By 9) HarLEM — Nederlandsch Maatschappij ter befordering van Niverheid. Tijdschrift van Niverheid, 1873 to 1880. Handeling en Mededeelingen, ’%3, 2,3; ’74 to 76. Handeling Algemeene Vergadering Niverheid’s Congress, No. 19 to 20, 1873, °75, 76. Handeling voor Cultuur der Zijderupsen, Fock, 73. Address a.sa majesté le Roi. Naamlijst der Leden. ’77. Beilage — Kolonidal Museum. II, 75. Musee Teyler. Archives, Ser. I, I, II, If11, 1V; 1 V, 10, Ser. II; I, 1881. Hollandsche Maatschappij dpr Wetenschappen. (Societe Neerlandaises des Sciences exactes et Nat.) Archives XII to XV, ’%7 to ’80. Memoire: Telemeteorographe d’Ollande. LEIDEN — D. Bierens de Haan. ~ Notice sur des tables logarithmiques Hollandaises, ’73. Un pamphlet mathematique Hollandaise, ’78. Quelques, quadrateurs du cercle, ’74. Dert Semeijins, ’72. Over der Magt van het zogenaamd onbestaanbare in de Wiskunde. Differential vergelijkingen, uit eene aangenomen Integral Vergel- ijkingen, ‘78. Boustotten voor de Geschiedenis der wis-en — Naturkundige Wetens- chappen in de Nederlanden, 1878. Sup. to Verh., K. Ak. Weft. Amsterdam, VIII, IX, X and XII. RoTrrerRDAM — Betaafsch Genootschap der Proefondervindelijke Wijsbergeerte. (Soc. Batave de Pailosophie experimentale.) Nieue Virhad. Reek, II; Deel, II; Stuk, II. Program 1880. UTRECHT — Provinciaal Utrechtschen Genootschap Van Kunsten en Weten- schappen. Aanteekenningen, II, III, IV, V, 1871 to ’76. Spectatoriale Geschriften, 1741-1800. Invloed het Klooster Windesheim, I, II, ’%5, 76. K. Nederlandsch Meteorologische Instituut. Jabhrboek, 770, I1; 71, I1; 75, I. ITALY. CaGnoLa — Fondazione Scientifica. Atti, V, 1, 67-9; VI, 1, °72. 346 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. FIRENZE — Biblioteca Nazionale, Reale Instituto di studj superiori practici e di perfezionamento. Publicazioni. Sezzione di filosofia e filologia, I, °%5; II, 1 to 6, 1876 and °7'7. Accademia Orientale, 1, 7, and Memoria del Sabbatai Donnola publicato da D. Castelli, 1880. Sez. Med. e Chirurgia, 16, I, II, 6, and Mem. del dott. Pacini sul Colera Asiatico, 1880. Mem. del dott. Grassi sul Clinica Ostetrica, ’80. Mem. del dott. Parlatore, and Plates, ’81. Sez. Scienza fisiche e Naturali, Mem. del dott. Cavanna —‘“ Picno- gonida.” Sez. Anatomia e biologia, I, 7, Mem. del. Tavole, Anat. delle piante aquatische, °81. Minan — R. Institnto Lombardo di Scienza Lettere ed Arti. Rendiconti, II, 69, 17-21; III, IV, 1-18, V, 6-20; VII, VIII, XI, XIII, 1880. Memoria XI, 2,3; XII, 2,6; XIII, 1,2; XIV, XV. Recenti studj di Chirurgica Organica — Gabba, 1870. Accademia fisio-medico-statistica. Monumento al Cavaliere — Sacco, ’58. ; Sommario storico della compagne sulla Vinificazione — Dini. Transfusione del Sangue — Polli, ’52. Moprna — R. Accad. di scienza lettere ed arti. Memorie, XVI to XIX, '%6 to ’79. Soe. dei naturalisti. Annusario, XII, 1, 2 and 3. Roma— Real Comitato Geologico d'Italia. Bollettino, VI to XI, 1875 to 1880. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. LisBon — Acad. R, de Ciencias de Lisboa. Sessao publica, 1875, 1877. Memoria a epiocnomia, 1855. “solre o estudo industrial e chimico dos trigos Portnguezes.” Alvarenja Lapa. Technologia rural, 74. Chimica agricola, ’%3. Maladies du coeur. Report of the Inbrarian. 347 Maprm — Sociedad d’Historia naturalia. Manual. R. academia d’Historia. Boletin, I, 5, 1879. ; Catalogue portraits anciens de personages illustres. SOUTH AMERICA. CARACCAS — Gaceta cientifica de Venezuela. I, 5 to 11; II, 1 to 9; 1877-8. BuEenos AYRES — Napp. “ Argentine Bepublic.” Anales oficina meteorologica Argentina. I, °78. Rio DE JANEIRO — Brazilian Biographical Annual. 