We See 2 YORK BOTANIC PURCHASED 1923 FROM : GERLVA BOTANICAL GARDEN -DUPLICATA DE LA BIBLIOTHEQUE DU CONSERVATCIRE RCTANIQUE DE GENEVE VENDU EN 1922 | __ DUPLICATA DE LA BIBLIOTHRQUE ae U CONSERVATCIRE BOTANIQUE DE GENEVE - ' ; 7 : “ - . s " : a ’ - 7 : ' - - . Y . : « i x oe : : \ . wy * > , ; a4 - yo- f - v - TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. Fed mr f AT f ive -=* 2 RR vets vw 4 2 ise eA me “~ ri * — I - ae + DUPLICATA DE LA BIBLIOTHEQUE DU CONSERVATCIDE ECTANICUR DE GENEVE VENDU EN 1922 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIRTY OF EDINBURGH. BOTANBCAL GARSEN VOLUME XXI. INCLUDING SESSIONS LXI.—LXIV, (1896-1900), WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. < ew : T ‘ < Sin ; DUPLICATA DE LA BIBLIOTHROUE (Pe cone : DU CONSERVATCICR ECTATICrYE: pr GENEVE VENDU EN 19c2 EDINBURGH : PRINTED FOR THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY, MDCCCC, a — a CONTENTS OF VOL. XXI. PAGE OFFICE-BEARERS, 1896-97, 1897-98, 1898-99, 1899-1900, i., 1x., XVil., Xxix. Accounts, 1895-1896, 1896-97, 1897-98, 1898-99, V., Xi, XIX., XXXi. PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 1896. é ; : 4 : ; ; 1 Experiments with Nitragin. By William Somerville, D.dic., D.Sc. 20 Bacteria of the Soil. By R. 8. MacDougall, M.A., B.Sc. : 5 25 Excursion of the Scottish 7a Botanical Club to Clova. By Dr. William Craig . : : : : : 40 Photomicrography of ae Stem piacere “By kh. A. Robertson, AB IBASC.. | -. ‘ : : : , : 44 Hisholopival Structure of ‘Fossil woods! Part I..(with two Plates). By R. A. Robertson, M.A., B.Sc. . : : : 50 A Methed of Injection- ne Plant Vascular Seatenia’ By R. A. Robertson, M.A., B.Sc... : ; ; 4 ; ; : 54 Pyrus Aria and its Varieties in Arran. By Rey. D. Landsborough . 56 Gleichenias. By P. C. Waite . 5 : : j ; : 5 62 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 1897. ‘ : : : : ‘ : 65 Girth of Coniferous Trees at Braemar (with Plate). By R. Turnbull, BeScerandebs ©. Waite: \. F j ; 87 Diameter-increment of the Wood of Goniferons gees at meen (with Plate). By R. Turnbull, B.Sc. 3 : ; 94 Excursion of the Scottish Alpine Botanical Club to malin. By Dr. William Craig . : : ‘ : é . 104 Apodya lactea, Cornu (with Plate). By R. Turnbull, B.Sc. . op OS Relation between the Colour of Daffodils and the Composition of the Soils in which they are grown. By A. P. Aitken, D.Se. . pees Hybrid Violas. By J. Grieve . : ‘ : 5 ; aullG Astragalus alpinus albus. By R. lagadene) : 3 ‘ : Ly, Hybrid Veronica. By R. Lindsay . : : : ; ; je alls PRESIDENTS ADDRESS, 1898. : : ; : : : egal Fusion of Nuclei among Plants. By P. Groom, M.A. ; F > 1B2 Andromeda Polifolia, Linn. By Symington Grieve . : 144 Development of Quadrifoliar Spurs in Pinus Laricio, Poir fone Plate). By A. W. Borthwick, B.Sc. ; : : > 150 Interfoliar Buds in Pines. By A. W. Borthwick, B. Seyeic : 2) ley! Micro-Methods. By A. Lundie ; : 159 Contact Negatives for the Comparative Study of Woods (vith Plate). By R. A. Robertson, M.A., B.Sc... : , : ahs AoW First Record of Plants from Hone Island, Barentz Sea. Collected by Vic Sp Tormey 5 . : : ; elo Ferns, Mosses, and titers of Penne By Rev. G. M‘Conachie . 168 CONTENTS Flora of West Inverness. By S. M. Maevicar . é : : Abnormal Conjugation in Spirogyra (with two Plates). By R. A. Robertson, M.A., B.Se. : ; : ‘ : : ; Histology of some Fossil Woods. Part II. (with Plate). By ; R. A. Robertson, M.A., B.Sc. : A . : ‘ Witches’ Broom of Pinus Sylvestris. By A. W. Borthwick, B.Sc. Botanical Notes of a Tour in Upper Engadine and South-East Tyrol by three Fellows of the Edinburgh Botanical Society. By Rev. (x. Gunn, MA... : : ; : ‘ j : ‘Germination of Seeds of Crinum Macowani, Baker (with Plate). By J. Hs Wilson, D.Sc. . . Discovery of Gentiana nivalis, Linn., in isithenlandehie By Dr. J. Lowe ‘ : : 5 : ; Occurrence of Astoitlen Er basaenes Bref., in Scotland. By J. A. Terras, B.Sc. . : : ; : Exhibits shown at Meeting of Lith May 1899. By Prof. Scott Elliot, M.A., B.Sc. P Obituary Notice of the late Malcolm ‘dene Vis M. H. By R. tages Obituary Notice of the late Dr. George C. Wallich. By the President Obituary Notice of the late Dr. James Edward Tierney Aitchison, Surgeon-Major Bengal Army. By J. Rutherford Hill PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 1899 ‘ : Tree Measurements (with Plates). By C. E. Hall Additional Notes on Andromeda Polifolia, Linn. By Symington Grieve ‘ Excursion of the Scottish Alpine Botanical Club to Kirkby Lonsdale. By Dr. William Craig Obituary Notice of Rev. George Cant M. A. By Bey Davitt Paul, M.A., LL.D. Visit to the Dovrefjeld, Norway. By Folin Monteemane Bell, W.S. Variations in Lycopodium clavatum, Linn. (with Plates). By R. A. Robertson, M.A., B.Sc. é Mehnert’s (1) Principle of “Time Diglassmene i (2) apalied : ae development of the Sporophyte. By R. A. Robertson, M.A., B.Se. Artemisia stelleriana, Boss., in Scotland. By G. Claridge rae M.A. Witches’ Brooms. By R. A. Robertson, M.A., B.Sc. 2 : Germination of Winter Buds of Hydrocharis Morsus-Rane. By J. A. Terras, B.Se. : : , : : . Potentille (with Plates). By R. A. Robertson, M.A., B.Sc. Relation between Lenticels and Adventitious Roots of Solanum Dulcamara (with two Plates). By J. A. Terras, B.Sc. : Contributions to the Flora of Spitsbergen, especially of Red Fiord, from the collections of W. 8S. Bruce, F.R.S.G.S. By R. Turnbull, B.Se. : ; APPENDIX Objects and Laws of the Society - toll of the Society, corrected to November 1900 List of Publication Exchanges . INDEX PAGE 175 185 196 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. VOLUME XXI. EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY BY MORRISON AND GIBB LIMITED. MDCCCXCVII. AUG 7- 1923 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. SESSION LX NeW YORK GARDEN ADDRESS DELIVERED AT THE OPENING OF THE SESSION BY Professor A. P. AITKEN, M.A., D.Sc., President of the Society. —12th November 1896. THE NITROGENOUS FOOD OF PLANTS. In the year 1674 a very remarkable discovery was made by John Mayow, viz. that the air, which from all time had been regarded as an elementary substance, was really a mixture of at least two gases—one of them was a gas which enabled things to burn, and the other was one that did not. Moreover, he found that the gas which enabled things to burn, or which “supported combustion,” as it is commonly expressed, was also the gas that enabled animals to breathe or that supported respiration, and that the other did not. He carried his researches even further, and found that this active gas, which he called the “nitrous spirit of the atmosphere,” took part in the making of acids, though it was not sour itself, and also that it was contained in large quantity in nitre or saltpetre. Strange to say that discovery seemed to create no interest at the time, the story of it was told to listless ears and it fell into oblivion. Exactly one hundred years later (1774) that same nitrous spirit of the air was discovered by Priestley, who called it “dephlogisticated air,’ and it was thereafter described by Lavoisier, who called it “oxygen” or the acid maker. The other constituent had been discovered by Rutherford in the Botanic Garden of Edinburgh in 1742, and shown to be a gas that animals could not live in, and he called it “mephitic air.” I do not know how it was that Professor Rutherford was led to make the experiment that resulted in this discovery, but it was a very satisfactory experiment, TRANS, BOT, SOC. EDIN, VOL. XXI. B 2 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. 1x1. made with very simple apparatus, viz. a bell jar, a basin and some lime-water, and a few mice. He put the lime- water in the basin and inverted over it the bell jar. Under the bell jar he slipped a mouse and watched its behaviour. When it began to show signs of distress he pulled it out by means of a string tied to its tail and slipped in another in its place. The second mouse showed signs of distress much sooner than its predecessor, and another mouse was substituted, who succumbed in a still shorter time. On continuing the experiment it was found that the air under the bell jar had grown smaller in bulk, and that it was of a kind that a mouse could not endure with comfort for a moment. This was the second great constituent of the atmosphere, to which Lavoisier in after years gave the name of Azote, to signify that it was a gas in which animals could not live. For the same reason the Germans call it stickstoff or choking stuff, while we in this country call it nitrogen, Which means the nitre maker, for it is found in nitre as a very characteristic constituent along with oxygen— the nitrous spirit of Mayow. Later researches showed that this gas, nitrogen, in which an animal could not breathe and a candle could not burn, occupied about four-fifths of the entire atmosphere, the remaining fifth being oxygen. The properties of nitrogen were studied by many chemists, but it was found to be a very uninteresting subject. It formed very few compounds, and its disinclination to unite. with other elements earned for it the name of the chemical bachelor. It was found to be an idle, inert kind of a loafer, good for nothing but to get in the road of the molecules of oxygen and interfere with their oxidising work, for before a molecule of oxygen could get at anything to burn it, it must needs knock four molecules of nitrogen out of its way and heat them up into the bargain, thereby greatly diminishing the energy of combustion all over the slobe. It was found, however, that when nitrogen did get into combination with other elements it could form very powerful and important substances such as ammonia, its compound with hydrogen, and nitric acid, its compound with oxygen. ases, there were found in the air others in small quantity but of immense importance, water Besides these two Oo 5D Noy. 1896. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 3 vapour usually forming less than one but often more than two per cent. of the air, and carbonic acid present to the extent of about three or four parts in ten thousand. Still more elaborate analyses have shown that ammonia is in the air to the amount of one part per million, or less, and that traces of nitric acid are also sometimes to be found. The relation of these gases to plant life very soon began to be noticed, speculated about, and experimentally investigated. Priestley, the year before he discovered oxygen, had, with the watchful eye of genius, made a very interesting observation. He found that air which had been “depraved,” as he called it, by burning a lamp in it, or by breathing in it, could be restored to its former purity by putting a growing plant in it and exposing it to the sunlight. The explanation of that curious circumstance did not come till a good while later. Indeed, it was not till the beginning of this century that botanists were assured that plants with green leaves took their carbon from the carbonic acid of the air, and gave out a corresponding quantity of oxygen, and that one of the great functions of plant life was the restoration to the atmosphere of the oxygen of which it had been bereft in the universal processes of respiration and combustion. Familiar as we are with that fact at the present day, it never ceases, and never can cease, to be a subject of great interest and continual wonder that the green vegetation that clothes the globe, from the tiniest alga to the greatest forest tree, derives the half of the dry matter of which it is composed, viz. its carbon, from the carbonic acid of the air, although that gas is present in the atmosphere only to the limited extent above mentioned. It was found that this formative process, which is called assimilation, went on only in daylight, and most vigorously in sunshine. During the night or in the dark, plants were found to give out only carbonic acid, and further investigation showed that plants were constantly giving out carbonic acid both by night and by day in common with all other organised beings, whether vegetable or animal, and that act is known as respiration. Every living thing must breathe; it must take in oxygen to burn up its waste carbonaceous matter, and give it out as carbonic acid. 4 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXI. The quantity of oxygen that is used up, and the corre- sponding quantity of carbonic acid that is given out by such a torpid creature as a plant during the night, is very small, and is more than compensated by the reverse process which takes place during half an hour’s sunshine in the morning. Although it is about a hundred years since the main fact concerning the process of assimilation was known —what may be called the upshot of the process—we are yet very far from knowing how it is that plants take their earbon from carbonic acid gas and convert it into their own tissues. We can see the formation of starch in the chlorophyll cells during sunshine, and its disappearance during darkness, but as yet we know nothing certain regarding the steps which lead up to the formation of starch. Whether the chlorophyll takes a formative part in the making of starch, or whether it simply acts as a screen to allow only select rays of light to reach the laboratory where the carbonic acid is being decomposed, and whether this product is hypochlorin, as Pringsheim suggests, or formic aldehyde as some have supposed, we know nothing sure. The chemistry of the carbohydrates is a very intricate subject, and difficult of exploration, and only the rudiments of it are as yet known. If that is the case with the carbohydrates, it is so in a still more marked degree with the nitrogenous constituents of plants. The molecule of starch is simplicity itself compared with the molecule of albumen, which may be regarded as the finished article of the nitrogenous kind that is built up in the tissues of plants. It has been estimated that the molecule of albumen may consist of from 3000 to 5000 atoms. Such estimates are mere guesses, scarce worth considering, but they serve the purpose of impressing upon the mind the extreme complexity of some of the nitrogenous substances of which plants are composed, and the enormous difficulties which that complexity places in the way of their investigation. It is to the nitrogenous parts of plants, and especially the nitrogenous food of plants, that I wish to direct your attention for a short time; and I have been prompted to do so from the knowledge that there will be brought before Noy. 1896.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 5 the Society during the present session some interesting information on the recent advances of a practical kind that have been made in the growth of plants, arising out of our better acquaintance with the manner in which they obtain their nitrogenous nourishment. I have already referred to the fact that four-fifths of the atmosphere consists of free nitrogen gas. With such an enormous store of nitrogen around them it would seem, at first sight, that whatever difficulty plants might find in obtaining the other constituents of which they are composed they ought to experience no difficulty in obtaining an abundant supply of nitrogen. Practical experience, however, shows us very clearly that it is the constituent most difficult for them to obtain, as it is the most expensive for us to supply. The natural conclusion to arrive at from that consideration is that the nitrogen of the air must surely not be an available source of plant nourishment. Up to the present decade there was no dogma more firmly rooted in the minds of botanists than this, that plants could make no use of the free nitrogen of the air. Careful experiments made by Boussingault, who was a most accurate experimenter, and whose manifold experiments may be said to have laid the foundation of agricultural chemistry, seemed to prove that plants could not assimilate free atmospheric nitrogen. No excuse is needed to ask you to look for a minute into the details of one of his now classical experiments. | Duration|Number| Weight | Weight | Nitrogen| Nitrogen Gain or of Ex- of of of in in Loss of periment] Seeds. | Seed Plant. | Seed. Plant. | Nitrogen. Months. Gm. Gm. Gm. Gm. Gin. Bean, nain 2 1 “780 | 1°87 | 0349 | 0340 | — 0009 he i 2 1 792 | 2°35 | :0354 | :0360 | +0006 Ag Af 24 1 *665 | 2°80 | ‘0298 | 0277 | —°0021 ab = 3 1 *530 89 | ‘0210 | -0189 — 0021 29 AG 6 3 1 *618 | 1:13 | -0245 0226 | —:0019 Lupine, white 1% 2 825 | 1°82 | 0480 | :0483 | +0003 50 96 2 6 DI024 62139) ol282. | 12465 — -0036 5 i 12 7 “600 | 1°95 "0349 | :0339 | — +0010 a, i 14 1 | 343) 1:05 | -0200 | -0204 | +:0004 | oe An 14 2 “686 | 1°53 "0399 | :0397 | —-0002 Oat 2 10 "3TT “54 ‘0078 | 0067 | — ‘0011 50 2h 4 "139 "44 ‘0031 0030 , — 0001 Criss : 34 3 “OO Gila al eaciqunl) enivaicoual ial ;, as Manure oa 10 "026 |) 65. |--0013 | 0018 | ogne 6 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXI. He grew plants of various kinds in an air-tight case in soils that were composed of sand, to which he added the ashes of plants to serve as manure, but which contained no nitrogen in any form of combination. Tubes were inserted in the case through which he could water the plants with pure distilled water, and others through which air was led in after passing through sulphuric acid, to deprive it of any ammonia, and over bicarbonate of soda, to deprive it of any nitric acid. Thus no nitrogen was allowed to reach the plants but that of the free nitrogen of the air. He weighed the seeds at the beginning, and the whole plants at the end of each experiment, and you will see from the table that the whole plant was usually only two or three times the weight of the seed itself. He estimated the nitrogen in the seeds from an analysis made of a number of others of the same kind, and, at the end, he determined the total amount of nitrogen in the plant and in the small quantity of soil it grew in. You will see that there was usually a loss of nitrogen, and in one or two cases a trifling gain. He varied his experiments, afterwards, by giving the plant a small ascertained amount of nitrogenous manure, but the results were similar, and he felt entitled to conclude from all his experiments that plants could not assimilate the free nitrogen of the air. Coming from such a weighty authority, this view obtained general acceptance. About the same time (1850) M. Georges Ville, Director of the Ag. Exper. Station at Joinville, Paris, was engaged in a series of experiments with a similar object in view. He had no confidence in Boussingault’s experiments on account of the unnatural conditions under which he attempted to grow his plants, and he despised a crop which weighed only two or three times the weight of the seed. He also grew his plants within an air-tight case, and had complete control of the water and air supplied to them, but he gave them some nitrogenous manure, and plenty of soil and air. The result was that his plants grew to normal size, 50 or 100 times the weight of the seed they sprang from, and he found that they had assimilated free nitrogen, sometimes in a very marked degree. He grew cereals, leguminons plants, and cruciferous plants, and found that, Noy. 1896. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH fl in every case there was an assimilation of atmospheric nitrogen, but mostly in the case of leguminous plants. He published his researches, but the results were received with incredulity. They differed so totally from those of Boussingault, a distinguished member of the French Academy, that scientific men felt sure he had made some mistake, and the bitter things said against poor Georges Ville’s researches rendered his life miserable. He never lost confidence, however, in the accuracy of his work, and eventually he threw down a challenge to the French Academy to appoint a committee of experts to superintend one of his experiments. The Academy took it up, and a committee of very eminent men were appointed—Dumas, Regnault, Payen, Decaisne, Peligot, and Chevréul. They superintended the experiments for several months; one important part of their supervision was to see that no nitrogenous matter was supplied to the plants in the water they were watered with. Accordingly, every time the plants were watered the residue of the water was put into a large vessel for after investigation. At the close of the experiment this water was analysed, and it was found to contain some ammonia. This staggered Ville very much, and on inquiring into the matter he found that a few days before the water was tested some of the pupils in the Museum of Natural History, where the experiment was conducted, had been making ammonia gas, which, being a penetrating gas, had very probably reached the water and been absorbed by it. The committee were of course constrained to report that they were not satisfied that the plants had not received some ammonia from the water used in watering them. But the Academy voted Ville 2000 francs to defray the expenses of the investigation, and other 2000 to enable him to go on with it. Thereafter two English experimenters entered the field, viz. Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, at Rothamsted. They resolved to repeat Boussingault’s experiments, but with the adoption of a number of elaborate precautions, so as to prevent any possible chance of error. The result of their investigation was to confirm the accuracy of Boussingault’s conclusion, and that practically disposed of the question for S TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXI. the time, but it did not silence Ville. He published a new edition of his researches in 1867. After having repeated many of his former experiments, and found them accurate, he was able, from his added experience, to see how Boussingault’s method could not end in anything but failure. The plants, he maintained, could never be anything but sickly, misthriven objects under the conditions of growth he imposed on them, and he pointed out that on account of these conditions the puny plants were not allowed to arrive at that stage of development when it was possible for them to utilise the free nitrogen of the air. In his experiments he gave the plants sufficient soil to enable their roots to -grow, and he supplied them with a certain small amount of nitrate of soda, just enough to tide them over their childhood, so to speak, but not enough to pamper them and make them lazy in the vigour of their youth. He held the view that plants, like other beings of a higher type, when they found within their reach two sources of nourishment, took the one that was easiest got at; so that if a plant found nitrogenous food among its roots it absorbed that, and did not exercise its power of taking, with more difficulty, its nitrogen from the air. By careful experiment he discovered how much nitrate of soda was needed to give his plants a good start, and he stopped there, and let them find the rest of their nitrogenous food in the free nitrogen of the air he supplied to them. So far as I can discover, no particular attention was given to Ville’s further publication, and almost nobody had any confidence in his conclusions. Happening to be in Paris just twenty years ago, I paid a visit to the Experiment Station at Joinville, and knowing it was a public institu- tion, I gave no notice of my coming. Unfortunately I did not get access to the grounds, as M. Ville was from home, but the inquiries I made regarding the work carried on there among some leading scientists in Paris were usually answered by that characteristic shrug of the shoulders with which our neighbours across the Channel are able to convey a wonderful amount of tacit information. It was quite evident that he was not regarded by the Parisian scientists as one of their set. Novy. 1896. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 9 Seeing that the free nitrogen of the air was regarded by the highest authorities to be unavailable for plant nutrition, it became necessary to cast about and find what stores of combined nitrogen were available in the world. I have already referred to the ammonia, which, as carbonate of ammonia, is a constant though minute con- stituent of the atmosphere. Its amount has been often estimated, and the estimates show extraordinary variations, from 1 part in twenty millions to as much as 54 parts in one million; depending on the locality where the sample of air was taken. Over the land it is more than over the sea; and it is greatest near towns where coals are being burned, and in places where organic matter is decaying. According to Angus Smith the ammonia in its rain-water over England is just about 1 part per million; in Scotland it is only halt as much. In towns in England it is 5 parts on an average; in Scottish towns it is somewhat less, but in Glasgow it is 9 parts per million. It is very soluble in water, and is ° washed out of the air by rain. After thunderstorms there is also found nitric and nitrous acids, or their. salts, in the air, and these too are washed down by rain. Jain-gauges at various observatories in Europe, notably at Rothamsted in England, have been in use for many years, to determine not only the quantity but also the quality of the rain that falls throughout the year; and the total combined nitrogen brought to the earth by them has been found to be some- where between 4 and 10 lbs. per acre. That is a very welcome addition to the nitrogenous food of the soil; but it forms only about one-tenth of what is removed by a moderate cereal crop, and is insufficient to recoup the soil for the loss which it is constantly incurring by drainage. Always there is nitrogen in some form of combination flowing down the rivers to the sea, and the store of it on the land is being diminished. It forms an important manurial constituent for the nourishment of seaweeds, and these again are the food of fishes, many of which are brought back to the land to be consumed as food; but any such restoration goes but a very little way in making good the drain of nitrogen in some form of combination which the land is constantly suffering. Still more serious is the loss of combined nitrogen from 10 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE _ [Sess xt. the decomposition of nitrogenous compounds in a number of ways. When, in the ordinary course of nature, living things, be they animal or vegetable, fall into decay, the nitrogenous compounds they contain do not all escape into the air as ammonia, as was at one time believed. Liebig, in his famous book on “ Organic Chemistry in its Applica- tion to Agriculture and Physiology,” published in the middle of this century, taught that from carbonic acid gas, water, and ammonia, came the food of the world, and back to carbonic acid, water, and ammonia it all returned, either directly in its decay, or indirectly in the life and death of the animals whose frames it temporarily served to support. It was a beautiful generalisation, this cycle of change through which all organic life was held to pass; but careful investigation of the products of organic decay has shown that much of the albumen, and other nitro- genous matter contained in living organisms, is decomposed during their life, as well as at their death, into something even simpler than ammonia, viz. into the element nitrogen itself. The proportion of the albuminoid matter reduced in this way may be very considerable, and may even amount to one-fourth of the whole of the nitrogen of the substance if conditions are favourable. Even when the nitrogenous organic matter has had its nitrogen converted into the inorganic form of nitrates, or nitrites, it is not safe; for apart altogether from the extreme ease with which these salts are washed out of the soil and into the water-courses by rain, they are, while resident in the soil, liable to be reduced in the presence of much organic matter, especially if cut off from a circulation of air; and that reduction, stopping short of ammonia, liberates their nitrogen in the uncombined state. It has been observed that these instances of reduction are greatly hastened, if they are not entirely brought about, through the instrumentality of micro-organisms in the soil, or in any place where organic matter is accumulated. But also in the presence of air there are decompositions taking place in decaying organic matter, whereby oxidised and unoxidised products re-act upon each other and liberate the whole of their nitrogen as free nitrogen gas. Noy. 1896.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 11 It would take me too far to enter into any detail regard- ing chemical processes of that kind, and it is the less necessary because, although they are known to occur, if have no idea of the extent to which they are operating, and I cannot estimate their importance. As when organic substances are being consumed by the slow processes of putrefaction and decay, so also when they are being burned a considerable part of the nitrogen is set free as such. The burning of wood and of coal are opera- tions in which a very appreciable amount of uncombined nitrogen is set free. It may be said of coal that its com- bustion is a gain rather than a loss to the available nitrogen of the world, because far more of the nitrogen it contains is set free as ammonia than as nitrogen gas. No doubt that is so, but the nitrogen contained in the coal measures must have been got from the atmosphere at the time when the plants that made the coal were growing, and we can regard the nitrogenous matter locked up in them only as part of the funded capital of the combined nitrogen of the world, and any process of combustion which sets the com- bined nitrogen free is an expenditure of that capital, and it is evident that if the process of spending goes on long enough, there will by and by be no capital of combined nitrogen to draw upon. Besides the sources of loss which I have indicated as going on in what may be called dead organic matters, there are others which are known to be going on in the bodies of living animals,—fermentations in which the nitrogen contained in the albuminoid matter of their food is to some extent liberated in the uncombined form. It will be seen that the circumstances in which combined nitrogen becomes free are very various, and as we do not know them all, but probably only a few of them, we are forced to conclude that, unless there are some means whereby free nitrogen is brought again into combination, and unless these means are not only active but abundant, we must be hastening on to a time when life in any form upon the globe must become extinct for want of nourish- ment. A survey of the history of the globe shows us, however, that life is on the increase, and that organic matter is 12 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE _ [Szss. Lx. constantly accumulating. We have only to look at the rocks of which the earth’s crust is composed to be assured that at one time this planet was a molten ball on which there was no organic matter, and now it is clad in a dress of living green, and teeming everywhere with life. That vegetable and animal life should have increased so abundantly, requires that either there must at one time have been an immense store of amionia in the atmosphere, which has gone on constantly diminishing, or there must have been, and there must be now, some process going on on a large scale whereby ammonia is being formed out of the free nitrogen of the air. We have no reason to suppose, however, that there ever was a larger store of ammonia in the air than there is at present. The certainty is rather that at one time, viz., when the earth was at a white heat, there was no ammonia in our atmosphere at all. A red heat suffices to decompose it into its two component gases, nitrogen and hydrogen—one volume of the former and three of the latter,—and these on cooling do not again unite. It is hard to see how ammonia, if it did exist in the atmosphere at that time, could escape decomposition, and the fact that in the atmosphere there is scarcely a trace of hydrogen, and, moreover, that what little there is can be easily accounted for by volcanic action, we naturally come to the conclusion that there was no ammonia in the original atmosphere of the earth. We have therefore good reason to believe that the total amount of ammonia in the atmosphere is now not less, but probably more than it ever has been. Seeing that there are so many ways in which combined nitrogen may be set free, and that the quantity of com- bined nitrogen on the globe is on the increase, there must he some process of a widespread general kind going on around us whereby the free nitrogen of the air is being brought into combination. Despite the dictum of weighty chemical authorities that plants could not convert free into combined nitrogen, there remained many who believed that they must possess that power; for if it were not possessed by plants, there seemed to be no other direction in which to account for the ordinary conditions of organic life on the globe. Noy. 1896.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 13 Moreover, there were some curious facts known to agriculturists that could scarcely be explained in any other way. It was well known, from the time of the Romans, that when leguminous plants were grown on land under rotational cultivation, an abundant crop of that kind was followed the next season by a good cereal crop. They were of opinion that the leguminous crop enriched the soil, Farmers in this country, too, have known for ages that a good crop of wheat was certain if a good crop of clover had preceded it. Now chemical analysis shows us that the clover crop is very rich in nitrogenous matter; and if we assume that this nitrogenous matter comes to the crop from the soil, it stands to reason that the removal of a clover crop should leave the soil poorer in nitrogenous matter than before. Such, however, is not the case. Chemical analysis shows that the soil is richer in nitrogenous matter after the clover crop has been carried away; so that either the roots of the clover left in the ground must have got their nitrogen from deep down in the ground, or it must have come to the plant from the air and have been stored up to some extent in the roots. Another common observation was that when a crop of maslum was grown, which is a mixture of beans and oats, or when tares and oats are grown together, the oat plants are stronger and taller than those on any part of the field where the oats have grown separately. So also it is commonly observed that in pastures the places where clover is most abundant are the places where the grasses are growing greenest. A very striking example of the power of leguminous plants to enrich the soil in nitrogen was furnished by Mr. Schultz, a farmer who owned the farm of Lupitz,in Altmark, N. Germany. The soil was little better than sand when he came into possession of it, and he could not afford to buy nitrogenous manures to bury in it, neither did he feed cattle to provide farmyard manure for it. He adopted the system of green manuring. He grew leguminous crops, chiefly lupines, and ploughed them in, and he manured his land with potash and phosphates, following Liebig’s 14 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE _ [Szss. uxt. recommendations, and he also limed it, but he put on no nitrogenous matter. The result was that his land grew more and more fertile. He used to plough in all his leguminous crop; by and by he reaped it, but still the fertility of the land increased. At first he followed his green manuring with a crop of rye, for the land was too poor to grow other cereals, but by and by he found he could grow oats and barley, and, in short, after a period of twenty years, he had converted a sandy waste into a rich, fertile soil containing abundance of nitrogenous matter. He declared that the nitrogen in his soil came from the air, and that the leguminous plants had brought it. He called them nitrogen collectors, and the cereal crops he ealled nitrogen consumers. This remarkable experiment soon gained notoriety, and farmers and scientists came annually in numbers to see it; and the impression left on their minds, when they com- pared this fertile farm with the barren, sandy land adjacent to it, was that leguminous plants at least must surely have the faculty of making use of the free nitrogen of the air. It had the effect of causing a number of the scientists who had charge of agricultural experiment stations to institute experiments anew, to test again the old vexed question. The first of these to arrive at satisfactory conclusions were Professor Hellriegel and his coadjutor, Dr. Wilfarth. They began their experimental inquiry in 1883, and three years later, in 1886, Hellriegel communicated to the Agricultural Section of the German Naturalists, at their meeting in Berlin, the interesting information that he had succeeded in proving that the leguminosie were able to assimilate the free nitrogen of the air, and what added immensely to the interest of that fact was the curious way in which they did it. I am not aware that the subject of Hellriegel’s discovery has ever been formally brought before the notice of the Society, although most of the fellows present are doubtless well acquainted with it; but as it is what is called an epoch making discovery, I think a short description of it, even at this late date, would be welcome to some of you, Noy. 1896] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 15 and an occasion like this is an appropriate one for the purpose. Time will not permit me to do more than trace its salient features in brief outline. The gist of Hellriegel’s discovery is this,——he found that leguminous plants of the sub-order Papilionaceze were able to make their albuminoid matter by assimilating the free nitrogen of the air, and that that power was associated in some way with the growth of warty tubercles on the roots of the plants, and that these tubercles contained peculiar cells called bacteroids, due to the agency of bacteria which entered the roots of the plant from the soil. I shall explain how he came to the full possession of that knowledge immediately, but in the first place I would like to refer shortly to the tubercles or nodules themselves. Hellriegel did not discover the nodules. They have been known for a long time. The first mention of them that I am aware of was made by the famous Italian anatomist Malpighi, who described them in the year 1660. He thought they were galls, but he was surprised to find that they never contained eggs or larvee. Coming to recent times, Treviranus describes them in a paper communicated to the Botanische Zeitung in 1853, but the first careful description of them was made by Woronin in 1866. He studied those found on the roots of Alnus glutinosa and Lupinus mutabilis. He described them as consisting of two distinct kinds of parenchymatous tissue, an inner and an outer, separated by a layer of vascular bundles proceeding from the vascular bundles of the root of which they were lateral excrescences. He noticed that the outermost cell of the inner parenchyma multiplied by division, and that the older cells contained a slimy mass of plasma, full of tiny little bacteria-looking bodies, which, when put into water, moved about just as bacteria do, and he thought that they were the cause of the nodules. Erikssen, in 1874, published a paper accurately de- scribing the development of the nodules on the roots of the Haba vulgaris, and observed that the region where the bacteroids were rapidly multiplying by division was entered by the hyphz of a fungus, which appeared like a knotted thread ramified through the mass. 16 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. 1x1. Frank and Prillieux, in 1879, described them, and regarded them as due to the attack of a parasitic fungus. Schindler, at the same time, studied them, and came to the conclusion that the fungus was associated with the leguminous plant in a symbiotic manner; and Brunchorst, some years later (1885), described the nodules as store chambers, where the plant laid up a store of albuminoid matter which it utilised during ripening. This view was suggested before by De Fries (1877), who held that the nodules were absorbers of nitrogen, which the plant utilised for making its albumen. Schindler, in 1885, thought they were connected with the plant in a symbiotic manner, and that their function was to absorb nitrogenous organic matter from the soil. Ischirch thought that these nodules grew best on soils that were poor in nitrogenous matter, and that they not only stored up nitrogen for the use of the ripening plant, but that they also went back partly to the soil and enriched it in nitrogenous matters also. It was when observations and views of that kind were current that Hellriegel and Wilfarth published an account of their experiments. These experiments commenced, as I said, in 1883. He found that when he grew leguminous plants and gramineous plants, say peas and oats, in the same soil—a soil consisting of sand, to which nutritive solutions were added—that the oats grew and flourished in proportion to the quantity of nitrate of soda supplied in the manure. When the amount added was small, the growth was small; when the amount was doubled, the growth was doubled; when the amount was trebled, the growth was trebled; and so on, until sufficient was added to produce a full crop, when, of course, the further addition of nitrate produced an ever- diminishing increase. It was quite plain that the oats derived their nitrogenous food precisely from the nitrate of soda provided for them. The peas, on the other hand, erew in quite a capricious manner; showing that they were not dependent for their nitrogenous food supply on the nitrate of soda, or at least not on it alone. As a matter of fact, the pot which got least nitrate grew the largest plants. Noy. 1896.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 17 He further noticed that when the plants were grown in a poor soil—poor as regards nitrogen—they all came up equally well at first, and made a healthy braird, but as soon as the supply of nourishment contained in the seed was used up, they began to grow pale and yellow, and the oats died down. ‘The peas, however, did not die down, but after a period of ill-health they began to regain their green colour, and thereafter their growth was rapid, and eventu- ally they attained to full development. He found that those plants that flourished best had most nodules on their roots, and those that were most backward had fewest. This proved that vigorous growth and the development of root nodules were related to each other in some way. To test whether the growth of the nodules was dependent on the attack of micro-organisms in the soil, he grew some peas and other leguminous plants in pots whose soil he had previously sterilised by heating, and he found that in such soils the peas succumbed just as the oats had done; there was no revival of colour and strength as before. When, to such a sterilised soil, he added a little of a fertile soil, in which peas grew on a few cubic centimetres of the watery extract of such a soil, the peas grew as before, and pro- duced nodules on their roots. When he planted his peas in a sterilised soil to which nitrogenous manure was added, the peas grew, but they did not produce any nodules on their roots. What was proved then by these experiments was, that leguminous plants could grow in a soil supplied with proper nitrogenous nourishment just as other plants could, but that they could also grow in soils containing very little nitrogenous matter if well supphed with other essential manurial ingredients, and that the plants contained far more nitrogenous matter than was contained in the soil; that this gain of nitrogen was dependent on the growth of nodules on the roots, and in proportion to their abundance; that the appearance of nodules was possible only in soils where a certain organism, or certain organisms, were present, and not otherwise; that the interference of these organisms enabled the plant to take up free nitrogen, either by its roots or by its leaves, from the air in the soil, or from the TRANS, BOT, SOC. EDIN. VOL, XXI. Cc 18 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXI. air above the soil, in some unknown manner; that in the nodules there was a supply of nitrogenous matter which disappeared as the plant grew older, and that some of the nitrogenous matter of the nodules, and the organisms along with it, found their way back to the soil, and caused it to become richer in nitrogenous compounds. This beautiful, interesting, and important discovery was, as I have said, first communicated by Professor Hellriegel and his coadjutor, Dr. Wilfarth, but there were a good many others engaged in the same inquiry, and whose experiments led to similar conclusions. Chief among these were Professor Prazmouski, Berthellot, Attwater, and Marshall Ward. The last of whom has shown, in a paper read before the Royal Society of London (1887), that the organism which attacks the roots of the leguminosie, causing the growth of nodules, is not a bacterium, but a fungus whose minute germs are all but universally distributed in the soil. The much debated question is now solved. The loss which is constantly going on over the world in the con- version of combined into free nitrogen is being constantly recouped by the conversion of free atmospheric nitrogen into combined nitrogen by at least one sub-order of plants that is found abundantly distributed all over the world. The question naturally arises, are the leguminous the only kind of plants possessing this faculty of nitrogen assimila- tion? It would add vastly to the wonder of the process if that were so, and it would invest this sub-order of plants with a fascinating and absorbing interest. It is not natural to suppose that this power should be limited to only one sub-order of plants, and it would seem that other orders of plants are now recognised as in active, though it may be feeble competition. There is, however, one important set of plants that has been found to possess the faculty in a marked degree, viz. unicellular alge, which, though among the most minute of plants, make up by their number what they lack in size. This very important discovery was made by Berthellot and André. They found that soils in which no visible plants were growing, and from which all combined atmospheric nitrogen was excluded, did become richer in nitrogen, whose only source can be the free nitrogen of the air; and a microscopic examination of such soils shows the Nov. 1898.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 19 presence of minute unicellular alge, which they found to be the active agents in that fixation. That being so, there is no end to the possibilities of nitrogen assimilation by plants, for these unicellular plants resemble the cells of which most plants are composed, and it may yet be found that all plants possess in some degree, however small, the power of assimilating free nitrogen by their leaves. In most cases such power of assimilation may be so small in comparison with the demands which the plants make upon the nitrogenous matter in the soil, as to entirely escape observation until some specially devised methods of detecting and determining it are provided. Before closing my remarks I would ask you to recall the results I have already referred to that were obtained by Georges Ville. He knew nothing about the nodules on the roots of the leguminous plants he grew, nor did he know what was the modus operandi by which the plants he worked with obtained their nitrogen, but he discovered the main fact, that they did assimilate free nitrogen, and that the power to do so was not confined to the papilionacee, but shared by plants of other orders. Moreover, he laid down quite accurately the conditions under which that assimila- tion took place. And as it is right that those who have been pioneers, and who have made important discoveries, should get full recognition, it is important to recall the fact that Ville’s discovery was made forty-five years ago, and that his experiments were not matters of doubt or hear- say, but experiments whose results are all carefully and accurately recorded, I have called this paper “The nitrogenous food of plants.” It might be expected that I should proceed to describe in detail the various forms in which nitrogenous matters are provided for plant food. Any such description would far exceed the bounds of time at my disposal and of the patience at yours. I need only say in a sentence that numerous as the forms of nitrogenous food are, they are convertible into one very soluble form—nitric acid—which is believed to be the form in which chiefly, if not solely, plants take up their nitrogenous nourishment from the soil. Moreover, it is known that there are processes going 20 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE _ [Suss. ixt. on in the soil whereby nitrogenous matters are converted into nitric acid; and that these processes, like most other chemical processes going on in the soil, are achieved through the instrumentality of living organisms. The characters of some of these organisms, their life history, the work in which they are engaged, and the means by which that work may be controlled in some measure, so as to serve specific ends, will, I understand, be demonstrated at an early meeting of the Society, and it is to form a kind of introduction to that practical aspect of the subject that I have asked you to listen to this short historical sketch. EXPERIMENTS WITH NITRAGIN. By WILLIAM SOMERVILLE, D.