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TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


VOLUME XXII. 


INCLUDING SESSIONS LXY.—LXVIII. L®RARY 
(1901-1904). ew YORK 
MOTANICAL 

GARDEN 


WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 


EDINBURGH : 
PRINTED FOR THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY. 


1905. 


CONTENTS OF VOL. XXII. 


PAGE 


OFFICE-BEARERS, 1900-01, 1901-02, 1902-03, 1903-04, ia, 1), xiii, xxi 
AccounTs, 1900-01, 1901-02, 1902-03, 1903-04, liia, iiib, xv, xxiii 


PRESIDENT’s ADDREss, 1900— 


On the Ferns, especially the Filmy Ferns, of Jamaica : : 1 
On the First Recorded Occurrence of Chara Baltica in Scotland. By 

KC. Crawford’: 3 : 13 
Notes on the British Distribution of Glawelant een Chm? the 

Horned Poppy. By Alex. Somerville, B.Sc., F.L.S. ‘ 13 


On the Comparative State of the Flora of the West Highlands dude 
the Eighteenth Century and at the Present Time. By Symers 


M. Macvicar . é s : : , 4 : 17 
The Use of the Term ‘“‘ ‘Bark ” in recent Text-books of ae By 

R. Turnbull, B.Sc. . : 30 
Excursion of the Scottish Alpine Botanical Club to Killin in "1900. 

By Rev. David Paul, LL.D. . F : : 40 
Supplementary Report on Mosses. By Tleweliva J. ‘Cakes ; 5 41 
Giglio-Tos’s Theory of Living Matter. By R. A. Robertson, M.A., 

B.Se. . : : : : : : = 45 
Effects of Weather on Tree Gini. Be C. E. Hall . 71 
PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS, 1901— 

The European Species of the Genus Primula 89 
Notes on Recent Experiences with Dry-Rot. By Dr. once Hates, 

WSR SSB. : 106 


The Phanerogamiec Flora of ae Glas Mouteans, in sea tideion 

to Flower Biology. By J. C. Willis, M.A., and J. AH. Burkill, 

M.A. é : : : : - LOS 
The Track of Hasciee a in Plants ae eee By J. Beard, D.Se. 126 
Excursion of the Scottish Alpine Botanical Club to County Kerry in 


1901. By Rev. David Paul, LL.D. . : 156 
The Botanical Rarities of a Sub-Alpine Parish (Kells, Kitkondveree 

shire). By James M‘Andrew . : 166 
Functional Inertia—A Property of Protoniaece: By Davia races 

Harris, B.Se., M.D. 3 : : : ape it) 
The Latent Life of Pine By R. re Rubee M.A., B.Sce., 

F.R.S.E. . ; 178 


Obituary Notice of the late Chasis Stuart, M. 18 “By Gyetnaader 
F. M. Norman, R.N. : : : 2 , : : Ree hin! 


CONTENTS 


Notes from the Archives of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, on its 
Origin, History, and Privileges. By Symington Grieve 

Hepatic of Ben Lawers District. By ss M. Macvicar 

The Botanical Use of Muggrove’s Xylo]l Blue. By R. A. Bobetisons 
IMAGE Ds S@ry ih). Laer. 


The Origin of the British Flora. By J. G. Goodchild, F.G.S., F.Z.S. 


On the Hepatice of Balmoral. By G. Stabler . ‘ : 3 

Report on the Effects of a Hailstorm to Growing Timber Crops. By 
Hugh C. Sampson, B.Sc. : : : : 

Shrub and Tree Planting in Ireland. By James Whytock 


PRESIDENT’S ADDREss, 1902— 
(1) Suggestions towards the Preparation of a Record of the Flora 
of Scotland ; ; 
(2) Topographical Botany of the River- Basins Forth and Tw fed 
in Scotland ; , ; F : : : 
Carex divisa, Hudson, as a Scottish Plant. By Alex. Somerville, 
Boscs ease 4 : : ; ; : : 
On the Genie Polystichum, Sis By Alex. Somerville, B.Se., F.L.S. 
Excursion of the Scottish Alpine Botanical Club to Tyndrum in 
1902. By Alexander Cowan : : 2 
Notes on a Census of the Flora of the Ae Genin Alpe By James 
Stirling, A.1.C.E. : : ; 
Revised Note on Laminaria. By Thomas Berwick 
The Cowthorpe Oak. By John Clayton 


A New West-Australian Plant: Drosera bulbigena, A. Morrison. 
By Alexander Morrison, M.D. 

Note on the Formation of the Bulb in West- estaien ayer ni 
Drosera. By Alexander Morrison, M.D. : 

Preliminary Report on the Botany of Captain Dowding’s Golvnees 

Expedition, 1898-99. By T. A. Sprague, B.Se., F.L.S. 

On a Botanical Visit to the Balearic Islands in April 1903. By 
James W. White, F.L.S. 

Excursion of the Scottish Alpine Boterical Club to Fort: ‘Walliam mG 
Arisaig in 1903. By Alexander Cowan 

Notes on the Origin of Lenticels, with Special Reterenes to hileee 
occurripg in Roots. By J. A. Terras, B.Se. 


APPENDIX— 
Roll of the Society, corrected to November 1904 


List of Publication Exchanges . 


INDEX : 5 ; 


PAGE 


oh 
hy 


=z 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


VOLUME XXII. 


PART 


EDINBURGH: 
PRINTED FOR THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY BY Ax 
MORRISON AND GIBB LIMITED. 3 
1901, 


| 


eee?) 


AUG 7- 1923 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 
"SESSION LXV. say Yo 


MEETING OF THE SoctEty, Thursday, November 8, 1900. 
The Rev. Davin Pau, M.A., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


The following Officers of the Society were elected for 
the Session 1900-1901 :— 


PRESIDENT. 
Rev. Davip Paut, M.A., LL.D. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS. 


Colonel Frep. Bartey, R.E. | ArtHuR HE. Davis, Ph.D., F.L.S. 
Witiram Bonnar. | SYMINGTON GRIEVE. 


COUNCILLORS. 


W. CaLDWELL CRAWFORD. | A. Ropertson, M.A., B.Sc. 
Professor G. F. Scorr-Exuiot, | ALEXANDER SOMERVILLE, B.&c., 
MCAS, Booc.; PeL.S. F.L.S. 


Professor Cossak Ewart, M.D.,| Professor J. W. H. Trait, M.A., 


F.R.SS. L. & E. fo MD EES 
Ropert Linpsay. | RoBERT TURNBULL, B.Sc. 


R. Srewart MacDouea.i, M.A., | Witiram Watson, M.D. 
D.Sc. 


Honorary Secretary—WiLu1AM Craia, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.S.Ed. 
Foreign Secretary—ANDREW P. AITKEN, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 
Treasurer—RIicHarD Brown, C.A. 

Assistant Secretary—James ADAM TerRas, B.Se. 

Artist—Francis M. Carrp, M.B., O.M., F.R.C.S.Ed. 
Auditor—RosBert ©. Miuuar, C.A. 


ll TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


LOCAL SECRETARIES. 


Aberdeen—Professor J. W. H. Trait, M.A., M.D., F.L.S. 
Bathgate—Rosert Kirk, M.D., F.R.C.S.Ed. 
Beckenham, Kent—A. D. WEBSTER. 
Berwick-on- Tweed—Francis M. Norman, R.N. 
Birmingham—GeEorGE A. Panton, F.R.S.E., 73 Westfield Road. 
ts W. H. Witxinson, F.L.S., F.R.M.S., Manor Hill, Sutton 
Coldfield. 
Bournemouth—JOHN ARCHIBALD, M.D., F.R.S.E. 
Bromley, Kent—D. T. Puayratr, M.B., C.M. 
Calcutta—Davip Prat, M.B., F.R.S.E., F.L.S8., Royal Botanic Garden. 


i Professor 8. C. MAHALANOBIS, B.Sc.. F.R.S.E., F.R.M.S., 
Presidency College. 


Cambridge—ARTHUR Evans, M.A. 
Chirnside—CHARLES Stuart, M.D. 
Croydon—A. BENNETT, F.L.S. 
Dundee—Professor P. Grppes, F.R.S.E. 
East Liss, Hants.—JAMES SYKES GAMBLE, M.A. 
Glasgow—Professor F. O. Bower, Sc.D., F.R.S., F.LS. 
. Professor J. CLELAND, M.D., F.R.S. : 
Ke Professor Scott-Exuiot, F.L.S. 
Kilbarchan—Rev. G. ALISON. 
Lincoln—GerorceE May Lowe, M.D., C.M. 
London—WILLIAM CARRUTHERS, F.R.S., F.L.S. 
at E. M. Houtmes, F.L.S., F.R.H.S. 
i: Sir GrorGcE Kine, M.D., F.R.S. 
Melrose—W. B. Born, of Faldonside. 
Otago, New Zealand—Professor JAMES Gow Buack, D.Sc., University. 
Perth—Sir Ropert Puuuar, F.R.S.E. 
Philadelphia, U.S.A.—Professor JoHN M. MacrarLane, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 
Saharumpore, India—J. F. Dutuir, B.A., F.L.S. 
St. Andrews —Professor M‘InrosH, M.D., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. & E. 


a Ropert A. Ropertson, M.A., B.Sc. 
ie Dr. J. H. WiLson. 
Toronto, Ontario—W. R. RippELL, B.Sc., B.A. 
us a Professor RAMSEY WRIGHT, M.A., B.Sc. 


Wellington, New Zealand—Sir James Hecror, M.D., K.C.M.G., 
F.R.SS. L. & E. 


Wolverhampton—JouHN FRASER, M.A., M.D. 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH iil 


The TREASURER submitted the following Statement of 
Accounts for the Session 1899-1900 :— 


INCOME. 


Annual Subscriptions, 1899-1900; 47 at 15s., and 1 
at 10s. -. : ; : ; : ; : : oot. O 
i 


Do., 1898-99, 2 at 15s. . 10 0 
Compositions for Life Membership ean 
Transactions, etc., sold z pela ea 
Subscriptions to Illustration Fund . : , 2 : 1 OA 
Interest on Deposits in Bank 3.3 9 
£53°°5 9 
EXPENDITURE. 

Printing Circulars, etc. . E s F : : SA ats 
Rooms for Meetings, Tea, and Hire of hess : , 6 10 11 
Stationery, Postages, Carriages, etc. : 3 : 3 318 3 
Fire Insurance on Books, ete. : : : : 0 5 0 
Expenditure ; e2T 198 

Balance of Income, aubiges to STi veiies of Printing 

Transactions for Session 1899-1900, estimated 
at £40. : : : : : ; E Zot On 
£53 5° 9 

STATE OF Funps. 

Amount of Funds at close of Session 1898-99 ‘ elo « pete 
Add—Increase during Session 1899-1900, as above. 25 (6 mee 

Amount of Funds at close of Session 1899-1900, subject 
to Expense of Printing, as above. : : ; «elo. loane 

Being:—Sum in Current Account with 

Union Bank of Scotland Ltd. . 315 ian by | 

Sum in Deposit Receipt with do. 130 0 0 

Due by Treasurer } Z . Be Ae 
£138 13 9 


Note.—Subscriptions in arrear, 1899-1900, £5, 5s. 


lV TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


Mr. Toomas R. Cancu, B.Sc., of Craigard, St. Andrews, 
proposed by Mr. R. A. Ropertson, M.A., B.Sc., seconded by 
Mr. A. W. Bortuwick, B.Se., was balloted for, and duly 
elected a Resident Fellow of the Society. 


Dr. R. Stewart MacDouacatt, M.A., exhibited specimens 
of Glossina morsitans, Westwood; Tesselatoma papillosa, 
Drury ; and Cyrtophyllus concavus. 


The PRESIDENT (Rev. David Paul, M.A., LL.D.) read the 
opening address for the session, and illustrated his remarks 
by means of a collection of West Indian Filmy Ferns. 


Mr. F. C. CRAWFORD read a communication on the First 
Recorded Occurrence of Chara Baltica in Scotland, and 
exhibited specimens of that plant. 


MEETING OF THE SOCIETY, December 13, 1900. 


Dr. A. E. Davis, F.L.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. 


Mr. ALEX. SOMERVILLE, B.Se., F.L.S., exhibited specimens 
of Scirpus triqueter, L., a bulrush new to the Irish flora, 
and discovered in September 1900 by Mr. R. D. O’Brien 
on the banks of the Shannon, near Limerick. 

Specimens of Scirpus lacustris and S. maritimus were 
also exhibited for comparison. 


Mr. F. C. Crawrorb exhibited plants of Ruppia spiralis 
found by him in Loch Stennis, Orkney. 


Mr. R. Linpsay exhibited flowering plants of Pinguicula 
caudata. 


Dr. R. StEwArT MacDovucatt, exhibited a young Spruce 
Fir, killed by Melolintha vulgaris, Fab. A Birch attacked 
by Coleophora, and a Hazel attacked by Strophosomus 
Coryli, L. 


Mr. W. B. Boyp exhibited twigs of Rzbes alpinum 
attacked by a parasite, causing the formation of burrs on 
the lateral buds. 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Vv 


Mr. W. CaLpWELL CRAWFORD read a communication 
entitled: A Short Account of the Botanical Congress at 
Paris, in October 1900. 


MEETING OF THE SociETy, January 10, 1901. 
The Rev. Davin Pavt, M.A., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


Mr. Wititam WALLACE, B.Sc., proposed by Mr. R. A. 
Ropertson, M.A., B.Sc., and seconded by Mr. JAMES A. 
Terras, B.Sc., was balloted for, and duly elected a Resident 
Fellow of the Society. 


Mr. ALEX. SOMERVILLE, B.Sc., F.L.S., exhibited specimens 
of Statice lychnidifolia, de Girard, a Sea Lavender, new to 
the Channel Islands, and not previously recorded from 
within the limits of the British flora; discovered by Mr. 
Cecil R. P. Andrews, in Alderney, in August 1900, and 
lent for exhibition by Mr. James Groves, F.L.S. 


Mr. Rospert Linpsay exhibited a plant of Primula 
floribunda, var. Isabellina, nearly white, and very distinct 
from the type plant, some flowers of which were also 
exhibited for comparison. 


Mr. Ropert Linpsay also exhibited flowers of Hranthis 
Hyemalis and Petasites fragrans, from plants blooming in 
the open air in his garden at Corstorphine. 


Mr. ALEX. SOMERVILLE, B.Se., F.L.S., read a communica- 
tion entitled: Note on the Distribution of Glauctum flavum, 
Crantz. The paper was illustrated by specimen plants 
from the various Scottish localities. 


Mr. SYMINGTON GRIEVE communicated a paper by Mr. 
Symers M. MacVicar, entitled: The Comparative State of 
the Flora of the West Highlands during the Eighteenth 
Century and at the Present Time. 


vi TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


MEETING OF THE Society, February 14, 1901. 
The Rev. Davin Paut, M.A., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


Mr. JAMES WuyTOCK, Palace Gardens, Dalkeith, proposed 
by Mr. Ropert Liypsay, seconded by Mr. JAMEs A. TERRAS, 
B.Se., was balloted for, and duly elected a Resident Fellow 
of the Society ; the Laws of which he signed on admission. 


The PRESIDENT moved that an Address of Condolence 
should be presented to the King on the occasion of the 
death of Queen Victoria. The motion was seconded by 
Professor TRAILL, and passed by the meeting. 

The proposed address was then read by the PRESIDENT, 
the members upstanding, and was adopted by the Society. 

On the motion of Dr. Wm. Cratc, the Address was 
remitted to a Committee, composed of the PRESIDENT and 
Colonel BaiLry, to be suitably prepared for transmission to 
His Majesty the King. 

Mr. RuTHERFORD HILL exhibited specimens of “ Yerba,” 
or Paraguay Tea (Jlex Paraguayensis); “ Maté,” or Calabash 
for infusing it; and “ Bombella,” or Sucking Tube, from 
the Argentine Republic. 


Mr. RutTHERFORD HILL exhibited specimens of Bulbine 
aloides and Monsonia ovata, two native South African 
medicines. 


Mr. Ropert TURNBULL, B.Se., read a communication 
entitled: The Use of the term Bark in recent Text-Books of 
Botany. 


The PRESIDENT read the Report of the Excursion of the 
Scottish Alpine Botanical Club to Killin in 1900. 


MEETING OF THE Society, March 14, 1901. 
Colonel Frep. Bartey, R.E., Vice-President, in the Chair. 
The CHAIRMAN exhibited a series of thin, hand speci- 


mens of a number of Woods, illustrating the structure of 
the more important forest trees. 


Mr. Roperrt Linpsay exhibited plants of Veronica 
arborea and Marica gracilis in flower. 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Vii 


Mr. Rosert Lrypsay exhibited flowers of Saxifraga 
oppositifolia from the Scottish mountains, and compared 
them with the larger and paler flowered Pyrenean variety, 
flowers of which were also shown. 


Mr. JAMES Wuyvrock exhibited cut blooms of a hybrid 
Daphne characterised by its remarkable odour. 


Mr. R. A. Ropertson, M.A., B.Sc., read a communication 
entitled: A Discussion of the Symbiotic Theory of Proto- 
plasm as stated by Giglio Tos. 


MEETING OF THE Society, April 11, 1900. 


Mr. Symrneton Grirtve, Vice-President, in the Chair. 


Mr. J. Wuyrock exhibited twigs of Veronica Epacroides, 
and flowering branches of the following species :—Cornus 
variegatus, Edgeworthia papyrifera, Spirea Thunbergir, 
Coryopsis spicata, Cornus elegantissima, Forsythia Sieboldit, 
Nuttalia cerasiformis, Buxus rosmarinifolia, Andromeda 
polifolia major. 


Mr. SYMINGTON GRIEVE exhibited specimens of Didymodon 
recurvifolius and Aulocomnion turgidum from Craig More, 
Glen Lochy, as well as specimens of the latter from 
Strobinnian. 


Dr. Wm. Watson exhibited a large collection of Scottish 
Mosses. 


Mr. Murray read a communication entitled: A Moss 
Hunt in Argyllshire, and exhibited specimens of the species 
referred to. 


MEETING OF THE Society, May 9, 1901. 
The Rev. Davin Pau, M.A., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


Mr. W. Boyp, of Faldonside, exhibited specimens of 
Gyromitria (sp.), sent by Mr. J. Boyd, of Cherrytrees, 
Roxburghshire, where the plant has appeared for many 
years in an outside fernery. 


vill TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


The PRESIDENT exhibited specimens of Lycoperdon 
Saccatum, Vahl., found by Mr. Symington Grieve growing 
under Spruce trees at Kershope House, near Carlisle. 


The Present exhibited a collection of plants found by 
Mrs. Grieve in the neighbourhood of Kershope House, and 
including Ophioglossum vulgatum, Listera ovata, Valeriana 
officinalis, ete. 

The ASSISTANT-SECRETARY read an abstract of a com- 


munication by Mr. Charles E. Hall entitled: Effects of 
Weather on Tree Growth. 


MEETING OF THE Society, June 13, 1901. 


The Rev. Davip Paut, M.A., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


Mr. Ropert Lrnpsay exhibited a new Hybrid Saxifrage 
—Saxifraga MacNabiana x S. Lantoscana, var. superba. 


Professor J. M. MAcFARLANE, D.Sc., of Philadelphia, read 
a communication entitled: Plant Distribution in Eastern 
America. The paper was illustrated by limelight views of 
the plants and districts referred to. 


MEETING OF THE Society, July 11, 1901. 


The Rev. Davin Paut, M.A., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


The PRESIDENT intimated that he had received a letter 
from General Sir Dighton M. Probyn, Keeper of His 
Majesty’s Privy Purse, intimating, in reply to the applica- 
tion of the Society, that it was the pleasure of the King to 


grant his patronage to the Society. 
On the motion of Dr. WM. Craic, it was remitted to the 
President to suitably acknowledge General Sir Dighton M. 


Probyn’s letter. 

Mr. A. Murray read a communication entitled: The 
Hepaticae of Argyllshire, and exhibited specimens of the 
plants referred to. 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


SESSION LXV. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.—ON THE FERNS, ESPECIALLY THE 
Finmy Ferns, oF JAMaicaA. By Rev. Davin Pavt, 
LL.D., Edinburgh. 


(Delivered 8th November 1900.) 


There are few botanical subjects on which I should feel 
any confidence in addressing a society like this. But, as 
you have done me the honour to call me to the chair—an 
honour which I greatly appreciate, and for which I 
sincerely thank you,—the least I can do is to take 
advantage of the opportunity offered me to-night, and read 
you a paper dealing with some corner of the great field of 
botanical science. After reviewing one or two of these 
corners into which I have chanced to stray, I have come 
to the conclusion that I could not, perhaps, do better than 
offer to you some remarks on the Ferns of Jamaica, partly 
because the subject seems interesting in itself, and partly 
because it possesses something of novelty, as almost none 
of us have had the privilege of exploring the flora of that 
beautiful island, one of the fairest and richest in vegeta- 
tion in the great British Empire. With the exception, 
perhaps, of the island of Ceylon, there is no part of Her 
Majesty’s dominions that so teems with plant life in varied 
and remarkable forms, and, with the exception perhaps of 


TRANS. BOT. SOC, EDIN. VOL. XXII. A 


2 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXV. 


New Zealand, there is no part of it which displays such an 
extraordinary wealth of fern life. It would be impossible 
to deal in a paper like this with the whole subject of the 
Ferns of Jamaica—the number of species, and even of 
genera, being so great, as we shall presently see. It will 
be better to confine its limits mainly to the fascinating 
croup of Filmy Ferns represented by the genera Hymeno- 
phyllum and Trichomanes, merely adding some observations 
on one or two of the more remarkable forms that occur 
outside of these genera. 

It will be necessary, first, to say something in regard to 
the physical features of the island itself, by way of explan- 
ation of the fact that ferns of all kinds find there a home 
so well adapted to their nature and requirements. 

Jamaica, then, is a hilly or, rather, mountainous island. 
There is very little level ground, even along the seacoast. 
Everywhere the land begins to rise almost at once, 
gradually ascending to the heights of the central chain 
of hills, which, in the Blue Mountains, attain an elevation 
of more than 7000 ft. There is thus great variety of 
temperature and climate. In the lowlands, the mean 
temperature is about 75° at night, and about 85° during 
the day, but the heat is tempered by both land and sea 
breezes. At Newcastle (3800 ft.), the mean temperature 
of the hottest month (July) is 68°, and of the coolest 
month (January) 61°. As you ascend still higher the 
mean temperature, of course, proportionately falls, till you 
gain the summit of the Blue Mountains, where frost has 
been occasionally, but rarely, registered. A large part 
of the surface of the island is therefore free from the 
excessive tropical heat under which the great majority of 
ferns cannot luxuriate. But ferns demand something else 
than moderately cool temperature, they must have both 
shade and moisture. Shade they receive in abundance 
from the bush or scrub—one can hardly call it forest— 
that clothes the hillsides, and is generally dense enough to 
screen them from the direct rays of the sun. There is no 
lack of moisture either. Streams everywhere run down 
from the upper regions to the sea, more than one hundred 
of them in all. Then from these streams, and from the 
ocean, the heat of the sun raises copious vapours, which 


Noy. 1900. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 3 


produce, as they ascend, clouds saturated with moisture, 
and these, coming into contact with the colder strata of air 
aloft, are condensed, and fall on the hills in frequent and 
heavy showers, sometimes in torrents. It will be well, as 
bearing closely on the subject in hand, to give some idea of 
what the rainfall is. I will take the year from April 
1895 to March 1896, as being the year which covers my 
residence in the island. At Kingston, near the sea-level, 
the rainfall was 22-3 in.; at the Hope Botanic Garden, at 
an elevation of 600 ft., it was 50°98 in.; at the Castleton 
Botanic Garden, nearly the same altitude, it was 108°88 
in.; at the Hill Gardens, which lie 4900 ft. above the sea, 
it was 122-45 in.; and on the Blue Mountain peak, at a 
height of 7423 ft. it was 176°86 in. And though some 
months are very much more rainy than others, there was 
no month in which the rainfall, at least on the higher 
grounds, was not considerable. It would seem then that 
Jamaica possesses all the requisites necessary for the 
luxuriant growth of such a plant as the fern—shade, 
moisture, and a temperature which varies at different 
elevations from heat to comparative coolness. A_ fitter 
home for this particular class of plants could not be 
conceived. 

But, as a matter of fact, are ferns found there in such 
numbers and variety as to warrant us in regarding their 
abundance as something phenomenal? Let us institute a 
comparison between Jamaica and the British Isles. But 
observe, first of all, that the area of Jamaica is only about 
four thousand square miles, a little less, ze., than the area 
of Inverness-shire, including in the county the islands that 
form part of it. Now in the whole of the British Isles 
there are, according to the last edition of the London 
Catalogue, only 20 genera of ferns, containing 47 species, 
and of these genera, 11 have only 1 species apiece. In 
Jamaica, on the other hand, there are, according to the 
most recent authority, Mr. Jenman, of Demerara, no fewer 
than 45 genera, with 473 species—all within that small 
area, about equal in size to Inverness-shire—more than 
ten times as many as occur in the whole of Great 
Britain and Ireland. Many of the genera too are very 
rich in species. The genus Cyathea has 16 species, Pleris 


4 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXV. 


has 20, Hymenophyllum has 23, Trichomanes has 25, 
Adiantum has 27, Acrostichum has 33, Nephrodium has 
56, Asplenium has 58, and Polypodiwm has 79, «e. the 
Polypodia alone are more than twice as many as all our 
species taken together. These are very remarkable facts, 
and they show how perfectly adapted Jamaica is to that 
particular form of vegetation. Indeed, when one is intro- 
duced for the first time to that fern paradise, one feels 
perfectly bewildered by the number of different forms that 
are met with on every side, and a residence in the island 
would require to be somewhat prolonged to enable one to 
make the acquaintance of even the commoner species. 
During a part of the time I spent there I had the 
advantage of having as a companion in fern-rambles a 
member of our Society, Mr. Neill Fraser, whose knowledge 
of fern botany is both accurate and extensive, and without 
whose aid I should not have been able to learn half as 
much as I did. 

There is one class of ferns that has a special attraction 
for a botanist in Jamaica, and which he can never 
sufficiently admire for their great delicacy and beauty,—I 
mean those that go under the general name of Filmy Ferns, 
beeause of the film-like translucency of their structure. 
They belong to the genera Hymenophyllum and Tricho- 
manes. From the three species which occur in this 
country one can form no idea of the grace and loveliness 
of the tropical forms, and dried specimens, however care- 
fully they are dried, give but a poor conception of their 
appearance when seen in their natural habitats. Two of 
our british species occur in Jamaica, one of them, Hymeno- 
phyllum Tunbridgense, on decaying logs in forests at an 
altitude of 5000 to 7000 ft., and the other, 77ichomanes 
radicans, common throughout the island on moist ground, 
from a low elevation to the highest slopes of the hills. 
Hymenophyllum wnilaterale, Bory, is not a Jamaican or 
West Indian plant. There is nothing more interesting, 
when botanising in a foreign country, than to find a plant 
which is rare and much-prized here occurring day after 
day in many different localities, as we find Woodsia ilvensis 
in Norway, or Lloydia serotina in Switzerland, or T7icho- 
manes radicans in Jamaica. ‘There is another species of 


Noy. 1900.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 5 


Trichomanes in Jamaica, 7. rigidum, Sw., which has very 
much the appearance of 7. radicans, but is a much more wiry 
and stiff plant, growing on the ground in damp woods, and 
more luxuriant the higher you ascend. The rootstock 
does not creep as in 7. radicans, but the plant rises in a 
tufted form; the fronds, however, are cut in the same 
fashion, and the dark green colour is characteristic of both. 
The great majority of the filmies are not to be met with at 
the low elevation at which 7. radieans occurs, although 
there are a few that may be found fairly low. They occur 
in greatest profusion at a height of from 5000 to 6000 ft. 
Below that altitude you will find more species of Yvricho- 
manes than of Hymenophyllum, the latter, with the 
exception of H. polyanthos and one or two others, almost all 
growing at least above 4000 ft., whereas 7. punctatum, 
T. sphenoides, T. Kraus, T. sinuosum, T. Bancrofti, T. 
scandens, T. radicans, and T. rigidwm can all be found 
at comparatively low elevations, their range extending, 
however, in most cases far up the mountain sides. The 
happy hunting-ground for the filmies is then from 5000 ft. 
right up to the summits of the hills. And this creates a 
difficulty, for it is exceeding difficult to find any kind of 
accommodation at such a height. If it had not been for 
the hospitality of Mr. Fawcett, the Director of the Jamaica 
Public Gardens, Mr. Neill Fraser and I would have been 
unable to prosecute our researches. But Mr. Fawcett was 
at that time living at the Hill Garden, at an elevation of 
5000 ft., quite close to slopes of hill forest which exactly 
suited our purpose, and, in addition to his kind reception 
of us into his house, he put his botanical knowledge and 
his herbarium at our disposal, so that we had the best 
opportunity of making the most of a short visit. 

I remember, the first morning after we arrived, following 
a path that led gradually upwards towards Morse’s Gap, 
and passing great tangled thickets of Gleichenia, seeing, 
also, what seemed a strange sight there, quantities of Pteris 
aquilina, the same as, and yet apparently slightly different 
from, our common brake. I remember noticing a gigantic 
tree-fern, Cyathea pubescens, Mett., 1 think, about forty feet 
high, the long, thin stem bending a little out of the 
perpendicular, and supporting a graceful plume of fronds 


6 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. txv. 


at the top. On the bank, on one side, a quantity of wild 
strawberries were showing their ripe fruit in the month of 
January. On the mossy root of a tree we were delighted 
to discover a number of tiny plants of Xiphopteris serrulata, 
or Polypodium serrulatum as it is also called, of which I 
have a specimen here, a curious little fern, which I after- 
wards found in great abundance on the Soufriére, in St. 
Vincent. There was something at every step to catch the 
eye, and to hinder our progress. But at last we got to the 
Gap, where the path led down to the other side of the 
mountain range, and then we plunged upwards into the 
wood in quest of the filmies, which we knew were there. 
The atmosphere among the trees was close and muggy. 
The soil under our feet and the tree-trunks around us were 
saturated with moisture—moisture which never dries up, 
for the damp vapours at that height are always wrapping 
the hills in their folds, and the direct rays of the sun 
cannot penetrate. In such a spot it is not to the ground, 
but to the trees, to the trunks and the branches, that you 
look for the filmies you have come to seek. For one 
growing on the ground there are a hundred on the trees. 
On the wet surface of the cracked and fissured bark the 
fern spores find an ideal place to germinate in. The stems 
of some of the tree-ferns, in particular, being clothed with 
aérial rootlets, or covered with a rough draffiness, form the 
very kind of home that the tender filmies love to dwell 
in. Let us look about us, then, and see what there is to 
reward us for coming all the way from Scotland into this 
strange, far-off, solitary place, where the whistle of the 
-steam-engine has never been heard, and Nature reigns 
alone, as she has done from the creation of the world. 
Here, on this fern-stem, is a mass of dark-green Z’richomanes 
trichoidewm, Sw., surely the daintiest plant that grows, the 
delicate fronds rismg from its thread-like, creeping root- 
stock, and cut into segments fine as hairs, bearing the 
diminutive fructification, which is yet perfect in all its 
parts—cup, sori, and protruding seta. To find this gem 
of a plant alone, in all the ideal grace of its fairy-like 
fronds, is recompense enough for the expenditure of much 
time and trouble. But there are other things quite as 
good in their way. Here, for instance, is Hymenophyllum 


Noy. 1900. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH if 


asplenioides, Sw., hanging down by its hair-like stem from 
the horizontal bough of a tree, with its narrow, tapering 
fronds, six or seven inches long, bright green and trans- 
parent, beautiful both in colour and in form. And here, 
too, growing in a similar position, is another very fine 
filmy of a peculiar brownish grey colour, forming a great 
mass of narrow, pendent fronds, eighteen inches or more in 
length, and covered all over with a woolly hairiness. It is 
H. sericeum, Sw., a fern that has a character of its own, and 
can be mistaken for no other. I believe it is very difficult 
to cultivate in this country, its dense woolliness rendering 
it very liable to damp off. Among filmies of this elegant, 
tapering, pendent type of frond may be mentioned here 
Trichomanes sinuosum, Rich., though it does not grow at 
this altitude, and does not seem to be very common in 
Jamaica at all. I found it in fine form near the Grand 
Etang, in Grenada. In my specimens, the frond, exclusive 
of the short stem, reaches to ten inches. It has something 
of the look of Hymenophyllum asplenioides, but the lobes 
are much sharper. It is very thin in the texture, and 
of a fine pale green colour. It is partial to the trunks of 
tree-ferns, and seems, as Mr. Jenman notes, to prefer 
Cyathea elegans, Hew., which has a stem covered with 
prickles and fibres, affording the creeping rootstock the 
hold and the nourishment it requires. TZvrichomanes 
scandens, L., again, though its fronds also hang down, 
has not the slender footstalk of those others; it is much 
stiffer and stronger, and the multifid fronds, a foot long, 
are firmer in texture, so that they merely droop, instead of 
being completely pendent. The colour is a golden green, 
and it is very beautiful as it is seen climbing up the trunk 
of a tree-fern, the fronds standing out at regular intervals. 
Like the last, it prefers a lower elevation, and is mostly, if 
not always, found on the same Cyathea elegans. I will 
only glance at one or two of the smaller species, as an 
enumeration and description of each of them would be 
tedious to those who have not seen them growing in their 
native home, however much one might like to linger over 
them, and recall the scenes in which they were first 
observed. Among the small ones there that grow at a 
height of 5000 ft., one is sure to notice Hymenophyllum 


8 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXV, 


lanatum, Fée, a tiny thing, with tender pendent fronds 
about an inch long, which are clothed with soft hairs, 
and lie imbricated over one another in close patches, 
which are often very large. It is of a brownish grey 
colour, like that of H. sericeum, and the individual fronds 
are in shape like the feathers drawn from a small bird’s 
breast. The only other it could be confounded with is 
H, hirsutum, Sw., which has also little pendent fronds, 
forming large patches, but they are longer, of a different 
colour, and more divided. But none of the small ones 
surpass H. elegantissimum, Fée, in beauty, with its very 
narrow, slightly divided fronds and wavy margins. It 
is a perfect gem; but I must allow the dried specimens 
to speak for themselves, although fronds separated for dry- 
ing cannot give an idea of the beauty of a mass of it with 
every frond hanging down distinct. I must pass over, 
merely naming them—HJHZ. fucoides, Sw.; H. polyanthos, one 
of the most abundant everywhere in the island above 1500 
ft.; H. clavatum, Sw.; H. axillare, Sw.; H. lineare, Sw.; and 
H, hirtellum, Sw. With regard to H. ciliatum, Sw., which 
is frequent in Jamaica, I found on the Soufriére, in St. 
Vincent, a fern which answers very closely to the descrip- 
tion of H. ciliatwm, but differs so greatly in size as to be 
entitled to rank at least as a distinct variety. The fronds 
of the Jamaican H. ciliatum are stated by Mr. Jenman to 
have a length of from one and a half to three and a half 
inches, whereas my Soufriére form attains a length of from 
six to ten inches, and was found growing, not only on logs, 
but also on the ground. There did not seem to be 
anything special in the nature of the habitat to account 
for this great increase of size. This St. Vincent plant was 
quite the most beautiful of the larger Hymenophyllums I 
saw in the West Indies. We were fortunate in finding, 
in the short time at our disposal, fourteen out of twenty- 
three species of Hymenophyllums that occur in Jamaica ; 
two of the others have been only once found, and there 
remain only seven, which are not rare, and would probably 
have been found by us had our opportunities been greater. 

Of twenty-five species of Z'richomanes described by Mr. 
Jenman as occurring in Jamaica, we succeeded in discover- 
ing seventeen, or perhaps sixteen, for I am not sure, of 


Nov. 1900. } BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 9 


T. reptans, Sw. Three, at anyrate, of these, however— 
T. pinnatum, Hedw.; T. spicatum, Hedw.; and 7. Kaulfussit, 
Hook. and Grev., I did not see in Jamaica at all. 7. 
pinnatum is perhaps not found there; 7. spicatum is very 
rare, and so is 7. Kauwlfussti. I found 7. pinnatum and 
T. Kaulfussii in Grenada, and 7. spicatum low down on the 
Soufriére, in St. Vincent. We were not able to find 7. 
lucens, Sw., which is a very beautiful fern, and is not 
uncommon at a high altitude in Jamaica; but a coloured 
man who was with us picked one plant and brought it to 
us. Even after that encouragement, however, we did not 
manage to find another. But we found, either then or 
afterwards, 7. sphenoides, Kze.; T. pusillum, Sw:; T. Krausia, 
Hook. and Grev.; 7. membranaceum, L.; T. sinwosum, Rich.; 
T. crispum, L.; T. alatum, Sw.; T. Bancrofti, Hook. and 
Grev.; 7. pyxidiferum, L., a very lovely little plant; 7. 
trichoideum, Sw.; T. scandens, L.; T. radicans, Sw.; and 
T. rigidum, Sw. 

A class of plants so tender and beautiful as the tropical 
filmy ferns have naturally attracted fern-growers in this 
country, but the cultivation of them has been attended with 
only partial success. One great difficulty has been to 
obtain healthy and vigorous plants at the outset. They 
may be sent over in Wardian cases, but then they require 
to be looked after on the voyage by someone who under- 
stands how to manage them; and even then a Wardian 
case is a buiky and brittle article. If they are packed in 
a tin box in the ordinary way, it 1s exceedingly difficult to 
strike the happy medium between packing them too wet 
and packing them too dry; and they reach this country 
either shrivelled up for lack of moisture or blackened by 
damp, so that only a very small percentage of the plants 
despatched from the West Indies are fit for growing. But 
even if you have good plants to start with, it is by no 
means easy to copy the conditions under which they grow 
in their native climate. You must give them a warm, 
moist atmosphere, and not too much light; but the 
atmosphere ought not to be stagnant; and the tender 
kinds may very easily be kept too warm and too moist. 
They are very apt to rot with damp, especially the hairy 
species like Hymenophyllum lanatum and H. sericeum, or 


10 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. xxv. 


you may be just able to keep them alive, without their ever 
striking away into vigorous growth. Anyone who could 
discover a method of sending them over to this country 
in quantity and in a healthy state would find it a paying 
business; but it is just as well that it is not worth anyone’s 
while to strip the woods of Jamaica of the rarer species 
with the object of supplying the English market. There is 
no doubt that the cultivation of these plants is better 
understood than it was a few years ago, as a proof of 
which one may point to the small collection in the Edin- 
burgh Botanical Garden, where some of the species are 
thriving wonderfully well. 

If time were of no account one would like, in speaking 
of the ferns of the high woods of Jamaica, to mention 
some of the interesting little Polypodiums which grow in 
positions exactly similar to those of the filmy ferns, 
dependent from the trunks or boughs of trees. As I have 
said, the genus Polypodiwm is a very large one in Jamaica, 
consisting of 79 species, more than fifty of which grow on 
trees. Some of the largest ones, as, eg., P. chnoodes, 
Spreng., are very beautiful plants, but to me the most 
interesting were the smaller ones, growing at a_ high 
altitude. I have already mentioned the curious Avphopteris 
serrulatum, Kaulf., which is really a Polypodiwm, though 
the sori ultimately run into one another and form a con- 
tinuous line. Then there are P. graminewm, Sw.; P. 
marginellum, Sw.; P. trichomanoides, Sw.; P. basi-attenuatum, 
Jenm.; P. moniliforme, Lag.; the beautifully soft, golden 
brown P. cultratwm, Willd.; P. suspensum, Linn.; P. 
piloselloides, Linn.; and P. lanceolatum, Linn. Most of 
these could probably be made to grow in this country 
alongside of the filmies, but, perhaps, they would be even 
more liable to damp off, and would require a compartment 
to themselves. 

Of the general fern flora of Jamaica, of its various kinds 
of tree-ferns, of its numerous species of Adiantum, Pteris, 
Asplenium, Nephrodium, Acrostichum, which abound in 
every moist and shady locality, or of the many curious 
genera that are represented by one species or by a very 
few, I will say nothing at present, beyond making the 
general remark that it is amazing to see how freely a large 


Noy. 1900. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 11 


number of the species are distributed, and the immense 
number of the individual plants. It has been said that 
within a radius of one hundred yards you may, in some 
places, gather specimens of 50 different species. At any- 
rate, one is greatly struck with the prodigality with which 
they are scattered wherever ferns will grow—in woods, on 
shady banks, among rocks, and by streams. The ferns are 
undoubtedly the features of an island which is luxuriant 
in all manner of vegetation. Even the casual tourist, who 
does not know one fern from another, is struck by their 
multitude and their diversity. Accustomed, as we are, to 
the very small number of species that can be gathered in 
any one even of the largest counties of Scotland—in 
Perthshire, ¢.g., only 31 at the most—it seems incredible 
that in Jamaica, which is not double the size of Perthshire 
by 1200 square miles, one who knew them well could in 
a very short time gather 300 different species and still 
leave 175 of the rarer kinds untouched. And the same 
remarks apply generally, though perhaps in a somewhat 
less degree, to the only other two of the West Indian 
islands I visited—Grenada and St. Vincent. Anyone who 
loves ferns, and has means and leisure, would find that a 
holiday spent in any of those islands would repay him a 
thousandfold in the interest and pleasure he would 
experience at the time, and in a store of delightful 
recollections which would be a cherished possession to him 
all the days of his life. 

I will conclude by mentioning two Jamaican ferns, 
which are of unusual interest. The first is Schizewa elegans, 
Sw., of which I have some very fine specimens on one 
of the sheets. In Jamaica it is an exceedingly rare fern. 
It was gathered by Purdie, as Mr. Jenman notes, in 1844, 
on the Bluevale Mountains, at an altitude of 2000 ft. 
It was not found again, I think, until quite recently, when 
it was discovered in a wood by the side of the road that 
leads from Retirement to Accompong, the settlement of 
the Moroons. It was there that I was able to secure a 
number of specimens. It belongs to the same tribe as the 
common Anemia adiantifolia, Sw., of which I also show a 
specimen, and the no less common Lygodium volubile, Sw., 
which climbs up trees to a height of twenty or thirty feet, 


12 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. Lxv. 


but it has the honour of occupying a genus by itself. It is 
distinguished by its fan-like dichotomously divided fronds, 
and by its curious fringe-like fertile appendages on the 
terminal margins, the capsules mixed with chestnut- 
coloured hairs. It is not so rare, I believe, on the 
mainland of South America, opposite the West Indian 
Islands. It was one of the plants brought from Mount 
Roraima. 

The other fern I would mention is still more curious 
and rare, and I possess only a single small frond of it. 
It was originally discovered by my friend, Mr. E. F. im 
Thurn, on that same Mount Roraima, from which he 
brought so many interesting things in 1884, and there is 
a drawing of it in the Botanical Transactions of the 
Linnean Society for July 1887. It has been named 
LEnterosora Campbellii, Baker. Three years after its original 
discovery, it was found in Jamaica “on the tops of high 
trees in the forests where Lelia monophylla grows, Rose 
Hill and Greenhill Wood, St. Andrew Parish.” It is very 
like Polypodium trifurcatum, Linn., in outward appearance, 
so much so that it was confounded by the discoverer with 
that fern. But its fructification is very different. The 
sori are at first immersed in the substance of the frond, 
and at length are partially seen on the lower surface 
through narrow oblique slits, that look as if they had been 
made with a penknive through the epidermis. There is 
no other species known. The fronds attain a length of 
six inches, so that my frond is a very small one, but the 
peculiar fructification is distinctly seen on it. I am sorry 
to say I did not find a plant of it. It may be regarded as, 
at present at least, one of the rarest ferns in the world. . 

I must apologise for addressing you on a subject that 
cannot be interesting to all of you, and the fact that our 
Society does not lmit its scope to the flora of our own 
islands, but concerns itself with the botany of every land, 
must be my excuse. 


Note.—In the preparation of this paper I have been greatly assisted 
by the ‘‘Synoptical List, with Descriptions, of the Ferns and Fern- 
Allies of Jamaica, by G. 8. Jenman, Superintendent, Botanical Garden, 
Demerara,” published in the Bulletin of the Botanical Department, 
Jamaica. 


Nov. 1900. } BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 13 
/ 


On THE First RECORDED OCCURRENCE OF CHARA BALTICA 
IN Scortanp. By F. C. CRAWFORD. 
(Read 8th November 1900.) 

On 31st August 1900, when looking for plants in Loch 
Stennis, in Orkney, I pulled up a lot of a Chara which was 
new to me, and I sent it to Mr. James Groves, who replied 
that it was Chara Baltica, Bruzel, and that this was the 
first record of its having been found in Scotland. 


Mr. Groves pointed out that this Chara is a different 
form to that of var. afinis, which is an extreme form, 
closely bordering on Chara hispida, whereas the Loch 
Stennis plant is much more like the Scandinavian plant. 

Mr. Groves also points out “that if you examine the 
cortex you will notice that the primary series of cells are 
slightly the more prominent, so that the spine-cells do not 
appear to be in furrows, as in the vulgaris and hispida section.” 

The above micro-photograph shows the uniformity of 
size in the cortical cells, and the absence of ridges which 
characterise the vulgaris and hispida sections. 


NOTES ON THE BrItIsH DISTRIBUTION OF GLAUCIUM FLAVUM, 
CRANTZ, THE HORNED Poppy. By ALEX. SOMERVILLE, 
B.Sce., F.LS. 

(Read 10th January 1901.) 
The following notes on the Horned Poppy, Glaucium 


flavum, Crantz, are not submitted because of any rarity of 
the species, most botanists being acquainted with the plant, 


14 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. Lxv. 


but because it may be spoken of as a ‘ vanishing quantity, 
more so, perhaps, in Scotland than elsewhere in the United 
Kinedom. This arises, doubtless, not from any natural 
tendency in the plant itself to extinction (though the fact 
of so large a species being an annual, and not a biennial or 
still longer-lived, is suggestive of danger), but that, owing 
to its size and striking appearance when in flower, it 
becomes a prey to the ruthless thoughtlessness of the human 
species. A subsidiary cause, no doubt, les in the fact that 
its habitat is the narrow fringe of shingly and shifting soil 
lying between cultivated ground and the sandy seashore, its 
territory in consequence being liable to be trespassed on by 
the plough on the one hand and by the waves zroAvddoleBovo 
@adaoons on the other. It is thus a child of misfortune, 
and certainly claims our sympathy and protection. 

Within human memory, the Horned Poppy must have 
been an object commonly to be met with on the shores 
of the firths both of Clyde and of Forth, wherever situation 
permitted. How different is the case to-day! So far as 
the counties bordering on the Clyde estuary are concerned, 
only at two spots, and at these most sparingly, can lingering 
plants now be seen, viz. on the Island of Bute, within the 
enclosed shore area at Mount Stuart, and on the Lesser 
Cumbrae. Botanists, with the true spirit in them, speak 
with reserve of the spots on those insular regions where 
Glaucium still blooms. When we turn to the work, pub- 
lished in 1837, by Hewett Cottrell Watson, dedicated to 
Sir William Hooker, and entitled “The New Botanist’s 
Guide to the Localities of the Rarer Plants of Britain,’ and 
look under the head of Dumbartonshire, we find it there 
stated of Glauciwm flavum—* on the shore at Helensburgh, 
plentifully,’-—no living botanist, however, whom we know 
of has ever seen Glauciwm there, the inroads of civilisation 
at that point on the Dumbartonshire coast having been too 
strong for the plant to battle with. Then, if we turn in 
the work named to Argyllshire, which is taken as including 
the adjacent islands from Arran to Mull, we find it said— 
“ Arran, abundant,’—but though the writer of this paper 
and others have worked the Arran coast pretty carefully for 
many years, Glaucium has never been met with in that 
paradise of botanists and other scientific workers. It is 


Jan. 1901. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 15 


significant that in the late Rev. Dr. Landsborough’s 
“Excursions in Arran,” issued first in 1847, and in 
Bryce’s “Arran,” which appeared some years later, in the 
list of the plants of the island carefully compiled by the 
now ex-Cabinet Minister, Mr. James Bryce, Glaucium finds 
no place. On the Ayrshire coast opposite, though we find 
there conditions very favourable for Glaucium at points 
throughout its entire length, we require to-day to go to the 
extreme south of the county, to the neighbourhood ot 
Ballantrae, before Glaucium can be seen. 