1 10 JU0t MEXICO. Mexico — Museo nacional. Anales, I, '77, 6, '7; II, 1 to 6, 1881. Sociedad de geografia y’estadistica. Boletin, [V, 1 to 9; V, 1 to 6; 1878 to ’81. ASIA. Batavia, East INDIES — K. Naturkundge Vereeniging in Nederlandsch Indie. Tijdscrift, XX XV to XX XIX, 1875 to 1879. AFRICA. IsLAND OF MaAvRITIUS — Roy. Soe. of Arts and Sciences. Transactions, IX, 76. Proces verbaux, 1874. AUSTRALIA. MELBOURNE — Public Library. SYDNEY — Dept. of Mines, New South Wales. Mineral statistics, 1873, 1875. Mineral map and statistics. Progress and Resources of N.S. W. Report for 1875. Statistical sketch of South Australia, 76. Map or VICTORIA — 848 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. LonDon — Royal Society. Proceedings, XX XII, Nos. 153 to 213, except 200. Transactions, Vol. 165, part [V, memoir XI, Arctic Tides. Transactions, Vol. 166, part I, memoir IV, Alcyonaria. Journal of Applied Science, VII. Roy. Horticultural Soc. Journal,j New series, IV, 13, 14, 16. Geological Society. Quarterly Journal of, XX XV, 187, 138, 140. List of Society Members, 1879. Royal Institution of Great Britain. Animal Mechanics, Houghton, 1871. Ashmolean Society. Beneficent Distribution of Sense of Pain, Rowell, 1862. Trubner's Literary Record, 1879, 135-7, 155-6. Bernard Quaritch. Catalogues. Photographs in Brit. Museum. English Literature. Transactions of Learned Societies. Natural History, Works on. Clearance Sale, ’79. French, German and Italian Literature. Antiquities. Works on Fine Arts. Works on North and South America. Rare works in Private Libraries. Works on Games. Periodical Litetature. Misc. Pub. and Remainders. Bath and West England Soc. Agriculture. Journal, Third series, 1873. Quarterly Journal of Conchology. I, 1-15, ’76-7. MANCHESTER — Literary and Philos. Society. Catalogue of Library, 1875. Proceedings, XII to XIX, ’%3 to ’80. Memoirs, XXV, XXVI, Old Series, ’76, 79. Scientific Students’ Association. Annual Report, ’73. NEWCASTLE ON TYNE — North of England Institute of Mech. and Min. Engineers. Index to Transactions, I-X XV, 52-76. pedir Report of the Inbrarian. 349 EDINBURGH — Royal Society of. Proceedings, 1871 to 1880. New Phil. Journal. Mem. by G. A. Rowell, 1881. Cause of storms and Tererstrial Magnetism. DvuBLIN — Royal Society. Scientific Transactions, vol. I, new ser. 1-14. Scientific Transactions, vol. II, new ser. 1-8. . Journal, I, II, IV, V, XII, XIII, XVI, XXVII, XXIX, XXX, XXXI, XXXIV, to XX XVII, XXXIX, and XLIV. Cunningham Memoirs, I, ’80. Scientific Proceedings, new ser,, I 1-3, II 1-7. Royal Irish Academy. Proceedings, Science, and Minutes, ser. 2, [ 18, II 1, III 1-6. Transactions — Antiquities, XXIV 9, 74. Polite Literature and Antiquities, XX VII 1-4, ’77—81 Science, XXV, XXVI 1-16, 22. Irish MS. Series, 11. Calendar of Oengus — Stokes. Trustees of late James Henry. Voyage of discovery in Virgil’s Aeneis, I, II, LV. CANADA. MonTREAL — Canadian Antiquarian and Numismatic Society. Journa!, VII 1, Jul. ’%8. G. M. Dawson. Report on Lignite Formation near 40th paral, ’738. ToRONTO — Canadian Institute. Journal of Proceedings, new ser., 1 1,2, 1879. OTTawa — Royal Society of Canada. Circular of Incorporation, etc., 1882. St. Jouns — Rep. of Geolog. Survey of Newfoundland, 1873. UNITED STATES. ALBANY, N. Y.— Regents of State University. Report No. 85 to 91. 1872 to 1878. Report on Museum of Natural History, No. 20 to 30, exc. 28. 1866 to 1876. 350 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Axgany, N. Y.—continued. Trustees of State Library. Report No. 54 to 61. 1872 to °79. Dudley Observatory. Annals, II, 71. Commission of Fisheries. Report, °73, ’74. Agricultural Society. 1869. Statutes Relating to Albany County Penitentiary. Report on Water Supply of Albany. Report on Topographical Survey Adirondacks. 