(£c., D.Se., Professor of Agriculture, Durham College of Science. (Read, Thursday, 14th January 1897.) Those who have been following the various developments of “the nitrogen question” during the past few years would be more or less prepared for the announcement that appeared in the “ Deutsche Landwirtschaftliche Presse,” on the 8th of April last, to the effect that the bacteria, which establish themselves on the roots of Papilionaceous plants, and enable them to utilise the free nitrogen of the air, were on sale as a commercial article by the firm of Meister Lucius & Briining’s successors at Hochst am Main. The work of many distinguished investigators during the past decade had established the fact that the Papilionaceous family of the Leguminose could make use of the supplies of atmospheric nitrogen in a way that was impossible for other plants. This power, however, is not inherent in the plants themselves, but is due to colonies of bacteria, which find a habitation in the wart-like nodules that are normally present in abundance on their roots. Without these bacteria the plants in question are in no better a position than others, and although. our clover, peas, vetches, etc., may usually be trusted to find in the soil a sutlicient number of the particular bacteria that they consort with, still there is always the chance that Jan, 1897. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 21 these minute organisms may be absent, and that, in con- sequence, the vigorous development of the plants may be prevented. Professor Nobbe, of Tharandt, and Dr. Hiltner, devoted much attention to the subject, and proved, amongst other things, that each Papilionaceous plant has its own varietal, if not specific, organism, and that for full development it is necessary that the roots of a Papilionaceous crop should have access to the bacterium which is specially adapted to it. They therefore instituted a series of pure cultures of the various varieties of bacteria that inhabit the roots of our more important Papilionaceous plants, and haying patented these cultures, they entrusted their manufacture to the well-known chemical firm above mentioned. This pure gelatinous culture is known as “ Nitragin,” and is sold at M. 2°75 per bottle, this quantity being sufficient to dress a morgen. It will thus be seen that for 4s. 6d. one can obtain as much Nitragin as will treat an acre, so that if it produces practically any good effects at all, its use can hardly fail to be profitable. To apply the Nitragin to the land or the crop one is recommended either to mix it with water and then to add the seed to the solution immediately before sowing, or to mix it with some soil and afterwards scatter the mixture over the field. Early in May I obtained a few bottles of Nitragin, and at once started some small experiments to test its practical value. Without going into the details of the arrangement and conduct of these experiments, I may say that I was careful (7) to apply the same quantity of seed to compar- ative plots, (J) to see that the Nitragin was not exposed to light, and was liquified at a temperature of less than 100° F., and (c) that in the various cultural operations of covering the seed, weeding the plots, etc., the worker should never go from inoculated to uninoculated ground. Asa matter of fact the weeding was all done from planks, each plot being provided with a sufficient number, which were utilized as occasion required. EXPERIMENTS WITH PEAS. Each plot consisted of a row 24 feet long, an interval of 23 feet occurring between adjoining rows. Five 22 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE _ [Szss. 1x1. grammes of Nitragin were taken for each plot and mixed with half a pint of water, after which the seed (1 pint) was poured into the mixture and rendered thoroughly wet. Dry sand was next added to absorb the surplus moisture and facilitate the distribution of the seeds. The peas (“Dicksons’ First and Best”) were then sown in a drill and covered in the usual way. This experiment was carried out in duplicate. The following are the weights of produce in an air-dry condition :— ‘© A” Plots. faB. selots: Total Weight of Straw Straw Se ca brat Seed. and Seed and andaecsien Husks. Husks. | | oz. oz, | oz. Oz. OZ. | Not Inoculated 33°75 | 37°50 | 44:50 | 4000 155°75 Inoculated : , 39°25 38°75 45°50 42°50 166°00 Gain by Inoculation 5°50 | 1°25 1°00 2°50 10°25 In both sets of plots the Nitragin has apparently increased the yield, the gain of total produce being 6°6 per cent. EXPERIMENTS WITH BROAD BEANS. This experiment was carried out in exactly the same way as the preceding one, except that here the rows were 2 ft. apart, and only two thirds of a pint of seed (“ Early Long Pod”) was employed. SEOA UPLOtS: ‘*B” Plots. / +: tebe Total Straw | | Straw | cen a: ‘ | Seed, Straw, Seed, and | Seed. and 9) oadunincics Husks. | Husks, | ; — - — —— OZ. OZ | OZ. 07. OZ. Not Inoculated . | 88°50 59°50 45°75 58°75 | 202°50 Inoculated ; ’ 35°25 54°50 34°75 | 5425 | 178°75 | — — — = _——_—_—_— —__—_— | Loss by Inoculation 3°25 5°00 11°00 | 4°50 | 23°75 In this case the inoculation failed to increse the yield, and, as before, the “B” plots confirmed the “A”s, The total produce is 11‘7 per cent. less when Nitragin was added than when it was withheld. Jan. 1897. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 23 EXPERIMENTS WITH LUCERNE AND BroAD RED CLOVER. Here each plot measured 24 ft. by 9 ft.,a path 24 ft. wide being left between adjoining plots. Three ounces of seed were employed for each plot of lucerne, and 13 oz. for each clover plot. In neither case were the plots duplicated. The produce was weighed green immediately after cutting, with the following result. Weight of | Weight of Lucerne, Clover. lbs. lbs. | Not Inoculated. ‘ 105 159°5 | Inoculated. ‘ : 102 155°0 Loss by Inoculation . 3 4°5 In neither case did the Nitragin benefit the plants, the uninoculated produce being heavier by 2°9 per cent. in the case of the lucerne, and 2°8 per cent. in the case of the clover, than that grown upon inoculated ground. It will thus be seen that only in the case of the peas did the application of Nitragin result in an increase in the yield, but in any case the variations in the weights of of produce are too small to make it possible to say definitely that the inoculating substance had affected growth either one way or another. These experiments were carried out in a garden attached to the College, in which it may be assumed that peas and beans have frequently been cultivated during recent years. As the soil will thus be well supplied with the bacteria that associate with the roots of these plants, it is not surprising that the application of a pure culture of these bacteria should have been inoperative. But as regards red clover and lucerne, it may safely be assumed that neither of these plants has ever been cultivated in the garden, and the probability is that not a single plant of lucerne ever grew in the garden or indeed in any fields in the neigh- bourhood. The conditions, therefore, were to be regarded as distinctly favourable for exhibiting the action of the specific bacteria of these plants, and yet they faild to produce any effect. 24 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE _ [Sxss. Lx1. Our experiences in the North of England appear to have been much the same as those of the few other investigators who haye tried Nitragin in a practical manner in two or three other parts of the country. Nor does a greater measure of success appear to have attended the use of the substance on the Continent. The manufacturers of Nitragin recently sent a communication to the press, in which they contended that the many cases of failure that had been brought to their notice were to be ascribed to lack of care on the part of investigators, who, it was asserted, had exposed the Nitragin to too much heat or light, or had allowed the bacteria to be conveyed from inoculated to uninoculated ground. Such an explanation carries no conviction to the mind of anyone who is acquainted with the inoculation of soil by bacteria. At a recent meeting of the Associated Chambers of Agriculture, held at Halle, Dr. Kiihn gave an account of the experiments with Nitragin which had been carried out during last season by himself, Menzel, and Falcke. All the more important leguminous crops were made use of in these investigations, with the result that in no case did Nitragin produce an increase that could be said to be beyond the range of experimental error admissible in field experiments. In some cases the uninoculated crop was considerably better than that which had been treated with Nitragin, and Kiihn finishes his paper by expressing the hope that improvements in the methods of manufacture or application may yet make Nitragin of service in agriculture and horticulture. There is no doubt that Nitragin will next season get a very careful and extended trial on the part of scientists and practical farmers, although it would have been more encouraging had the trials of the past season given more successful results. Fes. 1897. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 25 THE BACTERIA OF THE SOIL, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE To Som Inocunation. By R. Srewart MacDovucGat., M.A., B.Sc. (Read 11th February 1897.) Up till about twenty years ago the soil was looked upon as made up merely of so many bits of dead material—stone and lime, and clay, etc. Tillage was a mechanical opera- tion, and changes that followed it were explained purely on chemical and physical grounds. In these last years, however, it has come to be recognised that the soil teems with myriad minute forms of life—useful, and harmful, and neutral; in a word, for the tiller of the ground the problem is not solely chemical, but also biological. Many workers in soil bacteriology have given their attention to the exact numbers of germs present in the soil, and in different layers of it. It would weary the reader to give lists of the numbers which vary in a gramme (just over 15 grains) of earth, according to the circum- stances, from only a few up to some millions. Let me rather give the general principles determining their number as enunciated by Maggiora:'—(1) The number of bacterial germs, in otherwise resembling circumstances, is in forest soils less than in arable land, and in these less than in the soil of inhabited places. (2) In non-cultivated soils the number of bacteria changes with (a) the geological formation and the height above the sea; (/) with the imperviousness or the aeration of the soil, the germs being much less numerous in the former than in the latter; (c) with the nature of the soil,—sandy soil is less rich in bacteria than, say, humus soils. (3) In cultivated soils the number of germs increases with the culture activity and with the bringing of dung. Strongly dunged soils are much richer than poorly dunged or undunged. The greatest bacterial richness is at a depth of 8 to 20 inches; below this the number quickly decreases. This is true for both cultivated and non-cultivated soils. If I say that Kramer, as an average of three experi- lMaggiora, Journal de la Agricole du Brabant, 1888. 26 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. ux1. ments with the same soil, found in one gramme of earth— At a depth of about 8 inches . : - 650,000 germs, ” re) 20 ” . ° . 500,000 23 oo Boek ae . 276,000 ,, 7 5S We 0 en ee . 36,000 ,, a s YS ne : . 5, 600.ne 29 oe) Dd oe) ° ° ° 700 9 ; ae 64. 6 : . only a few, perhaps it will be asked how it is possible to make such exact calculations. A survey of the methods will show the problem not to be as difficult as it seems. If the earth sample be taken from the upper layer of the soil, we do it directly with a sterilised spoon, and then place the sample in a sterilised tube plugged with cotton wool. If the sample falls to be taken from the deeper layers, the above-mentioned method will not suffice, as in digging, the earth of the deeper layers will become mixed with parts from the upper layers, which will tumble in. To obtain an accurate sample from a layer of any depth, Frankel’s borer is employed. The boring body of this instrument is about 14 inch in diameter. An inch or two above the boring point is an opening between 4 and 5 inches long and about 1 inch deep. This opening is destined for the earth sample. The borer, with a handle which can be lenethened out to 5 feet, is pressed into the soil, and the mechanism is so arranged that as long as the borer be twisted from right to left the opening mentioned above as in the side remains closed. When the desired depth has been reached, by turning the borer in the opposite direction the covering to the opening is pushed back and the opening exposed ; the earth falls in, the opening is again closed, and the sample pulled up. One gramme of this earth is care- fully weighed out and placed in a quart of water, which has been sterilised by boiling, the mixture being thoroughly shaken. Meanwhile one has ready a glass tube containing the gelatine nourishing material for the bacteria. The gelatine has been rendered germ free by repeated heating in a steam bath. This gelatine, when liquefied by a gentle warming, has added to it carefully by means of a sterilised pipette 1 cem. of the above mixture of water and earth. After a thorough mixing, the entire contents are poured — Fes, 1897.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 211 out of the tube on to a gelatine plate. Within a very short time the gelatine grows stiff, and holds, caught at certain points, the organisms. The isolated bacteria begin to grow and multiply by fission, and soon each has given rise to a colony. It is taken for granted that each colony has arisen from one individual germ, and by counting the colonies one gets the number of germs present in the 1 eem. of the earth mixed in the water, and can thus calculate the number in the quart, 7c. in the gramme of earth. The colonies differ in external appearance, and each is confined to members of the same species. To vet a pure cultivation of a particular species, one removes with a platinum needle a small part from a colony, and inoculates a fresh gelatine tube. In general outline, then, this is the method, but in very exact work other points must be attended to, eg. certain bacteria only grow in absence of oxygen (anaerobic), and such must be cultivated accordingly. Questions of temperature, and differences in nourishing media to suit the varying bacterial tastes must also be considered. . BACTERIA OF THE SOIL. In the soil are a very large number of different species, some of which have been investigated and proved harmful or useful, but many more, as far as research has gone, have not yet been proved to have any significance as regards man himself or man’s cultural operations. I propose to choose out of the mass three sorts, all of much importance to agriculturists, viz. :— 1. The Putrefactive. 2. The Nitrifying. 3. The Nodule forming Bacteria of Leguminose. There are a number of bacteria which act on nitrogenous organic compounds in the soil and cause putrefaction, resolving the albuminous organic matter into simpler principles. We place as manure on our land complex organic substances, which by the aid of the putrefactive germs are rendered simpler, and brought into conditions such that they can be assimilated by the plant. When as a result of the action of the putrefactive bacteria on albumen, ammonia, say, is produced, this is seized and 28 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. Lx1. acted on by other organisms, the so-called nitrifying bacteria; the nitrous organism converting the ammonia into nitrous acid, this nitrous acid by the agency of the nitric organism passing into nitric acid, from whose union with a base come the nitrates so important as the form in which plants obtain that nitrogen, without which their growth and development is impossible. There is then a sort of circle of changes by which the nitrates taken up by the plant once more find themselves as nitrates in the soil, on the completion of the*circuit in which bacteria play so important a part. Nitrates from soil into plant. Nitrous acid’to nitric Changed into albu- acid by nitric men in the plant. organism. which Ammonia to nitrous Eaten bya vegetarian acid by nitrous animal takes its organism. share in the forma- tion of protoplasm Decomposed_ by The vegetarian bacteria of putre- preyed on by a faction, hence carnivorous form. “ Death,” as Liebig says, “the source of a new generation ” ; or, as Klein quotes, “from earth to earth.” Morphology of the Nitrifying Organisms.—Globular to begin with, but later, oval and somewhat elongated. The nitrous organism is larger than the nitric, and measures 25000 inch. Conditions which favour Nitrification with Annotations.— lL. The presence of the organisms.—These organisms vary in number greatly in different soils. The more highly cultivated soils will contain them in greatest quantity. Where they are few in number what has been termed “microbe-seeding” may be wisely practised, ae. soils which, owing to their deficiency in these organisms, can be looked on as so far sterilised, could have added to them soil which from the conditions was known to be rich in nitrify- ing germs. If the new environment were favourable the Fes. 1897.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 29 introduced bacteria would rapidly multiply and spread. This is a favourable place to notice one of the values of stable manure. “ Dung,’ as Hilltner has expressed it, “is the leaven of the agricultural soil,” meaning that in adding it one gets, over and above other well-known advantages, a supply of vigorous nitrifying organisms. 2. Access of Oxygen—This is why the bacteria of nitri- fication occur in greatest number towards the surface, and decrease with the depth. A new meaning is hereby given to tillage and good cultivation, as these ensure a good circulation of the necessary air. 3. Light acts injuriously. 4. A certain moisture is necessary, but marshy ground will lack the germs. 5. A suitable temperature-—In this case, say, between 90° and 100° F. 6. A base with which the nitric acid, on its appearance, can combine—lIt is an interesting fact that as a result of the activities of soil organisms, their own further development may be inhibited. Thus, yeast is killed by excess of alcohol produced by itself, and so, too, with bacteria. Their own products may forbid their further growth. In the world of medicine, by inoculation of the matter prejudicial to the life of certain bacteria, we can put anend to them. The presence of a base then prevents the accumulation of nitric acid. A favourite base is lime, and among the numerous advantages of lime in a soil, I desire at present to single out its favouring so largely the development of the nitrifying bacteria. 7. The other necessary plant foods. And now there is a dark side to this story. Research has proved the presence in soils of denitrifying organisms, which may bring the work of the useful organisms to nought. Their work is a reducing one, the nitrates being decomposed with an ultimate giving off of free nitrogen. Instead of being a gain, these denitrifying bacteria occasion a loss. Generally it may be stated that the conditions under which these harmful organisms flourish are the opposite to these we have mentioned as favourable to the nitrifying germs. 30 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE _ [Sxss, Lx. THE BACTERIA OF LEGUMINOS/:. Of the substances which are taken in by the roots of plants, the most important in plant metabolism are the nitrogenous compounds. Generally it may be stated that while plants can and do take in oxygen as a free gas for their respiration, they are quite unable to make use of free nitrogen. The nitrogen so necessary in the plant economy can only be absorbed in the combined state, say, as nitrates. For long this was held to be true of all orders of plants, until it was noticed that while in soils deficient in nitrogen most plants came to nought, yet members of the order Leguminose (peas, and clovers, and vetches) grew quite well, and left the land after their growth richer in nitrogen than before. When it came to be admitted that leguminous plants must and did make use of the free uncombined nitrogen, men cast about for an explanation of their advantage as regards nitrogen, and several theories were advanced before it came to be admitted that in the nodule formation was to be found the real solution of the problem. These warts, or swellings, or tubercles—as they are variously called—were shown to be little houses inside which lowly plant forms lived in partnership with the pea, or bean, or clover, deriving support from the plant, and repaying this support by fixing the free nitrogen that surrounded the roots, and forming it into compounds that were absorbed by the leguminous plant. These swellings had been written of long before their real origin was discovered. As far back as 1687 Malpighi wrote of these as galls, and, coming nearer our own time, they were looked upon by some as a sign of a diseased condition, and by others as resulting from nematode attack. Now we know that these nodules only appear on the roots in case of infection with a bacterium, the Bacillus radicicola of Beyerinck (Lhizobium legunrinos- arum, Frank). This bacillus is widely spread, and can be obtained in quantity, for examination, if perfectly fresh leguminous roots are laid in water and left to steep for a few hours in a warm room. Amidst the bacteria, which Fes. 1897. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 31 will have rendered the water cloudy, will be found many of the nodule-making forms. The bacteria penetrate a root hair or a non-cuticularised epidermal cell (the young parts are the seat of infection, the older parts of the root not allowing an entrance), where they multiply at the expense of the cell contents. The irritation set up in the cortex cells, in which the bacteria ultimately find themselves, gives rise to repeated cell division, and the wart is formed. Finally, these bacteria take on a forked or Y-shaped appearance, when they are known as bacteroids. The full significance of these bacteroids will appear later, sufficient here to say that their contents are finally absorbed by the host plant. A certain number of bacteria remain behind, which, on the breaking down of the nodules, are set free again in the soil, where they may proceed to new infection. Frank had previously noticed that nodules did not appear on leguminous plants grown in sterilised soil, but the proof that the Leguminose are not able to make use of the free nitrogen in absence of nodules, but only when nodules are present in their roots, was given by Hellriegel and Wilfarth, after a series of very accurate recorded experiments. Their experiments showed that peas and lupins grown in soil sterilised, but with all the necessary plant foods added save nitrogen, died off without any nodule formation as soon as the original store of nitrogen present in the seeds had been exhausted. Peas and lupins, on the other hand, sown under the same conditions, save that a little soil was added from a field where peas and lupins had been growing the year before (in which soil it was reasonable to expect the infecting bacteria to be present), showed a large formation of ncdules and a most excellent growth. Many workers, British and foreign, have since verified these results, but Professor Nobbe and Dr. Hilltner, of Tharand, have taken a step in advance by being the first to induce nodule formation by inoculation with pure cultures. Here is the method of making such pure cultures: Take a fresh nodule and wash it carefully. After drying it in blotting paper, drop it for a moment into corrosive sublimate, to kill any bacteria on the surface. Next wash it with absolute alcohol. Having 32 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess ixt. sterilised a scalpel by heating in a flame, cut the nodule. Dip a platinum needle into the cut surface, and streak the gelatine already prepared. It is well to have a large surface of gelatine, as the Bacillus radicicola is an aerobie form. It is important to remember that this bacillus will not grow on the ordinary gelatine, but there must be incorporated with the gelatine-nourishing medium a decoction of leguminous shoots or leaves. Having ob- tained in this way, after a few days, a pure growth of the bacillus, in order to inoculate plants growing in pots some of the bacilli are transferred to water, a little of which may be sprinkled over the soil in which the plants are growing; or, better still, by means of a glass tube the mixture is introduced to the deeper layers, near the roots. The experiments of Nobbe and Hilltner aimed at winning information and clearness in three directions, viz.: (1) What are the true factors and occurrences by which a nodule-beset leguminous plant is able to make use of the free nitrogen? (2) What is the action and efficacy of the nodules in soils holding different quantities of nitrogen’? (3) Are the bacteria from the warts of the different leguminous species one and the same species of bacterium, or has each leguminous group or species its own distinct nodule-former ? { As to (Question 1—Some hold that the nitrogen assimi- lation is by means of the green leaves, others that the bacteria are the chief agents in taking up the free nitrogen. Nobbe and Hilltner believe strongly that the power is vested in the bacteroids, which, arranged in the form of a network, expose a large surface to the air, to which the bacteroids come into relation as regards nitrogen in the same way as the gills of a fish to oxygen. The conclusions from their experiments so far are: (#) Nodules whose bacteria have not followed on to the bacteroid stage (as happens in certain circumstances) are of no value to the plant, the bacteria in them being out-and-out parasites, and performing no nitrogen assimilation. (b) The stronger in life the bacteria are, the less is the tendency to become bacteroids; the stronger the nodule-possessing plants, the easier is the changing from bacteria to bacteroids. (¢) With bacteroid formation comes nitrogen assimilation. Fes 1897.| | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 33 Question 2.—Hellriegel experimented with sterilised soil, and grew his plants with the conditions—no _ nitrogen and non-inoculated, and no nitrogen but inoculated. Of greater complexity are the experiments of Nobbe and Hilltner, who added to some of the sterilised soils (left sterilised or else reinoculated) varying proportions of nitrogen, and noted results. Their answer to Question 2 is, that the effect of the nodule reaches its full worth when the soluble nitrogen of the soil is almost used up by the growing plants. The more a soil contains of bound assimllable nitrogen so much the later will the differences stand out externally between inoculated and non-inoculated plants. Quickly-growing leguminous species, like peas and vetches, which sooner exhaust the supply of combined nitrogen, will show the effects of inoculation earlier than clovers or lathyrus, which, growing at first more slowly, make more trifling demands on the soil nitrogen. Question 3.—Do the bacteria from the nodules of different leguminous plants belong to one and the same species ? Beyerinck is of opinion that the bacteria culti- vated from the different species of Leguminose are not identical, though certainly very similar. He distinguishes two groups: (1) Those whose large colonies are more hyaline and give rise to bacteroids, forked or roundish. Such are bean, vetch, broom, medicago, melilotus, clover, pea, lathyrus. (2) Those with opaque, dull white colonies giving bacteroids seldom branched, but more like bacteria, eg. ornithopus, lotus, lupinus, robinia, caragana. Nobbe and Hilltner believe that though the bacteria springing from the different leguminous species can scarcely be distinguished from one another externally, yet in their effect and behaviour and attitude to the plants they show noteworthy differences. For example, bacteria won from nodules on the pea, infect most powerfully other pea plants, and act most beneficially on them; infect and act less favourably to plants not peas, but closely related to them, but produce no impression on leguminous species like robinia or clover, whose affinity with the pea is not close. Vice versa, bacteria from the nodules of the red clover infect other red clover plants, but are quite ineffectual on peas. TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXI. D 34 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE — [Sess. uxt. Nobbe and MHilltner, however, emphasise that the cultures from different Leguminosie have not to be looked on as different bacterial species, but only as adaptable forms, forms adapted to the varying leguminous species by their living on different plants. To make this clear, they have coined a new phrase—neutral bacteria, viz. those living in the soil with no special biological adaptability to any special leguminous species, but able to get in a weak degree into symbiosis (partnership) with all genera of Leguminosie. These neutral bacteria, having penetrated the roots of a special leguminous plant, form nodules. They multiply, and their descendants have been so influenced by the host plant that, having ceased to be neutral lke the original parent forms, they effect their full strength only on the same leguminous species, and lose their power to set up infection in any other. Here will be found the explanation of strange Leguminosee forming nodules on their roots, which nodules go on increasing from year to year in number and efficacy. Leguminous plants then will only, with certainty, show nodule formation if the soil contain either the germs accustomed to the planted species or else neutral germs. I would now call your attention to some experiments relating to Question 2 :— I. AN EXPERIMENT WITH PEA (Pisum sativum). In this experiment 6 pots were taken and filled with a mixture of 4 parts quartz sand and 1 part garden earth, the whole being sterilised, ze. all germ life was killed by heating. In each pot 5 pea plants were sown in the beginning of June. Pot 1 was inoculated with pure cultures of Phaseolus bacteria. : ” ” Pea ” 6 a Clover Be as 55 Robinia 3 i) Lupin x, ~ 9 rae 9? or CO ” ’° ,, 6 was left uninoculated. At first all the pots showed an equally good growth, but as time went on and the soluble nitrogen of the soil had been largely consumed, the effects of inoculation began to show themselves. The plants in the pot inoculated with pea bacteria, and, later, those in the pot inoculated with phaseolus bacteria were seen to be green, and were richly Fes. 1897.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 35 flowering and fruit-bearing up till the autumn. The plants in the other four pots were quite withered by the end of August. On 20th October the plants were cut, and the above-ground parts analysed. For comparison, here are the results in the cases of the non-inoculated, inoculated with phaseolus, and inoculated with pea— Not | Inoculated Inoculated Inoculated. with Phaseolus.} with Pea. es _ = 73.525 Dry substance in gr. | 3°878 | 28°821 | 95°452 | { | i Nitrogen in the green | | substance in gr. : 0°055 | 0°852 | 2-791 Nitrogen per cent. of | | the dry substance. 1°43 2°96 | 2°92 | | That is, the plants inoculated with pea bacteria, com- pared with the non-inoculated, showed twenty-four times more of dry substance and fifty times as much nitrogen content. At the time of cutting, the plants had for each experi- mental pot— Flowers still. Fruits. Seed. 1. Inoculated with Phaseolus | | | (20 still unripe) | bacteria ; : ; 18 | 41 55 2. Inoculated with Pea bacteria 36 | 134 Lene | (77 still unripe) | | 3. Not inoculated . ; ; 0 2 3 | II. EXPERIMENT WITH VICIA VILLOSA. This experiment was conducted under the same con- ditions as the last, only the pots contained Vicia villosa plants instead of peas. : The most noteworthy thing about this experiment was that the best results were given with the vetch plants in the pot inoculated with pea bacteria (vetches and peas are nearly related), and the next best results in the case of inoculated with phaseolus bacteria. The plants inoculated 36 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE _ [Szss. ix1.. with clover, robinia, or lupin, soon began to show nitrogen hunger, shedding their leaves. The non-inoculated plants. were ultimately quite leafless. Inoculated Inoculated Uninoculated. | with Phaseolus! with Pea Bacteria. | Bacteria. | Dry substance in gr. . 4°292 63 929 93°693 | Nitrogeningr. . . 0070 | 2310 3°444 | Nitrogen in per cent. of | | | dry substance . : 1°84 3°61 | 3°68 | | EXPERIMENT III. contains additional interest. The plants experimented with this time were red clover, five in each pot, and all the conditions of the other experiments the same. In this experiment the inoculations with pea bacteria, with robinia bacteria, and with lupin bacteria showed in the first two no effect whatever, and with the lupin only a very limited effect. Comparing the pea inoculation with the clover inocula- tion— Inoculated Inoculated with Pea with Clover Bacteria. Bacteria. | Dry substance in gr. . . : ; 6°23 70°99 Nitrogen in green substance in gr. 7 0°108 | 2°1386 Nitrogen in per cent. of dry substance . | 174 | 3°01 As to flowers and fruit. On cutting in October, the five clover plants inoculated with clover bacteria had had 54 flower-heads, while the pot with clover plants inoculated with pea had only 8 flower-heads. EXPERIMENT IV. will have an interest for foresters. Robinia plants were inoculated, some with pea bacteria and some with robinia bacteria. The robinias inoculated with robinia bacteria greatly excelled the robinias inoculated with pea bacteria. bh FEB. 1897. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 37 So far for laboratory experiments with sterilised soil. There has not yet been time to obtain many results from experiments made with pure culture inoculation on a field scale, and yet here, too, there is at least an earnest of success. Three plots out in the open, each 120 yards square, were planted with ornithopus. The sowing was in May. Plot 1 was inoculated with pure culture of ornithopus bacteria. ae 33 raw earth from another ornithopus field. », 93 was left uninoculated. When these plauts were revised in August, the non-inoculated plot averaged 2 small nodules per root. Those inoculated with raw soil p!ot averaged 3 medium-sized nodules per root. Those inoculated with pure ornithopus culture averaged 9 mostly large nodules per root. Many experiments on a field scale have been started on the Continent, and, doubtless, during the year many more will be undertaken in Britain. Certainly a good case has been made out in the experiments in the experimental station at Tharand for the value of soil inoculation, and now field experiments under many conditions must give the final answer as to whether or not this special branch of soil inoculation is likely to prove advantageous. As to Methods.—Where a soil is deficient in Bacillus radicicola there are two methods of infection— 1. The bringing to such a field a quantity of soil from another field in which the species of the plant to be sown has already grown well. This soil is then worked in. Dr. Salfeld, of Hanover, holds the honour of having employed this method on a large scale with gratifying results, getting good leguminous crops where such had refused to grow before. Difficulties in the way of using this method of inoculation on a large scale will occur, eg. uncertainty, questions of cost and transit, the possible introduction of harmful forms, and so on. 2. There remains the second method, viz. Nobbe and Hilltner’s method of inoculation with pure cultures. Such cultures can be made by oneself if the necessary bacteriological training is possessed, but if not, bottles containing the cultures can be bought from Lucius & Bruning, Hoechst a Main, at 2s. 6d. each. So far, eulti- vations of the following plants can be procured :— 38 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXI, Trifolium pratense or repens or hybridum, T. tncarnatwn, Vicia villosa and sativa, Pisum sativum, Vicia faba, Medicago sativa, M. lupulina, Lupinus luteus, L. angusti- folius, Ornithopus sativus, Onobrychis sativa, Lathyrus sylvestris. Each bottle contains enough to supply half an acre. In the inoculation with pure cultures there are two variations— (a) The inoculation with infected soil. Take one of the above-mentioned bottles. Gently warm the bottle by placing it in lukewarm water (great care must be taken not to overheat—keeping in one’s pocket for a few minutes is enough),-and the gelatine with the culture is liquified. Pour this (thoroughly cleaning the bottle out) into a vessel containing sufficient water to moisten half a hundred weight of soil. Mix this liquid well with the earth. Then add some dry soil till a condition is reached when it can be conveniently spread. Work this into the field to a depth of 3 to 4 inches. Sow as soon as possible. (b) The inoculation of the secd directly. As before, take a bottle and pour the liquified contents into 14 pint of water (this will do for small seeds like clover, but for larger seeds use 2 or 3 quarts). Pour the mixture over the seeds, and mix thoroughly, making sure that each seed gets moistened, Then add some soil from the field to be sown, so that the seeds don’t stick together in clumps, and when dry enough sow. In both « and b I have given the quantities necessary to inoculate half an acre. HINTS AS TO EXPERIMENTS. To all intending to make experiment I would recom- mend that in each experiment, for purposes of comparison, three plots be dealt with. Let plot 1 remain uninoculated ; let plot 2 be inoculated with infected soil; let plot 3 have the seed inoculated directly. In the case of experiment on these lines, for safety let the non-inoculated plot be sown before the inoculated, and, to prevent after infection, let great care be taken to have no traffic between the inoculated and the non-inocwlated plots. Fes. 1897.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 39 Experimenters will also note— 1. That the cultures are very sensitive to light, and heat, and drought, all of which destroy the efficacy of the bacteria. Therefore do not allow the inoculated soil or seed to become too dry, and do not allow the seeds to remain exposed on the surface. 2. The results of inoculation must not be looked for too early. Remember that the efficacy of the nodules only comes into full activity when the soil nitrogen has been used up. The more of this in the soil the later will the effects of inoculation show themselves. 3. In order that a proper judgment be passed as to the effect of inoculation in parallel experiment, a mere naked eye overlook is not sufficient and not trustworthy. There must follow a careful weighing. Dr. Hilltner told me of a case where Dr. Salfeld made an experiment with ornithopus, the pure cultures for which were supplied from Tharand. When, towards the end of the experiment, an inspection was made, there seemed, as far as the eye could judge, to be no difference between the inoculated field and the non- inoculated, and, as the plants in the latter also showed nodules, everyone thought this experiment had proved a failure. Just eight days after the inspection, the two crops having been cut in the interval, Dr. Salfeld wrote to Professor Nobbe to the effect that the inoculated plot had borne stronger plants than the non-inoculated, and that a eareful weighing had given a twenty-five per cent. advan- tage in green substance to the inoculated over the non- inoculated. 4. It must not be forgotten that the condition of the soil has a most important influence on the results of inoculation. The—apart from nitrogen—necessary plant foods must be present in sufficient quantity. The nodules collect only nitrogen, so that the plants must find in the soil all the other foods. A chain has only the strength of its weakest link, and “a field is as poor as its most deficient fertilising principle.” Apart from nitrogen, if there be only one of the other necessary foods not present in sufficient amount, then the capacity of the nodules will fail from the time when this substance begins to disappear. 40 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE _ [Ssss. uxt 5. The most profitable results of inoculation are likely to be in soils where nodule bacteria are naturally absent, and the least profitable where Leguminose have been creatly cultivated. Between these two there are all erades. I cannot close this article without placing on record my indebtedness to Professor Nobbe and Dr. Hilltner, who received me at Tharand with great courtesy, and gave me every opportunity of becoming acquainted with the methods and experiments. EXCURSION OF THE SCOTTISH ALPINE BOTANICAL CLUB To CLova, IN JuLy 1896. By Witttam Craic, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.S.E., Secretary of the Club. (Read 11th March 1897.) The Annual Excursion of the Club in 1896 was to Clova, a place exceedingly rich in botanical treasures, and one which is, and has been for generations, a great favourite with botanists. When the Club first visited Clova in 1872, the whole district was pastoral, and perfect freedom was permitted to all botanists. It is now, however, like many other of our highland glens, converted into a deer forest, and consequently there is sometimes a difficulty of access to these glens. The Club, however, were highly favoured in obtaining permission for a week in July to botanise the district. Permission was obtained from the proprietrix, Mrs. Macpherson of Glen Doll, through her agent, Mr. W. Gibson, W.S., Edinburgh. The members of the Club left Edinburgh on Monday, 27th July 1896, with the 9.40 A.M. train for Kirriemuir. They travelled by the Caledonian Railway, the officials of which Company sent a private saloon carriage to Kirrie- muir for the special use of the members, Kirriemuir was reached about 12.45 p.m. After lunch in one of the hotels the members had a very pleasant drive to Clova, and stayed at the Ogilvy Arms Hotel. Nine members of the Club attended this excursion, including our president, Mr. W. Mar, 1897. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 41 B. Boyd. They were accompanied by Dr. Playfair, of Bromley. In the evening a business meeting of the Club was held, when Professor F. O. Bower, Glasgow, and Mr. A. Somer- ville, B.Se., Glasgow, were elected members. The election of two such distinguished members will greatly strengthen the Club. Bedroom accommodation in the Clova Hotel was very deficient, and three of the party had to be accommodated in a farmhouse half a mile distant. Tuesday, 28th July.—The excursion to-day was to Glen Fee. The day was remarkably fine. Our new member, Mr. Somerville, sent specimens of the Mieracia, collected during this excursion, and also the specimens of the Salices to the Messrs. Linton; and other doubtful plants to Mr. Bennett of Croydon. Among the plants collected to-day may be mentioned—TZhalictrum alpinum, L.; Sagina Linnwi, Presl. ; Oxytropis campestris, DC., on the only known station for that plant in the British Isles; Sazifraga oppositifolia, L.; S. nivalis, L.; S. stellaris, L.; S. avzoides, L.; Saussurea alpina, DC.; Hieractum eximiwm, Marshall, rare; H. chrysanthemum, Backh., plentiful; H. lingulatum, Backh.; A. anglicum, Fries; H. anglicum, var. acutifolium, Backh. ; Veronica alpina, L.; Salix lanata, L.; S. Lapponum, L.; S. nigricans, Sm., crossed with S. myrsinites or SW. phylicifolia; S. mysinites, L.; Malaxis paludosa, Sw., one specimen of this orchid was found by the president, which measured 4{ inches in length; Carex pauciflora, Lightt. ; C. pulicaris, L.; C. echinata, Murr.; C. leporina, L.; C. alpina, Swartz; C.atrata, L.; C. rigida, Good. ; C. pallescens, L.; C. panicea, L.; C. vaginata, Tausch; C. capillaris, L. ; C. binervis, Sm.; C. Grahami, Boott ; Poa glauca, Sm., which Mr. Bennett says is the nearest to Smith’s supposed Cesia that he has seen; Festuca rubra, L., a hairy glumed form ; Aspidium Lonchitis, Sw.; and the moss Splachnum sphericum. They failed to find Woodsia. Wednesday, 29th July.—The excursion to-day was to Craig Maud and the Astragalus Rock. The day was again fine, but not so hot as on the previous day. Although careful search was made, they failed to find any specimen of Astragalus alpinus, L., a plant which formerly was in great abundance on a rock at the head of the glen. 42 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. nxt. In the opinion of the members of the Club, this rare plant had been eradicated from Glen Doll. The plant, however, is known in two other localities in Britain, one in the Braemar district, Little Craigendal; and the other on Ben Vrackie, near Pitlochry. Another well-known Clova plant, which ought to have been seen to-day, was Lactuca alpina, Benth., but no trace of it was seen. They gathered some good alpine plants, including—Arabis hirsuta, Br.; Sagina LTinnei, Presl.; Dryas octopetala, L.; Saxifraga nivalis, L. ; S. hypnoides, L.; Epilobium angustifolium, L.; L. alsine- folium, Vill.; E. alpinum, L.: Linnea borealis, Gronov. ; Brigeron alpinum, L.; Saussurea alpina, DC.; Hieracium cerinthiforme, Backh,; Erica cinerea, L., var. alba.; Pyrola rotundifolia, L.; P. secunda, L.; Veronica serpyllifolia, L., var. humifusa, Dicks.; V. Sawatilis, L.; Salix nigricans, Sine: S. phylicifolia, L.; Habenaria viridis, Br.; Tofieldia palustris, Huds.; Carex pauciflora, Lightf.; C. pulicaris, L. ; C. rupestris, All.; C. canescens, L., var. apicola, Wahl.; C. rigida, Good.; C. Goodenovii, Gay; and a form of which the fruits seemed affected by insect-puncture or fungus, and of which Mr. Bennett says some of the fruits seem quite rigida, others towards Goodenovii; C. rariflora, Sm, ; C. glauca, Murr., luxuriant specimens; C. pilulifera, L.; C. flava, Li; C. ampullacea, Good.; Poa nemoralis, 1.., according to A. Bennett, “a variety, but seemingly not one in our books”; Botrychium Lunaria, Sw.; Equisetum palustre, L., var. nudum; Tetraplodon mniodes; Hypnuwm Crista-castrensis, L. By the side of the stream at “Jock’s Ladder” was seen a large tree of Salix caprea, L. It is worthy of note that the following plants were found with abundance of fruit, unusually fine :—Zimpetrum nigrum, 1. ; Rubus Chamemorus, L.; Fragaria vesca, L.; Cornus suecica, L., a plant not often found in fruit in Scotland; Vac- cinium myrtillus, L.; V. uliginosum, L., sparingly; V. Vitis- Idwa, Li; V. oxycocus, L.; and Trientalis europea, L. Thursday, 30th July.—The excursion to-day was to Glen Fee and Glen Doll. The day was again dry and fine, Among the plants collected may be mentioned— Aralis hirsuta, Br.; Geranium Robertianum, l., var. alba; Epilobium alpinum, L.; Vaeceinium uliginosum, L., in- ripe fruit; Salix Lapponum, L.; Malaxis paludosa, Sw.; Tofieldia Mar. 1897.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 43 palustris, Huds.; Carex aquatilis, Wahl.; C. Goodenoviti, Gay, var. atra, Blytt; C. precox, Jacq.; Deschampsia cespitosa, Beauv., var. brevifolia; Aspidium Lonchitis, Sw. Friday, 31st July.