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Vi. 1881-83, Cave 10 18, j PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF LAW. MADISON, WISCONSIN: DEMOCRAT PRINTING COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS. 1885, | TABLE OF CONTENTS OF VOLUME VI. : ‘ i ; THIRTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING. Pages Freedom of Will Empirically Considered, by John Bascom Shavasats 2-20 The Increase of Insanity, by A. O. Wright, (2 papers) ........... 20-28 The Primitive Democracy of the Germans, by Wm. F. Allen... 28-42 Notes on the Dispersion of Drift Copper, by R. D. Salisbury, Bcrithimeapye. esi. se a RUA 5 CR OT 49-50 On the Motor Ganglion Cells of the Frog’s Spinal Cord, by EH. A. OS ate PLALOS) TTT. ye eis 2 eaickel sta lel © ayo! ogee wee ech chino: hatabaoe atattenaana 51-82 Who Built the Mounds, by R. P. Hoy... .........ce.:ec0eec tense 84-100 “Who Made the Copper Implements, by R. P. Hoy.......-.-.. 44. 101-106 ; Preliminary List of Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi, by William REELS Cum yc Nay AM Nl ata aut 2 9 Satara Whalelacs are 106-144 On the Present State of Our Knowledge of Stellar-Motion, by Seetromann Ponty: Safford, 2.0 .cc) elie wces cece ak wen eee es oh esee 145-152 FOURTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING. Ancient Villages among/Emblematic Mounds, by S. D. Peet, (with _ seven MOEN AIA NITES) osc, sich fags, 8 5. 4 have eng anasenciok heater Oe 154-176 Migration and Distribution of North American Birds in Brown and Outagamie counties, by S. W. Willard..................0. 177-196 he Variation in the Attraction due to the Figure of the At- tracting Bodies, by D. P. Blackstone, (with 11 figures)......... 197-25 4 enera of the Family Attide, with a Partial Synonomy, by eorge W. and Elizabeth G. Peckham, (with inserted tables Hiv 1 ERR Ee I ALS AOE SRI dR 255-342 Py roceedings of the Academy since December, 1881 ............. 343-352 MMIRTEIRIORS ies aad ss os hoe digi Facnldhe oct dLcies ere ean 353-356 OPEC HRS OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS. Term Expires December 27th, 1884. PRESIDENT: R. D. IRVING, EK. M., Ph. D., U.S. Geologist, Professor of Geology, University of Wisconsin. VICE-PRESIDENTS: Department of Sciences—T. C. CHAMBERLIN, A. M., Ph. D., U.S. Geologist, Beloit. Department of Arts—Captain JOHN NADER, C. E., Madison. Department of Letters— WESLEY C. SAWYER, Ph. D., Professor State Normal School, Oshkosh. SECRETARY: EH. A. BIRGE, Ph. D., Professor of Zoology, University of Wisconsin. LIBRARIAN: A. O. WRIGHT,* A. M., Secretary State Board of Charities and Reform. CURATOR OF MUSEUM: R. C. HINDLEY, Professor Racine College, Racine. TREASURER: Hon. 8. D. HASTINGS, Madison. * Resigned, 1883. TWELFTH ANNUAL MERTING. DECEMBER 27 anp 28, 1881. PROGRAMME. TUESDAY, DECEMBER 27. Business meeting. Taper: Paper: Paper: Paper: Paper: WEDNESDAY MORNING, DECEMBER 28, 9 o’clock. “Land Communities among the Ancient Germans.” — W. F. ALLEN, Professor of Latin and History, University of Wis- consin. “The Number, Distribution and Function of the large Ganglion Cells of the Frog’s Spinal Cord.” —E. A. BIRGE, Professor of Zo- ology, University of Wisconsin. “The Causes of Insanity.”— A. O. WriGHtT, Secretary State Board of Charities and Reform. “Medieval German Schools.” —J. D. BUTLER, LL. D., Madison. “The Dispersion of Drift Copper.”—R. D. SALISBURY, Beloit. WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON, 2 o’clock. Held in Lecture Room of Natural History, No. 36, Science Hall, Univer- sity of Wisconsin. Paper: Paper: Paper: * Recent Observations on Cell-Divison and their Relation to Theo- retical Zoology.— E. A. BIRGE, (1) American Glacial History in the Light of Recent Investiga- tions. (2, The Harmony of Recent Observations on Moraines, with Croll’s Hypothesis of the Origin of the Glacial Epoch.” —T. C. CHAMBERLIN, State Geologist, Beloit. Proportional Representation in Legislation.” —G. ScHUMM, Editor Radical Review. WEDNESDAY EVENING, 7:30 o’clock. “My Visit to the Hawaiian Volcano.” — Pror. J. D. BUTLER. “Human Liberty Empirically Considered.” —PRESIDENT JOHN Bascom, State University. W = ms 2 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. FREEDOM OF WILL EMPIRICALLY CONSIDERED. By JouNn Bascom, D. D. LL. D., President University of Wisconsin. It is not our present purpose to present again the proofs of liberty in human action. These proofs are so primitive in their charater. approach so nearlythe first principles of rea- son, that later discussions of them between the defenders of philosophical systems do not often subserve any purpose of conviction. The object we now have in view is a consideration of lib- erty as it offers itself in experience, first, in the relation of the mind to the brain; and, second, in the reaction between the powers of the mind and the products of those powers in the world about it. If we were to grant liberty theoreti- cally, should we find its exercise possible under our present experience? This is the question we wish to answer. It will not be amiss to remind ourselves in starting of the nature of the interests involved in this discussion of liberty. Moral facts are supreme facts in human society. The axi- omatic principle on which these rest in the general mind is, Responsibility is commensurate with power. This involves at once choice as the indispensable condition of virtue. We are not considering in morals a balance of tendencies, but a balancing of tendencies —a dealing of the mind with tend- encies. No adverse statement at this point has weakened the general convictions on which morality proceeds, or pre- sented itself as more than an ingenious evasion of them. Virtue and liberty rise and fall together; whatever the one loses the other loses also. The same relation belongs to truth and liberty. Truth is to be inquired into and sought out. It may be attained, and it may be missed. Thatmovement of mind, therefore, which is to be occupied with this work of inquiry, must be flexible and spontaneous; must be at liberty to guide itself by the purely intellectual laws of logic. If thought is in any way subjected to forces beyond itself it can no longer shape itself freely to its own conditions. Conclusions reached under a Freedom of Will Empirically Considered. 3 physical necessity have nothing to do with truth. They are facts, not truths. The laws of logic are not laws in this sense, the mind must move logically; but in this sense, the mind must move logically if it is to reach the truth. The implication is that the mind may easily move illogically, and miss the truth; that it shapes its own movement to its own object; that it is free, and that truth is the reward of freedom wisely exercised. The beauty of the world involves a like conjunction of lib- erty and activity, though less obviously so. Beauty is fitting thought and feelings rendered in a form wholly suitable to them. Its pursuit involves, therefore, an ideal, and a spon- - taneous movement toward that ideal. Impulsion and force _are alien to beauty. Attraction and freedom are of its very nature. | Nor, indeed, does the plain idea of serviceabless — ren- dered as man always will render it —lack this notion of lib- erty. The world is made up of forces that may be used, and of powers in man that may use them. It is made up of the fixed and the flexible, and neither term can be lost and the serviceable process remain. State the case strictly under the forms of empirical forces, and not only do virtue, science, art disappear, use also disappears. We use things in this higher sense when we shape them to our purposes. We use air not when we breathe it spontaneously, but when we fill our air-brakes with it. We use water when we convert it into steam in our boilers, rather than when we drink it un- der an organic impulse. If the world, both in matter and in man, is made up of forces under settled laws of interaction, man no more uses matter than matter uses man. If we in- clude in the natural what is causal and fixed, and in the supernatural what is free and flexible, the natural can never be in any way handled or interpreted or used without the supernatural. Whenever interpretation reaches either comprehension or use it must do so by virtue of the super- natural, and in behalf of the supernatural. To these ideas of knowledge and of service the one is as necessary as the other. The knowing and using agent is not at the same A Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. time and in the same relation a part of the thing known and ~ used. Human knowledge and human liberty fundamentally planted in this union of the physical and spiritual, as we here conceive them, show empirically two lines of limita- tion. The first of these appears in connection with the brain, the medium by which the mind receives influences, and the instrument by which it communicates energies. We -may pass at once to the extreme conclusion which science is approaching, that the nervous system in man, with its great centre, the cerebrum, is constructed throughout with definite lines of inner and outer movement. Organic connections differ from mechanical ones in admitting a greater variety of offices, and allowing a freer substitution of one organ or one method for another; yet a distinct constructive purpose rules an organism as it rulesa mechanism. The definite- ness of the nerves and of the exterior termini of nerves in the nervous system carries with it a corresponding definite- ness of offices both in them and in the great nerve-centres. Exactness in superficial relations without exactness in inte- rior ones, would be futile, the meaningless juncture of order and disorder. The distribution and precision of the surface in- dicate like exact inner relations in completion of the one plan. — Observation of the effects of obstruction and of disease in the brain, and of artificial irritation of its different locali- ties, serves also to disclose explicitness of office combined with organic flexibility. There is nothing in this which liberty may not easily ac- cept. This dependence of the mind on the body gives strict conditions to liberty, but does not take away its first terms. The tool is an instrument to the hand; the hand is an instru- ment to the brain; the tool, the hand, and the brain are con- joint instruments to the mind. The workman cannot go beyond the possibilities of his tools. His circuit of liberty les within those possibilities. The mind united to the body receives from it what we may cail two sets of limitations, or two sets of powers as we choose to regard them: those which pertain, in the senses, to the ingress of knowledge, and those which pertain, in the muscular system, to its egress in ac- Freedom of Will Empirically Considered. 5 tion, The nervous system is the medium in each case, and the bond between the two. The only view which at all gan with liberty at this point is that which regards all action in consciousness as a secondary accompaniment of this interplay of stimuli and activities in an organism, and so determined in its phenom- ena by it. If the chief nerve-centres, more especially the cerebrum, in man are the seat of a series of interactions which take place between the inward movement and the ontward one, and are governed by them; if the phenomena of consciousness are simply the accompaniments of these complex actions and reactions in the brain, then liberty is lost, not limited, by such conditions. The adverse reasons are many. (1) A very large share, much the largest share, of nervous interplay goes on both in the lowest and in the highest life without consciousness. Consciousness is certainly no necessary product of merely nervous interaction. (2) Consciousness regarded in this light is from beginning to end a superfluous term. If con- sciousness is incident to forces seeking directly their own ends, we have no more use for consciousness in living than in dead things; no more need of it in securing the muscular activities that follow thought than in the circulation of the blood, or in uniting the recognition by the eye of the char- acters on the printed page with the muscles of the throat in articulation. If no state of consciousness is of itself pro- ductive of subsequent states of consciousness, but all are alike dependent on underlying cerebral conditions, then each state of consciousness and the entire series of states are, in reference to physical events, supernumerary results. Be- tween these states and these events it is impossible to affirm any correspondence which is of the nature of knowledge. (3) Consciousness has been introduced in development, on the contrary, as anew term ina higher life, incident not simply to organic relations, but one that seems greatly to extend them and put them to new service. (4) There is no known counterpart of any given thought in any given mole- cular changes of any nerve substance. The first and funda- mental step of proof in this direction has not yet been taken. 6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. The whole theory of correspondence has not one explicit fact to sustain it. The senses are definite in their outer con- ditions and inner impressions; the activities are definite in their inner conditions and outer effects; but our experience does not extend or cannot extend to any puremental state as the exact counterpart of a physical one embraced between these two lines of ingress and egress. Arguments looking to such a conclusion are all. inferences from insufficient grounds. | | There are two contrasted views that we may take of the relation of the processes of pure thought to cerebral action. We may regard them as strictly incident to cerebral changes which intervene between sensation and action. This sup- position implies an exact and causal connection of each specific cerebral state with a corresponding state in con- sciousness. The line of efficient forces is thus maintained in the physical world. Or, we may regard pure intellectual activity as a distinct term, under its own laws, which is in- troduced between sensor impressions and muscular actions, as the musician is an independent agent between the sheet of music that lies on the piano and the instrument itself. On this supposition the mind as mind receives impressions, correlates them in its own fashion, arrests them or passes them on in effects according to its own ends. We may, if we choose, modify this second opinion by still further supposing that there is a distinct molecular state of brain as the neces- sary accompaniment of each thought, but that it is secured by existing states of mind and not by antecedent sensations. This expansion of the theory, however, seems to be a weak concession to physical ideas, as no such correspondence can be proved, and the cerebral states thus accompanying pure — thought would have causal connections neither with antece- dent nor subsequent cerebral states, would be a dead term in the material world, and serve no known purpose in the mental one. This intervention of mind does not imply any chasm in physical sequences, any break of relations between sensa- tions and actions, but simply the power of the mind to pen- etrate, and in a great variety of ways to modify, these — e Freedom of Will Empirically Considered. 7 connections; thus heat alters physical sequences, without interrupting them. The change does not lie in the insertion of alien terms, but in the control of congenital ones. Several empirical reasons are urged for the strict depend- ence of thought on cerebral states. In insanity, it is said, the mind is subverted in its action simply by disease of the brain. But this it should be under either view. The mind is dependent for its facts or supposed facts on a nervous organism, and an abnormal state of the organism may wholly alter the data of thought. The quickness, however, and accuracy with which the patient reasons from his premises are often very observable. If the sensor and active physical pow- ers are broken down by disease, the mind on the one side loses data, and on the other side the power of expression. Aphasia, or the inability to utter or to write words, is often offered as a proof of this dependence. This fact, however, seems to look in the opposite direction, as the idea is still grasped by the mind even when it cannot control the organs of utter- ance. But the experience which looks most directly to a con- stant and complete dependence of thought on cerebral conditions is the sense of fatigue and the waste of nerve- tissue which accompany the action of mind. This fact re- quires careful consideration. Under all theories the brain is the medium of impressions and expressions, and the action of the mind lies between the two. The only question is whether it lies as intervening cerebral links between cere- bral states, to which connection thought is incidental; or as a relatively independent spiritual power to which no cerebral state need be set apart. In either case the action of mind involves sensor activity and motor activity, and this, too, in a much higher degree than is usually thought. It is this incipient or complete ministration of sensor and motor action of the brain to the mind that we would regard as a sufficient explanation of the fatigue of mental activity. Things and words are the counters of mind, and without them it can make only the feeblest advances in reflection. But things involve sensor impressions, and our acts of atten- tion, analysis, and arrangement involve sensor impressions Si Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. and motor activities. The sensor and motor terms are as omnipresent in inquiry as are the two poles in an electric current. Still more if possible is this true in.the use of words, the most intimate and constant means of thought. When the words of others direct us, they become sensor impressions that call for careful attention. When we our- selves guide our thoughts by words, they are either distinct motor terms or guasi-motor terms. All acquisition commences with language and seeks its constant aid, and as language has a definite cerebral term involved in its use and expression, we find in this fact an occasion for a consumption of nerve-tissue in all mental action. Children, if circumstances admit the habit, prefer to study aloud; that is, to aid the comprehending process by a full use of its counters. If the habit is inconvenient, the pupil will often move his lips without emitting any sound. He still finds the incipient utterance of the accompanying words a help to the mind. Some adults are aided in under- standing a book by reading it aloud. AIl persons observe the much greater clearness of thought which follows the utterance of one’s conclusions or the writing of them. Even dreams frequently lead to talking in sleep. All these things show thatit requires considerable effort on the part of the student to reduce the language which he employs in thought to its lowest terms in nascent expression. A little attention to our mental processes will show us that language never disappears in thought, but that our most silent processes still go forward by its aid. This de- pendence of thought on expression is also well illustrated in the education of mutes. “Though the deaf-and-dumb ~ prove clearly to us that a man may have human thought without being able to speak, they by no means prove that he can think without any means of physical expression. Herein lies the necessity of utterance, the repre- — sentation of thought. Thought is not even present to the thinker till he has set it forth out of himself. . . . The deaf-and-dumb gesticulate as they think. Laura Bridg- man’s fingers worked, making the initial movements for letters of the finger-alphabet, not only during her waking Freedom of Will Empirically Considered. 9 thoughts but even in her dreams. . . Heinicke gives a descrip- tion of the results of his teaching his pupils to articulate, their delight at being able to communicate their ideas in a new way, and the increased intelligence which appeared in the expression of their faces. . . . The teachers of Laura Bridgman used to restrain her from making inarticulate sounds, but she felt a great desire to make them, and would sometimes shut herself up and ‘indulge herself in a surfeit of sounds.’ But this vocal taculty of hers was chiefly exer- cised in giving what may be called name-sounds to persons whom she knew, and which she would make when the persons. to whom she had given them came near her, or when she wanted to find them, or even when she was thinking of them. She had made as many as fifty or sixty of these name-sounds.” * These cases indicate the aid which the mind immediately receives from any method of expression, and the consequent pleasure it takes in it. Deaf mutes are accustomed, in acquiring their lessons, to spell out the results on their fingers. The training of imbeciles opens with an effort to give them a better control of their hands, their senses, and their organs of speech. Impotence, vagueness, uncertainty in these directions are the expression of kindred mental qualities. One who does. not articulate words well finds difficulty in recalling them. When a name we have forgotten is rightly articulated we recognize it at once. Language is the full realization to the mind of its own activity. Weare also to bear in mind the greater fatigue which attends on thought when it receives full vocal utterance, asin oratory. The accompanying activ- ity of the nerves and organs of articulation with the neces- sity of continuous and rapid expression often make the fatigue very great. This labor is also much increased if the subject discoursed on is one whose vocabulary we have not fully mastered, or if the discussion is carried on in a lan- guage with which we are not perfectly familiar. On the other hand, an exact but familiar process, as the multiplication of large numbers, is much more trying if we *“Farly History of Mankind,” pp. 67-74. ich Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. are compelled to carry it on mentally, and are not allowed visible counters. In this casé the steps are no more diffi- cult, but the difficulty of rétaining them is greatly in- creased. Mere reverie, in which the transitions are very loose, is restful rather than fatiguing. It is an ultimate fact in neurology that connections once established in images or in actions, become increasingly easy and spontaneous. The power to utter words by rote, into which complete memory is constantly passing, is plainly the result of nervous and muscular training. Literary mat- ter which has just been learned can be repeated but slowly and hesitatingly. A repetition on successive days greatly increases the facility of movement, and a repetition at dis- tant periods very much strengthens the hold of the mind. We often render aloud lines of poetry, giving full sway to the rhythm, as a means of recalling one or more missing words. The loss of memory by disease and its restoration of health find explanation in these neural connections. More recent occurrences suffer most from this loss of recollection, and the power of memory returns ;by first regaining more distant events, those whose connections have been fully established in the nervous system. This method of restora- tion is made plain by the simple fact that memory is supple- mented by vital connections in the nervous system of perceptions and of actions. A memory which easily lays hold of an idea, but retains with difficulty the precise words. in which it is stated, is doubtless to be explained by diver- sity in the cerebral conditions of language; as much as is hesitancy in speech as contrasted with volubility. Memory is evidently much modified by the fact that it so often in- volves the physical condition of expression. More than one instance of this kind has come to my knowledge. A person, awakened from a deep sleep, has re- called certain thoughts that were present to the mind, and also words that accompanied them. Giving the subject closer atention, he has been surprised to find that the words did not belong to the thoughts, but seemed to have been evoked vaguely by them. The thought-process stirred the faculties of expression without controlling them. In like Freedom of Will Empirically Considered. 11 manner sounds that enter the ear are distorted in dreams so as to suit the circumstances of,the dream, rather than the external fact. Both of these results indicate a momentary separation between the thinking process and the organs of expression and preception which accompany and sustain it. The hesitancy and difficulty with which the mind sometimes meets in trying to recall a word seems to lie in the feeble hold of the memory on the one side, and the inability of the mind to guide the organs of utterance on the other. The image of the written word and the sound of the word are both partially present, and both fail of perfect form. Thus one may have uttered yesterday a difficult sound, and have lost to-day the power of repeating it. If we allow an exact correspondence between cerebral condition and pure thought. we confound the distinction between instinct and reason. Instinct is plainly character- ized by a direct connection of external stimuli with appro- priate actions; the transition being, however, more or less protracted, and united with the ordinary variable experi- ences of life. Reason, under the view now combated, would be simply an extension of instinct, whereas it manifests itself not only as a new combination of powers, but also as one that is constantly setting instinct aside and reducing it to its lowest terms. This theory of an exact correspondence between cerebral states and rational activity makes no sufficient and no plausible provision for the growth of rational powers. — Cerebral states and cerebral actions are not inexhaustible. If a distinct combination is demanded by each distinct thought, and if memory requires the preservation of these combinations, the capacity of the brain would be steadily exhausted by its development, and we should experience in reason, as we do experience in instinct, limits to mental un- folding. So small a substance as the brain cannot, in its molecular states, be the counterpart of the entire universe in all the actual and possible relations of its parts. There must be some limit to the discursus of reason if each thought appropriates a definite portion of a limited power. The theory is unreasonably complicated, and in that degree 12 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. improbable. It would also imply increased difficulty in the acquisition of mental power, when the facts disclose in- creased ease. Nor is it any relief to this embarrassment to say that the special senses, like the eye, give the mind very complex impressions by an equally complex organic state. The image of a landscape is displaced by each succeeding image. The eye isa specialized organ that has been de- veloped to its present power by stages of growth that date back almost to the beginning of animal life, and yet its maxi- mum power is represented in the reproduction of a single landscape, with very great limitation of distinctness of vision beyond the immediate centre of observation. The method and degree of reproduction in the eye and the ear give no color of plausibility, but the reverse rather, to the supposition that the cerebrum has in its molecular action an exhaustless representative and retentive power both in the regions of imagination and of abstract thought. Mathematical truth and all exact knowledge lead to the opposite conclusion. Cerebral states as physical effects can never be the precise counterparts of each other in different brains. No truth, therefore, dependent on such states could be absolute and universal. Some kind of color-blindness would sooner or later show itself in all directions. The deductive reasons already referred to come in to con- firm this conclusion of the relative independence of pure thoughtin anunmistakable way. No physical relation can be the equivalent of logical convictions; and no convictions can be merely physical effects. The two lines of law are not parallel, and cannot be made the counterparts of each other. The conditions of thought are not those of force. We may then pass all strictly physical experience as in- deed giving limits to liberty and sometimes limits crowding very close upon it, but limits that never abolish it as long as thought remains. We turn now to our intellectual experi- ence in its relation to freedom. Men start with a balance of powers and a bias of disposi- tion which are not easily modified or resisted. This natural disposition is the result of primitive passions and tastes that are stubborn facts by no means to be wiped out by a simple Freedom of Will Empirically Considered. 