1873. Albany Institute — publications. Hudson’s Sailing directions — De Costa, 69. Maxims of Laws of England, ’70. Fungi. Peck, ’70. The Palatine Emigration, ’71. New Phenomena in Chemistry, ’72. Manual, 775. Isthmus of Tehuautepec. Skeel. Biographical notice of Peter Wraxall. Atco, N. Y.— Science Society. Science Advocate, I, 1-4; II, 1-8; ’80, ’81. Aveusta, Mn.— Maine Pomological Society. 1st. Ann. Rep., ’73. Natural History and Geology of Maine. 1863. Hydrographic Survey, Rep. Water power of Maine. Wells, 1869. Ornamental and Useful Plants of Maine. 1875. Cattle of Maine, Boardman. Boston, Mass.— Soc. of Natural History. Proceedings XVII to XXI, 2; 1874 to 18881, except XIX, 3. American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Proceedings, II, "75; V, 1, 2, 77, "78; VII, 1, 2, "79 to 81. Memoires, XI, 1, 1882. Boston Journal of Chemistry. VIII, 2, Aug.,78; IX to XI, 1, 2; XII, 1-11 (exe. 2) 17, Nov., ’°78; XIII 1, Jan., 79,3, 4, 8, 9; XIV, 1-12 (exc. 2, 8, 6, 9, 11); XV, 1-12 (exc. 2,7, 9, 10,11); XVI, 1-5, May, ’82. BRIDGEPORT, Conn — Bridgeport Scientific Society. President’s address, 1881. Burratro, N. Y — Society of Natural Science. Bul. I, 2, %8, 4, °'%4; II, 1, 74, 4, '74. Report of the Labrarian. 30l CAMBRIDGE, Mass — Museum of Comparative Zoology — Harvard University. Annual Report, ’74, 75, "78-9, ’80, ’81. Bul. III, ’76, 11-16; LV and Plates for III and V of Terrestial Mol- luscs — Binney. YV, 11-16; VI, 3-9; V1, VIII, pp. 1-284; IX, 1-5, 1881. Memoires, I1 9, 1876, Insect Deformities — Hagen. Memcires, IV, 10, American Bisons — Allen. Memoires, VII, 1, Florida Reefs — Agassiz. Memoires, VIII, 1, Immature State of Odonata pt., II — Cabot. Nuttall Ornithological Club. Jers JOY ale erie Cuicago, ILL — Academy of Sciences. Constitution, etc., and Vol. 1, Proceedings, 1865. Annual Address, 1878. Public Library. Rep. V, 77; VII, ’79. American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal. IV, 2, ’°82—S. D. Peet. United States Medical Investigator. June, ‘1873 to April, °76; Nos. . 109 to 164 (except 110, 111, 117, 180, 132, 133, 135, 141, 143, 144, 150, 160, 162). Engineering News. III, 19, 31, 53. S. W. Burnham. Double Star Observations. Catalogue of, 1877, 1879. : CINCINNATI, O — Society of Natura! History. Journal, I, 4, 79; II, 1, 79, 4, °80; III, 14; IV, 1, 2, 4. CLEVELAND, O — Academy of Natural Science. Prodeedings, 745 to 59. CoLumMsEtvs, O — Geological Survey of Ohio.— N. H. Winchell, 1871. . Surface Geography of Northwestern Ohio, 1872. DavEnport, Ia, — Academy of Natural Science. Proceedings II 1, "76-7 and Plates. Dzs Mornss, Ia.— “The Analyst ” J. E Hendricks. I, 1874 in 12 Nos., II to [X 3 (Exc. VIII 1 and IX 2), ea., 6 Nos. INDIANAPOLIS, IND.— State Geological Survey, Cox, Rep., 1869, 1870. Iowa Crry, Ia.— Iowa Acad. of Natural Science. Proceedings, 1875 to 1880. do2 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Kansas Crry, Mo. — “ Western Review of Science and Industry,” Theo. S Case. I,2 May, ’77 to V 12. (Exe. I, 6, 10, 11,12. II, 4-7,9. III, 3, 5-8, NOR NOs Be Gy TP NY aT) KNOXVILLE, TENN.— State University, Cat., 79-80. Maprtson, Wis.— Wisconsin Acad. Sciences, Arts and Letters. Bul. Transactions I, 70-72; II, ’73-4; III, 75-6; IV, 76-7; V,°79~81. State Agricultural Society. Trans. ’69 to “7, Exc. State Historical Soc. Cat. of Library. I, II, ’73 and Sup. I, ’%5. State Board Charities and Reform, Rep. VIII, ’78; IX, ’79. State Universiiy, Rep. Board Regents, 1874. State Horticultural Soc. Trans., 1867. State Supt. of Public Instruction, Rep. Pickard, 1861. School Laws of Wisconsin — Searing, ’73, ’77. R. R. Commissioner, An. Rep. I, °74. Rep. Sec’y of State, 1877. Legislative Manual, 1863. Rep. on London and Paris Exhibitions — Hoyt, 1862, 1867. Wis. State Medical Society — Trans., 1875. Wisconsin Geolog. Survey —T. C. Ccamberlin, Beloit, Director; Report III. 2 MiIppLETOWN, Conn.