—The excursion to-day was to Little Gilrannoch. The day was again fine. The party went by Glen Doll, and past the White Waterfalls to the upper valley of the White Water, and then to the top of Little Gilrannoch. The Lychnis alpina was found at this station as abundant as ever. Among the plants collected may be mentioned—Cochlearia alpina, Wats.; Lychnis alpina, L. ; Cerastium semidecandrum, L.; C. triviale, Link., var. alpinum, Koch.; a | i hee ; = 3 ae Ae 4 r& Bx < fe 4 See Sy em Bs aks ; ‘ 2 Ah ri 2 a . t r’ : - 7% | ie ‘ | : F 7 toa ; 4 ; FOSSIL WOOD. - oe APR, 1897, | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH vo under a stain, as eosin, will be found injected to a considerable distance. There is also a method of injection by means of the filter pump (Darwin’s Physiology of Plants, p. 87). But there are many specimens which do not lend themselves to injection by either of these methods. I find the following simple method extremely useful both for class purposes and for private work. The apparatus once set agoing requires little attention, and a large number of specimens for laboratory work may be injected in succession in a short time with a minimum amount of trouble. I submit a few sections of stems injection-stained by this method, to show the amount of penetration it is capable of giving.* The practical worker will, however, find it useful for all kinds of plant members. To the end of a large glass funnel a length of india- rubber tubing is securely wired. The funnel is fixed at a convenient height, and the lower end hangs free eight feet or more in length; at the lower end is fixed a compressor clip. The stem, air-dried (I show an Aspidium stem injected after lying in laboratory for years), preserved in spirit, or fresh (perhaps in many cases preferably the latter), has its end cut smooth and circular, and securely wired into the lower free end of the tube. In the case of delicate stems, it is preferable to lute with Canada balsam or asphalt to avoid crushing. A beaker is placed beneath to catch the escaping fluid. The funnel and tube are now filled with a weak aqueous solution of fuchsin, the compressor clip removed, and the stem left to itself for a few hours. At the end of that interval it will be found that a con- siderable quantity of the stain has passed through the conducting elements, staining them en route. One advantage of using the living stem is that the stain is pretty well confined to the conducting elements, and hence a good differentiation staining may afterwards be obtained. The compressor clip is again applied, and the stem removed and transferred to a duplicate tube containing a solution of weak picric acid. This washes out the stain held in the conducting elements by capillarity, and darkens the stained elements, and at the same time fixes the tissues. * Aspidum stem (air-dried) ; Cycas stem (fresh) ; Draczena (spirit material). 56 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE _ [Ssss. ux1. When the picric acid comes through clear, the stem is ready for the next part of the process. It is removed, and, if intended for sectioning purposes, is cut up into small pieces and placed in alcohol of at least 90 per cent. strength. In this it is decolorised, and after a few days is in good condition for sectioning purposes. The liquified elements of the conducting system are stained a fine pink. A good contrast is obtained by ground staining with hematoxylin on the slide. If the stem be intended for dissection of vascular system, the picric injection may be omitted and the preparation allowed to lie for a time in weak picric acid, and then preserved in aleohol until required. Pyrus ARIA AND ITS VARIETIES IN ARRAN. By Rev. Davip LANDSBOROUGH. (Read 8th July 1897.) I know the island of Arran well, and it seemed to me strange that its Rare Pyrus should be confined to a small portion of the north. There are places in other parts of the island seemingly suitable for its growth. Might it not also be found in some of these? I determined to search Arran for it. I wished, further, to ascertain if it could not be had in additional varieties; and if the varieties were accidental, or resulted from discoverable causes. This led to several excursions. J] mention the principal :— UNSUCCESSFUL EXCURSIONS. First—At the end of May, with one of my sons, I started from Brodick, in the centre of the east coast; went up Glen Rosa to the Garbh Allt (24 miles); ascended this stream; descended into Glen lIorsa; forded it; ascended the connecting stream to Loch Tana; thence to Loch Dubh; descended Glen Schaftigill; passed into Allt-na-h- Airidhe ; descended to Dougrie; thence to Shedog Inn.— Twelve hours afoot.—No success. Second KHxcursion—Next day we took, for four smiles, the road to Brodick; at Glen Loig, turned up the Craigan, the most considerable glen running southward through the Or Juty1897.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 7 centre of the island; examined it and its tributaries; crossed the highway between Lamlash and Lag at its saddle; ascended to Loch Urie; descended by the Knock- enkelly Glen to Whiting Bay; thence to Kildonan—13 4 hours.—No success, save finding a magnificent plant of the Guelder Rose (Viburnum Opulus) overhanging a waterfall in Craigan Glen. Third Excursion—With the Rev. Robert Drummond, Lothian Road, Edinburgh. From Lochranza, in the north of Arran, we passed along the hillside southward, visiting the Fairy Dell and the Great Rent, the latter about 950 feet above the sea, and nearly forty feet in depth (recognisable by a mountain ash growing at its entrance) ; descended at the Old Salt Pans; advanced to Lagan, famous for its fossil beds; ended at Corrie.—No success. Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Excursions.—Visited North Glen Sannox ; ascended its greatest gorge to the east shoulder of the first of the high Sannox range (Suidhe Fhearghas) ; passed by it into South Glen Sannox. Visited the glens and gorges on the side of Glen Sannox, and also those above Corrie to Maol Donn —half-way to Brodick. Ascended the gorges on both sides of Glen Chalmadale. —No success. SUCCESSFUL EXCURSIONS. First Successful Excursion.—Having been unsuccessful in south, east, and west, both in the centre of the island and by the coast, | drew nearer the already-known habitats of the Rare Pyrus. Having landed by the Fairhe and Campbeltown steamer at Pirn Mill, six miles south of Loehranza, I ascended the Allt Gobhlach to the beautiful little waterfall (The Raven’s Nest), two or three hundred feet above sea-level. Above this the botanical feature of the stream is the abundance of the aspen (Populus tremula). This was a good omen, as a plant of it grows with the Rare Pyrus in the tributary at the head of Glen Catacol. From the Allt Gobhlach stream I passed by the south shoulder of Beinn Bharain to Loch Dubh. In it I found Lobelia Doritmanna and Utricularia vulgaris, both of which grow also in Loch Tana and in Loch-na-Davie (1182 feet above sea-level). on ioe) TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXI- A Striking Peculiarity-—Loch Dubh is a quarter of a mile in length and is about twelve hundred feet above sea- level. It is situated on the shoulder of Beinn Bharain, and must receive a very copious supply of water, yet in the map of the Ordnance Survey no outlet is assigned it. At the northern extremity there is the bed of a stream leading to Loch Tana, yet, though there had been con- siderable rain recently, in the upper portion there was no water, though there was abundant evidence that at times in it there is the rush of a torrent. The explanation must be that the basin and sides of the loch are so gravelly that in ordinary weather the water finds through them sufficient exit. I now passed to Loch Tana (the Long Loch) and thence directed my course eastward. Mr, Smith, Monkredding, Kilwinning, in a remarkable paper, entitled “New View of the Arran Granite Mountains,” read March 1895 to the Glasgow Geological Society, and since printed, writes: “The Allt-an-Champ (the Camp Burn) gets its name from an old practice of the natives to camp here with their cattle during summer, and remains (traces) of their huts are still to be seen. It presents us at one part with a little glen cut in the solid rock to a depth of perhaps twenty feet. Growing out of a joint of the granite and overhanging the glen is a much-branched specimen of Pyrus aria, rare in this country. This is one of the few trees in the granitic area, and has not escaped the notice of the natives, who have a tradition that ‘once upon a time a strange bird brought a seed and planted it here, and out of the seed grew this tree.” The Allt-an- Champ is a western tributary of the Iorsa and joins it 24 miles south of Loch-na-Davie. Guided by Mr. Smith’s interesting statement, and with the hope that the plant he mentions might not be a solitary example, I struck this stream half-way up and followed it up and down. I was successful, as I found several of the rare tree. I now pushed on by Loch-na-Davie to Corrie-—Eleven hours. Second Successful Eaxcursion.—When visiting, on former occasions, the head of Glen Catacol at its eastern division, where the Rare Pyrus has long been known to grow, I had noticed the steep gorge here ascending from its left 9 Ou JULY 1897. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH side, and thought it also a likely habitat for the Rare Pyrus, all the more that a young plant grows near its junction with the stream. I determined to examine it. I was rewarded by finding the Rare Pyrus in consider- able abundance. One of the plants, of the intermediate type, had the largest leaves I had yet noticed in any of the varieties—one, not including stalk, 5x34 inches. Here also I found a specimen of Sedum Telephium. I passed over the ridge, and descended the gorge on the opposite side. Great abundance in it of Pyrus Auwewparia, and of the Aspen; but none of the Rare Pyrus. Third Successful Hacursion—At the mouth of Glen Catacol is an amphitheatre of level ground, with a radius of half a mile. It has evidently been formed by detritus brought by the stream. In addition to the Catacol, four little torrents flow into it. The course of the two on the south side I examined without success. So also on the north, the Abhain Bheag (the Little Stream). But at the north-east corner is the Uisge Solus (the Water of Light, ae. the Sparkling Water). This is a remarkable stream. It is a main stream, and not a tributary. It comes down the side of a high steep, leaping and dancing in many a foamy fall, resembling the White Water at Corrie, only the falls more numerous and the body of water less. It was not likely to have on its banks the Rare Pyrus, as it was near the sea, and the rock was slate, while this Pyrus had hitherto been found only in the granite, and at a distance from the sea. The stream, however, was inviting, and I ascended. I had gone only half a mile (afterwards measured), and to the height of 400 feet, when, on passing a little sheep bridge, I came upon the Rare Pyrus, which continued at intervals till the bare moorland was almost reached. A number of things were notable. (1st) There was good shelter, for it was a cross stream, that is, a tributary, and thus not exposed to the tremendous blasts which render tree-life almost impossible in the great glens. (2nd) The stream abounded in little waterfalls, presenting specially cosy nooks. (3rd) The rock is contorted schist, “onarled and twisted, with many minute cross grains” (Smith), which decomposes into a soil specially suitable for nourishing plants, while its many crevices provide 60 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE _ [Sgss. x1. abundant hold for their roots. (4th) There is here a rare union of flora—Hawthorn (long stemmed and very narrow leaves), Honeysuckle, Scotch Rose, Juniper, Lycopodium, the Common Butterwort and the rare Seaside Butterwort (Pinguicula lusitanica), the Red Bearberry, this Rare Pyrus, Birch, Rowan, ete. (5th) The Rare Pyrus was all of one variety, the pinnate. It was the most pinnate I had seen in Arran, generally three of the lower segments cut to the mid-rib, while in those found at other stations rarely are even two of the lower segments thus deeply cut. (6th) This station is further remarkable as being situated in the slate, while all the others are in the granite; and also from being near the sea, only three-quarters of a mile from it, while those known previously are from 25 to 6, The discovery of this station is thus of special import- ance, as it introduces new data into the questions regarding the Rare Pyrus, Fourth Successful Excursion—The Rey. Duncan M‘Nicol, Dunoon, informed me that the Rare Pyrus grew at the stream side, near the foot of the steep ascent at the head of Glen Catacol. I visited the place and found a consider- able number. I ascended here Allt-na-Calmen (the Dove’s Glen-side Stream), the highest tributary of the Catacol. In it are various cascades, and beside them are a dozen of the Rare Pyrus. The peculiarity here is that it is much more common than the Rowan, of which there is only one tree standing. SUMMARY. I. By Mr. Smith’s discovery and my own, the number of main streams in which the Rare Pyrus is known to grow has been doubled—from two to four. II. By Mr. Smith’s discovery and my further search, it has been shown that the Rare Pyrus is not confined to the north of the dividing ridge in the north of Arran—that is, to the north of Loch-na-Davie and Loch Tana—but has an established habitat several miles south of this ridge. Ill. It has been shown that it is not confined to the granite area, nor to a distance from the coast-line. IV. Its range in altitude has also been increased It Jury 1897,] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 61 is from 300 feet in the Iorsa tributary, to 1100 feet on the north side of the range of North Sannox. V. There are three varieties in Arran—(1st) the leaf narrow, little cut, very white, downy underneath, and slightly downy on the upper side; this is by much the most rare: (2nd) that which has the largest leaf, not so downy as the previous, pinnatifid, but seldom pinnate, running however into the third: (5rd) the three lower segments of the leaf generally pinnate. VI. That the trees in the little stream at Catacol, where there is proximity to the sea and the rock—not eranite, but a slate—are all of the third variety. VII. The form of the tree conforms to the shape of the leaf. This is very notable in the first variety. In it the leaf being narrow, the branches and twigs are slender and drooping. VIII. The bloom of all is fragrant. IX. The range of the Rare Pyrus in Arran corresponds to that of the Red-berried Bearberry (Arctostaphylus Uva- Ursi). This plant had previously been noted in the Holy Isle. The writer was the first to notice it in Arran proper. He now adds that he has found it in the neighbourhood of all the habitats of the Rare Pyrus, and that he does not know of it being found elsewhere in Arran. X. The known stations of the Rare Pyrus in Arran are— (1st) the Allt-an-Champ, a tributary of the Iorsa, fully two miles south of Loch-na-Davie; (2nd) a stream on the northern “slope, at the head of the North Sannox range ; (5rd) the three streams into which the Easan Biorach divides at the foot of the steep slope to Loch-na-Davie, that on the east being the lower part of the same stream mentioned in number 2; (4th) the stream (not a tributary) at the mouth ‘of the Catacol ; (5th) the eastern head of the Catacol ; (6th) the eastern tributary to it; (7th) the head of the Catacol ; (Sth) Allt-na-Calmen, the Catacol’s highest tributary— ten stations in all. XI. In a letter to Professor Balfour, of which he was so kind as send me a copy, Professor Koehne, of Berlin, writes: “ Messrs. Ley and Landsborough, if they search more carefully, will find forms of the Rare Arran Pyrus, scarcely to be distinguished from Sorbus Aucuparia, since they have 62 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE completely pinnate leaves, the upper leaves, however, a little decurrent on the mid-rib of the compound leaf, or are slightly fused together.” To some extent this has been realised, but the belief of the writer is that no more careful search in the formerly known habitats would have so resulted. It is entirely owing to the discovery of the new habitat in slate rock, and near the sea, in the Uisge Solus, at the mouth of Glen Catacol. I send leaves of (1st) the narrow-leaved variety, gathered from a tree on the west tributary at the head of Easan Biorach (Lochranza Stream) ; (2nd) the intermediate variety, from the tributary stream to the eastern head-water of the Catacol; (3rd) the Pinnate variety, from the Uisge Solus. I forward, also, the Ordnance Survey map of the north of Arran, on which I have encircled in red the area in which the Rare Pyrus has been found. NOTES ON GLEICHENIAS. By Percrvat C. WAITE. (Read 12th April 1894.) The following is an abstract of the chief characteristics which I have observed :— I. In the Jfertensias the bundle of the petiole, as seen in T.S., is curved into a () shape; in the Lugleichenias the arms of the bundle unite, so that the cortex embraced by them, together with the portion of bundle-sheath which separates the cortex from the bundle, is nipped off. We have thus an annular bundle surrounded by its bundle- sheath, and containing within it a portion of the outer cortex with a few cells of the bundle-sheath surrounding it. This is the case in the young petiole; later on this inner patch of cortex disappears. That this peculiar arrangement of the bundle is_ developed in the way above described may be proved by examining the petiole of the Hngleichenias, at different levels, as it emerges from the rhizome, where transition stages may be observed. There is first a stage resembling the arrangement in the Mertensias, then a little higher up BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 63 the approach of the arms cutting through the neck of cortex which joins that inside to the surrounding mass, and, finally, the disappearance of this central portion of cortex and inner ring of bundle-sheath. II. The bundle-sheath in the petiole and rhizome does not appear as a cortical layer similar to the bundle-sheath (endodermis) of roots, since the cortical cells do not he opposite the cells of the bundle-sheath, but seem to form part of the bundle itself; it, however, shows the characters of the typical endodermis, with dark dots on the radial walls, and no intercellular spaces. The inner layer of the cortex is not differentiated from the other cortical layers. III. The layers of cells internal to the bundle-sheath are derived from it by division of its cells, and these divisions begin at a short distance below the apex, but do not form a pericycle. IV. The spore of the AMertensias is reniform; round and marked with a triradiate line in the Hngleichenias. I consider that the differences in spores, petiolar bundles, general growth and appearance of the plants, justify the ereater distinction formerly made between the JMertensias and Engleichenias, when they were considered as different genera, and that these characters are sufficient to prevent the two genera being classified as merely sections of one genus. MORRISON AND GIBB LIMITED, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH. —_ VOLUME XXI. Part II. EDINBURGH: PRINTED FOR THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY BY MORRISON AND GIBB LIMITED. MDCCCXCVIII. TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. SESSION LXIT. ADDRESS DELIVERED AT THE OPENING OF THE SESSION BY Professor A. P. AITKEN, M.A., D.Sc., President of the Society. —11th November 1897. At the meeting of the Society at this time last year I chose as the subject of my address “ The Nitrogenous Food of Plants,’ for the reason that it was a subject in itself interesting, and on which our knowledge was being rapidly developed, and also because, in treating it from a historical point of view, I might prepare the way for other papers of a practical kind on that subject that were to be read before the Society. The attention of the fellows was chiefly directed to the somewhat recent discovery that leguminous plants, and more especially those of the sub-order Papilionacez, possessed, in a remarkable manner, the power of assimilating the free nitrogen of the air and of converting it into their own albuminoid tissue. The interest attached to this dis- covery was greatly enhanced from two causes—first, because authorities of the highest repute in the domains of botany, chemistry, and agriculture, had, after what seemed to be satisfactory and complete investigation, considered that they were warranted in making the pronouncement that plants did not possess that power; and in the second place, that when, after fifty years’ negation, it was at length put beyond doubt that leguminous plants did possess that power, it was shown, at the same time, that they possessed it, not in themselves, but only when their life were TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXI. Fr 66 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. rxu. associated with the life of an exceedingly minute organism affecting their roots, causing the development thereon of nodules, in which they lived and brought about changes that were favourable to the growth of their host. Instances in which two distinct organisms, each living its own life, are associated together for their mutual advan- tage, are not infrequent in the animal world, and the word Symoiosis has been coined by De Barry to express that relationship. The classical researches of Darwin have familiarised us with instances of symbiosis between animals and vegetables, and have shown, with great wealth of illustra- tion, how much plants are dependent on insects for their cross fertilisation, and how whole species of plants may be dependent for their existence upon the regular and unfailing visitation of insects, and, on the other hand, how certain species of insects are dependent on certain species of plants for their food, which they obtain from no other source. The visits of a determinate species of insect to a certain species of plant may be without any benefit what- ever to the plant. In that case, the relation of the insect to the plant is simply that of a parasite feeding on food provided by another, and giving nothing in exchange, and in abstracting its food from its host, it may not only do it some injury, but may even injure it so far as to kill it outright. The various species of aphides are an example of that kind. They are very numerous, and exhibit very distinct characteristics according to the kind of plant on which they feed. In how far species of aphis which are found constantly associated with one genus of plants could accommodate themselves to, and find means of subsistence upon, other genera I do not know, but the probability is that in few cases could the parasite subsist under the altered conditions. In such a case the insect has some modification of structure or of function suited to the particular genus on which it lives; but what we require to find in a case of symbiosis is, that the plant also has acquired a modification of structure suited to the char- acteristics of the insect which feeds on it. What we fail to find in pure parasitism is mutual adaptation, with the ultimate result of mutual advantage. Darwin and others after him have shown how the forms of flowers in some Noy. 1897.]. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 67 species have been modified to suit the convenience of their insect visitors, and how the colour had been acquired to allure them; but in such cases the object of the insect’s visit, so far as it was concerned, was entirely to satisfy its own wants, yet, in so doing, it ministered unconsciously to the welfare of the plant it visited. Instances of such mutually advantageous connection between plants and insects are numerous, but cases in which plants of widely different order have been found to live in symbiosis with each other are, so far as I am aware, of rare occurrence. There are, however, two very notable instances of plant symbiosis which I would take the opportunity of referring to, though they are probably familiar to all who are here present. In examining under the microscope the substance of lichens, such as those to which old wayside walls owe their beauty and colour, it is noticed that, while the moss of the structure is composed of a fungus-lhke arrangement of tissue, having a mycelium whose long hyphe form a vegeta- tive network over the stone, penetrating its fine crevices, and, while there are disposed on some part of the organism the ordinary fungoid organs of reproduction, there are also to be found, entangled or entrapped within the body of the lichen, a number of little green-coloured cells, which in botanical treatises were called gonidia, and whose object in the economy of the lichen and connection therewith were not understood. But for the presence of these green- coloured cells, the plant would probably have been called a fungus. It was not until a few years ago that Schwendener, from a careful study of the matter, came to the conclusion that what were described as lichens were not a distinct elass of plant at all, but really a copartnery of two quite distinct organisms—a fungus and an alga. A fungus is a plant which, however varied its form and habit may be, is distinguished by one characteristic peculiarity, that it cannot make its own organic matter, but can only vegetate upon the organic matter made for it by other plants. On a bare wall a lichen cannot find that organic matter, for no vegetable organisms preceding it in time have left behind them residues in the form of organic matter sufficient for its needs. The only way in which a lichen can grow in 68 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. uxu. such circumstances is by getting into co-operation with a plant that can make organic matter. Algze are the most convenient plants of that kind. They are provided with chlorophyll, and in their chlorophyll cells proceeds the wonderful process by which the carbon derived from the carbonic acid of the air is assimilated so as to form sugar, starch, and cellulose, and other organic matters. The small green-coloured cells enfolded in the fungus substance of the lichen are unicellular alge, which have been caught by it in some way. They have no roots, and are unprovided with the means of obtaining their mineral requirements from the soil. Thus we see in the lichen two distinct vegetable organisms closely associated for their mutual benefit—a fungus, whose mycelium, acting the part of roots, can find on the barest stone the mineral constituents necessary for plant growth, and an alga possessed of the power of obtaining from the air the carbon required to build up the organic tissues of the plant. That the lichen is really a composite plant of that kind has been proved in a very interesting way. Rees and Stahl chose fungi of various kinds, and also alge of various kinds, and by bringing them together brought about the conditions of lichens quite similar to known species, and by bringing together a species of lichen and a species of alga that had not been seen associated together before, they were able to manufacture what would have been called a new species of lichen. In course of time the fungus, having grown and flourished, and developed its organs of reproduction and produced a large number of fertilised spores, which are its seed, disintegrates and sets free the unicellular algie, which on their part have increased in number, and the two kinds of organisms are now ready to be blown away by the wind or carried away by water, and enabled to propagate a new generation of fungi and a new generation of alow capable of leading single lives in suitable circumstances, or of getting into symbiotic relationship of a similar, or it may be of a quite different, kind from that under which they had been nurtured. The second instance of plant symbiosis to which I would shortly refer, is one which is not only interesting, but of far-reaching importance, Noy. 1897.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 69 In 1885 Professor Frank published in the “ Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft” a remarkable paper, explaining in a quite unexpected manner the mean- ing of the fungoid mantle which had been noticed in the fine roots of the Scots fir, Pinus sylvestris, a few years previously by Rees. He found that not only in the case of the Scots fir, but also in the case of other conifers, and also most markedly in the case of the Cupuliferze, such as beech and the hazel, the finer and trophic roots were thickly en- veloped in the mycelium of a fungus. The constant occurrence of this fungoid envelope on the roots of all the trees of these orders persuaded him that it could not be an accident, and as he found that it existed on the roots of even the youngest and healthiest specimens, he felt satisfied that it could not be a parasite, or at least a destructive parasite. He at once conceived the idea that this was a case of symbiosis, and worked diligently at the investigation of the roots of a great variety of plants from that standpoint. Among these were roots that had been sent to him from all quarters of the globe, and its presence in them all showed that the fungus was universally dis- tributed. This fungus, like others, lives upon organic matter provided for it by other plants. It is found as a fine thread-like mycelium ramifying through the mass of organic matter left by the fallen leaves and débris of forest trees, and is not met with where that organic matter is wanting. When a conifer or cupulifer is planted in such soil, it is not long before its roots are fastened upon by this fungus, and in time the growing points of the roots become closely wrapped round with it. In ordinary circumstances the growing rootlets of plants are beset with fine hairs, through whose delicate walls the nutritive mineral matter in an available soluble form passes from the soil into the circulation of the plant. In the case of the two orders referred to, when the fungus has established itself, the trophic rootlets have no_ hairs. Their place is taken by the fungus, from which proceed numerous fine filaments, that at first sight might be mistaken for hairs, but which, on microscopic examination, are seen to be aggregated mycelium filaments. That these 70 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. nxn. filaments take upon themselves the office of roots he could not doubt, for owing to their universal distribution all over the growing root system of the plant, and the entire suppression of the root hairs, there was no other way in which the trees could obtain soil nourishment. It would thus seem that the fungus acted towards the tree the part oi a nurse. Its delicate filaments, ramifying through the mass of organic débris, absorbed the nutritive matter found there ready made, and poured it into the roots of the trees. If that is a true account of what takes place in the nourishment of forest trees, it must be regarded as revolu- tionising our views regarding the physiology of plant nutrition. If the mineral food which these trees require is supphed to them by the organic sap of the fungus, it must be supplied in some form of organic combination, and in that case the trees must owe, not only their mineral, but also some of their organic constituents to the fungus that feeds them. Before the days of Liebig, that is to say during last century and a considerable part of this one, it was universally believed that plants obtained their organic matter from the soil, and humus was regarded as the one essential of fertility. The accumulation of humus in the soil was the aim the cultivator of the soil had before him; and when we consider that it was the leading principle guiding the most intelligent farmers in their operations for centuries, there must have been, and there must still be, a good deal of permanent truth in it. It was Liebig’s greatest achievement to fight against and completely demolish this view, and cause it to be superseded by what was called by him the mineral theory of plant nutrition. This theory established, on the firm basis of actual experiment, the fact that plants did not require to be supphed with organic matter, that, on the contrary, it was the great function of their hfe to manufacture organic matter; and perfectly unexceptional experiments were carried out in which the plants of our ordinary field crops, chiefly cereals, were grown both in aqueous solutions and in mere sand containing no organic matter whatever, but only solutions of certain salts containing the mineral nourishment that the plants required, The organic matter of plants was proved to be made in their leaves, while the Novy. 1897. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH | mineral matters required to enable the leaves to make this organic matter was abstracted from the soil by the roots. It cannot be doubted, for a vast mass of experimental evidence is at hand to prove it, that that describes what is in the main the theory of the nutrition of phanerogamous plants; but while that is so, we must not regard as altogether absurd and out of the question the probability that the roots of phanerogamous plants may in some way be able to absorb organic matter. That the plants can do without the absorption of organic matter is not a proof that they do do without it. Our forefathers were well aware that in the accumulation of organic matter at the roots of plants, lay the success of husbandry. Since their time we have come to know that by the addition to the soil of what are called fertilisers, which are frequently mineral substances contain- ing no organic matters, a great increase of crop can be obtained ; but evidence is not wanting to show that during recent times the mere application of fertilisers has been in many cases overdone, to the detriment of the texture and condition, and even to the fertility of the soil. The result is that at the present time there is a renewed appreciation among the best farmers of the great value of organic matter as an ingredient of the soil on which its fertility depends. If the observations of Professor Frank be correct, some- thing will have been done to reconcile two views of plant nutrition that have hitherto been sharply at variance: but there are some difficulties to overcome before his theory of the symbiotic relation of the fungus, which he calls a Mycorhiza, and the forest trees can be accepted, in so far at least as the fungus is able to be regarded as supplying the roots of the tree with organic matter. An obvious objection to this view is that conifers and cupuliferous trees are pro- vided with leaves whereby they can make their own organic matter; but,on the other hand, it may be said that there is no reason why trees should not obtain their organic matter from two sources. The one important observation which he adduces in support of that view is, that in the roots of trees nourished by the mycorhiza no nitrates are found. That is certainly a remarkable circumstance, which very distinctly differentiates them from most other plants in whose roots 72 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [SEss. LXII. nitrates are found as a constant constituent. Recent researches have shown that the nitrogenous matters in the soil, which are chiefly there in the form of albuminoid substances—the residues of former plants—are, in the process of decay, converted into ammonia salts, and these again into nitrates, through the agency of various bacteria inhabiting the soil ; and that theseorganisms are so abundant and, in ordinary circumstances, so active that all nitrogenous matters which have become soluble in the soil are ultimately converted into nitrates, and that in that state they are absorbed by the roots of plants, and by means of proper chemical tests their presence can be detected. Professor Frank observes that in the roots of trees or other plants affected by the mycorhiza he has _ not succeeded in finding nitrates, and this would seem to show that these roots are receiving their nitrogen from the mycorhiza in the condition of nitrogenous organic substances, viz. of elaborated organic matter such as is found in humus. It may be objected to the symbiotic theory that conifers and cupuliferee can be grown in soil containing no organic matter. That is quite certain, and Professor Frank gives details of many experiments where trees of these orders were planted in sandy soils containing no mycorhiza both in pots and in the open, and in such cases no mycorhiza appeared upon the roots of the plants. They had the characters of normal roots, provided with hairs like the roots of other plants, and capable of taking up the soluble mineral matters contained in the soil. But he found that in such cases the plants, if they did not die down, maintained a sickly growth, which contrasted strongly with that of plants sown or planted under similar con- ditions, with the sole difference that they were supplied with humus in which the hyphe of the mycorhiza were abundant. The benefit that forest trees derive from the accumula- tion at their roots of the dead leaves and vegetable débris shed from above is known to all foresters, and also the injurious effects which follow the removal of this vegetable matter. It had hitherto been supposed that the benefit the roots derived from the covering of decaying vegetable stuff was simply that of protection against extremes of heat and Nov. 1897.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 73 cold, and of drought and washing, the maintenance of an equable temperature and an equable dampness, both of which are favourable to the decay of vegetable matter, and its conversion into humus, which, besides vegetable matter, contains also the mineral substances most essential for the nourishment of plants. But if Frank’s observations are thoroughly to be relied on, it would seem that humus has become invested with a new interest, as the dwelling-place, namely, of a fungus which assimilates what is most useful as plant food and conveys it to the roots of the trees. So far from the mycorhiza being a parasite invading the trees, it would rather seem that the trees themselves were the parasites living on the fungus. In order that a true case of symbiosis may be established, it would be necessary to show that the advantages enjoyed by the trees from the association with the fungus were reciprocated in some way. If the roots of the trees provided a nesting place for the fungus where it was able to breed or perform some function essential or advantageous to its development, then it might fairly be called a case of sym- biosis. It seems, however, that only the vegetative part of this universally distributed fungus has as yet been found, and it is not known whether the process of reproduction takes place in the soil or in the roots of the trees, and, until that is known, the truly symbiotic character of it can be but imperfectly understood. It would seem, how- ever, that its connection with the roots has this advantage, that it puts it in a position where it grows immensely more luxuriantly than it does when remaining unattached in the soil. Since Frank’s original paper was published, several investigators have made observations on the subject, with the result that the mycorhiza has been found affecting many other plants, notably Ericas and Orchids, and a number of plants whose connection with the soil, or I should rather say want of connection, has been a puzzle to botanists, such as Paris quadrifolia and the Droseras, which Schlicht, a pupil of Frank’s, has been able to identify as mycorhiza affecting internally the roots of a large number of plants belonging to many natural orders. To return to the subject of the assimilation of the free 74 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. nxu. nitrogen of the air by leguminous plants, you may remem- ber that a very considerable body of evidence was adduced in support of the view that that order of plants possessed the power in virtue of their living in symbiosis with the 3acillus radicicola of Beyerinck, or, as Frank called it, the Rhizobium leguninosarum. That the Leguminose possessed a means of obtaining nitrogen which was denied to other orders, or at least possessed by them in a very subordinate degree, was known for ages; but it was not until quite recent years, culminating in Hellriegel’s experiments, and recorded in 1886, that it was satisfactorily proved that the store of nitrogen which the leguminous plants were able to tap so freely was the uncombined nitrogen of the air, and that this power was associated with the growth of the nodules which that order of plants develop so abundantly upon their roots. Since the publication of Hellriegel’s investigation, the formation and function of these nodules have been a subject of scientific research in all parts of the world, and these researches have been chiefly devised with the view of testing the accuracy of the symbiotic theory. To the results of such of these researches as have come. under my notice, I wish now shortly to refer, If the roots of the ordinary leguminous plants grown in the open field are examined, it will rarely happen that they are found entirely devoid of nodules. Nevertheless, in certain soils it is not uncommon to find good, healthy specimens that are quite free of nodules, showing that nodules are not absolutely essential to their development. Some genera are more prone to nodulation than others, and among these the lupine is pre-eminent. The lupine is also distinguished among leguminous plants as best adapted for green manuring, on account of the large amount of nitrogen which it is able to assimilate. But lupines also may be found growing vigorously without nodules. That the nodules on the roots of leguminous plants are caused by the attack of a micro-organism in the soil is easily proved by growing the plants in a soil that has been sterilised by heat or otherwise, when it is found that no nodules then make their appearance. If to such a sterilised soil a few grains of unsterilised soil, or a few Noy. 1897. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 75 drops of the washings of such a soil, be added, the roots of the plant are lable to develop nodules, and that liability becomes a certainty if the unsterilised soil is one in which similar plants well suppled with nodules have been erowing. The nodules make their appearance at a very early stage in the plant’s history usually, but it is not unusual to find quite newly-formed nodules on the roots of plants that are well advanced towards maturity. Nodula- tion may occur on the roots of almost any plants, and the nodules may be due to a variety of causes. The nodules here referred to are, however, of a special kind, and their anatomy has been carefully studied. They are due to the attack of a special organism. The generally accepted view is that it is a bacterium, and that it enters the plant by the hairs of the root. To discover the plan and mode of attack, and the propagation of the organism through the root tissue, is a matter of extreme difficulty, and it is not to be wondered at that there is considerable diversity of opinion regarding such matters. Frank, after much research, thinks he has discovered the spot on the root where a nodule will be formed, and around which will be clustered a mass of bacteria, allured to the spot by some inviting exudation emitted by the plant itself on purpose to attract them. When the nodule has at length been formed, the changes brought about in the tissues of the root are easily seen. In a diagram of Frank’s there is shown a microscopic preparation where the nodule from the root of a pea is permeated by what seems like the hypha of a fungus that has gained entrance by a hair and forced its way through the epidermis and cortical layer, and has caused the formation of modified cells in the meristem. These cells, under a high power, are found to be full of small Y-shaped bodies, to which the name of bacteroids has been given, and within the bacteroid are found very small highly refractive cocci, which are the bacteria which Frank calls Rhizobium lequminosarum. In another diagram is shown a section of a nodule, taken from the root of yellow lupine, in which the infection has spread over a considerable part of the meristem, and it is important to note how the cells have multiplied by 76 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. xi. division, and how the dividing cells are arranging them- selves in rows perpendicular to the point of attack in front of, and circumscribing, the infected cells, and, as it were, setting up a barrier between them and the endodermis and the vascular bundles farther in, which give access to the circulating system of the plant. I seem to see in this arrangement an effort of the plant to oppose the advance of the intruder, and prevent, if possible, his gaining access to the vascular tissue within. The way in which one interprets such things is liable to take its form from the preconceived notion he has entertained regarding it. Frank starts with the notion that this is a case of symbiosis, and he imagines the plant as fishing in-the soil for the bacterium, preparing a door for it, and entertaining it within its root as a wel- come guest. The manner in which the cells of the root increase and stand in between the infected cells and the vascular centre, pushing them out farther and farther until an excrescence in the form of a warty growth is made, calls to mind what takes place in animal bodies when invaded by parasites such as tubercle. The healthy tissue surrounding the intruder raises-up a wall of defence, and endeavours to encapsule it, and so prevents it spreading. The bacteroids may, perhaps, not inaptly be compared with the phagocytes, which Metchnikof describes as mustering in force around the seat of an invasion, and not only surrounding, but incorporating the invading crowd of bacteria. Either view of the matter is not inconsistent with the further development of the nodule, which increases often to a great size, and is usually connected with the root by a narrow neck. Also there is, if not always, at least usually, established a connection between the nodule and the vascular tissue, and the organisms within the nodule increase so as eventually almost to fill it. These organisms, be they bacteria or bacteroids, or both, are bodies rich in albumen, which is a highly nitrogenous compound. The source of this albumen is a very vexed question. There are those who hold that the bacteria within the nodule get their nitrogen from the elementary nitrogen contained in the ground air. I believe that is the view which is generally entertained. It must, however, seem a Noy. 1897.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH aa curious circumstance that the bacteria, if such is their function, should exercise it through the thick, corky layer of cells in which they are enclosed in the nodule, and that as they increase in number, and correspondingly in their demand for nitrogen, the wall surrounding them should be eradually becoming less permeable. This is at variance with what is found in other parts of the plant, such as in the chlorophyll cells surrounding the stomata, where the walls of the cells are made exceedingly thin, in proportion to the activity with which gases are required to diffuse through them. To discover whether nitrogen gas is entering the nodule through the walls is a very difficult matter. So far as it has been attempted by Kossowitch, who grew nodulate plants in a soil supphed with an artificial atmosphere composed of hydrogen and oxygen, but containing no nitrogen, it has gone to show that nodules grow independently of soil nitrogen. One would naturally expect that if the nodules were for the purpose of absorbing nitrogen, they would be provided with delicate hairs, or in some way present an easily permeable membrane to the gas; but there is no such means provided, and there has been adduced no positive evidence in favour of the view that the nodule is a gas- absorbing structure. It has been suggested that the forked bacteroids within the nodule arrange themselves in a loose fashion, forming a network which presents a large surface to nitrogen gas, after the manner of the lungs of animals. This seems to me a fanciful notion, as it is highly improb- able that a lung-lke provision should be made for air which was not allowed access thereto. We may now consider the other view held by Frank, and in which he is supported by Schlosing and Laurent, that the place where nitrogen assimilation takes place is the same as that wherein carbon assimilation takes place, viz. in the green leaves and other chlorophyll-containing parts of the plant. In support of that view there is the one very important piece of evidence, that the function of absorbing and assimilating atmospheric nitrogen and converting it into vegetable tissue has been shown by Berthellot, and André, and others, to be possessed by unicellular algze which inhabit ordinary soils abundantly. 