On the shores of the Forth estuary matters are not much, 
if at all, better. We examined, last summer, a considerable 
stretch of suitable coast at Largo Bay, Fife, with the result 
that, on the littoral margin of the desolate Kilconquhar 
links, we could find but a single plant of Glaucium, from 
which one or two branches were taken by us, the plant 
itself, a large one, being left to develop further pods. 
Coming westward, and crossing the firth into Linlithgow- 
shire, Mr. Sonntag states, in his “Flora of Edinburgh and 
Surrounding District” (1894), that he found Glauciwm 
growing at Blackness, but we know not whether it is still 
to be found there. Midlothian has long been deserted by 
the Horned Poppy. In Haddington it occurs, though now 
exceedingly sparingly. 

The latest careful county census of Glaucium in Scotland 
is by Professor Trail in his “ Topographical Botany of Scot- 
land,” now appearing in the “ Annals of Scottish Natural 
History.” The counties which Professor Trail gives are 
the following, taking the west coast first, viz—(72) Dum- 
fries; (73) Kirkeudbright; (74) Wigtown; (75) Ayr; 
(76) Renfrew (in which last it must now be considered 
extinet); (98) Argyll; and (100) Clyde Isles (ze. Bute- 
shire). We reject his (99) Dumbartonshire record, as the 
plant is no longer known as occurring in that county. On 
the east coast the counties are—(81) Berwick; (82) Had- 
dington ; not (835) Midlothian ; (8+) Linlithgow; and (85) 
Fife. There is a doubted record from the inland county 
(82) Roxburgh, and one from (95) Elgin, and we are 
informed also by the late Professor Dickie that it at one 
time grew on the (91) Kincardine coast, but had long been 
extinct there. Curiously, H. Cottrell Watson mentions a 


16 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess uxv. 


casual occurrence of Gilaucium at one locality in 
Shetland. 

In England and Wales there are existing records of 
Glaucium in no fewer than twenty-eight out of the thirty 
maritime counties, the two exceptions, strange to say, being 
Northumberland and Durham. 

In Ireland the recently-issued second edition of the 
“Cybele Hibernica,” by Messrs. Colgan and Scully, states 
Glaucium to be found on the coasts of almost all Ireland ; 
and that, though local, it is abundant in Dublin and 
Wicklow, rare in many of the other maritime counties, 
and absent from the two north-easterly ones—Antrim and 
Londonderry. 

In north-western Europe, Mr. Arthur Bennett, F.LS., 
kindly informs us that Glauciwm occurs at eleven coast 
localities in south Norway, and in the provinces of Halland 
and Bohus, in Sweden; in Holland also, though it is rare, 
and in Belgium, though very rare. 

The home of the six species of Glauciwm known to 
science 1s the Mediterranean region. Two only, G. flavum 
and G. corniculatwm, occur in France, and the same two in 
Italy ; but all six are met with in Syria and Palestine, and 
are described in Dr. Post’s recently issued “ Flora of Syria 
and Palestine.” One, G. aleppicum, Boissier, has petals of 
a rich crimson colour, and all, excepting G. flavum, are, 
strange to say, inhabitants, not of the coast - line, 
but of arid ground inland. G. arabicum, Fresenius, is 
met with in stony places between Jerusalem and 
Jericho; and G. grandiflorum, Boissier, in the valley 
of the Kedron. — 

We wish only to refer,in conclusion, to a structural point 
which strikingly distinguishes the plant with which this 
paper has to do, viz. its enormous mature pod, which 
attains to a length of ten, and sometimes even twelve, 
inches, and which leads to the plant’s receiving its English 
name. This pod is a siliqua, formed of two carpels having 
parietal placentation. Though structurally one-celled, the 
ovary becomes two-chambered, owing to a cellular spongy 
development of the placentas, known only to occur in the 
genus Glauciwm. 


~I 


Jan. 1901. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 1 


ON THE COMPARATIVE STATE OF THE FLORA OF THE 
West HIGHLANDS DURING THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY AND 
AT THE PRESENT Time. By Symers M. Macvicar. 


(Read 10th January 1901.) 


It is only of late years that zoologists have seen the 
importance and interest attached to the historical treatment 
of the fauna of this country, and, so far, only with the 
larger forms. Their position in this case is a more simple 
one than that of the botanist, such species of the fauna 
being comparatively few; and a large part, being easily 
recognised without much study, have had consequently 
observers for many years. With plants it is otherwise, 
but botanists have this advantage, that with their knowledge 
of plants in their relation to surrounding conditions, they 
can in many cases determine the probable state of the flora 
for some previous years, provided they know the former 
conditions of the surroundings, and have some knowledge 
of the present flora in its various situations. In a country 
such as Britain, where there has been established for 
centuries the same race of men, with only a slow altera- 
tion in the methods of cultivation, one cannot expect a 
rapid change of features in the flora, as has been seen in 
New Zealand and parts of Australia by the introduction 
of alien plants and otherwise. The rare instance of the 
introduction of Anacharis into rivers and canals in Britain 
is limited to districts outside the West Highlands, and the 
striking features in industrial districts, due to impure air 
which has altered the distribution of some flowering plants 
and of lichens, has not affected the district under considera- 
tion. If a botanist of the eighteenth century were to visit 
the West Highlands at the present time, he would doubtless 
find the most striking difference in the alteration of the 
position and extent of woods, of agriculture with its accom- 
panying weeds, and in the aspect of the moorland parts of 
the hills. On a closer examination, the comparative rarity 
or extinction of certain species, with the introduction or 
increase of others, would be noted. I have attempted here 
to show in some degree how these changes have been 
brought about and are continuing now; the latter in some 

TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL, XXII. B 


18 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss.ixv. 


cases being simply a continuation of former processes, in 
some others a reversion in the direction towards the previous 
conditions. The change in the flora during the short time 
of a century must rarely be capable of proof, except with 
those brought about through the influence of man, but this 
change has probably been greater in the Highlands during 
the last hundred years than in any other part of Britain. 

In every country it is probable that the relative frequency 
of every species of plant is always altering, but this change 
is, in normal conditions, usually of too slow a nature to be 
noted except in a very limited locality. It requires accurate 
observations to be made, in order that succeeding botanists 
may profit by the work of those of an earlier time, and 
even at the present time one cannot help observing the 
usually vague manner in which the quantity in which 
species occur is stated. As there is so much difference 
in the degree of frequency at which plants occur, it is of 
course difficult to define this degree with what must 
necessarily be only a few terms; but I think that definite 
terms might always be used, so that there would be no 
mistake as to what an author intended by the use of the 
term he applied. A few progressive numerals, with a 
distinct meaning, might be attached to such words as 
“common” and “rare,” which would enlarge their signi- 
fication and yet remain definite. 

There is evidence, I think, that some species are 
decreasing naturally in a more rapid manner than would 
be expected without being exposed to evident competition 
with other plants, but it is difficult to understand if this be 
the case why the plant is not already extinct. A case in 
point is Cephalanthera ensifolia. In Scotland it is rare and 
local, occurring in widely separated districts, with only a 
few plants in each locality. 

This may be taken as the sign of a species when native 
once more widely spread, in this case probably when the 
climate was warmer, but which is now decreasing. In 
addition to this, in the district in which it occurs, where I 
know it, it does not appear to form seed in its native site, 
or when transplanted into the garden; and although it 
grows on good soil and is sheltered, it is a much smaller 
plant than south of England specimens which I have seen. 


Jan. 1901. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 19 


It is dying out in this locality, although the surroundings 
are apparently unchanged. ‘There is evidence of a similar 
decrease in other places, as quoted by Mr. G. Claridge 
Druce in his “Contributions towards a Flora of West Ross,” 
in the Transactions of this Society for 1894, where he 
refers to the species as follows, in quoting the experience 
of Dixon at Gairloch:—‘“ The Lpipactis ensifolia,” says 
Dixon, “formerly abundant, is now almost unknown. In 
June 1885, I discovered one plant on a stony bank by 
water. In 1885 two plants were at the same place.” 
This rapid decrease without apparent cause has been noted 
by botanists in the case of other plants; and if the facts 
of such decrease are real, the causes can only be ascertained 
when the relation of the plants to their surrounings are 
better known. 

From the botanists and various travellers during the 
eighteenth century, we learn of the presence of natural 
woods in various parts of the West Highlands where none 
now exist. On the islands there does not appear to have 
been much more than copses, but on the mainland several 
places were occupied with large oak woods. The extinction 
of the copses on the islands seems to have been mainly 
brought about for the sake of fuel, and for improving 
cultivation and pasture. In addition to these causes, the 
large woods on the mainland were destroyed in order to 
make charcoal for smelting purposes. Woods were not 
enclosed, so that cattle had free access to them. The effect 
of this on certain trees, such as the hazel, is to exterminate 
them after having been once cut down, as the young shoots 
are greedily eaten, and the plants soon die. With birch 
this does not occur to quite the same extent, as the shoots 
are seldom so closely eaten down. On geological formations 
with a better class of soil, woods and copses have been in 
many places destroyed, with the idea of improving the 
pasture, since the introduction of sheep farms during the 
latter part of the eighteenth century. The effects of the 
distribution of these woods on the flora of the country has 
probably been more of a local than of any general nature, 
as the woods were not of sufficient extent to influence the 
climate. It must be remembered that the remains of former 
large woods in peat mosses, so general on the mainland and 


20 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sxss. LXV. 


on many islands, point to a much more remote period than 
that which we are considering, but the extinction of the 
White Beam, Pyrus Aria, as a native, and the present 
rarity of Prunus Padus and, perhaps, Viburnum Opulus, 
must be put down to the time we are considering. Herb- 
aceous plants, as Luzula pilosa, which require shade, would 
become locally extinct. The effect on Hepatics would be 
marked, and, to a less extent, on some species of Mosses. 
As there have always been woods remaining in some places, 
as well as other natural shelters, the total extinction of 
species would be rare; and during the latter half of the 
century, with the increase of artificial woods, species which 
require shelter would again find suitable places where hard 
wood plantations were made. They would have little 
advantage from the planting of conifers, as this form of 
plantation until the age of maturity is detrimental to 
undergrowth. The most important botanical effects of the 
introduction of firs and larches is the introduction of species 
of fungi, which only grow in the neighbourhood of these 
trees. This can be seen at the present time in the High- 
lands, in any place where such plantations have been made. 

The distribution of weeds of agriculture must have much 
altered since the eighteenth century. At that time crofter 
holdings were more general over the country, almost every 
piece of land which could possibly be cultivated bearing the 
marks of this. Since that time what increase in extent 
of cultivated land there may be has been mostly limited 
to enlarging farms, and cultivated areas near farmhouses 
and townships, so that instead of having cornfield weeds 
generally distributed throughout the country, we now have 
them almost limited to such farms and townships. The 
reclamation of waste ground did not take place to any 
extent until the introduction of potatoes. This was in 
1743, the first locality being in the island of South Uist. 
The idea of cleaning the fields from weeds was probably 
first thought of in connection with potato culture, as the 
Highlanders were then, as now, proverbially careless in this 
matter. This would introduce a fresh factor in the distri- 
bution of certain weeds, as these are generally thrown on 
to the shores or into rivers; and most of the surprises we 
now see in the presence of agricultural weeds on or near 


Jan. 1901. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 21 


the shores in remote places would seldom if ever have 
taken place before the introduction of potatoes. In forming 
an opinion as to certain doubtful plants being indigenous 
in any locality or the reverse, it is necessary to know the 
manner in which the inhabitants carry on their cultivation. 
On finding a plant such as Galium Aparine or Polygonwm 
Persicaria on some remote part of the shore, it is apt to be 
at once taken as being of the same class of plant as Festuca 
ovina, or any other undoubtedly native species. After an 
examination for some years of the distribution of the 
Galium, I have come to the conclusion that it not a native 
of this coast. It is very common on shingly shores, the 
locality evidently being most suitable for it, but it is always 
most plentiful on the shores near houses and waste places, 
and decreases in proportion to its distance from them. 
Taking this into consideration, with the fact that it is a 
common weed of cultivation—and I have evidence of its 
introduction to an island by this means—TI cannot regard 
it as having the same locus standi in the flora of the district 
as a plant about which there is no doubt. It will at times 
be found in remote places on the shore, but comparatively 
rarely, and stray plants of oats and potatoes can also be 
found in such places. I have given the Galiwm as an 
instance of the care which should be taken in forming an 
opinion as to plants being indigenous in any locality, as 
this species seems so much at home on the shingle, and 
oceasionally forms a distinct habit. Many of our species, 
usually regarded as native, must be placed in the same 
category as the Galiwm. They differ from the ordinary 
native vegetation in that their migration bears distinct 
marks of an introduction by man’s agency, though probably 
often remote; but they are not colonists in the sense of the 
word as used by Watson, as they have now found a suitable 
place of growth independent of agricultural operations. 

The date of the introduction of cornfield weeds must 
always be a matter of conjecture, as agriculture has been 
carried on before there were historical records. Some light 
is thrown on the subject through observations by former 
writers. We learn that there was no change of seed when 
sowing bear, rye, and oats—the only crops of the Highlands. 
This would prevent the introduction of fresh weeds. Some 


22 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. xxv. 


alterations there may have been from the present, when flax 
was cultivated in the West Highlands, as some weeds as 
Cuscuta Epilanum may have occurred which are now absent; 
but it is probable that the introduction of seed from the 
south brought with it some new plants. An improved form 
of oats was introduced into the West Highlands after 1746, 
but did not become general. Clover and ryegrass, which 
were introduced as a crop into Scotland about 1700, were 
not brought into the Highlands until about 1761, and this 
would introduce new weeds. The presence of Zrifolium 
minus in many places must, I expect, date from this time. 
This is at present a common plant on the coast, but in 
the majority of its localities it is among sown grass or 
near it, frequently dying out unless it reaches light 
sandy ground. 7. hybridwm, which is hardly more than a 
casual, would also be introduced after this time. TZ. pur- 
pureum, a native of light sandy soils, especially on the 
islands and on the basalt, was also probably introduced, or 
at least had its distribution extended on other soils, by this 
means. The introduction of Campanula rotundifolia into 
many places in the schistose formation, and such plants as 
Galiwm mollugo and Briza media, would take place. 

Kitchen gardens were first made in the West Highlands 
in 1734, and from this time must date the introduction of 
a few annual weeds into the country, as the little disturbed 
ground of the former gardens for perennial flowering plants 
would bring with them few extraneous forms. As an 
instance of a species spreading from kitchen gardens, I 
have noted Sisymbriwm officinale, which spreads from gardens 
to waste places, and then along roadsides. Its introduction 
is due to accidental mixture with other seeds, as it was not 
used in the Highlands for its medicinal and carminative 
properties. Brassica campestris, B. Rapa, B. nigra, and 
B. alba, which are now to be found in many places remote 
from cultivation, especially along the shores of sandy 
ground, must date their first appearance to about this 
time, as no species of this genus were cultivated in the 
Highlands before this. £&. sinapis, the common char- 
lock, is still a local plant in many parts of the West 
Highlands, and is not established so firmly as in many 
parts of the south, but it may be an older introduction. 


Jan. 1901.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 23 


The local manner in which agricultural weeds are distributed 
in the Highlands is interesting. Land around some town- 
ships may have abundance of weeds, such as Viola arvensis 
or Huphorbia Helioscopia, and they may not be again met 
with for some miles, the intervening farms or crofter 
holdings being without them. This points to probable 
separate centres of introduction, and to the species not 
being able to spread along the intermediate uncultivated 
ground. Some species can spread from one village to 
another along roadsides, as is the case with TZaraxacum 
officinale and Cardamine hirsuta; but if those centres are 
only connected by roads through peaty soil without gravel, 
this extension does not take place. Some effect on the 
quantity of weeds on cultivated ground must have taken 
place when a change of manure was introduced in such 
fields. In the eighteenth century farmers had no byres, 
consequently no dunghills were formed, and seaware, with 
occasionally brackens, was the only manure used, and sea- 
ware is free from weeds. 

A comparison of the flora of existing cultivated ground 
with that of ground formerly under crops, or on disused 
erofts, gives some insight into the question of what species 
are undoubted natives, capable of holding their own with 
the remainder of the vegetation. When former cultivated 
areas on exposed sites are examined, we find the flora now 
to be in no way different from that of the surrounding 
uncultivated ground, except that there are often more 
brackens, due to the soil being better than in the sur- 
rounding parts. In the shelter of the house walls will 
frequently be found Urtica dioica, Arctium minus, and 
Cnicus lanceolatus, a stray plant of the latter occasionally 
finding its way to the immediate neighbourhood. These 
plants do not take a firm hold of the ground except where 
man, cattle, or sheep frequent. Nettles are occasionally 
seen some distance up the hill, but always in cattle or 
sheep shelters, natural or artificial. Where the crofts have 
been in sheltered ground, a few more weeds have been able 
to retain their hold, but as they are most common in such 
places, or inground at present under cultivation, they cannot be 
considered as being of the same standing as the undoubtedly 
long-established native flora. Among these may be mentioned 


24 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess Lxv. 


Rumex obtusifolius, Senecio Jacobea, Ranunculus repens, 
Stachys palustris, S. sylvatica, Veronica arvensis, Cerastiwm 
triviale, C. glomeratum, Stellaria media, Sagina procumbens, 
Prunella vulgaris, Polygonum Persicaria, P. Hydropiper, 
and Poa annua. Cerastiwm triviale is a very common weed 
of cultivation, unfrequent far from it. It is also found on 
hill pastures, where it may be native; but it can be traced 
up the hills in its following cattle and sheep, and I think 
it is probably an addition to the flora of the hills of the 
coast since the introduction of sheep. ©. glomeratwim is an 
agricultural weed, with a tendency to spread from waste 
heaps along roadsides. Sagina procumbens and Poa annua 
are of a similar class to Cerastiwm triviale, probably long 
established near man and animals, but with their. distribu- 
tion increased since the introduction of a greatly increased 
number of animals, viz. south country sheep, at the end of 
the eighteenth century. These two species can be traced 
by following the footsteps of cattle and sheep, as also can 
enecio Jacobea. In autumn, when cattle are feeding on a 
pasture where there is much Senecio, their necks can be 
seen to be covered with the seeds, the pappus being con- 
spicuous; the seeds are thus carried for a considerable 
distance, as I have personally observed. The abundance 
of S. Jacobea is in proportion to its nearness to houses. When 
the ground has been left undisturbed for many years, as in 
deserted crofters’ holdings, this plant is comparatively rarely 
seen, being only able to retain its hold in localities where 
there is little competition, as on rock ledges and seacliffs. 
The frequency of alien plants occurring on seacliffs is due 
to the many bare spots left by weathering, which form 
suitable ground for the species continuing its existence 
through seeding in fresh spots before being killed through 
competition with the native vegetation. Prunella vulgaris 
prefers ground enriched by manure of animals, and although 
it is doubtless an old inhabitant of the low ground, its 
occurrence usually in places on the hills affected by sheep 
show that it must have increased its range with their 
introduction. The occurrence of Polygonum Persicaria 
and P. aviculare in remote places on the shore probably 
has taken place since the introduction of potatoes, as they 
are particularly weeds of damp potato ground cultivated in 


Jay. 1901] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 25 


bP) 


the usual crofter “lazy bed” system, and are thrown into 
rivers or on the shore after field weeding. Stellaria media 
ean only keep permanent hold in places with little competi- 
tion, as on shores and floors of caves, or by frequent renewal 
by being in places much resorted to by animals. It is one 
of the species that can be traced on moors on the dung of 
cattle. Ranunculus repens is almost confined to ground 
that has been disturbed by plough or spade. It does not 
retain its hold for many years on ground that has originally 
been pasture. Its most permanent position is perhaps by 
roadside ditches: these are of course occasionally cleaned, 
and the plant does not spread any distance beyond the 
disturbed ground. Of weeds as introductions of last century, 
the most noticeable is Veronica Buxbawmii, which Watson 
considered as having been introduced into Britain about 
1825. It is still an uncommon plant on the coast. In two 
instances I have known it having made its first appearance 
in gardens, not in cornfields, but it is in the former locality 
that its appearance would be most readily observed. /uncus 
tenwis is a conspicuous introduction of late years. It is 
perhaps not sufficiently known to have been often recog- 
nised, but as it occurs in three localities with which I am 
familiar, it most probably is to be found in others. It 
appears so far to retain its hold when once introduced. 
The same cannot be yet said of Potentilla Norvegica, of 
which there is evidence of its increasing appearance on 
this coast. 

Before the introduction of haymaking in the West 
Highlands, about the year 1756, no attention was paid to 
the kind of grass in fields, and it could only be on the 
introduction of ryegrass and clover that the plants formerly 
mentioned as occurring in sown grass fields would be intro- 
duced. Alopecurus pratensis, Phleum pratense, Poa nemoralis, 
are also evident introductions to some parts through this 
means, as well as an increased distribution, if not the 
introduction, of Bromus mollis, B. commutatus, and Bb. seca- 
linus. B. mollis spreads from cultivated fields along bare 
places by roadsides, and it occasionally reaches sandy shores, 
when it usually becomes dwarfed. 2B. commutatus is a much 
rarer plant, and remains local in its distribution; while 
B. secalinus appears to be hardly more than a casual. 


26 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sxss. LXV. 


Agrostis nigra, a probable introduction of late years, appears 
hardly established as yet. Pastures adjoining sandy shores 
are continually in a state of alteration in some places, 
especially in the Hebrides, many acres being rendered useless 
by having been covered by blown sand, on which little now 
grows except Psamma arenaria. The island of Coll has 
suffered more in this way than any other of the inner 
islands, a considerable amount of destruction having taken 
place in the eighteenth century. M‘Culloch, in “The 
Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland,” 1824, gives 
as the reason why Tiree is not much spoiled in this way is 
that, owing to the island being so flat, blown sand only 
forms thin layers, there being no uneven ground to form 
accumulations. The effect of a small amount of sand, 
containing as it does so much hme, is to improve the 
pasture. The occurrence on these sandy pastures of certain 
plants which are most frequent in other places in limestone 
districts is interesting. A case in point among flowering 
plants is Orchis pyramidalis, which is rare or absent in 
inland parts of Britain except on limestone, but which also 
occurs on sandy shores, due, probably, to the hme from the 
comminuted shells being sufficient for its growth. Among 
Hepatic, I have noticed in such places Scapania aspera, 
considered otherwise almost purely a limestone species ; 
S. aquiloba, most frequent on lmestone; and Legeuna 
Mackaii, on rocks coated with blown sand bordering a 
dune, the last species being also elsewhere most frequently 
met with on lhmestone. Hymus arenarius, a rare native on 
the coast, has been planted in a few places to assist in 
preventing further incursions of the sand; and Psamma 
arenaria, & common native species, has been introduced to 
some parts where it was absent, or in too small quantity 
previously. As early as the time of William 11, an Act 
was passed by the Scottish Parliament for the preservation 
of these two species on the coast, so that it was rendered 
penal for anyone, including the proprietor, to cut them 
or even to have them in their possession within eight 
miles of the coast. This is quoted from Sinclair's “ Hortus 
Gramineus Woburnensis.” It is doubtful, however, if these 
laws were often put in force in the West Highlands. lymus 
was a rare plant on the coast in the eighteenth century. 


Jan. 1901.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 27 


Lightfoot does not appear to have met with it. He mentions 
it in his “ Flora Scotica,’ but in the appendix states that 
the plant was Arundo (Psamma) arenaria, Walker, in his 
“Economic History of the Hebrides,’ mentions Hlymus as 
occurring in several parts of the north coast. He gives it 
for the island of Pabbay, near Broadford, Skye, “ where it 
abounds most,” and says that the “foliage when young is 
eaten down to the very sand by the cattle.” This has also 
been the experience of a proprietor on this coast in recent 
years, and is perhaps one of the causes of its rarity. 

During the eighteenth century, the milk cattle were 
pastured in summer on the hills, and did not come to 
the low ground; the more able bodied of the inhabitants 
living during this time in temporary habitations, termed 
shielings, close to these pastures. Around these shielings 
is now only the surrounding native vegetation, with the 
exception of nettles and a few species which are found in 
other shelters where sheep resort ; but when these shielings 
were occupied, there must have been an introduction of 
some of the more ubiquitous weeds which, as in the case of 
deserted crofts, have since died out. As there was little if 
any cultivation round these habitations, the introduced 
weeds would be fewer than in the case of crofts. 

A considerable alteration in the flora of the hills must 
have taken place since the introduction of south country 
sheep. Previous to this very few sheep were kept, as they 
had to be housed at night, owing to destruction by foxes 
and eagles. Some goats, which were more able to withstand 
these enemies, were kept, but the -principal stock was cattle. 
These were only on the upper parts of the hills in fine 
weather in summer, and we read of the large amount of 
herbage which was left uneaten. Consequently, grass and 
sedges could freely seed, and little if any change in the 
flora of the hills would take place. On the introduction of 
large sheep farms all this was changed, as the number of 
sheep admitted to the hills was only limited by the amount 
of grass, and several of the rare species now confined to 
narrow rocks and ledges would, when they had their natural 
opportunities of seeding, have had a larger distribution. In 
quite recent years the tendency has been to revert to the 
former condition on many hills through the introduction of 


28 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Skss. Lxv. 


deer forests, as more herbage is left unconsumed by deer 
than by sheep. In the lower parts of the hills the intro- 
duction of sheep has made a more conspicuous alteration 
on the flora, as it was only after their introduction that 
heather burning took place. We read of the heather in the 
eighteenth century being as high as a man’s waist, and we 
see at the present time, when it is allowed to grow more 
than a foot or so in height, that the underlying flowering 
plants are choked and die, but that a great increase takes 
place in mosses, especially in Hypnum purum and Thuidiwm 
tamariscenum. When large stretches of such parts of the 
hill ground were thus covered by long heather, other 
flowering plants, especially grasses, must have been much 
scarcer than at the present time. By repeated burning in 
good soil the heather in time becomes destroyed, its place 
being taken by grass, with a mixture of other flowering 
plants. In the memory of people living at the beginning 
of last century, the appearance of hills familiar to them 
had quite changed from the brown of heather to the 
green of grass. An increase in the spread of the bracken, 
unfortunately still going on, is a result of this burning. 
These changes in the flora, though perhaps sometimes over- 
looked, have had more important results than would be the 
case by the presence or absence of some rare species. The 
diminution of many of these rare species by botanists and 
others during the last century is a matter of history, but 
the range of most has been shown of late years to be wider 
than what was previously supposed. 

A later introduction -than that of the south country 
sheep is the rabbit, and the alteration caused by it in the 
flora must be considerable, though not so conspicuous. In 
the eighteenth century these animals were scattered over 
the West Highlands, but only in small quantity. They 
were, during the latter half of last century, introduced for 
the sake of sport, and have now generally overrun the low- 
lying parts. The most noticeable change in the flora which 
they are making is the destruction of the native holly by 
barking the stems. So much is this the case that in some 
districts the continuation of this tree as a native is only 
effected where seedlings have taken hold of inaccessible 
rock ledges. This generally implies only a small amount 


Jan. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 29 


of soil, with insufficient nourishment for trees to become of 
any size and to bear much fruit. Among herbaceous plants, 
an arrested distribution of a rare native species due to these 
animals has come under my observation in the case of 
Mertensia maritima. In one locality this species occurs on 
a small island in an arm of the sea, but not on the adjoining 
mainland. In 1891, one plant made its appearance on the 
sandy shore of the mainland close to this island. It had 
found a favourable site, and the plants increased in number 
for a year or two, and would doubtless have continued to 
spread but were discovered by rabbits, which destroyed them. 
As an instance of a prevented spread of an introduced weed, 
I may give Lepidium Smith. This species appeared among 
sown grass in 1887, and increased by seeding until 1890, 
when it was found out by rabbits and exterminated. As 
these animals now occur in great abundance in many places, 
similar cases must be frequent, though perhaps not often 
noticed. 

Other changes in the flora since the eighteenth century 
may be mentioned, such as those caused by draining, 
increased roadmaking, and more recently by railways. 
Drainage, except as preparatory to reclamation of land for 
cultivation, which has already been spoken of, has probably 
had little effect on the flora of the West Highlands, as, from 
the nature of the ground and of the kind of soil, only small 
portions of any locality can be drained. The native vegeta- 
tion remains unaltered by the larger part surrounding being 
incapable of permanent improvement, and, except in ground 
kept under rotation of crops, returns in a few years to its 
former condition. The effect of making roads is to increase 
the distribution of certain species which are already in the 
district; railways, on the other hand, bring new species. 
The most common communication between districts in the 
eighteenth century was by footpaths only. These have 
little effect in increasing the distribution of species. If the 
paths be through a peaty country, the only plants which 
increase along them appear to be Juncus bufonius and Carex 
ovalis. If the path be in a loamy or gravelly country, we 
find Plantayo major spreading along it. The next stage, 
and the most common means of communication at the 
present time, is the bridle path or rough cart track. Here, 


50 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxv. 


’ 
in addition, several plants are found to spread. The most 
usually seen are Cerastium glomeratum, C. triviale, Sagina 
procumbens, Cnicus lanceolatus, Senicio Jacobea, Prunella 
vulgaris, Polygonum aviculare, P. Persicaria, Pluntago major, 
P. lanceolata, and occasionally individuals of Capsella Bursa- 
pastoris, Spergula arvensis, and Galeopsis Tetrahit. These are 
all more or less doubtfully natives, some are undoubtedly 
introductions, and none of them have the same standing as 
the genuine native flora. The undoubted native plants 
which are found on these roads in no way differ from the 
iminediate surrounding flora. The third kind of road in 
the Highlands, the carriage road, is only noticeable for the 
increase along it of Zaraxacum officinale and Cardamine 
hirsuta, and on the parapets and bridges faced with lime of 
Asplenium Ruta-muraria, and the moss Hncalypta strepto- 
car pa. 

For the dates given of the introduction of crops, ete., 
into the Highlands, I am indebted to Walker’s “ Economic 
History of the Highlands,” published in 1812 after the 
author’s death. Dr. John Walker, who was appointed to 
the Chair of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh 
in 1779, was a naturalist who has not received sufficient 
recognition. An account of his contributions to the natural 
history of Scotland would be interesting and instructive. 


THe Use OF THE TERM BaRK IN RECENT TEXT-BOOKS 
or Botany. By R. Turnsut., B.Sc., Extra-Academical 
Lecturer on Botany, School of Medicine, Edinburgh. 

(Read 14th February 1901.) 

Until 1884, botanists were unanimous. in defining the 
bark of trees as consisting of all the tissues outside the 
cambium zone. The popular definition is “ everything out- 
side of the wood.” These two definitions are practically 
one and the same, since the cambium is known only to the 
vegetable anatomist. 

In 1884, an English translation of De Bary’s “ Com- 
parative Anatomy” (1) appeared, and it was found to 
contain an entirely new definition of bark, viz. “The 
masses of tissue cut off by the corky layer.” This is 
given on the authority of von Mobl, so that bark, according 


Fes. 1901.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 31 


to this view, may be regarded as consisting of all the 
tissues cut off by the phellogen. The aim of this paper is 
to give evidence in favour of the old English definition, and 
to show that the translators’ definition is founded on a mis- 
translation. 

Numerous excellent text-books and translations have 
appeared in English since 1884. In these books, one or 
other of the two definitions has been adopted, according to 
the choice or belief of the writer or translator of each. 
The definitions are incompatible, because the whole is 
greater than its part. 

Bark is a word which has the same spelling in Danish 
and Swedish, and the English form comes from the same 
root as the Anglo-Saxon “beorgan,’ to cover or protect. 
As a purely Anglo-Saxon word it was used by the early 
English before there was a science of botany, and it is an 
unwritten rule that when a popular word with a perfectly 
defined meaning becomes the technical term of any science, 
the technical application shall not differ from that in 
popular use. For example, the wood of many Dicotyledons 
and Gymnosperms consists of heart-wood (duramen) and 
sap-wood (alburnum). No one would be justified in calling 
the former alone the wood of the tree, but it might be called 
the “dead wood” or “ inner wood,” as well as heartwood. 

In the same way, the bark is what les outside the wood 
of the tree, and, generally speaking, the phellogen layer 
may be regarded as separating the “inner, sap-containing, 
living bark” from the “outer, dry, dead bark”; but no 
one would be justified in calling the latter alone the bark. 

There may be dead fibres in the living bark, and a layer 
or two of cells immediately to the outside of the phellogen 
may still live, but these do not affect the general question. 
The cambium of the botanist is a layer of embryonic or 
meristematic tissue, which lies between wood and_ bark. 
It gives rise to new wood towards its inner side, and new 
bast towards its outer side. The bast is therefore the 
inner surface of the bark, and when it contains fibres 
among its softer tissues, as in the lime-tree, it is spoken 
of as liber, which has a certain commercial value under the 
name of bast. Liber, however, is not a term that is now 
used by English botanists. 


32 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. uxy. 


When a botanist defines bark as everything outside of 
the cambium, he does so from a knowledge of the anatomy 
of the tree. When a forester speaks of the bark as that 
which les around the wood, he may be ignorant of the 
presence of a cambium, but he knows that he can peel the 
bark from the wood of the tree. 

The true meaning of bark is implied in the old proverb— 

‘‘Tt were a foly for mee, 
To put my hande betweene the barke and the tree.” (2) 
By tree, in the proverb, is unquestionably meant the wood 
of the tree. The rough classification of the parts of a tree- 
trunk into bark, wood, and pith is that of everyday 
language. 

Nehemiah Grew (3), one of the founders of Vegetable 
Anatomy, said in 1675: “The Z'runk, or Branch of every 
Tree, hath Three General Parts to be described; sc. the 
Barque, the Wood, and the Pith. That likewise of every 
Herbaceous Plant, hath either the same Three Parts; or 
else Three Parts Analogous; sc. the Cortical, the Lignous, 
and the Pithy Parts.” 

From very early times three words have been used in 
English to denote the same structure, viz. bark, rind, and 
cortex. Cortex was taken from the Latin without change, 
and was used in that tongue to indicate the bark as 
distinguished from the wood of trees. It was used by 
English botanists of last generation as a synonym for bark, 
but it has never been a common word among Teutonic 
races, although its derivative, cork, has long been familiar. 

“Cortical system” and “cortical region” are even yet 
used as synonymous with “bark.’ The French also use 
“ corticale”’ in the same sense, and the term is convenient 
enough so long as one does not mistake it for cortex, which 
is now restricted in primary axes to the fundamental 
tissue, which lies between the epidermis and the central 
cylinder, when it is known as primary cortex. In axes 
which develop a phellogen, the phelloderma is often called 
the “secondary cortex.” 

The French have derived écorce from cortex, and use 
that word in the same sense as the old English bark. 

Rind in English is from the Anglo-Saxon rind or rinde, 
and the modern German word is Rinde, meaning bark or 


Fes. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 33 


erust. The Anglo-Saxon berindan, and the German 
abrinden, mean to bark a tree, ie. to peel the rind or 
bark off. It follows from this, therefore, that the rind in 
English and the Rinde in German are separable from the 
wood, and are used in the same sense as our separable bark. 

The modern equivalents in the three languages are— 
English, bark; German, inde; and French, écorce. The 
Germans have another word, Borke, which has the same root 
as our word, bark, but its application is entirely different, 
and it is the mistranslation of Borke which has led to the 
erroneous definition of bark. 

Since bark in English takes the place of Rind in 
German, both scientifically and popularly, the word rind 
in English has lost much of its original meaning, and it is 
seldom used now, except as a name for the separable cover- 
ing of fruit, such as the rind of an orange or other fruit. 
Where rind is still used in a purely botanical sense, it is as 
the synonym of bark. 

For the modern terminology of Vegetable Anatomy and 
Histology, it is best to follow the work of the past ten 
years; and as it scarcely comes within the scope of this 
paper to enter into the details of primary and secondary 
growth in the stems and roots of Spermaphytes, reference 
should be made to the publications of that period. 

The following is naturally an incomplete historical 
sketch of the use of the term, bark, during the nineteenth 
century, but it shows conclusively that the old English 
definition is the correct one :—Martyn (4), 1807“ The 
inner bark (liber).” Wildenow (5, p. 251), 1811—“ The 
outer bark (cortex) .... covers the inner bark (liber) 
.... This is followed by the alburnum, or the soft wood, 
as it is called.” Lindley (6, p. 61), 1832—“The bark is 
the external coating of the stem, lying immediately over the 
wood, to which it forms a sort of sheath, and from which 
it is always distinetly separable.” Von Mohl (7), 1836— 
“Untersuchungen iiber die Entwickelung des Korkes und 
der Borke auf der Rinde der baumartigen Dicotylen.” 

Sachs (18, p. 309) refers to these researches of von 
Mohl in these terms: “ He brought entirely new facts to 
light by his study of the development of cork and the 
outer bark (i.e. Borke) in 1856; these tissues had scarcely 

TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXII. 0 


34 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. Lxv. 
been examined with care till then, and their formation and 
relation to the epidermis and cortical tissue (i. Rinde) 
were quite unknown.” 

The italics and the insertion of the original Borke and 
Rinde are the writer’s. 

In the same work, at p. 508, the following precedes the 
reference to von Mohl:—“ A satisfactory conclusion with 
respect to growth in thickness of the woody body and of 
the rind was not reached till the history of development in 
vegetable histology began to be more thoroughly studied.” 
With due caution the translator renders Rinde into rind, 
which is simply bark in the ordinary sense. 

Adrien de Jussieu (8, p. 62), 1845—“Kecorce . . . le 
cambium dessine elle-méme un are qui sépare ce faisceau 
en deux parties inégales, l’exterieure, appartenant a l’écoree, 
beaucoup plus étroite que Vinterieure, appartenant au bois.” 

Caspary (9), 1857—* Bewirkt die Sonne Risse in Rinde 
und Holz der Biume?” There is no doubt here about 
the bark and wood being the two chief parts of the tree. 
If Holz is wood, then a translator, to be consistent, must 
make Rinde become bark. 

J. Hutton Balfour (10), 1859—* Bark (cortex), the 
outer cellular and fibrous covering of the stem; separable 
from the wood in Dicotyledons.” 

The writer has rendered a literal translation of Sachs’ 
Lehrbuch (11, p. 89), 1868—“ These cork-lamelle are, so 
to speak, scaly or annular flakes cut out of the bark (aus 
der Rinde); everything which hes upon the outside of the 
same is dried up, and while by degrees this occurrence at 
the periphery of the stem often takes place, whereby the 
new cork-lamelle always encroach more deeply upon the 
growing bark-tissue (Rindengewebe), an ever-thickening 
layer of dried-up tissue-masses (Gewebemassen) is separated 
from the living part of the bark (von dem lebenden Theil 
der Rinde); this is the outer bark (dies ist die Borke).” 

It is evident from the context that Borke is the opposite 
of the living part of the bark; therefore it might be called 
the “dead bark,” or “dry bark,’ as well as “ outer bark,” 
but it is insufficient to render it into bark. 

Hooker (12, p. 20), 1881—“ The bast used by gardeners 
for tying is the inner bark of the lime-tree.” 


Fes. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 39 


De Bary (1, p. 545), 1884—The chapter on Periderm 
in “Comp. Anat.” is based on von Mohl’s researches (7). 
At p. 545, the following occurs:—“If a layer of cork 
is formed in the interior of a mass of tissue, the tissue 
lying outside it dries up, and is eventually thrown off as 
bark (Lhytidoma, Mohl). The formation of bark is the 
immediate consequence of the internal formation of peri- 
derm, and the name is, as a rule, employed for the dried-up 
tissues and the adjacent peridermal layers conjointly.” 
What is translated here as “bark,” is “outer bark” in 
Garnsey’s translation of Sachs’ History; and the only way 
to decide the matter is to refer to the title of von Mohl’s 
work (7), which is in English, “ Researches into the 
Development of Cork and Outer Bark (Borke) in the 
Bark (Rinde) of Dicotyledonous Trees.” 

At p. 554 of the same work (1), the term “dry bark ” 
occurs—“ The great majority of ligneous plants, however, 
form on stem or branches new internal periderms, after 
the first one, which arise successively in deeper layers 
of the cortex, and cut off successively deeper zones of 
tissue as dry bark.” In this sentence the term is correctly 
used, and one naturally looks for “dry bark” wherever 
Borke occurs in the original; instead of cortex, however, 
“cortical zone or region” would be preferable, since 
“cortex” has now a definite meaning. 

The mistranslation of “ Borke” into “bark,” at p. 545, 
has led other translators to adopt the same term, so that 
the majority of translations from the German, and text- 
books in English, published since 1884, have appeared 
with the restricted definition of bark. 

This influence was seen very prominently in 1887, 
when the English translation of Sachs’ “ Physiology of 
Plants” (13) was published, and to a more limited extent 
in Goebel’s “ Outlines” (14). In the former, Rinde becomes 
cortex; Rindengewebe, cortical tissue; and Borke, bark. In 
the latter, bark occurs only twice, and in italics, as the 
translation of Borke. (In 1890, the same translator and 
reviser reject this translation, and use the term outer bark 
for Borke, while Rinde becomes rind, which is a synonym 
in English of the separable bark.) 

In the same year, 1887, Asa Gray’s “ Text-Book” (15), 


36 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXY. 


and the fifth edition of Bentley’s “ Manual” (16) appeared. 
The definition of “bark” in the former is—*“ The rind or 
cortical portion of a stem, especially of an exogen”; in 
the latter—‘“ The bark is situated on the outside of the 
stem, surrounding the wood, to which it is organically 
connected by means of the medullary rays and the cam- 
bium layer.” These definitions are correct, but Bentley 
uses cortex as a synonym of bark. Such a use of cortex 
is not in keeping with modern terminology, although, 
as noted above, the two terms were at one time 
synonymous. 

In 1888, the second edition of Bower’s “ Practical 
Botany” (17, pp. 115, 116) was published, and the 
following shows that he still adhered to his conjoint 
translation of 1884:—“As stems grow older, layers of 
cork appear successively farther and farther from the 
external surface: not only the cortex, but also the outer 
and older portions of the phloém are thus cut off from 
physiological connection with the inner tissue: the term 
bark is applied to tissues thus cut off, together with the 
cork which forms the physiological boundary.” 

In 1889, Marshall Ward published “ Timber” (18). 
At p. 2—“This log of wood, with its annual rings and 
medullary rays is clothed by a sort of jacket, consisting of 
eork and softer tissues, and termed the cortex, or, more 
popularly, the ‘bark’ (an unfortunate word, which has 
caused much trouble in its time).” At p. 199—“It will 
be remembered that our typical log of timber was clothed 
in a sort of jacket, termed the cortex, the outer parts of 
which constitute what is generally known as bark. This 
cortical covering is separated from the wood proper by the 
cambium.” At p. 206—“Some of these refer to the 
anatomy of the various ‘ barks’—the word ‘bark’ being 
commonly used in commerce to mean the whole of the 
cortical jacket,—the places of origin of the cork layer, 
and the way in which the true bark peels off.’ Finally, 
at p. 208, he says—‘ We have also seen that the cam- 
bium is not the only living tissue below the bark: the 
cortical parenchyma, and the cells of the inner cortex 
(technically, the phloém) are all living and capable of 
growth and division.” 


Fes. 1901.) | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 37 


Thus, to render his meaning clear, Marshall Ward uses 
cortex, cortical covering, cortical jacket, and “bark” to indicate 
the separable bark in the original English sense; and he 
uses dead bark, true bark, and bark proper to point out 
the region beyond the phellogen. At the same time his 
language is so clear that it is almost impossible for any 
reader to mistake his meaning, only there is a danger in 
the multiplicity of terms; and, on the whole, it would be 
better to “call a spade, a spade.” 

In 1890, the translation of Sachs’ “History” (18), 
already referred to, was published. In it, Rinde becomes 
rind, or bark, and Borke outer bark; but, unfortunately, 
later translators of other works have returned to the 
erroneous translation of 1884. 

In 1891, Van Tieghem’s “ Botanique” (19) appeared, 
and although he emphasises the central cylinder or stele, 
he makes the terminology more difficult than ever. He 
takes the popular French word écorce (so well defined by 
Adrien de Jussieu) as equivalent to our word “ bark,” and 
restricts 1t to what we now call “cortex,” and, as far as 
can be seen, he has no term to take the place of what the 
ordinary Frenchman knows as écorce. 

Von Mohl first used the term “periderm” to mean 
the cork tissue formed outside the phellogen, but De Bary 
suggested the use of the term as applicable to periderm, 
phellogen, and phelloderm collectively, and in this sense 
it is now used by most botanists. 

In 1894, Scott’s “Structural Botany” (20) was pub- 
lished, and, at p. 97, he says—“ The whole of this secondary 
tissue, including phelloderm, phellogen, and cork, is called 
the periderm. The word bark is applied to everything 
outside the phellogen. . . . The bark consists entirely of 
dead tissues,” thus adhering to his conjoint translation of 
“ Borke” in 1884. In this book, no name is given to the 
region outside the cambium. 

In 1896, Francis Darwin published his “Elements of 
Botany” (21), and, at p. 80, says—‘“The bark, in the 
everyday meaning of the word, is that part of the stem 
external to the cambium. I propose to use the term in 
this sense, in spite of the fact that in English botanical 
books it is applied only to the tissue external to the cork- 


38 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. yxy. 


cambium.” This is the first protest published against the 
erroneous definition of bark. 

In 1898, Vines issued his “Elementary Text-Book ” 
(22), and, at p. 153, referring to everything outside the 
phellogen, says—‘“ These dried-up tissues, which may 
belong to different tissue-systems, and include the most 
various forms of cells, constitute what is known as bark.” 

In the same year Strasburger’s “ Text-Book of Botany ” 
(23) appeared, and gave a similar definition to the preceding. 

In 1900, B. D. Jackson (24) defined bark as—(1) “The 
outer integuments of the wood, and exterior to it; all 
tissues outside the cambium”; (2) “frequently restricted 
to the periderm, and tissues external to it.” 

See also L. H. Bailey’s “ Botany ” (25, p. 265), published 
in 1900. It adheres to the old English definition. 

Evidence enough has been produced to show that there 
is inconsistency in the use of botanical terms, as they 
are applied to that region of a secondary axis which les 
outside the wood; there is also direct contradiction in 
the two definitions of bark, and this confusion of terms 
demands a readjustment. 

It may be said that most botanists now follow van 
Tieghem in recognising epidermis, cortex, and central 
cylinder in the primary axis of the Spermaphyte. 

Cortex, therefore, has lost its position as the synonym 
of rind or bark. 

Since Rinde, in German, and bark, in English, are un- 
doubtedly synonymous, it remains to recognise two regions 
in this bark ; outside of the phellogen is the “dead bark,” 
and between the phellogen and cambium the “living bark.” 
Should there be any difficulty in such a distinction, on the 
ground that some of the elements of the inner bark are 
already dead, and that a layer or two of cells outside the 
phellogen are still alive, then let us speak of the “inner 
bark” and the “outer bark,” with the phellogen layer as 
the boundary line between them. 

The proposed terms have been used by various writers, 
so that they cannot be objected to as new or additional 
names; they are consistent with the facts of the case, and 
we have already the analogy of the division of wood into 
heart-wood and sap-wood. 


Fes. 1901.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 39 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


. De Bary.—Comparative Anatomy of the Vegetative Organs of the 


Phanerogams and Ferns. By Dr. A. De Bary. Transl. by F. O. 
Bower and D. H. Scott. Oxford University Press, 1854. 


. Dr. J. A. H. Murray’s New English Dictionary, from J. Heywood’s 


Prov. and Epigr. (1867), 47. 


. Nehemiah Grew.—Anat. of Plants, 1682. Par. i. ch. ii. bk. ii. 


(Read before the Roy. Soc., 1675.) 


. Lang. of Bot. Prof. Th. Martyn. Univ. of Camb., 1807. 
. Principles of Botany. Prof. D. C. Willdenow, Berlin. Engl. Trans. 


Publ. by Edin. Univ. Press for Wm. Blackwood, 1811. 


. Introduction to Botany. By John Lindley. Publ. by Longman & Co. 


in 1832. 


. Von Mohl.—Title of publication. 1856. 
. Cours élémentaire d'Histoire Naturelle—Botanique. Par M. Adrien 


Jussieu. 1845. 