— Scientific Association. Occasional papers, 1, 81. MILWwAUKEB, WIs.— Naturhistorischer Verein. Jahresbericht, ’76, ’79-’80, ’80-"81. MInNEAPOLIS, MINN.— Regents of University,— Report, 1870. University, Almanac, '71. Annual Report on Geological and Natural History. Survey —N. H. Winchell, ’72, 76 to’80. N. H. Winchell. Notes on Drift Soils of Minn., ’%3. Notes on Drift Soils of the Northwest, ’73. Devonian Limestone of Ohio, 1873. Inaugural Address of Gov. Davis, 1874. Minn. Acad of Sciences. Bull. 1877. New Haven, Conn.— Conn. Acad. of Sciences. Quartzite Limestone of Great Barrington, Mass.,— Dana. Glacial and Champlain Eras in N. E.,—J. D. Dana. Amer. Journal of Science and Arts. Ss Report of the Librarian. 358 New York, N. Y. American Museum of Natural History. Annual Report XII, 1881. Rep. of Trustees of Central Park Menagerie, 1879. Journal of American Chemical Society, I 12, ’79. PHILADELPHIA — Numismatic and Antiquarian Society. Report on Operations of Soc., 78-9, ’81. Henry Phillips, Jr. Early Currency of Maryland, 1865. Pleasure of Numismatic Science, ’66. Medicine and Astrology, ’66. Notes on Collection of Coins and Medals at Penn. Mus., "79. Notes on a Denarius of Cxsar, 1880. Head dresses exhibited on ancient coins, 1881. American Philosophical Society. D. G. Brinton. Grammar of Choctaw lang., 1870. Grammar of Muskokee lang., 1870. National Legend of Chahtah-Muskokee Indians, 1870. Ancieat Phonetic Alphabet of Yucatan, 1870. The Books of Chilan Balam, 1881. Academy of Natural Science. Proceedings, ’77% to ’81 — exe. ’78, I III, ’79, II. Zoological Society. Report of Board of Directors, VII to LX, 1879 to ’81. Naturalist’s Leisure Hour and Monthly Bul., II 11, III 1, 4, IV 10. Polytechnic Review.,, I 1, '76. PouGcHKEEPsIE, N. Y. — Soc. of Natural Science. Proceedings, "79-80. PRINCETON, N. J. — Museum of Archaeology and Geology. - Report of the Princeton Scientific Expedition, 1877. Sautem, Mass. — American Association for Advancement of Science. Proceedings Nashville meeting, 1877, XX VI. Proceedings St. Louis meeting, 1878, XXVII. Proceedings Saratoga meeting, 1879, XXVIII. Proceedings Boston meeting, 1880, X XIX, 1st part. Proceedings Boston meeting, 1881, XAIX, 2d part. Naturalists Agency — §. E. Cassino. Naturalists Directory, 1878. 23 854 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. St. Lours, Mo. — University Catalogue, ’76-7. American Institute of Mining Engineers, Lignite Coals of Colorado, Potter, 1878. Academy of Science. Transactions, III 1, 2, 4, IV 1, 2, 1873-81. Archaeology of Missouri, Pottery — pt. I, 1880. Br. Paun, Minn.— Northwestern Medical and Surgical Journal. I, 2; Il, 1; IMI, 1,2, 3,5. 1870-72. San FRancieco, Can.— Cal. Acad. of Science. Proceedings, VI, ’75-6. Report of Trustees of James Lick Observatory. Univ. of California — Rob. H. C. Stearns. Comments on Marine Shells of Cal. SoutH BETHLEHEM, Pa.— Lehigh University. Register, ’79, ’80. SPRINGFIELD, ILL.— R. R. Commissioner. Rep. 772, 373. Le Baron. Rep. or Noxious Insects, I, II, ’71, °72. State Horticultural Society. Trans. 1867. Syracusz, N. Y.— Free Dispensary — E.Van de Warker, M. D. Sun Stroke and its theory, 1870. Detection of Criminal Abortion, 71. Criminal use of Advertising Nostrums, 1873. Use of Seton in Chronic Affections of Womb. The Detection of Criminal Abortion and Study of Feeticidal Drugs, 1872. TorprEKa, Kan.