13 choice, nor indeed altogether to be rooted out by the most faithful and continuous effort. A portion of these procliv- ities may be attributed to physical inheritance, and a por- tion to original endowment. For our present purpose we need not strive to settle the balance between them or even stop to enforce the existence of the second constituent. The position of the individual in reference to liberty is not much altered whether his first make-up comes to him by descent or by gift, or by a combination of the two. The stubborn- ness of these first tendencies experience clearly records. Those who have the training of children attach great im- portance to parentage and antecedents. Even in the earliest instruction these forces make themselves felt. The parent and the teacher are constantly aware in the same household of diversities of temperaments and tastes as fundamental considerations in discipline. It is true that much more can be done in shaping these forces early in life than later in life, but they can at no time be overlooked, and will often undo unskilful and even skilful labor in a sudden, resentful way. It is also to be remembered that the moral inheritance of early surroundings and discipline so adds itself to, and in- corporates itself with, primitive endowments as to be prac- tically inseparable from them. By the time a young man begins to come within the range of his own personal freedom a composite stream of strong currents hashim in hand. He need not lose time to inquire how he came by his inclina- tions, whether by native endowment, by physical inherit- ance, or by direct instruction; to guide and shape these energies, already realized in volume and direction, becomes his sufficient labor. The limitations of liberty are, there- fore, very obvious and very great. They are allied to those of a gunner whose position and piece are given him. Said an active boy in answer to the complaints of his sluggish companion, “I do not walk so fast on purpose, I cannot help it.” If we look at the limitations of liberty in reference to the immediate actions that are.to follow them, we may re- gard freedom as not having much to do with the ordering ’ 14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. of life. Indeed, hasty reasoners often come to this con- clusion. y A restriction closely concurrent with this of primitive dis- position is that of habit. We all becomeincreasingly aware of this restraint as we advance. We are not simply ham- pered by physical habits, but by intellectual ones also. The lines of thought we have taken up we pursue with increas- ing ease, but we are at the same time more and more reluct- ant to accept new ones. In youth we were adepts in mathematics or quick in languages; in middle life we dis- cover we have much narrowed these powers by disuse. We have passed the point of indifference in reference to any class of attainments, and find them all positively eae or positively hard. The convictions we have reached, especially those touch- ing action and character, personal, social and religious, — though they themselves may have grown up in the exercise of liberty, are still limitations upon it. Especially is this true if a dogmatic spirit enters into them and we regard our opinions as finalities. ; What Lanfrey says of Napoleon is capable of much wider application. He is speaking of wilfulness— which is really the want of well-ordered will—as united with very great intellectual powers. “The studied frenzy of a calculating mind is without remedy, because it does not depend on a sentiment, but on the very form of the intellect itself.” This is true of all mental activity in proportion as it becomes deep and narrow. The life flows on init as a river in a canon, not merely beyond flexion, but for the most part beyond ob- servation. A dogmatic intellect does not simply open before us one way, it systematically closes up all other ways. Dogmatism is a universal loss of liberty, and most of all in the inner life of the mind. : The remoteness of primary principles from the truths which flow from them leads to the same result. Most of the discussion by which the current of empirical philosophy is resisted in our day goes for little or nothing. It lies far out among marginal truths, and can find no acceptance with minds adversely disposed, and rarely leads to a fundamental Freedom of Will Empirically Considered. 15 renovation of thought. A boy sits upon the bank of a stream and gives his slight boat an impulse up the current; it soon returns to him, because the water flows in the opposite di- rection. The tidal movement of many minds is something not often comprehended, difficult to be resisted, and hard to be overcome. While the questions involved are questions of reason, the questions are very many, and the reasons very many, and are arrayed like armies. Single men or single regiments of men, can no longer wage successful war. Another restraint which overtakes freedom in its unfold- ing is that which arises from the accumulating force of feel- ings and of social relations. It is thought that the minds of women are less open to the force of reason than those of men. So far as the assertion is true, it is largely due to the emotional energy which characterizes them. This medium of thought refracts and colors the light on all personal topics, till a presentation is insensibly reached that suits the temper of the inquirer. Light is full of all colors, and will yield them all according to our analyzing prism. Wise men find that in dealing with the foibles of others they must not ex- pect to remove them, but rather to accommodate themselves tothem. Friends that undertake thoroughly to correct each other will soon reach aversion. Refractions that belong to the very atmosphere of the mind itself must be patiently borne. It is far easier for those who see these disturbances of vision in others to endure them than for those who suffer under them without recognition to remove them. Not only are the feelings themselves very persistent forces, all our social relations become objective provocations to them, renewing them constantly and with great energy. As we interpret society to-day we interpret it to-morrow; and it acts on us vigorously to perpetuate ruling impressions. Hence it is not our own emotional atmosphere simply, but the atmosphere of the world we live in, that is unbraiding the light for us, and casting sombre or brilliant colors on the objects about us. To these physical and intellectual restrictions are to be added secondary ones which arise from their interaction. Disease, fatigue, old age, success, failure, predispose the mind to certain judgments which are not eas- AS 16 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. ! ily cast off. The unsuccessful man becomes untrustworthy in his opinions. | : We care not to trace these limitations further, but wish rather to inquire how they leave the problem of liberty. So profoundly are some minds impressed with these subtile and overwhelming influences that human liberty sinks out of all high estimate. Life seems but a painful beating of the waves of the ocean by aswimmer who must ultimately sink. Constraining forces are of the most pervasive and insinu- ating order; they are often nearest us when we think least of them, and bind us most when we seem to ourselves most free. | Accumulative impressions, like those now brought forward, require corresponding care in the search for compensatory considerations or they quite confound the thoughts. Weare too much accustomed to think of liberty as the immediate casting off of restraint, and as efficient, therefore, in the degree in which this is accomplished. This is far from the truth. The value of liberty lies in its power to work under and with invariable and permanent forces. If liberty in- volved mobility simply, it would lose its possessions as fest as it gained them. The air is mobile, and for that reason its distribution of parts has little interest. Wecan carve noth- ing out of it and record nothing on it. Rocks are compar- atively immobile, and immediately they become material in many forms of work, while their distribution is an important fact. If results followed on after vagrant wishes, choice would gain apparent power, but would suffer immense loss. The thing done would be as quickly undone, and the clash of choices would be as idle as the collisions of winds. In- deed, there can be but one Aladdin with his magic lamp. He alone must be left to act on things fixed and permanent for all but himself. A pair of them would subvert the world, become spirits with invulnerable bodies who could settle nothing in confliet. The resistance which surrounding conditions offer to lib- erty represents the strength and tenacity of the material at — the service of the mind, and is a question simply of the right degree. If the resistance is slight, the gains are slight; if _ Freedom of Will Empirically Considered. 1 _ the resistance is great, the labor must be great, but so also may be the results. Now the individual and the race encounter in the exercise of freedom two lines of resistance: that offered by matter and that offered by the mind itself. The first of these is, in the strictest sense, the coherence and firmness of material. It is the office of mind, availing itself of inorganic and organic laws, to permeate matter and hold it to fixed and extended service. The most complete illustration of this is the human body, penetrated in every part with nerves of sensation and action, and so becoming not itself merely an arena of mind, but a powerful instrument of mind, operating by means of it freely in the physical world. To complete this mastery of mind over matter, to establish it as a settled intellectual dynasty, is what wise men are about in the world. Now material laws are sufficiently pliant to thought to make this labor possible, and sufficiently resistful to make the gains of infinite worth when secured. Men soon learn that mere vaporing accomplishes nothing, but they also learn that skill and patience are surprisingly effective. The stream does not flow like water, but it flows like a glacier. It can hardly be said that the physical material offered the hand of man is so intractable as to waste liberty; it has rather that degree of tractability which stores liberty. But the second line of resistance is one of equal interest — the restraints which the laws of mind offer to mind. It has been fourd a universal social law, that if freedom is to grow, wisdom and virtue must grow with it. It is the same truth we are contemplating in the limitations of liberty within the mind itself. The agency slips away from the agent un- less the agent masters himself also. While man is held back from the control of the physical world by laws within that world, he is equally held back by laws within himself, and the two sets of laws must be handled together and mastered together; otherwise the movement will soon find arrest. When the mind stagnates within itself its external force is lost also. _ What do the limitations of freedom which we have found arising within the mind itself signify but this, that the grow- 18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. ing points of intelligence and virtue must be carefully main- tained? If these are lost, freedom is lost. The mind settles down under fixed epinions, becomes subject to an unbroken sequence of feelings, and accepts the social sentiments that prevail about it. The one condition of freedom is to maintain unimpaired intellectual activity in all directions of action. This alters the horizon, varies the grounds of effort, breaks up and sub- ordinates habit, and holds in arrest the aggression of other minds. The mind that ceases on any topic — for instance, on that of religion—from fresh intellectual activity has turned down the light by which it should be guided, and it is only fortunate, therefore, that it begins to fall into a cal- culable routine of action, that it does not go plunging on with nothing to direct it. When the buds of a tree cease to shoot the leaves may come and go for awhile with the sea- sons, but the constructive life is arrested. The limitations of liberty do not show the power of man to be nothing, but only that there are moments, places, and ways of its skilful ap- plication. We are not to conceive liberty in men asa gigantic power, easily executing its purposes and holding fast results with a firm grasp. We allstart under conditions alien to ourselves, organic influences, educational influences, social influences. Here is a young man brought up on a farm to hard labor, close economy, and a limited intellectual horizon. External circumstances and parental precept and example have con- curred in deepening the ruts in which he is slowly moving onward. None the less it is possible that some new activity | shall come to his thoughts, that he shall of a sudden say to his astonished father, on the occasion of some new exaction, “I do not think so.” From that moment he may begin to break the cords that have bound him, and, in the progress of years, get to himself new incentives with a new outlook. Motives have force, not in themselves, but in rela- tion to the mind to which they appeal. Change the mind and you change the motive. When aman thinks to some some new purpose the chains of custom drop off him. Ey- ery man, in his experience, is liable to share the astonishment - Freedom of Will Empirically Considered. 19 _ of the father, when his son says to him for the first time, “I think differently.” Asamanthinketh soishe. Hereisa pivot of revolution which no external facts can control, but upon which they in turn are dependent. If we introduce liberty in human action at this centre of thought, and leave it to extend itself by a steady modification of internal con- ditions, and to maintain itself by fresh acquisitions, freedom is reconcilable both with the theory of lifeand the facts of life, and is seen to be the one significant factor in them both. If there isa slow accumulation of circumstances about one which hedge the way, the fact is due to the passivity of the mind in the ripening of events. If the mind is active and watchful, this infinite division of particulars, this slow gathering of difficulties are in favor of liberty. By foresight and effort the mind increases its powers of resistance and guidance. The problem of life is indefatigable will at war with unwearied forces, but forces can be divided against themselves, and enlisted on the side of will. While spontaneity exercised in thought — and in this way productive of light — isthe condition of continuous freedom, the condition of the condition is virtue, feelings that turn on and subordinate themselves to the truth. If the intellectual movement is not honest in its incipiency it shortly fails of thoroughness. Itis not light alone that is the efficient con- structive force in the green tissue of leaves; it is light and heat. Itis not truth alone that maintains the vitality of growing points in the mind, but truth and feeling. Feelings that are alien to the facts soon alter our conception of the facts, and so the facts shake us off and escape us. We are not masters, because we have lost the true word of com- mand. Personal liberty is like liberty iu the state. Its safe pos- session is one of profound obedience to deeply implanted principles. It is not, therefore, the less liberty or of less worth. On the one side the very condition of strength is a struggle with domineering tendencies, and on the other their steadfast government under new conditions. Liberty isa movement from law to law, each succeeding law being higher, broader, more inclusive, and more fortunate. 20 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. The value of liberty is that it enables the mind freely to conform to law. The liberty that does not pass instantly into law is like the seed that is not sownin the soil. It abides alone. Liberty that confines itself to its narrow field, that is content to knit skilfully together the past and the future at the one plastic point, the present, is not weak, it is well-nigh omnipotent. It only requires long times and large spaces in which to unroll its power; it merely calls for material of every order and the union of every law by which to record its work. There is no reason in any limitation of liberty why, under the laws of inheritance, man should not in time walk the earth with the bounding life of an archangel, gov- ern it with the strength of an archangel, and take home its thoughts and feelings to the pure and serene experience of an archangel. The one law of this progress is continuous intelligence and virtue. THE INCREASE OF INSANITY. By A. O. WRIGHT, Secretary of the State Board of Charities and Reform. The United States census of 1860 showed in the state of Wisconsin 283 insane persons. The census of 1880 will show probably about 2,000. This is not an isolated fact. An in- crease of insanity is shown by these two enumerations in the twenty years from 1860 to 1880 in every state of our Union, and in some of them as great an increaee as in Wis- consin. Is the increase a real increase, and what are the causes of it? I. This is not all a real increase. The census of 1880 was taken much more accurately than ever before, and this in- creased accuracy shows itself especially in the enumeration ~ of the defective classes. The United States deputy marshals were sometimes careless in counting the numbers of popula- tion, and much more careless in gathering such special sta- tistics as those of the defective classes. Their sins were The Increase of Insanity. 21 generally of omission rather than commission, and therefore the more accurate methods of the last census caused an ap- parent increase in the number of the insane, as of all the de- fective classes. Thus this census will show in Massachusetts one insane person to every 338 of the population instead of one to 350 as before supposed. II. An apparent increase of insanity is caused by the wider definitions of insanity given nowadays by physicians in charge of insane hospitals. A wide range of diseases of the brain and of mental and moral perversions is now called insanity, which formerly would have been called nervous- ness, or eccentricity, or wickedness, as the case might be. Consistently with this theory an expert witness lately testi- fied in the Guiteau trial that one in five persons on the aver- age are insane. The effect of these teachings has been to cause many persons now to be considered insane who form- erly would not have been so considered. The disease or the mental or moral perversion would have been there, but it would not have been calledinsanity. The increase of insan- ity from this cause is like the astonishing increase of some cities, made on paper by taking in outlying suburbs. III. A very large apparent increase of insanity has been made by the better care now taken of the insane than formerly. The barbarous treatment of the insane which lasted as the rule in Wisconsin down to about 1860, when the State Hospital was fairly opened, and after that in most jails and poorhouses until after the State Board of Charities and Reform began their work of improvement of those in- stitutions in 1870, and which is still found in a few places in this state to-day, tended to greatly shorten the lives of the insane. Living in filth and squalor, chilled by frost and scorched with heat, given too little food and drink, shut in dark, damp dungeons away from the healing beams of the sun, they died rapidly. Now, under humane treatment, with proper food, warmth, exercise and fresh air, the chronic insane live at least as long as the average of mankind. There is little in the mental disease itself to destroy life, and people cared for according to the laws of health in hospitals and county asylums are less liable to disease and death than ees 22 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. those who are free to neglect their health outside of insane asylums. Now this process of preserving the lives of the insane has been going on in this state for the last twenty years with the inevitable result of increasing the number of the insane. For while as many have been becoming insane as ever, fewer have been dying cff, and thus the number in- sane alive at any given time is growing greater. IV. Another cause of the increase of insanity is the in- crease of population. Wisconsin has increased from 775,000 in 1860 to 1,315,000 in 1880. While the population has nearly doubled it is not wonderful that the number of insane should increase also. ie V. An important cause of the increase of insanity in this state is that Wisconsin is passing from a new state to. an old settled state. The first generation of pioneers who. settled the southern part of the state are passing away. When they came here, they were usually people of vigorous. health and in the prime of life. Like most settlers of a new country they left their defective classes behind them. There were few insane among the immigrants who came first or among those who have followed them since from ‘the eastern states or from foreign lands. The cases of insanity we have had have mostly been produced upon our own soil. Now, bearing in mind the great part that heredity has in produc- ing insanity, it is plain that a body of immigrants selected for healthfulness of body and mind, as nearly all immigrants are, will have less insanity for several genera- tions than the people of an old settled country. The ratio of insanity to the population will show this. The census of 1860 shows insanity in the ratio of one insane person to every 2,740 of the population. A census which I have recently taken of the insane under public care which is at least as imperfect as that was, because it gives only those under public care, and not those cared for at home, gives a ratio of one insane person to every 743 of the population. This shows a sufficiently rapid increase in © the ratio of insanity. But the same census when shown by counties as in the subjoined table, and illustrated by the map which I have prepared, shows very clearly that the in- -” ae =| Oe The Increase of Insanity. 23 crease in the ratio of insanity has been in the older settled counties. Thus the same law is at work within the state as between the counties which is at work upon the state at large. When the results of the United States census of 1880 in regard to the insane are published, there will probably be about 2,000 insane shown to be in the state or one to every _ 656 of the population. Of the five causes for the apparent or real increase of in- sanity, we may suppose that hereafter we shall have as accurate returns of insanity as the nature of the subject admits of. While it is questionable whether certain persons are insane or not, no one can count the insane with entire accuracy; but they will be hereafter counted as accurately as possible. The second cause in the wider definitions of insanity has gone about as far as it is likely to go in increas- ing the number of the insane. If anything, thetfe is likely to be a reaction as the result of Guiteau’s trial, and of other causes, to narrow somewhat the definition of insanity and thus slightly reduce the number of those called insane. The increase of insanity caused by the more humane treatment and therefore longer lives, is, we may trust, a permanent increase. Rather than resort to the old, barbarous methods, it would be far better to give these poor creatures the euthan- asia afforded by an overdose of laudanum. If they are to be killed off, let it at least be done without unnecessary cruelty. But though the increase in the number of insane from this cause is doubtless a permanent one, it will not be as rapid in the future as in the past. When the expectation of life among the insane has once been permanently lengthened by more humane modes of treating them, they will not continue to accumulate forever, but will die off as before, only ata greaterage. We have not yet reached the end of this change for the better in the treat- ment of the insane. But when we have done so, then this source of increase will soon cease. The increase of popula- tion in our state will doubtless go on, but at a slower rate, and with it necessarily that increase in the total number of insane which goes with it. The increase of insanity, which 24 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. arises from our state becoming an old settled state, will of course keep on until we attain our fair average. What that average is becomes then an interesting question. In Massachusetts, as I learn from Mr. F. B. Sanborn, who has charge of that subject there, the rate of insane to the population is about one to 338. In Scotland it is about one — to 290. If we assume that we shall reach the ratio of one to 500 under public care in twenty years more, and shall havea population then of 1,600,000, both low estimates, we must expect in 1900 to provide for at least 3,200 insane persons. povetas | BAYFIELD 1V WV G) ASHLAND i (IV BURNETT + CHIPPEWA Iv PRICE BARRON MEISE) — a | coe ire rell Cc i Ss i) 7S ee | | im Pa 4 Lu lv = i Ih er . ‘i Uh o HS 3 F WODODII| @ IV S A ANN - | la a io ne cil > | i TIN ‘if fi Aa i se al ie vy | Hi: ie ill I I allt AUS eo? eee rome rowatn = | VERNON | o @ “Ui i i 7s J—MORE THAN! T0 EACH 600 wu i LL i HW — 170 EACH 600 T0800 IV QJRICHLAND el i Pail S ‘IM =1 TO EACHENO 701000 ( ae iM ys i Ul IVLESS THANITO EACH 1000 Lis Pras. Chien fh Lit ml nif ii po ras Be . H ‘ The Increase of Insaaity. 25 _ If supported. in state institutions at anywhere near the rates these institutions now cost, the charge to the public will be at least $640,000 annually, besides $3,000,000 for build- ings, a burden which the state will find it difficult to bear. This whole question is one whichis now pressing on us for solution and which deserves the attention of every philan- thropist and every statesman. TABLE SHOWING INSANITY IN WISCONSIN BY COUNTIES, 1884. Counties. Buffalo ... Glanls 46 85 Columbia . Crawford . Douglass. . Dann .: 2°. Towa..... é Juneau .. Kenosha .. Kewaunee LaCrosse. . La Fayette eee ewww wwe ey aire (e|\e)'@. 6 «)'e (eile eer ee ee ene eee ee ee eee i ee Sw aie de! aiwlale Ce ar ey CA OC Ce ee ee eeeececor sds See ee vse 6 « Langlade. . Lincoln ... ee Total insane under pub- lic care. ulation: one Ratio to popu- to each. 825 sete ee ee Counties. Marathon) «hisses ent Marinetice. see - Marquette™ ..).,./:. . Milwaukee: ........ Monroews st cer. ees ITI COW en ry Wetieees ae, 8 Sheboygan ......... Maylor weyers Trempealeau ....... Wermnon sss worse. 0 xs Washington........ Waukesha ......... IWialpacals stactacre a Wraushamratencs a8 oa. Winnebago..... ... IAW OOU Sr. osteo. aes State at large....... under pub- Total insane lic care. lation: one to Ratio to popu- each. ae eee ewe Car te eC et ter ; 4 26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. THE INCREASE OF INSANITY. . WF _ SECOND PAPER. 1882. By A. O. WRIGHT, Secretary State Board of Charities and Reform. Last year I presented to the Academy a paper upon the increase of insanity in this state, in which I gave a census of the insane under public care. by counties, the first ever made in the state, showing that we had then 1,773 insane persons under public care or one to every 742 persons in the state, and predicted that we should probably reach the num- ber of 3,200 insane in the state by the close of this century. ' Ihave completed another census of: the insane under pub- lic care, and am able to give statistics for this year. There were on September 30, 1882, under public care in this state, 1,913 insane persons. This is an increase of 140 over last year. If the same increase occurs for the next eighteen years, or until 1900, we shall have about 5,000 insane per- sons at that time under public care. On the supposition that we shall have about 1,600,000 pop- ulation at the close of the century, that would be one insane person to every 320 of the population, or not far from the proportion of Massachusetts. But it is not hkely that the increase during the whole pe- riod will be so rapid, or the number of insane at the end of the century so great as these figures seem to show. In all probability insanity will continue to increase until eventu- ally we reach the ratio of Massachusetts or even of Scotland, one to 290. But this increase will be by a continually re- tarded ratio. As the number of the insane increases, the rate of increase will grow less, until some fixed ratio is reached, from which the variations will be slight and tem- porary, as long as the conditions of society remain the same. The increase, or in some cases, decrease, of insane by counties, is shown by the following table: . The Increase of Insanity. ut _ The counties which have had the largest increase are: b Mimrercnticen) eT. ieee ooo ee ite OHUDVCWANs ..)/. 1.23 eee 1,778 Number of insane under public care in 1882.....................--. 1,918 Number of insane under public care in 1888...................00--. 2,075 Net increase) from 1881) to 188250. - V5. 140 Net inerease from 1882/to 1883-5. 2.4 -eee ee. eee 162 As was predicted above, the increased accommodations for the insane provided by the new county asylums, opened in the year 1883, have caused an apparent increase of insanity in addition to the real increase. The real increase, however, has been large. THE PRIMITIVE DEMOCRACY OF THE GERMANS. * By W. F. ALLEN, Professor of Latin and History, University of Wisconsin, The political institutions of the ancient Germans, as de- scribed by Tacitus, are of an essentially democratic charac- ter. Some of their nations have kings, but royalty is not a necessary part of their constitution, for many nations have no king, and where there is one, he is not invested with any very positive or absolute powers.t Nobles are frequently mentioned, but special privileges or powers are never as- cribed to the nobility, and, so far as appears from the in- *This paper is composed of two papers; one, upon the village commun: ity system, read at the meeting of the Academy in 1881; the other at the meeting in 1883. Being properly supplementary to one another, they have been united, and the discussion of both papers brought down to the date of publication. + Nee regibus lobera aut infinitu potestas Tac. Germ. 7. +] The Primitive Democracy of the Germans. 29 formation in our possession, it was a social rather than a political aristocracy. There are serfs, but we are absolutely - without information as to their origin or their relative num- bers— whether they are Germans, who have sunk from a condition of freedom, or the remnants of a conquered race; whether they are few or many. We cannot, of course, ex- pect to find organized government of the modern type, or any precise definition of powers; but so far as we are war- ranted in any positive conclusion upon the subject, we may say that the sovereign power was in the hands of the whole people, acting collectively, meeting in a general assembly at stated intervals. (Tac. Germ. 11-12.) The people, in their family organizations, also compose the army;* from a comparison of Tacitus with Cesar,t an earlier writer, we have a right to infer that these same family organizations live in common occupation of independent districts of land. There are magistrates, holding their office it would seem for life, elected by the people in their national assembly, and acting as a board of administration in the intervals between the meetings of assembly,{ but also having each his own district where he presides over the adminstration of justice. || From other authorities we know that in this district admin- istration of justice the magistrates only preside; the verdict is rendered by the people of the district in an assembly of the district. This is a thoroughly republican constitution of society, and this sketch, which rests in every detail upon positive state- ments of ‘Tacitus, supplemented in only two instances by evidence from other but equally unimpeachable authority, _justifies us in the statement that the political institutions of *Non casus nec fortuita conglobatio turmam aut cuneum facit, sed familiae et propinquitates. (Tac. Germ. 7.) + Magistratus ac principes in annos singulos gentibus cognationibusque hominum quantum et quo loco visum est agri attribuunt. B. G. vi. 22. tDe minoribus rebus principes consultant, de majoribus omnes, Tac. Germ. 11. | Principes qui jura per pagos vicosque reddunt. id. 12.— Principes regionum atque pagorum inter suos jus dicunt controversiasque minuunt. Cees. B. G. vi. 23. 30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. — ~ the primitive Germans were essentially democratic. Thisis also the conclusion at which we should arrive by the analogy — of other primitive peoples, especially those of the Indo-Ku- © ropean family. Most of them established a kingly office, 4 most of them had slaves, or serfs, or imperfectly qualified 4 citizens to whom they stood in the relation of a ruling aris- tocracy; but as a rule all authority is regarded as emanating from the body of the citizens. There was, however, an institution of the Germans, not inconsistent in its original character with the democratic theory of their institutions, which, nevertheless, must have interfered materially with the democratic working of these institutions, and which in the end effected a complete revo- — lution in them of a strongly aristocratic character. This — was the so-called comitatus, the body of personal followers. — It appears to have been of relatively recent origin, for as Ceesar describes it,* it was quite imperfectly developed, con- sisting simply in the custom of voluntary leaders in times of war, around whom gathered a group of voluntary followers, the relation apparently continuing only for the period of the war. In the time of Tacitus, one hundred and fifty years later, it has been converted from a custom into an institution; the relation is a permanent one. The followers live at the expense of their chief in peace as well as war.+ There are grades in dignity among them, and the several chiefs emu- | lously rival one another in the number and prowess of their — followers.t Both Ceesar and Tacitus use the word princeps, “chief,” to designate the leader of the comztatus, and this is the same word which is used by both writers to designate also the per- manent magistrates who have been already described. The question has naturally arisen, and has been debated with * Ubi quis ex principibus in concilio dixit se ducem fore, qui sequi velint — profiteantur, consurgunt vi, etc. Ces. B. G. vi. 23. + Epulae et quamquam incompti largi tamen apparatus pro stipendiis cedunt. Tac. Germ. 14. t Gradus quin etiam et ipse comitatus habet judicio ejus quem sectantur; magnaque et comitum aemulatio, quibus primus apud principem suum locus, et principum cui plurinv et acerrimi comites. Id. 13. — The Primitive Democracy of the Germans. 31 considerable warmth, whether the right of entertaining a comitatus was confined to the magistrates or chiefs of the state. Some have held that any person who chose might gather about him a body of followers; others, on the other hand, have taken principes in this relation to mean “ nobles,” and have regarded the right as a privilege of nobility. I have already said that neither Cesar nor Tacitus ascribes any political privileges to the nobility, which appears, therefore, to have been a purely social distinction; and this statement is correct, if we take only the terms nobiles or proceres to mean “nobles,” they being the words regularly used in this sense. The word principes, on the other hand. does not 3 properly mean “ nobles,” but “ chiefs ” — individuals invested with certain governmental powers. It is purely begging the question to assume that, in relation to the comitatus it is used in a different sense from its usual one. But the con- nection in which the word is used is conclusive upon this point. Both the writers in question speak of the principes as magistrates before speaking of them as leaders of the comitatus; and in Tacitus the passages follaw close upon one another with no interruption. He passes directly from the election and the judicial functions of the principes to the description of the comitatus; the conclusion is irresistible that the principes who maintain the comitatus are the same as those who administer the government of the state and preside over the judicial assembles of the districts. It will be readily seen that an institution like this, which, as Tacitus says, had a direct interest in war,* must have had a powerful influence in converting a peaceful commu- nity of peasants intothe turbulent and quarrelsome nation of warriors who invaded and overthrew the Roman empire. But our immediate connection is with the constitutional change which it effected. We see a body of elected magis- trates (to use a modern term) holding their office for life, and therefore, virtually irresponsible, administering the govern- mentin the intervals between the assemblies, having the administration of justice wholly under their direction and * Magnum comitatum non nisi vi belloque tueare. Germ. 14. 2 32 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. gathering about them a body of armed retainers, whom ~ they support in peace as well asin war, but whose interests are wholly in war. The elected magistrates are to all intents and purposes converted into barons, holding their ~ fellow-countrymen in control by armed force. Moreover, ; although there is no indication and no likelihood that nobility . of birth was a necessary qualification for the office of prin- ceps, it was natural that an office of so much power would be filled almost exclusively from the wealthy and distin- guished members of the nobility. The principes were not nobles as a class, or by any necessity; but as individuals they must in almost every instance have been of noble birth. We are able, in the light of this condition of things, to in- terpret the single pussage which has appeared to identify the princtpes with the nobles: Tacitus Annals, i. 55, where it is ; said that Segestes, the friend of the Romans, urged the Ro- _ man general Varus, in view of the impending revolt of his countrymen, to put in custody both himself, his rival Arm- inius, and the rest of the nobles—the common people would venture upon no movement when they had lost their chiefs.* The principes and the proceres, in their origin wholly dif- ferent — the one elected magistrates, the other a social aris- tocracy — became identified with each other; the office of princeps would tend to become hereditary, and the social aristocracy was gradually converted into a political aris- tocracy. The primitive and fundamental democracy of the Ger- mans was, therefore, in the time of Tacitus, confronted by a wealthy and powerful official aristocracy, the forerunner of the feudal nobility. By the side of the national army, the organic divisions of which were formed by groups of kindred, there appeared the bands of military followers, fighting under the leadership of their personal chief, who at the same time, in his official capacity, must have com- manded also the national host. By the side of the primitive communities of free tribesmen, also composed of family groups, there appeared the baronial residences of the chiefs, * Ut se et Arminium et ceteros proceres vinciret: nihil ausuram plebem principibus amotis. The Primitive Democracy of the Germans. 33 te like feudal castles among the villages of peasants. Both of these systems, the democratic and the aristocratic, are clearly described in the Germania of Tacitus, the work in which he treats of their institutions from an antiquarian point of view. In his historical works, where the Germans are in- - troduced, we see clearty the aristocracy as the preponderating force. The same appears also in native pictures of Germanic life, like the poem of Beowulf and the Icelandic sagas. In two books published within the past year by Mr. Fred- eric Seebohm,* an eminent English writer, and Mr. D. W. Ross,t of Cambridge, Mass., these baronial — or, as Mr. See- bohm prefers to call them, manorial — features of the primi- tive Germanic constitution are sketched with great learning and cogency. Other writers have emphasized the aristocratic features of this constitution, but to Mr. Seebohm, approach- ing the subject from an economic rather, than a _ historical point of view, belongs the credit of having first pointed out that the German institutions were working themselves out upon “manorial lines.” But, just as the generally accepted democratic theory undervalues the aristocratic elements of German society, so Mr. Seebohm appears to undervalue its democratic elements. To himthe German institutions ap- pear to have been fundamentally aristocratic, while the sketch given above represents the aristocratic features as a relatively late outgrowth. The argument of Mr. Seebohm and Mr. Ross, is founded principally upon a passage in the Germania of Tacitus (Chap. 16), which we will now proceed to consider. It is as follows: “They dwell separate and scattered, asa fountain, a plain, or a grove catches their fancy. They build their villages, not like ours, with houses touching one another, but each house hasa space about it.”{ Here are two modes of habitation described— that of villages, and that of iso- *English Village Communities. London. Longmans & Co. + Early History of Land-holding Among the Germans. Boston. Soule & Bugbee. ¢ Colunt discreti ac diversi, ut fons, ut campus, ut nemus placuit. Vicos locant non in nostrum morem conexis et cohaerentibus aedificis; suam quis- que domum spatio cireumdat. 3 34. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. ~ lated homesteads. The passage, like most passages In ancient works, has been variously interpreted; the interpre- tation of Mr. Seebohm and Mr. Ross is, that the method first described is that followed by the free tribesmen, and that the villages are of their serfs. This very ingenious theory leaves the democratic features of the German institutions wholly out of account. Itrepresents the free tribesmen as petty barons, each with his village of serfs, and of necessity assumes the free tribesmen to have been a relatively small number of nobles ruling over a large conquered or subject . population. It explains half the facts in the case, but leaves the other half unaccounted for,—and this not only in the antiquarian statements of the Germania, but also in the in- cidental mention in the historians, poets and writers of sagas. For while, as has been already remarked, the aristocratic character appears very strongly in these works, itis no less apparent that the free tribesmen are a numerous, homogen- eous body, inferior in wealth and influence, but equally qualified members of the state. Again, the language of Tacitus does not warrant any so broad contrast between the dwellers. in the isolated home- steads, and those in the villages. Mr. Seebohm remarks, (p. 339), that “It is obvious that the Germans who chose to live scattered about the country sides, as spring, plain or grove attracted them, were not the villagers who bad spaces round their houses.” This wemay admit; but when he adds: “We are left to conclude that the first class were the chiefs and the freetribesmen, . . . while the latter, the villagers, must chiefly have been their servile dependents,’ the infer- ence isnot soclear. It would seem that if Tacitus had meant to distinguish not individuals but classes, and especially if he had meant that the one class were chiefs and the other their servile dependents, he would have said so in plain terms. The two kinds of residence are so coupled together, that the only natural inference is that they were alike the residences of the free Germans of whom he is speaking. They are his subject throughout the early part of his work; it is not until he is nearly through with speaking of them, Lu The Primitive Democracy of the Germans. 35 in the 25th chapter—eight chapters later than the passage under discussion — that he mentions the serfs. We must conclude, therefore, that the free tribesmen lived in villages as well as in isolated homesteads; and this con- clusion is supported by the incidental mention of villages in other relations: for example, in the first book of the Annals, chapter 56, in an invasion of the German territory by Ger- manicus, Tacitus says that the Germans scattered into the woods, leaving their districts and villages, amissis pagis vicisque. If then, some of the free Germans inhabited vil- lages, while others inhabited isolated homesteads; if, further, some of the free Germans fought in companies by family groups, while others followed personal chieftains; and if these personal chieftains were at the same time really noble-- men and public officers, it seems probable that it was these chieftains who lived in isolated homesteads, surrounded by their free retainers and their serfs—just as is assumed by Mr. Seebohm and Mr. Ross— while the common freemen, a class ignored by their theory, lived in other villages. Assuming, then, that the common freemen of the Germans lived in villages, the question arises, what kind of villages were they, and what was the nature of their occupation? In other words, are we warranted in assuming the exist- ence of free village communities among the Germans of Cesar and Tacitus, as is done by many modern writers. The evidence as to this point is very scanty, being confined to afew isolated statements of these writers, but it is, I think, sufficient to warrant a positive conclusion, partly af- firmative, partly negative. We must begin by defining our terms. The village com- _munity is a group of persons occupying a tract of land, which they own and cultivate in common. For the purpose of this common cultivation they must have their residences near tcgether, in a village, from which the arable lands, the meadows, pasture and wood land will be equally accessible to all. The view of the German writers, Von Maurer, Thu- dichum and others, who have worked up the theory of vil- lage communities, is that some communities, Markgenos- senschaften had such villages, and others not. It is only 36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. those that had them that formed Dorfgenossenschaften or — village communities proper; and they hold that this was the prevalent form of the occupation of land in the countries oc- cupied by Germanic nations in the early middle ages. The land being owned in common, all members of the commun- ity were, originally at least, equal partners; a democratic structure of society is therefore necessarily taken for granted _ by the theory. | As time went on, individual property in land came into existence. The lands were divided up —the lots occupied by individual marksmen became their property; first the house-lot, then the strip of arable land, became the subject of individual ownership, and when this had taken place, the entire aggregate belonging to one member of the commu- nity — house-lot. share of arable land, and right to the pas- ture, forest, etc.— was called in English, frde. Hvery member, therefore, of the primitive democracy, had an equal property at the outset. The irregularities in wealth and station were the outgrowth of the natural workings of com- petitive relations in the more advanced state of society. The question of village communities is essentially a question of the occupation of land, and its theory stands in the closest connection with the history of the origin of the feudal tenure of land. It necessarily involves, moreover, the discussion of another subject, which may be treated independently in other historical epochs, but which in the early history of in- stitutions is inextricably connected with that of land—the ~ structure of society. The reason of this is that, whereas in modern society the state, or political organization, starts with a given territory, and embraces all occupants of that terri- tory; in ancient society it was exactly the reverse. The tribe or nation was the starting point, a given body of persons; and the state —if we may use this expression for this period — comprised whatever territory was occupied by these persons. We seesurvivals of this primitive condition of things in the tribal organization of our North American Indians. Although occupants of part of the territory comprised within the limits of the United States, they are, nevertheless, not recog- nized as belonging to that nation, for the reason that they The Primitive Democracy of the Germans. 37 § keep up their tribal organization, with a quasi authority over the lands assigned to them by the national government. The structure of society forms, therefore, the first subject of inquiry in the history of early institutions. And here we notice astillmore fundamental contrast with modern society. Modern society, at least here in the United States, has no structure at all beyond the loose institution of the family; apart from these petty communities our society is composed simply of individuals with no organic connection with one another, except such as grows out of political relations or private association. But all early societies are highly or- ganized and closely coherent. The man does not exist except as a member of an organization. Any person who stands outside of the organization is in the strictest sense of the term an outlaw. The structure of society must, there- fore, be sought first, and the land system will necessarily be an outgrowth of that. I will first examine the earliest writer, Cesar, by himself, then see how far the statements of Tacitus agree with those of Ceesar, and what system of society and land tenure may be assumed for both periods. It has become acommon place of political history that early society was founded upon the Family; or, if we go back to the rudest beginnings, where the Family as an insti- tution did not exist, upon Kinship. That this was the case among the ancient Germans, and that the occupation of the land was based upon the family, is testified to in the most _ positive manner by Cesar (B. G. vi. 22), where he says that the lands are assigned by the magistrates to the several clans and kindreds of men (gentibus cognationibusque hominum). This assignment, he adds, is made for a year at a time (in annos singulos), and that it is made ata public gathering, appears to follow from the words qui una coierunt, “who have assembled together,” where the relative must refer to hominum, “men.” Among the reasons mentioned for this custom of annual division is the significant one that thus they are able to maintain an equality of possessions (cum suas quisque opes cum potentissimis aequari videat, “each one of the community seeing his own possessions 38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. equal to those of the most powerful”). . This fact is further emphasized by the statement that no one has land of his own (neque quisquam agri modum certum aut fines habet pro- prios); and he adds that this annual shifting is imperative _and under the direction of the government (anno post alio transire cogunt). These last statements are found also in the description of the Suevi (iv. 1); privati ac separati — agri apud eos nihil est, neque longius anno remanere uno in loco incolendi causa licet. “ There is among them no private and individual land, nor are they allowed to remain longer than a year in one place for the purpose of habitation.” Yn these few clear and positive statements Czesar gives us. the materials for determining precisely the stage of social progress reached by the Germans of his time. They were still in the patriarchal stage,in which kinship rather than territory formed the basis of their organization; but they had passed beyond the stage of nomadic life. The individ- ual had no permanent home, neither had the family, but the nation had. More than this, it would appear that there were already certain fixed and determinate territorial divisions of the territory of the nation, for the assignments of land are made with absolute authority by the magistrates, who assign lands and compel the annual changes; and these magistrates, as we learn from Chap. 23, have authority over territorial districts (principes regionum atque pagorum). From this we may infer that the shiftings of occupation were made rigidly under the direction of the magistrates, and within the limits of definite territorial districts. Thus Horace (Od. iii, 24, 12) says of the Getze, a Germanic people: Immetata quibus jugera liberas Fruges et Cererem ferunt. Nec cultura placet longior annua, Defunctumque laboribus Hquali recreat sorte vicarius. Here are clearly indicated the shifting annual occupation, and the lack of any permanent boundaries to the cultivated fields —no ownership, but temporary occupation and use; perhaps also the alternation of agriculture and service in the field, described by Ceesar, B. G.,iv.1. Singula millia Bem = ee ~ The Primitive Democracy of the Germans. 