. Robert Caspary.—Title of Article in Bot. Zeit., xv. 1857. 
. Class-Book of Botany. By Prof. J. Hutton Balfour, Edin. Univ., 


1859. 


. Lehrbuch der Botanik. Von Dr. Julius Sachs. Leipzig, verlag von 


Wilhelm Engelmann, 1868. 


. Primer of Botany. By Sir J. D. Hooker, C.B., P.R.S. New Ed. 


Maemillan & Co., 1881. 


. Physiology of Plants. By Julius von Sachs. Transl. by H. Marshall 


Ward. Oxford Univ. Press, 1887. 


. Outlines of Classification and Special Morphology of Plants. By K. 


Goebel. Transl. by H. E. F. Garnsey. Revised by I. Bayley 
Balfour. Oxford Univ. Press, 1887. 


. Structural Botany. By Asa Gray. Macmillan & Co., 1887. 
. Manual of Botany. By Robert Bentley. J. & A. Churchill, Lond. 


(5th ed.), 1887. 


. Practical Botany. By F. O. Bower. Pt.i., 2nded. Macmillan & 


Co., 1888. 


. History of Botany (1530-1860). By Julius von Sachs. Transl. by 


H. E. F. Garnsey. Revised by I. Bayley Balfour. Oxford Univ. 
Press, 1890. 


. Traité de Botanique. Par Ph. van Tieghem, Paris. Libraire F. 


Savy, 1891. 


. Structural Botany. By D. H. Scott. Adam & Charles Black, 


London, 1894. 


. Elements of Botany. By Francis Darwin. Camb. Univ. Press, 1896. 
2.-Elementary Text-Book of Botany. By S.H. Vines. Sonnenschein, 


1898. 


. A Text-Book of Botany. By Strasburger, Schenck, Noll, and 


Schimper. Transl. by H. C. Porter. Macmillan & Co., 1898. 


. A Glossary of Botanic Terms. By Benj. Dayton Jackson. Duck- 


worth & Co., London, 1900. 


. Botany: An Elementary Text-Book. By L. H. Bailey. The 


Macmillan Co., New York, 1900. 


40 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. uxv. 


REPORT OF THE EXCURSION OF THE ScorrisH ALPINE 
BoranicAL CLUB TO KILLIN IN 1900. By Rev. Davin 
Pav, LL.D. 

(Read 14th February 1901.) 


The Club last year (1900) visited Killin, the neighbour- 
hood of which has already been frequently the scene of 
its annual excursion. There were present—Mr. William 
B. Boyd, the President; Dr. Chas. Stuart, Dr. David T. 
Playfair, Dr. Paul, Messrs. Alex. Somerville, B.Se., George 
H. Potts, R..Turnbull, B.Sc., Jas. A. Terras, B.Sc., and F. C. 
Crawford. Mr. Llewellyn J. Cocks, of Bromley, Kent, was 
present as a visitor. 

On Tuesday, 51st July, two excursions were made; one 
to Beinn Heasgarnich, and the other to Craig Caillich. 
The party who visited Beinn Heasgarnich were mainly 
intent on finding Carex ustulata, Willd. Having driven 
up the Lochay as far as the road permitted, they walked 
up to the farthest shepherd’s house, and following up the 
burn which joins the Lochay there, passed between Beinn 
Heasgarnich and Craig Mohr over to the Glen Lyon side. 
Dr. Paul and Mr. Terras examined the hillside stretching 
down towards Glen Lyon for Carea ustulata, but without 
success. Their work was much impeded by heavy, con- 
tinuous rain. The chief plants found during the day, by 
one or other of the parties, were—Draba incana, L.; 
Hrophila inflata (Craig Caillich), Watson; Cerastiwm 
alpinum, L.; Arenaria rubella, Hook.; Dryas octopetala, L. ; 
Potentilla rubens, Vill.; Saxifraga nivalis, L.; Meum atham- 
anticum, Jacq.; Cornus suecica (in fruit), L.; Zrientalis 
Europea, L.; Carex atrata, L.; C. pulla, Good.; C. pauer- 
flora, Lightf.; Woodsia hyperborea (Craig Caillich), R. Br. ; 
and Lycopodium annotinum (Beinn Heasg.), L.  ~ 

On the following day, 1st August, a distant expedition 
was rendered impossible by persistent rain. Carex remota, 
L., and ©. vescicaria, L., were found in the neighbourhood 
of Finlarig Castle, and several good mosses were found, 
including Habrodon Notaristi, Schpr., as appears from Mr. 
Cocks’s subjoined report. 

On Thursday, 2nd August, it was still raining, but there 
being promise of improvement in the weather, Drs. Playfair 


Fes. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 4] 


and Paul, with Messrs. Crawford, Terras, and Cocks, drove 
to Lochan-na-Lairige, and botanised the crags above the 
loch, finding—T7vollius Europeus, L.; Draba incana, L.; 
Sagina Linnei, Presl.; Vicia silvatica, L.; Rubus saxatilis, 
L.; Saxifraga nivalis, L.; Epilobium alsinefolium, Vill. ; 
Galium boreale, L.; Saussurea alpina, DC.; Vaceiniwm 
uliginosum (in fruit), L.; Pyrola rotundifolia, L.; Salix 
reticulata, L.; Juncus biglumis, L.; Luzula spicata, DC.; 
Carex atrata, L.; C. pulla, Good.; C. capillaris, L.; Agrostis 
vulgaris, var. pumila, L.; Avena pratensis, var. alpina, Sm. ; 
Asplenium viride, Huds.; Woodsia hyperborea, R. Br.; Poly- 
stichum Lonchitis, Roth.; Lycopodium alpinum, L.; and 
L. Selago, L. A few fungi were observed; among them 
being — Clitocybe infundibuliformis, Scheeff.; Omphalia 
umbellifera, L.; Hygrophorus miniatus, and Geoglossum 
glabrum, Pers. 

On Friday, 3rd August, the Club visited Ben Lawers, 
and found most of the well-known plants of that hill, 
including—Arenaria rubella, Hook.; and Sagina nivalis, 
Fr. The following hawkweeds were found :—Hieraciwm 
murorum, L.; H. Anglicum, Fr.; H. vulgatum, Fr.; H. 
rivale, F. J. Hanb.; and the following willows :—Salix 
phylicifolia, L.; S. phylicifolia x nigricans, Winm.; 8. 
phylicifolia x cinerea, B. White; S. nigricans, Sm.; S. 
Arbuscula, L.; and S. Lapponum, L. After the meeting 
had broken up, Dr. Playfair and Mr. Cocks, who remained 
at Killin, found Pyrola secunda, L.; Kobresia caricina, 
Willd. ; and Melica nutans, L. 


SUPPLEMENTARY Report ON Mosses. By LLEWELLYN 
J. Cocks, Bromley Hill, Kent. 


By the kind invitation of the President, I had the great 
privilege and pleasure of joining the 1900 Meeting of the 
Scottish Alpine Botanical Club at Killin. I devoted the 
opportunity thus afforded me to the study of the mosses 
of the district. The ground selected for exploration—the 
Breadalbane mountains from Ben Lawers to Glen Lochay 
—is probably the richest in the kingdom in bryophytes, 
and, as a consequence, it has been more thoroughly 
explored than any other area, so that it was not to be 


42 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. Lxv. 


expected that a stranger to the country would be able 
to add much to what had already been recorded. 

The first day was an unfortunate one. I accompanied 
a party which had for its aim the investigation of the 
ground between Beinn Heasgarnich and Craig Mhor, but 
our work was brought to an end by thick mist and heavy 
rain, and, to my disappointment, I had only a very short 
time among the crags of the latter mountain. I brought 
away, however, a specimen of the rare Aulacomnium turgi- 
dum, which was growing among Hypnwm sarmentosum at 
the foot of the crags. This is one of the few habitats for 
Leptodontiwm -recurvifoliwm, which I was not fortunate 
enough to meet with. 

Craig Chailleach, and the neighbouring Ben Cruban, 
were more accessible, and here I found most of the plants 
for which these hills are noted, including—Plagiotheciwm 
Milleri and Thuidium Philiberti—both recently added to 
our Flora by Mr. H. N. Dixon; Plagiothecium striatellum, 
Thuidium hystricosum (rare, I believe, in the North, 
although a very common moss on the chalk hills of 
Kent and Surrey); Plagiobryum denussum (plentiful, 
and in beautiful fruit, on the top southern ledges of 
Chailleach); AHypnum trifarium, H. hamuloswm, and 
H. rugosum ; Cynodontiwm virens, var. serratum; Mniwm 
cinclidioides, and Splachnum vasculosum.  Orthothecwwm 
rufescens, although very abundant on dripping rocks on 
all these hills—a rare sight for southern eyes !—was 
not found in fruit. 

Two visits were paid to Ben Lawers, and the best 
plants found here, out of many uncommon ones, were— 
Hurhynchium cirrosum, Brachythecium plicatum, Hypnum 
Halleri (in fair quantity), Blindia cespiticia (its only British 
habitat), Barbula rubella, var. ruberrima; Amblystegium 
curvicaule, var. strictum; Hypnum Bambergeri, H. calli- 
chroum, and H. arcticum. The last, a rare plant, was 
abundant in the stream which runs down the western 
slope of Beinn Ghlas, hanging from the edges of rocks in 
the small waterfalls. 

On the margin of Lochan-na-Lairige, I got Sphagnum 
Austini, Sullivant (S. imbricatum of Warnstorf), which I 
also found on the southern slope of Meall-nan-Tarmachan. 


Fes. 1901.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 43 


This rare Sphagnum has not, I believe, been recorded 
previously from Perthshire. Sphagnum centrale, Jensen, 
also rare, or confused with S. cymbifolivum, 1 found by 
Allt Dhubh Ghalair (west of Glen Lochay). By the same 
beautiful mountain stream, I gathered Thuidium Phaliberti 
—a new habitat for this plant. 

It was interesting to find Habrodon Notarisii still 
flourishing on the sycamore by Killin Church, among 
the numerous tin-tacks which have been used for affixing 
parish notices. Here, I understand, it was first gathered 
in Britain. It is abundant on trees about Finlarig Castle. 
In Finlarig Wood, Ulota Ludwigiit was very plentiful. 
Hypnum crista-castrensis was fruiting near Auchmore. 
This beautiful moss seems to be fairly abundant in the 
woods, and among heather, but capsules are exceedingly 
rare. At the head of the eastern branch of the burn 
which runs down to Auchmore Bridge, I gathered Seligeria 
Donui—a beautiful little plant—one of our smallest 
mosses—first found by G. Don, one hundred years ago, 
in the Den at Dupplin. 

Several of the Sphagna gathered at this meeting will 
be found noted by my friend Mr. Horrell, in his papers on 
the “European Sphagnacex,” recently completed in the 
“Journal of Botany.” 

I should like to be allowed this opportunity of ex- 
pressing my great gratitude to the Members of the Club 
for the many kindnesses shown me on this my first visit 
to the Highlands. 


MOSSES GATHERED IN PERTHSHIRE. 
(Species which are commonly distributed are not noted.) 


Nomenclature of Dixon and Jameson’s ‘‘ Student’s Handbook of British 
Mosses,” 1896. 


Sphagnum medium, Limpr. (see Jour. of Bot., Jan. 1900)—frequent. 
—— Austini—not previously recorded for Perthshire. 

Andreza alpina—frequent. 

Oligotrichum incurvum—Meall Ghaordie. 

Polytrichum alpinum—frequent. 

sexangulare—Tarmachan and Ben Lawers. 

Diphyscium foliosum—very abundant. 

Ditrichum homomallum—frequent. 

Swartzia montana—frequent. 

Seligeria Doniana—Auchmore Burn. 


44 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXV. 


Cynodontium virens, var. serratum—Coire Fionn Lairige. 

Dicranella secunda—Ben Lawers. 

Blindia ceespiticia—Ben Lawers. 

Dicranoweisia crispula—Ben Lawers. 

Dicranum faleatum—Ben Lawers. 

— Starkii—Ben Lawers. 

fuscescens—Ben Lawers. 

Fissidens osmundoides—Meall Ghaordie. 

Grimmia funalis—frequent. 

torquata—frequent. 

patens—frequent. 

Rhacomitrium sudeticum—frequent. 

Barbula rubella, var. dentata—Coire Fionn Lairige. 

var. ruberrima—Coire Fionn Lairige. 

—- revoluta—Lochay Bridge. 

Leptodontium flexifoliam—Craig Chailleach (1000 ft.). 

Weissia curvirostris—Auchmore Burn. 

var. commutata—Auchmore Burn. 

Trichostomum tortuosum, var. fragilifolium—Craig Chailleach. 

Encalypta commutata—Ben Lawers. 

ciliata—frequent. 

rhabdocarpa—frequent. 

—— streptocarpa—frequent. 

Zy godon Mongeotii—frequent. 

Ulota Ludwigii—Finlarig Woods. 

Splachnum spbzericum—Meall Ghaordie. 

vasculosum—Coire Fionn Lairige. 

Tetraplodon mnioides—Ben Lawers, Lochan-na- Lairige, Meall 
Ghaordie, ete. 

Meesia trichoides—frequent. 

var. alpina—Ben Lawers. 

Aulacomnium turgidum—Craig Mhor. 

Timmia norvegica—Ben Cruban, Ben Lawers. 

Conostomum boreale—Craig Mhor, Meall-nan-Tarmachan, Ben Lawers. 

Bartramia Cideri—Craig Chailleach. 

ithyphylla—Craig Chailleach, Ben Lawers. 

Webera elongata—frequent. 

Ludwigii, var. elata—Meall-nan-Tarmachan. 

cruda—frequent. 

Plagiobryum Zierii—frequent. 

demissum—Craig Chailleach. 

Bryum filiforme (c. fr.)—Coire Fionn Lairige. 

turbinatum—between Ben Lawers and Beinn Ghlas. 

Mnium spinosum-—Ben Lawers 

riparium—Ben Lawers. 

— orthorrhynchum—Ben Lawers. 

cinclidioides—Ben Cruban. 

Cinclidium stygium—(barren) Ben Lawers. 

Pterogonium gracile—frequent about Finlarig. 

Habrodon Notarisii—frequent about Finlarig. 

Antitrichia curtipendula—frequent. 

Myurella julacea—Coire Fionn Lairige. 

var. scabrifolia, Lindb.—Allt Dhubh Ghalair. 

apiculata—Coire Fionn Lairige. 

Pterigynandrum filiforme—Craig Chailleach, Meall-nan-Tarmachan, 
Ben Lawers. 

Heterocladium heteropterum—Finlarig Burn. 

Pseudoleskea atrovirens—Ben Lawers (8500 ft.). 


Mar. 1901. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 45 


Thuidium hystricosum, Mitt. (formerly confounded with T, abietinum). 

Philiberti, Limpr., first described as British by Dixon, Jour. of 
Bot., Jan. 1897—Craig Chailleach and Allt Dhubh Ghalair. 

Orthothecium rufescens—frequent on mountains 

intricatum—Craig Chailleach and Ben Cruban. 

Brachythecium plicatum—Ben Lawers (3000 ft.). 

Eurhynchium cirrosum—Ben Lawers (3000 ft.). 

Plagiothecium pulchellum, var. nitidulum. 

—— Miilleri, first described as British by Dixon, Jour. of Bot., July 

1898—Ben Cruban. 

—— striatellum—Ben Lawers and Craig Chailleach. 

Amblystegium curvicaule, var. strictum—Ben Lawers. 

Hypnum Halleri—Ben Lawers (3500 ft. ). 

exannulatum, var purpurascens—Ben Lawers, Meall Ghaordie. 

vernicosum—Auchmore Burn. 

sulcatum—Ben Lawers. 

hamulosum—frequent. 

eallichroum—Ben Lawers. 

Bambergeri—Ben Lawers. 

molluscum, var. erectum. 

crista-castrensis—frequent in woods, and among heather on 
the hills. 

arcticum—Beinn Ghlas (3000 ft.). 

ochraceum—frequent. 

stramineum—frequent. 

trifarium—Craig Mbhor, Craig Chailleach, Beinn Ghlas, Ben 
Lawers. 

sarmentosum—frequent. 

Hylocomium rugosum—Craig Chailleach, Ben Cruban, ete. 


pest ea Fela 


GicGLio-Tos’s THEoRY oF Living Matter. ! 
By Rk. A. Ropertson. 
(Read 14th March 1901.) 


“Tf the parallel surfaces of two bodies be tangential to 
a cell, and compress it during cell division, what is the 
effect of the pressure on the direction of the plane of 
division, division being equal?” Such is one of the 
biological problems mathematically set and solved by 
Professor Ermanno Giglio-Tos in his work “ Les Problemes 
de la Vie,” in which he gives his theory of lving matter. 
The fact that he regards vital phenomena as capable of 
being expressed in mathematical problems like the above, 
to be solved by mathematical formule, at once stamps his 
theory as a novel one, and stimulates curiosity to know 
more of it. 

His book discusses in detail assimilation and repro- 
duction; the molecule of living matter (biomolecule), its 


1 “ Tes Problémes de la Vie.” 1re Partie. a Substance vivante et la 
Cytiodiérése. Dr. Ermanno Giglio-Tos. Turin, 


46 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. ixv. 


structure, development, and physiology; the biomore; living 
matter (bioplasma, biomonad, and cell); cell division and 
its laws; as well as analytical and complex problems of 
cell division. 

The work from first to last is very carefully thought 
out, keenly and logically argued, and the whole stated in 
such a lucid style that, even in the most difficult parts of 
a difficult subject, there is no ambiguity, and one follows 
the author with ease, although his course is quite out of 
the beaten track. It is a book that the biologist will read 
with profound interest. 

“Ta nature,” he says in his preface, “ne nous cache 
rien. Elle nous présente, au contraire, tous les moyens 
nécessaires pour dévoiler ses mysteres. C’est & nous de 
savoir en profiter, en tachant de ne point méconnaitre leur 
valeur.” From his standpoint, the phenomena of life are 
regarded as the natural consequence of chemical, physical, 
and mechanical phenomena. He deprecates the dragging 
into hypotheses of special forces, and regards the known 
chemical laws that govern dead matter as quite sufficient 
to explain the fundamental manifestations of hfe. While 
biologists generally have sought an explanation of vital 
phenomena in the morphological structure of living sub- 
stance, in this theory morphological structure is of only 
secondary importance. 

In some slight points it resembles Altmann’s granula 
theory, but goes far beyond it and any of the other well 
known recent theories. The theory of the cell as the vital 
unit is gradually losing ground, and Altmann’s_ theory, 
which regards the cell granules (biomores of Giglio-Tos) as 
the living units, has many objections. This theory goes 
beyond Altmann’s, in that it regards the molecules of living 
matter (biomolecules) as the ultimate units. It is not on 
the physical but the chemical nature of these molecules 
that an explanation is to be found. The phenomena of life 
being of the nature of chemical phenomena, it stands to 
reason that any attempt to explain them by such physical 
properties as morphological structure must fail. A chemi- 
cal phenomenon is based on the chemical composition 
of the body, that is, on its molecular structure. “The 
intimate cause of the characteristic phenomena of life rests 


ee 


Mar. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 47 


then, not on the physical and morphological structure of 
protoplasm or its parts, but on the chemical constitution of 
living substance, that is, on the structure of its molecules.” 
Chemical changes, as exemplified in dead matter, suffice to 
explain the characteristic phenomena of life. 

The simplest living part imaginable is the biomolecule, 
which differs in constitution In nowise from molecules of 
other chemical compounds. The molecules are united together 
by chemical affinity into molecular compounds (biomores), 
the particles, granules, and microcosmes of the morpholo- 
gical theories. The molecules constituting any biomore 
form a little symbiotic system, in which the molecules 
mutually aid each other. The biomores, again, are united 
into larger groups in a fluid or semifluid matrix, and form 
living matter or bioplasm. Each mass of bioplasm forms 
a symbiotic system of biomores, called a biomonad. The 
cell is a biomonad characterised by the possession of special 
biomores of a particular chemical character. Symbiosis 
plays a large part in this theory, and the author regards it 
as the most important phenomenon of all biology, in which 
must be sought the key to many important questions in 
relation to living matter. 

To go into the theory in detail. 

The author clears the ground by stating in minute detail 
his interpretation of the two most important vital pheno- 
mena—assimilation and reproduction. It is just here, it 
may be observed, that les the crux of the whole matter 
—accept the views on this point and all the remainder 
inevitably follows. He enumerates all the known types of 
chemical change, and then proceeds to argue that since 
living substance contains no chemical element that does 
not also oceur in dead matter, the explanation of vital 
phenomena (of a chemical nature) must be based on the 
same types of chemical change as are found in dead 
matter. Are the most characteristic and fundamental of 
the vital phenomena—assimilation and reproduction— 
which appear to lie outside the general laws of chemistry, 
capable of explanation on any of the known types of 
chemical change? To this question, unlike most biologists, 
the author replies in the affirmative. 

Assimilation is the phenomenon by which a living 


48 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. LXxv. 


organism in a nutrient solution abstracts substances 
chemically different from itself, and tranforms them into 
substances like itself. Dead substances reacting on other 
compounds are transformed, and lose their individuality ; 
living substance, on the other hand, not only preserves its 
individuality, but has the power of forming more living 
substance in the process. Some have credited living sub- 
stance with a special faculty of making more, but this, as 
the author points out, is like explaining that opium induces 
sleep because it is possessed of a special soporific virtue 
whose nature is to soothe the senses. Attempts to expjain 
it by physical phenomena, such as morphological structure, 
crystallisation, and osmosis, will obviously lead to no satis- 
factory result, for the phenomenon is a chemical one, and 
cannot be explained by physical laws. Osmosis, of course, 
is very important in vital phemomena and nutrition, but 
does not explain assimilation, for without the intervention 
of a chemical phenomenon assimilation could not take 
place. 

Those biologists who have recognised the chemical nature 
of assimilation have explained it as a contact action, analo- 
gous to the formation of sulphuric acid by nitric acid in 
chambers of lead. The analogy is imperfect. What is the 
mysterious force which can detach from dead substances 
the necessary atomic groups, and arrange them so as to 
form molecules identical with those of living substance ? 
Further, the nitric acid does not form more nitric acid, but 
sulphuric acid. Further, supposing that lving molecules 
have the power only of forming other similar molecules, 
this would not explain the phenomena of ontogenetic 
differentiation. The molecules could not be transformed ; 
from the molecules of an egg would be obtained other 
molecules of egg, that is an egg. 

The living molecules must be admitted to have not only 
the power of forming other living molecules, similar or 
slightly different, but also of undergoing modifications 
during assimilation. 

The true basis of assimilation is to be sought and found 
in the “ biomolecule ”—the living unit. The author starts 
to elucidate this point by reference to the life phenomena 
of a simple unicellular organism. A single micrococcus 


Mar. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 49 


may be seen to divide into two; these two are identical 
to each other, and also to the original micrococcus (con- 
sidered at the same point of time) by whose division they 
were produced, because if placed in the same conditions 
they give the same manifestations of life, and divide in 
turn. If the mother micrococcus was at its moment of 
origin from a pre-existing micrococcus composed of a certain 
number of particular kinds of atoms or molecules, each of 
the daughter micrococci derived from it by fission is like- 
wise formed of the same number and kind of atoms and 
molecules; the sum of the atoms and molecules forming 
the two daughter micrococci will be double the sum of the 
atoms and molecules of the mother taken at the precise 
instant of its birth. If the micrococcus be composed of a 
single molecule, after fission, two molecules will result, 
equal to each other and identical to the first. The first 
molecule has not formed another alongside itself, but has, 
after various transformations, been doubled into two 
daughter molecules, equal to each other and identical to the 
first considered before these transformation changes occurred. 
Similar observations can be made on the microsomes of the 
cytoplasm and the karyoplasm—they are reproduced by a 
true process of fission. Since this fission can be verified 
de visu in the smallest living particles, its occurrence may 
also be granted to the molecules of living substance. Such 
fissions (dédoublements) are known to occur in dead chemical 
compounds. The molecule of methyl-ethyl-ketone when 
oxidised splits into two identical molecules of acetic acid. 
By successive action on these two of acetic acid with per- 
chloride of phosphorus and zine ethyl, two molecules of 
meythl-ethyl-ketone result, ze. two molecules similar to 
each other and identical to the first molecule with which 
the reaction commenced. The oxygen, perchloride of phos- 
phorus, and zinc ethyl may be regarded as the food supplied 
to produce this artificial life of the molecule, while the 
other products of the reaction—oxychloride of phosphorus, 
hydrochloric acid, and chloride of zinc may be taken 
as the secreta of the molecule during this process of 
assimilation. 

Starting with one molecule, we have ultimately obtained 
two molecules of the same substance. The first one has 


TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL, XXII. D 


50 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXV. 


assimilated and reproduced; it is nourished at the expense 
of substances different from itself, as is the case with the 
micrococci and other organisms. 

So the primitive molecule, which constituted the micro- 
coccus, has undergone a series of special chemical changes 
until a phase is reached when it contains double its original 
number of atoms, whereupon it splits into two daughter 
molecules, each with the same number of atoms as the 
mother had at the beginning. If @ indicates the constitution 
of the molecule at the instant of its birth, its new con- 
stitution, after a series of chemical changes, at the instant 
of dédoublement may be represented by J The life 
cycle of the molecule may be diagrammatically represented 
as under— 


a : : Mz=a-+ta 


Two phenomena are noticeable here— 

(1) A doubling of the primitive molecule a, which has 
been transformed into J/, z.e. into two other molecules, a a. 
This is a true reproduction. 

(2) A transformation of the molecule a into J, by a 
series of chemical changes, during which molecule @ has 
doubled the number of its atoms. This is assimilation, of 
which reproduction is the end result. 

The author regards this analogy between the chemical 
phenomena of the methyl-ethyl-ketone molecule and the 
vital phenomena of the micrococcus as perfect, and con- 
cludes, therefore, that, on ultimate analysis, assimilation 
and reproduction are chemical phenomena. 

Since these phenomena can be artificially induced among 
dead chemical substances, why suppose a special force 
necessary to explain them? The action of chemical affinity, 
which produces chemical changes in dead matter, suffices of 
itself to give an explanation. 

To the query of why, if capable of assimilation and 
reproduction, is the molecule of methyl-ethyl-ketone not 
living? the answer is given that the conditions of its 
existence are not realised, or not realisable, in nature. 
From the study of the artificial life of this molecule, the 
necessary conditions of life for a living molecule (biomole- 
cule) are deduced, we. the conditions necessary for the 


Mar. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH ol 


accomplishment of the fundamental functions of assimilation 
and reproduction. These conditions are the following :— 

(1) The molecule must be suited by its constitution to 
be transformed, by aid of assimilation, in such a manner as 
to split into molecules of a structure like its own. 

(2) Food substances must always be present. 

(3) The nutritive substances and the secondary products 
(secreta) must not react to their mutual destruction. 

(4) The reactions of assimilation must follow in a regular 
order. 

(5) Physical conditions (light, heat, ete.) must be favour- 
able for each reaction. 

The first is the intrinsic condition, the others are the 
extrinsic conditions. The last four are the conditions of 
assimilation ; while all, but more particularly the first, are 
conditions of reproduction. 

All these conditions are shown to be realised in nature 
for the living molecule; and the discussion of the fifth 
condition brings out the great complexity of the living 
molecule, and also its very unstable character. 

It will conduce to clear understanding to give the 
author’s summary of the results arrived at up to this 
point. Assimilation and reproduction are both equally 
chemical phenomena, explainable by the known laws of 
chemistry. “ Reproduction is the fission of a biomolecule, 
which, after a series of assimilatory changes, undergoes 
dédoublement into other molecules having the same struc- 
ture as the original molecule.” “Life is not absolute, it 
is only relative; it is the resultant of certain intimate 
relations which must exist between the constitution of the 
living molecule (intrinsic condition of life) and the physico- 
chemical conditions of environment (extrinsic conditions of 
life.) ” 

Apart from its novelty and ingenuity, one is struck by 
the completeness, definiteness, and simplicity of our author’s 
explanation of the phenomena of assimilation, or formation 
of living matter, as contrasted with the obscurity that 
prevails in most other theories. Compare it with that in 
plant physiology, where the proteids formed during con- 
structive metabolism are, in some unexplained way, 
transformed into living substance by the already existing 


52 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sezss, uxv. 


living substance of the cell; that is to say, a contact 
action takes place, of the nature of a continual miracle, 
whereby the touch of the living matter raises the dead 
matter to life. 

Biomolecular Development.—Just as in the case of the 
molecule of methyl-ethyl-ketone, so the biomolecule passes 
through a series of “phases of biomolecular development.” 
Starting from its origin by fission from a pre-existing 
biomolecule, it goes on undergoing successive transforma- 
tions up to the phase of dédoublement, when it splits into 
two daughter molecules. This biomolecular development 
is expressed in the diagram— 


Ca COLOURED 


Here a represents the original molecule, and 3, ¢, d the 
successive phases of constitution of the biomolecule during its 
transformation into J, when dédoublement occurs. When 
the resulting daughter molecules, a a, are identical to the 
first a, and regenerate it, the development is autogenetic, and 
one biomolecular development completes the “ evolutionary 
biomolecular cycle,” and multiplication and reproduction are 
simultaneous and concomitant phenomena. “ Although the 
simplest imaginable, autogenetic development is neither the 
easiest nor commonest,” because not only has the number of 
atoms to be doubled, but the atoms have to be arranged so 
that when doubling occurs each daughter molecule may 
have its atoms arranged exactly as in the mother molecule, 
so as to reproduce it in every respect. Without this orien- 
tation, which is the efficient cause of doubling, metameric 
compounds would result. The greater the complexity of 
the molecule, the greater the difficulty in the way of 
autogenetic development. “ When the biomolecule is very 
complicated, the assimilatory reactions, also, will be very 
complicated and very numerous, and, as the number of 
atoms to be doubled is large, the nutritive substances also 
must be sufficiently complex to supply the biomolecule 
with the complex atomic groups necessary for its develop- 
ment.” Hence the rarity of this mode of development in 
nature. It occurs only among a few of the simplest 
organisms—the bacteria, eg.; and hence the necessary 
complex nature of the food of many of these organisms. 


Mar. 1901.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 53 


If the biomolecules resulting from dédoublement are 
like each other, but unlike the primitive biomolecule, the 
development is homogenetic, and is figured as under— 

Gi ya at = mea Ss ee a Oh 

After further assimilation, e and e may each undergo 
dédoublement into two biomolecules which will be identical 
to a’. In this case the evolutionary biomolecular cycle is 
composed of at least two homogenetic developments; of 
course there may be more until the primitive mother 
molecule is reproduced. In homogenetic development 
multiplication and reproduction are two distinct pheno- 
mena, and are accomplished at different times. In the 
simplest case, where the cycle is composed of two 
developments, reproduction only occurs at the second 
dédoublement, where the primitive molecule is quadrupled ; 
while multiplication of molecules (but not reproduction of 
the original) occurs at the first dédowblement. Two phases 
are thus to be distinguished in homogenetic development— 
(1) a period of multiplication, extending from the first to 
the last development ; (2) a period of reproduction, in which 
only the last development is concerned. Multiplication 
(duplication of the number of molecules) is thus to be care- 
fully distinguished from reproduction (regeneration of the 
original molecule). The two phenomena are not necessarily 
concomitant. 

When the biomolecules resulting from dédoublement are 
unlike each other, and also unlike the primitive biomolcule, 
the development is heterogenctic. Thus— 

ES Se as Mae amr aE oe | CR oe 


e’, after further assimilation, may undergo dédoublement, 


producing two biomolecules, w” a”, identical to the primitive 
one; while 7”, although it undergoes further development 
and dédoublement, never regenerates a”. 

This development is the easiest, and by far the com- 
monest, in nature. The vital cycle is composed of at least 
two developments, but two kinds of molecules must be 
distinguished, some able to regenerate the primitive 
biomolecule after a more or less long series of develop- 
ments, the others devoid of this faculty. The former are 
genetic, the latter somatic biomolecules. The former alone 


54. TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. Lxv. 


return, after a vital period more or less long, to the 
starting-point—never perishing, immortal; the latter never 
returning to the starting-point—mortal, and destined to 
perish. Somatic biomolecules, although powerless for 
reproduction, nevertheless may assimilate and live, and 
give origin to other different molecules, and ultimately to 
molecules like themselves. 

The results of the two last methods of development, as 
seen in organisms, are next described. An organism con- 
stituted of biomolecules with homogenetic development 
grows during its vital period by the duplication of its 
molecules resulting from each dédoublement. At the 
completion of its life cycle, reproduction will ensue; there 
will be no somatic biomolecules, and the whole body of 
the organism will take part in the reproduction, which will 
not be a simple fission but a true sporulation. On the 
contrary, an organism composed of biomolecules with 
heterogenetic development at reproduction will be com- 
posed of two kinds of biomolecules—the genetic, which 
will regenerate the primitive biomolecules ; and the somatic, 
taking no active part in reproduction, but which will 
constitute the “soma” of the organism. 

Heterogenetic development is the most frequent in 
nature, because it is easiest of accomplishment; it hes 
at the root, and is the prime cause, of ontogenetic 
differentiation. 

For the accomplishment of homogenetic and _hetero- 
genetic developments a series of several biomolecular 
developments is necessary to allow of assimilation, so 
that the number of atoms may be gradually doubled, 
and, more particularly, to allow of the gradual orientation 
of the atoms; so that when dédoublement occurs the new 
molecules may have their atoms linked together in chains 
similar to those in the primary molecule. The latter is 
the greatest difficulty, and increases with the size and 
complexity of the molecules. Thus there are to be 
recognised “phases of biomolecular preparation” in the 
evolutionary cycle, during which assimilation goes on, 
extending from the first to the penultimate development; 
and “phases of maturation,” including the final develop- 
ment, which ends in reproduction, The more complex the 


Mar. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 55 


molecule, the greater the number of phases of preparation 
that must be passed through. In autogenetic development, 
the cycle includes only a single development, which is at 
once the phase of preparation and maturation. “ Multi- 
plication is the result of the phases of preparation, while 
reproduction is the final result of the phase of maturation.” 

In dealing with the physiology of the biomolecule, the 
author takes us over ground of much interest to botanists, 
and enables us to form exact conceptions of such functions 
as respiration, starch formation, function of chlorophyll, 
and secretion. Botanists are accustomed to distinguish 
the respiratory from the food oxygen in plants, but with 
this theory there is no such distinction—it is all food 
oxygen. Respiration, thus, is merely one of the episodes 
of nutrition, just as the assimilation of carbon, hydrogen, 
and nitrogen represent others; and since all living sub- 
stance contains atoms of oxygen in its molecules, respiration 
is a phenomenon common to all organisms. The element, 
unlike the other food elements, is absorbed in the uncombined 
condition. This uniqueness, and the easy demonstrability 
of the process, have led to its being regarded as a process 
apart, and to its being dignified by a special name. Respira- 
tion being interpreted in a broad sense as the absorption of 
oxygen free or combined, the so-called anrobia respire, 
inasmuch as though they do not absorb the free element, 
they absorb it in the combined state. The suggestion is 
made that the biomolecules of anzrobic bacteria resemble 
certain easily oxidisable substances, which combine not only 
with free oxygen, but, on account of their great affinity for 
this element, can abstract it from other substances with 
which it is combined. The author epitomises his conception 
of the phenomenon of respiration in the following words:— 
“ Respiration is not a combustion, it is an oxidation.” By 
combustion is meant here oxidation of carbon atoms. If 
two atoms of oxygen are absorbed by a biomolecule con- 
taining atoms of carbon, these may link on to one atom 
of carbon, and so satisfying its four valencies, unlink it from 
the biomolecule, when it will escape as carbon dioxide. 
If these were the real facts of respiration, the oxygen would 
be continually abstracting atoms of carbon from the bio- 
molecule, and the latter would gradually be destroyed. In 


56 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE _ [Skss. LXv. 


spite of respiration, however, the processes of assimilation 
and reproduction continue to go on in the biomolecule, and 
the number of atoms of oxygen and carbon are regularly 
doubled. Further, if it were a mere oxidation of carbon 
atoms, the amount of carbon dioxide given off would equal 
that of the oxygen absorbed; and the two phenomena— 
absorption of oxygen and emission of carbon dioxide— 
would be simultaneously accomplished, the first ceasing, 
the second would likewise come to an end. To give the 
prevalent opinion of botanists on this point, we cite from 
Vine’s “ Physiology of Plants,” p. 196: “There is no such 
constant relation between the volumes of carbon dioxide 
exhaled and the oxygen absorbed in respiration, and the 
processes of destructive metabolism are so complex, that we 
cannot account for the relation, whatever it may be, 
between the volumes of these gases in any particular 
case.” 

Respiration is an oxidation of the biomolecule—the 
oxygen is fixed chemically in the biomolecule, and remains 
there some time. The oxidation of the molecule of 
methyl-ethyl-ketone is a case in point—the oxygen is 
fixed in the molecule, and the latter as a result undergoes 
chemical transformation, whereby it splits into two mole- 
cules of acetic acid, without any evolution of carbon dioxide. 
Disengagement of carbon dioxide is thus not an inevitable 
result of oxidation; and, further, it may result from other 
chemical reactions without any oxidation at all, eg. acetic 
acid reacting on isocyanate of ethyl gives ethyl-acetamide 
and carbon dioxide. It may be pointed out that botanists 
generally admit that the evolution of CO, is not directly 
connected with the absorption of O. Van Tieghem held 
this view as far back as 1884. He was led to the same 
view as the result of experiment as our author has arrived 
at by theoretical considerations. We might cite here, also, 
the experiments of De Saussure, Mayer, and Dehérain, 
which are all in favour of the view that the oxygen is 
combined with the biomolecule. Succulent leaves of Agave, 
Saxifrages, Crassulacez, stems of Cactus, and fruits were 
found by these investigators to be able to absorb oxygen with- 
out giving off any carbon dioxide in return. “ De Saussure 
found that he could not extract by means of the air-pump 


Mar.1901.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Bt 


any appreciable quantity of either oxygen or carbon dioxide 
from a piece of stem of Opuntia which had absorbed about 
80 ce. of oxygen from the air contained in a receiver” 
(Vines, Joc. cit.). It would thus appear that the absorbed 
oxygen was chemically fixed in the plant, and not in a 
loose chemical combination, or in the form of intramolecular 
oxygen. 

How is the evolution of carbon dioxide to be explained ? 
The view of botanists is given by Vines (“ Physiology of 
Plants,’ p. 200): “The presence of free oxygen promotes 
certain processes of destructive metabolism, of which the 
exhalation of carbon dioxide is an expression.” This 
coincides with the views of our author, which he expresses 
as follows :—“ The oxidation brings about atomic diplace- 
ments in the biomolecule, which, consequently, becomes 
liable to undergo new transformations by other reactions. 
During the accomplishment of these reactions atomic 
displacement occurs, and it is possible that two atoms of 
oxygen may be linked to one of carbon, thus saturating its 
affinities, when it would be unlinked from the biomolecule 
and exhaled as carbon dioxide.” 

“The oxygen which is fixed to the biomolecule and brings 
about these chemical changes, in the course of which there 
is exhalation of carbon dioxide, plays the role of a true 
chemical stimulus. The assimilatory reactions which 
follow oxidation are evidently provoked by the action of 
the oxygen which produces a whole series of chemical 
changes, of which the point of departure is oxidation, 
and the final effect the disengagement of carbon dioxide.” 
The above affords us an easy explanation of the pheno- 
menonon of “intramolecular respiration.” “ Admitting 
that oxygen is fixed to the biomolecule, and remains there 
for some time; admitting that the disengagement of carbon 
dioxide is not a direct consequence of oxidation but of 
another assimilatory reaction,—it is obvious that the dis- 
engagement of carbon dioxide may go on for some time 
after the oxygen has ceased to act.” 

Respiration is characteristic of destructive metabolism. 
If atoms of oxygen and carbon, as carbon dioxide, are being 
continually given off from the biomolecule, how is the 
destruction of the latter averted, and how does the 


58 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. uxv. 


biomolecule complete its development, so as ultimately to 
be doubled into two new molecules? It is pointed out 
that the loss of some atoms “does not always indicate the 
destruction of a biomolecule, because this same loss may be 
the cause of a molecular reconstitution or augmentation, 
simultaneous or subsequent.” The reaction, previously 
referred to, of acetic acid with isocyanate of ethyl, is cited 
in illustration. Here the acetic acid loses one atom of 
carbon, but, at the same time, in its transformation it has 
added three new atoms of carbon from the molecule of 
ethyl-isocyanate, and has more than made good its loss. 

On similar lines, an explanation is afforded of the 
function of the chloroplasts and of starch formation. The 
error is pointed out of regarding these two processes, 
viz. assimilation (in the narrow sense as used by botanists 
—assimilation of carbon from the carbon dioxide of the 
air, and emission of oxygen) and starch formation as 
indissolubly bound together. They are independent of 
each other, although they may coexist in the same mole- 
cule. If the two functions were in absolute connection, 
the action of the chloroplasts would be of the nature of 
a contact action to induce the decomposition of carbon 
dioxide, the carbon of which would unite with the water 
of the medium, and would form starch or some other 
carbohydrate, and the molecules of the plastid would play 
no active role in the production. If chlorophyll and starch 
formation were thus indissolubly bound together, how 
explain the formation of starch by non-chlorophyllous 
organisms as the amylogenic bacteria? and, on the other 
hand, why do certain bacteria possessed of chlorophyll or 
of bacterio-purpurin form no starch? The error is in 
linking together two processes which, in reality, can go 
on quite independently. 

“Starchy substances are the products of secretion of 
biomolecules, that is, the molecules which constitute them 
are atomic groups, derived in part or im toto from the 
biomolecules in the course of certain assimilatory reactions, 
We have no right to affirm that the formation of starchy 
substances takes place entirely outside the biomolecules, 
Why should it not be admitted that these atomic groups 
are constituted, in part at least in the interior of the 


Mar. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 59 


biomolecules, by successive transposition of the atoms, such 
as has just been proved in assimilation? The formation 
of amyloid substances in the biomolecule would thus be 
comparable with that of carbon dioxide; the atoms of 
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen would all, or some at least, 
be part constituent of the biomolecule before leaving it to 
form a secretion product. Clearly, on this rendering, the 
production of starchy substances will depend strictly on 
the special constitution of the biomolecules and their 
processes of assimilation. Any biomolecule may produce 
starch, provided that by its structure and mode of develop- 
ment it can form the atomic groups which represent starch, 
and if these abandon the, molecule after their formation. 
These conditions not being realised the biomolecules will 
not give origin to starch, even although from their 
possession of chlorophyll, or of bacterio-purpurin, they can 
utilise the carbon of the atmospheric carbon dioxide. 
Evidently if the carbon of these ternary compounds arises 
from the biomolecule, it must previously have been supplied 
to the latter. It is not absolutely necessary that the 
carbon be assimilated by the action of the chlorophyll or 
of the bacterio-purpurin, for it might equally well have 
been absorbed in the combined form, as it is in those non- 
chlorophyllous organisms which none the less form starch.” 
Chlorophyll and bacterio-purpurin are of course of the 
highest importance to those organisms which possess them, 
but merely because they enable the organism to utilise 
the commonest and most abundant reservoir of carbon— 
the supply of carbon dioxide of the air, which is a secretion 
of other organisms. 

To summarise the results of the argument—‘ Chloro- 
phyll and bacterio-purpurin, in favourable conditions of 
temperature and light, enable the biomolecule to decompose 
carbon dioxide into its elements; the carbon is fixed to 
the biomolecules and becomes a constituent part of them. 
This is the chlorophyll function. Assimilatory reactions 
produce in the biomolecules displacement of atoms, in the 
course of which are formed ternary atomic groups which 
leave the molecules and constitute products of secretion 
called starchy substances. This is the amylogenic 
function. 


60 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess, uxv. 


“The amylogenic function is independent of the chloro- 
phyll function, that is, it can go on quite well without it. 
The atomic linkage characteristic of starchy substances is 
dependent on the structure of the biomolecules and the 
chemical change resulting from their processes of assimila- 
tion, no matter how the carbon be assimilated. It follows 
that non-chlorophyllous organisms, as amylogenic bacteria, 
may nevertheless form starch, while other organisms 
possessed of chlorophyll or of bacterio-purpurin have not, 
in spite of the presence of these substances, the power to 
form carbohydrates.” 

We may point out that these results, arrived at by 
theoretical considerations, coincide pretty closely with the 
views of modern botanists, as determined practically and 
experimentally. We know, for example, that leukoplasts, 
which are are non-chlorophyllous plastids, form starch. 
Further, Bohm (“ Bot. Zeit.,’ 1883) proved, experimentally, 
that chloroplasts formed starch in the dark when artificially 
supplied with sugar. Again, from the researches of Ewart 
(“Jour. Linn. Soc.,” 1897), we know that etiolated chloro- 
plasts, without the slightest trace of chlorophyll, show a 
faint power of carbon-assimilation. Further, as showing 
that it is not a contact action, Engelmann (“ Bot. Zeit.,” 
1881), by the bacterium method, showed that the actual 
assimilation of the carbon dioxide probably takes place 
in the plastid. 

The discussion of the food conditions necessary for the 
artificial life of the chemical molecule is instructive, and 
suggests interesting considerations as to the role played by 
certain food elements in the nutrition of plants. 

The food elements of the biomolecule are classified as 
follows :— 

(1) The Indispensable.—These that are actual constituent 
elements of the molecules. 

(2) Necessary.—These are part constituent of the mole- 
cule only temporarily, their presence being necessary for 
the completion of subsequent reactions. 

(3) Useful. — Elements which never enter into the 
molecule, nevertheless they are useful and necessary for 
assimilation, inasmuch as they provoke, by their affinity, 
chemical changes in the molecule. 


Mar. 1901. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 61 


The first can not be substituted by others; the second 
and third may, but only within certain limits, for although 
the substituted element may suit to set agoing the 
necessary assimilatory changes, yet the secondary products, 
or secreta of these changes, may be such as to interfere to 
such an extent as to render the molecule unable to com- 
plete its cycle. 

To the botanist these remarks are suggestive in reference 
to the inability of sodium, for example, to replace potassium 
as a plant food. Again, although potassium is not an 
element entering into the constitution of living matter, its 
presence is necessary for perfect plant growth. It would 
come into types 2 or 3, we. as temporarily entering into 
the molecule so as to facilitate subsequent reaction, or, 
although not entering into the molecule even temporarily, 
it may act by its affinity to produce important chemical 
reactions. Similar considerations suggest themselves in 
reference to the necessity of iron for the proper formation 
of chlorophyll. 

It will be noted in the discussion of starch formation 
that the significance of the terms assimilation, disassimila- 
tion, and secretion is here different from that usually held 
by botanists. Starch, usually regarded as a product of 
assimilation, is here classified as a secretion, derived and 
thrown off from the biomolecules at a particular stage of 
the assimilatory reactions. 

The secretory products fall into two main groups—(1) 
Exeretory products: these are never assimilated by the 
biomolecule, eg. the oxygen evolved during the decom- 
position of carbon dioxide by the chloroplasts. (2) 
Disassimilatory products: given off by the biomolecules in 
the course of their assimilatory reactions, eg. the carbon 
dioxide given off as the end result of respiration. 

Attention is then directed to the close relation existing 
between the food substance, the living substance, and the 
products of secretion. Disassimilation and secretion are 
concurrent phenomena of assimilation. There is difficulty 
in distinguishing between the products of the two processes, 
and the nature of these products depends not only on the 
structure of the biomolecules, but also on the chemical 
composition of the foods. In this connection the varying 


62 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. uxv. 


behaviour of the same bacteria in different nutrient 
solutions suggests itself in illustration, 

The Biomore. — Microscopical examination of living 
matter, which appears as an emulsion of granules suspended 
in a fluid medium, leads naturally to the conception of the 
biomore. Each biomore is a particle composed of biomole- 
cules. “Thus the fine granulations forming the threads 
of protoplasm, the microsomata of chromatin, of linin, 
paralinin, perhaps the central corpuscles, micrococci, 
perhaps also some vegetable plastids, are all probably 
biomores.” Every cell is an aggregate of biomores. 