— Kansas Acad. of Sciences. Transactions, 1873, 1875, 1876, 1877-8. Catalogue of Birds of Kansas, 1875. Wasuineton, D. C.. DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR — U.S. Geological and Gegoraphical Survey of the Territories. F. V. Hayden in charge. Annual Reports of Progress.. I to XI, 1867 to 1877. Miscellaneous Publications. I to XI, except Il and Y. Bul. Ser. IJ, 1, 2, 5,6; Vol. II, 1, 2,4; IIL. 1, 2,4; IV, 1-4; V, 1-4; VI, 1,2. Birds of Nevada, W. J. Hoffman. Presented by author. Preliminary Report of Field Work, 77, 78. Report of the Librarian. 355 Wasuineron, D. C.— continued. Catalogue of publications, ’74. U. S. Hntomological Commission. Bul. I, 1st and 2d editions; II, III, V. Report on Rocky Mt. Locust, I, ’77-8; II, ’78-9. Reporis of Survey: I. Fossil Vertebrates. II. Cretaceous Vertebrates. VY. Zoology and Botany. VI. Cretaceous Flora. VII. Tertiary Flora. IX. Cretaceous Tertiary Invertebrates. X. Geometrid Moths. XI. N. Amer. Rodentia. U.S. G. & G. Survey of Rocky Mt. Region, J. W. Powell in charge. Contributions to N. A. Ethnology, I, III, 1V. Exploration of Colorado, ’69 to °72. Geology of the Uintah Mts., ’%6. Geology of the Black Hills of Dakota. Geology of Henry Mts., 77. Lands of Arid Region, 79; Ex. Doc. No. 73. Arnual Report, 77. Report on Method of Survey, 1878. Exploration of the 40th Parallel, Clarence King in charge. I, Sys. Geol.; II, Descr. Geol.; VI, Ornith. and Pal.; V, Bot.; VII, Odonthornithes, and Report for 1880. Indian Bureau. Report on Indian affairs, 1876. Survey of Black Hilis; Rept on Resources of, 1876; W. P. Jenney in charge. Patent Office. Report, ’69, I, II, and III. Census Office. Report on 9th census, 1870; Compendium and Vital Statistics. General Land Office. Report, ’70, 71. Bureau of Education. Circulars of Information, 8 to 7. Report of Commissioner, ’71. '74, 75. Special Report on Public Libraries. Smithsonian Institution. Collections, VII, X, XI. Report, ’71, 75. Rep. of Coues on Geomys & Thomomys, 1875. Synopsis of scientific writings of Herschell — Holden & Hastings. Bureau of Hthnolo gy. 356 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Wasuinerton, D. C.— continued. Introduction to Study of Sign Language of Indians, Powell, ’80. Introduction to Study of Mortuary Customs of Indians, Yarrow. National Museum. Bulletin, 1 to 15. War Department: Engineering Dept. U.S. A. Geol. & Geog. Survey west of 100th meridian, LieutyG. M. Wheeler tn charge. e Reports: I. Syst. Geol. II. Astron. and Hypsometry. III. Geology. IV. Paleontology. V. Zoology. VI. Botany. VII. Archaeology. Signal Service Office. Daily Weather Charts. Dept. of Navy — U. S. Naval Observatory. Washington Astron. Observations, ’47, 751, 52, °63, 64. Results of Astron. Observations, ’53-60. Astron. and Meteorol. Observations, ’72 to ’77. Report on Total Eclipse of July 29, 1878. Report on Total Eclipse of January 11, 1831. Subject Index of Publications, 45-75; Holden, ’79. Catalogue of Library, 1879, Part I. Treasury Department — Bureau of Statistics. Finance Report, ’73, ’76. Quarterly Qeports, ’75, II; 76, I-IV. Mineral Resources West of Rocky Mountains, Raymond, '71 and %2, Commerce and Navigation, ’76, I, II. , Special Report on Immigration, ’69-70. Rep. Spec. Sur. Immigration, Young. Dept. of Agriculture. Report, 1871, 1879. Report on Cotton Insects, ’79. Report on Commercial Relations, 775. Special Report No. 17, on Condition of Crops. Department of State. Messages and Documents — abridged, ’67-8, 76, ’77. Messages and Documents, ’68-9, I and II. Philosophical Society — Constitution of, 1871. Miscellaneous. Report on Yellowstone National Park — Morris, "77 and ’87. Report of the Librarian. 357 Wasuineton, D. C.