39 maiz armatorum bellandi causa ex finibus educunt. Reliqui qui domi manserunt se atque illos alunt. Hi rursus in vicem anno post in armis sunt, illi domi remanent. Passing now to the account given by Tacitus, who lived about one hundred and fifty years later, we find that his des- cription partly confirms and partly supplements that of Cesar; that it nowhere contradicts it, but in some points shows the changes which might reasonably be expected to take place in the course of a century and a half, among a semi-barbarous, but vigorous and intelligent people, in direct contact and constant intercourse with a highly civilized nation. As to the structure of society, Tacitus testifies, just as Ceesar does, to the persistence of the family principle; only he mentions it in connection with the military organization, instead of the occupation of land (Germ. ch. 7.); non casus nec Fforturta conglobatio turmam aut cuneum facit, sed familiae et propinquitates. “ Their divisions of cavalry and infantry are not made up by chance or accidental assembling, but by families and neighborhoods ”— the same patriarchal groups no doubt, which are described by Cezesar’s gentibus cogna- tionibusque. The two statements naturally form the com- plement to each other; if patriarchal groups lived together as Ceesar says, they naturally formed military divisions to- gether, as Tacitus says. Tacitus does not tell us that the patriarchal groups lived together, but it may be inferred that this was the case, from the fact that they fought side by side. When he takes up the subject of the occupation of land (Chap. 26), he merely speaks of the land being occupied by communities, ab universis. The passage is so important and so difficult to interpret, that I will cite it at length: Agr? pro numero cultorum ab unzversis in vices occupantur, quos mox tnter se secundum dignationem partiuntur; facilitatem partiundi camporum spatia preestant. Arva per annos nutant, et superest ager. “It is their practice to have their lands taken into possession by communities, turn by turn, in amounts proportioned to the numbers of their members, and afterwards to share these out among the members ac- ic SER UGE Re Ag ak 160 Sha RY aa 40) Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. cording to rank; the wide extent of the tracts occupied makes this division easy. They change the fields in cultiva- tion every year, and there is land left over.” Here we have, just as in Caesar’s description, a periodical shifting of occupation, and this is the only feature of the two descriptions which we identify positively. For the reasons already given, we may infer that these communities, like those of Cezesar’s time, were patriarchal, at least prevail- ~ ingly so; but the distribution was probably no longera yearly one. It will be noticed that two distinct procedures are described —the shifting occupation (agri... occupantur) and the shifting cultivation (arva per annos mutant). It is hardly possible that there could have been any shifting cul- tivation, that is, rotation of crops, unless the occupation was for more than one year. I think, therefore, that although not explicitly stated, it is distinctly implied, that the assign- ment of lands was made for a period of years, as is the case with the Russian M7r and the Hebrew seven-years’ period. This points to a marked progress of society in the period between Ceesar and Tacitus. In another point this progress is more positively asserted. We have seen that in Csesar’s time there was not only no private property in land, but no disparity in property or in. occupation. Tacitus, on the other hand, states with equal positiveness that the lands were assigned according to rank, secundum dignationem, that is, there was still no private property in land, but the amount of land temporarily as- signed to individuals varied according to theirrank. This disparity probably had reference only to the nobles and magistrates; the most of the common freemen in all likelihood received equal lots. And when, at the end of the period, the community was transferred to another tract of land, the process was begunoveragain. There could therefore be no aggregations of landed property, but there was a condition of things out of which such aggregations might easily grow, as soon as the occupation of a definite tract of land by a particular community should become permanent. We find from this analysis, that in the first century after Christ, the Germans were grouped in family communities, not The Primitive Democracy of the Germans. 41 yet established in permanent homes, but probably changing 4 their residences at intervals of some years, although always within a definite territorial district. This district was, as we learn from the same authority, a permanent political insti- tution. It follows as a matter of course that at this period there was not only no private property in land, but no common property in land, that is, no property in land at all. Neither the community nor the family owned the land or occupied it personally, any more than the individual. It might perhaps be urged that the district owned the territory within which the shifting occupation took place, but it may be doubted whether even this would be a correct statement of the facts. Property in land was probably a conception which lay wholly outside of their imagination as wellas their experience. The land, like the air, was a free a of nature, to be used in common, but with no thought ff ownership. As the theory of the village community implies not merely permanent occupation, but ownership of the land, on the part of the group of occupants, our conclusion must be that the village community did not exist in the time of Tacitus. Nevertheless, it must be admitted, on the other hand, that the condition of things here described is one out of which the village community could very easily have arisen. In the fact that the distribution was periodical instead of an- nual, we see a movement towards permanence of occupa- tion, and therefore towards ownership, on the part of the community. The time would very soon come, in the progress of society, when the community would have accumulated so much fixed wealth in the course of its occupation, that it would be a hardship and an injustice to force it to change its habitation. Thenext change therefore —hardly a greater. change than that from annual to periodical re-distribution — would be to convert the temporary occupancy into perma- nent occupancy, which means property. If this stage was reached — and it is hard to conceive of its not being reached, at least as a temporary condition of things — there resulted to village community: that is, the ownership in common of 7. 42 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. ‘a definite tract of land by a group of persons who were in their origin an enlarged family. . By the side of the movement towards permanency of oc- cupation, we saw another, towards inequality of possession. The important testimony of Tacitus shows that already in his time there was, not individual property in land, or ine- quality of ownership, but inequality of station and of tem- porary occupation. Out of this would speedily be developed the inequality of property which the theory of village com- munities recognizes as one of the causes of the dissolution of the institution. And thus we find confirmed, from the point of view of the occupation of land, the conclusion drawn from the evidence of political and military institutions, of the de- velopment of an aristocracy of a baronial type; or, in Mr. Seebohm’s words, of development on manorial lines. ! NOTES ON THE DISPERSION OF DRIFT COPPER. By Pror. R. D. SaLisBuRY, Beloit, Wis. Although the fact of its wide distribution has long been known, and used as evidence of the northern origin of our drift, yet no general recent compilation of the known data relating to the dispersion of drift copper seems to have been made. The study now entered upon has been undertaken at the suggestion of Prof. Chamberlin. The present paper is little more than a collection of what is to be found bearing on the subject in survey reports and scientific contributions. Frequent reference is made in geological literature to the fact that native copper has been found, and that quite gen- erally, scattered throughout the drift region of the interior, viz.: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, lowa, Michigan, Wis- consin and Minnesota, and perhaps Nebraska and Dakota. But the particulars of its occurrence, e. g., its exact locali- ties, the size of specimens, whether or not worn and rounded, what the limits of its distribution, how abundantly the metal \ Notes on the Dispersion of Drift Copper. 43: is found in the formation in which it occurs, whether it is uniformly scattered, or whether there is grouping in the dis- persion, whether it is in lacustrine or true drift deposits, and if in the latter, whether in modified or unmodified drift; these particulars arerarely given. An attempt to bring to- gether and map what can be obtained from the survey re- ports of the several states, at once reveals the fact that the observations on this subject have been of an extremely gen- eral character. The following compilation is believed to in- clude essentially all that has been printed, bearing on the subject. . In Ohio, Col. Whittlesey’ has noted a specimen from Weymouth, Medina county, thirty miles south from Lake Erie. This, so far as is known, marks the eastern limit of the dispersion of copper. Again, in Clermont county, Prof. Orton, of the Ohio Survey,’ notes the occasional occurrence of fragments of copper in the bowlder clay. Ref- erence is also made in the Ohio reports,* to the frequent oc- currence of copper in the drift of the northwestern part of the state, but no localities, or details as to its occurrence are given. In Indiana, R. B. Warder, of the Indiana Survey,’ notes a specimen found at Weisburg, in Dearborn county, on Tan- ner’s Creek, weighing twenty-six ounces. Other specimens also have been found in the adjacent counties, Ohio and Switzerland. Still farther down, in the southwest corner of the state, in Vanderberg county, small fragments have been noted by Prof. Collett,’ and a little to the north, the same authority notes small specimens from Knox and Brown counties. In Warren county, larger nuggets have been found, and Prof. E. T. Cox’ is authority for the statement that some large pieces and many small ones have been found in the drift both of northern and southern Indiana. 'Smithsorian Contributions; On Fresh Water Glacial Drift of the North- western States. *Vol. I, p. 441. $Vol. I, p. 87. +Indiana Geological Report, 1872, p. 403. * Geological Survey, 1875, p. 284. ° Geological Report, 1878, p. 117. 44. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. Of the copper in Illinois we have somewhat fuller notes, though not more detailed. In this state, drift copper reaches _ its southern limit, so far as now known. In Saline county, near Gallatin, latitude 37° 40’, a nugget “larger than a hen’s egg,” with not infrequent smaller ones, have been found by Dr. Smith, and noted by Prof. E. T: Cox, then of the Illinois Survey, in the beds of streams and in ravines.’ The sameis true of Hamilton county, lying just north. Prof. Worthen has noted the existence of copper in the drift of Clark and Cumberland counties, and Mr. F. H. Bradley in Edgar, Champaign and Ford counties, lying just to the north. In Vermillion county, still further north, the same authority * says that several large masses of cop- per, and many small ones have been taken from the upper drift beds, The occurrence of copper in Hancock, Adams, Brown‘ and Schuyler’ counties has also been noted by Prof. Worthen; and in Stephenson and Winnebago counties, where the nuggets are spoken of as much worn and rounded, and Boone, Ogle and Lee counties,’ by James Shaw, of the Illinois survey. Woodford’ and La Salle counties, have also yielded specimens of “ float mineral,” as noted by H. A. Greene. In Will county, a specimen of considerable size was found near Wilmington, probably in a lacustrine for- mation, while many smaller ones have been discovered both here and in Cook county.” The dotted area on the map represents the area of the copper-bear- ing series, essentially as determined by Prof. R. D. Irving.. The drift copper is represented by dots, located as exactly as the data at hand will permit. No attempt is made to show the relative sizes of the different pieces. Where the statement has been made that “float copper” is fre- quently found in a certain county, several dots have been placed within the limits of such county. Where but a single find has been authorita- tively reported from a given district, the fact is indicated by a single dot. 'Vol. I, Illinois Geological Report, p. 282. *Tbid., vol. VI, pp. 10 and 98. ‘ ’Tbid., vol. IV, p. 244. 4Tbid., vol. IV, p. 65. Mipidyy Vol DWE: p: 107: 6 Tbid., Vol. V. T]bid., Vol. IV. 8K. H. Bradley, ibid., vol. IV. ~ ee Notes on the Dispersion of Drift Copper. 45 In Missouri, specimens, on the authority of G. C. Brod- head, State Geologist, have been found in the eastern part of Putnam county.’ In Iowa, Dr. White has noted the occurence ~f copper in various parts of the state, and a single bowlder mass weighing upward of 30 pounds, has been taken from the drift in Lucas county.*. In Lee and Henry counties, the oc- currence of the metal in question is recorded by Prof. Worthen.’ : In Minnesota, copper has been found in Fillmore county,‘ and at Pleasant Grove, in Olmstead county. In a descrip- tion of Travers county, Mr. J. O. Barrett, speaks of its occur- rence, but his language is somewhat ambiguous, and it is uncertain whether the copper referred to belongs to the county under description, or to the coteau in the adjacent part of Dakota. Prof. G. D. Swezey, of Doane College, Nebraska, informs me that it 1s current report that copper has been found in small fragments in Nebraska, but he is unable to give lo- calities. } In Michigan, a mass of copper was found at Northport, Leelenaw county, which was sold for $80,and hence must have been of greatsize. In Benzie, Antrim and Grand Trav- erse counties also, copper has been frequently met with. Col. Whittlesey speaks of a specimen the size of a man’s fist, from Ada, Kent county, with frequent smaller fragments. In Wisconsin, Dr. Lapham says’ that in the form of drift bowlders copper is often found in eastern Wisconsin, the masses varying from a few ounces to several hundred pounds. The largest, near Huntsford, in Dodge county, had a weight of four hundred and eighty seven pounds. Prof. Chamberlin * states that copper is frequently found at all points along the Kettle range. ‘Geological Survey of Missouri, p. 289. *Vol. I, Geological Survey of Iowa, 1870, p. 96. * Geological Report of Iowa, 1878, p. 178. +N. H. Winchell’s Report of 1875, p. 71. ° Wisconsin Geological Report, vol. 2, p. 27. *Geological Report of Wisconsin, vol. 2, p. 210. AG Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. Prof. Irving says further that fragments of copper are far more abundant in Wisconsin than elsewhere, and far more abundant here than has been commonly supposed, and that specimens of forty to fifty pounds weight are not un- common, and have been made of economic use. It is stated by E. T. Sweet,’ on the authority of Mr. S. Vaughan, that a copper bowlder of seventeen hundred pounds weight was formerly taken from the bed of the Sioux river, six miles south of Lake Superior, and that a bowlder of one hundred pounds weight was taken from Outer Island only afew years ago. Col. Whittlesey’ speaks of the copper drift in Wisconsin and northern Michigan as follows: “A copper rock weigh- ing three thousand pounds was found in the red clay on the west fork of the Ontonagon river. One was found in 1845, opposite La Pointe, on the mainland, weighing eight hun- ‘dred pounds. Three miles south of the Minnesota Mine on middle fork of the Ontonagon, another copper bowlder was taken from the red clay, which weighed between three and four hundred pounds. Ina well in Madison one was found at a depth of twenty feet, having a weight of thirty pounds.” At the mouth of the Menominee river a chunk three or four pounds in weight has been found, and another at the mouth of the Oconto of about the same size, while a much larger piece was taken from the Pesaukie river. In Walworth county, near the state line, Col. Whittlesey also notes a boulder of forty or fifty pounds weight. Copper has also been no- ticed from Ripon and Kenosha in gravel beds. In addition ‘to these occurrences cited by Col. Whittlesey, Prof. Cham- berlin has had record of about thirty specimens from Wal- worth county. Aside from these, one was recently found at Geneva Lake which weighed upward of seven pounds. Prof. Chamberlin is authority for the statement that a specimen of one hundred and fourteen pounds weight was taken from Newark, Rock county. This bowlder had also attached to it fragments of Lake Superior Keweenawan 1 Wisconsin Geological Report, vol. 2, p. 619. * Wisconsin Geological Report, vol 4, p. 353. *> Smithsonian Contributions, 1866. Notes on the Dispersion of Drift Copper. 47 rock. In Sauk and Chippewa counties, on the same author- ity, specimens have been found. I have picked up two spe- cimens of copper on the shore of Lake Michigan in Ozaukee county, after a severe storm during which they were proba- bly washed from the red clay, which there borders the lake. These specimens were both very irregular, and showed no signs of having been subjected to corrasive action. ‘The area over which copper is scattered is thus seen to be. very great, perhaps not less than 450,000 square miles. If all the fragments came from Lake Superior, some of them must have been transported about 600 miles to the south, others, 150 or 200 miles, or perhaps more, to the west, and small specimens have been carried more than 100 miles east of the eastern limit of the locality from which the copper is supposed to have come., There is then an east-west distri- bution, accepting the testimony from Nebraska, of more than 700 miles, and a north-south distribution about 100 miles less. | Farther than the fact of its occurrence, however, little at present can'‘be said of the copper in these various localities. Specimens have been found about Lake Superior and along Lake Michigan, both in Wisconsin and Illinois, in lacustrine deposits. Again, specimens have been found in bowlder clay, in lower and upper drift beds, in beds of streams and in ravines. But the character of the deposits in which the copper has been found, has, in by far the larger number of cases, not been indicated more closely than by the statement thatit is drift. Pieces have been found both north and south of the kettle moraine, as well as init. The general fact that these specimens diminish in size southward, seems to be well established, but to this there are some exceptions. Many of the nuggets are worn and rounded, but this does not seem to be universal, for angular fragments, and fragments hav- ing the irregular, scraggly form peculiar to this metal, have been found well down in Illinois., What the agency or agencies concerned in this wide spread dispersion is an in- teresting question. If fuller observations had been made, or if those noted had been more exact —e. g., if the precise character of the formations in which the copper occurs had Mak) Peo ws a aoa 48 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. been determined in each case, the size, shape and condition of the specimens, and their frequency in any locality, this — might give us the data required for explaining the dispersion. There appear to be localities where the copper is more abund- ant than at others, as at Grand 'Traverse Bay, at the mouth of the Illinois river, and along the lower course of the Wa- bash. The seemingly greater abundance at these points, however, may only be due to fuller observation or record of the metal found at these points, and not to its really greater prevalence. It may not be out of place to call attention to the probable fact that the Illinois river, about whose mouth many speci- mens have been found, was once the outlet of Lake Michi- gan, and that the Wabash, about whose lower course much copper has also been found, was the channel for discharge, in post-glacial times, of Lake Erie. It is evident that if the copper were all transported from Lake Superior by glaciers, they must have had, at different periods, very divergent courses to account for the east-west dispersion. The fact that copper has been found in the red clay both of Lake Superior and Lake Michigan, suggests that along the lake borders, pieces of copper may have been dropped by floating ice, and the roughness of at least a portion of the specimens here found, is in harmony with such a view. There is of course a possibility in all cases, and this possi- bility may at times amount to probability, that the disper- sion of copper has been by human agencies. A single loose specimen, for instance, has been found in the “ driftless area” in Jo Daviess county, Illinois, in a rock crevice. But in regions where frequent specimens are found scattered through the drift, there is little probability that their occur- rence can be explained by human transportation. Dr. Bell, of the Canada Survey,’ has described a formation on Hudson’s Bay, which has a strong resemblance to our Keweenawan system. Hehas indicated his belief that the for- mation is the equivalent of the Nipigon group, which is sup- posed to be continuous with the Keweenawan, and, therefore, its equivalent. Dr. Bell describes copper sulphide in the as- 1 Geological Report, 1878. Notes on the Dispersion of Drift Copper. 49 sociated formations about the Bay, but does not note native copper, which seems not yet to have been discovered. If it should be found to exist there, this would furnish a, second center of dispersion, but as it is nearly north of the Lake Su- perior region, this would not greatly facilitate the explana- tion of the extensive east-west dispersion. Fuller notes, which it is proposed to collect at an early date, will doubtless throw fuller, and, it is to be hoped, im- portant light on the question of the dispersion of drift cop- per, the agency or agencies by which it was effected, and their method of action, and this solution may in turn have some bearing upon other interesting geological problems. Since the above notes were presented in 1881, the follow- ing additional facts have been secured through the kindness of the parties to whom they are accredited. In Ohio, Mr. M. C. Read states that “there is an important belt of drift run- ning through Licking, Knox and Richland counties, in which many fragments of copper have been found.” Mr. C. R. Barnes reports from Indiana, a specimen weighing 3,125.8 grams, somewhat flattened, from Moot’s Creek, White county. Another piece “four inches long by twoand one- half broad, and three-fourths of an inch thick, worn smooth,” was found “in glacial gravel,” in Vermillion county, near Kugene (J.T. Scovell). From the same state, Mr. Joseph Moore gives information of. four specimens. One was found near Richmond, Wayne county, weighing 17 oz. Another of two pounds weight was found three miles from Elkhart, Elkhart county. A third piece (mostly carbonate), has been found in Henry county, and a fourth near Brookville, Frank- lin county. Besides these finds, Mr. Moore also states on the authority of Mr. Farrar, that copper is frequently found about Peru, Miami county, in isolated lumps, also that a piece weighing 30 pounds wasfound “in shelly limestone, where they were excavating for aroad.” From Michigan, Prof. I. W. McKeever, gives information of a piece of cop- per from Jackson county, which the finder (Dr. Baker, of Adrian) believed to be of meteoric origin. It is claimed that it was seen while falling, and taken the next day from the opening found in the earth where the meteor was seen +t 50 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. to strike. It was found eight feet below the surface. It is further asserted that “fragments of copper were found all the way down.” This interesting specimen is “ about two inches thick, having an area of about one square foot. It looked as if it had been melted. There were spots of green carbonate upon it,’ when seen by Prof. McKeever, but these, he suggests may have formed since it wasfound. From Wisconsin, Mrs. G. W. Esterley,in an article in the Hvening Wisconsin, reports the finding of a piece of thin, flat copper insinuated among the beds of Trenton limestone, in a quarry near Lake Koshkonong. Prof. Chamberlin reports a similar case of insinuation in Galena limestone near Belvidere, Ill. Professor H. E. Storrs writes from Jacksonville, Illinois, that a fragment of copper was some time since found twenty-five feet below the surface, in digging a well in that city; the same being three inches long by one and one-half broad, and one-fourth of an inch thick. The same gentle- man also speaks of two other specimens of copper in his pos- session, weighing six and one-half ounces, and four pounds, three ounces respectively, the second being “ evidently worn in transit.” The precise localities of these two specimens is unknown. “A small piece of native copper was found... in the city of Alton, ... in l6éss,’ according to Professor Charles Fairman, who also adds that it is locally reported that large bowlders containing copper were formerly found in that locality. Professor N. H. Winchell, furnishes the following facts concerning drift copper in Minnesota: State. County. Town. ceenawee Condition. | Formation Minnesota ....... he Sueurs eee ILO SUEWI Gs codsc6 2 ? ? Minnesota....... SOOM dasquoasae JOrdant nee eee 2 ? 4 Minnesota....... SCO Aagoeseoade WIERMENN Sop escacs % ? ? Minnesota ....... Hennepin....... Minneapolis. .... 3 pounds..}| Rounded. } Gravel. Minnesota ....... Hennepin Eden Prairie..... Si POUNGSHS|Eae eee ea Glee neers Minnesota ....... Olmstead....... Rochester ....... 4 ounces..| Rounded..}| Among stones near the rock. Minnesota ....... Olmstead....... Zumbrota ....... 5) pounds ss RoOmnded eae eee meet and cor- roded... Minnesota ....... Olmstead....... Pine Island...... 34 pound | Rounded .| Onsurface. Minnesota ....... Ramsey ........ White Bear...... 2 pouads...| Rounded .| Near surface Minnesota....... St. Louis and} Knife Falls to| Hundreds. Carlton....... N. Pacific June..}| of pieces. ? Among stones and rounded bowlders. Minnesota....... Pine ss... AW Nea sos Various places. . 2 2 ? * Found in a railroad cut, 5 oh es ey Snir, é = “e . 3 eh A bee eee Fer ws ha Dei Or age YG. at J | oe J f i : ‘ ‘ ? ~ = os e “ as a ee 7 * Sspniyeriet = * Jathsenville Kan «a $ S? Z > Alton MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF DRIFT COPPER. a aC ar ee y a SE Bless ee S¢ we te Le i : o~ ery: CANSING + J 1o Hi r= COLUMUS G + pranaPous "5 aN py eae py : Ree. Pr 5 ea i dh 3 5 fy dA gl Me The Motor Ganglion Cells of the Frog’s Spinal Cord. — 51 ON THE MOTOR GANGLION CELLS OF THE FROG’S SPINAL CORD. By E. A. BirGe, Ph. D., Professor of Zodlogy, University of Wisconsin. The following paper was originally published in the *« Archiy fiir Anatomie and Physiologie,” for 1882. A syn- opsis of the work is here presented in English. The reason of our defective knowledge of even the most important numerical relations of the elementary structure of the body lies in the incomplete methods of investigation which were formerly employed. STILLING’s attempts to determine the number of the elements of the central nerves system have not been carried further, because the means of investigation were too imperfect to secure certain results even with the greatest care and industry. Rough approxi- mations only were made, which naturally were often in- correct. The enumerations recently made of the fibers of the optic, and of certain spinal nerves have shown that the more perfect methods now at our command, have brought us nearer to accurate results. The method of saturating the specimens with a sub- stance which binds all parts together and gives them a like consistency, obviates one of the greatest dangers to be found in counting the cells of an organ, viz., the loss or destruction of part of the cells. Further in the possibility of staining specimens en masse, in perfect and rapid microtomes, in the accurate arrangement of specimens upon the slide, we have gained means which reduce to the work of a few months, tasks, for which, a decade since, a life-time would not have sufficed. Two conditions must be fulfilled in the counting of the cells of an organ. The cells must be brought under the mi- croscope without loss, and must be so colored that they can be at once and easily distinguished. If these conditions are met, the enumeration will be easy and quick, as well as trust- worthy; but if one must deliberate whether to count certain 52 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. elements or not, the process will be exceedingly slow and wearisome, and the result thoroughly untrustworthy. Since our methods of discriminating staining are yet far from perfect, the structures capable of counting are stillfew. Dr. Gaule, of the Physiological Institute at Leipsic, under whose direction this paper was worked out, called my attention to two structures which filled both the above conditions, and which were of great interest. These were the medullated nerve-fibres of the anterior roots of the spinal nerves, and the large ganglion cells of the anterior horn of the gray matter of the spinal cord. The enumeration was made upon the frog, the most favorable animal, both because of its small size and because of its importance in experimental physi- ology. The value of such enumerations as the following depends, of course, entirely upon their accuracy. I have attempted in every way to assure myself of the reliability of my results. The close correspondence of the number of cells found on right and left sides, seems to me the clearest proof of the accuracy of the counting. The numbers of the elements which I have determined lead to certain conclusions, apart from any theoretical con- siderations. 