78 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxm. These unicellular plants containing chlorophyll are quite comparable with the single chlorophyll cells of compound plants, and are so like them in every way as to make it very difficult to deny to them the power of assimilating free nitrogen. But while that goes so far as to make it a reasonable view, it does not explain why it is that the faculty of absorbing free nitrogen should be possessed by the chloro- phyll cells of the Leguminose any more than by those of any other order of chlorophyll-bearing plants. Frank has endeavoured to throw some light on this by following up, as far as possible, the fate and progress of the bacteroids within the nodules aiid without. From a minute examina- tion of the tissues of the root in the neighbourhood of the nodules, he finds that these organisms make their escape from the nodule in the root, and that they are to be found there especially in the riper stages of its life. It is his belief that long before the nodule softens and breaks down, and is in great measure absorbed by the plant, it is passing its bacteroids into the general circulation ; and he has been able to detect these Y-shaped or forked organisms in the cells of the stem, the leaves, the seed itself, and even in the cotyledons of the young embryo of Phaseolus vulgaris, The identification of these minute organisms is attended with great difficulty, and there is considerable liability to error ; but Frank is very strong upon the point that he is not mistaken in his search for these bodies, and if that is so, if his observation is to be trusted, and if it is really certain that the plant is permeated even very thinly with bacteroids, it makes it more easy to believe that under their stimulus the function of absorption of free nitrogen may be imparted to the chlorophyll cells, in virtue of their presence in some unknown way. It would, in that case, be more easy to compare the chlorophyll cell of the Leguminosze with the unicellular aleve of the soil, for it is quite possible that these also owe their power of assimilating free nitrogen to a stimulus received from similar bacteria contained in the soil. The finding of bacteroids in the cotyledons of Phaseolus vulgaris is also a matter of great: interest, for if that is correct, and if the case is not an isolated one, it is evident Nov. 1897. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 79 that the plant contains within it the means of producing nodules on its roots without having to be dependent on the friendly co-operation of bacteria resident in the soil. More- over, if it were so, it should be possible to grow leguminous plants having nodules on their roots, even in a sterilised soil. That, however, is against all experience, for there is nothing on the subject regarding which experimenters are more agreed than that the plants grown in a sterilised soil should have no nodules on their roots. Another important observation that militates against the view that the bacteria or bacteroids in the nodule are the direct assimilators of free nitrogen, is that when cultivations of the bacteria are made outside the plant in nutritive media containing organic matter of a suitable kind, they have not been found to absorb atmospheric nitrogen. They live upon the nitrogen contained in the nutritive solution, just as other bacteria do. Tt will thus appear that the view that the free nitrogen assimilation takes place in the chlorophyll cells has by far the most support from experimental facts. If that be so, then the store of albuminoid matter found in the nodules has not been brought to the plant as a free eift—it has been supplied by the plant itself, and the question arises: Is this then a case of symbiosis? Is it not rather a case of pure parasitism, where the invading organism is preying upon the tissues of its host? If it could be shown that the host was impoverished thereby, and especially if it were injured, that would be the true name for it; but it is alleged that the host plant is greatly benefited, inasmuch as the stimulus derived from the bacteria enables it to assimilate far more nitrogen than it otherwise could, and that even that which goes to the nourishment of the nodule is only lent it for a time. As soon as the life cycle of the bacteria is over, the nodule falls into a state of decay, and the host reabsorbs the albuminoid matter that he has stored in the nodule as a surplus manufacture. True it is that, in the breaking down of the nodule, some of its contents escape into the soil, but that is regarded as an additional proof of the symbiotic relationship, for the bacteria which escape into the soil remain there, and, for ought we know, increase 80 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss, ux. and prepare themselves for bestowing a similar service upon the succeeding generation of leguminous plants. It must be evident that in all this complicated symbiotic arrangement, an instance is presented to us of the danger of proceeding to investigate a chain of natural phenomena with a preconceived theory to which you hope that the facts will accommodate themselves. According to Frank, we are asked to beheve that the plant baits its roots with something nice, to lure the bacteria to it; it opens the door to them, and leads them along through a lane into the body of the root, where they find a number of expectant cells organising themselves for their reception. These surround the bacteria as a kind of bodyguard, and conduct them to the vessels that enable them to enter the circulation of the plant. The plant constructs a special abode for them, and supplies them with nourishment, whereby they may increase and multiply; and only when it requires a large amount of albumen for the development and ripening of its seed, does it claim back the albumen it had lent. At the same time, with a prudent eye to the future, it allows a residue of the organisms to escape into the soil, sufficient in number to satisfy the requirements of all its progeny in the coming season. ‘The symbiosis consists in this, that the plant supphes the bacterium with a breeding place and a store of food, and receives from the bacterium in return a stimulus which enables it to assimilate the free nitrogen of the air. This is an interesting theory, but it will be thought by many that it claims for the Leguminosie a little too much intelligence, cunning, and providential care. There is a lability in working out a theory to select (unconsciously it may be) only those facts which fit in with it. Since the broaching of the symbiotic theory, other facts have come to light that can scarcely be said to fit in with it. When Hellriegel first recorded his experiments he claimed for the nodules this advantage, that they enabled the young plants to assimilate atmospheric nitrogen at the precarious period of the youth when they had used up the nutriment stored in the cotyledons, and were thrown upon their own resources. This does not accord with the general experience of investigators, who find that the advantage to the plant is ioe) Noy. 1897. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH observable only during the latter part of its growth, when its seed is forming. As [ have already observed, leguminous plants can grow to maturity quite well without the possession of nodules, so long as the nitrogenous matter they require for their growth can be obtained easily from the soil. Plants grown in a sterilised soil and supplied with nitrates, as well as the other plant food required, grow to perfection, and in a natural unsterilised soil, rich in plant food, where the assistance of nodules to enable the plants to obtain nitrogen from the air is unnecessary, they may have their roots abundantly studded with nodules. Frank describes an experiment with Phaseolus vulgaris grown in a poor sandy soil containing only about ‘01 per cent. of nitrogen, where the plants grown in sterilised pots and unsterilised pots, with inoculated and uninoculated, grew in very much the same way, and that very poorly ; and when grown in a soil rich with nitrogenous organic matter the beans grew exceedingly well, but quite indifferently as to whether it had been previously sterilised or not, or whether it had been in- oculated or not. He came to the conclusion that Phaseolus behaved toward the Lhizobiwm as if it were a non-leguminous plant, but that, you may remember, was the plant within whose cotyledons he succeeded in tracing the presence of bacteroids. A very instructive series of experiments was carried out by Dr. Stocklasa in 1894, with the view of ascertaining whether there was any necessary connection between nodule formation and the formation of nitrogenous tissue in leguminous plants, and he chose for his subject of experiment Lupinus angustifolius, which he grew upon a light sandy loam, poor in nitrogen, in the open field. He selected, while in bloom, ten well-grown plants with nodules on their roots, and ten others of similar growth without nodules. The two sets of plants were as equal in every way as could be wished, having twenty-three and twenty-two leaves per plant respectively. These he analysed, and found that there was practically no difference in the amount of nitrogen they contained. The only difference noticed was that the nitrogen was somewhat unequally distributed. The plants with nodules had rather more TRANS, BOT, SOC. EDIN, VOL, XXI G 82 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. Lx. nitrogen in their roots, those without nodules had rather more in their leaves. The nodules themselves contained as much as 4°5 per cent. of nitrogen. He also grew lupines in pots containing washed sand, to which he added fertilising materials such as plants require, in the form of a solution made perfectly sterile, and with which the plants were watered, but in this nutritive solution there was no nitrogenous matter. Moreover, the pots were covered with wadding to protect them from infection of any kind by means of air-borne spores. Ten lupine plants thus grown assimilated from the air ‘191 grams nitrogen. These roots had no nodules. Ten lupine plants treated in the same .way and grown in the same kind of soil, to which a few grams of unsterilised lupine soil were added so as to inoculate the earth, assimilated 1°575 grams of air nitrogen, viz. about eight times as much as the others, and their roots were well studded with nodules. So much for the lupines grown in sterilised soil with and without inoculation, and, consequently, with and without nodules. He made a parallel experiment with lupines grown in an unsterilised poor soil, consisting almost entirely of sand dug out from several feet below the surface of the ground, and almost destitute of organisms. They were treated with the non-nitrogenous solution as the others, but the surface of the soil in the pots was left exposed to the air. He inoculated one-half of the pots with a few grams of lupine soil, and left the other half uninoculated. In the inoculated half the roots of the plant were well grown with nodules. On the uninoculated half, only a few imperfectly developed nodules appeared in several of the pots. He selected ten plants from each division, viz. ten plants with nodules, and ten plants without, but otherwise well grown, and analysed them, with the result that there was almost no difference in the amount of nitrogen the two lots had assimilated from the air. As it happened, the un- inoculated lot that had no nodules assimilated rather more than the other. The quantities were— Without nodules . 2°126 grams nitrogen. With nodules. , sa > ? > Nov. 1897. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 83 These quantities are more than ten times as great as that assimilated by the plants grown in the sterilised and un- inoculated soil. The result of this experiment is to show that inoculation is of use in a sterilised soil protected from air-borne organisms. In that case the inoculation and the nodulation resulting therefrcm increased the nitrogen assimilation eightfold, but, im the case of an unsterilised and unprotected soil, inoculation and consequent nodulation made no difference whatever. The explanation of this unexpected result is that the soil of the unsterilised pots was thickly grown with alg, and well supplied with bacteria; and it is to the activity and nitrogen-assimilating power of these that the plants owed their increased assimilation. In other words, the plants received their nitrogen from the soil, and _ that nitrogen was brought into the soil from the air by the algze and bacteria which flourished there. If this be the true explanation, it does away entirely with the symbiotic relation supposed to exist between the Leguminosie and the bacteria contained within the nodules. We are still left with the fact that nodulation is due to the interference of bacteria, and that the nodules are highly nitrogenous bodies whose nitrogen, however, is entirely derived from the plant, and utilised eventually by it for the growth of its own seed, should the plant ever arrive at the seeding stage. If that is all, the attack of the bacteria on the roots, and its subsequent lodgment there in the form of a nodule, must be regarded as pure parasitism, and that the plant eventually absorbs the organic matter of the parasite in its mature stage is due to its having sufficient vigour to confine the parasite within a nodule, and so to limit the sphere of its mischief. Whether, in the event of the plant’s not possessing that vigour, the bacteria would get the upper hand of it and kill it down, is a probability that has been suggested, but of which I have no proof. It is evident, however, that such a condition of matters may occur, and it may, upon further investigation, shed some light on the mysterious disease of clover sickness, and of some other apparently parasitic disease to which some leguminous crops are lable. 84 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [SEss. LXII. It may be objected to the results of Stocklasa’s experiment that they do not explain why it is that leguminous plants should be the only ones able to derive benefit from the nitrogen brought to the soil by the alge and bacteria referred to. That question Stocklasa answers in a some- what unexpected manner. He gives the result of five years experimenting with buckwheat (Polygonum fagoyprum), a plant far removed from the Leguminosz, and shows that it also has the power of assimilating atmospheric nitrogen, especially when grown in soils that are fairly well cupplicd with nitrogenous manure. Into the details of that experiment time will not permit one to enter, but the results are shortly as follows :— 100 plants grown in a s/erilised soil assimilated of atmospheric nitrogen ; : : : 138 grams. 100 plants in an wnsterilised soil. : . Lams aes. (That is to say ten times as much. ») 100 plants grown in a sterilised soil to which ammonium nitrate was added asa manure 3°385__,, 100 plants in an wnsterilised soil similarly manured . ? P 2 : . . 6°09 ca This experiment, besides putting on record the fact that plants other than leguminous ones can utilise atmospheric nitrogen, shows how greatly dependent for that faculty they are upon the lowly organisms that inhabit the soil in which their roots are ramifying. Time will permit me to do no more than refer in a few words to an experiment, which, through the kindness of Professor Balfour, and with the valuable assistance of Mr. Harrow, I was able to carry out at the Botanic Garden last summer. The experiment was only a provisional and tentative one, as a prelude to one which I hope to try next summer. A soil made of a very poor subsoil, about three feet below the surface, which had been laid bare during the building improvements going on in the Garden, was chosen on account of its poverty in nitrogen, and it was mixed with sand in equal amount. To this was added a supply of fertilisers, viz. phosphate and potash salts, but no nitrogen. This was filled into three sets of pots, measuring eight inches across, and containing about five pounds of soil each. One-third of the pots was left without further manure, and the other Noy. 1897.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 85 two-thirds were supphed with nitrogenous manure, one- half with sulphate of ammonia, and the other with flesh meal, and these in varying quantities. Half of these were sterilised by exposure for some time to steam at the boiling- point of water. Moreover, a duplicate of the whole series was made, to which was added nitragin, a supply of which I got from the manufactory in Germany, of the kind specially prepared for application to the bean crop, in the manner described in Mr. MacDougall’s paper, read before the Society last session. This was dissolved in water in the manner recommended by the vendors, and applied to the crop after the leaves appeared above the soil. The sterilised pots were protected with wadding for some time, but its use was discontinued when the seed began to germinate. They were watered with sterilised water. Five beans were planted in each pot, and all were sterilised by dipping in a solution of corrosive sublimate of 1 to 4000 before planting, both in the sterilised and unsterilised section. The pots were accommodated in a cold frame when the experiment began in July, and kept there till October, when it ended. The experiment was only a preliminary one, carried on chiefly to enable one to gain some experience, so that a quantitative record of the result was not made. It was found that the plants that throve best were those that had no nitrogenous manure given them. ‘There was a large number of blanks, and in very few pots did all the five beans come up. The division that got no nitrogenous manure was a fairly even one. The plants that did grow were healthy, and most of them were in full flower when the experiment ended. There did not seem to be much difference between the sterilised and unsterilised sets, nor was there any perceptible difference between the pots that were inoculated with nitragin and those that were not. A fairly representative collection was made of the plants in each set. . They were carefully turned out of the pots and put into water, so that the earth might fall away from the roots without injury of any kind. I preserved a number of the roots in formation, and removed the stalks. A number of them are shown on the table before you. Four are from sterilised pots, and four from unsterilised ones. . Upon the 86 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. rxm. whole, I am of opinion that the plants grown in sterilised earth rooted the best. The steaming of the soil may have had the effect of making nutritive substances more easily assimilable, but the difference was not great. As regards the application of nitragin, from which so much was expected, it does not seem to have had any effect whatever either upon the growth of the plant, the develop- ment of the root, or the occurrence on these of nodules. Some of the plants that were inoculated with nitragin had nodules upon their roots, and some had none, but the nodules on the nitragined roots were no more numerous nor were they any better developed than those on the set that got no nitragin. This is a disappointing result, but it is similar to that recorded by Professor Somerville in the paper he laid before the Society last session. In searching for the cause of the failure of this much-advertised material, there are various circumstances that may be considered. The bean is not quite so sensitive to inoculation as some other members of the Leguminosze, and Frank describes an experiment with Phaseolus vulgaris in a somewhat similar soil, where nitragin had no effect in increasing the crop whatever, and where, indeed, the plants that were un- sterilised and uninoculated throve best and gained most nitrogen. Frank thought the failure was due to the soil being too poor in organic matter, but if that were so, it was a fatal objection to the use of nitragin, whose chief use and whose greatest virtue was considered to be its capability of enabling leguminous plants to grow on soils poorly supplied with organic matter, and at the bottom of the scale as regards richness in nitrogen. The whole system of growing legumin- ous crops for manurial purposes is to enrich the soil with organic matter, and especially with nitrogen from the air. Soils rich in organic matter are just those that do not require to be treated in that way. Again, perhaps the benefit of nitragin was not felt sufficiently because the plants were cut down _ before maturity, but if that is so, it again tends to nullify the benefits derived from leguminous plants that are grown for green manuring and for increasing the store of nitrogen in the soil, for green manure erops are ploughed up long before they ripen. Dec. 1897.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 87 Again, it may be that the whole experiment was too late in the season, or it may be that the soil was otherwise unsuitable, or it may be that the nitragin had lost its vitality, or it may be that it does not possess some or any of the virtues ascribed to it. I hope, during the coming season, to be able to say which of the many hypothesis that may be started are of any importance, for I hope to be able to anticipate every possible objection that a believer in the value of nitragin might be expected to raise. MEASUREMENT OF THE GIRTH OF CONIFEROUS TREES AT BRAEMAR IN 1894. By R. TurnBuut, BSc. and PERCIVAL C. WaITE. (With Plate.) (Read 9th December 1897.) During April 1894 we spent a fortnight at Braemar, and had many opportunities of observing the destruction caused by the great November gale of 1893. Every wood and forest in the neighbourhood had suffered, and the foresters had been busy during the winter sawing the blown trees into logs. We determined to measure the radii and annual increment of diameter of specimens of Scots pine, Norway spruce, and common larch, so as to be able to calculate the annual increment of girth. Those trees had all, with one exception, grown on the slopes of steep hills, and it was found that the side of the tree which was most obscured by the hill or other trees presented the smallest radius, while the longest radius was turned towards the greatest light. Thus we found the greatest radii on the N., E. and 5. sides respectively, in trees with an open aspect in those directions. In none of our specimens did we find the greatest radius to the W., but this may be merely an accidental occurrence, and one to which at present we can attach no importance. It is a law in plant-growth that leaves and the young aerial parts of plants turn towards the light. This pheno- 88 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. ixu. menon must not be mistaken for the bending of trees on exposed situations by the prevailing winds. On the edges of dense woods and forests, trees have most branches on the side turned to the light; fewest on the side next the mass of the forest. These conditions hold good for the specimens under consideration, therefore we find the greatest development of branches on the same side as the greatest radial increment. Now, since the elaborated sap or digested food of the tree is made in the green leaves, it evidently descends the tree mostly by the bast of the side on which it is manu- factured, and thus brings about the radial increment of wood on that side. The breadth of the annual rings showed that most of the trees had reached the limit of most active growth in girth at the ages of 30 to 50 years, but in some cases the growth was continued long beyond this age, with only a very gradual decrease of vigour. Among the broad annual rings in the older parts of the tree much narrower rings were occasionally found; in the same way, broad rings occasionally among the narrower rings of the younger wood. It is almost impossible to determine definitely the causes which bring about such variations from year to year. In the absence of a detailed history of each tree, the question of thinnings must be left out of account, although it is well known that a judicious thinning affects most beneficially those trees that are thus more exposed to the light and heat of the sun. The trees in question, to all appearance, had grown with plenty of space all round, and had not been forced into the pole-stage, according to the principles of modern sylviculture. Again, the frequency of the variations, above referred to, shows that periodic thinnings could not be the sole cause. Soil and situation were constant factors throughout, except that, as growth in height proceeded, an increasing density of leafy canopy would be the result, but this would not account for the variation. Frequent storms might, by removing certain trees, expose the survivors to greater light, but storms of this Dec, 1897.] . BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 89 nature become historic, and do not occur often enough to account for the variation. Other meteorological conditions, however, must be taken into account, since they form some. of the factors which determine the growth of all plants; these are temperature, moisture, and sunshine. The relationship of these factors to the annual increment of girth will form the subject of a second paper. The following were our methods of examining each tree :—After choosing an evenly-sawn section close to the ground, we found its orientation by means of a pocket compass, then cut two smooth tracks on the surface with a wood chisel so as to get N. and S., and E. and W. diameters, each passing through the pith. The total lengths of each diameter, and each radius, were measured by us in turn, while the other noted the measurements on paper; then the breadth of each annual ring was taken with a steel millimetre measure, and these measurements were checked at every tenth year. It must be understood that the measurements were made of the wood only, and did not extend beyond the cambium. When the annual rings of the first few or the last years of a tree were too close for accurate individual measure- ment, a collective number was measured. Specimen 4 was thus measured collectively for the first 6 years; B for the first 5; D for the last 30; 4, #, and G had every annual ring measured along each of the four radii; H had a few collective measurements taken between the ages of 25 and 50 years. The sections were immediately above the pom level, except—D, 12 feet above ground; Ff, 32 feet above ground ; and H, 34 feet above ground. It would have been better to have got sections 4 or 5 feet above ground, so as to be away from the buttressed part of the trunks near the roots; but we had no choice, since we had to examine the sections as we found them. | In calculating the girth for any one year, the increments of the four radii of that year are added to the sum of the radii of all the preceding years; the total is divided by 2 90 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. Exit. to get the average diameter, and the quotient multiplied by 34 to get the girth for the year. The continued increase in the four radii, the average diameter and the girth for each year, are represented by curves, where the co-ordinates are years, for the age of the tree, ze. horizontal co-ordinate or abscissa; and milli- metres for the girth, 7c. vertical co-ordinate or ordinate. The actual scale on the diagrams shown is 5 years to one inch horizontally, and 100 mm. to one inch vertically. The curves for the four radii, average diameter, and girth of each tree are represented for periods of 5 years, and where collective measurements were made an average for each quinquennial period has been struck. On separate diagrams a life-size section of each tree, calculated from the four radii, and marked with rings every 10 years and at the cambium, has been drawn; and on these sheets, also, has been drawn a section of the ground showing its gradient and the position of the tree. The following are the details of the specimens exam- ined :— A. Common larch (Larix europwa, DC.) was situated at the N. side of fhe Inverey road, and close to its edge, about two miles to the west of Braemar, near the point where the road runs to the S.S.W., so that the S. and W. sides would receive most light. Immediately above were the lower slopes of Morrone, which rises to a height of 2819 feet, and the tree itself stood about 1200 feet above sea-level. The ground sloped gently at first, and then precipitously to the Dee on the N., the river being within a stonethrow of the tree. Trees grew all round, and the only open ground was towards the road, while from the slope of the ground there was more light on the N. than on the E. side. The S. radius measured 324 mm. 7 ’ aN, os - 296 ,, age 9 ” Ni: ” ” 23% ” » 220 ”? As shown by the curve for the increment of girth, the growth for the first 6 years was slow, then came rapid growth up to 15 years, and a still more rapid growth up to Dec. 1897.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 91 35 years, after which the gradient becomes less, and after 50 years of age there is a considerable falling off, with a slight increase, however, during the last 6 years. The last increase in the gradient should be specially noted, as it occurs in all the trees examined, but it will be discussed in the second paper. The girth inerease was most vigorous from 20 to 3 years of age, but good, sound growth was made up to 50 years of age. The tree was 66 years old, and the total sirth of wood was 1695 mm., ze. 5 feet 74 inches. &. Norway spruce (Picea excelsa, Link.) grew about a furlong W. of A, on the same side of the road, but much farther down the hill. It had trees all round, and the only open aspect was to the N., where the ground sloped very rapidly down to the Dee. The N. radius measured 201°5 mm. bb) S. bP) 9) 186°5 > ” W. ” ” L785 ”? E. ” ” 175°0 ”? The girth curve shows at once that the conditions had been less favourable for the spruce than the larch. The first 5 years’ growth was slow, then came a more rapid and almost uniform growth up to 30 years of age, after which the gradient becomes smaller and smaller until 60 years of age, from which time until the tree was levelled, at the age of 68, there was a slight rise. The total girth of wood was 1165 mm., ze. 3 feet 102 inches. C’. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris, L.) grew on the N.E. slope of Craig Choinnich, a very steep wooded hill which rises about a mile to the east of Braemar into a sharp peak, 1764 feet above sea-level. Below the place where this tree grew, the public road to Ballater, distant only a few yards, runs in an E.S.E. direction. Trees grow down to the road, while close to the latter, on the N. side, is the Dee, and beyond the river lie open meadows. The open aspect was thus on the N.E. side of the tree, and it is noteworthy that the N.E. radius was 319 mm. long, but this radius is not taken into account in calculating the girth, as uniformity was desired in all the calculations, 92 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ SEss. LXII. The E. radius measured 291 mm. Rees Pater , 22) as el) ae 5 252, ssn nies ‘ 215°5 ,, The 8. side of the tree was obscured by sie hill and the trees above. The curve of girth shows slow growth up to 5 years, rapid growth up to 20, and less rapid up to 85, after which the gradient becomes less steep. The tree reached the age. of 116 years, ‘and its girth measured 1588 mm., ze. 5 feet 34 inches at the cnnenn D. Norway spruce (Picea excelsa, Link.) grew quite close to C, but differed from all the preceding in being eut 12 feet above ground. Like C, its E. radius is greater than any of the other three. The KE. radius measured 298°5 mm. ) IN: > 9 Aad ‘0 9 1 . 9 S. > » 159 0 > oP) Wi ”? 2? 158°5 »? The girth curve shows a good and fairly uniform growth up to 50 years of age, but it must be remembered in this case that, to allow for the 12 feet above the ground, we must add 15 or more years to the age of the section to obtain the actual age of the tree. In all probability it was planted at the same time as its neighbour C, the Scots pine. According to our measurement the age of the section was exactly 100 years, and its girth of wood was.1314 mm., or 4 feet 43 inches. LE. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris, L.) grew on the same slope of Craig Choinnich as C and D, but some distance to the W. of the latter, near the edge of the wood, and almost opposite Braemar Castle. This change of position removed the tree from the close shadow of the hill, and opened up the $.W. and W. aspects. Like JD, the tree was cut a few feet above the roots, but, unfortunately, the exact height was not recorded. The 8, radius measured 315°5 mm. ana, fs : 200s 5. Batis B; 248:0 rae: ee ; 2360 ,, Dec, 1897.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Cis) The girth curve of the tree is the most uniform of the series, but owing to the height of the section above the eround, the first few years’ growth is wanting. The crown of the girth curve shows the tree to have reached its best between the fortieth and fiftieth years, but even up till the last it retained much of the vigour of its youth. The last five years show a slight increase of gradient. The tree at the section had reached 100 years of age, and measured 1654 mm., or 4 feet 8} inches in girth. F. Common larch (Larix europwa, DC.) grew on the S.E. slope of Carn-na-Drochaide, about half a mile 8.W. of Inverchandlick Cottage, on the N. bank of the Dee. The slope was gentle, the tree grew several yards back from the road which opens the aspect to the N. and E., but it is difficult to obtain the exact surroundings of the tree at the level of the section, which was 52 feet above ground. The tree grew about 1060 feet above sea-level. The N. radius measured 155°5 mm, ” EK. ” ” 134:0 oh ” S. 9 ” 115°5 ” ” Mie ” ” ao 9 Since the section was taken 32 feet above ground, one must add about forty or fifty years to the ascertained age to get the age of the tree. The age of the tree at the section was.74 years, and the girth 779 mm., ac. 2 feet 74 inches. G. Common larch (Lariz europea, DC.) grew on level ground about half a mile N. of Braemar, among a clump of trees to the N.W. of the cemetery, and near the old toll-bar which stands at the junction of the main road with that which leads to the ferry over the Dee. An old gravel pit lay immediately to the N. and. of this tree, while the 8. and W. sides were shaded by other trees. The whole trunk was lying on the ground, and we found it to be 54 feet high, while the section was measured at the ground level. The N. radius measured 257 mm. » E. » ” 200 ” if 7 ©) ” W : ” ” il fo ” x & veh (SS aces ” LGoy 3 94 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. uxu. The growth was fair up to 10 years of age, much quicker up to 20, somewhat slower up to 50, and then considerably slower up to 64, the age of the tree. The girth at the stool measured 1249 mm., or 4 feet 2 inches. H, Common larch (Larix europwa, DC.) grew beside F, on the N. side of the Dee, and the section was taken 34 feet above the ground. As in the case of ¥, it is difficult to learn the conditions of light and shade of this tree. The E. radius measured 91°5 mm. +P SF bP) » 86°0 PP] bP) W. » ? 79:0 > ¥ lard a ? N. : >? 9 ( 9 0 3 The curve is of the same nature as that in F, but the growth had been slower. The tree at the section was 70 years old, and measured only 527 mm.,, or 1 foot 9 inches in girth. The diagrams referred to in the text were used to illustrate the reading of the paper; the only one repro- duced here is that showing the curves of annual girth- increment. THE DIAMETER-INCREMENT OF THE WOOD OF CONIFEROUS TREES AT BRAEMAR IN RELATION TO CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. By R. TurnBut, B.Se. (With Plate.) (Read 13th January 1898.) The first part of this paper, read at the December meeting of the Society, dealt with the measurements of the radii, average diameters, and girths of the wood of coniferous trees which were blown down near Braemar by the November gale of 1893. Curves of the continued increase of diameter and girth were drawn for each tree, so as to show the increase in relation to age, and since the paper was read, curves for the increase of area have been added. There were eight sections examined, including larch, Scots pine, and Norway spruce, and in every case the Jan. 1898.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 95 largest radius was found to be on the side exposed to the greatest light. The present paper is an attempt to find a relationship between the annual diameter-increment and the climatic or meteorological conditions. A better plan would have been to compare the annual area-increment with those conditions, but the additional labour of calculating the areas for each year would have extended the work over another month; by this latter method, however, the average height of the curves would have been maintained ; whereas, by using the diameters only, the average heights of their curves naturally decrease with time, because, as the girth of the tree expands, the average increment of the diameter decreases. There is very little lost in the method adopted, since girth and area are continuous functions of the diameter. The rise and fall seen in the diameter curves would be seen at the same places in the girth and area curves, only they would be more pronounced in the last two. Of the specimens mentioned in the first paper, only five could be used for the purpose of drawing out continuous curves of the annual diameter-increment, because in these cases the measurement of each annual ring had been taken, while in the three omitted from the present paper measurements had often to be taken of 5 or more years collectively, owing to the smallness of the rings. Meteorological observations have been made at Braemar since 1856—the greater part of the time by Mr. James Aitken, the present observer—at the Observatory founded - by H.R.H. the late Prince Consort in 1855; and the observations from 1856 to 1893 were reduced by Mr. R. C. Mossman, F.R.S.E., and recorded in the “ Journal” of the Scot. Met. Society (Vol. x., Third Series, No. x., 1894). From Mr. Mossman’s tables I have calculated means for periods of three and six months respectively, while the tables supplied the yearly means; and curves have been drawn for temperature and rainfall, showing the three- monthly periods, beginning with January of each year. By uniting the second and third periods and taking the averages, the curves for the growing season—April to September inclusive—have been obtained. My object in 96 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. tx. doing this is to get the direct influence of these conditions while the trees are actually growing. The mean temperature and rainfall for the year do not represent the means for the summer months; at the same time the means for the winter and spring months, and also for the year, have been before me in studying the curves of increment. The relative humidity of the air during the six growing months has been represented by another curve. I am indebted to Dr. Alexander Buchan, Secretary, Scot. Met. Society, for kindly placing at my disposal his MS. tables of sunshine for the whole of Scotland, and from these tables curves have been drawn; these curves, how- ever, are only approximately true for Braemar, but they are a great help to the present investigation, as light is an important factor in the growth of plants. Since the meteorological observations at Braemar began, in 1856, I had to make that year the starting-point for my curves; the period under consideration is, therefore, 38 years. The following are the specimens now under considera- tion: Specimen A, common larch, 66 years old at section near the ground; on N. slope of hill; S.W. exposure. Specimen £, Norway spruce, 68 years old at section near the ground; on N., slope of hill; N. exposure. These two trees grew about 2 miles west of Braemar, and about 100 feet above the river Dee. Specimen J£, Scots pine, 100 years old; on N. slope of hill, one mile E. of Braemar, and 20 feet above the Dee; S.W. exposure. Specimen /, common larch, 74 years old, but section at 32 feet above ground, so that tree must have been considerably over 100 years old; 1 mile N. of Braemar, on S.E. slope of hill N. of the Dee; exposure uncertain. Specimen G, common larch, 64 years old at section near the ground; on level alluvial soil, with gravel subsoil, 1 mile N. of Braemar; exposure N.E. From these notes and the first part of the paper it will be seen that conditions and aspects of the trees varied considerably, and these may account for some of the minor differences found in the curves. A more accurate method of investigation would be to * ee « = 4 e -_ ' = : J —_— § Ab ® a a a CURVES OF ANNUAL 18-56 57 58 59 6O 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 % [AMETHR—INCREMENT. 77 78 79) ‘so $1 82 83 84 8) 86 8/ 8&& 89 90 91 92 93 A bb yrs ARCH. ae eS PRUCE. ws Et C. PUNE. F 120 jo al a ARCH. G 64 yas. ARCH. SUNSHINE. “MIN. TEMP OF EACH WEAR. RAINFALL APRIL TO SEPTR. HUMIDITY | 7 ae APR-SPTR. | : “< TEMP. APR-SPTR. 79 80 81 82 8&3 84 85 86 8&7 88 89 90 91 92 98 R. TURNBULL, del. Jax. 1898.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 97 secure a large number of trees from the same neighbour- hood, and of approximately the same age, so as to compare their curves of increment. While considering the external influences of a plant, one must not overlook the internal conditions. Perennial plants store up the surplus food of one year to be used during the following year, but the balance carried over from one year to another depends largely on the conditions of growth ; consequently the growth of any one year is not wholly dependent on the meteorological conditions of that year, but also on the reserved food materials, which, in turn, are dependent on the meteorological conditions of the preceding year. Again, insect attacks and severe frosts may so injure the buds and leaves of trees during the growing season as to make their effects felt over a period of years. These are some of the difficulties to be met with in trying to account for the rise and fall of the increment curve. Sylvicultural methods have never been adopted where those trees grew. I am assured of this by Mr. John Michie, head forester, Balmoral; the trees were planted and left to nature, consequently thinnings need not be considered. Gales of wind may have levelled trees around the specimens now under consideration; but, although Mr. Aitken in his reports notes the occurrence of gales, he mentions only that of November 1893 as having been destructive to trees. If the curve of larch A be examined, it will be seen to contain six well-marked maxima in 1859, ’70, ’75, ’82, 89, and ’93 respectively, as well as a few other maxima of less importance ; and three deep minima in 1864, ’79, and "92 respectively, and several other depressions. To under- stand these points it must be remembered that larch thrives best in a dry, sunny atmosphere. The maxima of 1859, ’70,’75, and ’82 occurred when the amount of sunshine for the growing season was above the mean. The minima of 1879 and 1892 occurred when the sunshine was very much below the mean. The minimum of 1864 occurred during one of the maximum sunshine periods, and, as this occurrence seems to contradict TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXI. H 98 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE — [Sess. ux. the coincidence of sunshine and increment, it will require to be explained in terms of temperature and moisture. The six maxima agree still more closely with the periods of maximum temperature, as each coincides with the tem- perature at or above the mean. The three minima also occurred when the temperature was considerably below the mean. The 1864 minimum followed the very cold summer of 1863, and in 1864 the temperature was only very slightly above the mean. Let us now follow the curve in detail from 1856 onwards. The rise from 1856 to 1859 took place during continuous warm, dry, sunny, growing seasons. The fall of 1860 came with a very cold, sunless, and moist summer. The season of 1861 was warmer, but the other conditions did not improve, and rainfall and humidity were much above the mean. The cold of 1860 would allow of very little reserve food, while the increased moisture of 1861 would hinder growth, and these two conditions are sufficient to account for the continued fall in 1861. It is difficult to understand the rise of 1862, but the increment for-that year is small when compared with the five years preceding 1861, and it may partly be accounted for by the lessened rainfall of 1862, although the tempera- ture was below the mean, The very cold season of 1863, added to the relatively cold season of 1862, brought about a further fall, which was continued until 1864, when the first minimum was reached. The temperature of April, May, and June 1864 fell below the freezing-point, and this may have helped to check the growth. From 1864 to 1870 there was a steady rise, due largely to the increased sunshine, higher temperature, and lessened rainfall of those years, excepting the cloudy, colder, and moister year of 1867, which caused a slight dip in the curve. The temperatures of 1867 and 1868 were not suffi- ciently far below the mean to do more than lower the curve slightly in its upward rise, but in 1869 and 1870, with warmer, sunnier, and drier seasons, the rise was rapid. JAN. 1898. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 99 The second great maximum is thus found in 1870, when all the most favourable conditions of growth for larch occurred. The curve between 1870 and 1875 first falls and then rises with the sunshine and temperature, while the lowest point of this period coincides with the very heavy summer rainfall of 1873, almost equalled by the summer rainfall of 1872. The rise of 1875 marks the third of the great maxima, when the conditions were similar to those of the first maximum in 1859, A decrease of increment took place from 1875 to 1879, during a cold, wet, and cloudy period. There was a rapid rise in 1880, due to a warm, dry, sunny season; a fall in 1881 coinciding with a cold, cloudy summer; and another rise—the fourth maximum—in 1882, when sunshine and temperature were greater than in 1881, and, although the rainfall was greater, the relative humidity was very little above the mean. From 1882 to 1889 there was a fall, and then a rise with the sunshine and temperature. - ‘ . 1 7 = —_ - Ld ” JEW del Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinr., Vol. X XI. wani, Baker. Bu Apr. 1899. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 217 NoTE ON THE DISCOVERY OF GENTIANA NIVALIS, LINN., IN SUTHERLANDSHIRE. By Joun Lowe, M.D., F.RS.E. (Read 15th April 1899.) In 1896, I found Gentiana nivalis, Linn., on Loch Assynt, on some rocks near Ardvreck Castle. It was in considerable quantity, and some growing near the edge of the water. I have never before found it growing at the sea-level in Scotland, though it comes very low down in Norway. Dryas Octopetala was also very abundant. NoTe ON THE OCCURRENCE OF ASCOIDEA RUBESCENS, BreEF., IN SCOTLAND. By James A. Terras, B.Sc. (Read 11th May 1899.) This fungus appears to be not uncommon in Germany, where it was discovered by Brefeld growing on the fluid which runs down the stem of beech trees affected with the disease known as “ Schleimfluss”; but, so far as I am at present aware, it has not hitherto been recorded from Scotland. The first specimens which I examined were from a distillery in the north of Scotland, and were found growing in an earthenware pipe through which overflow water from the tanks in which the barley is steeped before malting was constantly flowing in small quantities, though a very much larger volume of fluid must of necessity pass over the plants whenever the tanks are discharged, an operation which takes place’at short intervals. The fungus was particularly abundant at the free end of the pipe, where it opens into a collecting tank at some little height above the level of the water; and growing in this somewhat peculiar position, the plants appeared per- fectly healthy, but showed no signs of either sporangia or conidia, though both forms of fruit were afterwards obtained in abundance by means of artificial cultivation on gelatine and agar plates, as well as in gelatine tubes. TRANS, BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL, XXI. : Q 218 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. uxm. I have since found the same plant growing in consider- able quantity in and about another distillery at some distance from the first; and it is possible that the speci- mens taken from the pipe in the first instance may have been merely washed down by the steep water from a more congenial situation, though this I am not yet in a position to prove. It is worthy of remark that neither of the distilleries in question is in the habit of using either foreign barley or foreign yeast, so that introduction of the fungus by this means appears to be excluded from consideration. THE FOLLOWING EXHIBITS WERE SHOWN AT THE MEETING ON Tuurspay, 1ltH May 1899. By Professor Scott E.Luiot, M.A., B.Sc, F.LS., F.R.G.S. A collection of Spanish flowering plants obtained in March of this year in Andalusia, all from a small district at the exact boundary of the alluvial valley of the Guadal- quivir and the foothills of the Sierra. The associations studied were— I. RIVERSIDE ON THE SIERRA.