Morphologically the biomores correspond pretty nearly 
with the plastidules of Maggi and Heckel, the protoplasmic 
spherules of Kunstler, microsomes of many biologists, the 
granula or bioblasts of Altmann. 

Giglio-Tos’ biomore theory is not open to the same 
objections as Altmann’s bioblast theory, which he tells us 
he accepts 7 toto. 

Altmann, under his granula conception, includes all 
kinds of different elements, “not only the usual microsomata 
in cells, but chloroplastids, pigment granules, lamellar 
particles in yolk of eggs, oil droplets and fat droplets, 
particles of ingested food, undigested food stuffs, products 
of cellular metabolism.”  Giglio-Tos clearly distinguishes 
between the biomores and products of molecular secretion 
and disassimilation, and nutrient substances. 

Physiologically the biomores differ from all the granula 
and morphological conceptions, for, while in the latter the 
properties of assimilation and reproduction are bound up 
in the structure of the particles, they are in no way 
explained by them. 

On the other hand, the faculties of assimilation and 
reproduction, 7.e. of living, are faculties in no way acquired 
by ‘the constitution of the biomore. The faculties are 
inherent in the very parts which compose it,—in the 
biomolecules, which would be equally living even if isolated. 

From direct examination and from theoretical considera- 
tions, it is concluded that the biomolecules constituting the 
biomores are not all alike. The biomolecules are regarded 
as being bound together into biomores after the same 
manner as inorganic molecules in molecular combinations 


Mar. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 63 


as double salts, ie. on account of the affinity which the 
atoms or atomic groups of the one molecule have for the 
atoms or atomic groups of the molecule juxtaposed to it. 
A mutual attraction thus results, which brings about a 
well-defined arrangement between the molecules. As the 
arrangement of the biomolecules in the biomore is thus in 
close relation with the arrangement of their atoms, it is 
obvious that their arrangement will be modified by the 
chemical changes in the molecules, and as the phenomena 
of assimilation induce these chemical changes, the bio- 
molecules will modify their arrangement in conformability 
to the new disposition of their atoms. There will thus 
necessarily be a continual movement of the biomolecules of 
a biomore during assimilation. 

There is in the biomore a state intermediate between 
the solid and the liquid, because of the mobility of the 
molecules as in a liquid, and of their definite arrangement 
as in a solid. 

This peculiar arrangement of the biomolecules in the 
biomore is of importance in the phenomena of assimilation. 
Not only do the biomolecules increase their instability by 
it, but they also by their biomoric arrangement create the 
chemical conditions necessary for their life, and which 
would not be found if each lived isolated, eg. atomic 
group a, uniting biomolecules A and B in the same 
biomore may, during assimilatory changes, be attracted 
from A to B to serve as food; it would then be a secretion 
product of A. A, on the other hand, might have its 
development facilitated by removal of atomic group a. 
The two biomolecules would thus mutually aid one another, 
and would constitute a true mutual symbiosis, and the 
conditions of their life are better supplied than if each 
lived separately. This is an extremely simple example of 
what must really be in the living molecule represented by 
exceedingly complex conditions. 

Morphologically, therefore, a biomore is a union of 
several biomolecules ; physiologically it is a true symbiosis 
of biomolecules, of which some by their presence facilitate 
the assimilatory reactions of others, whilst the latter 
furnish the former with chemical substances necessary for 
their development. 


64 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess, ixy. 


Thus, in the biomore, there exists a set of conditions— 
“the internal biomoric mediwm’”—produced by the bio- 
molecules themselves, which renders them more or less 
independent of the external conditions of environment. 
This conception of the biomore as a group of biomolecules 
juxtaposed in a condition of unstable equilibrium, furnishes 
an easy explanation of the fatal effects of high temperatures 
on living matter. The biomolecular groups are decom- 
posed, and produce molecular groups different from the 
biomolecules, and incapable, therefore, of giving origin to 
vital phenomena. 

As showing that the trend of modern botanical opinion 
is towards some such conception as this biomore, we may 
quote the following extracts from Pfeffer’s ‘“ Physiology of 
Plants” (English translation). On page 32 he says: “It 
is, as a matter of fact, not inconceivable that the existence 
of certain species, as such, depends upon protoplastic or 
symbiotic unions. ... Nor is the probability excluded 
that the tiny symbiont might be too small to be visible, or 
might be unable to continue an independent existence 
outside of the protoplast.” Again, p. 43, speaking of the 
microsomes he says: “They may be composed in some eases 
of non-living substance, but in other cases may be minute 
living plastids. But few of the organs and structural 
elements of which protoplasm is composed are visible even 
with the highest powers of the microscope, nevertheless we 
must conclude, on theoretical grounds, that all living 
material is built up of most minute living units.” 

Bioplasma is a mass of living matter of any dimensions, 
composed of any number of biomores, of varied chemical 
constitution immersed in a liquid matrix—the interbiomoric 
liquid. The conception bioplasma is at once wider and 
also more restricted than protoplasm, in that it includes all 
the living granules, not only those of the general cell-body, 
but the nucleus, central corpuscle, archoplasma, paranuclear 
corpuscle, in fact all the parts able to assimilate, and 
consequently to live; it excludes starch, cell-sap, sugars, 
oil, etc., which do not assimilate, but are merely the result 
of elaboration of the living parts. 

The difficulty of distinguishing the bioplasm from the 
non-living matters mentioned above is admitted, but the 


Mar. 1901.]/ | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 65 


necessity of drawing such a distinction is emphasised 
for a clear comprehension of the vital phenomena of 
ontogeny. 

Just as the life of the biomore is the result of the life 
of its biomolecules, so that of the bioplasm is the result of 
that of its biomores. As the fundamental phenomena of 
life—assimilation and reproduction—are purely chemical 
phenomena, and therefore dependent only on the chemical 
structure of the biomolecules, it follows that the morpho- 
logical structure of the protoplasm is of secondary 
importance. 

All the morphological conceptions of protoplasm are 
compatible with this theory. The bioplasm is composed 
of biomores synonymous with the granula of Altmann. 
These granula may be aggregated into threads (Flemming’s 
thread theory), the threads into nets (reticular theory of 
Frommann), and the interrelation between the reticula and 
interbiomoric fluid gives alveolar structure (Butschli). 

From observations, and on theoretical grounds, he 
regards the biomores that constitute the bioplasma as not 
all of the same chemical nature. 

The iaterbiomoric fluid—eytolinin of Waldeyer, inter- 
jilary substance (Flemming), hyaloplasma (Leydig), enchylema 
(Carnoy)—is composed essentially of water (not Nageli’s 
water of constitution, but rather of adhesion or capillarity), 
containing, in solution, nutritive substances, and some of 
the secreta of the biomores. As these last increase in 
amount it may acquire a viscous consistency, and have the 
characters of albuminoid substance. At this stage it 
would be the equivalent of the trophoplasma of authors, 
while the ensemble of biomores would represent the 
kinoplasm. 

The fluid serves as the medium of nutritive exchange, 
in its absence desiccation ensues and assimilation ceases. 
The absence of water produces no change in the living 
substance proper—the biomores and biomolecules,—other- 
wise death would ensue. The exchange recommences as 
soon as it is supplied, and, with it, the manifestation of 
life. We have interesting illustrations of this in the 
behaviour of such organisms as the rotifera, tardigrada, 
bacteria, ete., in relation to desiccation. 


TRANS, BOT. SOC. EDIN, VOL. XXII. E 


66 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sxss. xxv. 


The biomores are alive because they are formed of bio- 
molecules, and the bioplasma is alive because it is formed 
of biomores. The great heterogenity of the biomores of 
any mass of bioplasma will render the realisation of their 
conditions of life a matter of extraordinary difficulty. 
The biomores of the bioplasm are regarded as forming 
a symbiotic system, and herein is found a marvellous 
realisation of their conditions of life. Just as the 
fungus and alga forming the lichen can live in conditions 
of environment unsuitable for either separately, so the 
biomores of the bioplasm, which could not find the necessary 
conditions of life if separated, realise these conditions by 
their union in the bioplasm. Their chemical constitution 
not being uniform, their vital functions will be different, 
and hence there will be a physiological division of labour 
—their foods and secreta will vary; thus the secreta of 
one biomore may be food for another, and reciprocally. 
O, for example, is a food of the biomolecule, and CO, a 
secretion. But CO, is absorbed by others, C retained and 
O given off. The latter in turn is absorbed by other bio- 
molecules. So with starch. Starch is a secretion of some 
biomores, and is absorbed and assimilated by others. 
Secreta again, of certain biomores, may be ferments to 
prepare food for others. Thus the author exemplifies the 
close relation of nutrition and secretion between biomores 
of the same cell, and emphasises the importance of sym- 
biosis in explaining the manifestation of lfe. He has a 
word in passing on the importance of an allied phenomenon 
—probiosis—and its value in the phenomenon of ontogeny. 
By probiosis he means the anterior life of organisms, in so 
far as this life has prepared a favourable or necessary 
environment for other organisms living later, whether of 
the same or different species, e.g. the probiosis of lichens 
and mosses supplies humus for higher plants. 

This conception of symbiosis of the biomores of the 
bioplasm leads to a proper appreciation of the value of the 
interbiomoric fluid as the internal bioplasmatie medium. It 
acts as a reservoir of food and secreta, and therefore as a 
medium of nutritive exchange, and renders the biomores 
independent, in part at least, of the external medium. 

The conception of symbiosis implies that of a symbiotic 


Mar. 1901.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 67 


system—an aggregate of parts living in common, but very 
distinct in their character. If new individuals be intro- 
duced into such a system, the symbiotic equilibrium will 
be disturbed, and may be destroyed, and this probability of 
disturbance or destruction will be the greater the more 
unlike the introduced individuals are to the originals 
which they replace. This affords an explanation of the 
phenomena of fertilisation and hybridisation. 

Every symbiotic system of biomores is a biomonad. 
The biomonad may be complete, able to regenerate itself 
in whole or part, e.g. the fertilised egg; or incomplete, eg. 
unfertilised egg and spermatozoid. The cell is a biomonad 
characterised by the possession of biomores of special 
chemical nature:—<Karyoplasm (biomores of nucleus) ; 
Archoplasm (biomores of centrosphere); Cytoplasm (biomores 
of cell body), and it is by the symbiosis of these that cell 
life is possible. 

Not any one of these parts is more indispensable than 
the others; if any one be removed, the symbiotic 
equilibrium is disturbed, or it may be even destroyed. 
The cell may live, but it will have lost its vital potentiality, 
i.e. power to regenerate itself. The same is true of 
biomore and biomolecule also. 

The parts of the cell derive their importance not on 
account of their morphological structure, their method of 
aggregation, but because of their chemical constitution, 
“the parts of the cell really indispensable for life are those 
which constitute the bioplasma (i.e. the biomores), and the 
interbiomoric fluid. Whatever be the disposition and 
nature of the biomores, whatever be the form that these 
biomores may produce by their aggregation in the cell, it 
will always be indispensable for cell life that the biomores 
constitute a symbiotic system, and that there exist an | 
interbiomoric fluid whence they can extract their nutritive 
substances.” “The life of the cell is the sum of the lives 
of its biomores”; and the biomores are incapable of 
independent life if isolated from each other, just as a cell 
of a multicellular organism is when isolated from its 
neighbours, because when isolated it fails to find the 
necessary condition of existence, which are fully realised 
in the ensemble of the organism. 


68 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. Lxy. 


“Symbiosis is in fact the fundamental biological principle 
on which is based the constitution, differentiation, and 
perfectability of organisms. The symbiosis of biomolecules 
forms the biomore, that of biomores the biomonad and 
eell, that of cells the body of the multicellular organism.” 

The author next introduces us to his interpretation of 
the phenomena of cell division. The fundamental cause of 
division is always the same, whether it be the division of 
a biomolecule or of a biomore, of a biomonad or of a cell 
—it is the orientation of parts. The orientation of atoms 
causes the division of the biomolecule, that of biomolecules 
the division of the biomore, and that of biomores causes 
the division of the biomonad and the cell. To the objec- 
tion that the division of the biomolecule is a chemical 
division, while that of the others is a morphological one, it 
is pointed out that the molecule is not only a chemical 
but also a morphological individuality, and it is only our 
present inadequate means of observation that prevent us 
from having a morphological conception of the biomolecule. 
The following diagram may represent the molecules and 
their relative arrangement of a biomore, A :— 

a 


(1) 

d 
As assimilation proceeds the chemical composition of 
the biomolecules will change, and their arrangement, which 


depends on their reciprocal affinities, will also change, and 


take the new arrangement of Fig. 2— 
pb’ 


ie) dod 
If Fig. (2) correspond to phase J/, that is, to the final 
stage just when doubling occurs, then a’ will be divided 


into aa, and 0’ into bb, and so on as under— 
bb 


(3). cae 


Mar. 1901.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 69 


In virtue of their reciprocal attraction the biomores will 
now be oriented, according ‘to their structure, and conse- 
quently according to Fig. 1. As each biomolecule, however, 
is double, their orientation also will be doubled, and will 
bring about the division of the biomore into two biomores 
similar to A, thus— 

i a a 
ye b if b 
(4) cee ONE 
d d 

The division of the biomonad and cell takes place 
similarly. When assimilation has doubled the number of 
biomolecules: the biomores will divide; the system of 
biomores will then be doubled, and the orientation of the 
biomores (which is possible because they possess a certain 
mobility being plunged in a fluid, and because they have 
a reciprocal attraction in virtue of their chemical constitu- 
tion) which follows, will induce the division of the bio- 
monad into two new biomonads. 

In a series of twenty-one ingenious diagrams we see 
this gradual orientation of the biomores in biomonad and 
cell during the successive stages of division leading to the 
production of the well-known figure of karyokinesis. Cell 
division is a mechanical phenomenon based on the chemical 
attraction of the biomores. 

Other interesting conclusions in this chapter are, that 
the centrosphere, and the aster, etc. are ephemeral 
morphological formations, but materially persistent, 7.e. the 
biomores which constitute them always persist as such, 
although they lose their characteristic arrangement which 
gives the aster, etc., during the processes of assimilation. 
The formation of the centrosphere, the asters, the spindle, 
the nuclear plate, the separation of the chromosomes, and 
the separation of the two daughter cells, are all phenomena 
depending on the same cause—orientation of the biomores. 

Interesting also are the remarks on the so-called 
“resting stage of the cell,” which ought, according to the 
author, to be called the “ assimilatory period,” inasmuch as 
during this phase the cell is the seat of continual chemical 
and mechanical work. . 

In chapter vii. are stated 28 laws of cell division, 


70 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss, yxy. 


rational laws inasmuch as they are not the result of 
observation, but are deduced with mathematical precision 
from the interpretation of cell division. 

The book concludes with two chapters of problems. 
Chapter viii. deals with the analytical problems of cell 
division. Having described in chapter vi. how cell 
division would be completed under ideal conditions, in 
these problems are determined the modifications pro- 
duced by natural conditions. These problems thus deal 
with the action on cell division of the position of the 
central corpuscles, of gravity, of external mechanical 
obstacles, of pressure, of the membrane, of adhesion, of 
the physiological condition of cells of a cell aggregate. 
These problems are mathematically set and solved by 
mathematical formule. 

The determination of the action of these various 
conditions paves the way for the solution of the complex 
problems of cell division—the determination of the segmen- 
tation planes of all kinds of eggs when developed in natural 
and under artificial conditions. 

Such is Gigho-Tos’s theory, and undoubtedly the author 
has done his work thoroughly. Every step is fully 
elaborated, with the result that there is produced a 
complete and symmetrical whole. When the results 
arrived at theoretically are borne out by facts of observa- 
tion, these the author has not failed to note, so that every 
point is made to tell, As it stands, it affords new views 
of the much debated subject of cell division, and gives 
accuracy to conceptions of many physiological phenomena. 
Whether all the results will be fully proved by the facts 
of observation and experiment, and whether it gives us the 
key to the mystery of life, time will tell. Among modern 
materialistic and chemical theories of life, it must be 
admitted as facile princeps. 

One shuts the book with an appetite whetted for more, 
and looks forward in anticipation and curiosity to the next 
volume on ontogeny and its problems. 


May 1901.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 71 


EFFECTS OF WEATHER ON TREE GrowTH. By C. E. Hatt. 
(Read 9th May 1901.) 


In “More Notes on Tree Measurement,’ published in 
the “ Transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh ” 
in November 1899, an effort was made to trace the effect 
of variation in meteorological conditions on tree growth, 
and the conclusion arrived at appeared to be that the most 
essential factor in the growth of trees is to be found in the 
rainfall. The present paper is an attempt to analyse the 
figures published in the communication above referred to 
in a more detailed manner, and along three different lines. 
As two of these lines seem to have been based on false 
foundations, they may be briefly dismissed; the main 
error of both being that the monthly tree growth taken 
for comparison with weather factors was the plus or minus 
growth over or under the average monthly percentage of 
growth. Moreover, as tree-measuring day is the 12th of 
each month, very rarely the 13th, and as therefore all tree- 
growth records run from 12th to 12th, and as all meteoro- 
logical records run from Ist to last day of each month, 
and considering that possibly weather does not instantly 
take effect and manifest itself in the girth of a tree, it was 
determined, in the first line followed, to ignore the lack of 
correspondence between the growth and weather periods. 

The unsatisfactory results of this first line impelled me 
to work out weather tables from the 12th of one month to 
the 11th of the succeeding month, and a comparison 
of growth and weather on this second line was a great 
improvement on the first line; but when an examination 
of some peculiar looking cases was instituted, some dis- 
crepancies seemed to be quite unaccountable, and then it 
was that I discovered the error in the tree-growth figures ; 
and for the third attempt, which I shall now further 
describe, I took for tree growth the plus or minus figures 
over or under the average measured growth for each month. 
I should say “half the measured growth,” as the figures for 
growth of evergreens and deciduous trees are made up of 
the mean growths of three pairs of trees of each class. 

The basis then of this third attempt to ascertain the 
effects of weather on tree growth is the accompanying 


72 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXV. 


series of twelve monthly tables, in which the first column 
gives half the measured monthly growth in millimetres 
of six evergreens, and the second column the amount plus 
or minus the average of seven years, the third and fourth 
columns give the half growth, and the plus or minus 
average of six deciduous trees. The evergreens are the 
two Gum trees, two Pines, and two Blackwoods, and the 
deciduous the two Paraisos, two Oaks, and two Poplars 
referred to on pages 245, 246, etc. etc. of “ More Notes on 
Tree Measurement.” The growth period is from 12th of 
of one month to 12th of the next. 

The five succeeding weather columns represent the 
monthly amount over or under the average of seven years. 
The weather period is from the 12th of one month to the 
11th of the next month inclusive. 

The summaries at the foot of each monthly table show 
the total net weather factors for that month for all the 
years when there was an over-average growth, as, also, for 
all the years when there was an under-average growth. 

Thus, for growth period ending 12th February— 
EVERGREENS. 


} 


| THERMOMETERS. Ran, 
(GROWTH. - — |—— —| Sun. 
| | Max. Min. | Hours. | Inches. | 
" nly | — oe 
| | 
526 | 231 oy alee fs 0s} 76 
Over- 15-Gu dee 9) al e370) | Os det 12 
Average 46 | 0:3 Te. AIG) aisBa 37 
Goro wit hie | eee lee be =) x 2 
(2B UNeG'S, | 2-0" = 2858 9:20 | 27 |Net Weather. 
24a 2:5) | 11 139 | 3:0 | 14 
Under 21°4 1:3 yu 10°9 3°01 19 
i vebaecle| melo BO: 1:0 7%. | 0168 5 
vb ans 3 | == eee eee eee || by Se | 
| 
72°6 6°1 1:9 | 29°1 9°20 25 + |Net Weather. 
| 


After constructing these twelve monthly tables, I made 


a synopsis of all their summaries, which we will call 
Table I. 


May 1901.]_ BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 73 


And now it may be interesting to show the different 
results given by the three different attempts to solve this 
problem, calling them A, B, and C; C being the net totals 
of Table I, and A and B similar net totals of the Tables 
embodying the erroneous work— 


RESULTS OF THREE SETS OF CALCULATIONS. 
EVERGREENS. 


THERMOMETERS. Ran. SUN. 
GROWTH. _= = — =o 
Max. Min. Hours. Inches. | Hours. 
[A 114-4 | 24-4 4-4 | 1392 | 31:39 97 
Over- B k ; 21-3 S15 38-65 
Averages. 114-4 29°9 21°: 161°5 38°65 301 
C 596°3 30°9 24: 217°6 48°83 547 
= [4 114°4 24°8 42 135°0 31°36 105 
Under- 
B 114-4 30-0 21:0 1621 38:78 299 
Averages. | £ 
(c 595°2 31°0 24:3 2181 48°96 543 
_ ep a a 
DECIDUOUS. 
THERMOMETERS, Ran. Sun. 
GROWTH. = = 
Max. Min. Hours. | Inches. | Hours. 
f j } + ; Si. > : 5: 3G 
A 185°5 30:3. | =6:3 47-0 9°88 
Over- QA . . Q -7 93:6 -9) 
Averages.) 185°5 31°2 91 39°7 23°64 52 
lc 452°4 32°0 4:5 TELS. | Si-82 458 
185°5 30-4 | 51 43} 9°78 a. 
Under- 
185 5 31°3 9-4 39°9 23°77 54 
Averages ¥ 
C, 451:8 32°1 42 111°8 31:95 456 


And now, quite disregarding the erroneous A and B, 
C shows us broadly that a good growth of evergreens is 
accompanied by a low maximum thermometer. This is 
doubtless due to the cooling of the air by rain. It is also 
accompanied by a high minimum thermometer, most likely 
attributable to the absence of frosts during rainy times; by 
a considerable plus rainfall, averaging more than 0°22 inch 
per hour; and, by a lack of sunshine, amounting to twice 
as many hours as there were plus hours of rain. 


74 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. Lxv. 


We learn, also, from C, or from Table IL, that deciduous 
trees in the main follow the course observed by the ever- 
greens; but the minimum thermometer is only a little 
above par; the rainfall averages more than 0°28 inch per 
hour, and the lack of sunshine is more than four times as 
many hours as the plus hours of rain. 

But in the ease of the deciduous trees it seems needful to 
separate them into growing and sleeping periods, as follows :— 


| OvER-AVERAGE GROWTH. 


|_——————__—_— = = zatt 


| | THERMOMETERS. RAIN. SUN. 

| GrowrH, — a --- 

| Max. Min. | Hours. | Inches. | Hours. | 

| | | 

Growing Season | 3801 | 25:0 4-4 81:4 | 24-17 | 429 

| Sleeping Season tas 3) mm i ae spay )o9l 0 Fe 29 | 
452-4 | 32°0 | 4:5 | 111°3 | 31°82 | 458 | 


UnDER-AVERAGE GROWTH. 


24:29 | 428 


Growing Season | 3801 | 24:9 | a2 | ge | 

Sleeping Season | WAST) 772 Orta aa eaoeT | 7-66 | 28 
| | = } 
| | | 
| 4518 | 321 | 42 go Bb Is] 


31°95 456 


of September inclusive; growing season is, of course, the 
other six months. 

We find from the above little table that the over- 
average growth of deciduous trees in the growing season is 
accompanied by a decidedly low maximum thermometer 
(25 deg. accumulated in six months against 32 deg. in 
twelve months, as per Table I); also by a minimum 
thermometer slightly over par; by an abundant rainfall of 
nearly 0°30 inch per hour; and by five times as many 
hours deficiency of sunshine as of over plus hours of rain. 

In the sleeping season the maximum thermometer 
shows a slight deficiency; the minimum thermometer is 
almost at par; the surplus rainfall is not quite one-third 
of what it was in the growing season, and is a little over 
0°25 inch per hour; and the hours of deficient sunshine are 
almost equal to the hours of surplus rain. However, 
as the measured growth of the trees for the six sleeping 


May 1901.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 75 


months is but 0°093, and the growth in the six growing 
months is 1°393,; and as growth in the sleeping season is 
complicated with occasional diminutions of girth or 
shrinkage, probably demanding a separate investigation, 
it may be best now to attend to the growing season of 
deciduous trees. 

The low maximum thermometer is no doubt attributable 
to the cooling of the air by rain; but how does a warm 
minimum thermometer in the six growing months conduce 
to good growth? Rain, as is probably beyond dispute, 
is the prime factor of growth, and rain certainly tends 
to cool the air in the growing season both by day and 
night, though in the sleeping season the thermometer reads 
higher during rain than during frosts, which accounts for 
the high minimum thermometer accompanying good growth 
of evergreens in the winter months. 


TABLE I. 
EVERGREENS. | DeEcripuoUs. 
| | | 
Therms. | Rain. Sun) Therms. | Rain. Sun 
5 le |g je|3 ¢ | € |¢ 
& |Max|Min.| = = = || o |Max|Min.| 3 | § | 3 
| op S| sal eso 
l> | Feb. 12 | 72°S | 6:3) 2:0] 28°8 | 9:20 | 27 || 88:0 | 6:0 | 0-4 | 24:2 | 7°89 | 64 
| Mar. 12 | 74°7 | 8:3} 0-7] 10°6 | 4°26 | 57 || 49°0 | 70 | 2:9 | 11:9 | 4°87 | 76 
= | April 12 | 50-7 | 0°8| 1:5] 84°2 | 3-29 | 41 || 15-2 | 1-7] 1:8 | 1-7 | 0-08 | 29 
S ,| May 12 | 43°9-| 3°7| 0-4| 135 | 543 | 56 || 18'S | 22 | 20) 97 | 171) 3 
5 | June 12 | 39°0 | 17/107] 423 | 2°99 | 71 || 20 | 0-2) 2-0 | 12°9 | 0-59 | 28 
Soe | July 12} 180 | 1°7| 0-7 | 29-1 | 1°55 | 37 || 10°8 | 11 | 1-4 | 139 | 0-57 | 16 
/E | Aug. 12 | 44-4 | 2-4) 23] 15-1 | 0°58 | 21 || 9-2 | 75 | 38] 7-2 | 3:71 | 13 
5o| Sept. 12 | 41-4 | 0°5| 0-2] 16-2 | 4-77 | 26 || 16:3 | 0-1 | 3°3 | 12-1 115 | 2 
“| Oct. 12] 50°2 | 2-4] 6-9] 28-7 | 9°15 | 81 |] 35-2 | 2:2 | 3:9] 0-7 | Leal 141 
& | Nov. 12| 218 | 1:0] 2-0/ 62 | 0-80 56 || 354 | 6-0 | 11/| 06 | 0-02 | 31 
6 | Dec. 12 | 64°6 | 3°) 20/115 4-91 | 79 || 84-8 | 9:1 | 0°6 | 19°0 | 4°63 45 
Jan. 12} 748 |10°1| 1:0} 24-0 | 4°66 | 47 || 87-7 | 6-7 | 3°3 | 262 | 5°35 | 72 
——- | —— — | ||| i 
| i | | 
Net| Totals . 696°3 | 80°) 24°6 217°6 | 48°83 | 547 || 452-4 | 32-0 | 4°5 | 111°3 | 31°82 | 458 
] | | 
‘= | Feb. 12/ 726 | 61) 1-9) 29-1 | 9°20 | 25 || 88-0 | 5:8 | 0°3 | 24°5 | 7:89 | 62 
S| Mar. 12 | 744 | 8:0 06 107 4:29 | 60 | 49:0 67 28 | 12:0 | 490 | 79 
\& .| April 12 | 504 | 09, 1-8) 33-9 | 3-26 | 44 || 15°0 | 1:8 | 21 | 2-0 | 0-11 | 26 
= 2\ May 12/438 | 40 0-7 13-4 | 5°43 | 54/186 | 25 23) 96 | 171) 3 
|Z=| June 12 | 39:0 | 16 10-4 42-2 3:00 | 70 || 2-0 | 0-3 | 1-7 | 128 | 0-60 | 27 
25, July 12/180 | 20 O08 292 1:56 | 34/105 | 08 1:5 140 | 0°58 | 13 
S&| Ang. 12 | 442 | 2°6| 2-1) 14-8 | 0°56 | 24 || 9°0 | 7°3| 40) 7:5 | 3-73 | 16 
<~ | Sept. 12 | 41:2 | 0:3) 04/161 | 4°77 | 29 || 166 | 03) 3°5 | 122 | 115] 5 
& | Oct. 12| 50-4 | 22) 6-7 | 28-9 | 9:18 | 79 | 35-4 | 2°0 | 3:7 | 0-9 | 1-44 |139 
| Nov. 12/220 | 08 22 6-0 | 0-77 | 56 || 35-7 | 58| 13) 0-4 | 0-05 | 31 
5 | Dec. 12] 643 | 4:0 1-7, 115 | 4°92 | 81 || 846 | 9°3 | 0-9 | 19:0 | 4°64 | 47 
Jan. 12 | 749 103 08 23-9 | 468 45 87:4 | 69 | 3:1 | 26-1 | 5°37 | 70 
| | Heh a ei eee ee ee ae, 
Net) Totals . | 595°2| 31-0 24:3 218:1 | 48:96 543 451-8 32-1. 4:2 | 111°8 | 31°95 | 456 
| | | | 


76 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. uxy. 


If we look at Table I, we find that the over-average 
srowth of deciduous trees in the growing season is during 
the months of February, March, and December, accom- 
panied by under-average minimum thermometer, and in 
October, November, and January by an _ over-average 
minimum thermometer. And referring to the monthly 
tables of plus or minus averages for seven years, we see 
that the years 1888, 1889, and 1891 are responsible 
for the October over-average, the years 1888, 1891 for 
the November over-average, and 1888, 1889 for the 
January over-average minimum thermometer, as shown in 
Tables II., IIL, and IV. 


TABLE II. 
| THERMOMETERS. | RAIN. | SUN. 
| Growra. | |- = | 
| Max. Min. | Hours. | Inches. | Hours. | 
Sa eS ee ae ee fee 
1e88pe loon | 75s “2 | 7-4 “| eaepor | eres ‘ee 12th 
| = September 
1889 1a Or. Wr tO4 19 2°08 3 if to 12th 
| 1891 54 | 2-4 23 | 86 2:46 | 63) |) pOctoles 
ore) aa 39 | or =| 14 aa | 


Referring to the Meteorological Records, there was a 
severe hurricane on the afternoon of 2nd September 1888, 
3°09 inches of rain falling in three hours. There was also 
0°15 inch rain on 3rd September. May we not conclude 
that the impetus to growth thus given nine days before 
measuring day was not at that date exhausted, and that the 
good growth of this period is partly due to the hurricane, 
whose cooling effects on the air are not felt during this 
period ending 12th October ? 

The period ending 12th October 1889 shows both 
maximum and minimum thermometers so little over par, 
that, not to be too lengthy, it may be well to pass over this 
period, and examine the period 12th September to 12th 
October 1891. The actual rainfall for this period was 
but 0°67 inch; but in the last twenty-three days of the 
preceding August there fell 8°45 inches, 4°03 inches 


/ 
May 1901.]_ | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 77 


from 8th to 18th, and 4°42 inches from 23rd to 31st 
August. It is surely reasonable to suppose that the 
effects of this heavy rainfall had not worn away, 
and that they account for the slight over-average 
growth of the 12th October period, the dryness of 
which causes the high maximum and minimum 
thermometers. 


“TasLe III. 
THERMOMETERS. Ran. SUN. 
j GROWTH. = = = —__- 
Max. Min. Hours. | Inches. Hours. 
aE = 2S) es eee 
} 1888 25-1 18 5:8 3°5 0-47 Ls. oe 
| 2th 
| 1889 4-1 08 3°8 9-7 | S37 21 | Gaines 
1890 11 AT. 33 8-2 2:08 2A | peti: ee 
/ 1891 51 09 | 24 | 138 | 2:90 1 | Novem ia 
30°4 6:0 11 06 0:02 33 


In 1888 there is a good growth, but very little rain 
over the average, so the nights had not been much cooled 
down. But the good growth of this period is no doubt 
largely due to a heavy rainfall just a day before measuring 
day, 3 inches being measured at 9.30 AM. on 11th 
October. 

The rather over-average growth of 12th October to 12th 
November 1891 is accompanied by an over-average of all 
weather factors. Now the rainfall of this period was 
distributed as follows:—1°58 inch from 12th to 31st 
October; 0°27 inch 1st to 6th November; and 3°34 
inches on 8th November. Thus for the first twenty- 
seven days there was an under-average rainfall, and, 
in consequence, an over-average temperature, both by 
day and night. The heavy rain of 3°34 inches does 
not perceptibly affect the mean temperature, but does 
affect the growth. 

We may perhaps draw the corollary that rainfall affects 
growth within four days. 


78 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. rxv. 


TaBLe IV. 
| THERMOMETERS. RAIN. Sun. 
| | | 
GROWTH. 
Max. Min. Hours. | Inches. | Hours. 
Jos | 
1888 Ae) i GFL A 32! 9-1 1:93 | tor hi 12th 
= ie see il December 
1889 42:9 DIES IN (ORY) 23°3 4°57 55 - to 12th 
1891 | 3:9 1:8, =) 4O;StaiieG-2.00 |" Aco ame | January. 
ar7.|| ler | (8B) 26:2)"| 585 | eae 


During the period ending 12th January 1888, rain fell 
on ten days between 13th and 31st of December, 4:15 
inches ; and 0°93 inch fell on 6th, 7th, and 8th of January. 
The rainfall being, for San Jorge, decidedly frequent, it is 
possible that the sun had not as much opportunity as usual 
to warm the earth sufficiently to produce hot nights; and 
thus the contrast between a sun-heated earth and a rain- 
cooled earth is wanting. 

Looking now at 1889, the same solution offers itself as 
in the case of 1888; for the Meteorological Records show 
that during this 12th January period, from 12th to 31st 
December, rain fell 2°46 inches on eight days out of the 
twenty, and 2°72 inches on six days out of the eleven from 
1st to 11th January; never more than two consecutive 
days without rain, except from 25th to 29th December. 

The slight over-average growth of the period ending 
12th January 1891 is doubtless due to a fall on 10th and 
11th December 1890, which would of course take effect 
after the measurement of trees on 12th December. 

Thus in these seven periods, reasons that seem to be 
good are offered to account for a rather over-average 
minimum temperature accompanying an _ over-average 
growth of deciduous trees during the growing season. 

It almost seems as if it were proved that rain is the 
only one of the weather-factors here taken into considera- 
tion that has any actual effect on the growth of trees; a 
low maximum thermometer in summer is due to rain; a 
high minimum thermometer (in the case of evergreens) in 
winter is due to rain; absence of sunshine is due to rain 
and clouds; all are attendant on good growth, but all are 
due to rain. . . 


May 1901. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 79 


But before dismissing the subject, let us compare some 
actual growth and weather figures, taking the best growths 
for each month with corresponding weather, and taking, 
also, the worst growths for each month, with the month’s 
weather, evergreens and deciduous trees separate as usual, 
as in Tables V. and VI. 

In Table V. (evergreens, 12th May 1888), the poor rain- 
fall (3°11 inches) is supplemented by 4°56 inches, which 
fell in thirty hours from 2nd to 9th April, three days 
before the measuring day. 

12th November 1888.—The 2°76 inches of rainfall is 
supplemented by 2°66 inches, which fell in twelve and 
a half hours from 3rd to 7th October, five days before 
the measuring day. 

12th July 1889.—The poor rainfall of 1:95 inch is 
supplemented by 3°22 inches, which fell in thirty six and 
a half hours from 2nd to 10th June, two days before the 
measuring day. 

In the same Table (deciduous trees), 12th November 
1888 has been commented upon in “ evergreens.” 

12th December 1888.—The pretty good rainfall of 
4°62 inches is helped by a fall of 1°21 inch during seven 
days from 1st to 11th November; and the evergreen 
good growth this month is also no doubt helped by the 
same cause. 

As to deciduous trees in the sleeping season, it does not 
appear that any useful purpose could be served by a 
detailed examination of these figures, for, as previously 
remarked, shrinkage takes place in these months, and this 
cannot be considered simply as if it were intensified bad 
growth. It may be sufficient to notice that the best 
growths in sleeping season are accompanied by a total of 
32°12 inches, and that the worst growths in this season 
are accompanied by a total of 20°38 inches, and that the 
average annual rainfall for these seven years is 44°05 
inches. 

In Table VI. (evergreens, 12th November 1891), out of 
the 5°19 inches of rain, 3°61 inches fell in fifteen and a half 
hours between 1st and 9th November; and the measuring 
day being 12th November, it is probable that the full 
effect of this rain had not yet made itself felt. 


80 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE — [Sess. Lxv. 


12th May 1893.—Out of the 5°53 inches of rain, 1°32 
inch fell in five hours on 7th May; but even supposing 
the effect of this had not been fully exhausted, still the 
month had had a good rainfall. Why then the poor 
growth ? 

12th August 1893.—There is a good rainfall of 5°01; 
and in this case there had been no rain since 30th July. 
Again, why the poor growth ? 

In this Table VI. (deciduous trees, 12th November 
1892), out of the 3°88 inches of rainfall, 3-41 inches fell 
from 4th to 9th November, three days before measuring 
day. Manifestly this rainfall had not had time to effect 
its full benefit. And for sleeping season, reference to this 
has been made in the remarks on Table V. 

Thus in the thirty-six cases of best and worst growth, 
eight that seem to run counter to the general rule of 
“heavy rain, good growth; light rain, bad growth,” have 
been reasonably explained, though no explanation is offered 
for two other cases. And still it seems as if rain were the 
sole factor of growth, temperature and sunshine being 
merely accessories. This is hard to believe; for to what 
but to sun and heat, added to abundant rain, can be 
attributed the luxuriant growth of the tropics? And to 
what but to the lack of heat can be attributed the meagre 
growth of high latitudes? But the connection between 
sun and warmth and good growth does not appear from 
all the foregoing investigations, save in one little point. 
It will be noticed in the figures with which I shall 
conclude that minimum thermometer is lower in the 
worst growth cases, both in evergreens and deciduous 
trees, 


EVERGREENS. | DECIDUOUS. 


se 
THERMOMETERS. | SUN. | THERMOMETERS. SUN. 
| | 


Max. | Min. | Hours Max. | Min. | Hons 


Sih portacranl Winlatts | 227 
266 | 81:0 | 535 | BIB 


51-2 
48-4 


Best Growths .. 71:4 
| Worst Growths . . 72:4 


81 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


May 1901. | 


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BOT, SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXII. 


TRANS. 


[ Sus. LXV. 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


82 


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May 1901.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 83 
12TH FEBRUARY. 

fenpaeeeenee. | Deemocus: ] | ; | 

2 = ==4|l Thermometers. | Rain. Sun. | 

Bd Plus || Be Plus || | | | 

See rere. || Sea eon Il = "Tal 

ee Reon eS Averate Max | Min. | Hours. Inches. Hours. | 

= = — a ee | — | 

1888 O11 | 24-4 || 018 | so || 25 | 11 |139 | 30 | 14 | 
1889 088 | 52°6 087 | 61:0 SS) 26 |) 4a 6:08 | 76 
1890 051 | 15:6 053 | 27:0 29 3:0) LO! aisle) | a 
1891 014 | 21:4 O01 | 25:0 1:3 1:4 |) 10:9 3°01 | 19 
1892 040 46 || 009 | 17-0 0:3 16 4°6 cea | Sy) 
1893: } 025 | 10°4 014 | 12°0 0:2 1:0 74 2°53) |) no 
1894. | 019 | 16-4 PPM 26:00 8) 25.8 S:2- esl He L-ea ans 

| 248 | 72:8 || 192 | 880 | 65 | 7:0 | 322 | 9:20) 8a | 
Average | 035°4 72°6 026°0| 88:0 || 6:3 G19) GST 9e Te O20 Rese) 

SUMMARIES. 

EVERGREENS—| | | | | 
Over-Average . | 72°8 | 6°3 | 2:0 | 28:8 9-20 | 27 | 
Under-Average | 72°6 61 | 19 | 292 | 920) 25 | 

| | | 

DEcIDUOUS— | | 
Over-Average . | 88:0 6:0 | 04 | 24:2 7°89 | 64 | 
Under-Average | 88:0 | 5:8 03 | 24°5 789 | 62 | 

12TH MARCH. 
nek: ‘| Evercreess. || Deciovos. || j 
| = : ___|| Thermometers. Rain. Sun. 
oa Plus || Sa Plus | 
| [Se | tor | Be Teer | ; 
| | EE sven dé Average| Max. | Min. Hours. ee al 
| 1988 .| 028 | 111 || 013 | 10 || 15 | 11 | 13:3 | 2:35 | 29 
| 1889 094 | 54:9 055 | 41-0) Fe Ses 22 * | 1857 4:48 | 66 
| 1890 045 Bs) 022 | 8-0 SEO Bl eels 0°39 | 10 
| 1891 013 | 261 001 = =13°0 Soe Ole s9:8 1:27 | 26 
| 1892 0538 | 13:9 |} 003 | 11:0 13 2°2 13 0°61 19 
1893 030 91 004 10°0 0-4 Ont lbs? 1:19 | 30 
| 1894 O11 | 28:1 Ab 14:0 371 01 2°8 1°86 | 33 
274 | 74-7 || 098 | 49:0 | 8-7 | 5:8 | 29°0 | 6-09 | 108 
Average 039'1 74°4 014°0 49-0 8-4 | 5:7 | 28:9 6°06 | 105 
SUMMARIES. 

EVERGREENS— Veter I a | 

Over-Average . | 74°7 83 | o7 | 106 4°26 | 57 
| Under-Average | 74°4 SO OsOn |eLOsy, 4°29 | 60 
| | | 
| DeEcIDUOUS— | | | 

Over-Average . | 49-0 70 | 29 | 11-9 | 4:87] 76 

Under-Average | 49°0 6:7 | 2°8 | 12:0 | 490! 79 


84 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sgss. xv. 
12th APRIL. 
EVERGREENS. | Decipuous. 
poed I Thermometers. Rain. Sun 
Bd Plus || o4 Plus 
Be | oh ae | on We el 
Ge agar cel ces Pesca Max Min. | Hours. | Inches. | Hours 
} A reese (es 93) S| ede 3 
1888 061. 8°9 {1012 4 °7-6 tl e12 4)1°8 p99 Tess eee 
| 1889 081 | 23:9 || 003 | 1-4 0-1 30 | 139 2°49 | 465 
| 1890 . 080 | 22°9 || 004 8-4 05 3°3 | 10°4 | 0°57 1 
1891 .} 041 | 16:2 004 04 | O04 0°8 41 | 1:84; 10 
1892 .| 089 | 18-1 OOL B34: GE8 in toe: tata | 3:27, | Ag 
1893. | 044 | 18-1 003 LA eo 03 71 =| 3°30) 18 
1894 .}| 054 | 3-1 012 7G) AO: 11°6 | 1°45 | 24 
| 400 | 50-7 (1 031 4) 15-2 |! 87°! BL 1842 } 0746 1 ope 
| Average | 057'1| 50-4 004°4| 15-0 || 3°6 48 | 33:9 | 713) 56 
| SUMMARIES. 
EVERGREENS— | | 
| Over-Average . | 50°7 bias 08 | 1:5 1342 | 3:29) 41 
| Under-Average | 504 | 0:9) 1-8) 91ns3:9 3°26 44 
| Decrpvous— | | 
| Over-Average . | | 15:2 Te es} 7 008 29 
Under-Average } \| | 15:0 18 21 2:0 O-ll | 26 
Lee [ae e | 
12th May. 
per eae UGE, I TRO, | | 
E | ——|| Thermometers. | Rain. Sun 
Bd Plus || 3c Plus | 
| e & [Aterare| Ss | eel Max. | Min Eom Inches. Hours. 
SS a es js | | 
8881 35) 01070 gi 273 se O14 9/1274 gic O14 iy 1:0 |) 121 2) Taree 

1889. | 054 | 113 || 004 | 24 || 3:5 O1 | 18-2 4-06 _ 59 
1890 038 47 | 004 | 24 4°] Lie Hyped 141 46 
1891 048 5:3 O11 | 12°6 06 05 | 7:4 2°64 6 
1892 031 | 11:7 003 14 15 21 | 86 3:09 | 17 
1893 027 | 15°7 004 56 2:0 | 24 | 89 1:15 | 49 
1894 Osi Bieta 7 001 06 0'4 O1 | 66 2°08 | 40 

299 | 43:9 || o11 | 188 || 6-4 | 3:8 | 34:5 | 7-85 | 109 

Average | 042°7 43:8 001°6 18°6 61 | 3° | 344 7°85 | 109 

sade | Cl =e 
SUMMARIES. 

EVERGREENS— | | | 
Over-Average . | 43:9 | 3:7 | 0-4 | 135 543 56 
Under-Average | 43-8 | 4:0 07 | 134 | 5:43 | 54 

DecipuoUS— | 
Over-Average . | 188 || 22 2°0 heh ne Ss 
Under-Average | 18-6 || 2°5 23 9°6 TL ees 


ES 


May 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 85 
12TH JUNE. 
EVERGREENS Decmpous, F ay : 
—______—| Thermometers. Rain } Sun 
| Sa | Plus || Ss | Plus 
Pee {oe | gel oe Po epee 
| i) inus || © | Minus }} - =| = 
1 EES |Average | Es evaraccle ex Seats. Hours. | Inches. | Hours. | 
1888 .| 013 | 9-0 001 es 29 | 32 | 26 | 053] 17 
1889 . | 052 30:0 OO |e x2- utcal 63 | 447 | 586) 72 
1890 . | 025 3°0 003 | 2:0 0:8 3-5 | 138 | 2:33] 31 
1891 -. | (026 4:0 O01 He... 16 71 | 18:2 0:90 | 24 
1892 .| 008 | 14-0 AS 1:0 15 Rie 456 4) 1933 157 | 57 
1893 .| 024 | 2-0 001 a 138: (6 08 jf o68 [i htse| 16 
| 1894 . | 006 | 16:0 a 10 || O2 | 26 | 20:3 1:96 | 30 
1 — |; —— |——_- | | | 
| |} 154 | 39:0 |} 007 | 2:0 5:0 | 14:2 | 62:9 ae 7°30 | | 119 | 
| Average | 022-0 39:0 | 001-0 20 | 49 | 139 | 628 | 7-29) 118 
SUMMARIES 
| EVERGREENS— | 
| Over-Average . 39:0 | 7 |. 10sf WAS |, 2:99)) m4 
| Under-Average 39-0 16 104 | 42-2 3:0 70 
DEcIDUOUS— | 
Over-Average . |7 2:0 o2 | 2°90 | 12:9 | 0:59 
| Under-Average | 2:0 0:3 17, | 12°8 | 060) 27 
| bs is ea hee 
12TH JULY 
| EVERGREESS. | Dadwuous ie * ; 
= ; —| = as Thermometers. Rain. | Sun. 
Sats 3. | Pls || 
SE or Se | or j 
| | ae Picmiee RE average | Max. | Min. | Hours. leiches, Hours. | 
fees -- |- = 
| 1888 OL7 H.28:0 jy O04 +je 2:9 Oriela Sel i Dis7) Aes 1:68 | 256 
| 1889 026 | 12:0 | 002 3-1 |} 6 | Of | 107 053 14 
| 1890 011 | 3-0 || 001 | o1 || 13 | 24 | 48 | 0°49] 10 
1891 009 | 50 | 001 | 21 | 34 | 3:3 | 158 | 017| 18 
| 1892 008 60 | 009 79 ge AO y Tz 78 111 | 40 
1893 010 | 40 || 003 | 41 || 21 a 0-8 0-21 | 14 
1894 017 B30) (He Wass 11 07 | 20 3°3 040 «33 
——_—— | | — ba -|= = —_— 
098 | 180 || 008 | 10°8 || 61 65 | 325 230 94 
Average | 014°0) 18-0 ont 105 58 | 6-4 in 32°4 2°29; 91 | 
| = —— = — = ee 
| SUMMARIES. | 
EVERGREENS — " | 
Over-Average . | 18-0 a Us 0:7 |. 29-1 155 37 
Under-Average | 18°0 | 20 | O8 | 29-2 156 «34 | 
} | 
DEcrIDUOUS— | 
Over-Average.| ... || 10°8 LL | I4 | 18:9 | O79) (46 
Under-Average | 10'5 0's | 1B) 120 058 13 | 
| 


86 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. LXv. 