1. The frog has an equal number of cells in the anterior horn of the spinal cord, and of fibres in the anterior roots of the nerves. Each motor cell, then, corre- sponds to a motor fibre. 2. There isa general correspond- ence between the number of cells in any region of the spinal cord and of fibres entering that region. When an individ- ual frog shows peculiarities of distribution of fibres to different nerves there is a corresponding peculiarity in the distribution of the motor cells. It is thus probable that the ganglion cell belonging to a particular fibre lies not far from its entrance to the cord. 3. The number of fibres and cells varies with the weight of the frog. Each frog starts with a certain minimum number which is regularly increased with the increase in weight. Hence (a) the fibres and cells must be constructed during the life of the frog; (b) a certain re- lation obtains between the weight of the muscles and the number of the motor fibres and cells. The Motor Ganglion Cells of the Froq’s Spinal Cord. 53 I. NUMBER OF MoToR FIBRES. The roots were treated in situ with osmic acid, one per cent., for two to six hours, and imbedded in paraffine. The sections must not be over 1-100 mm. thick, better 1-200 mm., since if the axis of the fibre is not exactly parpendicular to the section the ight will not pass through it unless the cyl- inder is very short. If the fibres overlie each other, or if they are so long that their obliquity cuts off the light, rapid and accurate counting is out of the question. The counting was performed with an eye-piece micrometer divided into squares. Some counts were made with the camera lucida, marking each fibre by a pencil dot. This was a less accurate method. All nerves were counted twice, and the work was repeated if the difference was over two per cent. The results are shown as follows: TABLE I. Number of frog ........ 49 | 46 41 36 40 43 42 Weight in grammes .... io) les BY GR TR Gre aa Motor fibres on one side.| 2, 992 |8, ne 5 , ; 5, 734 6,418 |7,058 |8,566 9,492 |10,004 | 11,468 Total motor fibres...... | 5, 984 | | | The total number is reached by doubling the number ob- tained on one side. As will be seen later in the section on ganglion cells the number is the same on the two sides. A somewhat regular increase of fibers proportionally to the increase of weight is seen: TABLE II. PRPPCE EL Star totnc-at = = DNAD DD SD LD AHS DI DD DM OONGSDWASIOAD NO ONDNrOrOHMNINOASHNOOHRHHMENO mr rH mH mr rm rm mr mM mo m dor Om So Oe ror mr Ne} Ten} S bare! for) o> an) [a for) S 16 st st Yon} TESA SES OD CO ard Hier =ntS OT el Gy ey ees OCD Fe ee eee ee eee oa) > 4 oo S HW Ye) Ye) Ye) =) 2 E in) re rm R Or Q mM oy J mi sH s Se peel ee ee ee ee ee eee cm jae ie leper See ON ous Be ee SHE C9 CIO) ral1G0 SH G9 6 AD E2 U9 RKO Te COIS OD CO) HT Os Hh ODO FS coe P= tics ion oie ee eee Se a i EE EEE Ee SP FB CRD HID SOT CD SB 4 GRAD HD EO E> GD SH 4 VOD HID EOD HS v4 CVD HID DE DD 1 CACO WI OM CO HS ri CVO9 | mm Be rm be! ba fo J 60 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. TABLE VIII. — NO. OF CELLS — Continued. No. Right. Left. No. Right. 260 17 68 18 79 315 13 73 19 1 13 if 6 14 13 2 Id ily 7 10 12 3 18 12 8 14 16 4 15 13 9 13 14 4) 11 02 17 70 320 12 63 6 15 15 il 15 18 7 10 aL 2 11 12 8 19 12 3 13 9 12 lil 4. 18 11 270 7 63 9 58 5 22 79 15 1 12 12 6 16 12 2 11 12 u 12 15 3 iil 8 8 14 1 4 7 12 9 13 i) 19 60 16 60 |; 330 9 64 12 6 8 9 1 17 16 yl 10 11 2 15 18 Cn 13 8 5) 13 10 9 | 15 16 4. 8 14 280 8 o£ 10 54 5 12 65 12 il 14 12 6 23 18 2 ill 10 7 13 11 3 14 8 8 12 - 11 : 9 9 17 12 9) 10 60 10 49 340 12 77 18 6 12 15 1 13 19 7 13 21 2 15 11 8 12 10 3 21 18 9 19 17 4 16 ofa 290 il 67 20 83 9) 14 79 13 il 12 18 6 19 14 2 11 12 7 12) 16 3 9 13 8 13 11 = 9 12 9 12 iG 5 10 ol 16 wal 350 9 65 il 6 15 18 1 15 2 ia 10 17 2 13 11 8 12 8 3 12 10 9 10 1 4. 11 10 300 9 56 12 69 5 15 66 14 1 7 15 6 15 12 2 9 10 7 17 15 3 8 13 8 11 13 4 12 10 9 10 14 5 10 56 9 57 360 12 65 6 9 19 i 13 13 7 11 16 2 15 11 8 7 17 3 18 15 9 12 11 4 9 17 310 15 52 12 75 by) 18 73 13 1 13 17 6 9 10 2 16 12 7 17 1 5 14 11 8 24 Ws 4 17 28 9 22 15 61 The Motor Ganglion Cells of the Frog’s Spinal Cord. TaBLE VIII.— NO. OF CELLS — Continued. Left. Right. Left. No. Right. No. = oo on S i= Sa on re rc m 5) 27 9 ol 2 2 SNS Hs ee ee CRS PS NP Ara Nea dei LoS I CYS es G)URED RUE OSD CID Itt ret ettCES C9) 9 5 0) SHV aed ret a EER Se 22.2 Ce sH S le} ine) OQ @ inn) ae) rm bam! =H 4 = oO CR OQ CR QQ mr for) CR C2 DOE 19 HER D 19 19 CH 19 H 19 AHL 19 S HH OD OH © OD FD CV TH H Be © £9 19 H 1D 19 19 OD HD 2 OD SH 2 14110 OD OD OD CR SH OD Se WD DED DD 4 OVEN OD HID] EW DD] v4 CVO HID 6] EW DD 4 GVO HID DEO HD 4 CVG HI] > WO HD SH 4 CVO HS Ore st st H st st x 19 aol © for) 10 ae) 10° 10 wD = i- We) s fo) A) oy] fy) OR r 13 7 0 3 17 8 ily 10 18 20 12 OD LD HID DD NES DID 19 ML H WH 1 DW © 60 09 SH HH DID INT LD NHS OHIO ONDO AH ielirolirala D a ant nm H H for) sH H ar) i re (oy) o 10 D =) oO Tex} an) ain) an) (oy) oy) mR oO CR ED XH 1D 90 GOO T= £0 10 OT CO G9 TIS WH E> HO H 1S & CREO WO MH OD MH CO OY & E> tO Poh oS Sire r TH GR GD HUD E> GD OD v4 C2 OD HAD CD E> GO SD 4 GVO GD MH 1D OE HD 4 VOD HID OE DAO A NID HID OI DBS wi CVO f—) ~ of} of in) — = —~ Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. TaBLeE VIII — NO OF CELLS. — Continued. (oa) Q fed oS 5 eal re ee 10 Soe a rv) a QR ar) an) an) a RQ fon) ach 45 Set ® 4 WO 8D CO OD HH ID 1D E> CO LH OLD 1D 1] DE ID DO BG HE HH SO HD 25 09 10 6] HD &O 7D HOD E> HOD OV OT CD GB HOD OV OV VID 1] DP DIDI GINO NI AGO N19 19 1019 S DOD 4 CVAD HID 6 TD DD 4 OVO HID DP DD SA CV HID OI WMO] A NW HID GI DHS AAI HIS Om OAS 7, OH = 1D 19 iD ex 63 The Motor Ganglion Cells of the Frog’s Spinal Cord. TaBLE VILI.— NO. OF CELLS.— Continued. Left. Right. ae) —) H | ar) > nl co oO an) =H an) o oO ry) oO of DP AD E> 1D 1D CD UD DS] OD UD LUD G9 BMH COD D9 E> G9 DE 1G 1D 1D C9 1D T~ CV IH COT CV EVO CO 0.10 Od C2 OD H TH ID CO CO GO OHI OD io 2) xH fy] QQ S in) oD an) an) 14 0 7 5 fad oD oO C2 OQ On ar) eC) CCE LESS) CON CONSID ES COLNE Me) SS) S110) oh Ge) 22) 50) (USM sorl Ge IeNGpH SS GAN Hea) oMar ye Mijn) iret No. Right. Left. No. TG C8 89 HID GO ECO DD 4 VOD HID EW DD A OVO HID OI DASA RN HID GM OAS AND HID OM OAS ri over =) Je) Yo) oO To) © bs we) DO io) [ od ile) ioe) OD 5 al for) — x i m oe mW ao bo oO sH cD 1D G2 = = = oS D R=) i 1D 10 a iD H oH 10 = = ~H = any ‘ S ———————— — — = => — DASNMIG AAO OAM AIO NDOSRNHOHrODHTRHOHDDMADSCHORARDDOMHHHEOHDONAHOD BD re ere 9 pn oer on | Jal Seal Jol Sal al = vont mre Deel Taal iol rm 1 atl mr ri al foes ae i ees hes ae oe i ron i a) = 10 a) S a) = AS ’ + ae =H 19 x =H 19 red =H ue on a=) 1 a= pea a te ae eT E Jo eI NAOGDAD AOSHI AOI AOAHAMDMD SOD ADIONGRIDHODROHDEODRODLHArLAONSLLADDKON vol Sel Seals! Yala! b ml Sel hel rt 1 bn | iolisal Sol nm Veo! Srl mm mre Jolt 5 FB ORGS HID TB AGN GD SHI LD EH SAGA HID DI DHS rh V9 WI OO AOA HIS Sm OAS RAD fo) =H 10 (To) = (o8) for) Ve Ct a > Ge Se = (oa) Ten) R 10 (eo) Cand (oa) H [ay =H bo io @) : tn) an) an) GR G2 oO 1d + H tH on) Pa % a a ree Oa ee DMmOASmHAHAROOIADIOD AM MOM MO AMHOHNDOOCONMHHHONDEANDOROCAOHOHDDNDODOOG SI ri mr went ns nm ri Tali 2 H a ea} nr 10 on é = 2 é : a oD oD ov) ov) oe o ar = x ror +43 a a a eS ob fe IO 1D CO ADF? 1D WD GO B= © B> XH TG CO HID WH EO HID HVS GF HI OO AD SOOM MIAAONHOAROROM OMY r a ee iqy2 ae) =H a) = > pS eS = The Motor Ganglion Cells of the Frog’s Spinal Cord. 65 TABLE VIII.— NO. OF CELLS.— Continued. No Right. Left. No Right. Left. 804 9 8 845 10 11 3) 9 4 6 11 12 6 7 6 ti 10 10 7 8 a) 8 il 50 ¢ AT 8 9 42 7 30 9 itil 12 9 8 10 850 15 7 810 11 10 1 13 14 1 8 7 2 12 14 2 9 6 3 8 57 10 57 3 13 49 12 45 a 12 8 4 10 13 9) 10 14 3) 9 6 6 18 6 6 5 i U 7 8 7 6 6 8 10 57 8 44 8 9 39 10 42 9 i 11 9 8 9 860 8 12 820 a 10 1 6 5 1 14 10. 2 U 6 2 9 12 3 9 oT 4 38 8 16 54 10 ol 4 8 7 4 11 8 5 6 5 5 9 11 6 8 of 6 10 13 7 6 5 Ul 12 14 8 3 ol 5) 24 8 14 56 18 64 9 4 6 9 16 18 870 3 i) 830 10 20 ul 3 ok: il 15 8 2 i) 6 2 14 12 3 2 17 2 20 5) 16 iu 17 75 4 4 5) 4 15 11 5 1 0 5 10 7 6 3 1 6 8 10 7 2 2 7 9 8 8 0 10 1 u 8 17 59 13 49 9 2 0 9 12 10 880 ut 3 840 13 11 1 2 2 1 11 14 2 1 0 2 6 9 3 0 9 0 5 3 8 50 9) 49 + 1 1 + 8 7 3) 2 1 The addition of all the cells gives 5,740 for the left side, as in table I. numbers in the same section usually differ and often con- siderably, while each group of five sections or one-tenth mm. shows a closer corrrespondence. KAW O,0 64 for the right side It will be seen that the The total number of the cells varies in proportion to the weight of the frog as shown by v0 66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. TABLE IX. INUHAG OETE OME HOP yes odyocnsooagace 49 18 12 36 42 25 Weight in grammes............. Ile Be 44 63 111 115 INuamberiot icells- aa. e sete 4,871 |6, 760 [6,882 |8,539 |11,517 |11, 137 In Nos. 12 and 25 only the large cells were counted and tho numbers are therefore too small. Nos. 49, 18 and 43 are male, 12, 14 and 25 female. The ovaries were removed from the latter before weighing. Hence we may conclude that there is a relation between weight and number of ganglion cells not unlike that which obtains between weight and motor nerve fibres. In the brachial region the cells are distributed in small layers, each only one cell thick, and the spaces between the layers are occupied by the outgoing fibres. In the lumbar region no such arrangement is visible. The motor fibres of the brachial region pass off at right angles to the cord, and in the same way from the motor centre, while those of the lumbar region pass off obliquely both inside and outside of the cord. The most convenient method of showing the dis- tribution of the cells is, therefore, that of taking a unit of space and showing the number of cells in that. I have chosen one-tenth mm. as the space_since it is smal] enough to show the influence of the nerves and large enough to elim- inate differences in thickness of the sections. I give the re- sult in tabular form and graphically in plates I and II which are to be compared with the tables. The Motor Ganglion Cells of the Frogs Spinal Cord. 67 TABLE X. Frog No. 49. Weight 1} grm. No. of cells in each one-tenth mm. See Plate I, Fig. I. Sum. Left. | Right. Sum. Sum. Left. | Right. | Sum. 35 42 25 35 37 43 3d 32 51 51 21 21 68 72 26 26 89 98 30 32 192 137 43 52 104 108 52 56 90 96 53 53 114 131 68 71 859 129 119 897 431 78 89 467 120 iti 85 75 100 89 83 72 33 33 87 101 26 28 88 97 38 22 94. 87 22 16 95 87 26 21 83 80 16 19 54. 599) 24 QT 29 28 419 24. 25 401 705 0 9 692 2,414 2, 047 Total. | 4,871 68 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. TABLE XI. Frog No. 18. ¢ Weight 22 grm. Plate I, Flg. II. Sum. Left. | Right. Sum. Sum. Left. | Right. | Snm.. 43 45 24 27 70 70 99 93 63 55 93 29 56 55 29 19 58 60 29 20 63 65 24 31 79 69 26 25 ; 83 30 32 83 70 39 35 667 81 82 654. 268 29 32 266 82 rq 34 31 84. 79 34 30 69 "5 32 41 80 838 38 39 72 73 48 54 7 73 54 57 q 83 45 42 " 3 my) 51 1 " 49 49 "51 7 56 "54 429 46 39 433 28 20 52 AT 93 25 55 50 27 32 50 60 33 32 66 54. 24 20) 57 61 21 20 59 60 24 25 56 55 TI) ibe = 053 | 54. 65 aa | Saya | amen cl Gey 252 5 23 245 576 63 66 585 24 29 69 62 17 q 56 67 | 24 27 45 69 | 21 28 14 29 20 28 6 6 29 29 6 5 26 25 27 26 21 23 287 28 20 245 195 201 < 3, 375 3, 383 | Total. . 6,758 The Motor Ganglion Cells of the Frog’s Spinal Cord. 69 TABLE XII. Frog No. 36. Weight 67 grm. Plate I, Fig. III. Sum. Left. | Right. Sum. Sum. Left. | Right. | Sum, 7 11 21 24. et! 19 18 21 32 7 16 13 22 35 21 15 31 34. 214 24. 20 197 40 49 27 26 S 45 ave aly 60 72 25 25 59 56 ily 21 308 46 52 403 21 24 42 39 20 26 40 7 26 27 52 o4 18 18 7 | 64 10 19 62 65 198 1 30 233 65 69 29 30 7 81 22 23 81 7 25 29 66 62 | 17 24 625 64. 73 619 26 25 62 72 21 33 74. 74 32 29 64. 57 17 20 62 61 21 21 65 69 232 21 21 255 68 i 16 25 Thi 7 31 30 85 7 3L 23 65 12 31 Sill 708 86 69 704 37 37 73 ill 35 33 76 69 45 aii 78 73 46 45 53 50 63 58 56 46 396 61 56 38790 27 23 61 67 27 29 64 65 34 25 55 51 Hh 21 52 46 465 20 24. 440 52 49 24 26 5d 43 27 26 45 45 23 20 41 39 23 25 34 43 35 26 487 28 32 480 20 23 30 31 16 21 29 32 14 17 40 at 23 24 7 34 226 21 20 228 40 38 23 16 44 41 29 23 33 34 23 19 36 38 22 30 23 25 ity al@(e | 343 21 13 823 70 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. TABLE XII. — Continued. Sum. { Right. | Left. - Sum. Sum. Left. | Right. | Sum. 6 5 iL 1 2 3 2 4 15 16 3 0 2 i 4267 4272 Total 8539 TABLE XIII. Frog No. 42. Weight. 111 Grm. See Plate II, Fig. IV. Sum. | Left. | Right. Sum. Sum. Left. | Right. | Sum. 38 42 607 33 29 618 19 14 31 39 11 18 27 23 23 14 22 25 20 20 20 25 21 20 35 28 26 17 34 39 26 | 33 30 27 Go 23 31 23 240 40 40 236 25 31 42 39 278 23 21 277 46 48 22 23 45 44 18 19 50 49 29 20 Al 39 24 27 39 39 21 14 49 55 14 13 43 49 14 18 47 42 18 16 451 49 61 466 21 20 80 58 199 18 24 194 Go) i 62 22 22 68 79 26 22 72 70 26 21 63 58 34 30 60 60 38 38 54 54 o4 28 60 49 25 28 67 83 20 22 GSO Ha eealei) eel at 274 26 27 262 The Motor Ganglion Cells of the Froq’s Spinal Cord. ak TABLE XIII.— Continued. Sum. Left. | Right. Sum. Sum. Left. | Right. | Sum. 56 69 17 20 56 7 32 31 52 (5) 30 81 73 12 27 30 63 62 23 24 79 65 24. 25 64 60 22 21 65 70 18 14. i 67 13 14 664 i 1 669 222 16 16 229 65 64 10 8 66 68 17 16 65 62 16 1% We 69 19 26 84 67 if 18 64 75 37 43 69 id 38 31 o4 61 35 39 34 46 43 41 270 38 38 287 56 59 34 33 44 41 32 30 45 41 37 34. 56 57 32 40 50 48 20 33 477 46 40 479 14 24. 61 48 20 23 37 46 17 22 42 30 29 25 49 45 264 Soumll 3D 299 39 42 32 Bis) 54. 51 34 32 56 64. 34 35 71 75 28 26 59 49 22 27 518 50 49 45 38 50 47 43 54 57 57 37 42 D7 44 41 44 37 38 858 42 41 3874 31 24. aif 88 17 23 47 5t 10 a 49 58 268 9 5 245 47 43 5, 740 ae erirs Total {11,517 2 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. TABLE XIV. Frog No. 25. 6 Weight 115 grm. See Plate II, Fig. V. Sum. | Left. | Right. Sum. Sum. Left. | Right. | Sum. 23 25 21 21 18 20 16 16 24 22 23 17 32 31 16 14 32 35 209 22 23 204 A4 40 20 25 50 45 21 18 56 49 28 23 65 65 25 25 438 94 76 408 23 28 64 64 26 26 64 61 29 26 58 50 21 25 60 51 22 20 38 53 229 19 19 205 39 39 27 24 41 62 18 17 57 73 27 25 56 65 15 18 547 7 7 589 18 12° 7 75 16 20 90 100 13 11) 74. 72 11 12 rad 82 18 20 Wg 76 183 20 19 192 90 1 33 35 84 78 37 36 77 67 37 34 75 66 28 32 789 67 84 791 37 37 ‘eres 50 45 36 62 58 38 37 67 71 Al 34 65 60 34 30 67 59 364 34 34 345 83 77 36 39 62 62 23 32 66 73 33 34 64 68 32 36 685 72 70 648 34 32 73 69 45 47 54 48 38 40 39 31 34 38 33 26 42 44 28 30 360 43 33 375 18 18 43 30 NA 1g) 36 33 14 18 34 33 21 20 38 36 314 17 15 294 45 44 28 34 44 53 25 17 51 AT 17 21 31 42 20 21 57 5d 21 20 429 50 52 480 The Motor Ganglion Cells of the Frog’s Spinal Coad. 73 TABLE XIV.— Continued. Sum. | Right. | Left. Sum. Sum. Right. | Left. | Sum. 44 7 22 20 68 70 16 14 60 62 383 4 9 417 58 63 9 10 54 sy) id 8 56 64 3 3 54 61 5 3 53 45 4 4 75 63 3 2 594 72 68 598 2 2 62 70 2 2 58 70 1 1 54 65 38 2 3 38 48 52 1 0 43 49 1 i! 44 41 5, 564 5d, 567 32 27 Total. | 11,131 If we consider the tables, or better, the plates, we shall see that the cells are arranged in two great groups, correspond- ing to the brachial and lumbar enlargements, which are con- nected by the slender dorsal region. We can then divide the spinal cord into three regions—one for the 1st-3d nerves, the second for the 4th-6th nerves, and the third for the 7th-— 10th nerves. We will consider each separately: TABLE XV. ROMP EO see ss.c cs ag been so ote | 49 18 12 36 25 42 Cells of brachial region........... | 2076 | 2828 | 3204 | 4061 | 5306 | 5104 LTS C/U ERG oR ee ie he eae 4871 | 6758 | 6892 | 8539 {11131 |11517 Per cent. of cells in brachial re- LOTR GS cic fl ROSES ECD ORC o 44.6 | 41.6 | 46.8 | 47.5 Aina The length of this region does not correspond to the num- ber of cells, as seen by 74 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. TABLE XVI. INOS AGI AMROY Rasa ane, oS Soe Od come UaD CoS ai 49 18 36 25 43 ILemeiiln OE GOwl Witt... 53 54onasoce0c00000e Ac) 216) Tae Caos Om ieee Meneihrot brachial pervony ee co aricelee 1.2 BN 3.8 4) 4.8 iRencents orm totallenotheeeeen. eee se 29.2 | 26.3 | 30.1 | 31.6 | 32.7 The cell-bearing part of the cord, only, is measured, and the table shows that the celis lie far closer in the brachial region than in the succeeding ones. It is also plain that there is no correspondence between the outside measure- ment of diameter of cord, or of the gray matter, and the number of cells contained. It is further noticeable that the cells are very regularly distributed in the brachial region. There is a sudden rise in number, atolerably regular maintenance of amaximum, and a rapid diminution at the close of the region. This. fact is due to the direction of exit of the fibres, it being, as before said, at right angles to the cord. Part of the third ne v indeed passes forward and so serves to still more clearly mark the line between the first and second regions. It is not easy to draw a line between the second and third re- gions. In both the nerves pass off obliquely, and the roots overlap each other in such a way that no sharp rise is seen and no line of division can be drawn. The two posterior regions together contain, in percentages, the following number of cells. ; TABLE XVII. i 7 = Num berioivhiro sein sais heme: | 49 | 18 | 12 36 25 42 | 55.3 | 58.3 | 538.2 | 02.5 52.9 | 54.9 | | | In the second region it is not possible to find, in most cases, enlargements corresponding to the nerves. The cells are pretty evenly distributed. The Motor Ganglion Cells of the Frog’s Spinal Cord. —%5 In the third region several facts are noticeable: 1. The small number of cells in proportion to the weight of muscle supplied. The weight of the leg muscles is far greater than that of the arm muscles, but the ganglion cells, though larger are scarcely more numerous. The fibres of the muscles are much larger in the leg, and of course, investigation should turn on the relation of number of cells to fibres. This has not been worked out. 2. Thecells increase gradually to a maximum and very rapidly fall off in number at the rear end. 3 The position of the maximum is variable and probably depends on the relative size of the nerves going into the lumbar plexus. This is well seen in Frog No. 43, where both fibres and cells were counted. An unusually large 10th nerve was found and the maximum of cells is unusually far back. In general the maximum lies near the exit of the 8th nerve. 4, It may be inferred that the nerve fibres do not go far in the cord before uniting with a cell. 5. There is a long string of scattered cells at the pastentoe end often + mm. long. The exact relation of the maxima of cells to the points of exit of the nerves is not easy to determine on cross sections which alone I have studied. The third nerve passes as. already said, forward, and the roots of the posterior nerves overlap. Longitudinal sections prepared by other meth- ods will give conclusions on this point. A word may be said on the relation of length of cord and number of cells, though no proportional relation was found. TABLE XVIII. MMM OR et Se ies tooo /oldis'S “sD ore oa 'e/aniel ie | 4y 18 | 5 | 42 Meee HCOL COL, IND .!.... coo. 6d oo sri was Bae | 116 | 13.9 14.7 MPFPEOILTCOIIBI Ej dos dence, savcstce ot ane | 4871 | 6758 | 8539 11181 | 11517 8S TE 8 e e Paeaeae | 1189 | 905 | 636 | 800 | 783 It is plain that the length increases more rapidly than the number of the cells. The length is necessarily taken from 76 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. the imbedded cord. Proportional results are probably not impaired by this fact, although the exception to the series seen in No. 36 may rest on some irregularity in shrinking during imbedding. A comparison of cells per mm. in brachial and lumbar re- gions may be interesting. TABLE XIX. ROSSINI. cee hie ae elses coe aes Orne eee eae hehe 49 36 42 Weight of frog, elena Bete hls Stes AS ait i = il 67 abiet i brachial sem: bias santas aeaeieres ae 1730 1160 1063 Calls, (ote aia anes Piensa eeneee 1352 | 791 | 784 The cells lie more closely than in the brachial region, and the number of cells decreases per mm. with the growth of the frog more rapidly in the lumbar than in the brachial re- gion. This fact is plain also in the outer form of the cord which gradually changes from a conical to a cylindrical form. The change is also more rapid in youth than later. Ill. RELATION oF Motor CELLS AND FIBRES. In frog No. 42, the motor fibres of the right side and the cells were both counted as given in the preceding pages. The number of motor fibres in the ten nerves on the right side was 5,734. The number of ganglion cells was, right, 5,777; left, 5,740. The correspondence is so close that we can well conclude that for each motor nerve fibre there is present a ganglion cell in the anterior horn of the cord, and that all ganglion cells therein contained are connected with motor nerve fibres. Other countings gave the following result: TABLE XX. INO RO PME O Sere a ued wlceue cals eieca Semen eee epee 49 36 42 Motorinbresiofonesideneeeeeeneeerooreee ole 2,992 | 4,283 5, 734 Ganolioni@ellsiofarichtisider mar cecceese ceeeeoor 2, 457 4272 5, 777 IDUPEREM CORR SA sis tse eoe RRR en ae +5385 +43 —43 The Motor Ganglion Cells of the Frog’s Spinal Cord. iin The great difference between the fibres and cells of frog 49, was a surprise tome. It is, however, easily explained. As already said, the nervous elements ina small frog are smaller than in the larger ones. There are thus a larger number proportionately of small cells and fibers. But while osmic acid discriminates easily from the smallest fibres, the corresponding cells are hardly distinguishable from the large embryonic cells found in great numbers in the cord of developing frogs, like the one in question. I therefore suppose that the number given for the fibres is probably the true number for the cells. I append a figure in which the weight of the frog serves as the axis of abscissas, and the number of ganglion cells and nerve fibres as that of ordinates. It will be seen that there is quite a close correspondence between the lines of cells and and fibres, but that the former shows a too cupid decline in the region of the smaller frogs. The lines should probably run parallel and would do so were the methods for discrim- inating cells as good as those for fibres. In Fig. 1 the figures on the lower side of the cut represent the weight of the frogs in grammes; those on the right of the cut, the number of cells or fibres. The broken line represents the curve of the ganglion cells. The upper line shows the nerve fibres, and the lower line the large ganglion. cells in those frogs where only those cells were counted. The numbers in, the cut refer to those of the frogs examined. 78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. The Motor Ganylion Cells of the Frog’s Spinal Cord. — 79 It remains to briefly consider the relation of the fibres and cells of different regions. TABLE XXI. ENE MMI cfele otal a2 stcre wien Sioa s SS cipeelmaseleveaies SOE 36 42 Fibres, Nerves1-3 ,...... rAahiahistctay'c Savas wheter SeeNe PRION aNenover ey Ss 4578 6122 AS GRO Ee OLACHTALEOTOM cia sielercis «sisaieis « slelaia Ss autevayae overs 4061 5104 HREMTOLETICOMSE arta eeidois Shisiditletace:shcld ss atere aleldans eb eta alt Aas —d17 —1018 IB MTe Se NOE VES Ali o cccck yay cages, , ir EE A yy all yy ) ween § aS ~ 5 i Si Rs | & s eg 3 a Wes yy ~ § : ~ a S fs N NOS Si Ss 5 g : g 8 : NS g i : é 8 1 S ——4 N 8 — Ss) Q g eR ay TAS Vol. VI. Plate IT Fig. V uneber of Cells tre Fo rem: KS ww SSK 2 Hossa tarts et ba 2 SEA a Aa j “Ss SSSSSSSSS = ce UL ty Ree ee ae 1 oe oe ee ne eo een ae bine | a MYM ee Wide | | | | | | i | a i i Vol. FU. Plate Trans. Wis Acad. Sc. Arts & Letters. Fig. I Member of Clls a RE i ia Aig lr: Number of Clls ir WO 100 90 80 70 60 ZO 4O 30 2 VO Oo 70 20 30 #0 re fe 200 ee, a ” = ‘fam ro Ta ee i r| | ba ; | t T | ; | a == ha | ae = cr Ee ns eae aia Be [I Tat ee . a ) 7] (cy ee (eee Core] ees | S : ES = 2 | a a = Sa 1 i a LT | ty ena 3}—|—++ fe = jj +} = = — 3|—|— | Be aon a a. ae es fata | 3|— mail Ho - D a — + ail | ee Cees 2 | jos) i ee tae al ‘Vy n | ee: | ee a | ea ts o| | faa, _| a ni | TT Te = flap. Hal | | malic 20SSSSEeSeeey || ee [ea a | | es | eee =isak wx = Bs — A abbreviati; ramuli ultimi apice in- crassatuli, 3—5 sterigmata (8.5 1.5—2 /«) hyalina, subampulliformia, inter se angulo-recto divergentia, saepe 2-3 denticulato-lobata gerentia; conidia obovato-sphaeroidea, sursum obtuse rotundata, saepeque apiculata (15 x 10— 12), hyalina.”—Ann. dela Sociedad Cientif. Argentina, 1881, XII. p. 81. In our form the conidial branches are hyaline, tufted from the stomata, often .6 mm. high, with a diameter of 12 4. 3-4 times branched below. Pri- mary branches alternate, ascending. Ultimate and often penultimate twigs spreading, the lateral ones in pairs, forming crosses with the branch which bears them. Conidia hyaline, sub:pherical or broadly ellipsoidal, variable in size, averaging 13X16 4“; with an apical papilla, hence probably ger- minating by zoospores. Oospores not seen. Preliminary List of Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. 111 26. PERONOSPORA LOPHANTHI Farlow. On Lophanthus scrophulariaefolius Benth. La Crosse, Pammel. 27. PERONOSPORA SCHLEIDENIANA DeBary. On leaves of Alliwm cepa L. Cal'ed ‘‘onion-rust,” and very destructive. 28. PERONOSPORA GRAMINICOLA (Sace.) (Protomyces graminicola Sacc., Peronospora setariae Pass.). On leaves of Setaria viridis Beauv. and S. italica Kunth. La Crosse, and Hokah, Minn., Pammel. The oospores give some leaves a decided brown color. Conidial branches sparingly produced. ASCOMYCETES. GYMNOASCI. 29. EXOASCUS PRUNI Fckl. On the fruit of Prunus, causing “ plum pockets” or “ bladder plums.” Stoughton; Ahnap<28—26y, usually, 13.525; thinner walled than European specimens on Cystopteris and Phegopteris. 218. CAEOMA NITENS Schw. (C. luminatum Schw.). Common in spring, on wild and cultivated plants of Rubus occi- dentalis L. and R. villosus Ait. Syene, Stoughton, Madison; Baraboo, LaCrosse, Pammel; Janesville, Kellogg. The common red-rust of raspberries. The orange rust which occurs in autumn is referred to No. 205. ISOLATED AECIDIAL FORMS. 