—This was characterised by a rich profusion of Selaginella and Adiantum; many creepers, such as Bryonia, Tamus, Smilax asper, Aristo- lochia, and Clematis. Tamarisk and Ficus were amongst the trees. IJ. THe SIERRA ITSELF.—This was remarkable for the Palmetto serub, Thymus, Notochlena lanuginosa, bulbous plants, etc. In small basins of tertiary age in the primi- tive rock of the Sierra were found Rosemary, an enormous white Cistus, and other shrubs. II. Uncutrivatep ALLUVIAL PLain.—This was covered by woods of Quercus ilex, with an undergrowth of a small white Cistus, ete.; Lavandula stechas; Ornithogalum winbellatwm in damp places. IV. CuLtivatED ALLUVIUM.—A fallow field was covered by Leucojum, and many British plants were found in the waste ground, such as Borago, Anchusa, Reseda, Cyno- glossum, Symphytum, Scrophularia, and also Calendula. May 1899. } BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 219 A collection of mosses, including three species of Andria; Oligotrichum hercynicum, Ehrh.; Hedwigia ciliata, Dicks. ; and four species of Hylocomium, all in good fruit. By Mr. John R. Lee. Some rare and interesting fungi, including Dedalea unicolor, Fr. (on beech logs, Bishopbriggs), not apparently found before in the west of Scotland. From Mr. J. Wylie. Polyporus brumalis, Fr.; P. picipes, Fr.; Thelephora laciniata, Pers.; Hydnum zonatum, Balsch.; H. compactuin, Pers.; Corticiwm ceruleum, Fr.; and others. From Mr. W. Stewart. Specimens of Silver Fir attacked by Sirex gigas and S. puniceus, with specimens of the insect, larva, and pupa. From Mr. Ballantyne, Rothesay. Specimens of timber from North America, with larva and pupa of a beetle, apparently Asemiwm mestum, Haldeman. From Mr. James Ferguson. Professor Scott Elliot, on behalf of the Natural History Sub-Committee of the British Association Meeting in Glas- gow, 1901, also gave an account of what the Botanical section are attempting. A complete list of the Flora of the Clyde district is the aim which they have in view. Information is specially desired as to—(1) Distribution of Species; (2) Papers in Magazines, Journals, and Trans- actions of Societies, which might otherwise be overlooked ; (3) Names of workers in the different departments who might be willing to assist; (4) Information as to Herbaria or collections of dried plants ; (5) Collections of microscope slides of botanical interest. The maximum area, as arranged by the Committee, to be overtaken is “the natural drainage area of the Clyde, and of all the sea lochs which form extensions of its estuary.’ The northern limit, therefore, is the watershed beyond the head of Loch Fyne; and the southern boundary has been defined as a line drawn between the Mull of ° Cantire and the most southerly point of Ayrshire. A leaflet has been prepared, showing the names of the different compilers, which will be forwarded to those willing to assist, on application to him at 204 George Street, Glasgow, 220 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. xm. OBITUARY NOTICE OF THE LATE MatcoLm Dunn, V.M.H. By Roperr LIinpsay. (Read 8th June 1899.) We have to deplore the loss of Mr. Maleolm Dunn, gardener to the Duke of Buccleuch at Dalkeith Palace Gardens, who died there suddenly and unexpectedly on the 11th of May last, at the age of sixty-one years. His death removes from among us one of the most prominent, conscientious, and energetic members of this and kindred societies. Mr. Dunn was born in the parish of Methven. Perth- shire, and received his early education at the parish school, Crieff. He served his apprenticeship as a gardener in Strathallan Gardens, Perthshire. Subsequently he was employed in several of the best private gardens in England. In 1865 he was appointed head gardener to Lord Powers- court, at Powerscourt, Co. Wicklow, Ireland. Here he became widely known by the successful manner in which he combated the Phylloxera vastatriz in the vineries at Powerscourt. At that period the dreaded “ vine disease ” threatened to overrun this country, as it had done in France, and his method of submersion proved most effica- cious in staying its ravages. After a stay.of six years in Ireland, Mr. Dunn was engaged by the Duke of Buecleuch as head gardener at Dalkeith Palace Gardens in 1871, and how he maintained that establishment up to its former high level is well known. As a gardener he excelled in most branches of his pro- fession, but he was best known as a pomologist. He had an intimate and most extensive knowledge of varieties of fruit trees, and he took a prominent part in the promotion of the several Fruit Conferences of the last twenty-five years. Mr. Dunn became a member of the Botanical Society im 1870, and frequently served on the Council. He con- tributed largely to the success of our meetings, both by interesting communications and exhibitions of rare plants, and was ever eager to give his aid in all matters connected with this Society. So late as March last, in his usual health and vigour, he exhibited a number of specimens of flowering trees and shrubs at our meeting. _ June 1899.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 221 Mr. Dunn led a very busy life. A society in which he was specially interested, and in which he was a leading spirit, was the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, which he joined in 1868. In recognition of the extraordinary value of his services to that Society, he was unanimously elected an honorary member last year. The Royal Cale- donian Horticultural Society, which he joined in 1871, owes much to the energetic activity of Mr. Dunn. In 1886 he was awarded by the Council of that Society the Neill prize, in recoenition of his services as a distinguished Scottish gardener. He took a leading part in the Apple and Pear Congress promoted by the Royal Caledonian Horticultural Society, held in Edinburgh in 1885, as also the Plum Congress, held in 1889; and he edited the valuable Report of both Congresses, embodying the results of their labours. So late as last year, he exerted himself, with his charac- teristic energy, in obtaining a new Royal Charter for this Society, to enable it to do better work, with the result that this has now been obtained. The Scottish Horticultural Association, of which he was one of the originators, was founded in 1877, and during its infaney was piloted by Mr. Dunn. He was President of the Association for the first five years in succession. His labours on their behalf were recognised by his being made an honorary life member. To the Conifer Congress, held at Chiswick in 1891, Mr. Dunn lent unwearied aid, and his exertions were much appreciated. The- Veitch Memorial Medal was awarded to him in 1896, and he was awarded by the Royal Horticultural Society of London the Victoria Medal of Honour in 1897. Mr. Dunn took a very warm interest in the Gardeners’ Royal Benevolent Institution, of which he was a member since 1872. The Gardeners’ Orphan Fund, and other garden charities, never appealed to him in vain. Indeed, his extreme willingness to assist every deserving cause was remarkable. He was always ready to help and advise others, and many a gardener throughout the country will mourn his loss. He was one of the most unselfish of men. In coneluding this brief notice of our departed friend, 222 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE _ [Szss. Lxm. I may be permitted to say that I rejoice to know that steps are being taken by the various societies with which he was so long and honourably connected, to raise some fitting memorial to commemorate this distinguished and worthy man. OBITUARY NOTICE OF THE LATE Dr. GEORGE C. WALLICH. By THE PRESIDENT. (Read 15th July 1899.) By the death of Surgeon-Major Wallich, the Botanical Society of Edinburgh has lost one of its original members, and, so far as I know, he was the last survivor, with the exception of Dr. R. C. Alexander-Prior, M.D., F.LS. The first meeting of our Society was on the 17th March 1856, and the members present were—Drs. Grahame, Greville, Neill, Balfour, Barry, Parnell, and Alexander; and Messrs. Walker-Arnott, Falconer, Maughan, Stewart, Brand, Forbes, Munby, W. M‘Nab, J. M‘Nab, G. M. M‘Nab, Tyacke, Wallich, Charlton, and Campbell. Dr. Wallich was born at Calcutta in November 1815. His father, Dr. Nathaniel Wallich, was one of the greatest of the early Indian botanists—a worthy successor of Carey and Roxburgh. He will always be remembered as having given his name to an important genus of dwarf palms, which was named after him, Wallichia. The son, Dr. George Charles Wallich, was sent to Beverley, in Yorkshire, to school, and afterwards to the Reading Grammar School. He attended the Arts Classes in King’s College, Aberdeen, and studied Medicine in Edinburgh, passing as a doctor there in 1836, and leaving immediately afterwards for Calcutta, where his father was superintendent of the Botanical Gardens. At the meeting of the 17th March 18386, he was present as Mr. Wallich. In the first published list of members, dated 9th March 1837, his name appears as Dr. Wallich, Calcutta, non-resident. In the same list his father, Dr. Nathaniel Wallich, Calcutta, is entered as an honorary member. JuLy 1899. } BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH © 223 In India, Dr. G. C. Wallich devoted himself to medicine, not science. He served in the Sutlej campaign in 1842 and the Punjab campaign in 1847, and received medals for each. In the Santal rebellion (1855-56) he held the important position of field-surgeon. I heard him described by an Indian contemporary as a first-rate medical officer, but without any of his father’s taste for botany. The only paper published by him during this part of his career was “Some experiments tending to prove that the venous circulation is dependent on a vital act.” In 1858 he retired on account of bad health, having served twenty-two years in India. He resided two years in Guernsey, recovered his health, settled in London, and turned his attention to science, with such promise of success that, in 1860, he was recommended by Huxley and Sir Roderick Murchison for the post of naturalist to H.M.S. “ Bulldog,” commanded by Sir Leopold M‘Clintock. This vessel was going to survey the Atlantic Ocean as a preliminary to laying down the Atlantic cable. While on board, Dr. Wallich made the important discovery that abundant animal life exists below the depth of a thousand fathoms. This was contrary to the belief then entertained by almost all scientific men. Soon after his return to London, Dr. Wallich published “Notes on the presence of Animal Life at vast depths in the Ocean”; and in 1862 he published the first part of his great work, “The Atlantic Sea-bed.” He afterwards published in “The Magazine of Natural History,” “The Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science,’ and other scientific periodicals, many papers on the distribution and life history of numerous forms of animal and vegetable pelagic organisms. He took a prominent part in the Bathybius controversy. Huxley and Heckel believed that Bathybius Heckelii, a mixture of slime and lime brought up from the depths of the sea during the cable-laying experiments, was the lowest of known organisms. It was so described by Huxley in 1868, and by Heckel in 1870. On the other hand, Sir John Murray contended that it was only a gelatinous precipitate of sulphate of lime, pre- cipitated from sea water mixed with alcohol. 224 ° TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ SEss. LXIU. At present the majority of scientific men believe that Murray and Wallich were right, Huxley and Heckel wrong. In 1898, Dr. Wallich was awarded the gold medal of the Linnean Society, in recognition of his researches into the problems connected with bathybial and pelagic life. He died in London, on the 31st Mareh 1899, im his eighty-fourth year, after a very exceptional career, having distinguished himself in youth as an operative surgeon,—in old age, as a man of science. OBITUARY NOTICE OF THE LATE JAMES EDWARD TIERNEY Aitcuison, M.D., CLE, F.RS. Surgeon-Major Bengal Dey Army. By J. RurHerForD HILL. (Read 8th December 1898.) James Edward Tierney Aitchison was the second son of Major James Aitchison, H.E.I.C.S., and was born at Nimach, Central India, on 28th October 1835. He accompanied his parents to Scotland in 1844, and attended the village school at Lasswade, Midlothian, where he had as a school- mate the late Sir Charles Umpherston Aitchison. Afterwards he attended the Dalkeith High School and the Edinburgh Academy. From early childhood he had a desire to become a doctor, and from the Academy he passed to the University, where he studied Medicine and Surgery, and graduated M.D. and L.R.C.P.in 1856. He was of a very lively disposition, and fond of all sorts of games—quoits, cricket, tennis, etc. He was an abstainer and a non-smoker. He was very fond of reading history and travels. Both his parents are said to have had a great love of flowers; and his mother, Mary Turner, sister of John William Turner, Professor of Surgery in Edinburgh, had a knowledge of botany. It is interesting to note that in his student days he was an enthusiastic field botanist, and gained a first-class certificate in the botany class herbarium competition in 1854, for a collection of 530 plants, gathered, pressed, mounted, and arranged in the comparatively short period of four months. : One of his fellow-students, Dr. Peter Hume M‘Laren, informs me that he always showed a predilection for the pursuit of botany. Dr. M‘Laren and he were colleagues Dec. 1898. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 225 as dressers in Professor Syme’s ward, and he knew him well. Dr. Aitchison’s eldest sister was married to Rev. Dr. Gordon, of Newbattle, Dalkeith; and there young Aitchison spent his Saturday afternoons, and made the acquaintance of Miss Eleanor Carmichael Craig, the second daughter of Robert Craig, Esq., of Craigesk, whom he married in 1862. Mrs. Aitchison’ was a lady of charming manners, and entered sympathetically and enthusiastically into the special studies which engaged the attention of her husband. She was his constant companion in most of his travels, and it seems not improbable that her devotion may have injured her health. In 1858, Dr. Aitchison entered the service of the Honourable East India Company, by competition, as assistant-surgeon, and he remained in the Indian Medical Service till 1888, when he retired with the rank of surgeon- major. Soon after his arrival in India, he began to take the same interest in Indian plants that he had already exhibited in the plants around Edinburgh. His great interest in tracing the origin of Indian drugs seems to have more and more led him to give his chief attention to botanical pursuits. Nevertheless he was frequently com- mended for unfailing diligence in medical and other official services. His duties took him into the districts of North- west India, Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Persia, and Turkestan; and the rich fields, and, to a large extent, virgin soil which these districts afforded for his favourite studies, begat in him a fascination which continued to the very last. As early as 1862, he sent a collection of between four and five hundred species to Kew, where there is a complete and extensive series of all the plants he collected. His first paper, prepared while on sick-leave in England in 1862, was on “Flora of the Jhelum District of the Punjab” (Linn. Soc. Trans. Bot., vol. viii, 1863). This was followed by a paper “On the Vegetation of the Jhelum District of the Punjab” (Journ. of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, vol. xxxiii., 1864); “Remarks on the Vegetation of the Islands of the Indus River” (Journ. of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta, vol. xxxiv., 1865): and “TLahul: its Flora and Vegetable Products, ete., from Com- 226 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxm. munications received from Rev. Heinrich Jaeschke of the Moravian Mission” (Linn. Soc. Journ. Bot., vol. x., 1868). He was Civil Surgeon of Amritsur for two years, where he started a school for the education of native women as nurses, a service for which he was specially thanked by the Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab. At Amritsur he was attacked with abscess of the liver, and left India in an apparently dying state. He was in England on sick- furlough for nearly three years, during which he devoted himself to botanical work, the result of which was the “Catalogue of the Plants of the Punjab and Sindh, ete.,” published for the Author by Arthur G. Taylor & Francis, London, 1869. In 1872, he was appointed British Commissioner to Ladak, and the fruits of his work there are given in a “ Handbook of the Products of Leh, with the Statistics of the Trade,” published by Wyman & Co., Calcutta, in 1874. Of this handbook the Indian Foreign Secretary, Sir Charles Aitchison, said, “It is calculated to. be of immense service to those interested in the trade with Thibet and Eastern Turkistan”; and Mr. Shaw, the Government Resident at Kashgar, said, “I doubt whether even here in Yarkand we shall be able to add much to your work. You seem to have left nothing unrecorded.” His greatest work as an explorer and collector of botanical materials and local information was, however, done in Afghanistan and the surrounding countries. During the winter of 1878, he served with the 29th Punjab Regiment, under Lord Roberts, in the advance up the Kuram Valley, at the taking of Peiwar Kotal, and in the advance to near the Shutar Gardan Pass; and he held the medal and clasp for the Kuram Valley campaign. In the following year, he was attached as botanist to the expedition, and made a very thorough exploration of the country between Thal and Shutar Gardan, collecting plants at all levels from 2000 to 13,000 feet. In this expedition he collected no less than 10,000 specimens, representing 950 species, and that under circumstances frequently of the greatest difficulty and danger. The results were: embodied in a paper on “The Flora of the Kuram Valley, etc., of Afghanistan” (Linn. Soc. Journ. Bot., vol. xix. part 11,,1882). In 1884-85, he acted as naturalist on the Dec. 1898.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 227 Afghan Delimitation Commission; and this expedition proved the most fruitful of all, the specimens amounting to about 10,000 specimens, representing 800 species, and 75 of them new to science, and of considerable economic and scientific importance. The results are given in the “Transactions of the Linnean Society,’ and in a paper, “Some Plants of Afghanistan, and their Medicinal Pro- ducts” (Pharm. Journ., 11th Dec. 1886). He again visited North-west India in 1894. He had hoped to go across into Persia to collect the plants yielding Asafwtida, Opoponan, Sagapenum, and Galbanum, as to which there is still some dubiety, but he was prevented by circumstances from doing so. He sent to the Pharmaceutical Society specimens of the Ammoniacum plant, and of a plant he supposed to be Galbanum, though it was not, notwithstanding the very close resemblance of the leaves to the Merula galbaniflua. He also sent home excellent herbarium specimens of Herula narthex, from the original locality where Dr. Falconer found it in 1838. This is the same plant that flowered in the Edinburgh Botanic Garden. His enormous collec- tions of material were sent to Kew, and have been largely worked up there. In 1863, he was elected a Fellow of the Linnean Society. In 1881, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. In 1883, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and was created a C.LE. In 1888, he became a Fellow of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, and in the same year his Alma Mater conferred on him the honorary degree of LL.D. In 1891, he was elected an Honorary Member of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. The papers contributed by him to our “ Transactions ” are:—‘“ The Source of Badshaw or Royal Salep” (read December 1888). Dr. Lindley had previously declared the source to be a tulip, but Dr. Aitchison proved it to be the dried bulb of Alliwm Macleanii.— A Summary of the Botanical Features of the County traversed by the Afghan Delimitation Committee during 1884-85” (read 11th April 1889). A good example of the interest®mg introductions to all his published papers on the Indian Flora, which give descriptions of the vegetation and local conditions of the 228 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. xu. districts traversed. Notes to assist in a further know- ledge of the Products of Western Afghanistan and of North-eastern Persia” (read 13th March 1890). ae |e a od SS el ee ase ae a Lol (PS ES 2 aie a esas SS SaS2S5e | 57 eS ee ee ra a a a eae ae ee] cal Fe ee ee aateal Sis ae eet Fa ae es a Seas SOSIEJEY Z BS ose ‘spoom “4919 Z SOUld Z Swng Z He i clae tS) gimey eae S erie: “ine Bian YIFIJIw®>d Ss 8 ® & SS Ss 3 > ms @ eG Sh tise as ee eR ee ay eS £-/9 ~aunqesaduay ueap/ SI90L ~ aulysung Jo Ssno} Us 69 Of ——uley sO sayouy senuuy abesaary b.65 aungesadusay uray) ZEIE ~ aulysung Jo sunoy bl-9E ——uley Jo sayaus jenuuy abesaay eS ea a a ie 6 j=a=aaaa===== SS SSeS == 3 fl FERRIES NY iN HUE HTN 89! N eae 5 a aaa ay ® p44 es > a ei SS eee ie (aa (a (Se (a Esa eal a ea ee == Oe b z= 8 > S >) ee a S @ Yrvow os Seas S FPP mM SH veIL —s a bs ra | x re ee ® =e el “ £-./9 “aunjesadua, uray“ i 6.09 “aunjesadua uray“ gs 6:65 asnjqesaduay ueayy =“ 600£ ~auysung fo sunoy ig /blig —aulysung fo sinoy ‘ zele —auysung Jo ssnoy Ms Zt-S§ —uley jo sayru senuupy abesary 0S 04+ ——uley JO seysus /enuuy abesAy 85-62 __usey JO sayau jenuuy abesary a suejdog Z sye0 Z Spoom ~49P|G Z SBUId Z NAN sungz N | \ JNGEES coh sia id é =< 7 ft is - = . ry * . « Ub ° 88 68! <= “SII 6 $,65 “aunjesaduay weap —“ ‘i /./9 ~aunqesaduiay uray“ ci G:19 “aunqesaduiay Ueapyy plLz ~ ausysung Jo sunoy i 6e0L ~ aulysung fo sino i Ze/Ee —auiysung fo sunoy ad 10-S5 ~~ ule JO sayauy jenuuy abesary 10-Gp ~~ uley JO sayaus jenuuy abesaay 92-pE —UleYy JO Sayau senuuy abesaAy | BIUIgOY | =] suejdod Z aes aa -_, SOU Z oN \ aa CLIT RGRRERE Swng Z sung Z N Hi AC | tT N | NI ERs = LN TNT phe] meee vA x e S$ > 2S & 2 Sey see sce ses @ a Se eee eee ae Se g . gE ‘SauzaWI IW Ul SSe}D yoea ul Saas, OmMy Jo 1 SLNSAWSYON] ATYWSA GNY ATHLNOW + se uw AVERAGE MONTHLY INCREMENT IN TREE-GIRTHS FOR NINE YEARS PS 90-216. /limetres co My Ww 2 Gums Mean of Evergreens 2 Pines PUTNEN GET NAT NUN 2 Blackwoods 2 Oaks : CA faz Z aa : i _ = ca rem = a = zZ = = a 2 Paraisos Mean of Deciduous | Average Annual Inches of Rain ___ #2 - 0! Hours of Sunshine 3085 Mean Temperature. 60°6 Novy. 1899. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 249 Dividing the year into growing and sleeping halves, these trees show the following percentages of growth :-— Paraiso Acer Cottonwood GROWING SEASON, Ist Period. 2nd Period. 944 97:2 5h 87 94-1 13 844 93°6 153 266 284-9 34 SLEEPING SEASON. 1st Period. 2nd Period. 2°8 59 6°4. 15-1 In these three trees, the second period shows a much more marked contrast between growing and sleeping seasons than in the other seven deciduous trees, notably so in the ease of the old Paraiso—97°2 per cent. in six months, against 85°4 per cent. of the young Paraisos. Also, in this second period, the rate of growth of these three trees is less than half what it was in the first period during the sleeping season. Table IV. collects the monthly averages of growth of the six evergreens in Table I., the seven deciduous in Table IL, and the three deciduous in Table III., and gives their percentages of increase for five, nine, and fourteen years. TaBLE [V.—Totals of Monthly Growths of Trees in Tables I., II., and III. for Nine Years; and Percentages of Growth for Five, Nine, and Fourteen Years. : nares é Ie Iil. TeSies Meg ose) Ragas Decipuous. | THREE DEcIDUOUS. Fa Percentages. a | Percentages. i Percentages. £ |—— a 5 = =e 5 a= ey) = a 5 5 = = ete |e ol ete seat (ccs ail) oo |mecsen oes = 5 SRE RTS a le tee la le | 9 rr) SI eet ses tH a) fon bs | | | anes = Le! | January 5 298 | 9°9| 9:°0| 9:4] 146 | 20°8| 9°6| 16°2 | 153 | 21-7 | 12°9! 17-1 | February . | 296 | 7-7] 9:0} 8-4] 77 |17-0| 5-1] 12-0] 122 | 16-0 | 10-2 | 131 March 411 | 9:3) 12°4|10°9) 10} 6-0} 0:7] 3:9] 88] 7-7| 3:2) 5:4 April . 330 |10°3| 10°70) 1071; 44] 3:2] 38°0| 371 4/ 5:0! 03] 2°6 | May 206 | 8-7| 62| 7-4] 9} 1:8] O-6| 1-2] 17] 1-7] 1:4| 1:6 June . 122} 571) 3:6) 473} 21) 06) 1:4] 0-9 Steels te Vien Oxfie |e lee | July 221) \ 2°99) | Fe23) 52) aL | 06 Of 0:62) 208i OO: P2211 O27 | August 301 | 5°3| 9:1] 7:3] 55} 0:6] 36] 1°83) 10] 1:0] 0:9} 0:9 September . 376 | 10°6 | 11°3| 11:0 | 206 | 2°4|13°6|) 7-0} 85 | 2:2] 71) 4:7 October. 272 | 12°2} 8-2/10°1) 341 | 7:4] 22°5| 18-7) 247 | 5:8} 20-7) 13-5 November . 274 |10°0| 8°2| 9-1) 422 | 20-3 | 27-9 | 23°4 | 311 | 19°5 | 26-1 | 22°9 | December . 192 | 8:0} 5°S| 6°8| 189 | 22°9 | 12°5 | 18°6 | 205 | 21°9 | 17-2) 19-5 | | I | 3319 | 100 | 100 | 100 ee 100 | 100 | 100 | 1191} 100 | 100 | 100 | This Table LV. shows that in the nine-year period the chief growth in the evergreen group is in March, September coming next; and their least growth in June, December TRANS. BOT, SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXI. Ss 250 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. Lx1v, coming next. Whereas in the five-year period their chief growth was in October, September again ranking next; and their least growth in July, December being a month of good growth, and March just over an average month. In the two groups of deciduous trees, November shows most growth in the nine-year period; while, in the five-, year period, December shows most, January coming next. In both periods, May shows a decrease of girth in all deciduous trees measured. Dividing the year into growing and sleeping halves, we obtain the following comparisons of percentages of growth, the first and second periods agreeing fairly well :— GROWING SEASON. SLEEPING SEASON. Ist Period. 2nd Period. 1st Period. 2nd Period. 6 Evergreens . 61 51°5 59 48°5 7 Deciduous - 91 91:2 9 88 3 Deciduous : 88$ 94°2 113 58 2403 236°9 594 63-1 Table V. shows the girth of each individual tree on 12th January 1890 and 12th January 1899, the increase of each tree, the average annual increase for nine years and also for five years, all in millimetres. TaBLE V.—Girth of Trees, and Increase in Nine Years. Group or TABLE I, Six Gum Trees. Pines. Blackwoods. , | 4! Evergreens. | | | | . | | Girths, January 1899 . : . | 1746 | 1491 | 1559 | 1467 | 932 | 1460 8655 | Girths, January 1890 . : , 774 | 725 | 1141 980 | 727 989 5336 | Increase in Nine Years . .| 972] 766 | 418 | 487 | 205 471 3319 | Average Annual Increase . =| 208 85| 46} 54 23 52 61 | 7 | 108 110 Do. do. Five Years | 112 | 108 | 87 | 107] 66 ee ee ee en ee Group or TABLE II. Paraisos. Oaks, iP ars ini Seven Os uks, | Poplars. | Robinia, Deciduous: Girths, January 1899. . | 792 | 768 | 872 | 814 | 1008 865 536 5655 | Girths, January 1890. . - | 609 | 602 | 492 | 572 | 809 | 704 433 4221 Increase in Nine Years . | 188 | 166 | 880 | 242 | 199 | 161 103 1434 Average Avnual Increase .| 20| 18| 44| 27] 22] 18} WW 28 1 [ood os oe Do. do. Five Years 61 56 66 | 79 50 | 62 { 25 } | 54 bo Or — Nov. 1899. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH TABLE V.—continued. Group or TABLE III. Paraiso. | Acer. Cottonwood | eee | . | Girths, January 1899 . : F 1632 1055 1375 4062 Girths, January 1890 . é > 1446 | 670 755 | 2871 Increase in Nine Years E , 186 385 620 1191 Average Annual Increase . A 21 | 43 67 44 | La | f a his | Do. do. Five Years 38 | 103 77 73 The Gum trees maintain nearly the same rate of growth in the second period as in the first, and the Cottonwood likewise; but all other trees show a very considerably diminished rate, varying, roughly, from a half to a third part of the five-year rate. It seems strange that the older Paraiso, a tree of at least twenty-eight years in 1885, should show such a diminished rate of growth. Its pu rate for the last nine years has been 17, 16, 9, 20, 21, 25 30, 42, and 6—in all 186—numillimetres; and this does not look as if the tree were unhealthy. And why one Oak should grow so much better than the other is also strange; they are on just the same ground, and within fifteen yards of each other. Thus far, only the monthly growths and _ percentages of growth have been commented on, and the inequalities of annual growth, due partly to the varying weather of different years, partly to the advancing ages of the trees, may present points of interest; and I, therefore, tabulate (No. VI.) the annual growth of these sixteen trees for fourteen years, giving for each growing and sleeping season the plus or minus average of inches of rainfall, of estimated hours of sunshine, and of means of maxima and minima thermometer readings, taking the first and last three months of each year as growing season, and the middle six months as sleeping season. In the first four years, the growth of evergreens is fairly equal: in 1889, they show a considerable increase of growth, and in that year, both in growing and sleeping seasons, the rainfall was greatly in excess; there was a great deficiency of sunshine: and temperature, generally, was below normal. Then come three years of gradually | | | | | | ZEL‘OL} GLAST | SSOL | GEOL | 989 | STF | G98 | SOOT | FIS | ZL8 | S9L Z6L | SS98 | OOFL | GEG | LOFT | GST | TGFL OFT | GST ‘syqg S : ich dy Bey fa a te a 7 ae | | . | | O&ZP | 91Z | GGCL | OLE | GZ | SG6E | 26g | SLT | GOL | GIS | FOE | FEES | GFF | C6E | LFF | SOL | 11é | J8T | j | | | 6069 | 6SIL | GLL | 96% | SOL | G4F | TSF | OTL | GPF | gst | 1929 ] trot | 2e¢ | ozor | Fes | S6L | 6ST | poe non 2 jaa inl ee | | cial (Ems | | | | ¥-0 | ZL 891 | f8-¢ 9 1 8L | 9z OFF FSL Z-0 | 2-0 91 | 06-1 | z 6 ¥ SI 1g¢ S8I 6-0 | 8-# | SIL | 16-€ | 08 or 19 G9E ll 6.3 98 | BB.8 co 0 GOLF CSI Z-0 | [G $F-% 1é SI 926 GFL 9-0 L | £96 | 0z G | 16 ZG GhG | PP-ST | 6 g LZ | § E.G | | | aT sg | G3 PIL | 18-F 4 | 1s Z-0 | S91 | its 8g Gel IST | | Gh LP | 1.0 84 | | IF bP 6-0 61 | | 04 Gb | 9-0 _ Tél $8-0 | Lg OL | 1 _ =A pa oes | = | =| = —|—_|— = : “ULL | XV | “CUAL | XBL = 3 ea Ge Mg) Ue s z | 9 . | a | | —jo suvoW ° et aS = = ‘SavolE © = “e0y | 3 sRImIoy — *sarydog *SyvO “so & [spoomyored ‘sould ‘saat, uMy 2 eI | an s —Jjo snulyy £0 sntq —Jo snutyy 10 sutd 2. 8 | F pe i | ; ‘NOSVAG ONIGAATY ‘NOSVAG ONIMOUD : : ‘ id 7 ryr - *SAvdO TN OUIvS oY} LOfF SOJON TOF AY OULOS YIM. SIVO WI9ANO J] IO} SOW], MWIAPXTG jo SOTPOCUT [TY Ue YIMOTL) [BNUnYy OQ) SUrMous “TA ATA T Novy. 1899. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 25a decreasing growth, culminating in 1895, the worst year for growth out of the fourteen. That year the rainfall was slightly deficient in both seasons, and there was a great excess of sunshine in the growing season; in the sleeping season, the temperature was below normal. In the previous year (1892) the growth was nearly as bad, and the deficiency of rain was more than four times as much as in the worst year of growth (1893). The temperature in both seasons was higher than in 1895, but had a low mean of minima in the sleeping season ; and the sunshine, in excess in the growing season, was particularly abundant in the sleeping season. The growths of 1891 and 1894 are nearly equal, so are the thermometer readings, except that the sleeping season of 1891 was decidedly warmer than that of 1594. There was also a surplusage of rain in the 1891 sleeping season; and in the growing season, half as much sun in 1891 as in 1894. This may be tabulated as follows :— GROWING SEASON. SLEEPING SEASON. 1891. 1894. 1891. 1894. Rainfall. j O ®) + — Sunshine . é — a O O Temperature. O O + — The circles mean comparative equality; 1891 gets the plus marks for rain and temperature in the sleeping season, and 1894 the plus mark for sunshine in the erowing season. Perhaps this little table points out that rain is the most potent factor in the growth of evergreens; though, indeed, perhaps no proof of this is wanted. In the nine- year period, the evergreens achieve 51°5 per cent. of their growth in the growing season, and 48°5 per cent. in the sleeping season. Now the year 1891 shows a plus quantity of rain in the sleeping season, and the growth of evergreens that year occurred as follows :— GROWING SEASON. SLEEPING SEASON. Millimetres. Millimetres. 2 Gum Trees . 82 90 2 Pines . : 47 68 2 Blackwoods . 43 42 172 = 46'2 per cent. 200 =53°8 per cent. 254 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss, Lxiv, The only weather-factor in which 1894 is better than 1891 is sunshine in the growing season; and these trees in that year distributed their growth as follows :— GROWING SEASON. SLEEPING SEASON, Millimetres. Millimetres. 2 Gum Trees . 116 106 2 Pines . F 31 54 2 Blackwoods . 47 22 194 = 51°6 percent. 182 = 48-4 per cent. Can we come to the conclusion that though a plus amount of rain and temperature in the sleeping season of 1891 brought about what may be called an abnormal erowth in the sleeping season, yet the plus amount of sunshine in the growing season of 1894 was sufficient to° equalise the growth of the two years ? It seems doubtful. As previously noted, 1889 was the best year for growth, and had the heaviest rainfall and the least sunshine; and in 1895, the year of worst growth, the rainfall was but slightly deficient in both seasons, and there was a considerable excess of sunshine in the growing season. But no other weather-factor, of those now taken into con- sideration, appears to tend to equalise the tree-growth in these two years 1891 and 1894. The years 1889, 1895, and 1898 each present an increase of growth on the three or four years immediately preceding them, and these years all have a plus rainfall as thus— GROWING SEASON, SLEEPING SEASON. 1889. 1895. 1898. 1889. ‘1895. 1898) Rain. aia ar ai + + ae Sunshine . — -- — — + *= Temperature — — — — a= — Though 1895 has plus sunshine and temperature in the sleeping season, as well as rain, its growth is not very much more than that of 1894, whose weather conditions do not seem to be much worse than those of 1893, already pilloried as the worst year for growth of the fourteen. It may be well to note that in the growing seasons of 1889 and 1895, the minima temperature means are a little over the average. The year 1897, of worse growth than the three preceding and one following year, has all plus weather-factors in the Noy. 1899. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 255 growing season, and all minus factors in the sleeping season ; and the growths are as follows :— GROWING SEASON. SLEEPING SEASON, Millimetres, Millimetres. Gunreirees =. 113 107 Pines. , 30 27 Blackwoods . 41 8 189 = 57:1 percent. 142 — 42°9 per cent. It would seem that, save in the case of the Eucalypti, the evergreens depend much on the weather of the sleeping season. Locusts did severe damage at the end of 1896 and the beginning of 1897; and these years shall be referred to later on. Turning to the ten deciduous trees, the years 1890 and 1891 present a nearly identical growth; the deficiency of rainfall in the growing season of 1890 is greater than in the same season of 1891, and it has a larger excess of sunshine ; but the temperature was lower, owing to the low minima readings. In the sleeping season, 1891 has a plus average of rainfall, a little over average sunshine, and a little over average temperature; whereas in 1890 the rainfall was deficient, the sunshine considerably in excess, and the temperature of minima readings below the average. Now in the nine-year period, seven deciduous trees achieve 91:2 per cent. of their growth in the growing season, and 8°8 per cent. in the sleeping season; whereas in these years, 1890 and 1891, their growth in growing season 1890 is 86°6 per cent., and in 1891 it is 81°3 per cent.; and in sleeping seasons, 13°3 and 18-°7 per cent. Only sunshine, apparently, can be credited with the over- average growth in 1890 sleeping season; and the more than double average growth in 1891 sleeping season must be due in various proportions to the plus average rain, plus average sunshine, and plus average temperature. It would almost seem as if a considerable excess of sunshine—the sole advantage of 1890—counterbalanced the extra good weather conditions of sleeping season 1891, and the average good conditions of its growing season. 256 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. rx1v. GROWING SEASON. SLEEPING SEASON. 1890. 1891. 1890. 1891. Oaks . 79 100 8 24 Paraisos . 38 20 9 15 Poplars . 56 71 5 3 Robinia . 9 14 3 4 182= 866 % 205=—81'3 % 28 = 13°37, “47s The years 1889, 1895, and 1898 were referred to when discussing the evergreens. Like the evergreens, the seven deciduous trees have an increased growth in these three years. The worst year for evergreens was 18935, but 1892 is the worst for deciduous trees,—this year has already been mentioned as nearly as bad as 1893 for evergreens,—its rain deficiency is the greatest in fourteen years, it has more sunshine (especially in the sleeping season) than any other year, and its temperature—excepting the sleeping season minima—is above the average. This does not seem as if sunshine were of great value to tree-growth. These speculations may be summed up as follows :—The best growths of evergreen and deciduous, trees have always been accompanied by an over-average rainfall, and, with one exception, by deficiency of sunshine; in 1889 and 1898, with an under-average temperature; and in 1895, with an over-average temperature in the sleeping season. The worst growths always occur with a deficiency of rainfall, and, with one exception, an over-average of sunshine; also, an over-average temperature in the growing season, and an under-average temperature in the sleeping season. As previously mentioned, locusts did much harm in the end of 1896 and the beginning of 1897; and this harm is indicated generally in the growth-curve diagrams for these two years, for I present, with these notes, diagrams showing the monthly growth of each species of trees for each of nine years; besides another diagram with the total average monthly growth-curves for the whole term, each diagram with notes of the weather for that particular year. The diagram for 1896 shows how the Gum trees fell back in October; the Pines and Blackwoods suffering in November, and falling back in December; the Oaks, Paraisos, and Robinia showing but a slow growth; and the Poplars, little growth at all in the last three months of: Nov. 1899. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 257 1896. In the first three months of 1897, the Gums do not seem to have suffered at all from locusts, but Pines and Blackwoods evidently did. Oaks, Paraisos, and Poplars are almost stationary ; and Robinia at first decreases, and then grows a little. Thus part of the poor growth of 1896 and 1897 must be laid to the account of the locusts, and not all to weather. Iam informed that the locusts spared Melons, Cucumbers, Paraiso trees, and Cottonwoods (Populus angulata). This growth-curve diagram certainly shows that Paraisos sympathised with other trees during the locust invasion ; and the Cottonwood also, at least in January and February 1897, when its growth was 1 millimetre against the nine-year January average of 9:4 millimetres, and —1 millimetre against the average 5°9 millimetres for February. This was the worst invasion of locusts known in Uruguay since, if I remember rightly, the year 1856. I am told: “Not only have they eaten the leaves of the trees, with the exception of the two kinds, but also the bark of the topmost branches, even of the Orange trees ; so much so, that the plantations look white.” The water in the streams went bad with their dead bodies. The danger arising from this was fortunately removed by a cloud-burst, which flushed the streams. In the “Notes on Tree Measurements” published in 1890, the decrease in growth at a certain season of deciduous trees was commented on at considerable length. Further experience fully confirms the remarks then made, but distributes the season of decreases over a longer space of time. It is worthy of remark that during the first five of the fourteen years 1885-1898, the evergreens grew 2°942 millimetres, or 47 per cent. of their total growth for fourteen years; and 3°319 millimetres, or 53 per cent. of their total growth in the last nine years. But the seven deciduous trees grew in the first five year 3-276 millimetres, or 55°5 per cent.; and in the last nine, 2-627 millimetres, or 44°5 per cent. of the total growth for fourteen years. What might be called the “ par” rate of growth, if weather- Sd) 258 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss, Lxrv. b factors had been equal in all years, and if older trees grew at the same rate as young ones, would be 35:7 per cent. for five years, and 64°35 per cent. for nine years, The attempts I have made to ascertain the value of certain weather-factors in influencing tree-growth do not seem to prove anything in particular, except that rain is more essential than anything else; and this is borne out by a comparison of the weather of the five-year period with that of the nine-year period. oa) S aw MEAN INCHES RAIN. Hours Sun, TustteneeGnrites For the Five-year Period 48°82 2786 60°°4 For the Nine-year Peried = 42°01 3085 60°°6 For Eighteen Years, to December 1898 . . 44:12 2960 60°°7 We need not suppose that the annual surplus of 6:8 inches of rain for the five-year period made all the difference between the growth of that and the nine-year period; for there can be little doubt that trees grow faster in their earlier than in their later years. And it would seem that advancing age impedes the erowth of deciduous trees more than it does that of evergreens. ADDITIONAL NoTES ON ANDROMEDA POLIFOLIA, LINN WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO Two NEw StaTIons. ALSO REMARKS UPON THE Toxic PROPERTIES OF ANDROMEDA PoLiroLia, LINN., AND OTHER MEMBERS OF THE ERICACEA. By SYMINGTON GRIEVE. (Read 14th December 1899.) Last January I read to this Society a paper entitled “Some Notes on Andromeda polifolia, Linn.” It was then suggested that I should make some further investigations regarding the distribution of the plant in Liddesdale and Eskdale, and, if possible, find out if it was still growing on the Solway Moss, where Dr. Lightfoot collected it in 1772. Hence the following notes and observations. On 31st January 1899, Dr. William Craig was good enough to inform me that he had heard froma gentleman that Dec, 1899.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 259 A, polifolia grew on the moss behind the United Presbyterian Church at Chapel Knowe, a few miles from Canonbie, in Dunmifriesshire. On Wednesday, 31st May 1899, I drove with my wife from Kershopefoot, in Cumberland, to Chapel Knowe, vid Canonbie. There is a moor with deep peat on the south- east side of the public road, and I discovered A. polifolia growing abundantly as soon as | reached the part of the moor where the peat was not removed for burning. I did not search as far as behind the United Presbyterian manse, as the plant was growing abundantly all over the moss wherever there was a thick deposit of peat, and I got as many specimens in flower as I required. On 25th March 1899, I received a letter from Mr. Symers Macvicar, who drew my attention to A. polifolia having been recorded as having been found in the Island of Jura, in Walker’s “ Essays on Natural History and Rural Economy,” published in 1812, pp. 248-251. The author of this work was the Rev. John Walker, D.D., Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. At p. 250 he writes: “It was found beginning to flower, the 27th of June, in the deep turf bogs of Jura, with its roots creeping for a great length in the Sphagnum palustre, Linn.” It appears to me that it was probably nearly over flowering when seen by the Rev. Dr. Walker, instead of, as he states, beginning to flower. In the “ Annals of Scottish Natural History” for April 1899, at p. 121, Mr. Robert Godfrey mentions that he collected a’ single plant of A. polifolia in flower on 8th May 1895, on the Auchincorth Moss, which is near Penicuik. It seems unusual to find only one plant, as at the stations with which I am acquainted it is generally growing abundantly and scattered over considerable areas. On 13th May 1899, I drove with .my wife from Kershopefoot to a part of the hillroad to Langholm about four miles from Neweastleton, and on the way met Mr. John Elliot, who went with us. He pointed out the place where the A. polifolia grows most abundantly. We got the specimens just coming into flower. This station is in Roxburghshire. My next visit to this station was on 27th May, when 260 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE _ [Sess, Lxrv. driving to Langholm with Dr. Wm. Watson, Mrs. Watson, and my wife. We found the A. polifolia in flower in considerable abundance, and growing over a wide area of ground. After crossing Tarras Water, we again left the waggonette and walked up the hill. Dr. Watson and I walked on, leaving the ladies to follow leisurely. When we reached the place where we were to rejoin the conveyance, about three miles from Langholm, we found we would have a few minutes to wait, so we examined a small part of the moor on the south side of the road, and I discovered A. polifolia, and pointed it out to Dr. Watson. We found at first only barren stems with foliage, and then a quantity in flower. It does not seem quite clear if this station has been known before, although the plant has been recorded from Eskdale, which is rather indefinite. This station is in Dumfriesshire. On 30th May, I met Dr. Wm. Craig in Edinburgh, who informed me that A. polifolia was found growing abundantly on the moor near the road from Lochmaben to Templand. This is also in Dumfriesshire. I was anxious to visit Solway Moss, about two miles from Longtown, in Cumberland, as it is a station mentioned by Dr. Lightfoot in his “Flora Scotica” for A. polifolia. Accompanied by my wife, I drove there from Kershopefoot, on Wednesday, 7th June, and spent about two hours botanising over a part of the moss from which no peats have yet been dug. We found the plant growing abundantly on level parts where the ground was moist, and generally among heather and sphagnum. The larger plants were found in the drier situations, but these plants had seldom young shoots, while most of the plants growing among sphagnum had many of these. We found growing along with it Drosera anglica and D. rotundifolia. A large colony of black-headed gulls were breeding on the moor, but most of the eggs were hatched. We got few plants of A. polifolia in flower, as it was past the flowering time at this low elevation, which cannot be above 40 or 50 feet above sea-level. It was with strange feelings I visited this station, as I am unaware of any record of A. polifolia having been found DE. 1899. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 261 there since 1772, when Dr. Lightfoot mentioned its exist- ence at this place. I had long had the opinion that A. polifolia was likely to be found in some parts of the wilds of Beweastle, in Cumberland. I had made a number of botanical excursions to the district without finding the plant, and it was only on Saturday, the 10th of June last, that I discovered it erowing at an elevation of about 900 feet upon the highest part of a moor between Stelshaw Farm House and Black Lyne Valley, a short distance south of Skelton Pike, The plants were growing on the flat part of the moss where the ground was wet. The specimens appeared to me less robust than those I had obtained at other places. This, as far as I know, is quite a new station for A. polifolia, and it grows over a considerable extent of moss, as what follows will prove. Continuing my walk, I went on to Christianbury Craig, its summit being 1598 feet above sea- level, vid the Reamy Rigg, but found no more A. polifolia until, on my way home, I was recrossing another portion of the same moss where I had found it earlier in the day, when I came across the plant once more. During this excursion I did not find a great ae of plants, but I do not remember ever seeing such a large extent of the Cloudberry, Rubus chamemorus, in flower, as I found on the Reamy Rigg, and between that and Christianbury Craig. I also found plenty of the Crowberry, Empetrum nigrum, also the Cowberry, Vaccinium Vitis- Idea, I was much interested in finding Jistera cordata, the heart-leaved Twayblade, in flower, growing in great abundance; sometimes many plants growing in close ’ proximity to each other. This plant was growing on bare ground, from which the heather had been burnt off only two months previously. It is wonderful how its roots or seeds could resist the effect of the fire. I am also led to the conclusion that Z. cordata is much more plentiful than most people suspect, growing among heather, among the foliage of which it is very much concealed. It is generally considered one of the less common plants in this district. 262 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. ixrv. On Monday, the 26th June, I had the pleasure of the company of the Rev. Dr. Paul, our President, and during our walk we visited the Roxburghshire Station for A. polifolia, near the hillroad to Langholm from Neweastleton. We found the plant, but not in flower, as it was past flowering for the early part of the season. Although we continued our walk for a considerable distance across the hills, we were not so fortunate as to discover any other place where A. polifolia grew. On 5th August, I visited the Yad Flow, also in Roxburghshire, which evidently has derived its name from an old mare that had sunk in it. This station was discovered by Mr. John Elliot, as mentioned in my previous paper, but by mistake its elevation was given as 1000 feet, while it should have been 1250 feet. JI found the A, polifolia growing abundantly, but not in flower. My next visit to this Flow was on 2nd October, when, accompanied by my son, we found many plants of A. polifolia in flower, but no fruit, . On the same day we also visited the station near the road from Neweastleton to Langholm, and which I have already several times referred to, and there we found the ) multicellular, capitate, glandular hairs, similar to those of the Primulaceee. The glandular head is usually of a single cell, but may be bicellular, with the septum vertical. One or both kinds of hairs may occur on the surfaces, margins, and apices of the leaves, on the axes of inflorescence, and on epicalyx and calyx segments. On the torus only the unicellular hairs occur, and these also it is which form the barrier ring over, and internal to, the nectaries. In addition to the general anatomy of the flower, the minute structure of the various parts has been studied, as well as the mature achenes, and the seedlings at various stages. In the following account of the flower, chiefly those points are dealt with which appear to be of value for purposes of classification. The flowers may be solitary, but are frequently grouped into somewhat open inflorescences composed of dichasial cymes arranged on a primary racemosely branched axis. In section, the flower shows a shallow concave torus shaped hked the bottom of a bottle, with a solid core. The periphery bears a circle of green segments, usually five in number, forming the epicalyx: each of these segments has been described as composed of the two fused stipules of adjacent sepals—this because the epicalyx segments may bifurecate. Examination of the developing flower, and of the vascular supply of the adult segments, cause me to differ from this commonly accepted view, and regard the epicalyx segments as integral units as much so as each sepal in fact is. Characters of the epicalyx of use for systematic work are the relative leneth of the segments; they may be longer or shorter, narrower or wider than the sepals. Again, their margins may be minutely toothed, each tooth topped by a hair, and occasionally having a water-gland. 332 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. rxqv. The character and distribution of the hairs, and the shape of the apex are variable. Thus the latter may be acute, acuminate, or bifid, or even trifid, from the appearance of two large lateral teeth some little way down. Each segment (Fig. 1, ep.) has a main rib and two smaller laterals, which converge apically and form a vascular fan communicating with a water-gland. This -water-gland usually occupies a shallow dimple on the upper surface of the leaf, and has several water- stomata: its position is indicated by a red coloration of the segment apex. The Calyx consists of four or five sepals of a similar structure to the epicalyx segments, and alternating with them. The same variation in the epidermal appendages and their distribution occurs, the hairs being frequently longest along the line of the ribs, especially the main ribs. The vascular supply (Fig. 1, sep.) is by three main ribs, the two laterals anastomising with those of the adjacent epicalyx segments. All three converge apically, and meet under a water- glaud having similar structure and distinguished by a similar colour as in the epicalyx segments. This coloration, indicating water-glands, is found at the apices and teeth of the ordinary leaves also, The vstivation of the sepals is valvate. In the upper mesophyll cells of the sepals and epicalyx segments are enormous quantities of oxalate of lime in rosette crystals. Both epicalyx and calyx are persistent, and enclose the mature fruit. The Corclla, in colour, white, yellow, or red, or some combination, is of four to five petals alternate with the sepals. The petals vary in shape, perhaps the commonest is the obcordate; each has a very short claw which joins the torus by a very constricted neck. Their upper surface bears the usual petaline pilose papille, and their epidermal cells have a wavy sinuous outline; their size in relation to the sepals varies, being larger or smaller—sometimes half the size, at other times almost double the size. In consequence of their constricted claw they fall off very readily. Their vascular supply is derived from the main Jury 1900,] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 333 trunk that supplies the epicalyx segment to which each petal is opposite (Fig. 12,'p.v.s.). Andrecium. — According to Payer (Traité d organ. comp. de la fleur.) this is either isostemonous with five stamens opposite the sepals (Sibbaldia), or opposite the petals (Chamerhodos), or diplostemonous, with one whorl superposed to the sepals, and another to the petals (Horkelia.) Further, diplostemony may arise by de- duplication, ten stamens being found in a single whorl in pairs, superposed either to sepals or petals. Dickson’s studies on the stamens of the Rosacee are round im “Journ. of Bot.,’ vols: i. and iv:, and “Trans. Bot. Soc.,” vol. viii. In the latter he points out that the andreeciim of the Potentillas is arranged in the form of a series of festoons stretching from petal to petal, each festoon being concave externally. He regarded the andreecium as composed of five compound stamens, the terminal lobe of each developed as a petal so called, and the lateral lobes as fertile stamens. Where a stamen is exactly superposed to a sepal, he regarded it as stipular in character—an interstaminal lobe,—bearing the same relation to the compound stamens on either side of it as the epicalyx segment does to its adjacent sepals. Dickson examined the andrecia of twenty-nine species, and founded three types thereon of staminal arrangement. Type 1 had twenty stamens arranged in five festoons of three each, and five single oppositipetalous stamens. This is the commonest type among the Rosacewe; it oceurs, for example, in Mragaria and Comarum. Type 2, with thirty stamens arranged in five festoons of five, and five oppositipetalous stamens. This occurred ‘in three species. Type 3, with twenty-five stamens in five festoons of five. This occurred in two species—P. fruticosa, L.; cand P. rupestris, L. Dickson emphasised the great importance of these ‘staminal arrangements in establishing, or at least limiting, minor groups. My observations confirm the above, and enable me to indorse Prof. Dickson’s remarks regarding the classificatory importance of the staminal arrangements. Ae ~~ 34 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxrv. I have had opportunities of examining sixty-five species, including twenty of those examined by Dickson. Some of these fit into Dickson’s three types, but the remainder form three new types of arrangement, which I number 4, 5, and 6 respectively. Type 4 (Fig. 4) has twenty-five stamens in five festoons of four, and five solitary oppositipetalous. Type 5 (Fig. 5), with twenty stamens arranged in five festoons of four each. Type 6 (Fig. 6), with fifteen stamens arranged in five festoons of three each. In the following list is indicated the type of staminal arrangement in each species examined. The number in front of each species is that in Lehmann’s “ Revisio.” The list contains all those I have examined, with the exception of those previously described by Dickson (‘ Trans. Bot. Soe.,” dec. cit.), and some that were doubtful. It is interesting to note here that my specimens of P. rupestris, L., showed the arangement in Type 5, while that of Dickson exhibited his Type 3. 29. P. Ornithopoda, Tausch.—I. | 106. P. canescens, Bess.—I. 32. P. Verticillaris, Steph.—lIV. | 108. P. intermedia, Iu.—I. 53. P. rupestris, L.—V. 109. P. mollissima, Lehm.— VI. 60. P. bipinnatifida, Dong]l.—IV. | 112. P. Detomasii, Teu.—IIL. 60. P. Agrimonioides, M.B.—I. 116. P. kurdica, Boiss.—I. 60. P. Arachnoidea, Doug].—lV. P. salisburgensis.—I. 64. P. Chinensis, Ser.—]. 158. P. pilosa, Willd.—IV. P. Drummondii.—lV. P. alchemilloides.—I. 69. P. approximata, Bee.—IV. 153. P. Cathaclines, Lehm.—lY. 89. P. Kotschyana, Fenzl.—III. P. insigne.—I. 91. P. laciniosa, W.K.—IY. 172. P. Hookeriana, Lehm.—lV. P. erecta.—II. 199. P. Norvegica, L.—VI. 92. P. leta, Rehb.—IV. P. Scbrenkiana, Rel.—IV. P. pedata.—I. P. Iberica, Hort. Pars.—I. 96. P. desertorum, Bnee.—I. P. Ontopoda, Dougl.—I. 101. P. Fenzlii, Iehm.—lI. P. Buccoana, Clem.—I. 105. P. Collina, Wib.—TI. P. Macnabiana.—I. Dickson describes the development of the festoons as. centripetal, «ec. the terminal lobe of the compound stamens—the petal—appears first, then the lateral lobes in basipetal order on either side. The oppositipetalous stamen, when present, develops late. He figures this con- dition in P. fruticosa (“ Trans. Bot. Soc.,” loc. cit., Fig. 5) which has Type 5 staminal arrangement. In contrast to . Jury 1900. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH ob this I find in P. Schrenkiana (Type 4 staminal arrange- ment) that the staminal papille of each festoon may develop simultaneously. Fig. 2 shows a young flower of this species bisected in the antero-posterior plane. The epicalycine, calycine, and petaline papillz are developed, but there is as yet no trace of the staminal papille. Points to be noted in this figure are the relatively large size of the epi- ealycine papille at this early stage—a feature which would in some degree support the view of the morpho- logical nature of the epicalyx suggested in this note. Another interesting poit is the close relation of the petaline to the epicalycine papille, the former being practically outer growths or branches of the latter. By the time that the staminal papille are all represented the epicalyx and calyx segments are of large size, and, arching inwards, form a funnel-shaped covering over the centre of the flower; the throat of the funnel is closed by a considerable growth of hairs from the inner surfaces of the segments. These hairs develop very precociously, rudiments of them being found at a very early stage on the papille. It is only now that the carpellary papille begin to appear on the hitherto smooth hemispherical surface of the gynophores. The full details of. development of the various types of flowers, and also the discussion as to the nature of the corolla, suggested by its manner of development are reserved for-a future note. Each stamen (Fig. 9) is composed of a free filament tapering towards its apex, where it bears a sub-sagittate anther, the lobes of which converge apically and diverge basally. The filament (Fig. 10) has a single central bundle surrounded by a loose cylinder of parenchyma, the cells of which increase in size, progressing outwards to the epidermis. The anther lobes are two in number in the immature stamens (Fig. 11), and the dehiscence is longi- tudinal and sub-lateral. The anther wall consists of two layers, an inner fibrous and an epidermis. Where the epidermis dips into the connective between the anther lobes on the posterior and anterior faces, its cells are much elongated radially, and contain a pigment which stains deeply with hematoxylin (Fig. 11, p.). 336 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Ssss. uxtv. Irregularities due to branching in the stamens are by no means uncommon—the middle third of the filament being deeply grooved medially and longitudinally on the posterior and anterior faces, and the two halves diverging as lateral branches in the upper third. Vascular Supply of the Andrceecium (Fig. 1).—At the base of the toral cup a complete circular stele gives off ten strands, which pass out separately to the epicalycine and calycine segments. From each epicalycine bundle a petal is supplied, and also the neighbouring stamen. ‘Thus, in the figure which represents the vascular supply of a flower of Type 4, the two parapetalous and the solitary oppositipetalous stamens are so supphed, the former two by strands which branch off on either side of each epicalycine strand near its origin at the central stele; they may arise separately from the epicalycine strands, and then there appear twenty separate strands in all. The sepaline stamens are supphed by strands which come off laterally from the corresponding sepaline strand about half-way up the toral cup. Towards the rim of the cup lateral anastomoses occur between adjacent bundles, and here are situated the nectaries which are thus richly supphed. Nectaries.—Bonnier (“ Annales des Se. Nat.,” Ser. vi. vol. 8) describes the nectaries of P. Kragaria and P. verna. He states that the nectariferous tissue forms a ring; that it is composed of cells smaller than those of the surrounding parenchyma. The cells have non-granular refringent contents of a uniform yellow colour. This description does not apply to every vase, as far as my observations go. A complete nectariferous ring of a chrome-orange colour exists in some species, surrounding the bases of the stamens, and extending internal to them. In other species the nectaries are five in number, lemon-yellow in colour, each consisting of a mamillated convex or shallow concave surface, internal to the bases of the petaline stamens (Fig. 1 and 12,2.). Further, Bonnier states that the nectariferous tissue has no distinet epidermis. I find, on the contrary, in many, an epidermis of well-marked columnar epithelial cells. These, however, are early ruptured, and the old nectaries appear to have a rageed surface. JuLy 1900. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH arent Internal to the nectaries is a broad ring of conical unicellular hairs. These (Fig. 12, 4.) extend outwards and upwards, and form a more or less efficiently protective barrier over the nectaries. Gynecium.—The gynophore (Fig. 12) is somewhat elon- gated, or broadly club-shaped, constricted at its point of origin from the concave surface of the torus. Its epidermis is either smooth or covered with numerous conical unicellular hairs. Its surface is raised up into blunt papille, each representing the point of insertion of a carpel. In con- sistency it is usually dry, not increasing very much in size on fruiting. LP. Comarum is an exception to this, and forms a transition to the succulent condition of the Fragarias. Vascular Supply.—The stele, after giving off the ten or twenty strands to the floral envelopes and andrcecium, passes on into the gynophore, where it branches into many small strands, which together form a vascular cone, with a few lateral anastomoses. From the outer surface of this network arise the small twigs supplying the separate pistils. Each twig separately passes obliquely upwards and outwards through the cortex into the carpellary stalk. The pith cells adjoining the vascular network frequently contain numerous _ rosette crystals of calcium oxalate. Pistils—tThese are, as a rule, very numerous, although occasionally the number is much reduced. Each (Fig. 14) has a small stalk, which is continuous with a very marked ventral keel on the ovary. Ovary, style, and stigma are well demarcated. The ovaries are roughly ellipsoidal, slightly flattened from side to side, with a distinct keel on the ventral side, which is occasionally continued as a less marked ridge around the dorsal border. The style, which arises as a continuation of the ventral keel, originates at different levels in different species, so that the distance between the actual and organic apex of the ovary varies within wide limits; and this is a point that may be of some systematic importance. Thus in some it is slightly lateral, in others more markedly so. In others, again, it may be almost basal, asin P. rwpestris, which, in this connection, forms a link with P. Comarum and the Fragarias. Concurrent with this variability in the point of origin of the style are different degrees of anatropism of the ovule, from anatropous 338 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE _ [Sgss. cxiv. to sub-anatropous conditions when the raphe is hardly marked. | The Ovarian Wall is usually white in colour, but becomes brown on maturing. The whole ovary also increases some- what in size, and the style drops off on fruiting. The ovaries are usually closely packed together on the torus, and entirely concealed by the projecting basal epidermal flanges of the styles. The ovarian wall (Fig. 3) is composed of three strata of tissue—(1) an outer parenchymatous (p.) of a few layers of closely packed cells, the epidermal having cutinised walls ;. (2) a middle crystallogenous layer (4z.) of small, close set, quadrangular, thickish-walled cells, each with a cubical crystal of oxalate of lime; (3) an inner sclerenchymatous stratum composed of (a) an outer layer of spindle-shaped fibres parallel to the long axis of the ovary, and (6) an inner layer of similar fibres with their long axes transverse to that of the ovary. The Style is continuous with the ventral keel of the ovary, to which it is fixed by a very constricted neck. The length of the style varies, and this may be a feature of systematic importance, as there are well marked long and short styled species. It is composed (Fig. 7) of a cylinder of parenchyma filled with a loose conducting tissue of cells, rich in proteids. The parenchyma cells increase in size outwards to the epidermis, which is composed of larger cells protruding outwards, often in a_ papillose fashion. These cells are specially noticeable just at the base of the style (Figs. 8 and 14, bf.) near the constricted neck, where they form a sort of basal flange or rosette. They are less well developed on the ventral side, hence appears a ventral groove, which is continuous with a gap in the lip of the funnel-shaped papillose stigma (Figs. 15 and 16). There is usually a more or less well marked constriction just beneath stigma. All the outer cells of the style contain a peculiar pigment of a light lemon-yellow colour, apparently similar to that already mentioned as occurring in the connective epidermis of the anthers. It resists the usual solvents, gives a brownish precipitate with hydro- chloric acid, and dissolves, after a preliminary change: Jury 1900. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 339 of colour, on treatment with alkalies. It appears similar to that described by Claudel (“Comptes Rendus,’ 188%) as occurring in the cell cavities of certain seed coats, and as arising from the metamorphosis of the protoplasm. The QOvule, of small size, is more or less anatropous, with the micropyle superior, and the raphe ventral. It is one-coated, and at the chalazal end a pigment having similar properties to that of the styles is developed during maturation. Vascular Supply of Pistil and Ovule.—The single bundle (Fig. 13) that enters the stalk from the torus bifurcates right and left on passing into the ventral keel of the ovary. It may previously give off a small branch which curves round under the basal end of the ovary, but this is not frequent. The strands pass into the style when they are seen in cross section (Fig. 8, s.7.) in the parenchyma, right and left of the median line. They terminate in fan-shaped extremities at the constriction just below the funnel-shaped stigma. From one of the strands in the keel a bundle curves inwards through the funiculus and supplies the ovule. It courses down the raphe, and terminates at the chalaza in a small fan-shaped vascular cup. From the other bundle in the keel a similar branch curves outward over the top of the ovary and forms a small dorsal bundle of varying length. All these bundles are composed of delicate spiral and annular tracheides, occasionally assuming the appearance of vasa. The phloem, so far as present, is represented hy a few delicate-walled elongated cells, rich in proteids. The summary of floral characters of systematic import- ance works out somewhat as under. In addition to such features as shape, origin, relative size and position of the epicalyx segments, sepals, and petals—characters already utilised in classification—it is suggested here that the various types of staminal arrangements, as previously partly described by Dickson, and, as further described here, may be of considerable value. Further, the more minute details of the pistils, in addition to the character of the nectaries, whether separate or confluent, are of importance. Thus, the length of the styles, character of the stigma, appearance of the external surface of the 4 340 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Ssss. xiv. styles, as well as the extent of the ovarian keel, and the attachment thereto of the style, are all diagnostic points. A comparison of Figs. 17 to 23, which are outline drawings of pistils, will bear out this statement. Thus, Hookeriana has a short thick style less than twice the length of the ovary, of fairly uniform diameter throughout its length, expanding suddenly at the apex into a screw- nail head like stigma. Jaczniosa, again, has the ovarian wall longitudinally ridged and furrowed; a keel all round, most pronounced on the ventral border; a marked basal contraction of the style where it joins the keel. upestris has a characteristic sub-basal insertion of the style, which is spindle-shaped, contracted at apex and base where it adjoins the stigma and ventral keel of the ovary respectively. The length of the style of the Kuwrdica is characteristic, being many times as long as the ovary, and tapering apically into a discoid stigma, its surface is mamillated. Viscose has a short style again, only about one and a half times the length of the ovary, tapering apically. Further, the ovary has viscid glandular hairs. EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES. 1. Diagram illustrating vascular supply of flower.—ep. = epicalyx segments; sep. = sepal; pet. = petal; n.= nectary. The supply of one sepal and one epicalyx segment is shown in detail. 2. Left half of a young flower of P. Schrenkiana.—e. = epicalyx ; s. = sepal; p.= petal. Leitz., Oc. 3, Obj. 3. 3. Transverse section of ovarian wall.—p. = outer parenchymatous layer ; c. = erystallogenous layer ; s.=schrenchyma layer. Leitz., Oc. 3, OD). 4,5, and 6, Diagrams of types 4, 5, and 6 of staminal arrangements, The epicalyx segments are omitted. 7. Half of a transverse section of style in the upper third. Leitz., Oc, 3, Obj. 7. 8. Half of a transverse section of style near its base.—v.g. = ventral groove ; bf. = swollen epidermal pigment cells forming basal flange ; $v. = stylar vessels. Leitz., Oc. 3, Obj. 7. 9. Stamen, showing anther and upper part of filament. Oc. 5, Obj. 2 in. 10. Transverse section of filament. Leitz., Oc. 3, Obj. 7. 11. Transverse section of immature anther.—p. = pigment cells. Oc. 3, Obj. 7. 12. Diagrammatic vertical section of flower, showing vascular supply of gynophore and _ pistils—s.=sepal; ep.=epicalyx; p. = petal ; st.=stamen; n.=nectary; h.= hairs; p.v.s.= origin of vascular bundle of petal. EERIE Crom ES POTENTILLAS Jan, 1900. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 341 13. Diagram of vascular supply of pistil._—o. = ovule ; ov.w. = ovarian wall; s.v. = stylar vessels; fv. = funicular vessel; ¢.c. = chalazal cup ; iv. = dorsal vessel. 14. Pistil showing basal flange.—l./. formed by expanded epidermal cells; v.k. = ventral keel. 15. Ventral, and 16, profile view of stigma, showing the ventral groove. 17-25. Outline drawings of pistils—17 = laciniosa; 18 = viscosa ; 19 =kurdica; 20 = Hookeriana; 21 = Fenzl; 22 = approximata ; 23 = rupestris. THE RELATION BETWEEN THE LENTICELS AND ADVEN- TITIOUS Roots oF SoLanuMm Dutcamara. By JAmeEs A. TERRAS, B.Se., Lecturer on Botany, Edinburgh. (With Plates.) (Read 11th January 1900.) The existence of a definite relationship between adven- titious roots and lenticels was recognised for the first time in 1826 by De Candolle (3), as the result of an investigation into the modes of rooting exhibited by a number of cuttings taken from the most varied species of woody plants; and subsequent authors, though differing widely as regards the degree of interdependence of these structures and the functional causes which underlie the connection between them, have never denied the primary fact that the great majority of those lateral adventitious roots, which under favourable conditions are found growing out from the surface of many woody stems, take their origin below lenticels. Stahl (7), in his classical work on the development and anatomy of lenticels, cited Solanum Duleamara as a species in which nearly all the adventitious roots arise below lenticels, but attempted no explanation. Fourteen years later, Beijerinck (2) called attention to the remarkably large number of root rudiments occurring on the stem of this plant, and to the facility for vegetative propagation which it in consequence possesses, but made no reference to the connection between these roots and the lenticels, which, indeed, he scarcely mentions. Kebahn (4), in 1884, figured a lenticel of S. Duleamara, but made no mention of the subjacent root, and the first connected account of the relationship in which these two ~ 342 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ SEss. LXIV. structures stand to one another is to be found in a paper by the same author (5) published in 1891, and containing an account in considerable detail of the anatomical features of the fully formed root rudiment, without, however, touching on the question of its origin or mode of develop- ment, while he barely does more than refer to the lenticel, which he regards as raised on a small papilla, the pro- jection of which above the general surface of the stem is accounted for by the growth of the underlying rootlet. The root itself he correctly describes as exhibiting all the anatomical characters of a typical root of the species, though it remains in a state of arrested development so long as the environment of the stem is normal, and only commences to elongate under the influence of excessive moisture. A superficial examination of any portion of the mature stem of S. Dulcamaru will in most cases show the surface to be covered with the small papille above mentioned, which on the older and thicker portions often reach a height of 1 or 2 mm., and appear as rounded warty excrescences, with rough, nearly vertical, sides, and flat or slightly pointed apices. Each papilla is accompanied by one or more small dark- coloured lenticels, placed either close to its base on the surface of the stem, in the angle which it makes with the stem, or even on the sides of the papilla itself, though but rarely on its apex, from which, however, the outer layers of cork are not unfrequently abraded, giving a rough surface, at first sight not unlike a lenticel, but easily distinguishable therefrom by the entire absence of the characteristic complementary cells; and this arrangement of parts, which may be looked upon as typical of the mature papilla, is generally to be found on all stems of more than two years of age. On stems in their second year of growth the papille are in general less sharply limited, and appear as rather low dome-shaped protuberances with a smooth rounded surface, bearing on their flanks a pair of small lenticels. These are somewhat elongated in the direction of the axis, and are usually placed near the base of the protuberance, though their number and relative positions may vary considerably, Jay. 1900.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 343 as many as three being not uncommon, while, on the other hand, they are frequently reduced to one. They are generally placed laterally, but may occasionally occupy an oblique position, and may even, though but rarely, be found in the median plane longitudinally above or below the papilla. On shoots of the current vear no papillee whatever are at first recognisable,-and they do not make their appear- ance till a considerable amount of elongation has taken place and the season is well advanced. Small superficial elevations may then be observed on the stem, at or near the base of the year’s growth, and as the shoot increases in age these appear at pregressively higher levels, till in late autumn, when growth has completely ceased, they may be found within one or two internodes of the apical bud, while those first formed at the base of the shoot have already assumed the characters of second year’s papillie, and, like them, bear lateral lenticels. The relative number in which these structures appear varies greatly in different plants, and even in different parts of the same plant, their formation seeming to depend to a considerable extent on the degree of transpiration to which the branches are exposed. Plants inhabiting moist situations, such as the margins of deep ditches, etc., have in general their stems almost entirely covered with papille, while individuals living in dry airy positions are, on the other hand, nearly devoid of them. In the ease of plants erowing in hedges and thickets where the surrounding vegetation supples a considerable check to air movements and thereby limits transpiration, papille are especially abundant on the protected twigs, while those which project above the surrounding herbage, and are thus more exposed, are comparatively free from them. Papille are also not unfrequently found in larger numbers on the lower than on the upper surface of horizontal branches growing near the ground, and, as Beijerinck (2) has pointed out, wherever a branch of this kind comes in contact with the soil the root rudiments concealed within the papille on its lower surface grow out into functional roots. Although plants growing in dry places never bear so large a number of papille as those in moister situations, it o44 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE | Szss. xiv. is extremely rare to find an individual from which they are entirely absent, though in some cases they may be reduced to one or two in an internode. The Stem—In S. Dulcamara the leaves are arranged in a two-fifths spiral, and at each node two vascular bundles unite under the base of the leaf; of these, one arises from the similar vascular union below the leaf two internodes lower down, and the other from that below the next lower leaf, ze. the leaf three internodes below the first, conse- quently each internode is traversed by five primary vascular bundles, the position of which is indicated on the surface of the young stem by a corresponding number of well- marked ridges. The primary bundles are, as has been pointed out by De Bary (1), bicollateral in structure, while the internal phloem, itself of considerable thickness, is also accompanied by isolated phloem strands. .The bundles are of consider- able width in the tangential direction as compared with their rather small radial diameter, and are split up into a number of narrow wedges, each composed of from two to eight radial rows of xylem elements, by a varying number of medullary rays, which extend from the imner limit of the xylem to the outside of the external phloem, without however traversing that on the inner face of the bundle. These rays are identical in structure with those laid down in the secondary wood, through which they also are continued, both being as a rule but one cell wide tan- ventially, and from ten to fifteen high, while in both the component cells retain their protoplasmic contents and are rectangular in outline, with the radial diameter about one-third of the height, and somewhat greater than the tangential width. Under normal conditions the course of such a medullary ray through the phloem till it comes in contact with the inner wall of the pericycle may be readily traced, owing to the regularly radial arrangement of the, in most cases, single row of cells, which, moreover, differ individually, both as regards shape and contents, from the elements of the phloem by which they are bounded on both sides. Its course within the xylem is equally well defined, but as the walls are now lignified, though thinner than those Jan. 1900. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 345 of the ordinary xylem elements, it is necessary to depend on the abundant protoplasmic contents of the cells as a means of identification, and, in unstained sections, they are only recognisable with difficulty. The stem, with its five vascular bundles, is bounded externally by an interrupted circle of isolated sclerenchy- matous fibres, of rectangular, roughly square section, and of considerable length, but which in the young state appear to be only partially lignified, as it is in old stems alone that they give any reaction with phloroglucin or aniline sulphate. These fibres are not limited to the regions immediately external to the primary bundles, but in general occur singly at intervals round the stem, though here and there a group of eight or nine may be found united together by their radial walls, in which case the group generally lies on the outer edge of a bundle. Although occasionally thus united side by side, they are seldom duplicated radially, and when this does occur, both elements clearly result from the division of a single mother-cell. In longitudinal sections, the outer sieve tubes of the external phloem are readily seen abutting directly on these fibres, which must therefore be looked upon as representing the pericyele, along with the intervening thin-walled cells required to complete the circle, though these latter are in no way specially characterised, and are only distinguishable from those of the succeeding layer by their position and generally smaller size. In the majority of young stems this fibrous layer is immediately surrounded by a complete circle of rather large cells, especially rich in starch, which is, however, also to be found in the other cells of the cortex, though in somewhat smaller amount, and although the characteristic dot on the radial walls is apparently absent in the stem, there seems no reason to doubt the identity of this layer with the endodermis. The remainder of the cortical tissue, which generally reaches a thickness of from five to ten cells, is composed of rounded, thin-walled parenchyma, often containing traces of starch, and with large intercellular spaces. The Root.—The first indication of the appearance of adventitious roots on S. Duleamara takes place at a TRANS, BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXI. DN 346 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Szss. uxiv. comparatively early period, and apparently with remark- able regularity, the initial stages being found only during the formation of the first ring of wood, and in general shortly before or shortly after it has reached half its ultimate thickness, though here considerable variation may -oceur, The greater preponderance of root-bearing papilla, which may frequently be observed on old than on young stems, is probably to be explained by the greater proximity of the former to the surface of the soil, and the con- sequently greater degree of moisture in the surrounding atmosphere during the period of their development. However this may-be, the roots underlying these papille may, in the great majority of cases, be traced back without difficulty to within the first ring of wood, even when the stems on which they appear are eight or nine years of age, and one or two centimetres in diameter. The young roots generally bear a definite relation to the primary vascular bundles of the stem, which, as has been already pointed out, are of considerable tangential width, a point which has here a certain importance, as the roots do not usually arise opposite the median plane, but generally nearer either the right or left hand edge of a bundle, so that papillz are seldom placed directly on the longi- tudinal ridges, which in the young stem are the superficial indications of the subjacent bundles, but in most cases on the intervening flat surface. Though the situation of the root on the circumference of the stem is thus to a certain extent defined, no rule whatever appears to be followed with regard to its longitudinal position, and papille seem to arise with equal readiness on the bundle throughout any part of its course. Van Tieghem and Douliot (8), in their account of the origin of lateral rootlets, state that the adventitious roots which arise from the underground stems of S. tuberosum originate in divisions taking place in the single layered pericycle, while the cells of the phloem parenchyma assist in the formation of the basal part of the central cylinder ; and the endodermis forms a digestive cap. In the species now under investigation, the roots, on the other hand, apparently owe their origin to the proliferation Jan. 1900.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 347 of the extracambial cells of one or more medullary rays, those implicated being generally situated near one or other margin of the bundle, but still within it, though in rare cases this relation is somewhat difficult to determine, owing to the secondary growth of the stem in thickness. Of these rays, one, two, or as many as three, may be con- cerned in the formation of a single root, but, where more than one is so employed, the intervening patches of phloem are always very narrow. When a root is about to arise, those cells of the ray which are situated in the phloem region of the bundle undergo a remarkable series of changes, their nuclei enlarge, they become richer in protoplasm, and at once commence to divide irregularly in all three directions, thus forming a small protuberance with a conical base, which tapers gradually inwards towards the xylem, at the margin of which it is continuous with the internal xylar portion of the ray, and is here of necessity reduced to not more than two cells in tangential width, and in most cases to only one; while the outer rounded apex of the papilla is, on the other hand, composed at this stage of a convex surface, with a perimeter of five or six cells, and generally lies in contact with the inner surface of the pericycle, which is easily recognisable by its fibres. At about this stage, the thin-walled cells of the pericycle, opposite the apex of the papilla, also undergo segmentation, usually dividing, in the first instance, by radial walls, but so irregularly as to render it a matter of great difficulty to determine what part they take in the formation of the root. Lemaire (7) mentions the occurrence of a somewhat similar irregularity in the initial divisions, which give rise to the adventitious roots of Tecoma radicans and Ficus repens, both of which further resemble Solanwm in that their roots arise on the stems in a subaérial position, though, in both eases, all the tissues of the root are formed from the pericycle. In this connection the behaviour of the pericyclic fibres is of some interest. Though normally the root in its outward course altogether avoids these elements, it not unfrequently happens that a single fibre or small group of 348 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Szss. xrv- fibres is situated nearly, if not quite, opposite the end of the rhizogenetic medullary ray, and sometimes in direct contact with it. As the papilla increases in length, these fibres become curved outwards before it; and when, owing to their ends being securely fixed in the tissue above and below, the resistance of the long, tough elements becomes too great to allow of further displacement, they cut into the apex of the root, forming therein a deep, narrow groove, at the bottom of which they may be recognised, though in a somewhat crushed condition, even when the root has reached a stage of comparative maturity. As the groove so formed extends to the extreme apex of the root rudiment, and cuts through both root cap and periblem, the conclusion seems unavoidable that no cells external to these fibres can have any part in the origin of the root papilla, thus excluding at least the endodermis from all participation in the formation of this structure. The remaining thin-walled cells of the pericycle un- doubtedly divide, but as regards the part which they play in the formation of the root I am at present unable to make any definite statement, though, from a consideration of the arrangement of the cells in median longitudinal sections through somewhat older root rudiments, it seems improbable that they do more than give rise to the root cap, while the cortex appears to arise from the divisions of phloem parenchyma cells on the flanks of the medullary ray, from which the central cylinder takes its origin. In the younger outgrowths no differentiation into root cap, cortex, and central cylinder is observable, but all three may be distinctly recognised in median longitudinal sections, at a stage so early that no trace of the existence of a root rudiment can be perceived on the surface of the stem. The characteristic dot on the radial walls of the endodermis of the root does not, however, appear till much later, not indeed till the superficial protuberance is almost fully formed and the xylem of the central cylinder is beginning to undergo lignification. It is, however, easily recognisable at the end of the first year in median longitudinal sections which have been double stained in Magdala-red and Malachite-green, the latter of which Jan. 1900. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 349 colours all lignified and corky elements, while the former is exclusively absorbed by protoplasmic and cellulosic structures.’ The Phellogenetic Divisions—The initial divisions of the phellogen, which in this species arises in the cells of the epidermis, are purely centripetal in direction, and, under normal conditions, the few centrifugal divisions which ultimately occur do not take place till a later period. The origin of the rootlet, however, considerably precedes the first appearance of phellogen, and the relative rate of © growth of these two structures is, in general, such that by the time the root has penetrated to within two or three cells of the outer limit of the primary cortex the phellogen has undergone from one to three centripetal divisions, with the result that the outer persistent portion of the original epidermis is separated from the dividing layer by one or two rows of cork cells. This relation between the rates of growth of these two almost independent tissues, though fairly constant, is subject, as might be expected, to certain variations. It may, for example, happen that for some reason the origin of the root is somewhat delayed or its growth retarded in comparison with that of the phellogen, as indeed appears to occur normally in the case of the last formed roots of a year’s growth. On the other hand, the elongation of the root rudiment may altogether outstrip the formation of phellogen, a con- dition which may be readily brought about artificially by placing in water a shoot of the current year, after removal of as much of its basal portion as exhibits well-marked papille. When so treated the young root rudiments already formed in the stem increase so rapidly in length as to force their way to the exterior, perforating both cortex and epidermis before even a trace of phellogenetic division has appeared in the latter. Every stage intermediate between these two extremes 1 The sections are soaked in a saturated aqueous solution of Malachite-green till deeply stained, and then treated directly with a saturated alcoholic solution of Magdala-red, washed rapidly in absolute alcohol followed by origanum oil and mounted in balsam,—a method of obtaining a double stain for which I am indebted to my friend Dr. Campbell Brown. 350 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxrv. may be met with as an occasional variation, probably induced by the action of environmental differences, but under ordinary conditions one or two layers of cork are, asi above mentioned, in general laid down before the root reaches to within a distance of two-or three cells from the actively dividing phellogen. When, however, this position has been approximately attained, the phellogenetic divisions in the cells immediately opposite the root entirely lose their centripetal character, and there is initiated a series of centrifugal divisions, which, commencing opposite the apex of the root, extend laterally in the phellogen, and eventually result in the formation of a lenticular mass of secondary cortex, with its greatest thickness in the , centre opposite the root, but becoming gradually thinner till it disappears in the circumference of a circle, whose diameter is in general about three times that of the root in front of which it originates. This secondary tissue is entirely composed of thin-walled parenchyma cells, somewhat rectangular in outline, and with but a few small intercellular spaces between their slightly rounded angles. Considering the relation between the position occupied by the apex of the root, and the period at which the development of this tissue takes place, as well as_ its. exceptional character, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that its formation must be looked upon as the external evidence of the response made by the actively dividing cells of the phellogen to the pressure exerted on them by the elongation of the root. The rapidity with which these centrifugal divisions succeed one another in the line of the rootlet’s advance is somewhat remarkable, and in general exceeds that of the normal centripetal divisions, taking place at the same time in the unaffected portions of the phellogen. Indeed, the time required for the completion of the whole lenticular mass of tissue, which in its centre often reaches a thickness of twelve or thirteen cells, is frequently less than that occu- pied by the deposition of a single layer of cork. This rapid localised deposition of secondary cortex by the phellogen is the primary cause of the formation of protuberances on the surface of the stem, and these, at. Jan. 1900. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 351 least during the earlier portion of the first year, owe almost their entire elevation to it, as the comparatively slow elongation of the root confines it for a considerable period within the primary cortex, where it can exert but little direct influence on the height of the protuberance above it. Later in the season, however, it begins to press heavily on the internal surface of the secondary cortical tissue, and soon penetrates into it, pushing before it the upper and outer layers, and thus greatly increases the elevation of the papilla. The centrifugal divisions of the phellogen continue even after the apex of the root has pierced the inner layers of the lenticular mass of tissue, but at this period the rate of elongation of the root generally exceeds to a considerable extent that of the formation of secondary cortex, with the result that the former gradually penetrates deeper and deeper into the latter, and, in the majority of cases, entirely pierces it before the end of the second year, though instances are not wanting in which some layers of secondary cortex are still recognisable between the apex of the root and the cork cells covering the outer end of the papilla, as late as the end of the fourth year, so that the root, it would appear, may stop short of reaching the phellogen. This, however, is not of common occurrence; and in most eases when the papilla is fully mature, the root apex may be seen to be covered only by a few cells of cork, or even, owing to the abrasion of the cork layers, to be entirely without protection. The Lenticels—Vowards the end of the first year one or two typical lenticels appear, as above mentioned, on the lateral flanks of the superficial protuberances. These arise generally to right and left of the root apex, and apparently owe their origin to a return to the centripetal mode of division taking place in certain circumscribed patches of the phellogen, which, however, instead of laying down ordinary cork tissue proceed to deposit the loose, rounded complementary cells so characteristic of lenticels. As the remaining portions of the phellogen covering the protuberance continue to divide in a centrifugal direction, the lenticellar areas become depressed below the rest of the dividing layer, while their rapid formation of comple- 9 302 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. uxrv. mentary cells ruptures the layers of cork above them, and thus opens the lenticel to the atmosphere. The structures so formed persist apparently throughout the life of the plant, and can almost, without exception, even in stems of eight or nine years of age, be found at or near the bases of the papillie, to which, indeed, they are confined. CONCLUSIONS. I. That in Solanwm Dulcamara the adventitious roots do not arise below or grow out through lenticels, as is apparently the case in the majority of plants. II. That, as the origin of the root precedes the appear- ance of phellogenetic divisions, it is entirely independent of lenticellar formation. III. That the protuberances on the surface of the stem are not lenticels, but result from the formation of a mass of secondary tissue, which originates in the reaction of the phellogen to the pressure set up by the elongating root below it. IV. That the lenticels only appear after the pro- tuberances are fully formed. LITERATURE REFERRED TO. 1. De Bary.—Comp. Anat. of Phanerogams and Ferns.—English Edit., p. 338. i seijerinck. — Beobacht. u. Betracht. ub. Wurzelknospen u. Nebenwurzeln.—Verhand. d. Koninklijke Akad. van Weten- schappen. Amsterdam, 1887. - 3. De Candolle.—Annales des Sciences Naturelles Bot., T. vii. p. 5. 1826. t. Klebahn.—Die Rindenporen. Jenaische Zeitschrift f. Natur- wissenschaft. Jena, 1884. 5. Klebahn.—Ueber Wurzelanlagen unter Lenticellen b. Herminiera Klaphroxylon u. Solanum Dulcamara.—Flora. H. 2. 1891. 6, Lemaire.—Recherches sur L’Origine et le Développement des tacines Latérales chez les Dicotyledones. —Annales des Sciences Naturelles Bot., Ser. 7, T..3., p. 224. . 1886. 7. Stahl.—Entwickelungsgeschichte u. Anatomie d. Lenticellen.— sot. Zeit., p. 563. 1873. 8. Van Tieghem et Douliot.—Recherches Comparatives sur L’Origine des Membres Endogénes. Radicelles;—Annales des Sciences Naturelles Bot., Ser. 7, T. 8. 1888. PiaTe Il. See ee. IED NST Re BYaeANe eS be ¢3 } \ r \ Leas e IZ ei SP i Peet Sees i y § : coe 9 as: ; } se S iN MAS 4p 5 ~ CY VAN er (O i by) a a o, na PLaTE |. Pirate Ill. ™ J PLaTe IV. Pate V. Pirate VI. Mar. 1900. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 098 EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. Puate I. Fig. 1. Early stage of root, the outer cells of the medullary ray dividing. The cells marked x are endodermal. Fig. 2. Later stage endodermis as before. Numerous pericyclic fibres ; b] thin-walled pericycle cell opposite root apex, dividing radially ; marked cells outside medullary ray tissue represent cells of the phloem region which have hecome meristematic. Fig. 3. Root showing three region... Pericycelic fibre commencing to cut a groove in the apex ; endodermis not recognisable owing to growth in thickness of stem. Puate II. Fig. 1. Formation of lenticular mass of secondary cortex opposite apex of root, which has already penetrated its base—ep, epidermis ; ek, cork; pg, phellogen; en, probable position of endodermis ; ph, phloem of stem; xy, wood of stem. Fig. 2. Older stage of root. Mass of secondary cortex dotted and partially perforated by the root. Fig. 3. Mature papilla. Secondary cortex entirely pierced. Root in resting state. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE FLORA OF SPITSBERGEN, ESPECIALLY OF Rep Bay, from the Collections of W. S. Bruce, F.R.S.G.8., Naturalist to the Prince of Monaco’s Expeditions of 1898 and 1899. By R. Turnsvtt, B.Sc., Lecturer on Botany, School of Medicine, Edinburgh. (Read 8th March 1900.) In a former communication (9th February 1899) to this Society, I gave an account of the flora of Hope Island, and mentioned Mr. Bruce’s first visit to Spitsbergen in the Prince of Monaco’s steel yacht, the “ Princesse Alice,” in 1898. Since the publication of that paper, I have learned that Mr. Leigh Smith collected plants from Spitsbergen and Hope Island, and a record of them is contained in the “ Journal of Botany,” vol. xiv., 1876. Some of the plants in the present collection, were gathered by Mr. Bruce in 1898, but most of them were obtained during the second voyage of the “ Princesse Alice” to Spitsbergen, in 1899. An account of the two voyages, and a map of Spits- . . YY 54 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. ixrv. bergen, are contained in “The Scottish Geographical Magazine” for September 1900. There are five localities from which plants were col- lected. Changing Point is the extreme west of Barentz Island, at the head of Stor Fiord, lat. 78° 30’. Recherche Bay and Van Mijen’s Bay are branches of Bell Sound, which hes between the 77th and 78th parallels of latitude, to the south-west of West Spitsbergen. Advent Bay is a branch of Ice Fiord, north of the 78th parallel. Red Bay lies exposed to the north, and forms an inlet in the northern coast of West Spitsbergen; it was surveyed for the first time by the Prince -of Monaco, and although the Swedes claim to have discovered it, there is no previous record of plants from that region. The position of Bruce Point in Red Bay is 79° 45’ 22” N. lat., 12° 15’ 28” E. long, so that the collection from the Bay was made not far south of the 80th parallel. Mr. Bruce’s collection contains about fifty species, which form a fair collection when we consider that his time was avowedly given up to zoology; while his visits to different points were of comparatively short duration. I have mounted the clumps or tufts unbroken, so as to convey an idea of the true habit of so many Arctic plants. Out of eight species of Ranunculaceze known to Spits- bergen, three are in the present collection, viz. :—Ranun- culus nivalis, k. pygmeus, and &. sulphurews. R. nivalis is one of the common Arctic plants. &. su/phureus is repre- sented by a magnificent tuft about nine inches in height. Torell, speaking of this plant (Norwegian Expedition to Spitsbergen in 1861), said that its golden yellow flowers came up to the wanderer’s knees. | Papaver nudicaule is abundant, and seems to occur wherever Arctic explorers have penetrated, and it is among the most beautiful of the Arctic plants. Colonel Fielden says of it: “Of the entire flora in the Polar and Arctic regions, no flower is dearer to the explorer than the Arctic poppy. Its beauty, its delightful shades of colour, from white to bright yellow and delicate pink, charm the eye. Its abundance and vitality under apparently the most adverse circumstances make a deep impression. Mar. 1900.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 355 On the bleakest and most exposed surfaces, as far as the explorer has reached on land, this remarkable flower has been met with. Cold, snow, and tempest seem to make no impression on it.” It is the only representative of its order, but it makes up for the absence of its relatives by the abundance of its individuals. This gives the keynote to the fauna and flora of the Arctic Regions: the species are few, but the individuals abundant. The order Crucifere is represented by eighteen species in Spitsbergen, and the present collection includes five of these. It is well for the Arctic explorer to know that no species of Cruciferze possesses poisonous properties, and that many of them make excellent salads, chief among these are the species of Cochlearia, which were much used by Mr. Bruce and his fellow-travellers. Of the other species of Cruciferze the Drabas are perhaps the most attractive. The Caryophyllacee are represented by four species, and the most widely distributed of these is the Cerastiwm alpinum, which seems to exist wherever the Poppy is found. Alpine botanists will also welcome the lowly Silene acaulis, which is all but as widely distributed as the Cerastium. Stellaria humifusa is also very common. Lychnis apetala is rarer than the other three, but common enough in Novaya Zemlya, it is the Melandrywm apetalum, L., Fel. of Von Heuglin’s list. The two representatives of Rosacee in the present collection are Dryas octopetala and Potentilla fragiformis : the former is equally common in the Arctic with the Poppy and Cerastiwm, the latter is also common. The order Saxifragacez has eleven species in Spitsbergen, and Mr. Bruce collected nine of these, the commonest and most striking being Saxifraga oppositifolia, S. Hirculus, and S. cwspitosa. Pedicularis hirsuta is the only scerentitive of Scro- phulariaceze in Spitsbergen, and it is found in the present collection, Of six Composite the only one here is Hrigeron uniflorus. 356 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. ixrv. Cassiope tetragona is the only representative of Ericacez before us, although another Cassiope and a Rhodendron are also found. Of three species of Polygonacew two are here represented —Oxzyria digyna, which was found invaluable as a salad, rivalling that of the Cochlearia, and Polygonum viviparum ; both of these plants are common throughout the Arctic as they are in our own Alpine flora. Salix polaris represents the Salicine, but S. reticulata and S. herbacea are also found. Von Heuglin mentions only three species of Juncaceve. The present collection contains Luzula hyperborea, Juncus biglumis, and J. triglumis, but there are at least other two which await ‘identification, and which-may be new to Spitsbergen. [At the meeting a discussion arose as to whether certain specimens were Juncus biglumis or J. triglumis. From a careful examination of the specimens, and by comparison with type examples in the Herbarium of the Royal Botanie Garden, Edinburgh, it has been found that both biglwmis and triglumis are in the collection. ] There are eleven species of Cyperacee in Spitsbergen, but Lriophorum vaginatum is the only representative of the order here. Out of twenty-six Grasses known the present collection includes nine, and the three rarest are 7'risetuwm subspicatum, Phippsia algida, and Poa Vahliana. The following is the Phanerogamic Flora of Spitsbergen, as represented in Mr. Bruce’s collection :— A=Advent Bay; C=Changing Point, Stor Fiord; B=Red Bay ; R= Recherche Bay, Bell Sound ; V= Van Mijen’s Bay, Bell Sound. ORDER—RANUNCULACEA. ORDER—CARYOPHYLLACEA, 1. Ranunculus nivalis, L.—dC. ; ; 2 Santen Tint | 10. Cerastium alpinum, L. 2, —— pygmeus, Whinb.—B. DO a 3. sulphureus, Sol.—B. | 2 F Taek? en | 11. Silene acaulis, L.—B, R. ORDER—PAPAVERACEE. 12. Stellaria humifusa, Rottb.—C. 4, Papaver nudicaule, L.—C, B. 13, Lychnis apetala, L.—A. ORDER—CRUCIFERA. 5. Cochlearia fenestrata, R.Br.—C. | ORDER—ROSACEM, 6. Draba alpina, L.—C, B, R. 7. —— hirta, L. ()—C. | 14. Dryas octopetala, L.—B, R, 8. —— (#)—C. 15. Potentilla fragiformis, Willd. 9, Cardamine bellidifolia, L.—B. | —C, B. Mar. 1900. | 16. vic 18. uae 20. 29. 30. . Cassiope tetragona, L.—A. ORDER—SAXIFRAGACER, Saxifraga cespitosa, L.—R. var, decipiens, Ehrh. —C, B, R. — cernua, L.—C, B. — flagellaris, Willd.—C. hieracifolia, Waldst. et Kit. | —C, B. Hirculus, L.—C. stellaris, L., var. comosa, Poir.—C, R. oppositifolia, L.—C, B, R. —— aizoides, L.—R. — rivularis, L.—B. ios ORDER—ERICACE®. ORDER—SCROPHULARIACE®, . Pedicularis hirsuta, L.—C, B. ORDER—COMPOSIT®. . Erigeron unitlorus, L.—V. ORDER—POLYGONACE®. Polygonum viviparum, L. | Chay Ve Oxyria digyna, Hin.— A, B, V. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH oot 31. Salix polaris, Wahl.—B. ORDER—J UNCACE®. 32. Luzula hyperborea, R.Br.—B, C. 33. —— (?)—B. 34. (Oi 55. Juncus biglumis, L.—C. 36. —— triglumis, L.—R. ORDER—GRAMINER, 37. Poa alpina, L.—4A, V. 38. —— —— L., var. vivipara—R. 39. —— flexuosa, Wahl., var. abbre- viata, Malmer.—R. 40. Festuca rubra, L., var. arenaria, Osb. 41. —— pratensis, Huds., var. vivi- para.—R. 42. Trisetum subspicatum, Beauv. —A, V. 43. Alopecurus alpinus, Sm. —A, C, R. ORDER—SALICINE®. . Phippsia algida, R.Br.—C, B. . Poa Vahliana, Liebm.—B. ORDER—CYPERACE®. . Eriophorum yaginatum, L.—A. APPENDIX. THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. Founded 1836. I—GENERAL VIEWS AND OBJECTS OF THE SOCIETY. THE attention of the Society is turned to the whole range of Botanical Science, together with such parts of other branches of Natural History as are more immediately connected with it. These objects are cultivated :— 1. By holding Meetings for the interchange of botanical information,—for the reading of original papers or translations, abstracts or reviews of botanical works, regarding any branch of botanical knowledge, practical, physiological, geographical, and palzontological,—and the application of such knowledge to Agriculture and the Arts. ‘ 2. By publishing annually Proceedings and Transactions, including a List of Members and Donations. 3. By the formation in Edinburgh of an Herbarium of Foreign and British Plants, and of a Library and Museum for general consultation and reference. 4. By printing from time to time Catalogues of Plants, with the view of facilitating the study of their geographical distribu- tion, and furthering the principle of exchange. 5. By making Botanical Excursions both in the neighbour- hood of Edinburgh and to distant parts of Britain. 6. By appointing Local Secretaries, from amongst the Members of the Society, from whom, in their respective districts, all information. regarding the Society’s objects and proceedings may be obtained. I.—LAWS OF THE SOCIETY. CHAPTER I.—FUNDAMENTAL Laws. 1. The Society shall be denominated ‘‘THE BOTANICAL SocreTY OF EDINBURGH.” 2. The object of the Society shall be the advancement of Botanical Science, by means of periodical meetings, publications. correspondence, and interchange of specimens amongst its Members. 360 APPENDIX 3. The Society shall be open to Ladies and Gentlemen, and shall consist of Honorary, Resident, Non-Resident, and Corre- sponding Member, who shall have the privilege of denominating themselves Fellows of the Society; of Lady Members elected under the rule Chapter IV., Section 6 hereof, and of Associates elected under the rule Chapter IV., Section 5 hereof. CHAPTER II].—OrpINARY MEETINGS. 1. A Meeting of the Society shall be held on the second Thursday of every month, from November to July inclusively. 2. Intimation of all papers to be brought before the Society must be given to the Secretary and submitted to the Council ten days at least previous to the Meeting at which they are to be read. 3. Any Member may transmit to the Society Papers and Communications, which, if approved of by the Council may be read by the author, or, in his absence, by the President or Secretary at any of the Ordinary Meetings. 4. The following order of business shall be observed :— PRIVATE BUSINESS. 1. Chair taken. 2. Minutes of Private Business of preceding Meeting read. 3. Report of Council read. 4. Applications for Admission read. 5.. Members proposed at preceding Meeting balloted for. 6. Motions intimated at previous Meetings discussed. 7. New Motions intimated. 8. Miscellaneous Business. 9. Society adjourned. PUBLIC BUSINESS. 1. Chair taken, 2. Laws signed by New Members. 3. Minutes of Public Business of preceding Meeting read. 4, Papers and Communications for next Meeting announced, 5, Specimens, Books, etc., presented. 6. Communications and Papers read. Society adjourned. CHAPTER IITJ.—ExTRAORDINARY MEETINGS. An Extraordinary Meeting of the Society may be called at any time, by authority of the Council, on the requisition of three or more Resident Fellows. CuapTer TV.—ADMISSION OF MEMBERS, SECTION I.—HONORARY FELLOWS. 1. The Honorary Fellows shall be limited to six British and twenty-five Foreign,—by British, being understood British subjects, whether resident in the British Islands or not. APPENDIX S61 2. The Council shall have the privilege of proposing Honorary Fellows,—the names of the gentlemen proposed being always stated in the Billet calling the Meeting at which they are to be balloted for. The election to be determined by a majority of at least two-thirds of the votes, provided fifteen Fellows are present and vote. 3. Any Fellow may submit to the Council the names of individuals whom he would wish proposed as Honorary Fellows ; and should the Council decline to bring these forward, he may demand that they be balloted for. 4. Honorary Fellows shall be entitled to all the privileges of Resident Fellows, and shall receive copies of the Zransactions free of charge. SECTION II.—RESIDENT FELLOWS. 1. A candidate for admission into the Society, as a Resident Fellow, must present an application, with a recommendation annexed, signed by at least two Resident Fellows. The application shall be read at the proper time during private business, and at the next Ordinary Meeting shall be determined by a majority of at least two-thirds of the votes, provided fifteen Fellows are present and vote. 2. Resident Fellows shall, on admission, sign the Laws, and pay the sum of Fifteen Shillings to the funds of the Society ; and shall contribute Fifteen Shillings annually thereafter at the November Meeting. Resident Fellows are entitled to receive the 7ransactions provided their subscriptions are paid. 3. Resident Fellows may at any time compound for their annual contributions by payment of Six Guineas. They shall be entitled to receive the Transactions yearly as published. 4. Resident Fellows leaving Edinburgh may be enrolled as Non-Resident Fellows, if they have paid by annual subscriptions the sum of Six Guineas, and have also paid any arrears due at their departure. By a further payment of Two Guineas they shall be entitled to receive the 7’ransactions. 5, Fellows who are not in arrear in their subscriptions, and in their payments for the Zransactions, will receive copies of the latter provided they apply for them within two years after publication. Fellows not resident in Edinburgh must apply for their copies either personally, or by an authorized agent, to the Secretary or Treasurer. 6. The Society shall from time to time adopt such measures regarding Fellows in arrears as shall be deemed necessary. SECTION III.—NON-RESIDENT FELLOWS. 1. Any person not residing in Edinburgh may be balloted for as a Non-Resident Fellow, on being recommended by two Fellows of the Society, and paying a contribution of Three Guineas. From such no annual payment is required. 2. Non-Resident Fellows, by payment cf Two Guineas TRANS, BOT. SOC, EDIN, VOL. XXI. 2B 362 APPENDIX additional, shall be entitled to receive the Transactions yearly as published. 3. Non-Resident Fellows wishing to become Resident, must intimate their intention to the Secretary, who shall put them on the Resident list. They shall pay the annual subscriptions of Fifteen Shillings, or Three additional Guineas, or One Guinea if they have compounded for the Transactions. 4. Non-Resident Fellows must arrange with the Assistant- Secretary for the transmission of their copies of the Transactions ; and they are requested to acknowledge receipt. Billets of the Meetings may, if desired, be also obtained. ). Non-Resident Fellows coming to Edinburgh shall, for a period of two months, be entitled to attend the Meetings of the Society, and participate in the other privileges of Resident Fellows ; after which; should they remain longer, they must pay the usual annual subscription of Resident Fellows, unless. they have compounded by payment of Six Guineas. SECTION IV.—CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 1. Any person residing abroad may be balloted for as a Corresponding Member, on the recommendation of the Council. SECTION V.—ASSOCIATES. The Society shall have power to elect by ballot, on the recommendation of the Council, Associates from those who, declining to become Resident or Non-Resident Members, may have acquired a claim on the Society by transmitting specimens or botanical communications. Associates have no vote in elections or in the transaction of the business of the Society, are not entitled to receive copies of the 7’ransactions, and have no interest in the property of the Society. SECTION VI.—LADY MEMBERS. 1. Any Lady, whether Resident or Non-Resident, may become, on the recommendation of the Council, a Member for life on payment of a single contribution of Two Guineas, or may be elected and continue a Member on payment annually of a subscription of Ten Shillings; but Lady Members elected under this rule shall not be entitled to receive copies of the Transactions, shall have no voice in the management of the Society, nor any interest in the property thereof. Note.—Diplomas may be procured by Fellows from the Acting Secretary, the sum payable being Five Shillings, and Two Shillings for a tin case. But no Fellow shall be entitled to receive a Diploma until his contributions have amounted to Three Guineas. Carrer V.—Orrick-BEARERs. The Office-Bearers of the Society may be chosen from the Resident or Non-Resident Fellows, and they shall consist of a President, four Vice-Presidents, ten Councillors, an Honorary Secretary, an Assistant Secretary, a Foreign Secretary, and a APPENDIX. 363 Treasurer, who shall be elected annually at the Ordinary Meeting in November. If a Non-Resident Fellow be elected an Office-Bearer, he must become a Resident Fellow, in con- formity with Section III., Law 3. 2. The Council shall annually prepare a list of Fellows whom they propose to nominate as Office-Bearers for the ensuing year. ‘This list shall be printed and put into the hands of Fellows along with the Billet of the November Meeting; and Fellows shall vote by putting these lists into the ballot-box, with any alterations they may think proper to make. ‘The lists shall not be signed. Every Fellow present at the Meeting is entitled to vote. 3. All the Office-Bearers may be re-elected, except the two senior Vice-Presidents and the three senior Councillors, who shall not be re-eligible to the same offices till after the interval _ of one year. 4. These Office-Bearers shall form the Council for the general direction of the affairs of the Society. Three to be a quorum. 5. The Council shall nominate annually an Auditor and an Artist, to be recommended to the Society. 6. The Council shall appoint annually at the December Meeting five of their number, including the President and Honorary Secretary, to superintend the printing of the tg seers of the Society. . The Council may at any time be called upon by the Hedca: Vice-Presidents, or Secretaries, to meet with them for the transaction of private business. 8. The Council shall hold a Meeting for business on the second Tuesday before each General Meeting. CHaprter VI.—THE PRESIDENT AND VICE-PRESIDENTS. 1. It shall be the duty of the President and Vice-Presidents when in the chair, and of the Chairman in their absence, to conduct the business of the Society according to the order of the business laid down in Chapter II., Law 4, and to attend carefully to the enforcement of the Laws of the Society, and to signing the Minutes. The Chairman shall have a vote and a casting vote. Cuaprer VII.—Tue SECRETARIES. 1. The Honorary Secretary, with the aid of the Assistant- Secretary, shall give intimation of all General and Committee Meetings, shall Minute their proceedings in Books to be kept for the purpose, and shall conduct all the Society’s Correspondence in Britain. He shall also take charge of all Donations of Plants and Books, and shall see them deposited in the Herbarium and Library, in conformity with any arrangements made by the Society with Government. 364 APPENDIX 2. The Foreign Secretary shall have charge of all the Foreign Correspondence, Note.—Agreeably to an Act of the Town Council of the City of Edinburgh, dated January 8, 1839, the Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh is constituted Honorary Curator ex officio, with free access to the Society’s Collection, whether a Member of the Society or not. Cuaprer VIII.—THEe TREASURER AND AUDITOR. 1. The Treasurer, subject to the inspection of the Council, shall receive and disburse all money belonging to the Society, collecting the money when due, and granting the necessary Receipts. His Accounts shall be audited annually by the Auditor appointed by the Society. 2. It shall be the duty of the Treasurer to place all money belonging to the Soviety in one of the Chartered Banks of this City, unless the same shall have been ordered by the Society to be otherwise invested ; and he shall never keep more than Ten ° Pounds of the Funds of the Society in his hands ata time. The Bank Account shall be kept in the name of the Society, and all drafts thereon shall be signed by the Treasurer. 3. The Treasurer shall, at the November Meeting, submit a certified Statement of the Receipts and Expenditure of the past year, with the Auditor’s Report thereon. CHapTerR [X.—VIsITORS. Each Fellow shall have the privilege of admitting one Visitor to the Ordinary Meetings of the Society at the close of the private business. Cuaprer X.—AppiTionaL Law. In the event of any Member acting in such a way as shall seem to the Fellows of the Society to be detrimental to its interests, the Council may recommend that the name of such Member be deleted from the roll. The recommendation shall be brought before the Society at its first Ordinary Meeting. It shall be finally decided at the immediately succeeding Meeting by ballot. If confirmed by a majority of two-thirds of the votes of at least fifteen Fellows, the name of such person shall be deleted from the roll of membership, and all his privileges connected with the Society shall be forfeited. Cuaprer XI.—MAaAkiInG AND ALTERING Laws. Any motion for the alteration of Existing Laws, or the enactment of new ones, shall lie over till the second Ordinary Meeting, and shall then be determined by a majority of at least two-thirds of the votes, provided fifteen Fellows are present and vote. The motion must be intimated to the Council, and shall be printed in the Billet calling the Meeting at which it is to be brought forward, and also in the Billet of the Meeting at which it is to be discussed. ot) (or) Or APPENDIX ROLL OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. Corrected to November 1900, Patron: HER MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY THE QUEEN. HONORARY FELLOWS. Date of Election. April 1863. Dec. 1877. Nov. 1896. Nov. 1888. Jan. 1866. - Mar. 1895. Dec. 1882. Novy. 1896. Jan. 1866. Mar. 1895. May 1891. Dec. 1885. May 1891. Dec. 1892. Dec. 1885. May 1891. His Royat HicHness THE PRINCE or WALES, K.G., K.T., L.D,, Hon. F:R.S. L. & EB. His Masestry Oscar Il. KING or SWEDEN. BRITISH SUBJECTS (imrep To srx). J. G. Baker, F.R.S., F.L.S.. late Keeper of the Herbarium, Royal Gardens, Kew, 3 Cumberland Road, Kew. Dyer, Witt1amM TURNER THISELTON, M.A., LL.D., C.M.G., C.LE., F.R.S., Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. Hooker, Sir JosePpH Darton, M.D., K.C.S.1., C.B., D.C.L, Oxon., LL.D. Cantab., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., The Camp, Sunning- dale, Berks. Kine, Sir Grorgr, M.D., C.1.E., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., c/o Grindlay & Co., 4 Parliament Street, London, S.W.;— Corresponding Member, April 1878. OuiverR, DaAntet, F.R.S., LL.D., F.L.8., 10 Kew Gardens Road, Kew ;—Non-Resident Fellow, Nov. 1851. H. MarsHartt Warp, F.R.S., Professor of Botany, Cambridge. FOREIGN (Limited TO TWENTY-FIVE). AGARDH, JAKOB GrorG, For. F.L.S., Emeritus Professor of Botany, Lund. Bornet, Dr. Ep., Member of the Institute, Paris ;— Corresponding Member, Jume 1879. Cornu, Dr. Max, Director of the Jardins des Plantes, Paris. DELPINO, Dr. FREDERICO, Professor of Botany in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Bologna ;—Corresponding Fellow, Jan. 1873. Eneier, Dr. Apour, For. F.L.8., Professor of Botany in the University, and Director of the Royal Botanic Garden and Museum, Berlin ;—Corresponding Fellow, Jan. 1886. GoEBEL, Dr. K. #., For. F.L.8., Professor of Botany in the Universitu, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Munich. GraAnvD’ Hury, F. C., St. Etienne. Harrie, Dr. Roverr, For. F.L.8., Professor of Forestry in the University, Munich. ; 366 APPENDIX Date of Election. Dec. 1885. HiLtpeBranp, Dr. F., Professor of Botany in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Freiburg t. Br. Dec. 1877. NyiLanpEer, Dr. GuintAuME, For. F.L.8., Paris ;—Corresponding Fellow, Jan. 1865. & Mar, 1895. Prerrer, Dr. WitneLn, Geh. Hofrat, Professor of Botany, and Director of the Royal Botanic Garden, Leipzig ;—Correspond- ing Member, Jan. 1886. Mar, 1895. SarGenr, CHARLES 38., Professor of Arboriculture, and Director of the Arboretum, Harvard ;—Corresponding Member, March 1878. Dec. 1885. SCHWENDENER, Dr. 8., For. F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the University, Berlin. Dec. 1892. Sorims-LAuBACH, GraF. H. zu., For. F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Strasburg. Feb. 1876. SrraspurGer, Dr. Epovuarp, For. F.R.S., For. F.L.8., Professor of Botany in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Bonn ;—Corresponding Fellow, Jan. 1873. Dec. 1885. TreGHEmM, PuiIttirE vAN, Membre de l'Institut, For, F.L.8., eS aad of Botany, Paris ;—Corresponding Fellow, April 877. Mar. 1895. TrEuB, Dr. M., Professor in the School of Agriculture, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Bruitenzorg ;—Corresponding Member, Jan. 1886. Mar. 1895. Vries, Dr. H. pe, Professor of Physiology in the University, Amsterdam. Dec. 1885. Warminc, Dr. Eucenr, For. F.L.8., Professor of Botany in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Copenhagen. RESIDENT AND NON-RESIDENT FELLOWS. No distinguishing mark is placed before the name of Resident Iellows who contribute annually and receive Publications. * Indicates Resident Fellows who have compounded for Annual Contribution and receive Publications. + Indicates Non-Resident Fellows who have compounded for Publications. t Indicates Non-Resident Fellows who do not receive Publications. Date of Election. Jan. 1871. *Aitken, A. P., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., 38 Garscube Terrace; Murrayficld—¥ orvIGN SECRETARY. Novy. 1884. Alexander, J., 11 Alexander Road, Bedford, England. June 1875. *Alison, Rey. G., Kilbarchan, Paisley. April1877. tAllan, Francis J., M.D., 1 Dock Street, London, E. June 1852. tAnderson, John, M.D., F.L.8., 71 Harrington Gardens, London, S.W. Dec. 1866. *Archibald, John, M.D., C.M., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.S.Ed. Hazelden, Wimborne Road, Bournemouth. tArmitage, 8. H., M.D., 39 Grosvenor Street, Grosvenor Square, London, W. Dec. 1888. Bailey, Colonel Fred., R.E., 6 Drwmmond Place. April1887. Bainbridge, A. F., Brunstane, Arboretum Road. May 1872. *Balfour, I. Bayley, Sc.D., M.D., F.R.S., P.L.S8., F.G.8., Queen’s Botanist, Professor of Botany, and Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden, Inverleith House. —HGNORARY CURATOR. Dec. 1863. Barnes, Henry, M.D., F.RS.E., 6 Portland Square, Carlisle. July 1848. *Bayley, George, W.S., 7 Randolph Crescent. eb. 1857. *Bell, John M., W.S8., Hast Morningside House. May 1891. *Berwick, Thomas, 56 North Strect, St. Andrews. April1857.. {Beveridge, James §., L.R.C.P. & 8., Melton Constable, Norfolk. Dec. 1879. *Bird, George, St. Margarct’s, 38 Inverleith Place. June 1850, {Birdwood, Sir George, M.D., India Office. July 1870. *Black, James Gow, Se.D., Professor of Chemistry, University of Otago, New Zealand. May 188%. *Bonnar, William, 8 Spence Street. Jan. 1899. Borthwick, A.W., B.Sc., 11 West Princes Street, Glasgow. Dec. 1850. —I APPENDIX 36 Date of Election. Dec. 1886. Jan. 1871, Feb. 1870. Feb. 1837. April 1857. June 1840. Dec. 1890, Nov. 1882, Mar. 1850. June 1893. Dec. 1864. Dec. 1878. April 1855, Feb. 1882. Dec. 1858. Feb. 1848. Mar. 1893. April 1848. June 1873. . Dec. 1854. Dec. 1856. July 1896. April 1850. Dec. 1868. April 1865. Mar. 1900. Feb. 1870. Dec. 1860. July 1897. Feb. 1874. Noy. 1881. July 1871. Feb. 1863. April 1862, Dec. 1892. Mar. 1841. Jan. 1869. June 1848. Jan. 1894. July 1869. Dec. 1859, June 1851. Dec. 1865. Feb. 1871. Dec. 1869. *Bower, F. O., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany, University of Glasgow, 1 St. John’s Terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. *Boyd, W. B., of Faldonside, Melrose. Bramwell, John M., M.B., C.M., 2 Henrietta Street, Cavendish Square, London. {Branfoot, J. H., M.D., West Indies. tBrown, George H. W., Victoria, Vancouver Island. tBrown, Isaac, Brantholme, Kendal. Brown, Richard, C.A., 23 St. Andrew Square.— TREASURER. Brown, William, Zarlsmill, Darnaway, Forres. tBrown, William, M.D., Cape of Good Hope. Bryden, Mrs. J. M., Linksfield, Aberlady. Buchan, Alexander, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scot. Met. Soc., 42 Heriot Row. *Buchanan, James, Oswald House, Oswald Road. tBurnett, Charles John, Aberdeen. Caird, Francis M., M.B., C.M., F.R.C.S.Ed., 13 Charlotte Square. 7Carruthers, William, F.R.S., F.L.S., Central House, Central Hill, London, S.E. Christison, Sir Alexander, Bart., M.D., 40 Moray Place. Christison, Lady, 40 Moray Place. Christison, David, M.D., 20 Magdala Crescent. *Clark, T. Bennet, Vew Mills House, Balerno. tClay, Robert H., M.D., 4 Windsor Villas, Plymouth. 7Cleland, John, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy, University of Glasgow. Coldstream, Wm., B.A., B.Sc., c/o Messrs. Coutts & Co., 59 Strand, London ;—Non-Resident Member, May 1861. tCollingwood, Cuthbert, M.A., M.B., F.L.S., M.R.C.P., 69 Great Russell Street, London, W.C. ; qCollins, James, Lambs Conduit Street, Holborn, London, W.C. q7Cooke, M. C., M.A., LL.D., 53 Castle Road, Kentish Town, London. Cowan, Alexander, Woodslee, Penicuik Cowan, Charles W., Valleyfield, Penicuik. *Craig, Wm., M.D., C.M., F.R.C.S.Ed, F.R.S.E., 71 Bruntsfield Place. *Crawford, F. C., 19 Royal Terrace. Crawford, William Caldwell, 1 Lockharton Gardens, Slateford. Croom, J, Halliday, M.D., F.R.C.S.Ed., F.R.C.P.Ed., 25 Charlotte Square. *Davies, Arthur E., Ph.D., F.L.S., Tweed Bank, West Savile Road. {Dawe, Thos. Courts, St. Thomas, Launceston. tDawson, John, Witchhill Cottage, Kinnoul, Perth. Day, T. Cuthbert, 36 Hillside Crescent. tDennistoun, John, Greenock. {Dickinson, EB. H., M.D , M.A., 47 Rodney Street, Liverpool. {Dobie, W. M., M.D., Chester. *Dowell, Mrs. A., 13 Palmerston Place. *Drummond, W. P., 49 Trinity Road. tDuckworth, Sir Dyce, M.D., 11 Grafton Street, Piccadilly, London, W. tDuff, Alex. Groves, M.D., New Zealand. *Duncanson, J. J. Kirk, M.D., C.M., F.R.S.E., 22 Drumsheugh Gardens. tDupuis, Nathan Fellowes, M.A., Professor of Mathematics, ° Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada. tDuthie, J. F., B.A., F.L.S., Director, Botanical Department, Northern India, Saharunpore, N.-W.P., India. Elliot, G. F. Scott, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.8., Cedar Hall, Kilmalcolm, Vers: *Evans, Arthur H., M.A., 9 Harvey Road, Cambridge. Ewart, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural History, University. 7Farquharson, Rey. James, D.D., 47 Mardale Crescent. tFayrer, Sir Joseph, M.D., K.C.S.L, F.R.SS. L. & E., 16 Devon- shire Street, Portland Place, London, W. 368 APPENDIX Date of Election. Feb. 1894. April 1887, June 1838. Noy. 1861. July 1885. July 1860. Feb. 1873. June 1874. June 1836. July 1872. Dec. 1865. Dec. 1855. Mar. 1862. April 1848, Mar. 1871. Jan. 1866. Jan. 1881. May 1874. Feb. 1895. Jan. 1887. Jan. 1889. Dec. 1895. Feb. 1879. Feb. 1839. Dec. 1868. April 1862. May 1887, June 1862. Dec. 1860. Noy. 1894. Dec. 1847. April 1886. Dee. 1854. May 1867. Feb. 1878. Nov. 1884. Dec. 1863. Nov. 1873. Jan. 1860. June 1893. Jan. 1851. Dec. 1847. Feb. 1891. May 1877. Aprii 1858. Nov. 1869. Nov. 1877. Mar. 1841. Jan. 1854, Jan. 1874, Feb. 1888. Feb, 1878. April 183. Mar. 1874. Ferguson, R. C. Munro, M.P., of Raith and Novar, Kirkcaldy +Fingland, James, Thornhill, Dumfries. Fleming, Andrew, M.D., F.&.S.E., 3 Wapier Road. +Foggo, R. G., Kaimes Road, Murrayfield. Foulis, James, M.D., F.R.C.P.Ed., 34 Heriot Row. +Fox, Charles H., M.D., 35 Heriot Row. *France, Charles S., Aberdeen. Fraser, Rey. James, M.A., D.D., The Manse, Colvend, Dalbeattie. tFraser, James A., M.D., Cape Town. *Fraser, John, M.D., 19 Strathearn Road. +Fraser, John, M.A., M.D., Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton. *Fraser, Patrick Neill, Rockville, Murrayfield. Fraser, Thomas R., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Materia Medica, 13 Drumsheugh Gardens. tFrench, J. B., Australia. *Gamble, James Sykes, M.A., F.L.S., High Field, East Liss, Hants. *Gayner, Charles, M.D., F.R.S.E., Oxford. Geddes, Patrick, F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany, University College, Dundce, 14 Ramsay Gardens. {Geikie, Sir Archibald, LL.D., P.R.SS. L. & E., Director-General, H.M. Geological Survey, 4 Jermyn Street, London. Gibb, W. Oliphant, 21 Royal Terrace. *Gibson, A. H., 5 Crawfurd Road. *Grieve, James, Redbraes Nurseries. *Grieve, Sommerville, 21 Queen’s Crescent. *Grieve, Symington, 11 Lauder Road. tHamilton, John Buchanan. of Leny and Bardovie. Hardie, Thomas, M.D., F.R.C.P.Ed., 10 John’s Place, Leith. tHay, G. W. R., M.D., Bombay Army. Hay, Henry, M.D., 7 Brandon Strect. tHaynes, Stanley, Lewis, M.D., F.R.S., Medhurst, Malvern, Worcestershire. +Hector, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.SS. L. & E., F.L.8., Wellington, New Zealand. ; Hepburn, Sir A. Buchan, Bart., Smeaton Hepburn, Prestonkirk. +Hewetson, Henry, West Park House, Falsgrave, Scarborough. Hill, J. R., Seeretary, Pharmaceutical Society, York Place. tHill, W. R., M.D., J.P., Lymington, Hants. *Hog, Thomas Alex., of Newliston, Kirkliston. 7tHolmes, E. M., F.L.S., F.R.H.S., Curator of Museum, Phar. Soc. of Great Britain, Ruthven, Sevenoaks, Kent. +Holt, G. A., 8 Stonewall Terrace, Cheetham Hill, Manchester. tHossack, B. H., Craigiefield, Kirkwall. tHume, Thomas, M.B., C.M., Madras. tHunter, Rey. Robert, M.A., LL.D., F.G.8., Forest Retreat, Staples Road, Loughton, Essex. Hunter, Robert James, 24 Craigmillar Park. tHutchinson, Robert F., M.D., Bengal. tlvory, Francis J., Australia. tJamieson, Thomas, Lecturer on Agriculture, University, Aberdeen. *Johnston, Henry Halcro, B.Sc., M.D., C.M., F.L.8., Swrgeon- Major, Army Medical Staf', Orphir House, Kirkwall. tJohnston, John Wilson, M.D., F.R.S.E.. Surgeon Lieut.-Colonel, Benmore, 30 Bidston Road, Oxton, Cheshire. {Kannemeyer, Daniel R., L.R.C.S.E., Burghersdrop, Cape Colony. Kerr, John Graham, Christ's College, Cambridge. tKerr, Robert, Greenock. ; tKirk, Sir John, K.C.B., M.D., F.R.S., F.L:S., late British Consul, Zanzibar, Wavertree, Sevenoaks, Kent. *Kirk, Robert, M.D., C.M., F.R.C.S. Ed., Bathgate. tLearmonth, W., Fleetvicw, Gatehouse of Fleet. {Lennox, David, M.D., F.C.S., 144 Methergate, Dundee. | Lindsay, Robert, Kaimes Lodge, Murrayfield ;—Associate, July 1879. tLister, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.SS. L. & E., late Professor of Clinical Surgery, 12 Park Crescent, Portland Place, London, NeW APPENDIX 369 Date of Election. Jan. 1869. fLivesay, William, M.B., C.M., Sudbury, Derby. June 1889. *Loudon, William, 14 Belgrave Crescent. Feb. 1863. tLlowe, George May, M.D., C.M., F.R.C.P., Lincoln. Dec. 1890. Lowson, J. Melvin, M.A., B.Sc., University Tutorial College, 32 Red Lion Square, London, W.C. Jan. 1855. *Macadam, Stevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., Surgeon’s Hall. May 1881. Macadam, Col. W. Ivison, F.C.S., F.I.C., F.R.S.E., Lecturer on Chemistry, Surgeon's Hall. Jan. 1895. Macdougall, R. Stewart, M.A., D.Se., 13 Archibald Place. Jan. 1881. +Macfarlane, John M., Se.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany, University of Philadelphia, U.S.A. Feb. 1886. M‘Glashen, D., 5 Corrennie Gardens. Feb. 1863. {Macgregor, Rey. Patrick, M.A., Ph.D., Logie-Almond Manse, Perthshire. June) 1880. *M‘Intosh; W. C., M.D., LL.D. F-RSS. L. &-E:, F.GL-S., Professor of Natural History, St. Andrews. Jan. 1889. Mackenzie, A., Warriston Nurseries. May 1862. {tMackenzie, Stephen C., M.D., Professor of Hygiene, Calcutta. April 1880. {M‘Laren, John, jun., 15 Mill Street, Perth. June 1850. M‘Laren, Hon. Lord, 46 Moray Place. Feb. 1882. M‘Murtrie, Rey. John, M.A., D.D., 5 Inverleith Place. June 1897. {Macvicar, Symers M., Invermoidart, Acharacle, Fort-William. Dec. 1896. Mahalanobis, 8. C., B.Sc., University College, Cardiff. Dec, 1872. Maw, George, F.L.S.. F.G.S8., Benthall, Kenley, Surrey. Noy. 1849, {Melville, A. G., Emeritus Professor of Nat. Hist., Galway. April1837. tMelville, Henry Reed, M.D,, St. Vincent. Feb. 1890. *Millar, R. C., C.A., 8 Broughton Place. Mar. 1883. Milne, Alex., 32 Hanover Street. Nov. 1875. *Milne, John Kolbe, Kevock Tower, Lasswade. May 1874. Mitchell, Rev. Dr., The Manse, Hermitage Place, Leith. Jan, 1894. {Mooney, Dr. J. J., 236 Brunswick Street, Manchester. Dec. 1888. Morris, Rev. A. B., F.L.S., 18 Hildon Street. Jan. 1899. Morton, Alex., B.Sc., 17 Lutton Place. July 1878. +Muirhead, George, F.R.S.E., Gordon Estates Office, Fochabers. Dec. 1889. Murray, J. Russel, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad. Noy. 1848. {Nevins, John Birkbeck,M.D., 32 Princes Avenue, Liverpool. Dec. 1878. *Norman, Commander Francis M., R.N., Cheviot House, Berwick- on- Tweed. May 1873. Ogilvie, William M‘Dougall, Royal Bank, Lochee, Dundee. Mar. 1898. Orrock, Miss Robina, 7 Spence Street. Feb. 1863. *Panton, George A., F.R.S.E., 73 Westfield Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. Mar. 1880. +Paton, James, F.L.S., Industrial Museum, Kelvingrove, Glasgow. April 1883. *Paul, Rey. David, M.A., LL.D., Carridale, Fountainhall Road. Noy. 1839. Paul, James, M.D., Jamaica. July 1889. *Paxton, W., Orchardton, Fountainhall Road. Nov. 1840. +tPerry, William Groves, Australia. Mar. 1874. +Pettigrew, J. B., M.D., LL.D.; F.R.SS. L. and E., Professor of Medicine, St. Andrews. April 1887. Peyton, Rev. W. W. Jan. 1838. +Pires, D’Albuquerque, Le Chevalier, Brazil. Dec. 1874. {Playfair, D. 1’., M.D., C.M., Redwood House, Bromley, Kent. May 1883. {Playfair, Rev. Patrick M., St. Andrews. July 1836. {Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A., Middleton Tyas Vicarage, Richmond, Yorkshire. April 1877. {Porteous, George M., Firknowe, Juniper Green. July 1871. Post, G. E., M.D., Beyrout. Noy. 1873. *Potts, George H., of Fettes Mount, Lasswade. June 1891. fPrain, David, M.D., F.L.S., F.R.S.E., Royal Botanic Carden, Orig. Memb. June 1893. 1858. 1884. 1878. April 1877. Dec. July Jan. Calcutta. tPrior, R. C. Alexander, M.D., F.L.8., 48 York Terrace, Regent's Park, London, and Halse House, Taunton. {Pullar, Sir Robert, J.P., F.R.S.E., Tayside, Perth. tRamsbotham, S. H., M.D., Leeds. *Rattray, John, M.A., B.Se., F.R.S.E., Dunkeld. Reid, Jas. R., C.M.G., 11 Magdala Crescent. tRiddell, William R., B.A., B.Se., 109 St. George's Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. APPENDIX Date of Election. Dee. Dec. June Dec. July Mar. 1869. 1890. 1898. 1864. 1882. 1869. April 1881. Dec. Dee. Dec. May Dec. Jan. Nov. Feb. Feb. Jan. July Dec. June Nov. July Feb. Jan. Feb. Dec. July Dec. Dec. 1840. 1887. 1891. 1836. 1869. 1851. 1836. 1891. 1886. 1890. 1853. 1854. 1874. 1885. 1867. 1841. 1837. 1871. 1892. 1884. 1869, 1887, April 1846 May Dee. July Dee. Dec. Jan. July May Mar. Dec. Jan. Jan. April 1877., Dec. Dec, 1888. 1888, LX&6. 1893. 1861. 1856. 1884. 1885. 1893. 1890. 1873. 1863 1878. 1878. 1881, L854. *Robertson, A. Milne, M.B., C.M., Gonville House, Roehampton Park, London, S. W. Robertson, Robert A., M.A., B.Se., Lectwrer on Botany, St. Andrews, Rattray, Perthshire. Russell, Dr., Cadham, Markinch. 7Rylands, Thomas Glazebrook, F.L.S., Highfields, Thelwall, near Warrington. *Sanderson, William, F.R.S.E., Talbot House, Ferry Road. *Scot-Skirving, Robert, of Camptown, 29 Drummond Place. {Scott, Daniel, Wood Manager, Darnaway Castle, Forres. tScott, John, Greenock. Scott. J. S., L.S.A., 69 Clowes Street, West Gorton, Manchester. *Semple, Andrew, M.D., F.R.C.S.Ed., Deputy Surgeon-General, 10 Forres Street. tShapter, Thomas, M.D., LL.D., Forrest Row, Sussex. tShaw, John Edward, M.B., 23 Caledonian Place, Clifton, Bristol. *Sibbald, Sir John, M.D., F.R.S.E., 18 Great King Street. tSidney, M. J. F., Cowpen, Morpeth. *Smith, J. Pentland, M.A., B.Sc., 21 Oakshaw, Paisley. 7Somerville, Alexander, B.Sc., F.L.8., 4 Bute Mansions, Hillhead, Glasgow. *Somerville, William, c.D., B.Se., F.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture, Cambridge. tSouthwell, Thomas, F.Z.5., Harlham Road, Norwich. {Spasshatt, Samuel P., M.D., Armidale, New South Wales. Sprague, Thomas Bond, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., 29 Buckingham Terrace. +Stabler, George, Levens, Milnthorpe, Westmoreland. Steel, Gavin, of Carphin, Lanarkshire. tSteele, Robert, Greenock. +Stevens, Rey. Charles Abbott, M.A., Port Slade Vicarage. Shoreham, Sussex. {Stewart, Samuel A., The Museum, College Square North, Belfast. Stewart, Robert, 8.S8.C., 7 East Claremont Street. Stuart, Charles, M.D., Chirnside. Syme, David, 1 George IV. Bridge, Terras, J. A., B.Sc., 40 Findhorn Place. —ASssISTANT SECRETARY. tTownsend, F., M.A., F.L.8., Mem. Bot. Soc. Fr., Honington Hall, Shipston-on-Stour. *Trail, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.L.8., Professor of Botany, Aberdeen. Turnbull, Robert, B.Sc., Newton Cottage, Morton Strect, Joppa. tWaddell, Alexander, of Palace, Jedburgn. Waite, Percival C., 13 Nile Grove. *Walker, Arthur A., Chislehurst, Putney Common, London, S. W. tWalker, V. E., Arno’s Grove, Southgate, Middlesex. Watson, William, M.D., Waverley House, Slateford. { Webster, A. D., Holwood Park, Keston, Beckenham. 7+Wilkinson, W. H., F.L.8., F.R.M.S8., Marchmont, Wylde Green, Birmingham. *Wilson, John H., D.Sc., F.RS.E., Greenside Place, St. Andrews;— Associate, Nov. 1886. t+Wright, R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Se., Professor of Natural History, University, Toronto. tYellowlees, David, M.D., LL.D., Gartnavel Asylum, Glasgow. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. Areschoug, Dr. FP. W. C., Professor of Botany in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Lund. Ascherson, Dr. P., Royal Herbarium, Berlin. Blytt, Axel, Professor of Botany in the University, and Conservator of the Botanical Museum, Christiania. Bohnensieg, Dr. G. C. W., Conservator of the Library of the Museum Leyler, Haarlem. Brandis, Sir Dietrich, Ph.D., F.L.8., a-Inspector-General of Indian Forests, Professor of Forestry in the University, Bonn. APPENDIX By pl Date of Election, Mar, Mar. Jan. July July May Dee. Jan. Mar. Feb. Mar. Jan. 1895. 1881. 1866. 1879. 1879. 1865. 1868. 1878. 1895. 1895. 1895. 1878. April 1844. Mar. Jan. Dec. Feb. May 1895. 1886. 1887. 1876. 