12TH AUGUST. 


| EVERGREENS. Sincere, | 
je 2 S| See ||| Thermometers: Rain. Sun. 
| Bste Plus || 34 Plus | 
seis or s+ “a - as a 
46 | Minus|| a6 inus F : : 
Sg ae 28 Average|| Max Min. | Hours. | Inches. Hours., 
1888 .| 047 |166 || ... | 14 || 37 | 49 | 56 | 0-48} 19 
1889 .| 044 | 13-6 001 | 0-4 132 Gn 79 023 9 
| 1890 . | O14 | 164 we | 24 17 | 03 | 16:6 SO ep) eee 
1891 . 023 74 003 TUES he OE} 7 56 0°70 | 21 
1892 . 032 1:6 002 3°4 2:2, Or1 14°4 3°84 | 23 
1893 . 010 | 20°4 001 2°4 1°5 0:7 74 1°03 20 
1894 . 043 | 12°6 009 76 | 4°7 2:1 1°6 3°01 34 
| 213 | 44:4 || o10 | 9:2 || 9:0 | 5:3 | 29-7 | 510! 73 
| Average | 030-4) 44-2 001:4; 9-0 8-8 51 | 29-4 5-08 | 70 
SUMMARIES. 
| EVERGREENS—| | | 
Over-Average . | 44-4 | 24 | 23 | 151 | 0-58] 21 
| Under-Average | 44°2 2°6 2:1 14-8 s)210756 4 
| DeEcipuous— 
| Over-Average . | ee 922) iil eared 358 752) ios 13 
_ Under-Average 3 9:0 | 73 AsO. 4. 3°64 s3e7Sq) eel 
| | | 
12TH SEPTEMBER. 
| EVERGREENS. . Deaton all a | vf | 
| | : Thermometers. Rain. Sun. 
(Sa Bins IP “Se iain | 
5S or Be or +e 
os average|| chs Wectace Max. | Min. | Hours. | Inches. | Hours. 
tess. 3) S062 976 |) 017 "| 10-7 ||) 24 ||) 3-9 a7-8 | °4S5 ae 
1889 . 061 | 16°6 009 PAL 2:8) Soe 20°7 3°03 2 Ht 
| 1890 . 046 56) 1 eeOis 4-1 0'8 PARI) || 2 0-17 oF 
1891 . 050 56 001 59 0°6 Sal A 28"3 3°62 | 24 
1892 . 022 | 22-4 003 39 0°6 1°5 8:2 2°92 | 25 
| 1893 ; 041 3:4 005 1°9 ee MANS OST ay er8 0°16 14 
1894 . 029 | 15°4 002 49 (O33! Bl) 92:0 12°7 169, 68 
311 | 41°4 048 | 16°6 37 9:0 50°9 7:97 75 
Average | 044°4) 41-2 006°9) 16°3 3°5 88 508 TST ie | 
SUMMARIES. | 
EVERGREENS—_ | | 
Over-Average . | 41-4 |! -- || 06 02 | 16:2 4-77 | 26 
Under-Average | 41:2 | ee 03 | 04 |161 | 4-77| 29 
| H 
DEcIDUOUS— | 
Over-Average. wu. | 163 | o1 | 3:3 |a21 | 115| 2 
Under-Average | 16°6 0:3 3°5 | 12:2 115 5 


_— 


May 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 87 
12TH OCTOBER, 
EverGreens. || Decrpvovus, || | 
= | | Thermometers. Rain. Sun. 
oi Plus | Ze Plus || 
st or | st or ay aa | eee Os jet 
a6 Minus | 25 Minus |! yax. | Min. | Hours. | Inches. | Hours 
SoG Average!) SO |Average|| z {fag ; Z| 4 
a : 2-1 | } =| — } — 
1888 051 | 1-4 || 0388 | 15-4 |} 53 | 12 | 7-4 | 1-79] 81 
1889 .| O91 | 41-4 || 037 | 14:4 || 07% 0-4 1:9 2-08 3 
1890 .{ 048 | 1° || 010 | 126 || 23 | 48 | 166 | 2°79] 43 
1891 .| 046 3°6 O28 ae 5-4 I 24! 2:3 86 2°46 63 
1892 . | 028 | 21°6 018 46 || 6:4 1:3 9°6 2°24 71 
1893 . | 026 | 23-6 O11 | 116 || 43 29 5:9 169 | 28 
1894. | 057 7-4 || 016 66 || 22 | 53 | 19-4 5:28 3 
Pale a = | | | 
| 347 | 504 || 158 | 35-4 || 11-9 | 9:2 | 34:8 | 9-18 | 147 
Average | 049°6} 50-2 022°6) 35:2 }) 11-7 90 | 34:6 915 | 145 
SUMMARIES. 

EVERGREENS— | | 
Over-Average . | 50°2 | 2-4 6:9 | 28:7 eyilay |) il 
Under-Average | 50°4 | 22 67 28°9 918 79 

DEcIDUOUS— | | | | 
Over-Average . an 35:2 |} 2:2 3:9 07 1:41 | 141 
Under-Average we || 35°24 || 2°0 3:7 0°9 1:44 | 139 

|! 
12TH NOVEMBER. 
| EVERGREENS. || Decrpvovs. | | 
ee | Thermometers. Rain. Sun. 
© | Plus | Bs Plus || 
a E Minus z 3 Minus ase | Mi =a 
S05 Average), so Average ax. le in. | Hours. | Inches. | Hours 
1838 .| 055 | 19-4 || 074 | 251 || 1:8 | 58 | 35 | o-47| 77 
1889 038 24) O53) ead 0'8 38 9°7 aye 
1890 .| 084 | 1:6 || 050 | 11 || 41 | 3:3 | 8-2 | 208| 24 
1891 025 | 10°6 || 054 5-1 0-9 24, |) 13:8 2:90) |e 
1892 . | 032 36 |} 027 | 21°9 1°4 21 338 1:59 | 45 
1893 030 |} 56 || 039 | 99 | 53 | O83 | 63 | 0-29] 21 
1894 035 | O6 || 045 | 39 | 19 | 34. | 9-2 | 1:35) 55 
= \| — -! — 
249 | 22:0 || 342 | 35°7 8:2 10'5 27°1 4:99 | 122 
Average | 035°6) 21°8 048-9) 35:4 8:0 | 10°3 | 26°9 4:96 / 122 
SUMMARIES. 

EVERGREENS— Bs as ie | 
Over-Average . | 21°8 | Fle) 2:0 62 0°80 56 
Under-Average | 22°0 | 08 2°2 6-0 O77 | 56 

DEcIDUOUS— | 
Over-Average . Sb:4.> ||P 26-0 | ote 0-6 .40:08)| 13 
Under-Average 35°7 || 58 13 0-4 0°05 | 31 


88 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. xv. 


12th DECEMBER. 


| EVERGREENS. DECIDUOUS. 

— 3 ____________|] Thermometers. Rain. Sun. | 
ire | Plus || Bc Plus | 
Pe | or || Be | or (ak . 
he Maverseel| oh Fees | Max. Min. Hours. | Inches. Hours. 

Se Fa |S ae 
1888 .| 072 | 40:9 095 | 40-6 || 66 | 15 | 1385 | 2:05) 49 | 
1889 24) 8025, (6 1 MOGO" 56. WL: LB 19-b Og 
1390) AS03832) 0:9 049 54 || 3:7 we | 4O) (OIG eS 
1891 '.| 043 | 11-9 093 | 38°6 1°5 24 i240 We 2-bt 4 
1892 . 008 | 23-1 || 002 | 524 || 3-4 | o& | 85 | gaa] 36 | 
1893. 004 | 35:1 040 | 14:4 7 TRO 12° | 2°57 45 

11894. 042 | 10-9 || 042 | 12-4 || 05 | 11 | 60 | O14] 2 | 

| 218 | 64:6 || 381 | 84:8 || 93 | 3:8 | 29-0 | 4:99] 87 | 

| Average | 03171 64:3 054-4, 84°6 91 | 35 | 29°0 | 4:98) 85 | 
SUMMARIES. 

EVERGREENS—| | | | | | 
Over-Average . | 64°6 ie oh Hieo38 2°Q |: 1:5, .| (AsO sey 
Under-Average | 64°3 mb || 4:0 17 | 115 | 492) 81 | 

| | | 

DEcIDUOUS— | | | | 
Over-Average . 84°8 9:1 06 | 19:0 | 463] 45 | 

| Under-Average | 846 | 9:3 0-9 | 19:0 | 4°64 47 | 
| | | 
12th JANUARY. 
poeeceneee lige, [Pde Z| | 
| nite eS Thermometers. Rain. | Sun. 
Sd | Plus || Ba | Plus 
Bey Weeoree lanes | <1Se Wie Wa 
58 aie g& | nee: Max. | Min. | Hours. | Inches. | Hours. 
1888 062 | 30-77 || 074 | 40°9 271 34 9-1 1:93 | 12 
1889 072 | 40:7 || 076 | 42:9 2°8 0:7 | 23°3 4°57 | 55 
1890 . | 001 | 30°3 |} 004 | 2971 1-1. 41-4 feb | 0-92) ay 
1891 ./| 034 27 037 3°9 1:8 0:8 6:2 1°15 5 
1892 . | O11 |20-3 || 004 | 37°12 || 5-1 | 2:2 | 12-2 | 2-79) ‘GB 
LE9ST MeOOm Weeess 1 9012 | 2a 4-1 1:8 5:2 0:97 9 
1894 032 0-7 033 O1 3-4 2°3 22 | 069] 25 
219 | 749 || 232 | 87-7 10°3 5:9 | 32:4 6:52 | 99 
Average | 031°3| 74:8 | 033°1| 87:4 1071 5:7 | 32:3 6°50 | 97 
SUMMARIES. 

EVERGREENS— | 
Over-Average . | 74'8._| 101 | 1:0 | 240 | 4:66] 47 
Under-Average | 74°9 | 103 | 08 | 23°9 468 45 

DEcIDUOUS— 

Over-Average . SiN G27 | ds. -26°2 5°35 | 72 
Under-Average | 87-4 || 69 31 |.261 5°37.| 70 

| 
| | 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


VOLUME XXII. 


PART. LE. 


EDINBURGH: 
PRINTED FOR THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY BY 
MORRISON AND GIBB LIMITED. 
1902. 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


SESSION LXVI. 


MEETING OF THE Society, November 14, 1901. 
The Rev. Davin Paut, M.A., LL.D., President, in the Chair. 


The following Officers of the Society were elected for 
the Session 1901-1902 :— 


PRESIDENT. 
Colonel Frep. Battery, R.E. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS. 


W. CaLpWELL CrawrorD, M.A.,{ Rev. D. Paut, M.A., LL.D. 
F.R.S.E. Ropert TURNBULL, B.Sc. 
Artuur E. Davis, Ph.D., F.L.S. 


COUNCILLORS. 
Joun Monreomeriz£ Bett, W.S. ALEXANDER SOMERVILLE, B.Se., 
. ALEXANDER Cowan, Esq. F.L.S. 
Professor Cossark Ewart, M.D., J. A. Terras, B.Se. 
) F.R.SS. L. & E. Professor J. W. H. Tratt, M.A., 
SYMINGTON GRIEVE, Esq. M.D.,; F-1L.S. 
Rosert Linpsay, Esq. Wititram Watson, M.D. 


Rosert A. Ropertson, M.A., B.Se. 


Honorary Secretary—Wi1Li1AM Crate, M.D., F.R.S.E.. F.R.C.S.Ed. 
Curator of Herbarium—W. CALDWELL Crawrorp, M.A., F.RS.E. 
Foreign Secretary—ANDREW P. AITKEN, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S.E. 
Treasurer—RICHARD Brown, C.A. 

Assistant-Secretary— R. Stewart MacDouGatt, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 
Artist—Francis M. Cairn, M.B., C.M., F.R.C.S.Ed. 
Auditor—Rosert C. Mittar, C.A. 


il TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


LOCAL SECRETARIES. 


Aberdeen—Professor' J. W. H. Trait, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.LS. 
Bathgate—Rovzert Kirk, M.D., F.R.C.8.Ed. 
Berwick-on-Tweed—Francis M. Norman, R.N. 
Birmingham—Grorce A. Panton, F.R.S.E., 73 Westfield Road. 
Be W. H. Witxtnson, F.L.S., F.R.M.S., Manor Hill, Sutton 
Coldfield. 
Bournemouth—JOHN ARCHIBALD, M.D., F.R.S.E. 
Bromley, Kent—D. T. Puayratr, M.B., C.M. 
Calcutta—Davip Pratn, M.B., F.R.S.E., F.L.8., Royal Botanie Garden. 


i. Professor 8. C. MAHALANOBIS, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.M.S., 
Presidency College. 


Cambridge—ARTHUR Evans, M.A. 
Chirnside—CHARLES Stuart, M.D. 
Croydon—A. BENNETT, F.L.S. 
Dundee—Professor P. GepprEs, F.R.S.E. 
East Liss, Hants.—JAMES SYKES GAMBLE, M.A. 
Glasgow—Professor F. O. Bower, Se.D., F.R.S., F.LS. 
M Professor J. CLELAND, M.D., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 
i Professor Scott-E.uiot, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 
He ALEXANDER SOMERVILLE, B.Sc., F.L.S. 
Kilbarchan—Rey. G. ALISON. 
Lincoln—GrEorGE May Lowe, M.D., C.M. 
London—WILLIAM CARRUTHERS, F.R.S., F.L.S. 
Re EH. M. Houmes, F.L.S., F.R.H.S. 
i Sir GrorGe Kine, M.D., F.R.S. 
Melrose—W. B. Born, of Faldonside. 
Otago, New Zealand—Professor JAMES Gow Brack, D.Sc., University. 
Perth—Sir Ropert Pouwar, F.R.S8.E. 
Philadelphia, U.S. A.—Professor JoHN M. MACFARLANE, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 
Saharumpore, India—J. F. Durum, B.A., F.L.S. 
St. Andrews —Professor M‘InTosu, M.D., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. & E. 


ay Ropert A. Ropertson, M.A., B.Sc. 
As Dr. J. H. WILSON. 
Toronto, Ontario—W. R. RippEwu, B.Sc., B.A. 
Fs i Professor Ramsty Wricut, M.A., B.Sc. 


Wellington, New Zealand—Sir James Hecror, M.D., K.C.M.G., 
F.R.SS. L. & E. 


Wolverhampton—JOuHN FrAser, M.A., M.D. 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


il 


The TreasurER submitted the following Statement of 


Accounts for the Session 1900—1901 :— 


INCOME. 
Annual Subscriptions, 1900-1901; 49 at 15s., and 1 
at 10s. : 

Do., 1899-1900, 6 at 15s. ; 

Composition for Life Membership . 

Transactions, ete., sold 

Subscriptions to Illustration Fund . 

Interest on Deposits in Bank, ete. . 


Income : : : : : 4 
Balance—Being Excess of Expenditure over Income, . 


IXPENDITURE. 
Printing (including Transactions for Session 1899-1900, 
£44, 16s. 8d.) 
Rooms for Meetings, Tea, etc. 
Stationery, Postages, Carriages, etc. 
Fire Insurance on Books, ete. 


- STATE OF FUNDS. 


Amount of Funds at:close of Session 1899-1900 
Deduct—Decrease during Session 1900-1901, as above 


Amount of Funds at close of Session 1900-1901, subject 
to Expense of Printing Transactions for Session 
1900-1901, estimated at £30 . 

Being:—Sum in Current Account with 


Union Bank of Scotland Ltd. . £2 12 4 
Sum in Deposit Receipt with do. 120 0 
Due by Treasurer F 8 0-0 


As above oe 


atin Die 
4.10 (0 
GCAO, 
Sule 0 
Olea a) 
Bye 0) 
£60 14 5 
el 5) 


£68 15 10 


£54 0 2 
Ga Zand 
Somme 
O50 


£68 15 10 


L1Z0n lee 


DASO ae 


Note.—Subscriptions in arrear, 1899-1900, 15s.; 1900-1901, £1, 10s. 


The Accounts were passed by the Society, and, on the 
motion of Dr. Craig, the Treasurer was thanked for his 


services. 


iv TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


WILLIAM WILLIAMSON, Esq., was proposed as a Resident 
Fellow of the Society by Dr. A. E. Davirs, F.LS., and 
seconded by J. A. Terras, B.Sc. 


The Presidential address of the session—On the Primule 
of Kurope—was read by Rev. Davip Paut, M.A., LL.D. 


J. Ruruerrorpd Hint, Esq., exhibited, and read an 
account of, a Photographic Method of Nature Printing 
from Leaves. 


J. Wuytock, Esq., exhibited a collection of Flowers and 
Fruit from Dalkeith Palace Gardens. 


J. RurHerrorD HILL, Esq.,’ exhibited a specimen of 
Noerkia Hibernica from Coatham Marshes, Yorkshire, and 
a flowering plant of Arenaria gothica, both from Mr. E. M. 
Holmes, of Sevenoaks, Kent. 


MEETING OF THE Sociktry, December 12, 1901. 


Colonel Frep. Bairey, R.E., President, in the Chair. 


WittiaM WILLIAMSON, Esq., proposed by Dr. A. E. 
Davigs, F.L.8., and seconded by J. A. Terras, B.Se., was 
balloted for, and duly elected a Resident Fellow of the 
Society. 


The following candidates were proposed as Resident 
Fellows of the Society :— 


WitiiAM Brucz, Esq., B.Se., proposed by Dr. R. 
STEWART MacDouGaui, seconded by Colonel 
FrED. BAILEY, R.E. 

A. Durr Dunsar, Esq., M.R.C.V.S., proposed by 
Dr. R. Srewarr MacDovucatt, seconded by 
Dr. A. E. Davizs, F.LS. 

WituiamM Hatt Masstz, Esq., proposed by Dr. R. 
STEWART MacDouGALi, seconded by RoBERT 
Linpsay, Esq. 

W. W. Smita, Esq., M.A., proposed by Dr. R. 


STEWART MacDouGatn, seconded by A. W. 
BORTHWICK, B.Se. 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Vv 


Henry Tayuor, Esq. M.R.C.V.S., proposed by 
Dr. R. Stewart MacDovucat, seconded by 
Dr. WituiaAM Craic, F.R.C.S.E. 

JOHN W. WALLACE, Esq., proposed by Dr. R. Stewart 
MacDouGatt, seconded by Dr. WILLIAM WATSON. 


A communication entitled, “The Phanerogamic Flora 
of the Clova Mountains in special relation to Flower 
Biology,’ by J. C: Willis, M-A.;\and J: H. Burkill, M.A, 
was communicated to the Society by Professor BAYLEY 
Batrour, M.D., F.R.S. 


An account of recentexperiences with Merulius lachrymans 
was read by Dr. JAMES HunTER, F.R.S.E. 


Sir JoSEPH HOOKER exhibited a Portrait of Sir William 
Hooker by Sir Daniel MacNee. 


A. W. Bortuwick, B.Se., exhibited Abnormal Roots of 
Robinia Pseudacacia, and Bulbs of Buphane, used by the 
Boers for dressing wounds. 


F. C. Crawrorp, Esq., exhibited a double flowered form 
of Erica Mackaii, Hook., which had been found in Ireland 


during the excursion there of the Scottish Alpine Botanical 
Club. 


J. A. Murray, Esq., B.Sc. M.B., Ch.B., exhibited a 
series of slides illustrating the various stages of Mitosis. 


MEETING OF THE Society, January 9, 1902. 


Dr. A. E. Daviss, F.L.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. 


The following Candidates were balloted for, and duly 
elected Resident Fellows of the Society :— 


WiiuiaAM Bruce, Esq., B.Se., proposed by Dr. K. 
Stewart MacDovuGatt, seconded by Colonel 
FRED. BaILey, R.E. 


A. Durr Dunsar, Esq., M.R.C.V.S., proposed by Dr. 


R. Srewart MacDovucGati, seconded by Dr. 
A. E. Daviss, F.L.S. 


vi TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


WituiAM Hai Massik, Esq., proposed by Dr. R. 
Stewart MacDouGatu, seconded. by Ropert 
Linpsay, Esq. 

W.. W. Smiru, Esq., M.A., proposed by Dr. R. 
Stewart MacDovuGatt, seconded by A. W. 
BorTHWICK, B.Sc. 

Henry Tayior, Esq., M.R.C.V.S., proposed by Dr. R. 
Stewart MacDouGatt, seconded by Dr. WILLIAM 
Craic, F.R.C.S.E. 

Joun W. WALLACE, Esq., proposed by Dr. R. STEWART 
MacDoucatt, seconded by Dr. WILLIAM WATSON. 


The following Candidates were proposed as Resident 
Fellows of the Society :— 


J. D. Fatconer, Esq., B.Se., proposed by Dr. R. 
StEwART MacDouGatt, seconded by Dr. 
WILLIAM Craic, F.R.C.S.E. 


ARCHIBALD Hewat, Esq., F.F.A., proposed by SYMING- 
TON GRIEVE, Esq., seconded by W. CALDWELL 
CrawForD, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.E. 


J. W. M‘Hartiz, Esq., proposed by Ropert Linpsay, 
Esq., seconded by SYMINGTON GRIEVE, Esq. 


D. F. MAcKEnziz, Esq., proposed by Dr. R. STEWART 
MacDouGati, seconded by Colonel FRED. 
BAILEy, R.E. 


FRASER Srory, Esq., proposed by Colonel FReEp. 
Baitey, R.E., seconded by Dr. R. SrEWART 
MacDoucGa... 


Harry F. Taae, Esq., F.LS., proposed by Dr. R. 
STEWART MacDouGAaLh, seconded by A. W. 
BorTHWICK, Esq., B.Se. 


A communication entitled, “The Track of Heredity in 
Plants and Animals,’ by John Beard, D.Se., was communi- 
cated by Dr. R. StEwart MacDoucGat.. 


Rev. D. Paut, M.A., LL.D., read the report of the visit 
of the Scottish Alpine Botanical Club to County Kerry, 


and exhibited specimens of the plants collected during the 
Excursion. 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH vi 


A paper on “The Influence of Frost on Euglena,’ by Miss 
L. H. Huie, was communicated by W. CALDWELL CRAWFORD, 
M.A... F.RS.E. 


ALEXANDER Cowan, Esq., exhibited a specimen of 
Osmunda regalis decomposita (Drury), and also a specimen 
of a hybrid fern, with its parents. 


MEETING OF THE SoctEty, February 13, 1902. 
Colonel Frep. Batrey, R.E., President, in the Chair. 


he following candidates were balloted for, and duly 
elected Resident Fellows of the Society :— 


J. D. FAtconrr, Esq.,. B.Sc, proposed by Dr. R. 
Stewart MacDouGa.t, seconded by Dr. Wm. 
Craic, F.R.C.S.E. 


ARCHIBALD Hewat, Esq., F.F.A., proposed by SYMING- 
TON GRIEVE, Esq., seconded by W. CALDWELL 
CRAWFORD, M.A., F.IS.E. 


J. W. M‘Hartig, Esq., proposed by RoBerr LINDSAY, 
Esq., seconded by SYMINGTON GRIEVE, Esq. 


D. F. Mackenziz, Esq., proposed by Dr. R. Stewart 
MacDoucGatiL, seconded by Colonel FRED. 
BAILEY, R.E. 


Fraser Story, Esq., proposed by Colonel FRrep. 
Batty, R.E., seconded by Dr. R. STeEwarr 
MacDouGat. 


Harry F. Tace, F.LS., proposed by Dr. Rh. STEWART 
MacDouea tt, seconded by A. W. Borruwick, 
Esq., B.Se. 


The following candidates were proposed as Resident 
Fellows of the Society :— — 


Sypngry Francis Asusy, B.Sc, proposed by Dr. R. 
Stewart MacDovucGatl, seconded by WILLIAM 
Bruce, B.Se. 


Vill TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


DaAvID FRASER Harris, M.D., B.Sc., F.S.A., F.R.S.E., 
proposed by KR. A. Ropertson, M.A., B.Sc. 
seconded by Dr. R. Stewart MacDouGatt. 

Hueco C. Sampson, BSc, proposed by Dr. RK. 
Stewart MacDovuGat, seconded by Colonel 
FrepD. BAILEY, R.E. 


J. M‘Anprew, Esq., read a communication entitled, 
“The Botanical Rarities of a Sub-Alpine Parish (Kells, 
Kirkeudbrightshire).” 


A communication on “ Functional Inertia—A Property of 
Protoplasm,’ by Dr. Fraser Harris, was communicated 
to the Society by R. A. Ropertson, Esq., M.A., B.Sc. 


R. A. Rosertson, Esq., M.A., B.Sc., read a paper on “ The 
Latent Life of Plants.” 


Professor BayLey Batrour exhibited a series of 
photographs of the Vegetation of the Andaman Islands, 
by E. H. Man, Esq. 


Harry F, Taaa, Esq., exhibited a specimen of Saponaria 
ocymoides, L., showing Pistillody of the Stamens. 


A. W. Bortuwick, Esq., B.Sc., exhibited an instrument 
for determining the Diameter Increment of Trees, along 
with specimens of its work. 


MEETING OF THE SocrEty, March 13, 1902. 
Colonel Frep. Bartuey, R.E., President, in the Chair. 


The following candidates were balloted for, and duly 
elected Resident Fellows of the Society :— 

SyDNEY Francis Asupy, B.Sc., proposed by Dr. R. 
STEWART MacDOovuGALL, seconded by WILLIAM 
Bruce, B.Se. 

Davip Fraser Harris, Esq.,M.D.,B.Se., F.S.A., F.R.S.E., 
proposed by R. A. Roperrson, Esq., M.A., B.Sc., 
seconded by Dr. R. StEwarT MacDouGaLt. 

HucH C. Sampson, B.Sec., proposed by Dr. R. 
STEWART MacDouGaLt, seconded by Colonel 
FRED. BAILEY, R.E. 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 1s 


The following candidates were proposed as lesident 
Fellows of the Society :— 


THomaAs ALEXANDER, Esq., proposed by J. RUTHERFORD 
Hitt, Esq., seconded by Dr. R. STEWART 
MacDouGatt. 

G. A. Grierson, Esq., F.LS., proposed by Dr. A. E. 
Davins, F.L.S., seconded by WinttAmM WILLIAM- 
SON, Esq. 

Professor BAYLEY Ba.Lrour, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., read a 
communication on the Scottish Plant “ Olour.” 


A communication entitled, “ Damage to Trees by Hail- 
stones,” with exhibition of Injured Specimens, by Hugh C. 
Sampson, Esq., B.Sc., was communicated by the PRESIDENT. 


A paper on “The Spread of Sesta bembeciformis, Hbn., in 
Scotland,” by Dr. R. Stewart MacDougall and James 
Waterson, Esq., M.A., was read to the Society. 


A Preliminary Discussion on “The Problem of the 
Study of Field Botany with relation to a Regional Survey” 
was initiated by Professor GEDDES and R. A. ROBERTSON, 
Esq., M.A., B.Sc., and was taken part in by Mr. J. G. 
GoopcHILD, Mr. CALDWELL CRAWFORD, Mr. SyMINGTON 
GRIEVE, Professor BALFOUR, and the PRESIDENT. 


JAMES WuyTock, Esq., exhibited a collection of Plants 
in Flower from the Palace Gardens, Dalkeith. 


MEETING OF THE Society, April 10, 1902. 
Dr. A. E. Davins, Vice-President, in the Chair. 


The following candidates were balloted for, and duly 
elected Resident Fellows of the Society :— 
THOMAS ALEXANDER, Esq., proposed by J. RUTHERFORD 
Hint, Esq., seconded by Dr. R. Stewart 
MacDouGatt. 


G. A. Grierson, Esq., F.L.S., proposed by Dr. A. E. 
Davis, F.L.S, seconded by WILLIAM WILLIAM- 
SON, Esq. 


x TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


Mrs. SYMINGTON GRIEVE, proposed by W, CALDWELL 
Crawrorp, M.A., F.R.S.E., and seconded by 
Dr. A. E. Davies, F.L.S., was nominated a Lady 
Life Member of the Society. 


Commander F. M. Normay, R.N., read an Obituary Notice 
of Dr. Charles Stuart. 


SYMINGTON GRIEVE, Esq., read a communication entitled, 
“Notes from the Archives of the Botanical Society on its 
Origin, History, and Privileges.” 

A communication on the “ Hepaticee of Ben Lawers 
District,” by Symers M. Maevicar, Esq., was read by 
Mr. SYMINGTON GRIEVE. 

R. A. Rozpertson, Esq., M.A., BSc. read a paper 
entitled, “ Notes on Micro-Methods.” 


Dr. Fraser Harris exhibited a number of Micro-Slides 
of Crystallised Animal Albumen. 


Ropert Linpsay, Esq., exhibited a Hybrid Primula 
(Promula marginata x Primula venusta), 
R. A. Rospertson, Esq., M.A., B.Se., exhibited a series of 


Photographs of Exotic Woods. 


W. B. Boyp, Esq., exhibited a Wasp Nest, with notes 
on 1ts situation. 


G. West, Esq., exhibited a series of Marine Diatoms. 


MEETING: OF THE SociuTy, May 8, 1902. 
Dr. A. E. Davies, F.L.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. 


A paper on “The Origin of the British Flora,’ by 
J. G. Goodchild, F.G.S., was communicated to the Society 
by Dr. R. Stewart MacDouGa .t. 


JAMES Wuyrock, Esq., exhibited the issue of the 
Edinburgh Magazine tor September 1822, containing a 
list of seeds sown in that year on the formation of 
public walks on Calton Hill and Salisbury Crags. 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH X1 


MEETING OF THE SOCIETY, June 12, 1902. 


Dr. A. E. Daviss, F.L.S., Vice-President, in the Chair. 


On the recommendation of the Council, the following 
gentlemen were balloted for, and duly elected Honorary 
Foreign Fellows of the Society — 


Gastron Bonnikék, Professor of Botany, Paris. 
? aha 


NATHANIEL Low Brirron, Director of the Botanic 
Garden, New York. 


L. J. CELAKOVSKY, Professor of Botany, Prague. 


WILLIAM Grpson Far.ow, Professor of Cryptogamic 
Botany, Harvard, U.S.A. 


Dr. ALEXANDER FISCHER VON WALDHEIM, Professor of 
Botany and Director of the Imperial Botanic 
Garden, St. Petersburg. 


Max. LEICHTLIN, Baden-Baden. 

Dr. K. A. TimrrJazEw, Professor of Botany, Moscow. 

WILLIAM TRELEASE, Director of the Botanic Garden, 
Missouri. 

Dr. HERMANN VocuTING, Professor of Botany, 
Tubingen. 

Dr. Jutius Wiesner, Professor of Plant Anatomy 
and Physiology, Vienna. 


On the recommendation of the Council, the following 
gentlemen were balloted for, and duly elected Corresponding 
Members of the Society :— 


Dr. J. CosTANTIN, Jardin des Plantes, Paris. 

Dr. C. CRAMER, Professor of Botany, Zurich. 

The Marquis Hanbury, Italy. 

Dr. J. A. HENRIQUEZ, Professor of Botany, Coimbra. 
Conway MAcMILLAN, Professor of Botany, Minneapolis. 
J. H. Marpen, Director of the Botanic Garden, Sydney. 
Manabu Miyosui, Professor of Botany, Tokio. 


CHRISTIAN RANNKIAR, Botanic Garden, Copenhagen. 


x11 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


Dr. Cann Fremner voN TuBEuF, Professor of Botany, 
University of Munich. 

Dr. R. WErTsTELN, Professor of Botany, Vienna. 

Dr. N. Wutue, Director of the Botanic Garden, 
Christiania. 

JouN Mrpuey Woop, Botanic Garden, Durham. 


A communication on “The Hepaticee of Balmoral, 
Aberdeenshire,” by G. Stabler, Esq., was read to the 
Society. 


Dr. WituiAM CraiG exhibited a specimen of Simethis 
bicolor from Bournemouth, the only locality for this plant 
in England, and in danger of destruction. 


F. CRAWFORD, Esq., exhibited specimens of Symphytum 
officinale, var. patens, the common form in the Edinburgh 
district. 


MEETING OF THE SocrIETy, July 10, 1902. 
Dr. A. E. Daviss, Vice-President, in the Chair. 


JAMES Witytock, Esq., read a communication entitled, 
“Observations on some of the first formed Pinetums in 
Scotland and Ireland”; and also a paper on “Shrub and 
Tree Planting in Ireland.” 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


SESSION LXVI. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.—THE EUROPEAN SPECIES OF THE 
Genus Primuta: By Rev. Davip Paut, LLD., 
Edinburgh. 


(Delivered 14th November 1901.) 


There is no group of plants that surpass in elegance and 
beauty those of the order of Primulacez, comprising the 
genera Primula, Soldanella, Androsace, Anagallis, and 
others. The species are not only beautiful without 
exception, but they possess a neatness and modesty and 
grace which specially endear them to all lovers of nature. 
They are peculiarly interesting also to the cultivator of 
plants, as they respond well to care and attention, while 
they require just enough horticultural knowledge and skill 
to render the successful cultivation of them an attractive 
pursuit. I propose, therefore, to make some observations 
on the genus Primula, the most important genus in the 
order. 

The species of Primulz are found in all the temperate 
regions of the northern hemisphere. They are very 
poorly represented, however, in America. On the Atlantic 
side of the continent P. fwrinosa, L., alone occurs, extending 
southwards hardly beyond the border of Canada. Six species _ 
oceur on the Pacific side, in the Rocky Mountains, viz. 


TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXII. G 


90 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. Lxvi. 


P. farinosa, L.; P. Rusbyi, Greene; P. angustifolia, Torr.; 
P. Cusickiana, A. Gray; P. suffrutescens, A. Gray; P. Parryi, 
A. Gray. In the old world there is a great variety of 
species. Europe possesses in all thirty-one, scattered over 
the British Isles, Scandinavia, Finland, Russia, the 
Pyrenees, Alps, Austria, Italy, Bulgaria, and Thrace. But 
by far the greater number of species is to be found in 
Asia, especially in the Eastern Himalayas, but also in 
Afghanistan, Thibet, China, Japan, and elsewhere. The 
well-known P. sinensis, Lindl., and obconica, Hance, are 
natives of China; P. Sieboldi, Morren, and P. Japonica, 
Gray, are from Japan; P. floribunda, Wall, from Afghan- 
istan; P. verticillata, Forsk., from Arabia and Abyssinia ; 
P. luteola, Rupr., from the Eastern Caucasus; P. rosea, 
Royle, from the Western Himalayas; P. capitata and P. 
Sikkimensis, Hook., from Sikkim; P. denticulata, Sm., and 
P. involucrata, Wall., from Cashmere. I mention these as 
being all well-known, cultivated plants in this country. A 
large number seem not yet to be grown by our horticul- 
turists. 

Turning, however, to the Primule of Europe, I proceed 
to enumerate them (omitting for the present the hybrids), 
describing the greater number, and making any remarks on 
the different species that may seem to be called for. 

They may be grouped under three sections, or sub- 
genera, of which P. auwricula, L., P. farinosa, L., and P. 
officinalis, L., may be taken as the respective types. 


I. The first section, that of Auricula, is marked by the 
leaves being involute in the young state, by the flowers 
being almost always umbellate, and by the short, globose 
or oval capsule. The only other group of Primule with 
involute leaves is a small foreign group consisting of 
P, floribunda, Wall.; P. verticillata, Forsk.; and P. Aucheri, 
Jaub. and Spach. 

The twenty-two species of this section are exclusively 
Zuropean. No species occur either in America or in Asia. 
Moreover, in Europe they are confined to the southern 
mountain ranges, and they are most of all to be found in 
the Eastern Alps. Three only—P. integrifolia, L., P. 
viscosa, All., and P. dirsuta, All—occur in the Pyrenees; 


Nov. 1901.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH oe 


one—P. Palinuri, Pet.—is found in the neighbourhood of 
Naples; while three—P. minima, L., P. clusiana, Tsch., 
and P. auricula, L.—travel as far east as the Carpathians. 
Their chief home is the Tyrol and Carinthia. They do 
not occur in the north of Europe. 


A, The section Auricula has been divided by Schott 
into different groups of species. The first of these is that 
of Auricula proper, or EUAURICULA, with yellow, or violet, 
heterostyle flowers; a short calyx; a corolla marked with 
a zone of farina near its base; short, broad, involucral 
elandular hairs; and a 


= 


bracts; farinose leaves bearing 
short, globose or oval capsule. 

1. P. AuricuLa, L.—Very widely distributed over the 
Swiss and Austrian Alps; also in the Pyrenees, Jura, 
Apennines, Carpathians. Leaves quite entire, or repand- 
denticulate; leaves, calyx, and flowers white-farinose : 
flowers yellow, fragrant. There is a well-marked variety 
(albocincta) with comparatively little farina on the surface 
of the leaves, which, however, have a conspicuous, white, 
farinaceous border. This seemed to be the prevailing form 
in the neighbourhood of Val Daone. Another variety 
(nuda), which occurs in the Dolomite district, has farina 
only on the calyx. Still another variety (monacensis), 
found sparingly on the Alps, but in greater quantity in the 
neighbourhood of Munich, is distinguished by its very 
broad leaf-stalk and its narrow spread of leaf. 

P. Barsisu, Lehm., is a sub-species of P. auricula, L., in 
which the green parts of the plant are destitute of farina, 
and the gland-bearing hairs are longer, being dense on the 
margins of the leaves, but occurrimg more sparingly on 
their surface. The colour of the flowers is a darker 
yellow, not so bright as in P. auricula, and they are 
without scent. This is P. ciliata, of Moretti. 

2. P. Pawtnurt, Pet., is the only other yellow Awricula. 
It occurs in the neighbourhood of Cape Palinurus, in Italy. 
Apart from its being, in general, a larger plant, its main 
difference from P. auricula lies in the fact that, instead of 
the cartilaginous leaf-border and short sepals of the latter, 
the leaves are only cartilaginous at the points of the teeth, 
and the sepals are large and leaf-like. 


92 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Suss. LXVI. 


3: P. MarcinaTA, Curt.—This Primula occurs only in 
Dauphiny and the south of Piedmont, and in the Maritime 
and Cottian Alps. Not found. in Switzerland. Leaves 
bluntly dentate, with a remarkable margin of white farina ; 
calyx farinose. Flowers lilac-blue, passing sometimes 
almost into rose; throat of corolla generally of same 
eolour. 

4. P. CARNIOLICA, Jacquin.—Found apparently only in 
the mountains about Idria, in Carniola. Leaves nearly 
entire, without farinaceous border; calyx and corolla 
without farina. Flowers rose or lilac; throat of same 
colour. 


B. Passing from the group Huauricula, and continuing 
to adopt the division of Schott, I take up next those 
Primule which he groups under the term ARTHRITICA, of 
which the characteristic marks are that the leaves are 
quite entire, surrounded by a distinct cartilaginous border ; 
the involucral bracts‘ elongated and narrow; the flowers 
shortly pedunculate, or subsessile, and of a rosy violet 
colour; the segments of the bifid, obcordate corolla hairy, 
but without farina at the throat; and the calyx long. 
Outer covering of the seeds plane. 

In this group there are six species. 

5. P. caLycina, Duby, = P. GLAUCcEScENS, Moretti— 
This plant occurs in the north of Lombardy, from the Lake 
of Como to district of Judicaria. The leaves are not 
punctate, and quite glabrous on the upper surface; the 
cartilaginous margin is very broad and somewhat eroded ; 
they are lanceolate or elliptic-lanceolate ; glaucescent ; with 
an acute apex, Involucral bracts, linear, acute, long. 
Flowers rosy, purple, or lilac. 

There is a variety, longobarda, Porta, which is smaller, 
with a shorter, blunt-toothed calyx, and smaller flowers. 
Pax regards this as an intermediate form between P. 
spectabilis, Tratt., and P. calycina. Widmer holds it to be 
simply a form of calycina. ; 

6. P. cLustana, Tausch. — Found, on limestone, in 
Eastern Bavaria, Salzburg, Upper and Lower Austria, and 
north of Styria. Leaves not punctate, with a narrow 
cartilaginous border; bright green; oval or oblong-oval ; 


y 


—_— 


Noy. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 93 


apex rounded, obtuse, or acute. Involucral bracts gener- 
ally longer than the peduncles. Calyx teeth oval, blunt, 
somewhat distant from the corolla-tube. Capsule half the 
length of the calyx. Flowers rosy. 

P. admontensis, a plant found by Gusmus sparingly at 
Admont, in Styria, among P. clusiana, differs from the 
latter only in the leaves being toothed from the middle 
upwards—the teeth small, distant, blunt, fourteen or six- 
teen on a leaf. Widmer regards this plant as arising from 
the repeated crossing of some clusiana hybrid with P. 
clusiana, and thinks that clusiana hybrid may be either 
P. auricula X clusiana, P. clusiana X villosa, or P. clusiana 
x minima. P. Churchillii seems to be much the same 
plant. 

7. P. WULFENIANA, Schott.—Occurs on limestone, on the 
Alps of Venetia, Carinthia, and Carniola. Leaves very 
stiff, dark blue-green, not punctate, with broad, whitish, 
cartilaginous margin, glaucescent, elliptic or oblong, with 
acute apex, glabrous; their margin, as also the calyx, beset 
with minute elandular hairs. Involucral bracts generally 
longer than the peduncles; teeth of the long calyx obtuse, 
and adpressed to tube of corolla; capsule shorter than 
calyx; flowers rosy lilac. 

8. P. SPECTABILIS, Tratt.—On limestone, Alps of Bergamo 
and of the Southern Tyrol. Leaves pellucid-punctate, with 
broad cartilaginous border, viscid. Flowers rosy red, 
passing into violet; throat whitish. Easily identified by 
the pitted, sticky leaves. 

9. P. INTEGRIFOLIA, L.—Pyrenees, Switzerland, Tyrol. 
Not in Dauphiny, Savoy, or Piedmont. Leaves soft, bright- 
green, shining, without cartilaginous margin, very entire, 
elliptic or oblong, somewhat viscid, sparsely covered with 
long, glandular, articulate hairs. Calyx teeth obtuse or 
rounded ; involucral bracts rarely reaching the top of the 
calyx; capsule shorter than the calyx. Flowers dark rosy- 
lilac; throat of the same colour. 

10. P. KITAIBELIANA, Shott.—Found in Croatia, on lime- 
stone ; Servia ; Herzegowina. Leaves somewhat glaucescent, 
fragrant, without cartilaginous border, large, elliptic-oval or 
oblong-lanceolate, entire, or denticulate on the upper half; 
green parts of the plant more or less viscid, beset with 


94 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxv1. 


short glandular hairs; involucral bracts about reaching 
base of calyx; capsule half the length of calyx; tlowers 
rosy, with whitish throat which is covered with longish 
elandular hairs. 

These two last Primulas do not properly belong to the 
eroup Arthritica, being destitute of cartilaginous border. 


(. The next group comprises six Primulas, and is named 
by Schott EryrHroprosum. Its characters are—leaves 
fatty, dentate-serrate or serrulate, without cartilaginous 
border, densely covered with hairs, which exude a red gum, 
veins immersed. Involucral bracts short, flowers peduncled, 
red or white, not yellow, calyx longish. 

11. P. nirsuta, All., = P. viscosa, Vill—Pyrenees and 
Alps; very widely distributed. Leaves obovate or rounded- 
obovate, more or less toothed along the whole margin ; 
capsule shorter than the calyx. 

Of this Primula there are four varieties—(1) P. ciliata, 
Schrank, in which the teeth of the leaves are equal, and 
the margin is white and densely glandulose ; (2) P. pallida, 
Schott, with unequal teeth, pale hlac blooms and cuneate, 
obovate flower-tips ; (3) P. confinis, Schott, with very fleshy, 
extended leaves, thickly covered with brown glandular 
hairs, broad corolla-tips, and very short calyx teeth; (4) 
P. ecxeupa, Heg., with sessile leaves, whose teeth are 
cut in the form of an arch, and with almost stemless 
flowers, which sit on the rosette of leaves, and are together 
almost larger than the whole plant. This variety occurs 
at very high altitudes. There is also a variety with white 
flowers, which is the so-called P. nivalis of gardens. 

12. P. @NENsIs, Thom.—Found on the Alps of the 
southern and western Tyrol, and of eastern Switzerland ; 
Ortler, Val Muranza, Val Daone, Val Venosta, ete. This 
is the smallest of the group, though other species may be 
found as small, when they grow in poor, dry situations, or 
at high altitudes. Its small, cuneate, and truncate leaves 
are found among none of the allied Primulas; but to make 
sure of correct identification, it is well to note the character 
of the hairs on the very viscid leaf, which are thick and 
short and bear large reddish yellow or dark red glands, the 
calyx pressed close to the corolla tube, the short peduncles, 


Nov. 1901. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 95 


and the capsule a little longer than the calyx. I could 
find only a few specimens of this plant on the mountains 
bordering the Val Daone.—Syn. P. daonensis, Leybold. 

The var. Judicarie is a somewhat larger plant with 
cuneate leaves, coarsely toothed towards the apex, the 
middle tooth longer and somewhat larger than the rest. 

13. P. Viscosa, All.—There is much confusion in the 
nomenclature of this Primula. Kerner and Pax retain 
Allioni’s name. Widmer adopts the name of Lapeyrouse, 
P. LATIFOLIA, objecting to the name viscosa as unsuitable, 
the plant not being particularly viscid; and he rejects 
Villar’s name of P. HIRSUTA to avoid confusion with 
another species, and as not being specially characteristic. 
Hegetschweiler calls it P. GRAVEOLENS. I retain the name 
by which the plant is best known. 

Found widely distributed from the Pyrenees through 
the chain of the Alps to the 10th degree of E. Longitude. 
Not common on the Pyrenees or Western Alps. On 
granite. 

Leaves somewhat flaccid, fragrant, without cartilaginous 
margin, oval, round-oval, oblong-cuneate or lanceolate- 
cuneate, gradually narrowed into a generally long petiole, 
from about the middle to the apex acutely-dentate or 
repand-denticulate, or quite entire, the surface and margin 
somewhat densely clothed with short glandulose hairs. 
xlands small, colourless, not reddening the drying paper. 
Peduncles generally long. Calyx teeth adpressed to tube 
of corolla. Flowers secund, nodding, violet or reddish 
violet, throat and interior of tube of same colour. Corolla 
infundibuliform. Farina rare on the throat of corolla, and 
very sparingly on the calyx. Anthers of the short-styled 
flowers set on the throat or a little below it. Capsule 
hardly or considerably longer than the calyx. 

The scent is peculiar, and stronger than in other 
Primulas. It has been compared to the smell of bitumen, 
or of Geranium robertianum, or of weak musk. 

The plants with the leaves quite entire (in form very 
similar to those of Cynoglosswm vulgare) are from the 
Maritime Alps. Their flowers are somewhat brighter in 
colour. 

14. P. PEDEMONTANA, Thom.—Occurs in Piedmont and 


96 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEKDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxvi 


Savoy; not in Switzerland. Leaves obovate or oblong- 
lanceolate, narrowed gradually—more rarely suddenly—into 
the petiole, quite entire, or repand-dentate, more rarely dis- 
tinctly dentate, surface almost glabrous, margin thickly 
beset with very short glandular hairs. Glands somewhat 
large, cinnabar-coloured, or more rarely purple. Calyx 
teeth somewhat appressed. Capsule sane length as calyx. 
Flowers dark rose, seldom pale rose, rarely white; inner 
portion of corolla mostly pure white. 

To be distinguished from the other Primulas that’ have 
coloured glands, by the almost shining leaves with red 
margins and very shortly stipitate glands. 

15. P. APENNINA, Widm. In the northern Apennines: 
Mte. Orsajo.Leaves oblong or oval, entire, or dentate 
towards the apex; teeth small, approximate, the surface 
and margin beset with short glandular hairs; glands some- 
what large, purple. Scape a little longer than, or twice as 
long as, the leaves. Peduncles very short, calyx teeth 
sub-adpressed to the corolla tube. Capsule one-fifth or 
one-sixth shorter than the calyx. 

This description by Widmer is taken from specimens in 
fruit; he does not give the colour of the flowers. 

His remarks are: P. apennina has the habit of a 
P. pedemontana grown on poor soil, from which it differs 
in the more copious covering of hair on the leaf surface, 
but sparser border of hair on the margin (the margin is 
not red), and further in the calyx being longer in pro- 
portion to the capsule. From P. wnensis, P. villosa, and 
P. cottia, it is distinguished by the covering of hair being 
not so thick, and shorter, and by the longer capsule. From 
P. hirsuta, All., with which it agrees in the calyx, it is 
separated by the much shorter and less thickly-set hairs, 
by the longer flower stalk, the shorter peduncles, and also 
by its habit. 