—continued. Internatl. Exhib., °76— Classification and Collection to Illustrate Animal Resources of U. 8S. — Goode. Natural History of Kerguelen Islands, II, ’76. Preliminary Rep. on Alaska — H. R., 40, Exec. Doc. Hlectoral Count, ’76. Digest of Leading Cases in International Law. Report of U. 8. Observ. of Transit of Venus — Kidder, ’74-5. Johnson’s Rep. of International Exhibition at London, 1862. National Almanac, 1863. Statistical Atlas of United States—- Walker. Worcester, Mass. Worcester County Free Institute of Industrial Science. Catalogue, 1876, 1877. UNCLASSIFIED. Reports of International Congress d’Anthropologj. Bologne. Sources di Toretta Monte Catini. Toscane, ’67. Memorial of Increase A. Lapham. History of Dane County. Report'of Progress in Zoology for 1870. Geo. T. Stevens. Distributions Geographiques des reptiles au Mexique. Sumichrast, ’72. Classment botanique des plantes alimentaries du Brésil. Gama, Paris, ’67. Les peches de la Norwege. Baars, Paris, ’67. Notice statistique le Chile. Paris, ’67. L’histoire des Roses. Crepin, Paris, parts ILI and IV. Richerche sulla cotenna del sangue. Giovanni Polli. Peat as fuel. Leavitt, Boston. Gesetz der Wechselwirkung in Weltall. Liiders, 1870. Das Polar Licht. Luders, ’%0. Sauk City, Wisconsin. Aussiedlungen Normanen in Island, Grénland u. Nord Amerika in 800- 1100 A. D. Ulrici. La vie et les travaux de Walowski, 76—77. Nitroglycerine as used in Hoosac Tunnel. Mowbray. Jaarlijksch Verslag der overijsseliche Vereening tot Ontwikkeling van Provinciale Weltwaart. 1854. De Aardkunde de, Do. 1845. Report of London and Paris International Expositions. Hoyt, ’69. “ Pharaoh’s Daughter,”’ Williams and N orgate. London, 1868, 1874. Map of Victoria, Australia. Catalogue of Articles contributed by Cape of Good Hope to Paris expost- sition, 1867. Map of Scandinavia. | Proceedings of Conference of Charities. Saratoga, 1877. American Social Science Association. Circular of organization. Report of Sunday School Association at Norwich, N. Y., 1872. 858 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. The following societies have opened exchanges with the Academy sinco 1881: Library Club of Philadelphia. Torrey Botanical Club, New York City. American Society of Ctvil Engineers, New York. Missourt Historical Soiciety, St. Louis, Mo. John’s Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. U. 8. Fish Commisson. Videnskabernes Selskab, Throndhjem, Norway. Charles B. Cory, Boston. Museum at Bergen, Norway. Biological Society, Washington, D. C. i. W. Shufeldt, Washington, D. C. North of England Institute of M. & U. Engineers, New Castle on Tyne. Royal Society of Canada, Toronto. Constant Branden Vanden, 69 Rue de la Madeleine, Bruxelles, Belgium. The authors of the various Government and State Reports and of certain Societies are entitled to receive the Transactions of the Academy. LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY. LIFE MEMBERS. Case, J. I., Hon., Racine, Wis. Dewey, Nelson, Ex-Governor Wisconsin, Cassville, Wis. Hagerman, J. J., Milwaukee, Wis. Hill, Jas. L.. Hon., Denver, Colorado. Hoyt, J. W., Hon., Governor Wyoming Territory, Cheyenne. Lapham, I. A., Milwaukee. (Deceased.) Lawler, John, Prairie du Chien, Wis. Mitchell, J. L., Hon., Milwaukee, Wis. Paul, G. H., Hon., Milwaukee, Wis. Thomas, J. E, Hon., Shepoygan Falls, Wis. Thorpe, J. G., Hon., Eau Claire, Wis. White, 8S. A. Hon., Whitewater. (Deceased.) ANNUAL MEMBERS. Adsit, N. H., Mrs., 268 Knapp St., Milwaukee, Wis. Allen. W. C., Hon., Racine, Wis. Allen, W. F., A. M.. Prof. Latin and History, University of Wisconsin. Baetz, Henry, Hon., Milwaukee, Wis. Bartlett, H. W., M. D., Milwaukeee, Wis. Bascom, John, D. D., LL. D., President University of Wisconsin. Bashford, R. M., A..M., Madison, Wis. Bate, A. W., Mrs., 320, Terrace Avenue, Milwaukee, Wis. Birge, E. A., Ph. D., Prof. Zoology, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Beach, W. H., Beloit., Wis. Bryant, Ed. E. Hon., Madison, Wis. Bowen, Stephen, Reyv., Clinton, Wis. Buck, J.S., M. D., Milwaukee, Wis. Beaty, Henry, Hon., Milwaukee, Wis. Buell, I. M., Prof., Taladega College, Taladega, Alabama. Bull, Storm, Univ. Wis., Madison, Wis. Bundy, W. F., Prof. Eclectic Medical College, Chicago, Il. Butler, J. D., LL. D., Madison, Wis. Cass, Josiah E., Hon., Eau Claire, Wis. Chamberlain, T. C., A. M., Prof. Nat. Hist. Beloit College and Director of State Geological Survey, Beloit, Wis. Chapin, A. L., D. D., Pres. Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. 360 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Conover, O. M., A. M., Madison, Wis. Conover, S. F., Mrs., Madison, Wis. Daniells, W. W., M. D., Prof. Chemistry, Univ. Wis. Davies, J. E., A. M., M. D., Prof. Physics, Univ. Wis. Day, F. H., M. D., Wauwatosa, Wis. Delaplaine, Geo. P., Madison, Wis. Doyle, Peter, Hon., Prairie du Chien, Wis. Draper, L. C., Hon., Cor. Sec. State Historical Soc., Madison, Wis. Dudley, M. V., Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis. Durrie, D.8., Librarian State Histurical Society Wis. Elmendorf, J. J., 5. T. D., Prof. in Racine College, Racine, Wis. Emerson, J., Professor of Greek, Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. Falk, F. W. A., Ph. D., Prof. in Racine Col., Racine, Wis. ' Farrar, Chas. A., Pres. Milwaukee College, Milwaukee, Wis. Foye, J. C., A. M., Prof. Physics, Lawrence Univ., Appleton, Wis. Frankenburger, D. P., Professor Elocution and Rhetoric, Univ. Wis. Freeman, J. C., A. M., Prof. English Literature, Univ., Wis. Gapen, Clark, M. D., Prof. Medical Jurisprudence, University of Wis., Madison, Wis. Giles, Ella, Miss, City Librarian, Madison, Wis. Gordon, George, Mrs., Humboldt Ave., Milwaukee, Wis. Green, Thos., A., Milwaukee, Wis. Hardy, Albert, Principal High School, Milwaukee, Wis. Hendrickson, Peter, A. M., Prof. in Beloit Col., Beloit, Wis. Hastings, 8. D., Hon., Madison, Wis. Hindley, R. C., Prof., Racine College, Racine, Wis. Holton, E. D., Hon., Milwaukee, Wis. Heritage, Lucius, Univ. Wis., Madison, Wis. Hoy, P. R., M. D., Racine, Wis. Hutchinson, B. E., Hon., Madison, Wis. Irving, R. D., A. M., M. E., Prof. Geol. and Mining Engineering in University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Jones, Burr W., Hon., Madison, Wis. Jones, Wm., Clinton, Wis. Kerr, Alex., A. M., Prof. Greek, University, Wis. King, F. H., Prof. Nat. Science, State Normal School, River Falls Wis. : Kumlien, Thure, Busseyville, Wis. Lapham, Mary J., Miss, Oconomowoc, Wis. Lewis, H. M., Mrs., Madison, Wis. Marks, Solon, M. D., Prospect Ave., Milwaukee, Wis. MeLaren, W. P., Milwaukee, Wis. Meacham, J. G., Sr., M. D., Racine, Wis. Meacham, J, G., Jr., M. D., Racine, Wis. Morris, W. A. P., Hon., Madison, Wis. Report of ihe Librarian. 361 Nader, John, C. E., Madison, Wis. Olin, D. A., Mrs., Racine, Wis. Olin, J. M., Esq., Madison, Wis. Orton, Harlow 8., Judge Supreme Court Wis., Madison, Wis. Parkinson, J. B., A. M., Prof. Political Economy, University Wis. Peckham, G. W., Prof. Nat. Science, Milwaukee High School. Peet. 8. D., Rev., editor American Antiquarian, Clinton, Wis. Perkins, H. B., Prof. Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis. Pradi, J. B., Rev., Madison, Wis. Raymer, Geo. Madison, Wis. Reed, Geo., Hon., Manitowoc, Wis. Rogers, A. J.. Milwaukee, Wis. Sawyer, W. C., Prof. State Normal School, Oshkosh, Wis. Smith, W. E., Hon., Governor of Wisconsin. Simmons, H. M., Rev., Minneapolis, Minn. Sneiding, Henry, Racine, Wis. Stair, U. P., M. D., Black Earth, Wis. Viebahn, C. F., Watertown, Wis. Westcott, O. 8., Chicago, Il. Willis, O. B., Mrs., Racine, Wis. Whitford, W. C., A. M., ex-Supt. Public Instruction of Wisconsin, Mil- ton, Wis. Wiasship, E. B., Racine College, Racine, Wis. Wooster, L. C., Prof. Nat. Sciences, State Normal School, Whitewater» Wis. Wright, A. O., Sec. State