219, AECIDIUM* PUSTULATUM Curt. On Comandra wmbellata Nutt., in spring. Madison; Columbus, Rockwell. 220, AECIDIUM POLEMONII Peck. On Phlox pilosa L. and Polemonium reptans L. Common, in spring. Madison. 221, AECIDIUM PODOPHYLLI Schw. On Podophyllum peltatum L., in June. Madison. Sometimes associated with Puccinia podophylli Schw., which, however, more commonly occurs without any traceof the aecidium. 5 222, AECIDIUM OENOTHERAE Peck. Very common in spring and summer, on Oenothera biennis L. Stoughton, Madison; Baraboo, Pammel; Sauk City, Litiders. 223. AECIDIUM LYSIMACHIAE Lk. On Steironema lanceolata Raf. (2) La Crosse, Pammel. 224, AECIDIUM SOLANI Mont. On Physalis virginica Mill. and P. lanceolata Michx. Sauk City, Liders. * This name is sometimes written Oecidium. See Malinvaud, Bull. Soe. Bot. France, 1880, No. 5. Preliminary List of Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. 135 225. AECIDIUM PETERSII B. & C. On Viola delphinifolia Nutt. Common, in spring. Madison, Peridia longer than those of the aecidium of Puccinia violae. 226. AECIDIUM GERANII D C. Very common, in spring, on leaves of Geraniwm maculatum L. 227, AECIDIUM GROSSULARIAE D C. On leaves, pedicels and flowers of Ribes rotundifolium Mx., R. flori- dum L’Her., R. cynosbati L., R. aureum Pursh and R. rubrum L, Everywhere, in spring. Madison; La Crosse, Pammel. This cannot b2 distinguished from the Eurcpean species, which is called by Winter the aecidium of Puccinia grossulariae Gmel., with which he identifies the American P. pulchella Pk. Though the aecidium is one of the commonest of fungi everywhere east of the Mississippi, I am not aware that its assumed teleutosporic form has been recorded for any locality but the one given by Peck. Dr. Magnus, also, writing of this species as it oc- curs in Germany, says “Aecidiuwm grossulariae certainly is an isolated aecidium, which belongs to a heteroecismal Puccinia, as 1 convinced my- self some years since by observations on Ribes nigrum, R. grossularia and R. alpinum, in the vicinity of Berlin.” * Since the above was written, Plowright, discussing British Uredineae, says: ‘‘As no Puccinia occurs on gooseberry leaves in this country, it is clear Aecidium grossulariae, as we find it, is not a Pucciniopsis but is probably a heteroecismal species.” (Grevillea, XII., 36). the same con- clusion is reached in Denmark, by Rostrup (Rev. Mycolgique, October 1884, p. 211). 298, AECIDIUM POLYGALINUM Peck. On Polygala senega L. Madison; La Crosse, Pammel. 229. AECIDIUM IMPATIENTATUM Schw. On Impatiens fulva Nutt, and I. pallida Nutt. Madison; La Crosse, Pammel; Sauk City, Liiders. Also collected at Hokah, Minn., by Mr. Pammel. 230. AECIDIUM JAMESIANUM Peck. On Asclepias tuberosa L., A. cornuti Dec., A. ovalifolia Dec. and Acerates longifolia Ell. Stoughton; La Crosse, Pammel; Sauk City, Liiders. This is called the aecidium of Uromyces howei (Peck) by Mr. Arthur (Bull. Minn. Acad., XI, 25). The bright orange-red spores contrast beautifully with the pure white peridia, much as ia Roestelia awrantiaca Pk., and the thickening of their walls, mentioned by Mr. Arthur, is very characteristic. * (Verhandl. Bot. Verein, Prov. Brandenburg, v. 23, p. XX VII-XXVIIL) 136 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. 231. AECIDIUM CONVALLARIAE Schum. On Polygonatum biflorum Ell. and P. giganteum Dietr. La Crosse, Pammel. Spermogonia, probably of this species, on Smilacina racemosa Desf. 232. AECIDIUM SAMBUCI Schw. On Sambucus canadensis L. La Crosse, Pammel. 233. AECIDIUM FRAXINI Schw. On Fraxinus sambucifolia Lam. Kirkland, La Crosse, Pammel. 934, AECIDIUM RANUNCULACEARUM, D C. On Anemone dichotoma L. La Crosse, Pammel. This species includes, in part, the aecidium of Uromyces dactylidis Otth., which occurs on grasses, according to Schroeter and Plowright, while Puccinia arundinacea DC. also has its aecidium on Ranunculus, according to Cornu (Comptes Rendus, June 26, 1882). To be distinguished is, perhaps — 2385. AECIDIUM THALICTRI Grev. On Thalictrum dioicwm L. Madison; La Cros:e, Pammel. 236, AECIDIUM RANUNCULI Schw. On Ranunculus abortivus L. Madison, in spring. Quite distinct in its habit from either of the preceding. 237, AECIDIUM PUNCTATUM Pers. (A. quadrifidum DC.). Not uncommon on leaves of Anemone nemorosa L. Less abundant on Anemone acutiloba Lawson, in May. Madison. The typical form witha wide 4-lobed margin is unusual, most of the specimens having a narrow border divided into small lobes. The form on Hepatica acutiloba is very distinct from A. hepaticae Beck, in its brown spores. I donot distinguish it from some forms on A. nemorosa. 238. AECIDIUM DICENTRAE, 0. Sp. On leaves of Dicentra cucullaria D C.,in company with Perono- spora corydalis DeBary. Madison. Hypophyllous, scattered. Spots none. Peridia short, pale yellow, irregu- larly torn or finely many-lobed, .8 mm. in diameter. Peridial cells granu- lated, polygonal, more or less isodiametric, averaging 13x15 uw. Spores deep orange, thin-walled, smooth, nearly spherical or somewhat polygonal; 13-20 uw, usually about 16 4; wall colorless. A beautiful species, collected by Mr. Pammel in May, 1884. The aecidia are accompanied by small violet or brown spermogonia, like those of A. punctatum. 239. AECIDIUM PAMMELII, n. sp. On leaves of Euphorbia corollata L. La Crosse, Pammel. Preliminary List of Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. 137 Spots brown, little, if at all, thickened, slightly pustulate, with a central ¢cluster of a few spermogonia. Cluster cups usually hypophyllous, concen- trically arranged, rarely a few epiphyllous. Peridium short, whitish; bor- der narrow, about 10-lobed. -Peridial cells colorles:, rugose, usually nearly isodiametric, 20-25 4. Spores red-orange, polygonal, isodiametric or commonly somewhat elongated, 20—25 yu. The spots are generally orbicular, or elliptical with the longer axis par- allel to the midrib. When the spermogonia appear near the margin of the leaf, or near the midrib, the spot naturally develops in but one direction. The species differs from the aecidium of Uromyces euphorbiae C. & P. in the regular arrangement of the cluster cups on round spots, and from the other aecidia occurring on this genus in not deforming the host plant. 240, AECIDIUM PENTSTEMONIS Schw. On Castilleia sessiliflora Pursh., Pentstemon pubescens Sol. and Mimulus ringens L., in summer. La Crosse, Pamamel. The aecidia occur most abundantly on the lower surface of the leaf, less frequently above. Spots rounded, slightly thickened, reddish-brown, often yellow-bordered; less evident on Castilleia than on the other hosts. Peridia white, short, scarcely bordered, crumbling into the rows of cell of which they are composed. Spores orange; smooth, 15--20 / in diameter. The form on Pentstemon seems to he A. pentstemonis Schw., and that on Mimulus is scarcely different from A. gerardiae Pk., but neither seems to be very distinct from A. scrophularinarum Lasch., on Scrophularia, in Ra- benhorst, Herb. Mycol., Ed. 2, No. 374. A uredo (No. 216) occurs in com- pany with the aecidium on Mimulus, but is not evidently connected with it. 3 241, AECIDIUM SII LATIFOLII (Fiedler). On leaves of Sium lineare Michx. La Crosse, Pammel. 242, AECIDIUM COMPOSITARUM Winter. On leaves of Lactuca canadensis L., Nabalus, sp., Vernonia nove- boracensis Willd., Hupatorium perfoliatum L., Aster sericeus Vent. and several other species of Aster and Solidago (among the latter S. latifolia L, and S. riddellit Frank), Silphium perfoliatum L., Erigeron annuum Pers., E. canadense L., HE. strigosum Muhl. and Cynthia virginica Don. Madison; Kirkland, La Crosse, Pammel. In this conglomeration, which for convenience includes all aecidia found on Compositae and not connected with some teleutosporic form, are, per- haps, to be distinguished: A. tenwe Schw. (A. compositarum, var. eupatorit Schw.), A. erigeronatum Schw. and A. asteratum Schw. Specimens found at Madison on Taraxacum dens leonis Desf. may prove to be A. taraxaci Schm. and Kze., the aecidium of Puccinia silvatica Schr., of which we have not detected the teleutospores. 138 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. 243, ROESTELIA LACERATA (Sow.). Very common in summer and fall, on leavesof Orataegus tomentosa L. and CO. coccinea Li. Madison, Ithaca. This is considered by European authorities to be the aecidium of Gym- nosporangium clavariaeforme D C., which grows on the Juniper, but has. not yet been reported in Wisconsin. Although the Roestelia is very abun- dant about Madison, I have never seen the Juniper here, so that its teleutospores are necessarily wanting. 244, ROESTELIA PENICILLATA (Sow.). Common on leaves of Pyrus coronaria L.and Amelanchier canadensis Torr. and Gray., the spermogonia in May and June, the cluster- cups later. Madison; Delton, La Crosse, Pammel. Sometimes considered a variety of the last species. 245. ROESTELIA TRANSFORMANS, Ell.(?) Spermogonia on leaves of Pyrus arbutifolia L. La Cross2, Pammel. USTILAGINEAE. 246. UstiLaco PANICI GLAUCI (Wall) (U. neglecta Niessl). In ovaries of Setaria glauca Beauv. Very abundant in fall. Syene, Madison. 247. USTILAGO SORGHI (Link) (U. tulasnei Kuehn). In ovaries of Sorghum saccharatum l,, grown from imported Chinese seed. Madison. The specimens are more.elopgated than the typical form, but hardly distinct. Dr. Farlow writes me that he has more typical forms from Washington, D. C. The introduction of the smut with Chinese seed is. well shown by its occurrence in three distinct localities (District of Colum- bia, Farlow; New York, Sturtevant; and Wisconsin) on plants raised from imported seed. It does not seem to spread with us. 248. USTILAGO ZEAE MAYS(DC.) (U. maydis Lév.). In various parts of Zea mays L. Very abundant every where; also. on leaves of the Teosinte (Huchlaena luxurians Fourn.) at Mad- ison, and Cambridge, Mass. 249. USTILAGO SEGETUM Pers. In ovaries of Avena sativa L., Triticum vulgare Vill. and Hor- deum vulgare L. Madison; Sauk City, La Crosse, Pammel; Mil- waukee, Lapham. Very abundant; the small-grain smut. 250. USTILAGO RABENHORSTIANA Kuehn. In the inflorescence of Panicum sanguinale L. Madison; La Crosse, Pammel, Spores smoother than the European form. Preliminary List of Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. 139° 251. USTILAGO SPERMOPHORUS B. & C. In ovaries of Eragrostis poaeoides Beauv., var. megastachya Gray. Madison; Sauk City, Liiders. The affected ovaries are round or ellipsoidal, scarcely enlarged, and. remain long unbroken, enclosed by the paleae. Spores thin-walled, brown, round or slightly elongated, finely echinulate, 6x8, 8x8— 108 yu. The appearance of the ovaries recalls Tilletia decipiens (Pers.) as repre- sented in Scandinavian specimens as Agrostis, from Professor Blytt, but the spores of that species measure 23 — 28 yz. 252. USTILAGO JUNCI Schw. Pedicels and perianth of Juncus tenuis Willd. (?) in June. Stoughton. Apparently referrible to Cornu’s genus Cintractia. 258. USTILAGO SYNTHERISMAE Schw. Inflorescence of Cenchrus tribuloides L. La Crosse, Pammel. 204, TILLETIA FOETENS (B. & C.) (TZ. laevis Kuehn). In ovaries of Triticum vulgare Vill. La Crosse, Pammel. The “buat” or hard smut of wheat, published in 1860 as Ustilago foetens B, & C.,in Ravenel’s Fungi Carol. Exsicc., V., 100. 255, TILLETIA STRIAEFORMIS (West) ? (Ustilago salveii B. & Br!). In leaves of Phleum pratense L. and Elymus canadensis L.,var. glau- cifolius. Stoughton, Madison; La Crosse, Pammel. Referred here on the authority of Winter. 256. ENTYLOMA COMPOSITARUM Farlow. (Protomyces polysporus Peck). In leaves of Silphium integrifolium Mx., Ambrosia artemisiaefolia L., A. psilostachya D C. and Lepachys pinnata Torr. & Gr. Mad- ison, Ithaca; LaCrosse, Pammel. Occurs also on Aster puniceus L., in the East, and has been described on Ambrosia trifida L., by Peck (34th Repert, pp. 45-6). 257. ENTYLOMA LOBELIAE Farlow. In leaves of Lobelia inflata L. Delton, Pammel. 258. ENTYLOMA CRASTOPHILUM Sace. (?) In sheaths of Zizania aquatica L. Madison. This agrees well with the description in all respects save the thickening of the angles of the spores, which I have not noticed. I have not been able to compare it with authentic specimens. 259. ENTYLOMA LINARIAE Schroeter. In leaves of Veronica peregina L. Madison. This occurs in round, thickened portions of the leaf, similar to those on Linaria, in which it is found in Europe. 140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. 260. ENTYLOMA BESSEYI Farlow (EZ. physalidis Wint., Protomyces physali- dis K. & C.?). On Physalis, sp. Madison; La Crosse, Pammel, The description does not allow it to be distinguished from the African species described by Kalchbrenner and Cooke (Grevillea, IX., 22). 261. ENTYLOMA MICROSPORUM (Ung.). On leaf and petiole of Ranunculus fascicularis Muhl. Stoughton. 262. ENTYLOMA MENISPERMI Farlow and Trelease. In leaves of Menispermum canadense lL. Madison; Hokah, Minn., : Pammel, 263. ENTYLOMA THALICTRI Schroeter (2). In leaves of Thalictrum dioicwm L. Common in the fall. Madison. This seems to be distinct from EF. ranunculi (Bonord.), to which it was doubtfully referred by Farlow (Botanical Gazette, August, 1883). Having seen no Gescription of Schroeter’s species, however, I can only assume that the two may be identical. 264. DOASSANSIA ALISMATIS (Fr.). In leaves of Alisma plantago L., var. americana Gray, and Sagitta- ria variabilis Engelm. Madison. The young spots in spring are white, and look like those of an Entyloma. The conidia on Sagittaria are hyaline, cylindrical or fusiform, 1-celled, and measure 2-3 12-20 wu. 265. UROCYSTIS ANEMONES (Pers.) (U. pompholygodes Schl.). In stems and leaves of Anemone nemorosa L. and A. dichotoma L. Madison; La Crosse, Pammel. 266. UROCYSTIS OCCULTA (Wall.). In leaves of Elymus canadensis L. Stoughton. 267. ENTOMOPHTHORA MUSCAE (Cohn), Very common, on house flies, in fall. Madison, Syene. The common fall disease of flies. The tarichium state of E. calopteni Busey will probably be found here in the larger grasshopper (Caloptenus differentialis). THELEPHOREAE. 268. HXOBASIDIUM VACCINII Wor. On Gaylussacia resinosa Torr. & Gray and Vaccinium, sp. Kirkland, La Crosse, Pammel. Also collected on the last-named host at Hokah, Minn., by Mr. Pammel. ; . Undoubtedly occurs on the cranberry and other Ericaceae here as else where. Preliminary List of Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. ALPHABETICAL INDEX TO HOSTS.* ~S Acer dasyearpum, 135. rubrum, 34. Acerates longifolia, 230. Acorus calamus, 156. Aesculus hippocastanum, 111. Agaric, 58. Agrimonia eupatoria, 45, 213. Agrostis scabra, 67, 200. vulgaris, 200. Aletris farinosa, 184. Alisma plantago, 264. Allium cepa, 27. tricoccum, 127. Amarantus retroflexus, 6. Amber cane, 247. Ambrosia artemisiaefolia, 5, 10, 48, 256. psilostachya, 256. trifida, 10, 187. Amelanchier canadensis, 244. Amianthium, 183. Amorpha canescens, 181. fruticosa, 181. Ampelopsis quinquefolia, 9, 32, 112. Amphicarpaea monoica, 1, 49, 149. Andropogon fureatus, 64. scoparius, 171, 172. Anemone acutiloba, 237. eylindrica, 162. dichotoma, 78, 284, 265. nemorosa, 2, 14, 188, 237, 265. virginian>, 162. Apocynum cannabinum, 92, 115. Apple, 101, 116. Aquilegia canadensis, 137. Archangelica atropurpurea, 100. Arisaema triphyllum, 157. Artemisia, 24a. biennis, 5. dracunculoides, 196. Artichoke, Jerusalem, 10. Asclepias cornuti, 230. ovalifolia, 230. tuberosa, 230. Ash, 2338. Aspidium marginale, 90. Asprella hystrix, 55. Aster, 56, 73, 146, 211, 242. cordifolius, 168. corymbosus, 168. laevis, 48. miser, 48. novae angliae, 13, 83. puniceus, 256. sericeus, 242. tradescanti, 168. umbellatus, 48. vimineus, 168. Astragalus, 89. Avena sativa, 200, 201, 249. B. Barberry, 200. Barley, 249. Beans, 19, 107, 149. Beet, 94. Berberis vulgaris, 200. Beta vulgaris, 94. a eeeSSMMmmmsmmsmsmmMseseseseseF Bidens frondosa, 10, 45. Bittersweet, 79. Blackberry, 141, 218. Black walnut, 109. Blueberry, 268. Blue grass, 50. Boletus, 104. Bouteloua racemosa, 175. Brassica, 16. Briza mazima, 200. Bromus, 146. ciliatus, 170. Brunella vulgaris, 45. Butternut, 77, 109. (Ci. Calamagrostis canadensis, 67. Calystegia sepium, 142, 189. Cane, Amber, 247. Cannabis sativa, 134. Capsella bursa pastoris, 4, 16. Carpinus americana, 44, 59. Castilleia sessiliflora, 240. Cedar, Red, 207, 208. Celastrus scandens, 44 79. Cenchrus tribuloides, 253. Chenopodium album, 20, 95. Cherry, 43. Circaea lutetiana, 161. Cirsium altissimum, 194, discolor, 194. lanceolatum, 5, 194. Clematis virginiana, 47. Clover, 53, 71, 152. Clover, Sweet, 108. Cnicus altissimus, 194. discolor, 194. lanceolatus, 5, 194. Comandra umbellata, 219. Convolvulus sepium, 142, 189. Coptis trifolia, 138. Corn, Indian, 177, 248. Cornus, 44. Corylus americana, 40, 44, 60, 63. rostrata, 40, 60. Cottonwood, 210. Crab apple, 101. Cranberry, 268. Crataegue coccinea, 243. tome? tosa, 243. Currant, 128, 227. Cynoglossum morisoni, 48, Cynthia virginica, 242. Cyperus schweinitzii, 202. Cystopteris fragilis, 217. D. Dactylis glomerata, 55, 201. Dentaria laciniata. 126. Desmodium, 89, 155. acuminatum, 57, 150. canescens, 37. Deyeuxia canadensis, 67. Dicentra cucullaria, 24, 238. Diplopappus umbellatus, 48. Dock, 86. Dodecatheon meadia, 113. *The fungi are referred to by their list numbers. 142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. E. Echinospermum virginicum, 48. Elder, 39, 232. Elm, 53. | Elodes virginica, 158. Elymus, 64, 170, 200. canadensis, 55, 67, 255, 266. striatus, 67. Eragrostis poaeoides, 251. Erigeron, 130. asnuum, 242. canadense, 242. strigosum, 242. Euchlaena luxurians, 248. Eupatorium ageratoides, 10, 69. perfoliatum, 48, 242. purpureum, 48. Euphorbia corollata, 35, 239. hypericifolia, 152. maculata, 152a. F. _ Fish, 3. Flies, 3, 267. Fragaria vesca, 81. virginiana, 81. Fraxinus sampucifolia, 233. G. “Galium aparine, 190. boreale, 22. triflorum, 22, 190. Gaylussacia resinosa, 268. Gentiana andrewsii, 193. Geranium maculatum, 12, 226. Glyceria nervata, 67. Gooseberry, 128, 227. Grape, 9, 83, 110, 112, 121a. Grasses: 28, 50, 55, 64-67, 102, 122, 140, 146, 160, 170-177, 199, 200, 201, 246-253, 255, 258, 266. Grubs, White, 68. »Gymnostichum hystrix, 55. H. Hazel, 40, 60, 63. Helianthus, 56. annuus, 197. grosse serratus, 197. occidentalis, 10. strumosus, 10, 48, 197. tuberesus, 10, - Hemp, 134. Hepatica acutiloba, 237. Hieracium canadense, 194. scabrum, 194. Hordeum jubatum, 199, 200. vulgare, 249. _ Horse chestnut, 111. Horseradish, 16, 84. Huckleberry, 268. -Hydrophyllum virginicum, 48, 164. Hypericum pyramidatum, 158. Tlex laevigata, 74. verticillata, 74. Impatiens fulva, 11, 125, 180, 229 pallida, 11, 180, 229. Indian corn, 177, 248. Tris versicolor, 146, 214. Tron wood, 44, 59. Ivy, Poison, 147. J. Jerusalem artichoke, 10. Juglans cinerea, 77, 109. nigra, 109. Juncus, 146, 154, 252. Juniper, 243. Juniperus communis, 243. virginiana, 207, 208. K. Koeleria cristata, 67. Krigia amplexicaulis, 242. Kuhnia eupatorioides, 185. Ibe Lactuca canadensis, 15, 242. sativa, 15. Lathyrus, 149. ochroleucus, 37. palustris, 150. venosus, 49, 150. Lepachys pinnata, 256. Lepidium virginicum, 16. Lespedeza capitata, 51, 151. violacea, 37. Lettuce, 15. Lilac, 36. Lilium canadense, 153. Lobelia inflata, 257. syphilitica, 165. Locust, 62. Lonicera flava, 38. glauca, 38. parvitfiora, 38. Lopnanthus scrophulariaefolius, 26, 166. Lycopus europaeus, 192. Lysimachia lanceolata, 223. M. Malva rotundifolia, 133. Maple, 34, 135. Melilotus albus, 108. Menispermum canadense, 262. Mentha canadensis, 192. Mimulus ringens, 216, 240. Monarda fistulosa, 192. punctata, 192. N. Nabalus, 45, 242. Nasturtium armoracia, 16, 84. Nettle, 85, 202. O. Oak, 30, 41, 114, 121. Oats, 200, 201, 249. Oenothera biennis, 18, 131, 222. Onion, 27. Orchard grass, 55, 201. Osmorrhiza brevistylis, 191. Oxalis stricta, 42. Oxybaphus nyctagineus, 119. Ie Panicum ecapillare, 174. latifolium, 55. sanguinale, 102, 250. Parsnep, 93. Pastinaca sativa, 93. Pear, 208. Pentstemon pubescens, 240. Petalostemon, 182. Preliminary List of Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. Phaseolus, 107, 149. Phieum pratense, 67, 200, 255. Phlox divaricata, 139. drummondii, 48. paniculata, 4s. pilosa, 220. Phragmidium, 146. Phragmites communis, 176. Physalis, 97, 260. lanceolata, 224. virginica, 224. Plantago major, 21, 80. Plowrightia morbosa, 106. Plum, 29, 43, 61, 106, 179. Poa annua, 140. compressa, 67. pratensis, 50. Podephylium peltatum, 69, 186, 221. Poison ivy, 147. Polemonium reptans, 220. Polygala senega, 228. Polygonatum biflorum, 231. giganteum, 231. Polygonum amphibium, 146, 178. aviculare, 148. erectum, 148. hydropiper, 145. Populus alba, 109a. balsamifera, 31, 210. grandidentata. 210. monilifera, 210. tremuloides, 210. Portulaca oleracea, 7 Potato, 8. Putentilla canadensis, 146, 206. norvegica, 17, 75, 82. Prenanthes, 45, 242. Prunus, 29. americana, 61, 106, 17' pennsylvanica, 61. serotina, 61, 117, 124. virginiana, 43, 61, 172. Pteris aquilina, 52. Puccinia, 146. Puff- ball, 103. Purslane, 7. Pycnanthemum lanceolatum, 146, 192. Pyrola elliptica, 215. rotundifolia, 88. Pyrus arbutifolia, 98, 245. communis, 208. coronaria, 101, 244. malus, 101, 116. prunifolia, 101. Q. Quercus, 121. alba, 114. coccinea, 30. macrocarpa, 114. rubra, 30, 41. R. Ranunculus abortivus, 49, 236. fascicularis, 78, 261. pennsylvanicus, 70. recurvatus, 75. sceleratus, 70. Raspberry, 205, 218. Reana luxurians, 248. Red cedar, 207, 208. Red-top, 200 Rhamnus, 201. Rhus toxicodendron, 147. Ribes, 144. aureum, 227. eynosbati, 128, 227. floridum, 128, 227 rotundifolium, 227. rubrum, 227. Robinia pseudacacia, 62. Roses, 45, 203. Rosa parviflora, 46, 203, 204, 212. Rubus occidentalis, 205, 218. strigosus. 141. villosus, 218. Rudbeckia laciniata, 10, 1:9. Rumex, 86. Rye, 65. 8. Sagittaria variabilis, 264. Salix, 31, 72, 105, 209. Sambucus canadensis. 39, 232. Scrophularia nodosa, 132. Secale cereale, 65 Setaria glauca, 246. italica, 28. viridis, 28, 140. Sicyos angulatus, 2 25. perfoliatum, 10, 167, 242. terebinthinaceum, 10. trifoliatum, 10. Silver maple, 135. Sisymbrium officinale, 4. Sium lineare, 241. Smilacina racemosa, 231. Solanum tuberosum, 8. Solidago, 13, 73, 91, 211, 242. nemoralis, 169. riddellii, 10, 242. Sorghum saccharatum, 247. Sphaeria morbosa, 106. Spiders, 69, 76. Spiraea salicifolia, 123. Staphylea trifolia, 87. Steironema lanceolata, 223. Strawberry, Si. Sunflower, 197. Sweet clover, 108. Syringa vulgaris, 36. Ty. Taraxacum dens leonis, 45, 194, 242. officinale, 45, 194, 242. Teosinte, 248. Teucrium canadense, 48, 96. Thalictrum cornuti, 163. dioicum, 49, 163, 235, 263. Thastles, 5, 194. Timothy, 67, 200, 255. Toadstools, 58. Trifolium incarnatum, 152. pratense, 54, 71. repens, 54, 152. Triosteum perfoliatum, 99a. Triticum vulgare, 65, 200, 249, 254. 10h, Ulnus americana, 53. Uredineae, 146. Uredo, 146. Uromyces, 146. Urtica gracilis, 85, 202. Vv. ee Vaccinium, 268. Verbena ur ticifolia, 48, Vernonia fasciculata, 195. noveboracensis, 118, 242, Veronica peregrina, 259. virginica, 45. Vicia americana, 19, 136. faba, 19. Spartina cynosuroides, 122, 146, 160, 173 145 Suphium integrifolium,10, 118, 143, 167, 256. 144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. Viola blanda, 198. canaéensis, 198. culeullata, 99, 198. delphinifolia, 225. pubescens, 120, 129. 198. Vitis, 9, 33, 110, 112, 121¢. W. Walnut, Black, 109. Waz beans, 107. Wheat, 65, 200, 249, 254. White grubs, 68. Willow, 31, 72, 105, 209. xX, Xanthium strumarium, 48, 187. Z. Zea mays, 177, 248. Zizania aquatica, 66, 258. Zizia integerrima, 100. Zygadenus glaucus, 183. a. The Present State of our Knowledge of Stellar Motion. 145 ON THE PRESENT STATE OF OUR KNOWLEDGE OF STELLAR MOTION. By TRUMAN HENRY SAFFORD, Ph. D., Field Memorial Professor of Astronomy in Williams College. The stellar motions, the so-called proper motions of the stars, which used to be thought fixed, seem to us very small, because the suns we call stars are so very far away. Bodies which move at least as rapidly as our earth does about its sun, seem to move with velocities rarely exceeding one second a year; and this large stellar motion is only sufficient to produce a displacement equal to the moon’s diameter as we see it in about eighteen centuries. Under these circumstances another cause besides the ap- parent slowness makes the problem in question a trouble- some one—the fact, namely, that accurate astronomical observation is a thing of less than two centuries past — and: even Flamsteed, who commenced it, is now antiquated — and we are obliged to take Bradley’s later observations— from 1750 on —as the real beginning. Moreover, as years go by, it is found possible and neces- sary to re-reduce the older star-catalogues, in order to make use of the past records to the greatest possible extent. Thus Bessel’s Bradley’s catalogue superseded in 1818 Bradley’s own catalogue; and Professor Auwers has already published the chief results of a new reduction, which, using Bessel’s principles and methods, supersedes Bessel’s results. Another element of difficulty in the problem lies in the comparative ease of making new observations upon the stars in a routine way, and the greater difficulty of select- ing the fittest objects and observing those only. The prac- tical astronomer who has learned simply how to observe, is far inferior to him, whose ability lies in a combination of the power to select well his working list, that to observe to the last degree of accuracy, and that to discuss results with skill and completeness. And the German school of astron- omers, established by Bessel, Gauss and Struve, is at the 10 146 Wisconsin Aademy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. same time the most perfect and the most regardful of all these matters. At present star-catalogues are many; but complete dis- cussions of their results are very scanty in comparison. Three elements must then be considered in the present paper. First, what old catalogues need re-reduction? Second, what new observations need to be added to those now in progress. Third, what discussions of stellar motion by the help of these materials are timely and needful. Bradley’s observations, as I have said before, have been re-reduced by Auwers; and his work is partly published; he has also taken care that new observations be made upon. such of the stars as needed them; the resulting new cata- logue by Dr. Becker of the Berlin observatory has been published, with proper motions discussed by Auwers; and Bradley’s stars need not be observed any more for the present, except for purposes of the most refined accuracy. It will be an economy in by far the most cases simply to drop all Bradley stars from our working lists. Flamsteed and Lacaille, from their want of precision, need hardly be considered in this connection; Lacaille’s ob- servations were, it is true, partly of some accuracy for his time; but thesé cases will mostly come up under other cir- cumstances, as repetitions of Bradley; or else will be in- cluded in the Cape of Good Hope observations. Lacaille’s far southern stars, whether well or ill observed by himself, are all continued in the new Cape catalogue. T. Mayer (1756) observed zodiacal stars mainly. These are now in process of reobservation at Berlin. Prof. Newcomb has lately prepared a catalogue of standard and zodiacal stars; so that the observer or computer who wishes to economize his labor had best avoid all stars within 6 degrees of the ecliptic; especially as the Greenwich observ- atory, and also that at Wilhelmshaven, so far as its means allow, are especially careful about stars near the moon’s path from year to year. The Lalande zones, including Fedorenko and D’Agelet, Our Present State of our Knowledge of Stellar Motion. 