16. P. corria, Widm.—In Piedmont, Cottian Alps, at 
an altitude of 3000-6500 feet: Val Germanasco, Valleys 
of Clusone and Von Oulx. 

This Primula is very similar to P. villosa, especially to 
the form from Rennfeld, but differs in the shorter capsule, 
in the proportionately longer calyx, and somewhat thinner 
leaves. It is marked off from the sub. sp. commutata by 


Lard 


Noy. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 97 


the longer and closer-set hairs, as also by the somewhat 
broader leaves, which have shorter petioles, and are less 
bluntly toothed, while the comparative length of capsule 
and calyx is nearly the same. 

Widmer remarks that he does not venture to join it 
as a variety to P. villosa and P. commutata, to which it 
approaches nearest in habit and other characters, because 
the localities in which it is found are separated from the 
home of the latter by a wide tract of country yielding 
distinct species (P. hirsuta, All., and P. wnensis). He is 
of opinion that it is more intimately connected with 
P. hirsuta, All., from which it differs in its longer flower 
stalk, in the leaves more gradually narrowed into the 
petiole, in its longer hairs which have less highly coloured 
glands, in its shorter peduncles, in its calyx teeth closer 
to the tube of the corolla, and in its capsule being longer 
as compared with the calyx. 

The colour of the flowers of P. villosa, P. commutata, 
P. cottia, and P. hirsuta, All., is very much the same. 

17. P. vittosa, Jaequin—On the Alps of Styria, 
Carinthia, and Carniola—on granite. Leaves obovate or 
oblong, gradually narrowed into the shortish petiole, more 
rarely almost suddenly contracted, apex obtuse or rounded, 
more rarely sub-truncate, toothed from the middle or only 
near the apex, with small close teeth, sometimes quite entire, 
the surface and margin somewhat densely covered with 
longish glandular hairs; glands small, red; peduncles 
short; capsule generally a little longer than the calyx; 
flowers lilac or rose ; inner part of corolla mostly pure white. 

Closely allied to P. wnensis—The variety norica of 
Kerner is the smaller leaved form, with the hairs shorter, 
and not so thickly distributed. The leaves are generally 
narrow and truncate. 

Sub-sp. P. commutata, Schott, is distinguished by 
thinner leaves, the blade and stalk of which are longer, by 
larger, more distant teeth, a somewhat longer calyx, and 
somewhat shorter capsule. These points are not constant 
enough to mark a distinct species. 


D. The next two species form a group to which Schott 
gives the name Ruopsiprum. The leaves are fleshy, with 


98 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF 'THE — [Sxss, LXvI. 


cartilaginous teeth, and are surrounded by a very narrow, 
indistinct, cartilaginous border, and densely clothed with 
hairs, which exude colourless viscid matter. Involucral 
bracts narrow, elongated. Flowers subsessile, more or less 
violet; calyx of moderate length ; corolla lobes bifid, and 
glandular-hairy; the throat with glandular hairs and 
coloured folds reaching to the partition of the lobes. 

18. P. Attroni, Loisl—Scattered over a small region 
between Cuneo and Nice, in the Maritime Alps —on 
limestone. 

Leaves somewhat fleshy, very viscid, grey-green, almost 
scentless, roundish or oblong, entire or toothed. Green 
parts of the plant without farina, very densely covered 
with glandular hairs; glands colourless; flower stem 
scarcely one mm. long; peduncles two to four mm. long; 
calyx teeth adpressed. Flowers rosy, throat white and beset 
with short glandular hairs; anthers of the short-styled 
flowers distant from the throat by one-fifth of the length 
of the tube; capsule generally shorter than the calyx. 

In cultivation, this interesting Primula must be grown 
in the shade and protected from rain. In its native 
habitats the root-stock is covered with the withered leaves 
of former years still adhering and imbricated over it like 
roof tiles. 

19. P. TYROLENSIS, Schott.—South Tyrol and Venetia— 
on limestone rocks and stony turf. Leaves somewhat 
fleshy, viscid, dark green, with little scent, small, roundish 
or oblong, almost entire or denticulate, teeth with car- 
tilaginous tips. Green parts of the plant densely beset 
with short glandular hairs; glands colourless. Flower stem 
four-tenths to two cm. long, one to two flowered; peduncles 
almost none.  Involucral bracts lanceolate or linear, 
reaching generally half-way up the calyx or to its top. 
Calyx teeth leaning on the tube of the corolla. Flowers 
rosy lilac, throat whitish and covered with longish glandular 
hairs. Anthers of the short-styled flowers inserted a little 
below, or one-fourth of the tube below, the throat. Cap- 
sule reaching a little above the middle of the calyx.— 
Syn. P. Allionti, Koch. 

Differs trom P. Allionii, Schott, in the cartilaginous tips 
of the leaf-teeth, in the short peduncles, in the long 


Noy. 1901.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 99 


narrow involucres, in the calyx teeth broadening towards 
the top, in the shorter and less thick clothing of hair, in 
the more deeply-cut corolla lobes, in the capsule shorter 
in proportion to the calyx, and in the smooth, not papillose, 
epidermis of the seeds. When the plant grows on rocks, 
the root stock is covered with withered leaves, as in 
P. Allionii. 


£. Cyanopis, Schott.—This group contains one species. 

20. P. qLutmnosa, Wulf—Found in Lower Engadine, 
N. and S. Tyrol, Carinthia, Styria, Carniola, Salzburgh, 
N.-E. Italy—on schist. Leaves somewhat fleshy, glutinous, 
hardly shining, with something of a cartilaginous margin 
towards the apex, punctate on the surface, lanceolate- 
cuneate or oblong-lanceolate, with obtuse or rounded apex, 
margin rarely entire, generally denticulate, with seven to 
nine teeth. Involucral bracts oval, rounded at the apex, 
equal to or overtopping the calyx. Calyx brownish red, 
teeth oval, obtuse, adpressed to the corolla tube. Flowers 
very fragrant, at first dark blue, later violet, very seldom 
white, with a dark ring above the throat. Anthers of the 
short-styled flowers inserted in, or beneath, the throat. 
Capsule a little shorter than the calyx. 

I have never seen a more beautiful sight than a large 
bed of this Primula on the Muttenjoch, in the Gschnitzthal, 
in full flower, and exquisitely fragrant in the fresh breeze 
blowing over the summit of the Pass. a 


F. CHAMCALLIS, Schott.—This group also contains only 
one species, P. MINIMA, with its hybrids. Its characters 
are—Leaves fleshy-coriaceous, smooth, glabrous, with the 
exception of the capitate hairs, more rarely sub-hirsute or 
sub-villous, with somewhat cartilaginous points, and with 
hardly any distinct cartilaginous border. Involucral bracts 
elongated, narrow. Flowers subsessile, rosy or white. 
Calyx somewhat long. Lobes of corolla bifid or deeply 
emarginate, obcordate, hairy towards the villous throat, 
which is destitute of folds. Outer covering of seeds plane. 

21. P. minima, L.—Found on the Eastern Alps and 
mountains of eastern Europe. Not in Switzerland. On 
schist, granite. 


100 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess, Lxv1. 


Leaves stiffish, shining, without cartilaginous border, 
cuneate or obtriangular, apex truncate, more rarely arcuate, 
furnished with three to nine acuminate-mucronate teeth, 
glabrous, the margin of the leaves and the superior green 
parts of the plant sprinkled with minute glandular hairs. 
Flower-stalk short, rarely as long as the leaves, one to two 
flowered. Peduncles almost none, or as long as 3 mm. 
Involucral bracts lanceolate, generally a little shorter than 
the calyx, the apex acuminate or somewhat mucronate. 
Calyx green, 6 to 9 mm. long, with mucronate teeth. 
Flowers rosy; throat and interior of corolla-tube glandular- 
villous, white. Limb of the corolla broad, plane behind, 
clearly distinct from the tube; its radius 7-16 mm. long. 
Lobes of the corolla obeordate, bifid, cut from two-fifths to 
half its length. Anthers of the short-styled flowers 
generally set on the middle of the tube. Capsule hardly 
reaching half way up the calyx. 

Widmer’s description is here given in full, as this 
Primula is often difficult to distinguish from some of its 
hybrids. With regard to the teeth at the apex of the 
leaves, he remarks that, after a careful examination of a 
great number of plants from different districts, the follow- 
ing four groups can be made out :— 

In No. 1 all the teeth are of the same size and height. 

In No. 2 the two, three, or four middle teeth are equal 
in size and height, while those at the sides are not so high, 
and are often also smaller. 

In No. 3 all the teeth are pretty much of one size, but 
are set on an arched line, so that the middle one is some- 
what higher than the others. 

In No. 4 all the teeth form.an arched line, the middle 
one is the largest and highest, while the rest decrease in 
size on both sides of it, so that the outermost ones may be 
much smaller than the central one. 

22. P. pEoruM, Vel.—On Mount Rilo, in Bulgaria, in 
moist, grassy spots beneath .the snowfields, at an elevation 
of 8000 feet. On syenite. 

Leaves slightly fleshy, rather coriaceous, stiff, with a 
distinct cartilaginous border, punctate on the upper side 
(the points, not translucent, dark in reflected light, being 
little shallow pits); oblong or lanceolate, with acute apex ; 


Noy. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 101 


very entire, with extremely small, almost stalkless, glands 
set on the pits of the upper surface. Flower stem, bracts, 
and calyx remarkably black and viscid. Flower stem three 
or four times longer than the leaves, with five to ten 
flowers. Peduncles 2 to 5 mm. long. Involucral bracts 
oblong-linear, often reaching the top of the calyx. Calyx 
5 to 4 mm. long, cut to the middle; the teeth narrowly 
triangular, acuminate. Flowers secund, nodding, red 
violet; throat and interior of corolla tube of the same 
colour. Tube passing gradually into the infundibuliform 
corolla. Radius of corolla 6 to 7 mm. long. Divisions of 
corolla cut to one-fifth of their length. Anthers of short- 
styled flowers set a quarter of the length of the tube 
beneath the throat. Capsule (immature) included in the 
calyx. 

Discovered by Velenovsky in 1889. The above is 
mainly his description. Widmer says: “P. deorum re- 
sembles in the colour of its flowers, and in habit, a 
diminutive, small-leaved P. latifolia (P. viscosa, All.). It 
is certainly a beautiful Primula, but I would much rather 
give the name Primula of the Gods to one of the Alpine 
species with numerous large bright flowers, as P. pedemon- 
tana, from Mount Cenis; P. viscosa (P. hirsuta, All.), from 
Faido and Aosta: P. calyeina, from Corni di Canzo; P. 
spectabilis, from the Ledrothal.” But Widmer had never 
seen the living plant. 


II. Section Farinose.—Leaves revolute, petioled or 
sessile, often narrowed into a winged petiole, mem- 
branaceous, with or without farina, toothed or quite 
entire; flowers of middling size or smaller, oftenest blue, 
or rosy or white, very rarely yellow: bracts more or less 
lanceolate or subulate, gibbous at the base, or distended 
towards the base; capsule cylindrical. 

23. P. srpirica, Jacq.—Occeurs in Finland and the north 
of Sweden and Norway. Leaves roundish or oval, suddenly 
contracted into the petiole ; involucral bracts oval or oblong, 
acute or shortly acuminate, very gibbous at the base; 
farina none; calyx cylindrical; flowers somewhat large, 
less numerous than in the next species, pale lilac ; segments 
of corolla cut to one-third or one-half their length. 


102 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCKEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. Lxvi. 


The only well-marked variety is P. EGALLICENSIS, 
Wormsk. and Lehm., found in Greenland and Labrador, 
which, however, Pax regards as a distinct species. 

24. P. rarinosa, L.—Found all over Europe, except in 
the most southerly parts. Small, commonly 10 to 
20 em. high, rarely taller; leaves obovate-oblong or 
oblong, gradually narrowed into the petiole, white- 
farinaceous beneath, denticulate or nearly entire; scape 
much longer than the leaves; flowers shortly pedicellate, 
flesh-coloured then lilac, more rarely purple or white; 
calyx teeth sub-obtuse, triangular; corolla tube much 
longer than the calyx. 

P. Warei, Stein, differs somewhat from the type in its 
leaves, which are regularly crenulate-denticulate, and in its 
dark violet flowers. 

Var. lepida, Duby, differs from the type only in being 
destitute of farina. It appears not to have been found in 
recent times on the north side of the chain of Alps. 

Var. cxigua, Velen., has its seeds pale instead of dark 
brown, as in P. farinosa. The leaves in the young state 
are on the under side sometimes quite covered with thinly 
spread farina, which, however, disappears more or less 
later ; sometimes it is altogether destitute of farina. Calyx 
teeth acuminate. The plant is barely 12 cm. high—From 
Bulgaria. 

25. P. Scotica, Hook.—TIn north of Scotland and in 
Orkney. The distinguishing marks of this species, as 
compared with P. jarinosa, are broad, rounded calyx teeth ; 
broad elliptical leaves, equally and finely cut on the 
marein; a short scape; and dark violet flowers. Pax 
regards this as a true species, but he holds P. Scotica, Blytt, 
the Scandinavian plant, to be a form of /arinosa. 

Widmer remarks that the broad, rounded calyx teeth 
are not found in all the Scottish specimens, and further 
that they occur in occasional specimens of farinosa from 
widely different localities. As to the colour of the flowers, 
he regards the dark violet colour as only a dark red, just 
as the dark violet of P. Waret, Stein, is really in the living 
plant a beautiful, intense red. Accordingly he does not 
separate Scotica from farinosa. 

26. P. srricra, Hornem.—In northern Scandinavia, 


Noy. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 103 


northern Russia, and Finland. Green parts of the plant 
not farinose, with the exception of the inner surface of the 
ealyx. Calyx more or less ventricose. Flowers small, less 
numerous than in farinosa. Lobes of the corolla shghtly 
emarginate. 

Pax, with some hesitation, regards this as a species. 
Widmer thinks it is not specifically distinguished from 
P. farinosa. 

27. P. LoNGiIFLORA, All. — Switzerland, north Italy, 
north and south Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, 
Hungary, Bosnia, and Montenegro. Leaves obovate- 
oblong or oblong, gradually narrowed into the petiole. 
Farina abundant on the lower side of the leaves, on the 
upper part of the scape, and lower part of the calyx. 
Calyx cylindrical, teeth lanceolate. Flowers less numerous 
than in P. farinosa, paler or darker red-violet, throat 
yellow; corolla tube of a dirty red, or, especially in the 
upper part, yellowish, 20 mm. long or longer, seldom only 
16 mm. long, two to three and a half times as long as 
the calyx. Homostyle plants, the anthers of all the 
flowers being set in the throat of the corolla; stigma 
protruding. 

This species appears to be very constant, and subject to 
very little variation. Very rarely the leaves are without 
powder on the under side. 

28. P. FRoNDOSA, Janka.—Found in the north of Thrace. 
Leaves thin, oval or lanceolate-linear, generally furnished 
with copious farina beneath. Involucral bracts linear- 
lanceolate, not gibbous at the base. Calyx ovate- 
cylindrical. Flowers of the same size as in P. /arinosa. 


III. Section Vernales.—To this section, identical with 
the sub-genus Primulastrum of Duby, belong the remaining 
European Primulas. 

Leaves revolute when young, membraceous, rugose, more 
or less pubescent, without farina, undivided, serrulate or 
denticulate or crenulate. Flowers yellow or purplish, 
umbellate ; scape elongate or almost wanting. Involucral 
bracts narrow, not gibbous. Calyx tubular or campanulate, 
with sharp angles and acute segments. Capsule cylindrical, 
exserted or included in the calyx. Stomata of the upper 


104 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. Lxvi. 


surface of the leaves few, those of the under surface 
numerous. 

Found over the whole of Europe, with the exception of 
the sub-arctie region, from the sea-level to an elevation of 
6500 feet. They occur also in the district of the Eastern 
Mediterranean. Primula acaulis is found in Algeria, and 
P. elatior and P. officinalis in Siberia. 

29, PRIMULA ACAULIS, L.—Flower scape wanting. Ped- 
uncles long, arising from the root-stock. Leaves more or 
less hairy beneath. Corolla flat, large, pale sulphur colour. 
Capsule oval, two-thirds as long as the calyx. LP. vulgaris, 
Huds.—Occurs throughout almost the whole of Europe. 

Var. caulescens, Auct., differs from the type in having 
a developed flower scape, and is found rarely with the 
ordinary form. 

Var. balearica, Willkomm.—Leaves on the underside 
almost glabrous. Flowers white. Balearic Islands. 

Var. Sibthorpii, Reichenb.—Leaves more or less hairy 
beneath. Scape almost wanting. Flowers rosy. Eastern 
Mediterranean region. 

30. P. ELATIOR, L.—Flowers umbellate on a_ scape. 
Leaves more or less pubescent beneath, or glabrous. 
Corolla tolerably large, sulphur-coloured, nearly flat. 
Capsule cylindrical, a little longer than the calyx. Leaves 
oval or obovate, much wrinkled, generally contracted 
suddenly into the more or less winged petiole. Calyx 
with acute triangular teeth; angles green. 

Almost everywhere in Europe, from the sea-level to 
an altitude of nearly seven thousand feet (in Bavaria and 
the Tyrol). 

Var. itricata, Gr. Godr.—Leaves  obovate-elliptical 
or oval, gradually attenuated into the broadly-winged 
petiole, less wrinkled. Scape a little longer than, or 
shorter than, the leaves. Calyx narrowly tubular- 
campanulate, with triangular, acute segments. Capsule 
shortly cylindrical, equalling the calyx, or more rarely 
a little longer. 

Pyrenees, Alps, Bosnia. 

31. P. oFFIcINALIS, L.—Flowers umbellate, two to 
forty on the scape. Leaves ovate or ovate-oblong, 
generally contracted suddenly into the winged petiole ; 


Noy. 1901. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 105 


velvety and grey-green beneath. Calyx campanulate, 
inflated, whitish yellow; teeth broadly ovate or triangular, 
shortly acuminate. Corolla small, concave, egg yellow, 
less commonly sulphur yellow. Capsule oval, only half as 
long as the calyx. 

Almost everywhere throughout Europe, reaching to an 
altitude’ of 4000 feet. 

Var. Pannonica, Kerner— Leaves oval or oblong, 
generally contracted gradually into the winged petiole, 
underneath hoary-tomentose. Calyx widely campanulate. 
This is var. inflata, Pax. 

Hungary, Lower Austria, Maritime Alps, Pyrenees, etc. 

Var. (sub. sp. ?) Columne (Ten.) Pax.—Leaves ovate or 
cordate, suddenly narrowed into the narrowly winged 
petiole, underneath snowy -tomentose, thickly felted. 
Corolla, as in var. Pannonica, somewhat flatter than in 
the type. 

Found over the whole Mediterranean region. 

Var. Tommasini, Gr. Godr—Corolla sulphur yellow 
(as in P. elatior), with five orange spots, almost flat, 
otherwise like P. Columne—Mte. Maggiore, near Fiume, 
and Pie de )Hiéris in the Pyrenees. 

The four forms, officinalis, Pannonica, Columne, and 
Tommasinii, pass imperceptibly into one another, so that 
many plants may be equally well referred to one or to 
another of them. Kerner regards the most distinct 
difference to lie in the form and size of the corolla; he 
unites Columne with Tommasinii. These two can be 
distinguished only by the flowers, which in the former are 
bell-shaped and egg yellow, as in P. officinalis, while in the 
latter they are flat, or almost flat, and sulphur-coloured, as 
in P. elatior. 

Note—In compiling this account of the European 
Primule, I am specially indebted to two works which I 
have used freely, viz. “ Monographische Uebersicht iiber die 
Arten der Gattung Primula,’ von Dr. Ferdinand Pax, 
Leipzig, 1888, and “ Die europiiischen Arten der Gattung 
Primula,’ von E. Widmer, Miinchen, 1891. 


TRANS. BOT, 80C. EDIN, VOL. XXII. H 


106 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sxss, Lxv1. 


Nores ON RECENT EXPERIENCES WITH Dry-RotT. 
3y Dr. JAMES Hunter, F.R.S.E. 


(Read 12th December 1901.) 


It is not to be understood that the present brief paper 
is given as an intended addition to the already voluminous 
technical descriptions of the biological characters of either 
the Merulius, the Telephora, or any of the fungi already so 
well known to be connected with the peculiar form of 
decay in timber generally cailed dry-rot. Neither is it 
my present purpose to recount, even in epitome, a selection 
of the various “cures” for this pest, which have, at one 
time or other, been suggested by either those who consider 
themselves best qualified, as so-called “scientists,” or as 
so-called “practical men,” connected with buildings, ete., 
to deal with this matter. 

Till but recently, I must confess, my own interest in 
this subject was merely academical, having simply made 
myself acquainted with some of the fungi in question for 
purely educational purposes. I may, however, mention 
that for some months past my attention has been drawn 
to by no means trifling “outbreaks’—if one may call 
them so—of dry-rot in my neighbourhood, some of which 
have been the cause of very considerable loss, so that my 
microscopical acquaintance with Jerulius became renewed. 
With this I should have, possibly, been contented, so far 
as scientific Interest went, but, as it turned out, cireum- 
stances so arranged themselves as to furnish me with the 
rather questionable convenience of a home-study of this 
interesting subject. Fortunately the occurrence of the 
destructive agency in question was confined to a piece of 
timber of a structure standing in my garden at a considerable 
distance from the house I occupy. Perhaps it might be 
said that—instead of retaining that single beam in its place 
(though the process of decay was ostensibly limited to but 
a very small portion of it) and attempting, as I did, any 
means to destroy the vitality of the attacking fungus by 
way of experiment or otherwise—my best plan would have 
been to remove at once the faulty piece of wood entirely. 


Dec. 1901. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 107 


In effect I practically did so, by so isolating it that no 
contiguous piece could become affected by direct contact 
during the time I have allowed it to remain for the 
sake of experiment. Had the structure been part of a 
valuable building I should, no doubt, have acted otherwise 
The affected beam being however one of a few newly added 
parts, while the older parts were very hard, sound, and 
well protected with paint, the experiments were, under the 
circumstances, so far excusable. 

They were these—The mycelia of the fungus, which 
showed only the white cottony filaments forming the early 
stage of the “pileus” were, as tested by cutting, confined 
to quite a superticial layer along one edge which was 
exposed and perfectly accessible, quite characteristic. 
These mycelia were first carefully removed, and the under- 
lying surface of wood repeatedly soaked on successive 
days with a strong solution of copper sulphate. The 
“hymenium,” with its characteristic wrinkling and rusty 
spores, not having been developed, I concluded that the 
chances of the fungus spreading (should it do so) to other 
timbers would only take place by burrowing of the 
mycelia. This process of repeated soakings with the 
saline solution, with thorough drying in the intervals—the 
ventilation being very perfect—was continued for some 
weeks before the “curative” part of the experiment was 
concluded by coating the piece of wood upon every surface 
with a thick layer of paint and varnish. 

Before this was done, chips and borings were examined 
which showed the mycelia in the surface layers apparently 
completely shrivelled and devitalised_—a consummation 
the permanence of which it will be the purpose of an 
investigation some months hence to corroborate, or 
otherwise. 

From recent tests and present experiences I am, 
however, of opinion that those portions of the fungus 
which come within the range of the treatment just 
“mentioned are not likely to crop up again, and the 
affected part, being perfectly local, is but little likely 
to give further opportunities of varying the experiment. 
Regarding any fears I might have respecting the 
possibilities of the fungus, which in this instance is 


108 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [ Sess. txvi. 


decidedly Merulius lacrymans, spreading to what are at 
present perfectly fresh timbers, I do not think that it 
has been established that such fresh timbers, if kept 
dry by good ventilation, are (even without a coating of 
paint) lable to attacks of this pest, at least by germina- 
tion of fungus spores; for a hypha to perforate an 
adjoining piece of wood is another matter. Were spore 
transference at all potent in sowing such fungi on timbers 
which had been well seasoned, dry, and under the con- 
ditions of even moderate ventilation, one can scarcely 
see how such ravages should not be very much more 
frequent and severe than they are. 

Of course, as a matter of sound practice in dealing 
with such occurrences in costly buildings, it is, perhaps, 
best to err on the safe side by the removal of much 
contiguous timber which may have been suffered to 
have come within the range of contamination, rather 
than resort to the more doubtful procedure of attenptine 
to “cure” or arrest the progress of the fungus where 
it may have been supposed to have just got a hold, as 
in my experimental case. On the other hand, it is 
searcely to be thought wonderful, or very much beyond 
the range of very ordinary possibilities, that the vitality 
of so delicate an organism as the spore or hypha of a 
fungus should readily succumb to quite a large number 
of destructive agencies, so chosen that all the valued 
qualities and characteristics of the infested wood, even 
its ornamental ones, may remain practically unaltered. 
The only difficulty—a very real one in most instances 
where buildings are concerned, as compared with isolated 
poles, ete—is of the nature of the one experienced in 
endeavouring to catch a bird by “putting salt on its 
tail.’ At the same time, it is well to know that there 
are several very effective means of thoroughly destroying 
dry-rot fungi other than by prompt commitment of the 
whole affair to the flames. I only chose the copper 
salt because it came readiest to hand. As we all know, 
creosote has perhaps the greatest reputation in this 
direction. If one who can lay no special claim to a 
knowledge of this subject might venture to express an 
opinion as to the means of prevention, I think it will 


Dec. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 109 


be found that the two great “predisposing causes,” as 
physicians would say, are in this case the use of 
imperfectly seasoned timber, and the enclosing of timbers 
where good ventilation is impossible. 


THE PHANEROGAMIC FLORA OF THE CLOVA MOUNTAINS 
IN SPECIAL RELATION TO FLOWER Brotocy. By J. ©. 
Wit.is, M.A., and J. H. Burkitt, M.A. 


(Read 12th December 1901.) 


The present paper enumerates the Phanerogamic Flora 
of Clova, classifies the species in it by their flower biology, 
and gives our own observations upon their distribution in 
altitude and time of flowering. Our purpose is to trace 
any connection which may exist between the flower 
biology and the two latter attributes. 

To us the Clova region means strictly the southern face 
of the Grampians within convenient distance of Milton of 
Clova, 7.e. Glen Clova above Dykehead, Glen Prosen above 
Inchmill, and the moors of the North Esk above Loch Lee. 
The whole area approximately comprises—, 


Above 3000 feet, one-third square mile. 
2500-3000 feet, 20 square miles. 


2000-2500 ,, 28 ae 
1500-2000 ,, 18 z 
1000-1500 ,, 28 “ 
500-1000 ,, 9 i 


It consists of three conditions—the valley bottoms or 
straths, the hillsides with their crags, and the peaty moors. 
The latter begin at 2500-2600 feet. 


82 Phanerogams grow on the moors, 4 being confined to them. 

265 in e hillsides, 35 aA a 

298 * a straths, 97 95 + 

The total number of self-maintaining Phanerogams is 
365; there are also 16 others maintained by man through 
agriculture or arboriculture, and these are distinguished in 
the list which follows by wanting the cousecutive number- 
ing, and by inclusion at the same time in brackets. 

Of the 363 self-maintaining Phanerogams, 81 are to be 
reckoned as alpines, and 282 as lowland plants. All the 


110 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. txvi. 


latter can be found below 1000 feet; the former are found 
in greatest number between 2000 and 2500 feet. 

We have made use of the many published papers on 
the Clova Flora. We have corrected our altitudes by the 
work of the Ordnance Survey, and have found frequent 
cause to discard, or modify from local knowledge, the 
published statements of botanists regarding heights attained 
by Clova plants. We have been favoured by the help of 
many friends, among whom are Prof. F. O. Bower, Messrs. 
Arthur Bennett, H. H. W. Pearson, A. G. Tansley, F. J. 
Hanbury (for names of Hieracia), and Rev. E. F. Linton 
(for names of Hieracia), the late Robert Smith, Dr. W. H. 
Lang, Rev. F. R. Tennant, and Miss C. E. Hemsley,—to 
them we tender our best thanks, as also to those who 
permitted us in successive years to botanise on their 
property. 

We are primarily concerned with the flower-classes first 
limited by Hermann Muller, and, because opinions differ 
as to their definition, we may here add a word in explana- 
tion of the way in which we use them. Flowers habitually 
fertilised by the wind belong to class W; simple flowers, 
without honey, to class Po. Upright, or more or less 
upright, simple flowers belong, according to the depth at 
which the honey lies, to classes A (freely exposed), AB 
(half-hidden), B (completely hidden), B’ (completely hidden 
and the flowers crowded), H (deeply hidden, the depth 
suited to a bee proboscis), and F (the same, but suited to a 
buttertly’s proboscis). Pendent flowers are raised a class 
at least by the difficulty of obtaining their honey, thus 
Acer pseudo-platanus belongs to class AB, though its honey 
is exposed, and Geranium phawm belongs to class H, 
though the position of its honey would place it in B. 
Complex flowers without honey may belong to class H, 
and many nocturnal flowers go into class F, which, by 
structure, were they diurnal, would be distributed between 
classes B, H, and F, eg. Habenaria albida, which if visited 
by day-insects would belong to class B. 

In our opinion the final test in all doubtful cases is in 
the circle of insect visitors. We have studied these, and 
intend to detail our observations in the “Annals of ° 
Botany.” 


Dec. 1901. | 


SU I SeIRO es 


Be ole | 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


£Lt 


Other abbreviations used are—ch, completely hidden 
honey; dh, deeply hidden honey (more than 5 mm.); hh, 
half-hidden honey ; exp, exposed honey. 


THE PHANEROGAMIC FLORA OF CLOVA. 


RANUNCULACEXZ— 


. Thalictrum alpinum, Linn. 


Anemone nemorosa, Linn. 


Ranunculus Flammula, Linn. 


—— auricomus, Linn. 


—— acris, Linn. 
— repens, Linn. 


bulbosus, Linn. 
— Ficaria, Linn. 


. Caltha palustris, Linn. 
. Trollius europeus, Linn. 


CRUCIFERZ— 


. Barbarea vulgaris, R. Br. 

. Arabis hirsuta, R. Br. 

. Cardamine pratensis, Linn. 
hirsuta, Linn. (with C. 


tlexuosa, With.) 


. Draba incana, Linn. 
. Erophila vulgaris, DC. 
. Cochlearia officinalis, Linn. 


(with C. danica, Linn.) 


. Subularia aquatica, Linn. 
. Brassica Sinapis, Vis. 
. Capsella Bursa-pastoris, 


Meench. 


. Raphanus Raphanistrum, 


Linn. 


CIsTACEZ— 


. Helianthemum vulgare, 


Gertn. 


VIOLACEZ— 


. Viola palustris, Linn. 
. — canina, Linn. 


sylvestris, Fries. 


. —— tricolor, Linn. 
. — arvensis, Murr. 
-. — lutea, Huds. 


POLYGALACEX— 


. Polygala vulgaris, Linn. 


serpyllacea, Weihe 


CARYOPHYLLACEE— 
(Silene Cucubalus, Wibel. 


. — acaulis, Linn. 
. Lychnis diurna, Sibth. 


. — Flos-euculi, Linn. 


. —— alpina, Linn. 
. Cerastium glomeratum, 


Thuillier. 


. — triviale, Link. 
7. -— alpinum, Linn. 


Honey. Cuass. ALTITUDE, 


none 
hh 
hh 


none 


ch 
ch 
dh 
ch 
ch 
dh 


ch 
ch 


dh 
dh 
dh 


dh 
dh 
hh 


bh 
hh 


Ww 
Po 
AB 
AB 


AB 
AB 


AB 
AB 
AB 
AB 


18-3000 
-2500 
—2300 

—800 (and 
at 2000) 
—3000 


—2600 


-800 
20-2400 
—2700 


* -2400 
20-2400 
-900 


20-3000 
2100 
-900 


-1600 


-3000 
—2500 
-2500 
—800 
—800 
-2000 


-2500 
—2400 


-800 
19-3300 
—900 (and 


MontTH OF 
FLOWERING. 


mid. v.-vi. 
v.-early vi. 
mid. vi.-ix. 


Vv. 
end v.-ix. 


end v.-vii. 


Vi. 

end iv.-v. 
V.-V1. 

end v.-vi. 
Vi. 


end vi.-vii. 
v.—early vil. 


v.-Vi. 
mid. vi.—vii. 
mid. iv.—v. 


vi.—mid. vii. 
Vii.—viii. 
mid. vi.—viii. 


end iv.-ix. 


mid. vi.—ix. 


mid. vi.—mid. 1x. 


v.-mid. vi. 
v.-Vi. 

v.-Vi. 

mid. v.-mid. vii. 
mid. v.-ix. 
v.-ix. 


end v.-vii. 
end v.-vii. (also 
5B) F 


2 vi.) 
mid. vi.—mid. vii. 


mid. v.-vii. 

end vi.-vii. 
(seen ix.). 

end vi.-vii. 


end v.-ix. 
v.-early ix. 
end v.-early ix. 


2 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


CARYOPHYLLACKA— cont. 


38. Stellaria media, Cyr. 

39 Holostea, Linn, 

40. graminea, Linn. 

41, ——uliginosa, Murr. 

42. Arenaria trinervia, Linn. 

43 sedoides, Linn. 

44. Sagina procumbens, Linn. 
45. —— Linuei, Presl. (with 8. 

nivalis, Fries.) 
46. subulata, Presl. 


. Spergula arvensis, Linn. 


PoRTULACACEZ— 


. Montia fontana, Linn. 


HyPERICACE2— 


Hypericum humifusum, Linn. 


—— pulchrum, Linn. 


LinacE.Ans— 


. Linum catharticum, Linn. 


GERANIACE.E— 


. Geranium pheum, Linn. 


sylvaticum 
molle, Linn. 


. —— dissectum, Linn. 


Robertianum, Linn. 


. Oxalis Acetosella, Linn. 
(Acer pseudo-platanus, Linn. 


LEGUMINOS.E— 


. Genista anglica, Linn. 

. Ulex europeus, Linn. 

. Cytisus scoparius, Link. 
. Trifolium pratense, Linn. 


(Trifolium hybridum, Linn. 


SIs 


Ao wr 


bow! ee [oe | 


repens, Linn. 


. Anthyllis vulneraria, Linn. 
. Lotus corniculatus, Linn. 

. Astragalus alpinus, Linn. 

. Oxytropis campestris, DC. 


(Vicia hirsuta, Koch. 


. Vicia Cracca, Linn. 


sylvatica, Linn. 


. —— sepium, Linn. 
. Lathyrus pratensis, Linn. 


Macrorrhizus, Wimm. 


RosacE.E— 
(Prunus Aviuwm, Linn. 


. Prunus Padus, Linn. 
. Spireea Ulmaria, Linn. 


. Rubus Ideeus, Linn. 


suberectus, Anders. 
saxatilis, Linn. 


. — chamenorus, Linn. 
. Dryas octopetala, Linn. 

. Geum rivale, Linn. 

. Fragaria vesca, Linn. 

. Potentilla Fragariastrum, 


Ehrh. 
alpestris, Hall. f. 


- — Tormentilla, Scop. 


Honey. 


hh 
hh 


hh 
hh 
hh 
exp 
hh- 


hh 
hh 
hh 


hh 


none 
none 


hh 


ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
hh 


exp 


none 

none 

none 
dh 
ch 
ch 
dh 
dh 
dh 
dh 
ch 
dh 
dh 
dh 
dh 
dh 


ch 
hh 
none 


ch 
ch 
ch 


ch 
ch 
ch 
hh 


hh 
hh 
hh 


CiAss. ALTITUDE. 


AB 
AB 


AB 
AB 
AB 
A 
AB 


AB 


AB 
AB 


AB 


> b> 
By oy te te 


oo jjacfac)aoijayjasien)ac}es)se}as) saan] a0)jooen 


Post pitt Diet 


[ Sess. LXvI. 


MonrTH OF 
FLOWERING. 


1000 
800 (and 
20-2100) 


mid. iv.-ix. 


vi.-early vil. 


-1400 =‘ mid. vi.—mid. ix. 
-1500 _-vi.-vii. 

-600 vi. 

2950 si Vi.. 
-2100 end vi.-mid. ix. 


23-2700  vii.—viii. 


-2100 = mid. vi.—mid. ix. 

-800 mid. vi.-ix, 
~2600 mid. y.-ix. 

-800  vii.-early viii. 
-2300 mid. vi.-ix. 
-2200 mid. vi.-mid. ix. 

800 mid. vi.—mid. vii. 

~2500 mid. vi.-early viii. 

-800 _-vii.-ix. 

-800  viii.-ix. 

-2100 end v.-mid. viii. 

-26000  v.-mid. vi. 

-900 mid. v.-niid. vi.) 
-2500 _-v.-early vii. 
-1000 end iv.-mid., vi. 
-2300  y.-vi. 

-1600 mid. vi.-ix. 

-900 end vi.-ix.) 
—2300 mid. vi.-ix. 
-2000 — vii.—viii. 

-2500 end vi.-mid. viii. 
21-2500  vii.-early viii. 
20-2400 mid. vi.—mid. vii. 

-800 viii.) 

-900 mid. vi.-early viii. 

20-2300 end vi.-early viii. 

-1900  vi.—vil. 

-900 mid. vi.-mid. ix. 
—2300 mid. v.-vi. 

(seen ix.), 

-900 mid. v.-early vi.) 

-2200 mid. v.-early vi. 
-1100 (and 
at 1900) end vi.-early viii. 

-2300 early vi.-early vii. 

-—800 = mid. vi.-mid. vii. 

20-2500 


(and at 1500) mid. vi.-early vii. 


17-3000 end v.-early vii. 

20-2500  =mid. vi.—mid. vii. 
—2500 end v.-mid. vii. 
—2200 ~ -vi.-mid. vii. 
-1700 mid. v.-vii. 

15-2400 end v.-vii. 
-2700 mid. v.-ix. 


DEc. 


1901. | 


RosacE£&—cont. 


. Potentilla Anserina, Linn. 


Comarum, Nestl. 


3, —— Sibbaldi, Hall. f. 
. Alechemilla arvensis, Lamk. 


88 vulgaris, Linn. 

89. —— alpina, Linn. 

30. —— conjuncta, Bab. 

91. Rosa involuta, Sm. 

92, —— villosa, Linn. 

93. Pyrus Aucuparia, Gertn. 


(Crategus Oxyacantha, Linn. 


SAXIFRAGACE£— 


. Saxifraga oppositifolia, Linn. 


nivalis, Linn. 
stellaris, Linn. 
umbrosa, Linn. 
aizoides, Linn. 
hypnoides, Linn. 


Bon 


. Chrysosplenium oppositi- 


folium, Linn. 
alternifolium, Linn. 


2. Parnassia palustris, Linn. 
. Ribes Grossularia, Linn. 
. — rubrum, Linn. 


Ribes nigrum, Linn. 


CRASSULACE.E— 


. Sedum Rhodiola, DC. 


(Sedum album, Linn. 


DROSERACE.E— 


. Drosera rotundifolia, Linn. 


HALORAGIDACEZ— 


. Myriophyllum alternifolium, 


DC 


. Callitriche verna, Linn. (with 


C. hamulata, Kutz.) 


ONAGRACE.Z— 


110. Epilobium angustifolium, 
Linn. 

111. —— montanum, Linn. 

112. —— tetragonum, Linn. 

113. palustre, Linn. 

114. —— alsinefolium, Vill. 

115. —— alpinum, Linn. 
UMBELLIFER2— 

116, Sanicula europea, Linn. 


(.Lgopodium Podagraria, 
Linn. 


. Pimpinella Saxifraga, Linn. 
. Conopodium cdenudatum, 


Koch. 


. Myrrhis odorata, Scop. 

. Anthriscus sylvestris, Hoffm. 
. Meum athamanticum, Jacq. 
. Angelica sylvestris, Linn. 


. Heracleum Sphondylium, 


Linn. 


Honey. 


hh 

hh 
exp 
none 
exp 
exp 
exp 
none 
none 


exp 
hh 


ch 


hh 
exp 
exp 
exp 
hh 


exp 
exp 


hh 
hh 
hh 
ch 


hh 
hh 


hh 


ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 


exp 


exp 
exp 


exp 
exp 
exp 
exp 
exp 


exp 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


CiLass. ALTITUDE. 


PrP rr br & Whol 


> 


113 


MontH or 
FLOWERING. 


-800 ~~ vii.—vili. 
-900 mid. vi.—vii. 
24-3200  vi.—mid. vil. 
-800 v.-ix. 
—2500 ~=v.-ix. 


mid. v.=1x. 
mid. vi.-vii. 


6-3300 
about 1800 


-1300 mid. vi.—vii. 
—900 (and 
20-2400) end vi.-early viii. 
-2300 vi. 
-S00 vi.) 


mid. iv.-mid. vi. 
(seen ix.) 
end vi.—mid. vii. 
end v.-early vii. 

Vi. 
mid. vi.-ix. 
end y.-early vil. 


10-2500 


19-2500 
7-3000 
—900 
7-2500 
14-2700 


v.-mid. vii. 
mid. v.-early Vi. 


—2500 
22-2300 
(and ? below) 


—2500 end vi.-1x. 
-900 | v. 
—900) = v- 
—900 vz. 


end v.-mid. vii. 


20-2700 


-900 _-vii.-early viii.) 
-1500 end vi.-mid. viii. 
-—900 viii. 
~900 -vili.-ix. 
—2500 end vi.-viil. 
~2300 end vi.—mid. viii. 
-1400 _-vii.—vili. 
-1500 mid. vii—early ix. 
9-2600 mid. vi.—vil. 


15-2800 mid. vi.-vil. 


about 1000 end vi.-vii. 
-800 end vi.-vii.) 
_-900 ~~ vii.-ix. 
-1400  vi.-early vii. 
-600 mid. v.-vi. 
-~900 end v.—mid, viii. 
7-900 end y.-vii. 
-900 (and 
20-2400) end viii.-ix. 
—2300 end vi.-mid. ix. 


114 


. Chrysanthemum 


ARALIACKE.E-— 
(Hedera Helix, Linn. 


CORNACEZ— 


. Cornus suecica, Linn. 


CAPRIFOLIACE.2— 
(Sambucus nigra, Linn. 


. Linnea borealis, Gronov. 
. Lonicera Periclymenum, 


Linn. 


RuBIACE.& — 


127. Galium boreale, Linn. 

128. verum, Linn. 

129. —— saxatile, Linn, (with G. 
Sylvestre, Poll) 

130. palustre, Linn. 

+131. Aparine, Linn. 

132. Asperula odorata, Linn. 
VALERIANACEZ— 

133. Valeriana officinalis, Linn. 
DipsacacE#®— 

134. Scabiosa Succisa, Linn. 
ComrosiTa— 

135, Solidago Virg-aurea, Linn. 

136. Bellis perennis, Linn. 

157. Erigeron alpinum, Linn. 

138, Antennaria dioica, R. Br. 

(Antennaria margaritacca, 

RaiBr 

139. Gnaphaliumsylvaticum, Linn. 

140. supinum, Linn. 

141. Achillea Millefolium, Linn. 


Ptarmica, Linn. 


mum, Linn. 


. Matricaria inodora, Linn. 
. Artemisia vulgaris, Linn. 
. Tussilago Fartara, Linn. 
. Senecio vulgaris, Linn. 


Leucanthe- 


148. sylvaticus, Linn. 
149. —— Jacobea, Linn. 
150 aquaticus, Huds. 
151. Cnicus lanceolatus, Hoffm. 
152. —— palustris, Hotfm. 
153. —— heterophyllus, Willd. 
154. —— arvensis, Hoffm. 
155. Saussurea alpina, DC. 
156. Centaurea nigra, Linn. 
(Centaurea Cyanus, Linn. 
157. Lapsana communis, Linn. 
158. Crepis paludosa, Mcench. 
159. Hieracium Pilosella, Linn. 
160. alpinum, Linn. (H. 
alpinum, segregate; 4H. 
holo-sericeum, Backh.; H. 
eximium, Backh.; H. calen- 
dulitiorum, Backh. ; H.graci- 
lentum, Backh.) 
nigrescens, Willd. (H. 


‘161. 


lingulatum, Backh.; H. sen- 
escens, Backh.; H. Marshall, 
Linton; H. chrysanthum, 
Backh.) 


Honey. 
exp 
exp 


none 


ch 
dh 


exp 
exp 


exp 

exp 

exp 
ch 


ch 


ch 


ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 


ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 


ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 


ch 


ch 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


Ciass. ALTITUDE. 


A -800 


A 18-2600 


-800 
Bb 18-2000 


EF 800 (and 


1700) 
A 7-2400 
A 900 
A 3200 
A - 900 
A ~900 
B -1000 
B 1900 
B! 2400 
BI 3000 
Bi - 2500 
Bt 20-2100 
B ~2700 
BI -800 
BI -1200 

Bt 23-3000 
Bi -1800 

B! 1500 

BI ~1500 
BI -800 
W -800 

BI -2100 
BI -800 
BI -800 
BI 1300 
B -800 
BI -2300 
BI 2500 
Bi 2500 
Bi -900 
Bi 20-2400 
Bi 900 
Bi -600 
BI -800 
BI 2300 
BI 2500 

Bt 20-2700 

Bi 8&-2700 


[ Sess. LXVI1. 


Monti oF 
FLOWERING. 


/ never). 
end v.-1nid. vii. 


Viii.) 
end vi.—mid. vii. 


mid, vi.—mid. vil. 


mid. vi.—vii. 
mid. vi.-ix. 


end v.-ix. 

vii —niid. viii. 
vi.-mid. viii. 
mid. vi.—mid. vii. 


mid. v.-early viii. 
mid. vii.-ix. 


mid. vi.--ix. 
iv.-ix. 

end vi.-vii. 

mid. v.-early vii. 


mid. vii —mid. ix.) 
end vii.—mid. ix. 
mid. vi.-early viii. 
end v.-ix. 
vil.-ix. 


end vi.-mid. ix. 
end vi.-ix. 


Vill. 

iv., mid. v. 
v.-1x. 
Vli.—ix. 
end vi.-ix. 


end vi.-mid. 1x. 
end vii.—ix. 
mid. vi.-ix. 
mid. vi.-ix. 
Viii.—ix. 

mid. vi., mid. viii. 
viii. -ix. 

mid. vii.—viil. ) 
vii.—viii. 

end vi.-mid. ix. 
mid. vi.-ix. 


mid. vi., early viii. 


mid, vi., early viii. 


Dec. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 115 


Honey. CLass. ALTITUDE. aaah tl 

Composit2—cont. 
162. Hieracium anglicum, Fries. (H. 

eallistiphyllum, F.J. Hanb.; 

H. anglicum, segregate ; H. 

cerinthiforme, Backh.; H. 

iricum, Fries.; H. clovense, 

Linton) ch B} 8-2500 mid. vi., early viii. 
163. —— murorum, Linn.(H. Leyi. 

F. J. Hanb.; H. Schmidtii, 

Tausch.; H. lasiophyllium, 

Koch.; H. argentium, Fries.; 

H. aggregatum, Backh.; H. 

Pictorum, Linton ; H. rivale, 

F. J. Hanb.; H. murorum, 

segregate) ch Bt 8-2700 mid. vi.-viii. 
164. —— sylvaticum, Sm. (H. 

euprepes, F. J. Hanb.; H. 

vulgatum, Fries.; H. angus- 

tatum, Lindeb.; H. dia- 

phanoides, Lindeb.) ch B! —2300 mid. vi,-ix. 


165. crocatum, Fries. (H. 
gothicum, Backh.; H. rig- 
idum, Hartm.; H. dovrense, 
Fries.; H. auratum, Fries.) — ch Bi -2300 mid, vi.—-viil. 
166. —— umbellatum, Linn. ch B12 to about 
800 Viii.-ix. 
167. Hypocheris radicata, Linn. ch B -1600 mid. vi.-ix. 
168. Leontodon autumnalis, Linn. ch Bt -—2900 end vi.-ix. 
169. Taraxacum officinale, Web. ch Be -2700 v.-mid. ix. 
170. Lactuca alpina, Benth. ch B! 2000 = mid. vii.—viii. 
CAMPANULACEX— 
171. Lobelia Dortmanna, Linn. dh H at 2100 viii. 
172. Campanularotundifolia, Linn. ch H -2800 mid. vi.-ix. 
V ACCINIACEE— 
175. Vaccinium Vitis-Idewa, Linn. ch H -3200 end y.-ix. 
174. uliginosum, Linn. ch H 17-3000 _-vi.- vil. 
175. —— Myrtillus, Linn. dh H -3200 mid. v.-vii. 
176. —— Oxycoccos, Linn. hh AB -3000 mid. vi.-early viii. 