1891. April 1887. Jan. July Mar. Jan, Jan. Jan. _ dan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Dec. Mar. Dee. Feb. Mar. Dee. 1886. 1853. 1878. 1886. 1886. 1886. Brefeld, Dr. O., Professor of Botany in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Munster. Caminhoda, Dr. Joaquim Monterio, Professor of Botany and Zoology, Rio Janeiro. Candolle, Casimir de, Geneva. Cheeseman, T. F., F.L.S., F.Z.S., Curator of the Museum, Auck- land, New Zealand. Cleave, Rev. W. 0., LL.D., College House, St. Helier, Jersey. Clos, Dominique, M.D., Corresp. de l'Institut, Professor of Botany in the Faculty of Sciences, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Toulouse. Crépin, Francois, Director of the Royal Botanie Garden, Brussels. Eeden, F. W. Van, Director of the Colonial Museum, Haarlem. Elving, Dr. F., Privat-Docent der Universitat, Helsinfors. Errera, Leo, Professor of Botany in the University, Brussels. Franchet, A., Attaché a@ lV Herbier Museum d'Histoire Natwrelle, Paris. Garcke, Dr. A., Professor of Botany in the University, and First Assistant in the Royal Botanic Museum, Berlin. Gottsche, Dr. K. M., Altona, Schleswig-Holstein. Guignard, L., Professor of Botany, Paris; President of the Botanical Society of France. Haberlandt, Dr. G., Professor of Botany in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Graz. Hansen, Dr. E. C., Director of the Physiological Department of the Carlsberg Laboratory, Copenhagen. Heldreich, Dr. Theodore de, Director of the Botanic Garden, Athens. Henry, Augustine, M.D., Imperial Customs Service, China. Horne, John, F.L.S., Ex-Director of the Royal Botanic Garden, Mauritius, Sea Braes, St. Clements, Jersey. Janczewski, Dr, Ed. Ritter von, Professor of Plant Anatomy and Physiology in the University, Cracow. Jolis, Dr. Auguste le, Cherbourg. Juranyi, Dr, L., Professor of Botany in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Buda Pest, Hungary. Kerner, Dr. Anton J. Ritter von Merilaun, Professor of Botany in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Vienna. Leichtlin, Max, Baden-Baden. Luerssen, Dr. Ch., Professor of Botany in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Kinigsberg. Millardet, A., Professor of Botany in the Faculty of Sciences, Bordeaux. Moore, Charles, F.L.S., Director of the Botanic Garden, Sydney, New South Wales. Naudin, Dr. C., For. F.L.S., Membre de l'Institut, Director of the Laboratory, Villa Thuret, Antibes. Nyman, Charles Frider, Stockholm Oudemans, Dr. C, A. J. A., Professor of Botany in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Amsterdam. Phillipi, Dr. R. A., Professor of Botany in the University of Santiago, Chili. Radlkofer, Dr. L., Professor of Botany in the University, Munich. Rodrigues, Joas Barboza, Director of the Botanic Garden, Rio Janeiro. Rostan, Dr. Edouard, San Germano di Pinerolo, Piedmont. Sodiro, Luis, Professor of Botany in the University, Quito, Ecuador. Stahl, Dr. E., Professor of Botany in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Jena. Sully, W. C., Cape Town. Suringar, W. F. R., Professor of Botany, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Leyden. Terracciano, Dr. Nicolao, Director of the Royal Gardens, Caserta, near Naples. Tyson, W., Forest Department, Cape Town. Vochting, Dr. H., Professor of Botany in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Tiibingen. Wildpret, H., Director of the Botanic Garden, Orotava. 372 APPENDIX Date of Election. Dec. 1870. Willkomm, Dr. Maurice, Professor of Botany and Director of the Botanic Garden, Prague, Bohemia. ASSOCIATES. Dec. 1861. Bell, William, Mew Zealand. Mar. 1886. Bennett, A., F.L.S., 107 High Street, Croydon. Mar. 1848. Boyle, David, Boxhill Post Otiice, Nunwading, South Bourk, Melbourne. Feb. 1876. Campbell, A., 62 Marchmont Road, Edinburgh. Feb. 1871. Evans, William, 184 Morningside Park. Dec. 1885. Greig, James, Woodville, Dollar. April1847. Laing, J., Seed Merchant, Foresthill, London. Mar. 1886. Landsborough, Rey. D., Kilmarnock. June 1891. M‘Andrew, James, New Galloway, Kirkcudbrightshire. Feb. 1890. M‘Intosh, Charles, Dunkeld. Dec. 1868. Munro, Robertson, Glasgow. July 1898, Pantling, Mr., Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta. Dec. 1883. Richardson, Adam D., Royal Botanic Garden. May 1868, Shaw, William, Gunsgreen, Eyemouth. LADY ASSOCIATE. Novy. 1886. Ormerod, Miss 8, A., LL.D., Dunster Lodge, Isleworth. LADY MEMBERS. June 1893, Aitken, Mrs. A. P., 38 Garscube Terrace, Murrayfield. April 1893. Balfour, Mrs. Bayley, Inverleith House. Jan. 1894. Madden, Miss Elizabeth, 15 Strathearn Place. Jan. 1894. Pearson, Miss C. C., 27 Royal Terrace. June 1893. Sanderson, Mrs. W., Valbot House, Ferry Road. THE SOCIETY EXCHANGES PUBLICATIONS WITH— AMERICA. CANADA. Halifaz, . . Department of Agriculture. Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science. Montreal, . . Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada. Natural History Society. Toronto, . . Canadian Institute. Costa Rica. San Jose, . . Istituto Nacional. UNITED STATES. Ames, lowa, . Agricultural College. Auburn, Ala., . Agricultural and Mechanical College. Austin, Texas, Agricultural and Mechanical College. Boston, Mass., Society of Natural History. Massachusetts Horticultural Society. CE Harvard University. Mass., § Chicago, Ill., . University of Chicago. APPENDIX Cincinnati, Lowa Colorado Springs, Colo., \ Colorado College. Davenport,. . Academy of Natural Sciences. Ithaca, N.Y., . Cornell University. Lancaster, Pa., Franklin and Marshall College. Manhattan, x . : eas: State Agricultural College. aha aa | Geological and Botanical Survey of Minnesota. a "5 } Society of Natural History. Mississippi, . Agricultural College. New Bruns- Bae f . ae } Agricuttural College. New Haven, Arts and Sciences. Gon. \ Academy of Arts and Scie New York,. . American Museum of Natural History. Columbia College. New York Academy of Sciences. Torrey Botanical Club. Philadelphia, . Academy of Natural Sciences. University of Pennsylvania. Rochester, N.Y., Rochester Academy of Sciences. St. Louis, Missouri, Sacramento, Calif., ae \ California Academy of Sciences. Topeka, Kansas, Academy of Science. Trenton, N.J., Natural History Society. Washington, . United States Geological Survey. Smithsonian Institution. Botanic Garden. | University of California. Oo =~ United States Department of Agriculture—Division of Botany; Division of Entomology; Division of Forestry ; Division of Microscopy; Division of Pomology ; Division of Vegetable Pathology : Office of Experiment Stations. SoutH AMERICA. Monte Video, . Museo Nacional de Monte Video. WEST INDIES. Jamaica, . . Botanical Department. Trinidad, . . Royal Botanic Garden. AFRICA. Cape Colony, . Botanical Department. Natal, . . . Botanic Garden. ASIA. Calcutta, . . Botanic Garden. Straits : ere en is,¢ Gardens and Forest Department. Sydney, . Wellington, Brisbane, Hobart, . Melbourne, . Cracow, . Graz, Vienna, . Brussels, . Ghent, . Copenhagen, Amiens, . Cherbourg, . Lille, Lyons, : Marseille, . Paris, Toulouse, . Berlin, Bonn, APPENDIX AUSTRALASIA. New SourH WAtgs. Botanical Department. Royal Society of New South Wales. NEW ZEALAND. Colonial Museum and Geological Survey. New Zealand Institute. QUEENSLAND. Royal Society of Queensland. Department of Agriculture, Brisbane. TASMANIA. Royal Society of Tasmania. ‘ VICTORIA. Botanical Department. Royal Society of Victoria. EUROPE. AUSTRIA. Academia Umiejetnosci. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Steiermark. Kaiserlich-Konigliches Naturhistorisches Hofmuseum. Kaiserlich-Konigliche zoologisch-botanische Gessell- schaft. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verien der Universitit. BELGIUM. Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux-Arts de Belgique. Federation des Sociétés d’Horticulture de Belgique. Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique. Editor of Botanische Jaarbock. DENMARK. Botaniske Forening. FRANCE. Société Linnéenne du Nord de la France. Société Nationale des Sciences Naturelles et. Mathe- matiques. Institut Colonial de Marseille. Société Botanique. Faculté des Sciences de Marseille. Société Botanique de France. Société Linnéenne de Paris. Société Frangaise de Botanique. GERMANY, Botanischer Verein fiir die Provinz Brandenburg und die angrenzenden Liinder. . Naturhistorischer Verein der preussischen Rheinlande, Westfalens, und der Regierung-Bezirks Osnabruck. Niederrheinische Gesellschaft fiir Natur-und Heilkunde. Braunschweig, . Bremen, . Breslau, . Erlangen, Frankfort-am- \ Oder, § Giessen, . Halle, Kiel, . KGnigsberg, Miunich, . Strasburg Alnwick, Belfast, . Bristol, Dublin, . Dumfries, Edinburgh, . Glasgow, Hertford, Leeds, London. . Manchester, Buckhurst Hill, . Royal Dublin Society. . Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History Or APPENDIX Verein fiir Naturwissenschaft. . Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein. . Schlesische Gesellschaft fiir vaterlandische Cultur. . Physikalisch-medicinische Societit. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein des Regierungsbezirks. . Oberhessische Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heilkunde. . Kaiserliche leopoldino-carolinische deutsche Akademie der Naturtorscher. . Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Schleswig-Holstein. . Physikalisch-oekonomische Gesellschaft. . Baierische Gesellschaft. . University Library. GREAT BrirAIN AND IRELAND. . Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club. . Natural History and Philosophical Society. Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club. Bristol Naturalists’ Society. Essex Field Club. and Antiquarian Society. . Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society. Royal College of Physicians. . Edinburgh Geological Society. Royal Society of Edinburgh. Royal Physical Society. Royal Scottish Geographical Society. Royal Scottish Society of Arts. . Natural History Society. Philosophical Society. . Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club. . Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union. . Editor of Gardeners’ Chronicle. Linnean Society. Editor of Nature. Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. Quekett Microscopical Club. Royal Gardens, Kew. The Royal Society. Royal Horticultural Society. Royal Microscopical Society. . Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durhain, Panne. , i and Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and the Tyneside ag IE, | Naturalists’ Field Club. Norwich, . Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society. Perth, . Perthshire Society of Natural Science. Plymouth, . Plymouth Institution. HOLLAND, Amsterdam, . Koninklijke Akademie van Wettenschappen. Haarlem, . Musée Teyler. Nederlandische Maatschappij ter Bevordering van Luxembourg, Nijverheid. . Société Botanique du Grand-duché de Luxembourg. 376 FLOMe nS Be Lisbon, . . .- Helsingfors, . Tey, es Moscow, . . St. Petersburg, Lund, yeorte os . Kongl. Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien. Stockholm, Opsala,. . Beyne, ~*~. -..- 3 Geneva, . APPENDIX ITALY . Reale Istituto Botanico. PORTUGAL. Academia real das Sciencies. Russa. Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica. Société des Naturalistes. Société impériale des Naturalistes. Hortus botanicus imperialis. SCANDINAVIA. Universitas Lundensis. Sveriges Offentliga Bibliotek. Societas Regia Scientiarum. SWITZERLAND. Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Herbier Boissier. TIN DH Accessions to Society, 1895-96, iii. Accounts of Society, 1895-96, 1896-97, 1897-98, 1898-99, v., xi., Xix., XXxX1. MHeidium Urtice exhibited, vii. Agaricus melleus exhibited, xxxiv. Aitchison, Dr. J. H. T., Death of, Sexe Obituary Notice of, 224. Aitken, Dr. A. P. Presidential Address, | 1896, 1. | Presidential Address, 1897, 65. — Nitrogenous Food of Plants, 1. Relation between the Colour of Daffodils and the Composition of the Soil, 113. Exhibits Abormal Apple, iv. Symbiosis, 65. Allman, Dr. J. C., Death of, xx. Alpine Botanical Club, Scottish, Ex- cursion to Clova, 1896, 40. to Killin, 1897, 104. to Kirkby Lonsdale, 1899, 270. Anacharis alsinastrum exhibited, xx. Andromeda hypnoides exhibired, Xxxiii. Andromeda polifolia, Notes on, 144. Additional Notes on, 258. Toxie Properties of, 258. Apodya lactea, Cornu, 109. Arran, Carex limosa from, exhibited, XXxii. Pyrus Aria and its Varieties in, 56. Arrow Poisons exhibited, xxi. Artemisia stelleriana, Boss., in Scot- land, 307. Ascoidea rubescens, Bref., in Scotland, | TE Astragalus alpinus, var. albus, 117. Bacteria of the Soil, 25. Bainbridge, A. F. Elected Res. Fellow, vi. Baker, J. G. Elected Brit. Hon. | Fellow, ii- Bailey, Colonel F., Exhibitions by, ii. Barentz Sea, Plants from Hope Island | in, 166. Bell, J. Montgomerie. Notes ona Visit to the Dovrefjeld, Norway, 281. Betulin, Preparations of, exhibited, XXxxii. Bipalium Kewense exhibited, vi. Birch Bark, Preparations of hibited, xxxii. Black, W. G., exhibits Photographs, XXXY. Boraginew, Microphotographs of, ex- hibited, xxxy. 3) [6X )) TRANS, BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXI. | Cabbage, Borthwick, A. W. Elected Res. Fellow, xxi. On Interfoliar Buds in Pines, 154. On Quadrifoliar Spurs in Pinus Laricio, 150. On Witches’ Brooms on Pinus Sylvestris, 196. Bostrichus dispar, Acer attacked by, exhibited, vii. Botanic Garden, Notes from (Title only), iv., vi.. vii., Vill. Boyd, W., exhibits Poa Swecica, xxv- Buchan-Hepburn, Sir Alex., exhibits Oncidium Phymatocheilum, viii. Skeleton of Stem hibited, vii. Caffeine, Preparations of, exhibited, XXXIV. Callidium bajulum, Wood damaged by, exhibited, vii. j Campbell, J., Exhibitions by, iii. —— Death of, vii. Carex limosa exhibited, xxxii. Carex Megalanica exhibited, xxxii. Carices, Microphotographs of, ex- hibited, xxxv, Cedrus Atlantica, A deciduous (Title only), XXxXv. Clova, [Excursion of Scottish Alpine Botanical Club to, 40. Comparison of Plants with Animals (Title only), xii. Coniferous. Trees, of Girth of, 87. Cordyceps Militaris exhibited, xiii. Cossus ligniperda, Poplar attacked by, exhibited, xxxiv. Cowan, Alex. Elected Res Fellow, XXXIV. Cowslip and Primrose Hybrids ex- hibited, vii. Craig, Dr. Wm. Excursion of Scottish Alpine Botanical Club to Clova, 40. Hxcursion of Scottish Alpine Botanical Club to Killin, 104. Excursion of Scottish Alpine Botanical Club to Kirkby Lonsdale, 270. Crawford, F.C. Elected Res. Fellow, viii. ex- Measurement Signs Laws of the Society, xii. Exhibits Carex limosa, XxXxil. Exhibits Microphotographs of Stems, xxxvy. Exhibits Plants from Kirkby Lonsdale, xxxiii. Exhibits Primula farinosa, Xx. 2C or 378 INDEX Crinum Macowani, Baker, 211, Herbarium of Alpine Plants ex- Croall, A., Alpine Plants collected by, | hibited, xiv. exhibited, xiv. Hierochloe borealis, from Kirkeud- Cuscuta Epithymum exhibited, xv. Daffodils, Colour of, with relation to | Composition of the Soil, 113. Development of Sporophyte, 298. Diatoms presented, li. Dovrefjeld, Notes on a Visit to, 281. Drosera Plasma in (Title only), xxii, Druce, G. Claridge. Artemisia steller- tana, 307. Dunn, Malcolm, Xxxiii. Obituary Notice of, 220. Elder growing on an Apple (Title only), XXXv. Election of Officers, 1896-97, 1897-98, 1898-99, 1899-1900, i., ix., xvii, D.O.ab < : Elliott, Robert, Death of, ili. Engadine, Upper, Botanical Notes on, 198. Ericacez, Toxic Properties of, 258. Eucalyptus citriodora exhibited, XXXVI. jicifolia exhibited, xxxvi. sp. exhibited, xxxvi. Euphorbia Myrsinites exhibited, xxv. Flora of West Inverness, Notes on the, 173. Forfarshire, Pyrola unitlora in, viii. Fossil Woods, Histology of, 50, 191. Fungi, Drawings of, exhibited, xxiv. Fungi, Metliod of Mounting, 159. Fusion of Nuclei among Plants, 132, Geaster, Species exhibited, xxxiii Gentiana nivalis, L., in Sutherland, 217. Geranium sylvaticum, var. album, ex- hibited, xxxvi. Germination of Crinwm Macowani, 211. Winter Buds of Hydrocharis Morsus-Rane, 318. Girth of Coniferous Trees, Measure- ment of, 87. Gleichenias, Notes on, 62. Goat Moth exhibited, xxxiv Goes tigrina exhibited, xxi. Grieve, J. Notes on Hybrid Violas, 116. Grieve, Symington. folia, 144, — Additional Notes on Andromeda polifolia, 258. Exhibits Pine Shoots attacked by Helobius abietis and Phyllobius argented, Vili. Groom, Percy, M.A., F.L.S. On the Fusion of Nuclei in Plants, 132. Gunn, Rev. G, A ‘l'our in the Upper Engadine and South-East Tyrol, 198. Obituary Notice of, 277. Habenaria bifolia, Fasciated, hibited, viii. Hall, C. &. Notes on Tree Measure- ments. Part II., 243. Helobius abictis, Pine Shoots attacked by, exhibited, viii, Exhibits by, xiv., Andromeda poli- ex- Tentacles, Nuclei and Cell | Huie, Miss L. H. brightshire, exhibited, xxvi. Hill, J. Rutherford, exhibits— Arrow and Ordeal Poisons, xxi, Caffeine, xxxiv. j Orange, Double, xxii. Taraxacum, Root abnormal, xxii. Tillandsia sp., iv. Winter Buds of Anacharis, Xx. Obituary Notice of Dr.-J, E.'T. Aitchison, 224, Hope Island, First Record of Plants from, 166. Hormiscium pithyophyllum exhibited, XXV. Changes in the Nucleus of Secreting Cells (Title only), xiii, Relation between the Cell Plasm and Nucleus in Drosera (Title only), xxii. Hybrids between Cowslip and Prim- rose exhibited, vii. Hybrid Veronica, 118. Hybrid Violas, Notes on, 116. Hydrocharis Morsus-Rane, Buds of, 518. Hylesinus crenatus, Ash damaged by, exhibited, vii. Injection-staining of Vascular Sys- tem, 54, Inverness, Flora of West, 173. Ivy, Climbing Roots of (Title only), XXXV. Killin, Scottish Alpine Botanical Club visits, 104, Kirkby Lonsdale, Scottish Alpine Botanical Club visits, 270. Plants from, exhibited, xxxiii. Kirkeudbrightshire, Hierochloe borealis in, xxvi. Landsborough, Rey. D. Pyrus Aria and its Varieties in Arran, 56. Leitch, Dr. J., Death of, iv. Lenticels of Solanwm Dulcamara, 341. Leptomitus lacteus, 109. Liddesdale, Andromeda polifolia in, 144, Lindsay, R., exhibits— Andromeda hypnoides, XXxiii, Hybrid Veronica, 118. Primulas, Xxxv —— On Astragalus alpinus albus, ee Winter Obituary Notice of Malcolm Dunn, 220. Linton, West, Primula farinosa at, XX: Lowe, Dr, J. M., F.R.S.E. Gentiana nivalis iu Sutherlandshire, 217, Lundie, A. Micro-Methods, Notes on, 159. aittp ’ Lycopodium clavatum, Variations in, 290. M‘Conachie, Rey. G. Mosses, Ferns, and Lichens of Rerrick, 168, Dxhibits HMierochloe borealis, XXVi. INDEX MacDougal, Dr. R.S., Soil Bacteria, 25. Exhibits damage due to— Bostrichus dispar, vii. COallidium bajalum, vii. Cossus ligniperda, XXXiv. Goes tiyrina, xxi. Hylesinus crenatus, vii. Phyllopertha horticola, xxi. Scolytus Ratzeburqti, XxXi. Exhibits Galls of resinella, XXXiv. Exhibits Bipaliwm Kewense, vi. Exhibits Locusts, vii. M‘Vicar, Symers M. LHlected Non- Res. Fellow, vii. Flora of West Inverness, 173. Madden, Miss, exhibits Mcidiwm Urtier, vii. Bxhibits Seeds from North Queensland, iv. Mahalanobis, 8. C. Fellow, iii. Mehnert’s Principle of ‘‘Time Dis- placement,” 298. Melanogaster ambiguus XXXVI. Micro-Methods, Notes on, 159. Miller, J. S., exhibits Pyrola uni- flora, viii. Milne, Alex., exhibits Myrsinites, Xxv. Morton, Alex. Hlected Res, Fellow, 3. Sah Mucilaginous Plants, Stain for, 159. Retinia Elected Res. exhibited, Euphorbia Murray, A., exhibits Melanogaster ambiguus, XXxvi. Nasturtium — officinale, Abnormal Flower of, exhibited xxvi. Nitragin, Experiments with, 20. Nitrogenous Food of Plants, 1. Norman, F. M. Climbing Hoots of Ivy (Title only), xxxv. Cedrus Atlantica (Title only) XXXV. Elder growing on an Apple (Title only), xxxv. Norway, Notes on a Visit to, 281. Nuclei, Fusion of, 132. Nuclei of Secreting Cells, Changes in (Title only), xiii. Nucleus and Cell Plasm, Relation between (Title only), xxii. Obituary Notices— Dr. J. H. T. Aitchison, 224. Malcolm Dunn, 220. Rev. George Gunn, 277. Dr. G. C. Wallich, 222. Officers of the Society ,1896-97,1897-98, 1898-99, 1899-1900, i, ix, xvii, xxix. Oncidium Phymatocheitum exhibited, viii. Orange, Double, exhibited, xxii. Orrock Miss R. Elected Res. Fellow, xiii. — Exhibits Cordyceps Militaris, xiii. Exhibits Cuscuta Epithymum, Xv. Exhibits Hucalyptus sp., xxxvi. Paintings of Swiss Flowers, xxii. 379 Pantling, Mr. Elected Associate, xv. Paul, Rev. Dr. D. Obituary Notice of Rev. George Gunn, 277. Exhibits Carex limosa, xxxii. Exhibits Drawings of Fungi, Xxiv. Exhibits Species of Geaster, XXXili. Pearson, Miss, exhibits of Flowers, xxii. Phoma pithya, Douglas Fir infected by, xiv. Photochemical Stain for Mucilaginous Plants, 159. Photomicrography of Opaque Sections, 44. Phyllobius argentea, Pine attacked by, viii. Phylloperthahorticola, Apples attacked by, Xxi. Pines, Interfoliar Buds in, 154. Pinus Laricio, Development of the Quadrifoliar Spurs in, 150. zs Sylvestris, Witches’ Brooms on, 96. Plague, Dr. Watson on the, 233. Plewrotus Serotinus exhibited, xxxii. Poa Suecica exhibited, xxv. Potentilleaa, Noteson. I. The Flower, 329. Potts, G. H., exhibits Saxifrages, vii. Presidential Addresses— Dr. A. P. Aitken, 1896-97, 1-65. Dr. Watson, 1898-99, 121-233. Primulas exhibited, xxxy. Paintings ‘Primula farinosa from West Linton, xx. Pyrobetulin, Preparation of, xxxii. Pyrola uniflora in Forfarshire, viii. Pyrus Aria and its Varieties in Arran, 56. Queensland, North, Seeds from, iv. Red Bay, Flora of, 354, Rerrick, Ferns, Mosses, and Lichens of, 168. Retinia resinella, Galls of, exhibited, XXxiy. Robertson, R. A. Spirogyra, 185. Contact Negatives for compari- tive Study of Woods, 162. The Flower of the Potentilles, Conjugation in 329. Fossil Woods. Part I., 50. Fossil Woods. Part II., 191. Lycopodium clavatum, Varieties in, 290. On Mehnert’s Principle of ‘* Time Displacements,” 298. Photomicrography of Opaque Sections, 44. Preliminary Note on Witches’ Brooms, 313, Exhibits Eucalyptus citriodora, XXXVi. Exhibits Eucalyptus jicifolia, XXXvVi. Roots, Adventitious in Dulcamara, 341. Roxburghshire, Carex limosa from, Xxxii. some Solanum 380 INDEX Russell, D. Elected Res. Fellow, xv. | Turnbull, Robert, Apodyalactea, 109. Scolytus Ratzeburgii, Birch attacked by, exhibited, xxi. Scotland, Artemisia stelleriana in, 307. Ascoidea rubescens in, 217. Scott-Elliot, Prof. G. F., exhibits— Hormiscium pithyophyllum, xxv. Mosses and Fungi, 218. Herbarium of Spanish Plants, 218. Selkirkshire, Pow Suecica in, xxy. Soil Bacteria, 25. Soil, Composition of, with Relation to Colour of Daffodils, 113. Solanum Dulcamara, Lenticels of, 341. Somerville, Alex., exhibits Goat Moth, XXXiv. Exhibits Carex limosa, xxxii. Presents Chart of Watsonian vice-Counties, xxxii, Sommerville, Prof. Wm. On Nitragin, 20. : Spirogyra, Abnormal Conjugation of, 185. Spitsbergen, Flora of, 354. Sprague, Miss, exhibits Plants from Norway, xxxiii, Stabler, G., exhibits Habenaria bifolia, viii. Stem Sections, Photomicrography of Opaque, 44, Stuart, Dr, exhibits Geranium sylvaticum, var. album, XXxvi. Sutherlandshire, Gentiana nivalis in, 21%. Taraxacum, Abnormal exhibited, xxii, Terras, J. A. 217. Fasciated Root of ? Ascoidea rubescens, Adventitious Roots and Lenti- cels of Solanum, 341. Germination of Winter Buds of Hydrocharis, 318. Xerophytic Adaptations (Title only), iv. Traill, W. G., presents Diatoms, ii. Death of, vii. Tree Measurements, Notes on, 243. Tree Roots from Drain exhibited, ii. Tremellodon gelatinosum exhibited, x1 Diameter - increment in the Wood of Coniferous Trees, 94. Flora of Spitsbergen, 304. Girth of Coniferous Trees, 87, -.—— Plants from Hope Island, 166, Exhibits Primrose Hybrids, vil. Exhibits Vasturtiwm officinale, Xxvi. Exhibits Herbarium of Alpine Plants, xiv. Exhibits Inverted Hyacinth, vi. Tyrol, South-East, Botanical Notes on Tour in, 198. Uruguay, Tree Measurements in, 243. | Veronica, Hybrid, 118. Violas, Hybrid, 116. Waite, Percival C. On Gleichenias, 62. Wallich, Dr. G. C., Obituary Notice of, 222. Ward, Professor H. M. Elected Hon. Brit. Fellow, ii. Watson, Dr. W. On the Plague, 233. —-— Obituary Notice of Dr. Wallich, 2292 oak. Presidential Address, 1898, 121. Presidential Address, 1899, 233. Teaching of Darwin and Pasteur, 121. - Exhibits Zvremellodon gelatin- osum, XXi. Watsonian vice-Counties, Chart of, presented, xxxii. West Inverness, Flora of, 173. West Linton, Primula farinosa at, xx. Wilson, Dr. J. H. Germination of Crinum, 211. Exhibits Drawings of Fungi, XXLV: Lantern Slides of Fungi, xxiv. Winter Buds of Hydrocharis, 318. | Witches’ Broom on Pinus Sylvestris, 196. Witches’ Brooms, Preliminary Note on, 315, Woods, Contact Negatives of, 162. Xerophytic Adaptations, Some (Title only), iv. TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. SESSION LXI. MEETING OF THE Society, November 9, 1896. Dr. A. P. Arrken, President, in the Chair. The following Officers of the Society were elected for the Session 1896-97 :— PRESIDENT: ANDREW P. AITKEN, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. VICE-PRESIDENTS. Colonel Frep. Battey, R.E. ANDREW SEMPLE, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. Professor F. O. Bower, Sc.D.,| Robert TurnsBuLu, B.Sc F.R.SS. L. & E., F.L.S. COUNCILLORS. W. Bonnar. | SYMINGTON GRIEVE. Sir ALEX. CurIsTison, Bart., M.D. | J. Rurwerrorp HILt. Wiiuram Craic, M.D., F.R.S.E., | Sane F, M. Norman, R.N. F.R.C.S.E. | Rev. Davip Paut, M.A., LL.D. T. Cutusert Day, | Wn ILLIAM Watson, M.D. Professor Cossar Ewart, M.D., | F.R.SS. L. & E. Honorary pce! J —Erolessor Sir Dougias Macraaan, M.D., LL.D., Hon. V.-P.R.S.E. Honorary Curator—The Proressor or Borany. Foreign Secretary—ANDREW P. AITKEN, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Treasurer—RIicHARD Brown, C.A. Assistant Secretary— JAMES Apa Tr rae see Se. Artist—FRancis M. Cairp, M.B., O.M., F.R.C.S.E. Auditor—Rosert C. MILLAR, C.A. TRANS. BOT. SOC, EDIN. VOL, XXI. A Issued November 1897, il TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE LOCAL SECRETARIES. Aberdeen—Professor J. W. H. Trait, M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Argyllshire— JOHN CAMPBELL, Ledaig. Bathgate—Rosert Kirk, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. Beckenham, Kent—A. D. WEBSTER. Berwick-on-Tweed—FRaAnNciISs M. Norman, R. Birmingham—GeorGeE A. PANTON, F.R.S.E., 73 Westfield Road. W. H. Witkinson, F.L.S., F.R.M.S., Manor Hill, Sutton Coldfield. Bridge of Allan—ALEXANDER Paterson, M.D. Bromley, Kent—D. T. Puayratr, M.D. Calcutta—GerorGe Kina, M.D., F.R.S., Botanie Garden. Davip Pratn, M.D., F.R.S E., F.L.S., Botanic Garden Cambridge—ARTHU rk EVANS, M. A. Chirnside—Cuartes Stuart, M.D. Croydon—A. BENNETT, F.I aS Dehra-din, India—JAMES SYKES GAMBLE, M.A. Dundee—Professor P. GEDDES, F.R.S.E. me W. G. Ssaru, B.Se., Ph.D. Glasyow—Professor F, O. Bower, Se.D., F.R.S., F.LS. Professor J. CLELAND, M.D., F.R.S. oe Professor Scotr-ELuiot, F.L.8. Kelso—-Rev. GrorGre GUNN, M.A., Stitchel Manse. Kilbarchan—Rev. G. ALISON. Leeds—Dr. Jounxn H. Witsoy, Yorkshire College. Lincoln—GeEorGgE May Lowe, M.D. London—WILLIAM CARRUTHERS, F.R.S., F.L.S. E. M. Houtmes, F.L.S., F.R.H.S. JOHN ARCHIBALD, M.D., F.R.S.E. Melrose—W. B. Boyp, of Faldonside. Otay, New Zealand—Professor JAMES Gow Buack, D.Se., University. Perth—Sir Ropert Pouiar, F.R.S.E. Philadelphia, U.S.A.—Professor JoHN M. MACFARLANE, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Saharunpore, India—J. F. Duture, B.A., F.L.S. Silloth—Joun Leircu, M.B., C.M. t. Andrews —Professor M‘Inrosu, M.D., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. & E. a Rosert A. Ropertson, M.A., B.Sc. Toronto, Ontario—W. R. RIDDELL, Biscs, Baas . . - Professor Ramsey Wriacur, M.A., B.Se. Wellington, New Zealand—Sir James Hecror, M.D., K.C.MG., F.R.SS. L. & E. Wolverhampton—Joun FrAser, M.A, M.D. Professor H. Marsuatt Warp, of Cambridge, and Mr. J. G. Baker, F.RS., F.LS., Keeper of the Herbarium, Kew, were, on the recommendation of the Council, elected British Honorary Fellows of the Society. Professor BayLkEy BALrour informed the Society that Mr. George William Traill had presented a large collection of Diatoms to the Society. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH ill Mr. CAMPBELL sent for exhibition, from the open ground of his garden at Ledaig, Argyllshire, cut blooms of Mont- bretia (sp.), Escallonia macrantha, and other half-hardy plants. The Presrpent (Dr. A. P. Aitken) delivered the opening address of the session. The President made the following announcement re- garding the Roll of the Society :— During the past year the Society has lost by death :—2 Honorary Foreign Fellows—D. Henri Ernest Baillon; Baron Ferdinand von Mueller. 2 Resident Fellows—The Rev. Thomas Anderson ; Andrew Moffat. 2 Non-Resident Fellows—James Carter; Dr. George Lawson. 1 Corresponding Member—Professor J. E. Bommer. 1 Associate—John Buchanan, C.M.G. During the same period the Society received the following accession :—1 Resident Fellow—Somerville Grieve. The Roll of the Society stands at present thus :— Honorary Fellows— Royal 3 British 4 Foreign 22 — 29 Resident Fellows . : : : , 126 Non-Resident Fellows. : : BSG Corresponding Members ‘ f , 50 Associates. ; : , : 23 Lady Associate. ; : : : 1 Lady Members : ; : : : 5 Total of Roll. : s onO The following paper was read :— Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. MEETING OF THE Society, Thursday, December 7, 1896. Dr. A. P. Arrken, President, in the Chair. Mr. S. C. ManaLanopsis, B.Se., was elected a Resident Fellow of the Society. Intimation of the death of Ropert ELuiot, a Resident Fellow of the Society, was made by the Chairman. lV TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE Colonel F. BAILey exhibited a mass of tree roots taken from a water-pipe. The following papers were read :— I. Some Xerophytic Adaptations. By James A. Terras, B.Se. II. Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. MEETING OF THE Society, Thursday, January 14, 1897. Dr. A. P. A1rken, President, in the Chair. Intimation of the death of Dr. Joun Lerrcu, a Resident Fellow of the Society, was made by the Chairman. Miss MApbDpEN exhibited a number of seeds from North ()ueensland. Mr. Rurnerrorp Hitt exhibited two species of Tillandsia, from South America. Dr. AITKEN exhibited an apple showing carpellary proliferation. The following papers were read :— I. Experiments with “ Nitragin.” By Prof. William Somerville. II. Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, MEETING OF THE Society, Thursday, February 11, 1897. Captain NorMAN, R.N., in the Chair. The following papers were read :— I. Bacteria of the Soil, with special reference to Soil Inoculation. By R. Stewart MacDougall, M.A., B.Se. II. Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Vv MEETING OF THE Society, Thursday, March 11, 1897 Dr. A. P. AIrKEN, President, in the Chair. The TREASURER submitted the following Statement of Accounts for the Session 1895—96 :— INCOME. Annual Subscriptions, 1895-96; 62 at 15s.= £46, 10s., and lat 10s. . ; ; : : : : S47 0-0 Do., 1894-95, 2at15s.. me ee 110 0 Gadnetiions for Life Heerlen: : 6 6 0 Transactions. etc., sold. : ‘ ; : 5ysO) 2 Subscriptions to Illustration Fund . : 2s ma) £63°11 2 EXPENDITURE. Printing Transactions, £44; Billets, ete., £7, 4s. . ; cole ASO) Rooms for Meetings, Tea, and Hire of Screens : Oman) Commission paid to Collector of Subscriptions : : 1 Ord Stationery, Postages, Carriages, etc. : d £10 0 Fire Insurance on Books, ete. : : : : : Oy (0) Expenditure : ; KE. M. Houmes, F.L.S., F.R.H.S. r JOHN ARCHIBALD, M.D., F.R.S.E. Melrose—W. B. Boyn, of Faldonside. Otago, New Zealand—Professor JAMES Gow Brack, D.Sce., University. Ox ford—Dr. GUSTAV MANN. erth—Sir Roperrt Puivar, F.R.S.E. Philadelphia, U.S.A.—Professor JouN M. MACFARLANE, D.8ce., F.R.S.E. Saharunpore, India—J. F. Durnir, B.A., F.L.S. St. Andrews —Professor M‘Inrosu, M.D., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. & E. Ropert A. Ropertrson, M.A., B.Se. ” Dr. J. H. WILSON. é Toronto, Ontario—W. R. Rippe 1, B.Se., B.A. 3 Professor Ramsey Wricut, M.A., B.8ce. Wellington, New Zealand—Sir James Hecror, M.D., K.C.M.G., F.R.SS. L. & E. Wolverhampton—Joun Fraser, M.A., M.D. 49 BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH x1 The TREASURER submitted the following Statement of Accounts for the Session 1896—97 :— INCOME. Annual Subscriptions, 1896-97; 60 at 15s.=£45, and 1 at 10s. . : Do., 1895-96, 4 at 15s. . : Compositions for Life Membership. Transactions, ete., sold Subscriptions to Ilustration Fund . Interest on Deposits in Bank EXPENDITURE. Printing Transactions, £18, 13s. 2d.; Billets, etce., 4S, 38.60. . : : ; : : Rooms for Meetings, Tea, and Hire of Screens Stationery, Postages, Carriages, etc. Fire Insurance on Books, ete. Expenditure Balance of Income STATE OF FUNDs. Amount of Funds at close of Session 1895-96 Add—Increase during Session 1896-97, as above Amount of Funds at close of Session 1896-97 Being:—Sum in Current Account with Union Bank of Scotland Ltd. . £30 7 4 Sum in Deposit Receipt with do. 90 0 0 Due by Treasurer ; 5 . Ons 58 £120 16 0 Deduct—Account not paid till after close of Session 26 lhe 36 £45 10 O ay A). 10) Gila 0) ue a (0) Sl) 0) alee a S69 tl 1 SOM GES 6:65 2 AL es 8) (0) is ACO) £38 0) 1 ok PE 0 £69 11 2 £62 8 4 SS 0 £93 19 4 . 93 19 4 Note.—Subscriptions in arrear, 1895-96, £1, 10s.; 1896-97,£6, 15s. X1l TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE On the motion of Dr. WILLIAM CraiG the report was adopted and the Treasurer thanked for his services. The Presidential address for the Session was read by Dr. A. P. AITKEN. MEETING OF THE Society, December 9, 1897. Dr. Witi1am Watson, President, in the Chair. A communication on the Measurement of Girth of Coniferous Wood at Braemar was read by Messrs. TURNBULL and WaAITE. A paper on a Comparison of Plants with Animals was read by the PRESIDENT. MEETING OF THE SocrEty, January 13, 1898. Dr. Witi1am Watson, President, in the Chair. The Laws of the Society were signed by Mr. F. C. CRAWFORD. A further communication on the Increment of Girth of Coniferous Trees at Braemar was read by Mr. Ropert TURNBULL, B.Sc. The report of the Scottish Alpine Botanical Club’s Excursion to Killin was read by Dr. WILLIAM Craia, BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH xi MEETING OF THE SocrEty, February 10, 1898. Dr. Witt1am Warson, President, in the Chair. Miss R. Orrock was proposed as a Resident Fellow of the Society by Mr. Ropert TuRNBULL, B.Se., seconded by Dr. WILLIAM Watson. Mr. Duwy, of Dalkeith, exhibited a number of plants in flower in the open air, as illustrating the mildness of the season. A paper on the Changes which take place in the Nucleus of Secreting Cells was read by Miss L. H. Huie. Two caterpillars, infested with Cordyceps Militaris, from India, were exhibited by Miss Orrock. MEETING OF THE Society, March 10, 1898. Dr. ANDREW SEMPLE, Vice-President, in the Chair. Miss R. OrROcK, proposed by Mr. Rosert TURNBULL, B.Se., seconded by Dr. Wu. Watson, was balloted for and duly elected a Resident Fellow of the Society. A communication on Apodya lactea was read by Mr RoBeRT ‘TURNBULL,’ B.Sc., and was illustrated by means of the lantern. A communication on the Colour of Daffodils in relation to the Character of the Soil on which they grow was read by Dr. A. P. AITKEN. X1V TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE MEETING OF THE Soctety, April 10, 1898. Mr. J. RurHERFORD HILL, Vice-President, in the Chair. A Herbarium of the rarer Alpine Plants collected in the neighbourhood of Braemar in 1854~—55 by the late A, CROALL, Esq., was exhibited by Mr. Ropert TURNBULL, B.Sc. Mr. TURNBULL communicated a paper on the Flora of Franz-Josef Land, and exhibited a number of specimens collected by Mr. W. 8S. Bruce, Naturalist to the Jackson- Harmsworth Polar Expedition. Mr. J. RurHerrorD Hitt read a paper on the Alkaloids of Cephaclis Tpecacuanha, and exhibited a number of specimens. Mr. J. RUTHERFORD HILL read a paper on the Insecticidal Properties of .the Flower Heads of Pyrethrum vroseum, P. carneum, and P. cinerariefolium. Specimens of Douglas Fir attacked by Phoma pithya were exhibited to the Society by Mr. MALtcotm Downy, of Dalkeith. MEETING OF THE Society, May 12, 1898. Dr. WILLIAM WATSON, President, in the Chair. Davin RusseE.i, Esq., 7 Strathearn Road, was proposed a Resident Fellow of the Society by Miss R. Orrock, and seconded by Mr. Ropert TURNBULL, B.Sc. A note on the Hybridisation of Violets was read by Mr. J. GrinvE, who also exhibited a number of illustrative specimens. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH XV MEETING OF THE SocrgeTy, June 9, 1898. Dr. W1iLLIAM CralG in the Chair. Davip Russet, Esq., 7 Strathearn Road, proposed a Resident Fellow of the Society by Miss R. Orrock, and seconded by Mr. Ropert TURNBULL, B.Sc., was balloted for and duly elected. Several specimens of Cuscuta Hpithymum were exhibited by Miss ORROCcK. MEETING OF THE SoctETy, July 14, 1898. Dr. WiiuiAM Watson, President, in the Chair. Mr. PANTLING, of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta, was duly balloted for and elected an Associate of the Society. A communication on the discovery of a White variety of Astragalus alpinus, Linn., on Ben Vrackie, Perthshire, was read to the Society, and specimens of the plant were exhibited by Mr. Roperr Linpsay. Mr. Ropert Linpsay also exhibited, in flower, specimens of a hybrid shrubby Veronica. * ‘ ae TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. SESSION LXIIT. MEETING OF THE Society, November 10, 1898. Dr. Wu. Watson, President, in the Chair. The following the Session 1898—99 :-— Officers of the Society were elected for PRESIDENT. Wittiam Watson, M.D. VICE-PRESIDENTS. Wituiam Craic, M.D., F.R.S.E., | F.R.C.S.Ed. J. RUTHERFORD HILL. Professor Cossak Ewart, M.D., E.R.SS. L. & E. Captain F. M. Norman, R.N. COUNCILLORS. Colonel Frep. Barney, R.E. W. Bonnar. W. CaLDWELL CRAWFORD. Artuur EH. Davis, Ph.D., F.L.S. G: BF. Scorr Enxriot, M.A., B.Sc., | F.1L.S. SYMINGTON GRIEVE. Dr. R. Stewart MacDouGatt, M.A. | Rev. Davip PAuL, M.A., LIL.D. | T. Bonp Sprague, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. RoBerRT TURNBULL, B.Sc. Honorary Secretary—Professor Sir Dougtas Mactaa@an, M.D., LL.D., Ex-P.R.S.E. Honorary Curator—The Proressor oF Borany. Foreign Secretary—ANDREW P. AITKEN, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Treasurer—Ricuarp Brown, C.A. Assistant Secretary—JAMES ADAM TeERRAS, B.Sc. Artisi—Francis M. Carrp, M.B., Auditor—Rosert C. MILuar, C.A. C.M., F.R.C.S.Ed. XVI. TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE LOCAL SECRETARIES. Aberdeen—Professor J. W. H. Trait, M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Bathgate—Rosert Kirk, M.D., F.R.C.S.Ed. Beckenham, Kent—A. D. WEBSTER. Berwick-on- Tweed—FRANcIS M. Norman, R.N. Birmingham—GerorGe A. Panton, F.R.S.E., 73 Westfield Road. W. H. Wiukinson, F.L.S., F.R.M.S., Manor Hill, Sutton Coldfield. Bromley, Kent—D. T. Puayratr, M.D., C.M. Calcutta—GEORGE Kina, M.D., F.R.S., Botanic Garden. * Davip Prat, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.8., Botanic Garden. Cambridge—ARTHUR Evans, M.A. Cardiff—S. C. MAHALANOBIS, B.Sc. Chirnside—CHARLES Stuart, M.D. Croydon—A. BENNETT, F.L.S. Dehra-dun, India JAMES SYKES GAMBLE, M.A, Dundee—Professor P. GeppES, F.R.S.E. Glasgow—Professor F. O. Bower, Sc.D., E.R.S:, EeLEse Professor J. CLELAND, M.D., F.R.S. Professor Scott-Exuiot, F.L.S8. Kelso—Rev. GEORGE GUNN, M.A., Stitchel Manse. Kilbarchan—Rev. G. ALISON. Lincoln—GerorGE May Lowe, M.D., C.M. London—WILLIAM CARRUTHERS, F.R.S., F.L.S. - E. M. Homes, F.L.S., F.R.HL.S. 3 JOHN ARCHIBALD, M.D., F.R.S.E. Melrose—W. B. Born, of Faldonside. Otago, New Zealand—Professor JAMES Gow Buack, D.Se., University. Perth—Sir Rospert Pouuar, F.R.8.E. Philadelphia, U.S.A.—Professor JouN M. MACFARLANE, D.Se., F.R.S.E. Saharumpore, India—J. ¥. Dutuin, B.A., FLAS. St. Andrews —Professor M‘Inrosu, M.D., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. & E. - Ropert A. Ropertson, M.A., B.Se. a Dr. J. H. WILSON. Toronto, Ontario—W. R. Rippe 1, B.Sc., B.A. 4 4 Professor RAMSEY Wricut, M.A., B.Se. Wellington, New Zealand—Sir Janus Hecror, M.D., K.C,M.G., F.R.SS. L. & E. Wolverhampton—J ON FRASER, M..A., M.D. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH The TREASURER Accounts for the Session 1897—98 :— INCOME. Annual Subscriptions, 1897-98: 60 at 15s.=£45, and lat 10s. . ; Do., 1896-97, 3 at 15s. . Transactions, ete., sold Subscriptions to Mlustration Fund . Interest on Deposits in Bank EXPENDITURE. Printing Billets, etc. Rooms for Meetings, Tea, and Hire of Screens Stationery, Postages, Carriages, etc. Fire Insurance on Books, ete. Expenditure : Balance of Income, subject to Aenea of Printing Transactions for Session 1897-98 (about £20) STATE OF FuNDSs. Amount of Funds at close of Session 1896-97 Add—Increase during Session 1897-98, as above Amount of Funds at close of Session 1897-98, subject to Expense of Printing Transactions (about £20) Being:—Sum in Current Account with Union Bank of Scotland Ltd. . Sum in Deposit Receipt with do. pot Sion ej EK) Ieayk M0) “77 S13 Of ala 2 ise &, Less—Due to Treasurer Note.—Subscriptions in arrear, 1896-97, £2, X1X submitted the following Statement of w om bo roe S) i 30) 7 Sane A 8% ie oO ealal etal ARTES (0) ay» C0) Asatte gb al 29) MoenG 133 2) 10 5s.; 1897-98, £3, 15s. xx TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE On the motion of Dr. WILLIAM CraiG the report was adopted and the Treasurer thanked for his services. Dr. Craic then referred to the recent death of Dr. AITCHISON, a well-known and valued Member of the Society. The Presidential address for the Session was read by Dr. WATSON. On the motion of Dr. Craic, seconded by Rev. A. B. Morris, a vote of thanks was conveyed to the President for his address. Mr. RurHERFoRD HILt exhibited to the Society a number of winter buds of Anacharis alsinastrum. Mr. F. C. Crawrorp exhibited a plant of Primula farinosa, gathered by himself at the West Linton station, where, as he assured the Society, the plant is not yet extinct, though its existence is threatened by the en- croachments of cultivation. MEETING OF THE Society, December 8, 1898. Dr. Witrtam Watson, President, in the Chair: Mr. A. W. Bortuwick, B.Sc., was proposed as a Resident Fellow of the Society by R. A. Rospertson, M.A., B.Sc., and seconded by JAMES A. Terras, B.Sc. Mr. ALEX. Morton, B.Sc., was proposed as a Resident Fellow of the Society by R. TurNBULL, B.Sc., and seconded by F. C. Crawrorp, F.R.S.E. Dr. Craic called attention to the death of Dr. ALLMAN, a distinguished Fellow of the Society. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH el Dr. R. Stewart MacDoucatt, M.A., exhibited a number of Apples injured by Phyllopertha horticola, two specimens of Birch attacked by Scolytus Ratzeburgi, and other two in which the Scolytus had been in turn attacked by wood- peckers. Mr. J. RutwerrorD HILt exhibited a large collection of Arrow and Ordeal Poisons, as well as a number of Poisoned Arrows. Mr. J. Ruruerrorpd HILL communicated an Obituary Notice of the late Dr. J. E. T. Atrcuison, LL.D., C.L.E., F.RS. Mr. Percy Groom, F.L.S., communicated a paper entitled The Significance of Nuclear Fusions in Plants. MEETING OF THE SOCIETY, January 12, 1899. Dr. Wini1am Watson, President, in the Chair. Mr. A. W. Bortuwick, B.Sc., proposed by R. A. RoBert- son, M.A., B.Sc., seconded by JAMES A. Terras, B.Sc.; and Mr. ALEX. Morton, B.Se., proposed by R. TuRNBULL, B.Sc., seconded by F. C. Crawrorp, F.R.S.E..—were balloted for and duly elected Resident Fellows of the Society. They thereafter signed the Laws of the Society. The PRESIDENT exhibited to the Society specimens of Tremellodon gelatinosum. Dr. R. Srewart MacDouGa tt, M.A., exhibited specimens of Goes tigrina, with examples of the damage inflicted by it on timber. Mr. SYMINGTON GRIEVE read a communication entitled Notes on Andromeda polifolia, Linn., with special reference to a new station for the plant in Liddesdale. XX TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE Mr. A. W. Bortuwick, B.Sc., read a communication on the occurrence of Quadrifoliar Spurs in Pinus Laricio, Poir. Mr. A. W. Bortuwick, B.Sc., read a further communica- tion on the Interfoliar Buds of Pinus Laricio, Poir. Mr. R. A. Ropertson, M.A., BSe., communicated a paper entitled Some new Micro-Methods, by ALEX. LUNDIE. Mr. R. A. Roperrson, M.A., B.Sc., read a communication on the Value of Contact Negatives in the Comparative Study of Woods. MEETING OF THE SoctEty, February 9, 1899. Dr. Wittram Warson, President, in the Chair. Miss PEARSON exhibited to the Society a collection of Paintings of French and Swiss Flowers. Mr. J. Rurwerrorp Hint exhibited a Double Orange, and also a plant of Taraxacum officinale showing a peculiar formation of roots. Miss L. Huiz read a communication entitled Notes on the Relations existing between the Cell Plasm and the Nucleus in Drosera Tentacles. The paper was illustrated by means of the lantern. Mr. R. TuRNBULL, B.Sec., communicated a paper by W. S. Bruce, of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition, entitled A First Record of Plants from Hope Island, Barentz Sea. The PRESIDENT communicated a paper by the Rev. G. M‘Conacutz, of Rerrick, entitled Notes on the Ferns, Mosses, and Lichens of the Parish of Rerrick. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH XXiil MEETING OF THE Society, March 9, 1899. Dr. WitLIAM Watson, President, in the Chair. Mr. Matcotm Dunn exhibited the following early flowering Plants and Shrubs sent him from the garden of Mr. Maxweti of Munches:—Andromeda floribunda : Alnus incana aurea: Buxus arborea; Corylus avellana, and its varieties aurea, atropurpurea, and variegata; Crypto- meria Japonica; Cornus mascula; Hammamelis Japonica ; Jasminum nudiflorum; Laurustinus viburnum; Mahonia aquifolia; Pyrus Maulei; Pyrus Japonica, three varieties ; Skimmia Japonica; S. fragrans; Taxus baccata, Nuttalia ceraformis. He also exhibited the following Plants from the garden of Dalkeith Palace:—Amygdalis Davidianus, alba and rosea: Andromeda floribunda; A. Japonica; Arbutus Andrachne ; A. Unedo; Azara microphylla; Berberis Darwin; L. Mahonia: Buxus sempervirens; Chimonanthus fragrans; Chorsya ter- nata; Coryllus avellana; Cornus mas; C. florida; Cryptomeria Lobbii; Cupressus macrocarpa, cones; C. Sinensis; Cydonia Japonica, four varieties; Daphne Laureola; D. hybrida: D. Mezereum, four varieties; Erica herbacea, tour varieties; E. Mediterranea; Eleagnus glabra variegata; Edgeworthia papyrifera; Ercilla spicata; Exchorda grandiflora, Garrya elliptica, male and female; Hammamelis arborea; H. Japonica; Juniperus Communis; J. Sinensis, var. aurea ; Jasminum nudiflorum; Laurus nobilis; Ligustrum ovali- folium aureum; Mahonia aquifolia; Viscum album, with berries; Phillyrea latifolia; Pernettia mucronata; Rhodo- dendron Nobleanum; R. precoz; Saliz caprea pendula ; S. viminalis; Skimmia Japonica; S. Formani, male and female, also with berries; Viburnum rugosum, V. tinus: Vinca minor, three varieties; Taxus baccata; Hypatica angulosa; Sisyrinchium grandiflorum; Single and Double Snowdrops; Crocus, vars.; Apricot, scarcely opened; also Peach and Pear in the same condition. Mr. SyMINGTON GRIEVE read a communication by Mr. Symers M. Macvicar, entitled Notes on the Flora of West Inverness. XX1V TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE Mr. R. A. Roperrson, M.A., B.Se., read a communica- tion entitled Notes on a Namiber of Abnormal Modes of Conjugation in Spirogyra. Mr. R. A. Ropertson M.A., B.Sc., communicated the second part of his paper on Fossil Stems. Mr. A. W. Borruwicx, B.Sc, read a paper entitled Notes on the Witches’ Broom of Pinus sylvestris. MEETING OF THE Society, April 13, 1899. Dr. Wiitttam Watson, President, in the Chair. Dr. J. H. Witson exhibited to the Society a series of coloured drawings, by himself, of Fungi, chiefly from Aberdeenshire. Rev. Dr. D. Pau, M.A., exhibited a series of water-colour drawings, illustrative of some of the rarer Fungi. Rev. GEORGE GuNN, M.A., communicated a paper entitled The Botany of a Tour in the Upper Engadine and South- East Tyrol. Dr. J. H. WiLson read a paper on the Germination of the Seeds of Crinum Macowanti. The paper was illustrated by means of the lantern. Dr. J. H. Witson exhibited a series of lantern slides showing the mode of growth in Agaricus (Collybia) buty- raceus and Phallus dmpudicus. Dr. Craic read a communication by Dr. Jonn Lows, entitled A Note on the Discovery of Gentiana nivalis in Sutherlandshire. BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH XXV MEETING OF THE Socrety, May 11, 1899. Dr. WILLIAM CRAIG, Vice-President, in the Chair. Professor G. F. Scort-EniioT exhibited a herbarium of Spanish Plants. Professor G. F. Scort-ELiiot also exhibited a number of the rarer Mosses and Fungi from the Glasgow district. Mr. James A. Terras, B.Sc., read a communication entitled Notes on the occurrence of