147 have been or are to be reobserved in the great zones now going on under the auspices of the Astronomische Gesell- schaft, an international association having its seat at Leip- zig. This reobservation is certainly sufficiently accurate to compare with Lalande, whose single observations were made with less accurate instruments than would now be employed; and whose mistakes are many. His zones have been fairly well reduced; and the lamented von Asten has computed new tables of reduction for most of them. Piazzi’s Palermo catalogue of 7,646 stars for 1800 needs a new reduction. This would, however, be an enormous labor; there are nearly 100,000 observations. Ten years’ iabor of a skillful computer would at least be needed; and probably this isa very lowestimate. The stars do not now need reob- servation owing to the great zones just mentioned. (sroombridge’s catalogue for 1810 of 4,243 stars needs also arevision. But this would be much easier, as the original manuscript calculations are preserved; and are probably very free from mistakes. What is chiefly needed here is a careful study of the azimuth correction of Groombridge’s meridian circle. William von Struve published a catalogue of right ascen- sions for 1814 and 1815 in the first volume of the Dorpat observations. This, probably, needs some little revision, owing to its early date; and the same eminent observer con- tinued this work during 1818 and 1819; but these latter observations are unreduced. Years’ work might readily be spent upon these right ascen- sions of Struve; and would be important for the revision of Groombridge, as the latter would be for that of Piazzi. I have myself in progress a careful reobservation of the stars observed by Struve, especially for the difficult region within 10° of the north pole. From the Greenwich observations of Bliss and Maskelyne, not much can be obtained for the stars’ places. The plan- ets, sun and moon, were the main subjects of Maskelyne’s attention. §. Hertzsprung has reduced some of Maskelyne’s work upon small stars,and I am myself calculating some more of it for another purpose. © 148 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. But Pond, who was Astronomer Royal from 1811 to 1835, has left vast folios of observations; a good many of them need a new reduction and discussion. It may, perhaps, be hoped that the Greenwich authorities will accomplish this work at some future period; it is probably not immediately pressing. Bessel, at Konigsberg, accumulated a great store of ob- servations. Among them is the material for a considerable catalogue of zodiacal stars, which a year’s work would per- haps complete ready for press. It is all indexed and its mean epoch would be 1830 or 1835. The stars contained in it are also mostly in Piazzi and Mayer; but Bessel’s obser- vations are so much better than these as to make up for their comparative newness. Something can also be made out of the same great astron- omer’s work between 1814 and 1819 although, his instru- ments were then very inferior to those employed later. Another very useful, though very scattered, collection of older star-places, mainly declinations, could be made up by a careful study of the early latitude work of various astron- omers from Mudge and Lambson, down to Bessel, Gauss and Struve. Struve’s great Dorpat catalogue, published in 1852, but containing results of observations back to 1822, has been, I believe, completely reobserved at Pulkova. So far as the other catalogues for epochs about 1830 are concerned, I fancy few of them need much reobservation; as they large- ly contain identical stars. A few stars in the Abo catalogue (Argelander’s of 1830) need reobservation as well as rediscussion. My own copy of this catalogue once belonged to the lamented Tiele, an as- sistant at Bonn; and contains manuscript notes of results — apparently calculated under Argelander’s direction, which are nowhere else published as faras | know. The doubtful stars ar? in all cases such as were imperfectly observed be- fore Argelander, and so mentioned in his notes. There is a class of several hundred stars which, although visible to the naked eye, were only found in Lalande’s and Bessel’s zones when Argelander placed them in the Urano- ® The Present State of our Knowledge of Stellar Motion. 149 metria Nova. These were soon after observed by Hender- son at Edinburgh, and by the Pulkova astronomers. They are much needed for field work in latitude and longitude. I have myself often missed accurate modern places for them, and hope to see them soon catalogued. The Edinburgh cat- alogue of Henderson is excellent in general plan, but is yet unfinished. The astronomer who shall put it together from the yearly volumes of 1834 to 1844 inclusive, will accomplish a considerable service at comparatively trifling cost. And these places begin to be old enough to serve as an old cata- logue. The great Pulkova work of the same character is vigorously in progress, and will be soon completed. The old catalogues, then, which need re-reduction or com- pilation, are these, with their epochs: iaaAlmnic the. laneest Of, allio, os clara, sere slsinie os stevie = 35, eiaiaje on 1800 WHER ELE oso. Sich CREA EI BRU ic SIE CASO are Dr ean RS IL er eC 1756 GERD OEICSOF (LOVASION) © f. 5 Soviet 5 dG ce sis oe a eee cevs\e, Sa Seeds wee sare 1810 Siem CIECUMPOLAT AM cy taetetl Maat oe ose Me a teINy coats a celote al siereie ts 1815 onGi(tevision and: reealeulation): 25). 036 aise st esis weed at 1830 SE SSE ewe, OGLIAG AM ate cer ciay sus ies arates Stes ov aus geet atalta lene tape setlenrau wrap ahead ata Shorts 1830 Miscellancousilatitude stars. ..0...lscces ccc cine Saieae Bie ees ciate .. 1785-1830 BINED COPIA (COV PITE ALY OM) Fe cap sc fats 'aic,a cial omcicl xg Seta, sl s-ag dc anace Sail “eeley orale 1840 Of new star catalogues to be made I think the most im- portant, next to the great zones several times mertioned, which are now nearly done for the northern hemisphere, is an accurate reobservation of all stars to the seventh magni- tude inclusive, which are not now well known. For the region south of the celestial equator there need be little solicitude in this matter, as the powerful observatories of the Cape, Melbourne and Cordoba have probably so nearly filled the gaps left at northern stations, that we can afford to wait till the results to date are completely published for the two latter ones. And the extension to the Tropic of Capricorn of the northern zones will show what farther is acking. North of the equator, the stars of the first four magni- tudes are nearly all Pulkova fundamentals, and thus well known, even where occasionally neglected at other places. Those of the fifth and sixth magnitudes have either been, or 150 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. are about to be, carefully observed at Greenwich; our Coast Survey has requested a few specially neglected ones of these degrees of brightness to be attended to at three or four places. It may then be said that those astronomers who wish to contribute to our knowledge of bright stars’ places, have only to supply such observations as they themselves use for semi-fundamental purposes, and observe stars of the seventh magnitude; and a few brighter which may have been neglected. Ihave not yet mentioned the British Association Cata- logue. This was published in 1852; its places and proper motions were then inaccurate, and are now relatively much worse, as great improvements have since been made in pre- cision of observation. But the stars of this catalogue have been greatly preferred in observatories, owing to its great convenience as a working list; so that the general result now is, that an astronomer who wishes to do anything not superfluous, or liable soon to become so, must be very wary in his work upon these stars. I have myself long kept an index of them, showing where and when their positions have been lately determined; and have thus saved myself much labor. The index is not quite complete, even for the northern hemisphere; a considerable portion vf it is virtually published in my catalogue of 2,018 stars (Washington, War Department, 1879), and my manu- scripts of the remainder are in such condition that I can readily give authorities for any B. A. C. star north of the equator. When the great zones are published (this is to be expected to take place in portions for the next ten years), they will contain comparisons with several old authorities, and will thus indicate many new stars whose proper motions are to be looked for. They will consequently be referred to for this purpose by every one interested in this subject. Of least square discussions of this subject, published in full, we have principally Madler’s Bradley, vols. 14 and 16 of the Dorpat observations, and volume 7 of the Bonn observa- tions, which contains two long memoirs by Argelander. The Present State of our Knowledge of Stellar Motion. 161 Madler’s Bradley is in the main superseded by Auwers’ but is often convenient to refer to as an index and approxi- mate check for such stars as were defectively or poorly ob- served by Bradley. Argelander’s papers are indispensable to any one who wishes to master the subject; they have been excelled in small details, hardly in general plan. The miscellaneous list of considerable proper motions which the great astrono- mer here gives deserves occasional reobservation, as many of the stars were poorly observed before him. There are four large catalogues lately published by four departments of the United States government, viz.: Mr. Boss’s declinations of 500 stars, by the State Department; my own catalogue of 2,018 stars, both right ascensions and de- clinations, by the War Department; Prof. Newcomb’s, of 1,098 stars, by the Navy Department; and the Coast Survey list of 1,463, by the Treasury Department. The first is ad- mirable in all respects; Prof. Boss took a great deal of pains and spent much time; but the right ascensions are lacking, My own work was for a practical end, which did not allow either the means or the time for so complete a discussion of four times as many stars;; but I think a great many trust- worthy proper motions were detected by its means. I hope by-and-by to observe the few stars in this catalogue which are now at all uncertain, owing to lack of older opserva- tions. Prof. Newcomb’s catalogue is, for the smaller non- fundamental stars, much in the same condition as my own. The coast survey computers have contented themselves with the rather inaccurate proper motions of the B. A. catalogue, and with a rather defective collection of modern authorities; so that the present errors of their declinations are large. They do not add right ascensions more accurate than to whole seconds of time, which is, of course, entirely proper for their purpose. In order to completely utilize for theoretical purposes the three government catalogues first mentioned, Mr. Boss’s needs to be completed by adding right ascensions, and the other two —in fact all three — by revisions where- ever the material at hand was deficient. In the southern hemisphere, and especially in the southern. 152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. most half of it, there are valuable discoveries by the Mel- bourne observers and by Mr. Stone; and in the northern hemisphere, and part of the southern, we have Auwers’ Bradley and the other compilations which have been just mentioned. I estimate that probably two thousand stars in the whole heavens have proper motions exceeding 0’.1 (a tenth of a second) annually, which have already been cal- culated by least squares, or some similar process, and only need revision. The field of investigation in this direction now open is, of course, boundless; what needs to be done for the next twenty years is mainly a critical study of the materials, their re- duction to a fixed epoch and least square calculation there- from, and adding (probably) a smaller amount of new ob- servations than has been accumulating in a routine way, without much plan, for the last half century; to say nothing of the great catalogues which have been better planned. I have not mentioned these newer catalogues in detail as they are well known. For the epoch 1900 it ought to be possible to construct a catalogue like that of the British Association for 1850 in general plan, but complete to the seventh magnitude, and of great accuracy both in its positions and proper motions, and before that time we ought to have a definitive settle- ment of the problem of the solar motion, which will go far to give us definite notions of the general structure of the universe. For I have long ago shown that, in this way only can we find much more about the average stellar distances. FOURTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING. DECEMBER 26, 27 anv 28, 1883. PROGRAMME. WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 26th, 7:30 P. M. Business Meeting — Reports of Officers. THURSDAY, DECEMBER 27th,9 :30 A. M. Unfinished Business. Paper: “On Ancient Villagesamong Embiematic Mounds.”—Reyv, S. D. PEET, Clinton. Paper: ‘On Elephant Mounds.”— Rev. 8. D. PEET. Paper: ‘Game Drives on the Mississippi River.”— Rev. 8. D. PEET. Paper: ‘‘The Man Mounds.”— Rev. S. D. PEET. AFTERNOON SESSION, 2:30 P. M. Paper: “On the Distribution and Migration of Birdsin Outagamie and Brown Counties.” —S. D. WILLARD, Depere. Paper: “On the Principal of Duality.”— Prof. C. A. VAN VELZER, Madison. Paper: “Analysis of Water from Florence, Wis.” Pror. W. W. DAN- IELLS, Madison. Paper: “The Wisconsin Geological Survey on Upper Silurian Fossils.” Dr. F. N. Day, Wauwatosa. Paper: “Variation in Attraction due to the form of Attracting Bodies.” D. P. BLACKSTONE, Berlin. EVENING SESSION, 7:30 P. M. Unfinished Business. FRIDAY, DECEMBER, 28th, 9:30 A. M. Paper: ‘On the Driftless Area.” — Prof. R. D. SALISBURY, Beloit. Paper: ‘‘On Metamorphic Rocks.” — Prof. R. D. Irvine, Madison. Paper: '“The Variation in Attraction due to the form of Attracting Bod- ies.” D. P. BLACKSTONE, Berlin. AFTERNOON SESSION, 2:30 P. M. Paper: “On the Relation of Greek Art and Religion.” — Prof. J. EMER- SON, Beloit. Paper: “The Democracy of the Ancient Germans.”— Prof. W. F. ALLEN, Madison. Paper: “The Results of the Caroline Id. Eclipse Expedition.”— Prof. E. S. HOLDEN, Madison, Paper; ‘The Genera of the Family Attide.”— Prof. G. W., and ELIza- BETH S. PECKHAM, Milwaukee. 154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. ANCIENT VILLAGES AMONG EMBLEMATIC MOUNDS. ; Rey. S. D. PEET, Clinton, Wis. The subject which the author has set before himself in the heading of this paper, is an important one and yet one which is attended with peculiar difficulties. It is not an easy task to take the silent monuments of the dead and to people them with a living race. Even historic scenes when once deserted and left in silent ruin are difficult to rehabili- tate, but prehistoric scenes much more. Of all the prehis- toric works none are more mysterious and difficult to explain than are the emblematic mounds. There is an obscurity about them which almost baffles investigation. The people who built them are shadowy and unfamiliar as ghosts. For one to enter into the study of their habits and ways and to describe their modes of life is almost presumptuous. The tokens are, however, before us. Other explorers have studied monuments and from them given descriptions of unknown people. The villages of the emblematic mound-builders may, in- deed, be different from the buried cities of the east and their village life may contrast with the civilized state; yet this is in accord with what is known concerning the mysterious people. We are not to consider them asa civilized race, but rather as arude and almst savage people. Their villages are merely the habitations of a rude people and are to be studied as much in their connection with their surroundings, as in the works which are found upon their village sites. This point will be considered by the reader as he follows the line of thought, for there are many elements brought into the account and they are all to be as exponents of the one surrounding system. The treatment of the subject is mainly from an archaeological standpoint. The only object of com- parison is the villages of the later Indians. These, however, differ so much in their tokens from the villages of the earlier race, that they become sources of confusion and close anal- & Ancient Villages Among Emblematic Mounds. 155 ysis is required to distinguish the two classes of works. The author has been careful to notice the differences between the two and to make the subject definite. Our investigation is to be among emblematic mounds and not other tokens and the villages of which we are to speak are the villages of this unknown people. There are several heads or divisions to the snbject: ; I. The existence of village life among the emblematic mound-builders. II. The probable characteristics of these villages. III. The identification of these peculiarities or traits in certain localities. IV. The comparison of different localities as exhibiting the same characteristics. V. The contrasts which are presented by certain groups, concerning which there are doubts whether they contain village sites or not. I. The existence of village life among the emblematic mound builders is a point which has very great interest, and which deserves especial attention. The proofs of this have been lacking hitherto, although there are many facts which have rendered it probable. (1). In the first place it has been supposed that the mound builders were in that stage of culture which would render the village a necessity. They were passing out from the stage of savagery and from a purely hunter’s life into the agricultural state. This is evident from the fact that garden beds are found associated with the mounds. These garden beds differ from the corn fields of the Indians as much as the elaborate works and effigies differ from the ordinary burial mounds, and show that the mound builders were superior to the later tribes. Village life existed among the Indians. With them there was the custom of raising the cereals combined with the chasing of wild game and the subsistence upon fish. With the mound-builders the same modes of life may have prevailed, but village life would be more marked, inasmuch as their culture was more advanced. The relics which are found, as well as the works, indicate that a peaceable condi- 156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. tion prevailed among the builders of the emblematic mounds. These relics have been discovered in various parts. of the state, and show that the copper age had been reached by this unknown people. We do not say that the copper age and village life were identical, but there was an approxi- mation to the bronze age, and we know that the bronze age was characterized by the prevalence of villages. Mining was probably known to the mound-builders, and this would render probable that village life had been reached. (2). Again, the tradition and known customs of the later tribes would render it probable that the mound builders. dwelt in villages. The remark of Miss Fletcher in refer- ence to the Dakotas is that they have favorite places to which they resort for generation after generation, and, judg- ing from the tokens furnished by the emblematic mounds, we should say that the same custom prevailed among them. Village life is known to have existed among the Indians of this very locality, where the animal mounds are found. There are many sites of villages which have been identified by history. These differ from the sites of the villages of the preceding race, but are often in the vicinity of extensive groups of emblematic mounds. The record of early explorers and travelers is that the natives dwelt in villages, and the early maps locate these villages. (3). The succession of races betokened by the earthworks would show that village life had existed in the earliest period. It is sometimes the case that the village site of a later tribe will appear with a certain class of earthworks in the vicinity, which differ from the works which belong to the emblematic mound builders, yet render it probable that both people built their mounds near their villages. It is one point for the archzeologists to decide while studying the ‘mounds and earthworks, which works belong to the later Indians and which to earlier mound builders. (4). The universality of village life among uncivilized races would prove that it existed among the emblem- atic mound builders. This is a point which we shall not stop to discuss, but shall take it for granted. The similarity of village life is the point which we are to Ancient Villages Among Emblematic Mounds. 157 examine. In reference to these there is, perhaps, more uncertainty than in reference to the existence of vil- lages. The study of the native life of the wild tribes may furnish us some information in reference to their char- acteristics and from our knowledge of the later tribes we may ascertain what were the elements of the village con- dition, but it is mainly by analogy that we predicate that such elements existed among the mound builders. Wecarry with us information from the living races to the extinct and by one picture learn to interpret another filling up the out- lines which have become obscure by the wear of time and interpreting many things which would otherwise be inex- plicable. | < Again, IJ. The characteristics of village life are exhib- ited or made known. These characteristics are as we have seen, the selection of a locality favorable to subsistence, the selection of a spot which would be convenient of access, well guarded by its natural surroundings, and which should be dry and favorable for the erection of houses. The tokens that a village was located would be found in the existence of mounds, earthworks and effigies around an enclosure, in such a position as to give the idea of defense. The addi- tional discovery of caches, springs of water, and other signs of permanent residence, would be additional proof. The existence of burial mounds in the vicinity of outlooks which might serve as defenses and of altar mounds in the vicinity, would prove that the locality had been occupied as a place of residence. The existence of game drives and of trails and gardens would be still further evi- dent. The early explorers and travelers all speak of vil- lages. It is very seldom that Indians were met with outside of their villages, but there were many localities where vil- lages were prevalent. The early maps have given the loca- _ tion of many of the villages. According to these maps the villages were situated on the water courses and lakes, and were connected to one another by trails. Several villages were situated on Green Bay, others on Lake Michigan, and still others on the Mississippi river. The study of these villages may give to us some hints as 158 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. to what constituted village life. We find striking analogies between the locations of the earlier and the later races, for the same places in which history describes villages to have existed contain many monuments, which were evidently works which belonged to the emblematic mound buildess. The centers of population were the same and the same spots were chosen for the residences of the two races. The ex- ploration of the mounds reveals a striking similarity be- tween the modes of life and in many places should seem that these modes were carried out in exactly the same places; the hunting grounds being the same, the village sites the same, the defenses by lookouts the same, the burial places in close proximity and all of the departments of life having been conducted in the same scenes and having been repeated by the two races. The only difference between them being in the emblematic character of the mounds which the earlier race erected. The characteristics of the villages of the earlier race we conclude will be learned from the description of those of the later races. The early travelers and explorers found Indians dwelling in villages, and from their descriptions we learn the charac- teristics of village life. These characteristics areas follows: 1st. The selection of a locality favorable for hunting and fishing, and at the same time accessible by rivers and trails from other villages and from distant parts of the country. 2d. The selection of a favorable spot for residence and the erection of houses or huts on some rise of ground overlook- ing a stream or lake. 3d. The erection of certain defenses, either stockade or a lookout station. This was a general habit, although there were many villages in Wisconsin which had no stockade and no visible defense. Asa substi- tute, however, the villages were placed on land somewhat remote from the water course, and so hidden by surround- ing forests or hills that they could not be approached with- out due warning being given. 4th. There were generally near these villages burial places, either the rude structures or graves protected by logs or rude planks, and the hollow logs hung in trees near the stream or lake. 5th. There were generally near the villages garden beds or corn fields, and Ancient Villages Among E’mblematic Mounds. 159 always springs of water. 