ERICACEE— 
177. Arctostaphylos alpina, 


Spreng. ch H 2200 = =end y.-mid. vi. 
178. —— Uva-ursi, Spreng. ch H 7-2800 mid. v.-vi. 
179. Calluna vulgaris, Salisb. ch B -3000 end vi.-ix. 
180. Erica Tetralix, Linn. dh H -2000 mid. vi.-ix. 
181. cinerea, Linn. dh H —2500 mid. vi.-ix. 
182. Loiseleuria procumbens, Desv. hh AB 23-3300 end v.-early vii. 
183. Pyrola rotundifolia, Linn. none Po -2100 end vi.—vii. 
184, —- media, Sw. none o -1800 vii. 
185, —— minor, Sw. none Po 2100 ~~ end vi.-vii. 
186 secunda, Linn. ch H 20-2500 end vi.-vii. 
PLUMBAGINACEZ— 
187. Armeria maritima, Willd. ch B! 2900 © mid. vi -mid. vii. 
PRIMULACEZ— 4 
188. Primula vulgaris, Huds. dh H -1400 _v.-early vi. 
189. —— veris, Linn. dh H -800 mid. v.-early vi. 
190. Lysimachia punctata, Linn. none Po -900  vii.--mid. viii. 
191. —— nemorum, Linn. none Po -2200 end v.-mid. vii. 
192. Trientalis europea, Linn. none Po -3000 end v.-early vii. 
OLEACEZ— 


193. Fraxinus excelsior, Linn. ord WwW -900 end iv.-mid. v. 


116 


TEN TIANACE A — 


4. Gentiana campestris, Linn. 
. Menyanthes trifoliata, Linn. 


3ORAGINACKE.B— 


. Symphytum officmale, Linn. 
. Anchusa sempervirens, Linn. 
3. Myosotis cespitosa, Schultz. 


repens, D. Don. 
—— arvensis, Hoffm. 
versicolor, Reichb. 


SCROPHULARIACK.E— 


2. Scrophularia nodosa, Linn. 
. Mimulus Langsdorftii, Donn. 


204. Digitalis purpurea. Linn. 
205. Veronica agrestis, Linn. 
206. Buxbaumii, Ten. 

207. arvensis, Linn. 

208. —— serpyllifolia, Linn. 
209. —— alpina, Linn. 

210. —— saxatilis, Linn. 

211. —— officinalis, Linn. 

212. —— Chamiedrys, Linn. 
213. scutellata, Linn. 

214. Beccabunga, Linn. 
215. Euphrasia officinalis, Linn. 
216. Pedicularis palustris, Linn. 
217. sylvatica, Linn. 

218. Rhinanthus Crista-galli, Linn. 


. Melampyrum pratense, Linn. 


LENTIBULARIACE.&— 


. Utricularia minor, Linn. 
. Pinguicula vulgaris, Linn. 


LaBiaTa— 
(Mentha rotundifolia, Huds. 


. Mentha arvensis, Linn. 

3. Thymus Serpyllum, Fries. 
. Nepeta Glechoma, Benth. 
5. Prunella vulgaris, Linn. 

), Stachys palustris, Linn. 

. Galeopsis Tetrabit, Linn. 

. Lamium purpureum, Linn. 


—— maculatum, Linn. 


. Ajuga reptans, Linn. 


PLANTAGINACEE— 


. Plantago major, Linn. 


232, lanceolata, Linn. 

233. —— maritima, Linn. 
ILLECEBRACE.®— 

234. Scleranthus annuus, Linn. 


CHENOPODIACE.® — 


. Chenopodium Bonus- 


Henricus, Linn. 


POLYGONACKR— 


. Polygonum aviculare, Linn, 
. — Persicaria, Linn. 


viviparum, Linn. 


9. Oxyria digyna, Hill 
. Rumex conglomeratus, Murr. 


obtusifolius, Linn. 
crispus, Linn. 


3. —— aquaticus, Linn. 
. — Acetosa, Linn. 
. — Acetosella, Linn. 


Honey. 


dh 
ch 


dh 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 


ch 


ch 
dh 
dh 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
ch 
dh 
dh 
dh 


ch 


none 


none 
ch 
ch 


F 
B 


H 
B 
B 
B 
b 


B 


segee se janiasooloeHoclveloolecluoles ec uey™™ 25155) 


jeo}jse/jee == ]ae//sela5]ocfootoc Mm 2)e5 


232 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


Cuass. ALTITUDE. 


—2400 
—800 


—800 
500 
—G00 
—1500 
—800 
-800 


900 
~900 
—2100 
—800 
-800 
—900 
~2400 
20-2600 
24-2500 
—2200 
—2200 
-1400 
-1700 
—3000 
~1500 
—2000 
—2500 
-2600 


—800 
-2800 


900 
-800 
-2300 
-800 
—2300 
—900 
-800 
—800 
800 
-2200 


-900 
-1500 
-1100 


-800 


—800 


—S800 
-1300 
7-3000 
6-3000 
-700 
-800 
-800 | 
6-1000 
~2600 
-2700 


[ Sess. LXVI. 


Monty OF 
FLiwERING. 


vii.-ix. 
mid. vi.-vii. 


mid. vi.-mid. vii. 
vi. 

Vli.-1x. 

mud. vi.—vii. 
mid. vi.-ix. 
mid. vi.-ix. 


end vi.-vii. 
mid. vi.- vii. 
mid. vi.-ix. 


end v.-ix. 
end iv.—ix. 
v.-ix. 
V.-1X. 


end vi.—mid. vii. 
mid. vi —mid. vii. 
mid. vi —mid. ix 
end y., early viil. 
mid. vi.-mid viii. 
mid. vi.-ix. 
vil.—ix. 

end vi.—mid. ix. 
end v.-mid. ix. 
mid. vi.—vii. 
mid. vi.—vil. 


vii. 
mid. v.—vii. 


end viii.—ix.) 
end vil.—ix. 
mid, vi.-ix. 


We 
mid. vi —mid. ix. 
Vii.-viii. 

end vi.-ix. 
v.-ix. 

v.-mid., vi. 

end v.-Vi. 


mid. vi.-ix. 
mid. v.-mid., ix. 
vii.—-carly viii. 


vil.-1x. 


mid. vi.-mid. vii. 


end vi.-ix. 
Vili,-ix. 

mid. vi.-mid. ix, 
mid. vi.-vii. 
mid. vi.—1x. 
Viii.-ix. 

mid. vi.-ix. 
Vil.-Viil. 
vi.—mid, viii. 
end y.-mid. ix, 


DEc. 


254. Salix aurita, Linn. 

255 Caprea, Linn. (with S. 
cinerea, Linn.) 

256 repens, Linn. 

257 pylicifolia, Linu. (with 
S. nigricans, Sm.) 

258. Arbuscula, Linn. 

(Salix viminalis, Linn. 

259. —— lanata, Linn. 

260. —— Lapponum, Linn. 

261. —— Myrsinites, Linn. 

262. —— herbacea, Linn. 

263. —— reticulata, Linn. 

264. Populus tremula, Linn. 
EMPETRACEE— 

265. Empetrum nigrum, Linn. 
ORCHIDACE£— 

266. Malaxis paludosa, Sw. 

267. Listera cordata, R. Br. 

268. Orchis mascula, Linn. 

269. maculata, Linn. 

270. Habenaria conopsea, Benth. 

271 albida, R. Br. 

272. —— viridis, R. Br. 

273. —— chlorantha, Bab. 
LiLiacE.£— 

274. Narthecium Ossifragum, 
Huds. 

275. Tofieldia palustris, Huds. 
JuNCcACEXZ— 

276. Juncus buionius, Linn. 

277. trifidus, Linn. 

278. —— squarrosus, Linn. 

279. ——eifusus, Linn. (with J. 
conglomeratus, Linn.) 

280. —— articulatus, Linn. (with 
J. supinus and J. lampro- 
carpus, Ehrh.. Mcench.) 

281. castaneus, Linn. 

282. triglumis, Linn. 

283. Luzula vernalis, DC. 

284. —— maxima, DC. 

285. —— spicata, DC. 

286. —— campestris, Willd. (with 


1901. ] 


EUPHORBIACE.4£— 


. Mercurialis perennis, Linn. 


UrRtTIcAcEE— 


. Ulmus montana, Sm. 
. ! Urtiea dioica, Linn. 
. Urtica urens, Linn. 


CUPULIFERE— 


. Betula alba, Linn. 

. — nana, Linn. 

2. Alnus glutinosa, Gertn. 
3. Corylus Avellana, Linn. 


(Quercus Robur, Linn. 


(Fagus sylvatica, Linn. 


SALICACEE— 


L. erecta, Desv.) 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


Honey. Crass, ALTITUDE. 


117 


MoNTH OF 
FLOWERING. 


V.-Vi. 


iv.—early v. 
mid. vi.-ix. 
mid. vi.-ix. 


mid. v.—mid. vi. 
Vi.-mid. vii. 
iv.-early v. 


Iv. 
v. 
mid.—end vy.) 


end iy.-v. 


end iv.-vi. 
v.-mid. vi. 


V.-Vi. 

mid. v.—vi. 

end iv.-early v.) 
end v., early vi. 
mid. v.—mid. vi. 
Vi. 


mid. v.-vi. 
end. vi., early vii. 
Iv. 


iv.—vi. 


Vii. 

mid. vi.-mid. vii. 
mid. vi.—vii. 
Vi.—mid. vii. 

end vi.—early Viii. 
mid. vi—mid. vii. 
end vi.-vii. 

Vii. 


mid. vi.-ix. 
end vi.—vii. 


mid. vii.-viil. 
nid. vi.. early viii. 
mid. vi.—ix. 


mid. vi.—vili. 


mid. vi.-ix. 
vi.-early vii. 


(and at1500) mid. vi.-mid. vii. 


Ww -2000 
W -1400 
WwW ~2000 
Ww —700 
W. —2100 
Ww 24-27 

W —1300 

W  -1000 and) 
20-2100) 
W —900 
Ww —1000 
hh AB —1600 
hh AB -1700 
hh AB —2400 
bh AB ~—2500 
hh AB 3—2200 
hh AB —800 
hh AB 2400 
hh AB 13-2500 
hh AB 20-2500 
hh AB 23-3300 

(and at 2100) 
hh AB 2000 
bee W —2200 
W -3100 
bh AB —1500 
exp AB —2100 
ch H —2000 
ch H —2600 
dh F —1100 
ch F —2200 
ch B 20-2600 
dh F —900 
none Po —2600 
hh AB 8-2500 
W -800 
WwW 24-3300 
Ww —2600 
Ww -1900 
Ww -2400 
Ww 24-2600 
WwW 18-2600 
Ww -2300 
WwW -2300 
Ww 20-3300 
Ww -2600 


y.-Vi. 
v.-mid. vi. 
mid. vi.-vii. 


y.-mid. vi. 


118 


287. 


288. 
289. 


295. Carex dioica, Linn. 

296. pulicaris, Linn. 

297. ——rupestris, All. 

298. paucifora, Lightf. 

299. —— echinata, Murr. 

300. —— canescens, Linn. 

301. —— leporina, Linn. 

302. —— alpina, Swartz 

303. —— atrata, Linn. 

304. —— rigida, Good. 

305. —— aquatilis, Vahl. 

306. —- Goodenovil, Gay 

307. —— glauca, Murr. 

308. —— rariflora, Sin. 

309. —— pilulifera, Linn. 

310. —— precox, Jacq. 

311. —— pallescens, Linn. 

312. panicea, Linn. 

313. vaginata, Tausch. 

314. —— ecapillaris, Linn. 

315. binervis, Sm. 

316 distans, Linn. (with C. 
fulva, Good.) 

317. flava, Linn. (with C. 
(Ederi, Ehrh.) 

318. ampullacea, Good. (C. 
rostrata, Stokes) 

319. vesicaria, Linn. (with C. 
saxatilis, Linn.) 
GRAMINEA— 

320. Phalaris arundinacea, Linn. 

321. Anthoxanthum odoratum, 
Linn. 

322. Alopecurus geniculatus, Linn. 

323. —— pratensis, Linn. 

324, —— alpinus, Sm. 

325. Phleum alpinum, Linn. 

526, pratense, Linn. 

327. Agrostis canina, Linn. 

328, alba, Linn. 

329. vulgaris, With. 

330. Calamagrostis Epigeios, Roth. 

331. Aira caryophyllea, Linn. 

332. precox, Linn. 

333. Deschampsiacespitosa, Beauv. 

304, flexuosa, Trin. 

335. Holecus mollis, Linn. 

336. ——- lanatus, Linn. 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXVI. 


TyPHAcca— 
Sparganium natans, Linn. 


Natapacka— 
Triglochin palustre, Linn. 
Potamogeton rufescens, 

Schrad. 


CYPERACKA — 


. Scirpus pauciflorus, Lightf. 


cespitosus, Linn. 
setaceus, Linn. 


. Eriophorum vaginatum, Linn. 
polystachion, Linn. (E. 


angustifolium, Roth.) 


Honey. 


W 


W 


W 


4324s 3 S4eeeeeseessqesssseeese 4255 


Hes S2eeeeee 42444 = 


CuLAss. ALTITUDE. 


6-1000 


-2600 


-900 


-1200 
-3100 
—1400 
-2800 


—3100 
—2500 
-2100 
20-2500 
2800 
2500 
-3300 
-1100 
24-2500 
20-2500 
20-3300 
-3100 
—2500 
-1700 
23-3000 
—2400 
-2000 
—2000 
-2200 
22-3100 
19-2100 
—3000 


—1600 
-2500 
—2600 
~2300 


-600 


-2800 
-900 
-900 

23-3000 
21-2900 
(and at 1500) 

-800 

-2700 

-1900 

-3000 

20-2100 
—900 
-900 

2500 


—3300 
—800 
—1100 


MonTu OF 
FLOWERING, 


end vi.—mid. viii. 


mid. vi.—mid. viii. 
mid. vi.-mid. ix. 
vii.—viii. 


vi.-early viii. 
end vi.-vii. 


mid. iv.-y. 

mid, v.-early vii. 
mid. v.-early vii. 
mid. v.—-vi. 

Vii. 

mid, vi.—mid, vii. 
mid. vi.—vii. 


mid. vi.-vil. 
mid. vi.—mid. vii. 
end vi.—mid. vii. 
end vi.-mid. vii. 
end yv.—mid. vii. 
end vi., early vill. 
end v.-early viii. 
end v.-early vii. 
mid. vi-early vii. 
end v.-vi. 
v.-early vi. 

end vi.-vii. 

mid. vi.-vii. 
mid. vi.-vil. 
mid. vi.—mid. vii. 
vi.—mid. vii. 


end vi.—-vil. 
mid. vi.—vii. 
mid. vi.—vii. 


end vi.-vii. 


Vil.—mid. vill, 


mid. v.-vi. 

mid. vi.-viii. 
vi.-early vil. 
mid. vi.—vii. 


end vi.-vii. 

end vi.-ix. 

mid. vi.-viii. 

mid, vi.-ix. 

mid. vi.-ix. 

Vii. 

mid. vi.—mid. vii. 

end y.-vi. 

mid. vi.-early 
viii. (also ix.) 

mid. vi.—viil. 

end vi.-early viii 

mid vi.-early ix - 
(1 plant later.. 


Dec. 1901. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 119 


d : MONTH OF 
Honey. Crass. ALTITUDE. alterna 
; GRAMINEX=—cont. 
337. Avena pratensis, Linn. st Ww -2100 = mid. vi.—vii. 
338 sativa, Linn. (with A. 
strigosa, Schreb.) sae Ww -800 vii. 
339, Arrhenatherum avenaceum, 
Beauv. = Ww -800  vii.-early viii. 
340. Triodia decumbens, Beauv. soe Ww -1100 end vi.-vii. 
341. Cynosurus cristatus, Linn. oe WwW -900 mid. vi.—mid. viii. 
342. Keeleria cristata, Fers. of WwW -1000 mid. vi.-early viii. 
343. Molinia coerulea, Mcench. See Ww —2600 mid. vii.—mid. viii. 
344. Melica nutans, Linn. ee WwW 19-2100 = mid. vi.—mid. vii. 
345. Dactylis glomerata, Linn. =x Ww -2100 mid.vi., early viii. 
346. Briza media, Linn. ae Ww 900 = mid. vi.-vii. 
347. Poa annua, Linn. a WwW -2100 —iiv.-ix. 
348. —— alpina, Linn. (with P. 
laxa, anct, angl.) ad W 20-3300 end vi.-vii. 
349. —— nemoralis, Linn. ee W 2400 end vi.-early viii. 
350 pratensis, Linn. ee Ww -2100 mid.vi--earlyviii. 
351 trivialis, Linn. a Ww -2500 mid.vi—early viii. 
302. Glyceria fluitans, R. Br. = =f -900  vii.—mid. ix. 
353. Festuca ovina, Linn. (with F. 
duriuscula, Linn.) Pu Ww -3300 mid. vi.-early viii. 
304. —— rnbra, Linn. 3° W —2800 mid. vi.-vii. 
355 pratensis, Huds. = Ww -800 mid. vi.—mid. viii. 
356. Bromus mollis, Linn. :< W -800 end vi.-vii. 
397. Lolium perenne, Linn. = Ww -900 mid. vi—mid. ix. 
308. Agropyrum repens, Beauv. = Ww ~900 end vi.-viii. 
359. Nardus stricta, Linn. $: W -3000 end v.-vii. 
CONIFER E— 
360. Pinus sylvestris, Linn. v. Ww -1800 end v.-vi. 
361. Abies excelsa, Poir. pat Ww =1700) |, vi. 
362. Larix europa, DC. ae Ww -2200 vi. 
363. Juniperus communis, Linn. 
(with J. nanus, Willd.) 4: WwW -2200 mid. v.-vi. 


The above list contains among the self-maintaining 
species, 113 wind-fertilised flowers (W), 17 pollen 
flowers (Po), 25 of class A, 61 of class AB, 43 and 37 
of classes B and B', 60 bee flowers (H), and 7 butterfly 
or moth flowers (F). 

The Clova alpines are most numerous in the slightly 
specialised flowers, ¢.g. classes A and AB. 


Lowland. Alpine. 
No. Per cent. No. Per cent. Total. 

Te 91 80°53 22 19°47 113 
om = 15 88-24 2 11-76 17 
Shae 16 64-00 9 36-00 25 

” AB 43 70-49 18 29°51 61 

bie 33 76-75 10 23-25 43 
sins 28 75°68 9 2432 37 
ee 50 83-33 10 16°67 60 
Le 6 85-71 1 14-29 7 


————— ——— 


282 81 363 


120 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. uxvt. 


DISTRIBUTION IN ALTITUDE. 

We pass to the distribution of the flower-classes in 
altitude, and here, in preface, it is to be remarked that 
(i.) although alpines are common in the belt of 500 feet 
between 2000 and 2500 feet, and many do not descend 
below it; (ii.) although various lowland plants pass above 
1000 feet without overpassing the belt between 1000 and 
1500 feet ; and (i11.) although the belt between 1500 and 
2000 feet holds fewer species than the belt above or the 
belt below it,—the three belts of 500 feet between 1000 
and 2500 feet are practically identical in the composition 
of their floras by flower-classes. This is so much the case 
that for simplicity we have grouped in the following 
statements the three belts into one of 1500 feet :— 

Anemophilous flowers are proportionally most numerous 
above 2500 feet— 


Anemophilous. Entomophilous. 
No. Per cent. No. Per cent. Be 
Above 2500 9) 40°23 o2 59°77 87 
1000-2500 85 Sas 180 68°82 265 
Below 1000 94 31°55 204 68:45 298 


The two tables which follow give the numbers and 
percentages of Entomophilous flowers of various classes. 


TaBLe I.—Number of Entomophilous Flowers of Various Classes. 
POMP AN RA oa bse 6) dE aan F Total. 


Above 2500 2 On 5 8 Onell i 52 
1000-2500 ln Ar 20 a 28) ee 6 180 


Below 1000 16S) 21 44"° 35" Si” bl 6 204 


TaBLE II.—Percentage of Entomophilous Flowers of Various Classes. 
Po A AB B B! H F 
Above 2500 2°85 11°54 28:85 15°38 17°31 21°15 1°92 
1000=2500) s6:678 98732 32611 VON 15:56" 23:89 aise 
Below 1000 7:84 10°29 21°57 17716 15°20 25°00 2:94 
The following Classes increase upwards—AB, B!. 
4: 3 downwards—Po, B, H. 
In all our visits* to Clova, except the first two, we made 
a point of counting the individuals of the various species 
of insect which we saw visiting the Howers. We do not 


* Visits TO CLOVA. 
1894, July 5-9 (J. C. W. and I. H. B.). Weather unsettled. 
1895, April 1-17 (J. C. W.). Snow at first covering all down to 
1000 feet, gradually retreating up the hills; nights 
frosty. The preceding four months had been excep- 


Dec. 1901.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH t2t 


intend to give these observations here, reserving them for 
a later paper, but it is worth remark that out of the 
17,506 recorded visitors 11,554 were short-tongued flies, 
and that the order of their flower selection was to— 


Class B+ : ; : : 4972 
aC AGB > ©: : : ; 3018 
eo Reale el ee 
iar cia ete 5 640 
x EO : ; } 344 

Classes F and H (combined) . 299 


the remaining 7 went to class W. 

Among the 565 self-maintaining species of the flora, 
45 are annuals, 276 are herbs of more than one year’s 
growth, 54 are shrubby, and 8 are trees. Many of the 
annuals are maintained by man indirectly, and out of 
them we consider 28 to be intrusions on the results of 
husbandry. It is very marked how the annuals decrease 
in number as we ascend the hills. 


No. Percentage. 
Above 5000* 3 zs 0 0 
2500-3000 : : P 3 3°41 
2000-2500 - : eee 2), 4°95 
1500-2000 : 2 ; 10 oD2 
1000-1500 : 2 . ali 5°56 
500-1000 45 15°10 


we deduct from the flora of the lowest zone the 395 


* Given shelter, annuals may run higher; Buchanan White found 
Euphrasia almost at the top of the crags of Lochnagar (‘‘ Scottish 
Naturalist,” viii. p. 340), but within our region there is no shelter 
above 3000 feet. 


tionally cold, with very heavy falls of snow which blocked 
the roads in the glen for fourteen weeks. 

June 14—July 8 (i. H. B.). Fine to unsettled. 

July 5-23 (J. C. W.). Wet weather. 

September 13-24 (I. H. B.). Fine weather. 

1896, May 21-23 (J. C. W.). Unsettled ; season early. 

June 16-July 11 (I. H. B.); July 4-11 (J. C. W.). Fine 

to unsettled. 

1897, May 18-27 (I. H. B.). Very fine; season late. 

1898, May 7-16 (1. H.B.). Cold, with frequent snow showers ; 
season late. 

1899, June 10-19 (I. H. B.). Fine and warm. 

July 24-26 (J.C. W.). Dull. 

We can only regret that it has not been possible for us to 
pay a visit to Clova in August; with the exception of 
this month, and the close of the season in October, we 
have worked at the biology of Glen Clova in all phases 
of its vegetative activity. 

TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXII. I 


122 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. LXVI. 


plants which may well have been introduced, and from 
the 46 annuals of this zone the 28 introduced annuals, 
we find the percentage of those left to be 6°61. 


DISTRIBUTION IN SEASON. 


We must turn to the seasonal variation and sum it up. 
In this connection we have used the dates of collection 
attached to specimens in the Kew and Cambridge 
Herbaria, in order to amplify our own data; in both 
herbaria Clova plants are abundant. 


April May SURE Suly August September 
—_————. — —avwX¥—X-$—— ea era er ra |mrur, 
‘ F.&H. 
x 
: 
8 
S 
N 
3 


B’ 
is 
Vos 
i NY 
LENS 
SS B: 
_ =a Needed 
XN B. 
‘ 
S. % F&R. 
‘ ‘ 
Sa -=5. < AB 
/ Sy eee 
/ Po. 


Table III. gives the actual figures recorded, and the 
curves opposite indicate graphically the early maxima of 
classes A and AB, the late maxima of B* and B, and 
the burst of flowering in the higher classes with which 
summer begins at the coming in of June. Those who 
know these hills will recognise that their own experience 
bears this out. In May, a flower here and there appears 


Dec. 1901.]_ BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 123 


on the hill sides or moors, such as Seaxifraga stellaris 
or Caltha palustris, but in June is the beginning of the 
real flowering time. 


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Europe is almost annually visited on or about the 
16th, 17th, and 18th of May by a short cold period. The 
Continent feels its effect more than Britain, but Britain 
is far from being beyond the spell of these “ ice-saints.” 
To its effect on the flowering of plants one writer has 
already called attention. It may possibly have something 
to do with these curves here produced, but we can offer 
no more than the bare suggestion. 


124 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. ixv1. 


The same breaking of summer is shown in the figures 
relating to anemophilous flowers which follow— 


TABLE I[V.—Seasonal Distribution of Anemophilous Plants. 


IV. Ne VI V0, | vee IX. 
| 
bd — — — a 
| Pei ae 
| Pepi | | Pals | | Pet | | Pigs | | Peles | eis | 
| A\Gla\siS lala Gls\sla ssc sleigle 
Se alana aHigia Alsia Als pa | 
| comet = ‘| | a 
: re Wr = | 
| Deciduous trees and shrubs’. | 5) 5] 6) 4) 3) 2) 4) 4) 3) 1) W)...)...).c-tcec|...).0n|e0e 
| | 
Evergreen trees and shrubs . |.../...|....... 1 2) 3) 3] 3 
| | Rel | | 
E | ry Vaalaclion leet aly Qian l46 
Herbs, terrestrial . : . | 1) 2) 2 7142024 64/80/81 77 67/46/32 26/18 17/12) 
| LaSalaaah 4) ealres ae Fe 
5 | | 
Sa RaCIUIAItIC. wit. : 31 | 605! Bool eel Beal oes ore soa ell eral ester met aes 33) si) 1b) 1) 
| | 
ce ee eae aes 
| 6 7| 81118 2431 75,88 85 81 70 50.36 20/19 18 #3 


We have divided Table IV. so as to show in what way 
the deciduous trees are the first of anemophilous plants to 
flower, aquatic herbs the last. Clarke and Robertson,* as 
well as others, have pointed out how much more readily 
the pollen may be borne from stamen to stigma on a leaf- 
less tree than when leaves are present to obstruct; and 
they point out how the deciduous trees flower in the van 
of others in North America as with us. The laws which 
rule the flowering of anemophilous plants are likely to be 
found of general application in temperate regions. 


SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 


The Phanerogamic Flora of the Clova region contains 
363 plants which maintain themselves under the present 
conditions. More than a quarter of the whole do not 
ascend the hills at all; about one-fifth pass to above 2500 
feet. Species which are wind-fertilised, or have simple 
flowers of the classes A and AB, grow proportionally more 
numerous towards the hilltops. Blossoming, which begins 
about the commencement of April, does not increase 
regularly toward the height of summer, but species show 
a tendency to delay until May is out; between early and 


* “ American Naturalist,” xxvii. p. 769, and xxix. p. 97. 


Dec. 1901.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 125 


mid June there is a rush of plants into flowering. In 
autumn, the flowering tails out until, in October, frosts and 
tne first fall of snow close the season; the flowering 
periods that the frosts cut short are not of alpine but of 
lowland plants, and in a large measure of such weeds 
of fields and roadsides as owe their presence to man. 
Milton of Clova more than fifty years ago was a village 
of handloom weavers, who have now disappeared. H. C. 
Watson visited Clova in 1844 when, according to his 
manuscripts and herbarium now at Kew, he found more 
of the class of plants which are dependent on man than 
we have seen. 

The strath of the Deeside, at Braemar, carries plants to 
higher levels than at Clova, so too the strath of Glen 
Muick; with this fact we are not further concerned than 
to remark that only in the straths of these glens is to be 
found the soil which encourages these plants to grow. 
The experience of the cultivator of Clova tells him that 
immediately he leaves the dried-up lake-beds of the valley, 
he finds only peat and stones. 

Next, a word on the warmth of some of the glens. It 
is well known how valleys, running east and west, unless 
open to the winds, gather in summer a considerable amount 
of heat; such is especially the case with Glen Fiadh, 
where, on cliffs facing south, many of the plants we have 
observed reach their greatest elevation. 

And lastly, it is not hard to see that where protection 
from the wind ceases, and the hillsides pass over into the 
moors, the flora changes in biological character more than 
at any other point. Here annuals disappear, classes Po 
and F almost disappear, and anemophilous flowers suddenly 
advance to forty per cent. of the zonal flora (they are 
31:55 below 1000 feet, 31°98 between 1000 and 1500 
feet, 32°78 between 1500 and 2000, and 31:19 between 
2000 and 2500 feet). These changes are accompanied 
by a change in appearance of the vegetation evident to the 
eye,and make the 2500 feet contour line one of importance 
to us in considering the fertilisation of Clova towers, 


126 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. LxvI. 


THE TRACK OF HEREDITY IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 
By J. BEARD, D.Sc. 


(Read 9th January 1902.) 


Owing mainly to the writings of Brooks, de Vries, 
Hertwig, Naegeli, H. Spencer, and, above all others, 
Galton and Weismann, the problems of heredity have 
occupied a prominent position in the scientific discussions 
of recent years. 

The progress of research into the life-history of the cell, 
the structure and functions of the nucleus, the phenomena 
of cell-division, more especially those of the “ripening” of 
the “sexual products,” have naturally played important 
parts in these. Indeed, so much has this been the case, 
that H. F. Osborn might well say “the. study of heredity 
will ultimately centre around the structure and functions of 
the germ-cells.” 

It is not my imtention to attempt the task of writing 
a history of these discussions and theories: what is pro- 
posed is merely to indicate the broad and obvious bearings 
of certain of my results, relating to the history of the 
germ-cells, on the general problem of heredity. 

In order to obtain a clear insight into the process or 
processes by which, in a wide sense, germinal continuity, 
resulting in the phenomena of heredity, is brought to pass, 
it is a requisite postulate, that an uninterrupted and con- 
tinuous panorama of the whole course of development from 
one generation to the next should be secured. Heredity 
must be dependent on some sort of germinal continuity ; 
whether of a special germ-plasm in Weismann’s sense, or 
a consequence of an uninterrupted sequence of germ-cells, 
or a result of an intracellular pangenesis, or something 
else. 

In this way it comes to be a problem of embryology and 
development, and as such it falls within the province of 
the embryologist. This being so, is it not remarkable that 
the chain of germinal continuity should hitherto not have 
been completely grasped in any single case? From my 
researches on the germ-cells,’ it is clear that hitherto no 


‘J. Beard, “The Morphological Continuity of the Germ-Cells in 
Raja batis.” Anat. Anz. V. 18, pp. 465-485, 1900. 


Jan. 1902.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 127 


complete survey of the development from one generation 
to the next has really been made. One phenomenon in 
the Metazoan life-cycle has entirely eluded the observation 
of embryologists; or, if they have noted or recorded it, 
they have failed to realise its full significance. This is 
the formation of the primary germ-cells, with the epoch at 
which these appear upon the scene. 

Their very early origin—before any trace of an embryo 
‘had been laid down—was long ago recorded in certain 
cases, among others, by Weismann, Buetschli, Grobben, 
Ritter, Metschnikoff, and O. Hertwig. But these very 
instances only serve to strengthen my contention; for in 
them the few primary germ-cells—from two to eight in 
number—were apparently so insignificant that their forma- 
tion at a particular time seemed to be an incident of no 
moment; and its discovery, hke many other important 
finds, was passed over, because no estimate could be set 
upon its value. 

Long ago Nussbaum concluded that the germ-cells must 
differentiate themselves at a very early period, before there 
was any trace of histological differentiation in the embryonic 
foundation. But Weismann,’ carrying with him practically 
all other zoologists,” has decidedly rejected this view; 
“because, as a matter of fact, the sexual cells of all plants | 
and those of most animals do not separate themselves from 
the beginning from the somatic cells.” 

And this is just the question at issue! To allow the 
statement to pass unchallenged might be taken as a tacit 
admission of its accuracy, although every page of the 
present writing asserts its incorrectness. The passage was 
written more than fifteen years ago; much has happened 
in the meantime, and it may no longer represent Weis- 
mann’s views. But the objection is recorded in the 
literature of embryology, and it requires refutation. 

The argument contains two fallacies, and these rob it of 


1A, Weismann, “Die Continuitaet des Keimplasma’s,” Jena, 1885, 
p.,44: 

2Thus, for example, Oscar Hertwig (“Zeit-und Streitfragen der 
Biologie, Heft I.,” p. 76, 1894). Here it is written, “‘ Zweitens gehoeren 
die Geschlechtszellen ebenso gut zum Koerper eines Organismus, von 
welchem sie sogar oft den betraechtlichsten Theil, wie z. B, vielen 
Parasiten, ausmachen, wie jedes andere Gewebe, etc.” 


128 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxvi. 


all foree. Taking these in the order of their occurrence, 
the first is that the sexual cells of all plants do not 
separate themselves from the beginning from the somatic 
cells. Probably all the higher plants, the metaphyta, are 
here referred to, for in many of the lower plants all the 
cells might be regarded as potentially reproductive, or 
“sexual.” In the higher plants the “sexual cells” do 
appear at a very early period in the sexual generation. 
The higher one ascends, the earlier is this epoch; for in 
the flowering plants, for instance, the life-span of the 
sexual generation, the gametophyte, is exceedingly short, 
and it is concerned solely with the differentiation of, and 
the provision for, the sexual cells. These latter certainly 
do not appear as such in the asexual generation or 
sporophyte, nor is it to be expected that they should. 
Were they to do so, the sporophyte would lose this 
character, and become a gametophyte. Moreover, even 
in the asexual generation, the sporophyte, the morphological 
continuity is unbroken, for in this the future germ-cells 
are represented by their direct ancestors, the one or more 
cells forming the apex." 


1Compare Noll’s eloquent testimony in the following :—“ The Con- 
tinuity of the Embryonic Substance.—The vital capacity of the cells of 
the functioning permanent tissue is always limited in time—mostly, 
indeed, very closely so. Without limit, on the contrary, and never 
finding a natural close, the vital power of the embryonic substance 
is preserved. This it is which forms the growing points of the 
perennial plants, and from this, as Sachs first demonstrated, the 
growing points of the sexual progeny are directly derived through 
the substance of the germ-cells. This embryonic substance does not 
age; it produces new passing individuals, but it is permanently 
preserved in their progeny: it is always productive, always growing 
young and increasing. Thousands upon thousands of generations, 
which have arisen in the course of millions of years, were its products, 
but it lives on in the youngest generations with the power of giving 
origin to coming millions. The individual organism is transient, but 
its embryonic substance, which produces the mortal tissues, preserves 
itself imperishable, everlasting, and constant. Regarded from this 
standpoint, the differences in the duration of life between short and 
long-lived plants, between annual herbs and the thousands of years 
old giants of the plant-race, appear in another light. Out of the 
embryonic substance of that lime tree of Neustadt every year new 
leaves and buds form, but these remain in connection with the dying 
remains of structures of earlier years. In the annual plant, on the 
contrary, the embryonic substance separates itself every year in the 
embryo from the mortal remains, and forming new branches, leaves, 
and roots, becomes a completely new individual. 

“At the basis of the old and well-known dictum of Harvey, ‘omne 


Jax. 1902. } BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 129 


What Nussbaum rightly insisted upon was the early 
appearance of the germ-cells in the sexual generation of 
animals, zc. in the embryo before this had undergone 
histological differentiation. In urging this Nussbaum 
really took up a very moderate attitude. To refute his 
argument from the botanical side, it is necessary to 
compare the conditions in the corresponding generations 
in the two kingdoms—that is, to place the embryo and the 
prothallus together, not the embryo and the sporophyte. 
It should also be pointed out that even now the early 
history of the germ-cells of “most animals” has as yet 
been very inadequately investigated. Where it has been 
traced back to the farthest possible point, there a very 
early origin has been invariably made out. This is now 
so in WMoina, Cyclops, Ascaris, Strongylus, Cecidomyia, 
Chironomus, Sagitta, Phalangium, Lernea, Micrometrus, 
Scorpions (Brauer), several insects (Heymons), some 
sponges (Maas), and Cephalopoda (V. Faussek), and, 
lastly, in Pristiwrus (Rabl), Scyllium, and Raja. 

Hitherto the apparent phenomena in the Vertebrata 
stood in the way. Here even a segmental origin of the 
“sexual cells” had been recorded in relatively late stages. 
This is, however, only one of the ever-recurring instances of 
the earliest observed appearance of a thing being taken to 
represent its first origin. This is only permissible in 
embryological research, when an earlier origin is absolutely 
out of question. 

From a fair acquaintance with the embryological litera- 
ture treating of the germ-cells and their origin, the writer 
must maintain that there is really no reliable evidence 
pointing to the very late appearance of the germ-cells 
in any single case. On the other hand, there is a steadily 
accumulating body of very strong testimony in favour of 
their very early separation off in many different divisions 
of the animal kingdom. Even the case of the Hyprorp 
POLYPES cannot be cited in disproof, for Weismann’s own 


vivum ex ovo,’ there thus already lay the continuity of the embryonic 
substance. This is, at the same time, in eternal youth and organic 
immortality the substance of the unicellular organisms, which, repro- 
ducing by fission, are used up in one another without residue.”—F. 
Nout, in Strassburger’s “Lehrbuch der Botanik,” 2te Aufl, 1895, 
pp. 208, 209. 


150 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxvi. 


ereat researches reveal not so much the origin of the germ- 
cells in these as their remarkable migrations. 

In saying the foregoing in face of the known facts 
concerning Moina, the dipterous insects, etc., Weismann 
defined not only his own standpoint towards the question, 
but also that of most other zoologists. The exception 
meets with no favour, until it ceases to be such, and adapts 
itself to the rule. But “die Natur geht ihren Gang, und 
was uns als Ausnahme erscheint ist in der Regel.” And 
this is so, simply because what we regard as the rule is 
often false, the real law being that with which the 
apparent exception conforms. 

While only from two to eight primary germ-cells were 
found very early in the development of this or the other 
form; while, as in the higher animals, one could study the 
early development without seeing any germ-cells—their 
“seomental origin” even being witnessed at later periods 
—the good old rule, in plain language, the superstition, 
that the offspring was formed by the union of a small 
portion of each of its parents, seemed to be the only 
logical conclusion. Thus it happened that so great an 
investigator and thinker as Darwin could set up his 
provisional hypothesis of pangenesis. 

When in one of the higher animals, the skate, the 
formation of a whole battalion of germ-cells is found to 
take place prior to the appearance of any trace of the 
embryo, a change comes over the scene: the apparent law 
and its exceptions exchange positions, with the consequent 
disappearance of the former. 

In the life-cycle of the skate (including in this all that 
happens from the union of egg and sperm, until new eggs 
and sperms are formed) the origin of the germ-cells fills in 
so large a space as to overshadow completely everything 
else. For this reason the formation of an embryo may be 
described as a mere incident in the life-cycle. 

Two primary germ-cells and five hundred and twelve 
are very different numbers. If the full significance of this 
should not be apparent, a glance at the diagrammatic 
representation of the life-cycle of the skate may serve to 
make it so. The diagram is, however, incorrect! In the 
portion showing the origin of the primary germ-cells, these 


9 


Jan. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 131 


have only been drawn to six divisions, giving sixty-four. 
To exactly embrace the full significance of the discovery, 
the drawing ought to include three further divisions, yield- 
ing five hundred and twelve germ-cells at P.G.C. 

That is to say, to accurately represent the conditions in 
embryo no. 404, for example, the diagram ought to be at 
P.G.C. eight times as wide as it is at present ! 

When I see in this diagram some of the results of 
twelve years of work, the reader will perhaps pardon me, 
if I linger to say something more concerning it and its 
origin. Some parts of it will be familiar to every embryo- 
logist, thanks to the work of Boveri, O. Hertwig, and 
others ; the other and unfamiliar portions are my own. 

Following out the full history of the diagram, I am 
carried back more than twelve years. As long ago as 
1888 my researches on larval structures in fishes 
commenced. Their results in course of time carried 
the investigator in the direction of the recognition of an 
antithetic alternation of generations. Since that stand- 
point was attained, no facts adverse to it have been 
encountered. The doctrine has never been seriously 
attacked: it has been simply ignored. It has not 
as yet won many adherents: the truth never does 
at first. For myself, I have been content to follow 
out the inquiry, and from time to time, as_ oppor- 
tunity offered, to glean a few more facts supporting 
this theory of development. During part of this period a 
watch has been kept for something equivalent to the 
formation of spore-mother-cells in the higher plants or 
Metaphyta, but in vain. Hitherto, as at length clearly 
recognised, the search had not been made in the right 
place. 

The investigator is often the creature of circumstances. 
These in the present case brought about an investigation of 
the early history of the germ-cells without associating with 
this inquiry any ideas concerning spore-mother-cell-forma- 
tion or alternation of generations. 

Only when the work was practically ready for publica- 
tion, and when a proper survey of the results had been 
obtained, by drawing them up in diagrammatic form, as 
shown in the table, the full force of the discovery became 


132 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. ixvs. 


apparent. The formation of the primary germ-cells in the 
skate—and in all probability in every other Metazoon— 
corresponds broadly to the genesis of spore-mother-cells on 
the asexual generation of a plant—the sporophyte. 


oo 
tn 
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N 
Uv 
= 
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3 wz 
G (2) 
N 
Dp oS 
7? [e} 
Zz 
oO 
A 
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A 
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= 
S 
Ny N 
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(J ¥, 
5 ae 
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OOGENESIS. 


SPERMATOGENESIS E.G. 
PALUDINA. 


Fic. 1.—DIAGRAM OF THE LIFE-CYCLE OF THE SKATE (Raja batis). 


With this recognition it becomes possible to compare 
together, so as to show their essential similarity, the 


Jan. 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 133 


phenomena of the life-cycles of the Metazoa and 
Metaphyta. 

In the same way the discovery of the formation of the 
primary germ-cells, and of the epoch of their coming into 
being, throw new and unexpected light on the course and 
nature of heredity. 

These are the chief results of my work on the germ- 
cells; and, though other and doubtless important finds 
have been made, the latter sink into insignificance when 
placed beside the former. 

Certain parts of the diagram have been adopted, as 
already stated, from the writings of other embryolo- 
gists. This, however, has not been done without 
important modifications, for which the writer is alone 
responsible, 

Originally, towards the close of last year (1900), 
Boveri's diagrams of odgenesis and spermatogenesis formed 
and filled in portions of the life-cycle. Doubts, however, 
arose as to their completeness, and the working out of 
the probable course of odgenesis in the skate finally 
resulted in the modifications here depicted. The first 
part of the figure, from the zygote Z, formed by the 
union of egg and sperm, to the primitive germ-cell 
U.K.Z. (the “Urkeimzelle” of German authors), is 
from Boveri's and Weismann’s figures. In their diagrams, 
however, from Z to U.K.Z. marks what Weismann terms 
the “germinal track” (Keimbahn), and the products 
to the left of it are assumed to be cells of the 
embryo. As in the skate there is no possibility of 
the existence of any part of the embryo prior to the 
formation of U.K.Z., it is out of question that the said 
cells can be part of this. It is an assumption that 
they are parts of the embryo; for in Ascaris megalocephala, 
for instance, the form to which Boveri's identical diagram 
refers, it has never been established that directly from 
the cleavage of the fertilised egg the sexual generation 
or embryo takes its origin. The later history is here 
unknown. Indeed, it may be safely predicted that, 
when the facts become known, of the two primary 
germ-cells of Ascaris, formed by division of the cell 
U.K.Z., the one will be seen to form the embryo or 


134 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss, 1xvi. 


sexual generation, while the other will furnish its sexual 
products. ! 

It will doubtless be urged that on my part also it is 
an assumption that the cells to the left of the line Z to 
U.K.Z. give origin to the larva. In a sense this is true; 
but the one assumption is prima facie as good as the other, 
and on the further evidences to be adduced it is a good 
deal better. 

From the existence of a transient nervous system, a 
blastoderm, and other evanescent structures, the conclu- 
sion was long ago arrived at that there was a larva or 
asexual generation in the life-cycle of the skate. From all 
the known facts of embryology such a larva cannot arise 
out of an embryo; it must precede an embryo. There is 
no embryo by the time the period P.G.C. is reached, the 
formation of such commencing here. ‘Therefore, the first 
products of the cleavage, apart from the line leading to 
U.K.Z., must be the larva. 

Evidence from another side will be found in, for 
instance, E. B. Wilson’s published researches on the 
development of Nereis.” 

There was some hesitation in the writer’s mind as to 
the possibility of using Wilson’s results in support of the 
view here presented as to the nature and destiny of the 
first cleavage products. A perusal of the lecture cited 
below served to remove this. His work of 1892 and his 


1 In Asewris megalocephala, it is at least possible that the primitive 
germ-cell is separated off at the fourth cleavage instead of at the fifth. 
The latter cleavage would then divide the primitive germ-cell into 
two primary germ-cells, of which the one would go to form the 
embryo, and the other would represent the “sexual products.” If 
this be the correct interpretation of the conditions in Ascaris—a point 
upon which I do not venture to express an opinion—the subsequent 
division of the cell, regarded by Boveri and others as the primitive 
germ-cell, would correspond to the formation of secondary germ-cells 
in Raja; that is, the parent ceH would be a primary germ-cell. 

Regarding the life-history of such a Nematode as Ascaris megalo- 
cephala, what is written above concerning the part unknown needs no 
justification. But if it be imagined possible that here, directly from 
the fertilised egg, the sexual form as it occurs in the horse can arise, a 
reference to the account of Maupas’ results of investigations into the 
life-histories of a number of Nematoda will dissolve the illusion, 
(Vide “ Arch, Zool. Exper.,” v. 8, pp. 463-624, 11 pl., 1900.) 


2 BK. B. Wilson, “ The Cell-Lineage of Nereis,” “Jour. of Morph.,” vol. 
vi., pp. 361-480, 1892. ‘ Cell-Lineage and Ancestral Reminiscence,” 
“Wood’s Holl Biol. Lectures,” pp. 21-42, 1898 (published 1899). 


Jan. 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 135 


2, 
“UKE. 


Fig 3.—EGaG-CLEAVAGE OF NEREIS. 


136 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. rxvr. 


more recent results must be taken together, for Wilson 
himself has seen reason to alter his earlier interpretation 
in some slight but important respects. These amendments 
are exactly of the kind required for my reading of his 
table of the cell-lineage. 

In Fig. 2. Wilson’s table, so far as it concerns us, is 
reproduced, and in Fig. 3 the same results are shown after 
the manner of Boveri's figure, or the part of my diagram 
from Z to U.K.Z. 

The main difficulty of the writer in his reading of 
Wilson’s diagram has hitherto been the supposed destiny 
of the cell d?=2 From p. 30 of his recent lecture it 
may be gathered that the author, following the finds of 
Lillie in Unio now looks upon this cell « as representing a 
larval mesoderm-cell. This is exactly the fate 1t ought to 
have, for, as we have seen, everything to the left of the 
line Z to U.K.Z. must belong to the phorozoon or larva. 

The primitive germ-cell has not yet been identified in 
Annelida. From my interpretation of Wilson’s finds it 
would appear to arise in Nereis at the fifth cleavage as 
the cell in Fig. 3 labelled D=U.K.Z. This then divides 
into (two primary germ-cells) D and M. M is the 
primary mesoderm-cell or somatoblast of various authors. 
Its division initiates the period of bilateral cleavage. Its 
two products form the two “mesoderm-bands.’ In con- 
tradistinction to other authors, the writer must maintain 
the opinion that M is a primary germ-cell, and that it 
gives rise to the whole of the sexual generation, in this 
case the worm. In this connection it may be of interest 
to recall the circumstance that long ago Hatschek expressed 
the view that the two products of M, the well-known “ pole- 
cells” of Hatschek, were originally eggs.’ This suggestion 
has been criticised by Kleinenberg. 