Board of Charities and Reform, Madison, Wis. ’ v Young, A. A., Rev., New Lisbon, Wis. DECEASED MEMBERS. Armitage, W. E., Right Rev., Bishop P. E. Church, Milwaukee, Wis. Carpenter, 8. H., LL.D., Prof. English Language, University of Wis- consin, Madison, Wis. De Koven, J., 58. T. D., Warden ence College, Racine, Wis. Dudley, Wm., Madison Wis. Eaton, J. H., Ph. D., Prof. Chemistry Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. Engelman, Peter, Director German and English Academy, Milwaukee, Feuling, J. B., Ph. D. Prof. Philology, University Wisconsin. Hawley, C. T., Milwaukee, Wis. Lapham, I. A., LL. D., State Geologist, Milwaukee, Wis. Little, Thos. H., Supt. Institution for the Blind, Janesville. McDill, A. 8., M. D., Supt. State Hospital for the Insane, Madison, Wis. Nicodemus, W. J. L., A. M. C. E., Prof. Engineering, Uniy. Wis. White, S. A., Hon., Whitewater, Wis. Wolcott, E. B. M. D., Surgeon General, Milwaukee, Wis. #23 362 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. / CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Abbott, C. C., M. D., Trenton, N. Jersey. Andrews, Edmund, A. M. M. D., Prof. Chicago Medical College, Chicago, III. Barrow, John W., 118 Hast Seventeenth St., New York City. Bridge, Norman, M. D., Chicago, Ill. Benton, J. G., M. D., Philadelphia, Penn. Buchanan, Joseph, M. D., Louisville, Ky. Burnham, 8. W., F. R. A. 8., Chieago, III. Byrness, R. M., M. D., Cincinnati, Ohio. Carr, E.8., M. D., Supt. Public Instruction, California. Caverno, Rev. Chas., Lombard, II]. Ebener, F., Ph. D., Baltimore, Md. Fallows, Right Rev. Sam’, Chicago, Ill. Gatchell, H. P., M. D., Kenosha, Wis. Gill, Theo., M. D., Smithsonian Institute, Washington, D. C. ’ Gilman, D. C., Pres. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, M. D. Harris, W. T., LL. D., Concord, Mass. Hopkins, F. N., M. D., Baton Rouge, La. Holland, Rev. F. M., Concord, Mass. Horr, M. D., Pres. Iowa Institute of Arts and Sciences, Dubuque, Ia. Hubbell, H. P., Winona, Minn. Jewell, J.S., A. M., M. D., Prof. Chicago Medical College, Chicago, Ill. Le Barron, Wm., State Entomologist, Geneva, N. Y. Marcy, Oliver, LL. D., Prof. Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. Morgan, L. H., LL. D., Rochester, Il. Newberry, J. S., LL. D., Prof. Columbia College, New York. — Orton, E., A. M., Pres. Antioch coupe Yellow Springs, Oaio. Paine, Alford 8. T. D., Hinsdale, Ill. Swezey, G. D., Prof, Crete, Neb. Porter, W. B., Prof., St. Louis, Mo. Safford, T. H., Director Astron. Observatory Williams College, Wil- liamstown, Mass. De Vere, Schele M., LL.D.,Prof. University Virginia, Charlotteville, Va. Shaler, N.8., A. M., Prof. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Shipman, Col. 8. V., Chicago, III. Steele, Rev. G. M., LL. D., Principal of Wilbraham Seminary, Wilbra- ham, Mass. Trumbull, J. H., LL. D., Hartrord, Conn. Verrill, A. E., A. M., Prof. Yale College, New Haven, Conn. Van de Warker, Eli, M. D., Syracuse, N. Y. Whitney, W. D., Prof. Yale College, New Haven, Conn. Winchell, Alex., LL. D., Ann Arbor, Mich. Winchell, N.H., Prof., Minneapolis, Minn.’ Report of the Lnbrarian. HONORARY MEMBERS. Baird, Spencer F., M. D., LL. D., Washington, D. C, Hamilton, Joseph, Hon., Milwaukee, Wis. MEMBERS ELECTED DECEMBER 28, 1881. Higby, W. R., Prof., Lake Geneva Seminary. Lamb, F. J., Esq., Madison. Salisbury, R. D., Beloit. Smith, E. G., Prof., Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. 363 ae Realen 4 6 m *r BUY LLY ayy. og Nhg BRUNER Rg sya = 4, eee aba ftldaas- ws Wh hi} i ah- ‘tk, } a Hiha, peBAS 2990 G8 ol | dace amatihentel Aneerrnmny I}! k a ae yh wy” spay ted boe. pannel Rie ial ee an “dr ah ee biphtet alae Lee. 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