6th. In certain localities there were arrangements or contrivances constructed from wooden stockades by which game were entrapped. This was not universal, but there are certain sketches in certain books, especially in Champlain’s works, which illustrate the fact. The Indians of Wisconsin are not known to have constructed game drives, but the point is aninteresting one. 7th. There are various traditions in reference to the attachments which the Indians had for the localities where the villages were situated, and in reference to the religious ceremonies which were observed in or near their villages. These seven par- ticulars we have here mentioned, because they illustrate certain points which we have discovered in connection with the emblematic mounds. The identification of a village site surrounded by emblematic mounds, has led to the discovery of the same characteristics, and proves interesting on this. account. The mere discovery of a village site would not avail much were there not some further information gained from it. In describing the villages of the emblematic mounds, we shall draw the comparison and speak of the specific items or elements which seem to have been common among the villages. We shall first refer to one particular village and then show what its characteristics were and then draw the comparison between this particular village. and other supposed villages and from the aggregate draw conclusions in reference to what constituted village life. The identification of a village site among the emblematic ‘moundsis an interesting fact,and one worthy of notice in this connection. Inthe first place it proves that the mound build- ers dwelt in villages. This has indeed been rendered probable by other facts, but has not been hitherto proved for a cer- tainty. In the second place it furnishes a clue to a certain class of works which have been supposed to mark village sites, but concerning which there has been also much uncer- tainty. These works have been discovered by the author in various localities and the conjecture has often arisen that they were village sites. The comparison between them and the works which are known to have surrounded a village now clears up the uncertainty. ts \ 160 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. The identification of certain village sites will next engage our attention. The method which we have pursued in iden- tifying these sites is the one which we have already pre- scribed. We have fixed in our mind what was the probable characteristics of village life and then have studied the mounds to see if these characteristics could be found in them. We have, in fact, taken the picture of native society ‘as we have ourselves painted it and then have sought a frame for the picture in the emblematic works. This is, in our opinion, the only way in which a village site could be identified. It was because we had framed some conception of the people who erected the mounds and from the study of their works had come to understand something of their mode of life that we have made the discoveries which we have. The first place where a village site has been identified by the writer is at Great Bend, on the Fox river, thirty miles west of Milwaukee. Here is a series of works which Dr. Lapham has described, and which have proved to be interest- ing on many accounts. (1) A few words in reference to the locality will be in place. Great Bend is situated at the edge of the extensive forests which formerly stretched along the lake shore, throughout the whole length of the state. Ata point where the extensive system of prairies which charac- terizes the scenery of the interior of the state intrudes upon the forests near this place is an extensive marsh, wherein are immense tracts of land filled with wild oats. There are upon one side of the stream forests which abound with game, especially with the beasts of prey and with the larger class of birds, such as the wild turkey, wild goose, hawks and eagles. On the other side are the prairies, where form- erly abounded the grazing animals, such as the buffalo, elk, wild deer, and the great variety of prairie birds, the marsh and the river forming a favorite resort for ducks and wild geese, and water fowls of various kinds. There arein the vicinity many small streams and ponds where beaver and muskrat would be numerous. The locality is, then, a favor- able one for the permanent residence of a people. The character of the region can be learned from the map which we here present. Ancient Villages Among Emblematic Mounds. 161 Sessa re Seat , SSO MNS UM) & A ty : Cee et ee F-J-—e----} TFRs 162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. Another point worthy of notice is that in the vicinity there are high lands which command extensive prospects. At this point there are extensive ridges which form promi- nent points from which extensive views could be gained. The geological formation is here noticeable. The Great Bend was caused by the damming up of the stream in the glacial period by great ridges of gravel which turned it from its course, deflecting it to the eastward, for six miles or more. At the point where the village is located the river bursts through the barriers, leaving a high knob of land upon the west side and gentle swells of ground upon the east, making an extensive lake, or reedy and marshy place to the north of the ridge, and throwing the region to the south open to the ravages of fire, so that the prairie crept up to the very edge of the stream atthat side. On this ridge there are mounds and earthworks which correspond to altar mounds and outlooks which have been discovered else- where. In approaching the locality from the north one is impressed with the sightliness of this bluff or ridge, for at many intervals the ridge can be seen several miles away. It is singular that as the writer approached it there were open spots in the wooded hill top which attracted special notice, and that these spots proved to be the very localities where were outlooks and sacrificial mounds. On reaching the locality the first thing which attracted at- tention was the discovery of a panther effigy of remarkable size and well defined shape. (See Fig. 2.) In following the out- line of the effigy and reaching the head, it was discovered that | the land was broken by a great number of pits, which proved to be the caches of the village. These were situated on the edge of a small pond, and near abeaver dam, but were hid- den away in the forests and would not have been noticed ex- cept for the proximity of the effigy. There are many effigies which seem to guard caches as this does, but none had so far been discovered near any vil- vage site. Dr. Lapham describes one as situated at Indian Prairie. Here the effigy is represented as guarding a low mound. In the mound was a pit and upon the surface of the soil were corn hills. The figure is given herewith for the 163 Ancient Villages Among Emblematic Mounds. Fig. 2 164 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. sake of comparison. The effigy of a panther guarding the caches at Great Bend is much more symmetrical than that at Milwaukee. Dr. Lapham says that this ground is covered with a present race of Indians who occupied the land in this vicinity down to a very late period. The figure may be con- sidered as a rude representation of a wolf or a fox guarding the sacred deposits before it. Both of these are of so little elevation as to be observed by the passer-by. The body of the animal is 44 feet and the tail 63 in length. The effigy which we discovered as guarding the caches near the beaver dam was accompanied by several large platforms o long mounds. One of them at right angles to the body of the effigy and another several rods distant to the west; these two having a parallel position. The caches were very observable. There were twenty or more of them scattered over the surface of the hill, but all of them in front of the effigy. Passing over the small stream where was formerly a beaver dam we came to other caches similarly situated, but without any effigy near them. These were more numerous than upon the other side, but were fully as well as guarded, as they were hidden in the for- est and were in the rear of a rise of ground, on which we afterward discovered the site of the village itself. The exist- ence of these caches was to us significant for it betokened permanent residence. We have previously noticed the ad- vantages of the locality. The forest, and marsh, and prairie combined would lead one to expect a village somewhere in the vicinity. The fact that extensive works had been de- scribed also led to expectancy but the discovery of the caches put us on the alert. . (4) The situation of the village itself impressed us more than the caches. It was on a rise of ground from which the water flowed in every direction. The stream which we were cross- ing formed a barrier upon the north side. The swale and beaver dam and low land in which the stream headed formed also a barrier to the spot on the east, separating the village from the forests, making the approach to it inacces- sible on that side. The river is some distance to the west, and flows at an angle toward the tongue of land on which the Ancient Villages Among Emblematic Mounds. 165 village is situated. Between the village and the river the land is low, and so the spot is inaccessible except at one point. At the south of the village site was another small stream, which also heads in the swamp or springy land in the rear of the village. The low land adjoining is covered by a jungle of bushes and small trees, a fit place for the hid- ing of wild animals, but abounding with berries and wiid fruit of various kinds. Thesituation of the village on this rise of ground was remarkable, because the spot was so fav- orable in every respect. The peculiarity of the site is that all the requisites of village life were furnished by it. It is well guarded and drained, is surrounded by forests and prairies, is well situated in relation to the river, the rice swamps, the beaver dam and springs of water, was in a lo- cality where the means of subsistence were furnished in great abundance. Additional to these advantages was the fact that, on the opposite side of the river, less than a mile away, is the high bluff to which we have referred, and on this bluff there proved to be mounds which undoubtedly served as outlooks. The protection of the village was thus secured by the locality as well as the means of subsistence. The situation of the ground on which the village was located was in the midst of swamps and low lands, which also served for protection. The evidence that this was a village site is as follows: (a.) The selection of the locality with a view to subsist- ence. The place for storing grain was furnished by the hillside to which the approach was easy from the village itself, but was diffieult from any other direction. The pres- ence of springs near the village but in the rear of it secured to the inhabitants a supply of water from which they could not well be cut off. The presence of the game-drives shows that the inhabitants depended upon wild game as well as the products of the soil for their subsistence and the marshes in the vicinity abound in wild rice. There may have been the cultivation of maize, but no garden beds have been dis- covered in the vicinity. The means of subsistence were fur- nished by the forest, streams, lakes, and prairies. 166 Waosconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. (b.) The beauty of the spot and the advantages furnished by the well-drained and shaded ground would indicate that it had been used asa village site. Not all villages are as favorably situated as this, but the advantages were too man- ifest for any one to deny them in this case. (5.) The artificial works of the locality impressed us. The first object which engaged attention was the effigy of a huge panther. This was situated on the edge of the hill at a point where the small stream breaks through into the valley of the Fox river. The effigy stretches along the brow of this hill overlooking the valley of the river, its immense body and tailforming a guard against approach to the caches on the banks of the stream above, and protecting the village site at this point. The effigy is a peculiar one; it represents the panther as standing with head erect, the legs straight, but the body extremely attenuated, as if the animal was in the last stage of starvation. The position of the effigy was also peculiar, while its immense body and tail stretched along the hillside toward the little stream at the north, and terminated at the very edge of the bluff in this direction. Its head fronted the opening to the village itself, and the attitude was as if the animal was looking directly into the village, and was there watching and waiting for some object that might satisfy its appetite. Such at least was the impression made upon the imagination by the figure. The contrast between this effigy and the one guard- ing the caches in the rear of the village was marked. In the first place the effigy was much longer and more definitely marked. Again, it was situated on the brow of the hill, overlooking the land adjoining. Its attitude and shape were peculiar. Our conclusion was that the effigy was stationed near the village site, with the head fronting the opening, in the attitude as if guarding the gateway. At the entrance of the village site there was a series of oblong mounds. These mounds were arranged so as to make a double guard; two of them formed an angle toward the north, at the opening of which was the panther effigy two others formed?an angle to the south, leaving openings at either end and between them, but so arranged as to form = Sse / eg a al | y VA pe Ks ~ \\ . ~ _-A s N AUSIA) A Rs ys Bea \\\Zam Sa me Qw SN ra Pe \ WZ ‘OS 7) Mj 4 | as I VIN AVR C2. ye Ne S =e fog : < . oe 3 E & 3 % x SS = K te. a y < - KG Se wees ) » B V”) 2 { a / 4 : S i y ; > = PP | CA » : igi on = : aS Z o ee p i = LoJ Z Ze LL SS * » B S = : Z . eae SS) ( = i ae ame eS a 7h Ge << gs & : ; = > -— S&S aa) SS - : 5 << Samay © ee. f a e ee Ancient Villages Among Emblematic Mounds. 167 a guard to the entrance; beyond this, following along the brow of a gentle slope of land were other oblong mounds. A little further on to the south and west was another panther effigy, the effigy this time situated at an opening between the oblong mounds, but with the body running par- allel with the mounds, and thus forming a guard across the opening on the other oblong mounds and effigy mounds. Here the effigy was that of an eagle or hawk which seemed to guard the village on this side, and formed the bend of the wall. Other oblong mounds were situated on the edge of the rise of ground, forming a quasi wall at the south of the enclosure, and turning back toward the north formed also a partial wall upon the east side. The situation of the village was on arise of ground within the enclosure, which was formed by the oblong mounds. There was no evidence of a stockade, but the earth-works so surrounded the village and site that they may have served as a partial defense. The entrances to the village were also guarded by mounds which were peculiarly arranged. The one where the panther effigy was had a double line of oblong mounds; the middle entrance was also guarded by oblong mounds, but had no effigies near it. The means used for defending the locality prove that it was a village. The enclosure covered an area of about one hundred and sixty acres. The mounds surround the edge of the enclosure forming afragmentary wall. They needed only to be attended with stockades to form a splendid defense against approaching enemies on three sides, while on the other side the marsh and low land furnished a natural de- fense. There was a double advantage or use to these oblong mounds, while they furnished platforms from which warriors could shoot approaching enemies. They also furnished plat- forms on which the inhabitants could sit and watch the busy life of the village within the enclosure. The entrance and covered ways would indicate that there was a form of ar- rangement of the houses, possibly streets ran through the villages, and a square may have existed in the centre. Effi- gies guarded the village at either side and gave the village the sense of protection. (See Fig. 3.) 168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. The spot where the village is located is a beautiful one. It is at present covered with a sturdy growth of oak trees and isa very attractive place. The shade of the trees protects the spot from the glaring heat of the sun during the warm seasons, end the surrounding forest would protect also the village from the sweeping winds and drifting snows during the cold season. The presence of the caches and of the effi- gies and oblong mounds show that it was a permanent dwelling place. Asan additional protection to the village, there were at the south of the village site a large number of bird effigies. These are scattered over the surface of the hill at this end of the village forming an abatis which might serve both as a screen for hunters and as a guard against the approach of an enemy. The discovery of burial mounds in the vicinity indicated also that it was a place of permanent residence. These burial mounds were on the lowland adjoining the river. They are so situated that they form an outlook along the valley of the stream, but are in close proximity to the vil- lage site itself. These mounds have not been excavated but their shape and size would indicate that they were burial mounds. ; (6.) The outworks, or groups of mounds in the vicinity of the village are worthy of notice. There are mounds on land belonging to Mr. Rose, on section 26, one mile or more dis- tant. These mounds are situated near the line of the bluff overlooking the valley of the river, just at the point where the stream and the marsh join. These mounds are nearly obliterated, and their design could not be ascertained. They were, however, so situated in relation to the river and marsh and land adjoining, as to give rise to the idea that they were used possibly for game ,drives. The effigies were in a wheat field and could not be identified. The* out-works which most interested us were those situated on the edge of the same marsh or lake, three miles to the west. These have been described by Dr. Lapham;* he calls them the mounds at Crawfordsville, although there is no village there and never was. The peculiarity of these works is that they are *See Lapham’s Antiquities. CRAWFORDSYILIE. | -——___--—. —— —- —--—____—_. ey a sham, Surveved ith 502 iy TA Laoy SCALE RO fa an lich, Fig. 4.—bingies near Great bend, WED =) YY "YVAA (LZ —— X iH) S fe “ly AW , ‘ay SA nee Wg Ny ANAS Wk Ay? a Ancient Villages Among E’mblematic Mounds. 169 stretched along parallel with one another, and form a group ~ resembling others which we have elsewhere identified as game drives. An illustration of the group is here given It will be noticed that the effigies are peculiarly situated and shaped; they are unnaturally prolonged, and so placed in reference to one another as to give the idea that they were intended as screens for hunters, and as traps for wild game. The arrangement of the ridges is not exactly in parallel lines, but at angles, each effigy serving to make a narrow place through which the animals would need to pass, and the ob- long mounds forming guards to each opening, so that an additional opportunity for shooting the game might be furnished. (7.) The most noticeable peculiarity of the region was the discovery of a so-called altar mound. We mention this last because it is the most suggestive and because it brings out the point of analogy between the village life of the mound builders and that of the Red Indians. There are no tradi- tions connected with the locality but the religious significance of this group of works is apparent. On the summit of the hill overlooking the village itself is a small group of mounds, consisting of three oblong mounds and one effigy. The oblong mounds are situated on the brow of the bluff, and apparently were designed to serve as guards tothe effigy. Theeffigy is what we have called an altar mound, asit has the same shape and situation with other mounds which have proved to con- tain altars, and is one which has been found in various par- ticulars. The figures of it willillustrate the point. (See Fig. 5.) Itisamound formed by a combination of five mounds in one the whole group making an effigy of an animal resembling the horned toad or trog. A ridge which connects two tumuli or conical mounds, forms the spine; four conical mounds situated atthe corners formed the hips of the animals; the projections which represent legs are blunt and w'thout particular re- semblance to the animal formed. The distinguishing pecul- iarity of the effigy is that its form is an exact repetition of the shape of the bluff. The projections in the mounds imi- tate on a small scale the spurs on the side of the bluff itself, the two making a double effigy. As an additional feature 170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. proving the religious character of the works, we may men- tion the existence of two massive burial mounds. These are situated on the low land below the bluff and between the bluff and the river. They are massive, and may have been the place where the bones of those who had been residents of the villages were borne after death and deposited. The altar mound was so situated that it could be seen from a great distance. If there were fires lighted on it they would gleam not only upon the waters and the river below, but they could be seen for miles away. There is no doubt that this was the place where sacrifices were offered and where religious cere- monies were observed. The group furnishes a most distin- guishing peculiarity of village life. One point additional which we have not mentioned is the line of communication of their villages in the same region. The trails which communicated between the villages of the Indians may prove an_ additional feature. These trails are known, and have been identified and traced by the author. The situation of the village on a well known route is at least worthy of study. It was situated on the line of the dividing ridge, which has been used from time immemorial for a route from Lake Mich- igan to the Mississippiriver. The route leads from Milwaukee through Muskegon lake, on through the Great Bend, crossing the Fox river; then at this point passes across the prairies to the west until it reaches the Rock river. Hereit divides, one route turning south towards Beloit and Rockton and an- other towards Lake Koshkonong and the Four lake region where Madison now is. Passing from here the route crosses the dividing ridge between the Wisconsin river and the west- ern branzhes of the Rock river, until it reaches the Blue Mounds. From the Blue Mounds it crosses prairies to the Platte Mounds and reaches the Mississippi river among the bluffs somewhere about Cassville. At each of these local- ities there are extensive works, showing that the same pop- ulation and the same thoroughfares prevailed in prehistoric times which prevailed in the historic, the modern villages and cities having been placed on the very same sites where the ancient villages were. Ancient Villages Among Emblematic Mounds. atfal The ancient trail was supplanted first by the stage route. The railroad has now taken the place of both. This village site has not been reached by the railroad although it was a fav- orite project to connect the interior with the lake by this route. The first plank road through the Milwauke mounds was built from Great Bend and Muskegon to Milwaukee. The first railroad struck the site of another native village, that at Waukesha and then passed on tothe west. Proof furnished by the thoroughfares of modern days may not seem to be in point, and yet we take the ground that the natural advantages of the country have led to the choice of the same localities for residences, the same routes for travel, and the same spots for centers of population throughout the whole series of changes which have occurred both in his- toric and prehistoric times. The proofs that this was a village site do not need to be dwelt upon longer. We only recapitulate the points which have been illustrated in this case that we may understand -what are the characteristics of village life among the em- blematic mound builders generally. We have Ist, the sit- uation of villages as regards the means of subsistance, (a) on the edge of a forest and near a prairie abounding in wild game; (b) in proximity to wild rice swamps and near streams and forests where fruits and grains were abundant, (c.) it was near rivers and lakes where fish could be procured, and may have been a favorable position for the raising of maize and horticultural products. 2d. The character of the ground on which the village was located. (a.) It was isolated from the river and from the surrounding country. (b.) It was a favorable place for drainage and furnished favorable places for hiding their stores of grain. 3rd. Provisions for defense: (a) fragmentary walls placed on the edge of a hill; (b) effigies placed at the openings be- tween; (c) a covered way, protecting the entrance to the village. 4th. The outworks accompanying the village consisting of (a) burial mounds; (b) game drives; (c) effigies protecting it; (d) look-out mounds in a prominent position; (e) other works designed to protect and to furnish means of subsistence. 172 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. 5th. The evidences of religious observance: (a) the pres- ence of the effigies surrounding the enclosure; (b) the num- ber of burial mounds in the vicinity; (c) the altar and place of cremation. 6th. The situation of the works as related to the surround- ing country: (a) its connection by streams and trails with other centres of population; (b) its location on a lake or river; (c) the character of the country surrounding as fur- nish opportunity of changing signals with distant points. 7th. The last characteristic and the chief is the presence of the enclosure. In this case the enclosure was marked, and affords undoubted evidence that a village was located here. III. These evidences of village life have been dwelt upon, for they are essential in fixing the points where other villages were located. The comparison between this village of the emblematic mound-builders and the known villages of the later tribes have given us certain characteristics, but the comparison is hereafter to be between one village of the un- known people and other villages which may be presumably fixed upon. It is a method of gradual approach. IV. We proceed, now, to consider other village sites, and to compare these with the one which has been identified. The second locality where an ancient village has been identified is at Waukesha. The points of .resemblance between the two localities are as follows: Ist. The locality was favorable for the subsistence of a large population. The same forests which intervene between the Fox river and the lake stretch north- ward, and here forms a border line between wood land and prairie, and between one form of natural products and another, thus affording a double supply of wild game and of nature’s cereals and fruits. The local- ity is similar to that at Great Bend, in that there was an extensive prairie bordering upon an extensive marsh, and similar surroundings of high hills, and the same variety of soil, At this place there were formerly extensive groups of emblematic mounds, some of them on the prairie itself and some of them in the openings surrounding, and some on the summit of hills in the vicinity. It is evident from the na- SECTION OF THE cHIGH HILL. wo 4 Ca Sh SS = erambatell Wig), THEN PT \ WS a ZN « TERRACE ae MR Uh in “ly, F Yay Fig. 6.—Map of Works at Waukesha. Ancient Villages Among Hmblematic Mounds. 173 ture of the works that here had been a center of native population. See map, Fig. 5. The Fox river, also here furnishes a similar expanse of marsh filled with wild oats. The advantages for gaining a subsistence from the forests, and the stream and the open prairie are similar to these found in the previous locality. There are signs here of cultivation of the soil. (See Fig. 6.) We quote from Dr. Lapham: “Much of the ground about Waukesha was, in 1836, covered with Indian corn hills or remains of the recent culture of maize. In this locality as in numerous others, the mounds occupy the highest ground and the points of hills and other places whence the most ex- tensive view, both above and below can be obtained. The town of Waukesha stands on a slightly undulating plain surrounded by hills, forming a fine amphitheatre, which in ancient times was doubtless crowded, as it is now, with nu- merous population. One factis important in this connection —the mound builders occupied the same localities that are: now the favorite resort of the present Indians, who still often make use of the mounds for the burial of their dead. They have a kind of veneration for them which may be the result of a lingering tradition. We need not look to Mexico norany other country for the descendants of the mound builders. We probably see them in the present red race in the adjacent regions. Different tribes have different habits, and a stronger one may have overrun and swallowed up a weaker and then changed its customs and destroyed its in- stitutions. The corn hills found in this vicinity if they do not prove that the mound builders were agriculturists, or that here was an ancient village of the mound builders, at least they show the advantages of the locality. There are caches near Waukesha.