If the pole-mesoderm-cells be not eggs, they at least 
arise by the division of the next thing to an egg, a primary 
germ-cell. 

In Nereis the remaining primary germ-cell D comes to 


1 Wilson approves of E. Meyer’s amendment of Hatschek’s view into 
a correspondence of the mesodermal bands with paired gonads. In 
the sense indicated above, there is much to be said in favour of 
Hatschek’s interpretation ; the other idea is wildly impossible. 


Jan. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 137 


form part of the hypoblast. There is no difficulty about 
this. Even in the skate many of the primary germ-cells 
may for a time lie in the hypoblast, but they do not 
give rise to hypoblastic cells. As Wilson remarks, “ the 
ultimate court of appeal . . . lies in the fate of the cells” 
(loc. cit. 2, p. 41). 

Another apparent difficulty, more especially to the view 
of the complete similarity and equivalence of the primary 
germ-cells, would be that sometimes the embryonic cell 
may perhaps exceed the primary germ-cells in size. As 
an instance, that D and M mentioned above may be of 
different sizes. But this very difference in size may serve 
to explain why some particular primary germ-cell is chosen to 
form an embryo instead of some other. Position alone cannot 
always be at the bottom of this. In the skate, for example, 
the embryo does not invariably begin to arise at one 
certain spot upon the blastoderm. It may be that the 
stimulus afforded by an extra amount of food-yolk may 
have much to do with the initiation of development. 

Very suggestive and significant, in the light of my 
results in the skate, are the following passages from 
E. B. Wilson’s memoir on the “Cell-Lineage of Nereis.” 
Statements equally pregnant with meaning will be found 
in various parts of Eisig’s work on the development. 
of Capitella (“ Mitt. a. d. Zool. Stat. zu Neapel,” v. 13, 
pp. 1-292, 1898). 

On page 393 Wilson writes: “ TZransition to the 
Bilateral Period—As far as the development of the 
permanent organs is concerned, the transition from the 
spiral to the bilateral type of development is remarkably 
abrupt.” 

It may be mentioned that, at the close of the spiral 
period, there are, according to Wilson, thirty-eight blasto- 
meres present. That is to say, the majority of them are 
products of the fifth cleavage. 

On page 444‘he asks: “ What is the significance of the 
spiral and bilateral forms of cleavage, and where lie the 
causes that determine the transformation of the one into 
the other?” Further on he writes: “The most strik- 
ing feature in the cleavage, and the one on which the 
entire discussion may be made to turn, is the sudden 


TRANS, BOT. SOC. EDIN, VOL. XXII. K 


138 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxv1. 


appearance of bilateral symmetry in the cleavage. The 
meaning of the bilateral cleavages in themselves is 
perfectly obvious. They are the forerunners of the 
bilateral arrangement of parts in the adult; and, as 
such, their explanation belongs to the general problem 
of bilateral symmetry, which need not be considered 
here. The all-important point is that the bilaterality 
does not appear at the beginning of development. It 
appears only at a comparatively late stage, and by a 
change so abrupt and striking as to possess an absolutely 
dramatic interest.” And so on. I refrain from further 
quotation, because Wilson’s work contains no real solution 
of the problem. 

To my mind the solution was lacking, because, on the 
one hand, it was not recognised that the mode of develop- 
ment was by means of an alternation of generations; and, 
on the other, the history of the primary germ-cells in 
Nereis was, and is, unknown. 

If the reader will compare Wilson’s statements with 
the course of development depicted in my diagram—not 
forgetting, I trust, that the latter is a diagram, and nothing 
more—the meaning of the spiral cleavage and of the 
sudden and abrupt change, of which Wilson speaks, may 
-become apparent. 

The apical mode of growth, so characteristic of the 
early formation of the asexual generation in both plants and 
animals, and which is retained for the whole life-span of 
the sporophyte of plants, might also be described as 
spiral. Indeed, it is so regarded and described by 
botanists. Then with the cutting off of the connection 
between the primitive germ-cell and the asexual genera- 
tion or phorozoon we witness the practical end’ of the 
spiral mode of cleavage, and the commencement of the 
bilateral period. With this the formation of the primary 
germ-cells is connected; following the genesis of these a 
start is made in the unfolding of the embryo. 

In this way my diagram gives a general interpretation 
of Wilson’s finds, not to mention those of other observers. 


1 The practical end, but not the actual termination ; for, as Wilson 
points out (p. 393), “it is only in the peculiar changes involved in the 
formation a larval organ, the prototroch, that the spiral form of 
division overlaps the bilateral period.” 


Jan. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 139 


And thus the phenomena observed in the development 
of Nereis are seen to be due to an antithetic alternation 
of generations, where the asexual generation arises in a 
spiral or apical manner, where the sexual generation is 
characterised by a bilateral mode of formation, and, lastly, 
Where one may predict the formation of a _ primitive 
germ-cell, and of primary germ-cells from this, between the 
two generations—that is to say, prior to the development of 
the sexual generation. 

In the course of more than twelve years spent in the 
attempt to elucidate the mode of Metazoan development, 
at various times many things have seemed inexplicable ; 
but wherever their history has been discovered, they have 
been found to fit into an antithetic alternation of genera- 
tions, and into nothing else. 

If Wilson’s finds be not based in such an alternation, 
but be in connection with a “direct” mode of development, 
they seem to me to include facts which will never be 
explicable, for such a roundabout kind of development can 
hardly be termed “direct.” Or shall we “explain” and 
describe them as the development of the Scyphozoa is 
explained and described in almost all the current text- 
books, by the omission of any reference to the main portion 
of the asexual generation, the stolon, discovered by Sars ?? 

Such a course may simplify matters, but it hardly makes 
for the discovery of the facts of nature! 

Reverting to the diagram of the life-cycle of the skate, 
I consider it to be possible at present only by comparison 
and induction to show the fate of the cells to the left of 
the “germinal track” as far as U.K.Z., the primitive germ- 
cell. The comparison with other cases only goes to show 
its correctness, and, I am convinced, the number of such 
will increase in the proportion as the study of cell-lineage, 
so ably established by Whitman, Mark, and E. B. Wilson, 
replaces the pursuit of the three sacred layers of embryo- 
logists. 

Up to the point U.K.Z. of my diagram the germinal 
track in Weismann’s sense lies apparently in the larva. 
It may be objected that in making this substitution the 


1M. Sars. “Ueber die Entwicklung der Medusa aurita und Cyanea 
capillata.” ‘ Arch. f. Naturgesch,” vol. 7, 1841. 


140 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. ixvi. 


embryo has been displaced, in order to establish a more 
or less problematical larva, and that the germinal track 
is here somatic. The reply to this is, that the cell U.K.Z. 
and its immediate ancestors never form part of the larva, 
and that the period! from Z to U.K.Z—no matter how 
long it be, whether four generations or four thousand— 
is marked by a mode of growth and cell-division, con- 
spicuous by absence in other parts of the diagram.” 

This statement requires both elucidation and emphasis. 

The mode of growth of the sphorophyte in plants is 
essentially apical, that is to say, wherever there is an 
apex there are always one or more apical cells, which 
by their division give off products towards the centre. 

In the sexual generation of a Metazoon the mode of 
erowth differs 7m toto from this; for here all the products 
ultimately undergo differentiation, and embryonic or germ- 
material, corresponding to apical cells, has no existence. 
The older embryologists of the first half of the nineteenth 
century thought differently, and some pathologists still 
eling to their views, but these have no shadow of founda- 
tion in fact. 

The initial mode of growth and formation of the asexual 
generation or larva in animals—an organism never of a 
“very high degree of organisation—is entirely comparable 
to that of the sporophyte. As in simple cases of the 
latter, there is here one “apical cell” which never itself 
forms part of the larva, but instead thereof gives off into 
the latter a greater or less number of products, while 
retaining its own unicellular or Protozoan character. Nor 
would the conditions be altered if there were several 
growing points, as generally met with among the 
Hydrozoa.* 


1 Tn the skate this period includes more than five mitoses, probably 
ten. 

2 Spemann has already compared the mode of origin of the first 
cleavage products in Nematodes, more especially in Strongylus, to the 
apical mode of growth in the sporophyte of a plant. He notes that 
the cell along the line Z-U.K.Z. in my diagram acts as though it 
were an apical cell of a sporophyte. (H. Spemann, “ Die Entwick- 
lung von Strongylus paradoxcus,” “ Zool. Jahrb. Morph. Abtheil.” vol. 8, 
p. 304, 1894-95. 

8 It should be mentioned that de Vries and Weismann have already 
noted the resemblance in mode of growth between the sporophyte and 
the colonial Hydrozoa. Many of the latter also possess the indefinite 


Jax. 1902. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 141 


It may be objected that whereas the early cleavage of 
Nereis, Ascaris, etc., is spiral, in the Vertebrata, such as 
the skate, it is bilateral. The objection would not, I 
think, be a valid one. The meaning of such a bilateral 
cleavage in the early development—assuming it to exist— 
would simply be that there were two spirals instead of 
one, and possibly two primitive germ-cells. For various 
reasons I regard the actual larva or phorozoon of the 
skate as at the basis very like the tadpole larva of 
Ascidians. Indeed, I would go further, and, following 
the example of Roule with his classification of certain 
Invertebrate groups, as “Trochozoa,” by their asexual 
generation of larva, so also in the tadpole-like larva of 
the Ascidians I would see—not the Vertebrate relation of 
many embryologists—but the like or even homologous 
asexual generation of Ascidians, Amphioxus, and the true 
Vertebrata. 

Returning to the diagram. Sooner or later upon the 
larva the primitive germ-cell enters into activity. It may 
divide before the larva or phorozoon is properly differen- 
tiated, as nowadays is certainly the case in many instances, 
or, theoretically, its divisions may happen at a later period. 
These divisions, however, must precede the formation of 
the embryo or sexual generation. 

In the skate the divisions of the primitive germ-cell, 
which give birth to the primary germ-cells, take place 
before the larva or phorozoon is fully differentiated, and, 
of course, before there is any trace of the embryo. 

For reasons to be fully given in my memoir on the 
germ-cells, the divison of U.K.Z. the primitive germ-cell, 
is considered to go back to about the tenth cleavage pro- 
ducts, and in the skate there are either eight or nine 
divisions. 


unrestricted power of growth so characteristic of the sporophyte of 
the higher plants. As a rule the asexual generations of the higher 
Metazoa do not exhibit this faculty. They rarely obtain a chance of 
showing it, for it is their usual fate to undergo early suppression by 
the sexual generation. When, as happens sometimes In cases of abor- 
tion in the human subject, the embryo is got rid of prior to the critical 
period, or, at anyrate, before the asexual generation has here been 
suppressed, the latter may go on growing indefinitely, if left in the 
uterus. I refer, of course, to the unrestricted and pernicious growth 
of the chorion when left in the womb after an abortion. 


142 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxvr. 


The publication of the present writing has been delayed 
for several months, in order that time might be gained for 
the tabulation and counting of the primary germ-cells in a 
series of embryos. This has now (March 1901) been done 
in eighteen embryos of Raja batis, and in eight of Scyllium 
canicula. 

The number of primary germ-cells in the embryology of 
Raja batis may be taken at 256 in the male, and 512 in 
the female. It may be added that the number appears to 
be much smaller in Rana esculenta, and in Petromyzon 
planert. In the former eight, and in the latter thirty-two, 
primary germ-cells would seem to arise. These latter 
numbers have not yet been confirmed on a material large 
enough to afford any certainty of their correctness. 

The division of the primitive germ-cell into primary 
germ-cells is a well-marked epoch in the life-cycle, and 
one of the greatest possible moment. Hitherto its import 
has been overlooked by every embryologist, and the record 
of it is now made for the first time as the result of my 
work. 

From every point of view it is as important as the 
phenomena of maturation; and probably its essential ne- 
cessity in development will not need to wait long for 
ample recognition. 

The number of the products of the primitive germ-cell 
is very large in the skate—as many as 512. But it must 
be pointed out that this number furnishes no criterion for 
other animals. There may be cases in which it is larger, 
though, I imagine, the occurrence of many such is un- 
likely. Undoubtedly there are instances in which it is 
much smaller; and probably these are well represented 
among the Invertebrata. In short, it may be as low as 
two; but as the sexual generation or embryo must arise 
from one product, and as this must contain some sexual 
elements, it can never be lower than two. In other words, 
the primitive germ-cell must divide at least once, yielding 
two primary germ-cells, of which one will give rise to the 
embryo, and the other will supply the “sexual products.” 
Apparently it divides once in Cyclops and Ascaris megalo- 
cephala, twice in Cecidomyia, and thrice in Chironomus. 

In other chapters of my work, the essential similarity 


Jan. 1902. } BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 143 


—the equivalence of all the primary germ-cells, whether 
their number be 2, 16, 128, 512, or anything else—has 
been insisted upon. The point is one of the utmost 
importance, and, therefore, it may be well to once more 
briefly indicate the grounds for the conclusion. 

All the primary germ-cells have the same ancestry from 
the primitive germ-cell. One of them forms the embryo; 
and there is nothing to show that this one differs in any 
respect from its sister cells... If two primary germ-cells 
undergo independent development on a blastoderm, the 
result is, and must be, the production of like-twins. The 
dermoid cysts or embryomas of Wilms are, as this able 
investigator has established, rudimentary embryos. These 
abnormal embryos must have taken their origin from 
persistent primary germ-cells; and the development of an 
embryoma is embryologically the abnormal formation of a 
twin, identical with the embryo. 

The likeness of all the primary germ-cells is certain, 
or almost so; absolutely nothing suggests unlikeness 
among them. This essential identity or equivalence 
of all the primary germ-cells is immensely important 
from the point of view of heredity. This will be quite 
obvious. 

It is it, and it alone, which permits of the handing 
down of the characters of one generation to future genera- 
tions. It is the very basis of heredity. The formation of 
like primary germ-cells, and their essential similarity or 
equivalence, show how, in sexual reproduction, the offspring 
resemble their “ parents,” while differing from them. The 
likeness in the primary germ-cells leads to likeness in the 
offspring ; and along with this unlikeness is bound to come 
in. For the primary germ-cells themselves give rise to 
secondary germ-cells, which have lost their powers of in- 
dependent development. It is these, and these only, as a 
rule, which are present in the finished embryo. They and 
their progeny are never capable of independent develop- 


1In Strongylus Spemann has commented upon the equivalence of 
what he terms the primitive germ-cell and the primitive mesoderm- 
cell; indeed, he speaks of them as “ Geschwisterkind,” or cousins 
(Zool. Jahrb., Morph. Abth.” vol. 8, p. 313). His primitive germ-cell 
is, however, a primary germ-cell ; and the true primitive germ-cell 
is that from which the two cells compared together took their birth 


144 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXVI. 


ment; but it is their destiny to go through the process of 
reduction of chromosomes, with the ensuing formation of 
“sexual products” (or gametes), eggs, and spermatozoa. 
Here, as is of course now generally recognised, unlikeness 
enters. Although the egg, or sperm, traces its long 
ancestry to one of a certain set of primary germ-cells, of 
which one also gave rise to the “embryo,” or form, whose 
“ offspring ”»—according to social and commonly accepted 
ideas—the egg or sperm itself was, this said egg or sperm 


foto) 
unites with another sperm or egg, the offspring of a 


oo? 
different individual, which in its turn, with its repro- 
ductive elements, traces a similar origin and ancestry from 
another set of primary germ-cells. With the union the 
new cycle begins. 

It is thus, that the formation of primary germ-cells 
underlies the fundamental facts of heredity, and explains 
these. And it is thus, without their knowing it, that the 
formation of primary germ-cells at a certain epoch of the 
development, prior to the production of the embryo, is 
the real basis of Weismann’s finds in heredity, and, to a 
still greater degree, of those associated with the name of 
Galton. 

The application in detail of the results to the phenomena 
of heredity is beyond the scope of my researches. To 
indicate the way may suffice. f 

Galton has been led by his studies and researches on 
inheritance to what is known as Galton’s law.” According 
to this law, “the two parents between them contribute on 
the average one-half of each inherited faculty, each of 
them contributing one-quarter of it. The four grand- 
parents contribute between them one-quarter, or each of 
them one-sixteenth, and so on; the sum of the series— 
441414 44 etc, being equal to 1, as it should be, 
It is a property of this infinite series that each term is 
equal to the sum of all those that follow, thus—}=j4+ 4 
+j;+ ete; }=4++ 344+ etc, and so on. The pre- 
potencies or subpotencies of particular ancestors, in any 


1 Tn the Vertebrata. 


* Francis Galton: “The average Contribution of each several 
Ancestor to the total Heritage of the Offspring.”—“ Proc. Roy. Soce., 
Lond.,” vol. 61, pp. 401-408, 1897. 


Jan. 1902. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 145 


given pedigree, are eliminated by a law that deals only 
with average contributions, and the varying prepotencies 
of sex in respect to different qualities are also presumably 
eliminated.” 

Assuming for the moment the correctness of this, its 
embryological basis is furnished by the formation, etc., of 
the primary germ-cells. The germ-cells in any embryo, 
possessing from their mode of formation like qualities, and 
having these and the like ancestry with that which formed 
the embryo, these qualities are necessarily halved at the 
following determination of sex and reduction. At the 
close of this halving the “ parental” qualities can embryo- 
logically, under Galton’s law, only be represented by at 
most one-half, or one-quarter for each “ parent,’ and so on 
for each preceding generation; for in these also primary 
germ-cells of like characters were formed, of which one 
gave rise to an embryo in every case. 

The line of ancestry is, of course, from and through these 
germ-cells, and never from the embryo or sexual generation 
of a preceding generation. 

But as the germ-cells associated with any given embryo 
are all of like characters among themselves (including that 
from which the embryo arises) on the production of eggs 
and sperms, and the subsequent union of these with other 
sexual products, the result is the same as if the line of 
ancestry had been through the embryo, so far, at anyrate, 
as the ancestral characters are concerned. According to 
Galton, the parental qualities are at most represented in 
their progeny by 4 (4+ }). 

In the same way, and because between offspring and 
grandparent there are two sets of germ-cells (in addition to 
those still immature in the offspring) and two reductions, 
the grandparental portions taken together can only be half 
of the parental portions taken together, that is to say, 4, 
and so on through any number of generations. It will be 
quite unnecessary to carry out the examination further, for 
study of the diagram will make evident the light it throws 
from the embryological side on Galton’s law, and how it 
furnishes this law with its basis in the facts of development. 

In his book on the “Germplasm” (English edition, p. 
257), Weismann has adversely criticised Galton’s law. His 


146 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sxss, uxvt. 


objections would be valid in cases where in-breeding had 
taken place; for Galton’s law can only hold good if no 
in-breeding occur, and if none have happened.’ This law 
really demands that there shall be no in-breeding. 

But there is another aspect of Galton’s law, and this 
arises from the following embryological facts. The reduc- 
tion of chromosomes was probably, in its origin, merely an 
undoing of the previous union, and even now it is not the 
halving of a unit, but of two such. Therefore, it is not a 
reversion to half cells or half entities or individualities, but 
to whole ones. From this it follows, that at fertilisation 
we have to deal with the union of two individualities—of 
two complete lines of ancestry. The union of these is con- 
tinued in the primary germ-cells, as evidenced by their 
duplicated nuclei, until the initiation at least of the ensuing 
determination of sex, and the united lines are broken up in 
two separate complete lines, not necessarily identical (like 
two strings of many-coloured beads) with the original two 
at the ensuing sex-determination and reduction.” 

All along the line, from the fertilised ege to that primary 
germ-cell which unfolds as an embryo, this duplication is 
evident, and, of course, it must at first be in this cell too. 
As I have recognised in lectures, there must be a competi- 
tion between the two components of the duplicated nucleus 
when development begins.’ This will be such, that of the 


1W. K. Brooks has already drawn attention to this matter. He 
points out that Galton’s theory demands absence of relationship among 
all the ancestors. He then goes on to show that, in the case of three 
persons living on a small island, their known ancestry goes back seven 
to eight generations. The maximum number of distinct ancestors for 
all three persons together should be 1146, according to Brooks. Of 
these, 452 are recorded, but these are not 452 distinct persons, being, 
in fact, only 149. (“The Foundations of Zoology,” pp. 148-145.) _ 


* A further discussion of this matter will be found in a memoir upon 
the Determination of Sex, now in the press (vide “Zool. Jahrb. Morph. 
Abtheil., 1902 ”). 


% Haecker has quite recently referred to this in the following 
words :—“ Eine aehnliche Concurrenz kommt vielleicht auch in den 
Bildern aus den Gonadanlagen von Diaptomus zum Ausdruck, und 
wuerde fuer das Verstaendniss mancher Vererbungserscheinungen 
(Dominiren des einen Elters) von Bedeutung sein.” (“ Anat. Anz.,” 
vol. 20, p. 451.) 

I make no comment whatever upon the foregoing, but leave it to the 
reader to determine the extent of the agreement between Haecker’s 
brief and vague statement and the ideas and conclusions developed in 
the text of the present writing. 


Jan. 1902. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 147 


total nuclear constituents, which together make up the 
inherited characters of the two lines, one-half must be 
suppressed, or remain latent, in the development. If these 
characters be symbolised by the letters of the alphabet in 
such a way that the first half of these represent the char- 
acters of the one line, the second half those of the other, in 
the development of the embryo only half of this total can 
be made use of. Where one letter drops out, its place is 
occupied by the corresponding letter of the other half of 
the alphabet. In this way the phenomena of prepotency of 
a parent or ancestor become somewhat more comprehensible. 

On p. 257 of the “Germplasm” Weismann writes: “ It 
is evidently more than inaccurate to fix the limit of the 
hereditary power, as is done by animal-breeders, of a parent 
at 4,of a grandparent at 4, ete.” To the writer there 
would appear to be more correctness in doing this than in 
limiting it to half this amount, as is done by Galton. 
Owing to the nuclear duplication referred to above, and 
the evidences afforded by it and other factors, as to the 
union of two individualities and two complete lines of 
ancestry, it seems to the writer that Galton’s formula 
should be represented by something different. 

The total inheritance would be— 

3(44+1i+1+ete+3+}+}+ete). 
In the formula, as thus written, the results obtained by 
breeders find their full recognition. 

Before leaving the subject, let me briefly indicate how 
the diagram elucidates the phenomena of in-breeding. In 
ordinary sexual reproduction in nature a set of primary 
germ-cells, exactly like those of a given case, even those 
of a given ancestor, can never reappear. This is clear 
from the law of reduction, which in succeeding generations 
is always leading further away from the particular 
ancestor. But with in-breeding along two closely allied 
lines, and by their final union, it may ultimately be possible 
to approach the qualities of a given ancestor, though 
probably mathematically an exact result is unobtainable. 

The theory of heredity, outlined in preceding pages, has 

1 Mathematically, dealing with abstract numbers only, this formula 


is at the basis identical with that of Galton; but, as the factors are 
characters, not abstract numbers, this is not the case. 


148 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. txvi. 


little or nothing in common with previous ones. Under- 
lying it is something more than a mere morphological 
continuity of germ-cells. From its nature it might be 
termed “the understudy-theory of heredity.” Given in a 
certain life-history the period of formation of the primary 
germ-cells. Of these let there be for simplicity but two, 
A and A’. On one of these falls the lot of developing 
into an embryo. To which of the two this happens is 
not of consequence for the argument. In all its essential 
characters the remaining primary germ-cell (whose im- 
mediate destiny it is to become the founder of the “sexual 
products” of the said embryo) is the exact counterpart 
of the developing one. So much so is this the case, that 
if both form embryos, these are like-twins. 

In the ancestry neither of the primary germ-cells A 
and A' had ever been a Metazoan; neither they nor their 
ancestors had ever formed parts of a Metazoan body. 
But their ancestry is continuous with a long line of germ- 
cells, and at regular intervals these were exactly like. 
certain sister-cells, which did develop and form embryos. 
Although the cell A’ does not itself give rise to an 
embryo, it retains for itself and for all its immediate 
progeny the properties of A, those characters which, were 
it or its progeny to develop, would make it or them lke- 
twins with A. 

In the drama of heredity there are always understudies, 
which for a certain essential period are endowed with all 
the identical properties of that germ-cell from which the 
player arises. These understudies, the primary germ-cells, 
are never employed upon the stage as such—except in 
instances of like-twins—but some of them, in new guises 
and after new conjugations, are the immediate ancestors of 
those which become the acting characters in new scenes of 
the cyclical drama of life. 

We now pass to the consideration of the primary germ- 
cells as the equivalents of the spore-mother-cells of plants. 
The theory of an antithetic alternation of generations as 
the basis of Metazoan development postulates something 
resembling the formation of spore-mother-cells in plants. 
It is clear that the final reduction of chromosomes has 
been deferred to a later portion of the life-cycle in Metazoa 


Jan. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 149 
as compared with plants; and this fact was insisted upon 
some years ago by J. A. Murray and myself.’ 

At that time we compared the two modes of development 
in tabular form,and we postulated the formation of theembryo 
upon the asexual generation or larva from a spore-mother- 
cell. Certain facts supporting this view were cited, including 
E. B. Wilson’s teloblasts of the earthworm, which must be 
derivable from one cell. Finally, the spore-mother-cells have 
appeared in the primary germ-cells of the present research. 


REVISED COMPARISON OF METAZOAN AND METAPHYTIC 
LiFrE-CYCLEs. 
Metazoon. 


Metaphyte. 
zygote (2n) 
} 


zygote (2n) 


“Jarva” or phorozoon (2n) sporophyte (2n) - 


\ 


FON 
4 \ 


4 \ 
spermatozoon (ln) egg (1n) 


Neo 


Sid 
zygote (2n) 


3S formation of primitive formation of primitive 
z germ-cell (2n) spore-mother-cell (2n) 
a | 
& (formation of primary formation of spore-mother- 
= | germ-cells (2n) cells (2n), probable 
7) | determination of sex 
@ and reduction 
4 *‘apospory ” (reduction spore-formation 
postponed) 
| | 
( primary germ-cells (2n) spores (1n) 
| 
initiation of determination of 
sex 
origin of embryo or gameto- origin of gametophyte from 
: zoon from one primary germ- —one spore 
8 | cell, inclusion of rest in 
3 gametozoon (2n) (1n) 
| 
5 end of determination of sex, 
© | and reduction of chromo- 
s somes 
% | ripening of germ-cells ripening of germ-cells, reduc- 
oP) 


tion previously effected 
a 
male female 
gamete (1n) gamete (1n) 
4 


Jf 
Py 


zygote (2n) 


In the above table “n” equals the number of chromosomes prior to 
the duplication (“ 2n”) at conjunction—that is, fertilisation. 
N.B.—Although the primary germ-cells and the spores are shown 


in the table in the same line, they are not equivalent. 


The former 


correspond to the spore-mother-cells. 


1 J. Beard and J. A. Murray : “On the Phenomena of Reproduction 
in Animals and Plants.”—“ Anat. Anz.,” vol. xi., pp. 234-255, and also 
in “ Ann. of Botany,” vol. ix., pp. 441-468. 1895, 


150 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. Lxvt. 


In 1895 the writer was not sufficiently sanguine to 
believe it possible that at present the embryo would be 
found to arise in any case from such a spore-mother-cell. 
Only its formation at some time in the past from a spore- 
mother-cell was spoken of, because the facts of develop- 
ment at that time known seemed to point to its origin from 
at least a few cells. 

And, moreover, everything then seemed to go to prove 
the production of the “sexual organs,” ze. the germ-cells, 
by the embryo itself. Such was the belief of almost every 
embryologist, and there appeared little or no reason for 
doubting its correctness. 

The effect of these two factors was to bar further 
progress in that direction, at anyrate for a time. In face 
of the apparent facts, I confess that it was impossible to 
foresee how the formation of the spore-mother-cell was 
effected, with the natural result that only its former exist- 
ence, 7.¢. in past times, was suggested. Moreover, there was 
not the slightest suspicion in my mind or Murray’s that 
the germ-cells had anything to do with the matter. 

It is possibly a humiliating confession to make, but it 
is quite true, that I was never able to conceive how Nature 
could carry out this formation of a spore-mother-cell and 
of the embryo from the latter, until my researches had 
revealed how she actually accomplished it. No one could 
have been more astonished than the writer at the 
revelation. Never had it for a moment been imagined 
that the germ-cells themselves would play the part they 
actually do in the life-drama of an antithetic alternation of 
generations. Only when the work was practically complete 
and ready for publication was it seen that the missing link 
in the alternation had been discovered in the primary 
germ-cells and in the epoch of their formation. 

I hardly feel called upon to prove that the primary 
germ-cells do represent spore-mother-cells. If each of 
them were to undergo a reduction with the subsequent 
production of four “spores,” and if then each animal 
spore were to develop into an organism, we should have 
the exact équivalent of the gametophyte of one of the 
higher plants. 

Instead thereof they remain together, and only one 


Jan. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 151 


becomes sterilised to form a sexual individual or game- 
tozoon. Their remaining together, and the continued and 
progressive amplification of the gametozoon in course of 
ages, have naturally deferred their ripenings, sex-deter- 
minations, and reductions to later and later periods. It is 
obvious that this could easily be effected by starving them, 
but this may not have been Nature’s method of delaying 
their ripenings. A potent factor has probably been delay 
in the period of the determination of sex. 

In the higher plants it is the spores, whose name is 
legion ; while the “sexual cells,” eggs and sperms, are few 
and far between. In animals the “sexual cells” exhibit 
the reverse condition, corresponding in their multitude to 
the spores of plants; while, as we at length know, the 
spore-mother-cells—there are no spores in the Metazoa 
are not very numerous, being represented in some cases by 
but one cell in addition to that which forms the sexual 
generation. 

Why this difference?* In the embryo-sac of Pinus, 
which is the gametophyte, there are only four germ-cells. 
In the corresponding structure in flowering plants there 
are perhaps three, or at most six; while, as is well known, 
the male gametophyte of a flowering plant is represented by 
one or two vegetative cells and one or two germ-cells. 

No Metazoan sexual generation has so small and scant 
an endowment as these, while such an animal may contain 
and harbour a number of germ-cells thousands of times 
greater. 

The difference is solely due to the different procedure 
adopted at the formation of the primary germ-cells or 
spore-mother-cells. The plan carried out in animals has 
been such as to favour and foster the ever greater and 
greater amplification of the sexual generation. In plants, 
as elsewhere already insisted, the reverse is the case. 
Here the asexual generation has undergone increased 
amplification without ever being able to attain any very 


1“Zu vielen Tausenden zaehlen die vegetativ erzeugten Sporen, 
welche ein einziges Farnblatt ausstreut. Bei der geschlechtlichen 
Fortpflanzung der folgenden Generation wird dagegen von einem 
Prothallium selten mehr als ein neues Einzelwesen gebildet, etc.”— 
F. Noll, in Strasburger’s “ Lehrbuch der Botanik,” 2 te Aufl., 1895, 
p. 255. 


152 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss, Lxvi. 


high degree of histological differentiation. The sexual 
generation of plants is at the best a miserable failure from 
the morphological point of view, and this must be set 
down to the factors already indicated. 

The higher one ascends the smaller it becomes, until, in 
the highest flowering plants, it has almost reached the 
vanishing point, without, however, being able to disappear 
entirely. 

In animals it is the larva, the phorozoon, or asexual 
generation, which makes the bravest show in the lower 
Metazoa; but even here it is always overshadowed in 
degree of morphological differentiation by the embryo or 
sexual generation. In the higher forms it becomes 
reduced; but, like the rudimentary sexual generation of 
the higher plants, it cannot vanish, for it also has its 
assigned task in the reproductive round. 

The sexual generation, or gametozoon, thanks to the 
importance of the precious cargo of germ-cells which it 
carries, has received the kindly attentions of Nature, with 
consequent higher and higher evolution. From a variety 
of causes, the larva or phorozoon, on the other hand, tends 
to simplification the higher one ascends. At the best, its 
organisation is simple, but even this simplicity leans to 
meagreness in the Vertebrata as they now exist. 

With the formation of the primary germ-cells the next 
item in the life-cycle is the production of an embryo or 
sexual generation by the self-sacrifice of one for. the good 
of the rest. This is indicated in the diagram as having fallen 
to the lot of the thirty-seventh germ-cell from the bottom. 

In the skate the embryo at first contains no germ-cells, 
and the primary germ-cells enter it as such ; but—and this 
is another of the facts established by my work—by the 
time the embryo is completely laid down, the primary germ- 
cells divide and form secondary ones; so that, as a rule, 
by the time the evolution of the embryo is over and the 
critical period is reached, the embryo contains only secondary 
germ-cells, incapable of independent development. 

It may be of interest to record the further fact that in 
the skate this formation of secondary germ-cells precedes 
the announcement of the sex of the embryo, and is possibly 
causally related to it. As we have already seen, the 


Jan. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 153 


future sex is betrayed by the nature of the egg itself. It 
is announced by differentiation of ovary or testis. 

So far as the germ-cells themselves are concerned, the 
duplication of the paternal and maternal nuclear portions is 
- one of no long duration; for a commencement of the undoing 
of it is made at the formation of the secondary germ-cells. 
That is to say, the doubling brought about by the conjugation 
only persists until the primary germ-cells cease to be such, 
and divide to form secondary ones. Moreover, the tendency 
of research goes to demonstrate a certain looseness in this 
union. As Rueckert and Haecker independently showed 
a few years ago, the paternal and maternal chromosomes 
remain distinct during the cleavage of Cyclops, indeed, in 
such a manner as to suggest a duplex-nucleus in each of 
the cells along the germinal track (in Weismann’s sense).’ 
The like observation was subsequently made by the former 
in the cleavage-cells of Torpedo, without, however, suggest- 
ing any connection with germ-cells. The same duplication 
was recently noted by the writer in cleavage-cells of Raja, 
as well as in the primary germ-cells here, and the two were 
brought into connection. The interesting point about the 
matter appears to the writer to be that, if the reduction of 
chromosomes at the determination of sex for the following 
generation be ever a mere undoing of the previous lax 
union, the resulting germ-cells may reproduce or mimic 
more or less exactly, if not, indeed, absolutely so, the 
corresponding germ-cells of a grandparent. After such a 
reduction and new conjugation the reduced halves of the 
nuclei have, of course, lost the previous loose union referred 
to above, in order to acquire a new one of the like nature. 
Therefore they cannot so easily revert to a great-grand- 


1 The word “epigenesis” is here deliberately avoided. After very 
prolonged study of the mode of vertebrate development, my conclusion 
is, that epiyenesis has no existence. In the preface to his “Germ- 
plasm,” Weismann writes : “I finally became convinced that an epigenetic 
development is an impossibility. Moreover, I found an actual proof 
of the reality of evolution,” etc. Though there be no preformation, 
there is a prdestination ; and this is finally }rought to pass by an 
evolution or unfulding. In my own work the facts of the development 
of the thymus, of the lateral sense organs, of the whole gut, etc., are — 
only explicable and intelligible on this view. Evidence of the like 
kind is also affurded by the facts as to the developmental origin of like- 
twins. The very instance, chosen by Caspar Friedrich Wolff, that of 
the development of the alimentary canal, in reality demonstrates in the 
clearest fashion that its history is one of an evolution. The detailed 
facts concerning this may be brought forward on an early occasion. 


TRANS, BOT, SOC. EDIN. VOL, XXII. . L 


154 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxvi. 


parent. It is, I take it, the looseness of this union of 
chromosomes, and the ease with which it may be undone 
at the reduction and sex-determination, which explains 
why a child, for example, often bears more likeness to a 
grandparent than to a parent. 

As to the rest of the diagram, this relates to the deter- 
mination of sex, and to the final phases of odgenesis and 
spermatogenesis. With the exception of the portions 
relating to the determination of sex, the data concerning 
oogenesis are taken, as will be recognised, from Boveri's 
well-known figures. Of course, the embryo is not supposed 
to be hermaphrodite; both sexes being included in one 
diagram merely for purposes of convenience. 

For fuller details concerning the determination of sex, 
the reader may be referred to my recent communication’ on 
this subject. In the upper part of the diagram, attached 
to the fifty-fifth primary germ-cell, the probable course of 
oogenesis in the skate is shown. With the final division 
of the odgonium into two oocytes, o.c., the determination of 
sex 1s depicted as happening in the formation of male 
oocytes and female ones. These enter the period of growth, 
and then pass on to ripen. Lower down, for comparison, 
the spermatogenesis of Paludina, with its two kinds of 
spermatozoa, is represented after the statements of Meves. 

The portions of the diagram appended to the fifty-fifth 
and twentieth primary germ-cells can naturally be applied 
to any of the remaining primary germ-cells, other than that 
which goes to form the embryo. 

In conclusion, what Weismann has termed the 
germinal track nowhere here touches the cells of the 
embryo. Neither, as we have seen, does it really lie 
within the asexual generation, or phorozoon. It is along 
a line of unicellular organisms, which pass a portion of 
their life-cycle between one conjugation and the succeeding 
one within a sterilised individual, formed by the self- 
sacrifice of one for the good of the rest. 

As revealed by the diagram, throughout this line of 
unicellular organisms, which are ever such, until one or 
other of them gets into the cul-de-sac of embryo-formation, 
there is a direct morphological continuity of germ-cells. 


1 See “ Anat., Aug. 1902,” and for the full memoir, “ Zool. Jahrb., 
Morph. Abtheil, 1902.” ° 


—- 


Jan, 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 155 


This is all Nature demands; and this she accomplishes 
by the aid of unicellular organisms. All the observed 
phenomena of development, all those of heredity, are 
possible in this way.' Notwithstanding apparent com- 
plexity, the process is simplicity itself, the simplest kind 
of continuity conceivable. 

On the circle of life revolves the epicycle of the germ- 
cells, The circumference of the former is filled in by an 
uninterrupted succession of such epicycles. The constant 


sequence of these is the rhythm of reproduction, the gamut 
of life. 
EXPLANATION OF FIGURES. 

Fig. 1. Diagram of the Life-Cycle of the Skate (Raja batis), 
illustrating the union of egg and sperm, E. and S., to form 
the zygote, Z., the origin of the phorozoon, or larva, or asexual 
generation, the germinal track from Z. to U.K.Z., which is the 
primitive germ-cell. The division of the primitive germ-cell is 
carried to six mitoses, giving 64 primary germ-cells, P.G.C., 
instead of the full number of 9 divisions in a female skate, 
yielding 512 primary germ-cells. Diagrammatically the evolu- 
tion of one primary germ-cell, the 57th, is depicted as forming 
the embryo or gametozoon. To complete the track of heredity 
from generation to generation through the morphological con- 
tinuity of the germ-cells—to the 55th primary germ-cell a 
diagram of odgenesis, with the formation of male and of female- 
eggs, and of spermatogenesis (as in Paludina after Meves’ 
work) to the 20th germ-cell, have been added. In the latter the 
formation of the ordinary spermatozoa, H.S., and of the non- 
functional worm-like ones, W.S., are shown. N.4.—In the 
diagram of odgenesis the “ripening” of a female-egg is indicated 
by the larger, and that of a male-egg by the smaller, odcyte 
and products. 

Fig. 2. A portion of E. B, Wilson's diagram of the egg-cleavage of 
Nereis. 

Fig. 3. The egg-cleavage of Nereis, depicted in Fig. 2, represented 

after the fashion of Fig. 1. 


1 Were proof wanting of the application of the results of the present 
research even to the highest animals, it might be found in Hubrecht’s 
remarkable researches into the early development of Tupaja javanica. 
(A. A. W. Hubrecht, “Die Phylogenese des Amnions und die Bedeu- 
tung des Trophoblastes,” Amsterdam, 1895.) Here the first products 
of the egg-cleavage are a small number of cells, forming a sac, the 
trophoblast, and containing one central cell, out of which the entire 
embryo arises, ; : 

As is now well known, Hubrecht homologises the trophoblast with 
the larval skin of an Amphibian. It is by no means a new idea to the 


writer that the trophoblast represents the whole or the greater part 


of the asexual generation in mammals. The single clear cell in the 
sac in Tupaja must either be the primitive germ-cell, which must give 
rise not only to the embryo, but also to the sexual products, or it 
must become the primitive germ-cell after one or two additional 
mitoses. It may be regarded as eloquent testimony of the correctness 
of my conclusions, that in Z'wpajv Hubrecht should have found the 
very things which might have been postulated. 


156 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. Lxv1. 


EXCURSION OF THE SCOTTISH ALPINE BOTANICAL CLUB TO 
County Kerry In 1901. By Rev. Davip Paut, LL.D. 


(Read 9th January 1902.) 


During the thirty-one years of its existence, the Scottish 
Alpine Botanical Club has met five times outside the bounds 
of Seotland. In 1884 it met in Teesdale, in 1887 in 
Norway, in 1890 in Connemara, in 1899 at Kirkby-Lons- 
dale, and last year in County Kerry. It is of this last 
meeting that the following report is now presented to the 
Botanical Society. 

The members who took part in the expedition were— 
Mr. W. B. Boyd, the President; Dr. Paul, the Secretary 
and Treasurer; Messrs. Arthur H. Evans, M.A.; George 
Potts ; Alex. Somerville, B.Se.; Robert Turnbull, B.Se.; and 
F. C. Crawford; with Mr. Alex. Cowan as a visitor. The 
majority of these left Greenock on the evening of 29th 
July, and arrived in Dublin next morning. As the train 
for Killarney did not leave till the afternoon, there was 
time to pay a visit to the Botanical Garden at Glassnevin, 
and a considerable time was spent there in examining its 
many interesting plants. Among these may be specially 
mentioned—Gerbera Jamesoni, Amaryllis Ackermann, 
Fulegia paradoxa, Daphne Blagyana, Crinum Powelli (both 
white and red varieties in fine flower), Romneya Coultert 
(very fine), Zauchneria californica, Calceolaria alba, and 
Digitalis orientalis. In the hothouses were some beautiful 
specimens of Lotus and Nymphieas, and a very fine plant 
of the Victoria regia lily, rivalling those that are to be seen 
srowing in British Guiana. It would have taken a much 
longer time than we could spare to give attention to one 
half of the interesting plants that we were obliged hurriedly 
to pass by. 

We left Dublin at four o’clock, and reaching Killarney 
at eight we put up at the Lake Hotel. There we were 
joined by Dr. Reginald W. Scully, F.L.S., who very kindly 
put his intimate knowledge of Irish botany at our service, 
and whose courtesy and valuable assistance we cannot 
sufficiently acknowledge. 

Wednesday, the 31st July, was spent at Killarney. Six 


Jan. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 157 


ef the party made the well-known excursion, by carriage 
and boat, through the Gap of Dunloe, returning by the 
Lakes. I am indebted to Mr. Turnbull for the following 
notes: “On approaching the Gap, we saw several pasture- 
fields with the striking yellow flowers of Bartsia viscosa, in 
much the same profusion as we see the Yellow Rattle at 
home. Farther up, but before we reached the Gap, we 
observed wet patches of colour near the road, and these 
consisted chiefly of Hypericum elodes, with an edging of 
Anagallis tenella, forming a lovely and perfect combination 
of arrangement and colour impossible to reproduce in a 
garden. All the way up the Gap, almost every crevice 
of rock had its nest of Saxa/raga Geum and S. umbrosa, 
with several varieties and apparently intermediate forms. 
S. umbrosa has been incorrectly called ‘St. Patrick’s 
Cabbage.’ Mr. Colgan, who has paid much attention to 
the Celtic names of plants, is of opinion that the more 
correct name would be ‘Fox’s Cabbage, and that the 
mistake has arisen from the similarity of the Celtic words 
for ‘fox’ and ‘St. Patrick. On the stone walls in the 
Gap, Sedum album was common, and the foliage of Pingui- 
cula grandiflora was conspicuous everywhere. The place 
of the common Gorse was occupied by dwarf clumps of 
Ulez Galli, with its pale yellow flowers. On the moor 
beyond the Gap we observed all three species of Drosera in 
great profusion, and near the same place were clumps of 
Cladium jamaicense. As we neared the upper lake, we found 
much Huphorbia hiberna by the roadside. Salmon poachers 
express the latex from this plant, and stupify the fish by 
putting it into the streams. In Donegal this Spurge 
attains its extreme northern limit for Europe. In Britain 
it has been found only in North Devon. The [Royal fern 
occurs in great profusion in the neighbourhood of the 
Lakes.” 

While this party were making their round by the Gap 
of Dunloe, Mr. Evans and Dr. Paul, accompanied and guided 
_ by Dr. Scully, spent the forenoon on the lower lake. Rowing 
first to the mouth of the Flesk River, we found—Alisma 
ranunculoides, L., in very fine form; the lovely Wahlenbergia 
hederacea, Reichb.; Microcala filiformis, Hotfm. and Link, 
found only in the extreme south-west of Ireland; Bartsia 


158 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. ixvi. 


viscosa, L.; Potamogeton pusillus, L.; Eleocharis acicularis, 
R. Br. Proceeding next to Ross Bay and the grounds of 
Muckross Abbey, we found—AHquisetum variegatwm, var. 
Wilsoni, Newm.; Callitriche autwmnalis, L.; Galium syl- 
vestre, Poll.; Lastrwa Thelypteris, Presl.; Nitella Nordsted- 
tiana, Groves; N. translugens, Agardh.; Naias flexilis, Rostk.; 
Chara flexilis, Desv.; Potamogeton lucens, L.; and P. per- 
Joliatus, L. 

In addition to these plants, there were found next day, 
chiefly in the Muckross Abbey Grounds, by the party who 
had made the Dunloe excursion, the following :—fubia 
peregrina, L.; Galium boreale, L. (near Lake Hotel) ; 
Pimpinella major, Huds. (common); Geranium lucidum, 
L.; Hypericum calycinum, L. (in masses); H. Androsemum, 
L. (oceasionally); Agrimonia Eupatoria, L.;  Petasites 
fragrans, Presl.; Saponaria officinalis, L.; Arbutus Unedo, 
L.; Veronica Tournefortii, C. Gmel.; Calamintha officinalis, 
Meench.; Carex paniculata, L.; C. remota, L.; C. Benning- 
hausiana, Weihe; and Ophioglossum vulgatum, L. 

On Thursday, 1st August, the majority of the members 
of the party with Dr. Scully went on by rail to Kenmare, 
and put up at the Southern Hotel. At Headford Junction, 
Senecio vulgaris, var. radiatus, Koch., was abundant. Strol- 
ling in the neighbourhood of the town in the afternoon, 
they picked up Pinguicula grandiflora, Lam. (larger than 
in the Gap of Dunloe); Verbena officinalis, L.; Hypericum 
humifusum, L.; Carex divulsa, Good.; Asplenium adiantum- 
-nigrum, L.; A. trichomanes, L.; A. Ruta muraria, 1. ; 
Lastrea cemula, Brack.; Ceterach officinarum, Willd.; Scolo- 
pendrium vulgare,Sym. On the seashore—Sfatice rariflora, 
Drej.; Sueda maritima, Dum.; Salicornia herbacea, L.; Aster 
Tripolium, L.; and Rumex crispus, var. littoreus, Hardy. 

On the following day the same party drove to the 
Cloonee Lakes, on the south side of the Kenmare River, 
and seven miles distant from the town. On this expedition. 
they had the advantage of the assistance of Mr. Nathaniel 
Colgan, M.R.I.A., who had come to Kenmare to meet them. 
He and Dr. Scully are the joint-editors of the valuable 
“Cybele Hibernica.” Several interesting plants were found, 
notably, Lvriocaulon septangulare, With.;  Sisyrinchium 
angustifolium, Mill; Microcala filiformis, Hoffm. and Link.; 


on th i 


Jan. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 159 


Rynchospora fusca, Reem. and Schult.; and Carex punctata, 
Gaud. 

The £Lriocaulon is not uncommon in the west of Ireland, 
growing usually near the sea. It is plentiful in Conne- 
mara. In Britain it occurs only in Skye and Coll, and in 
one or two of the neighbouring islands. It is a North 
American species, and is not found on the continent of 
Europe. Here it was growing in extensive patches, sub- 
merged in the water, and also on the soaking, muddy soil 
at its edge. The Sisyrinchium grew among the stones 
above the shore-line. Its small blue flowers had a charming 
effect, and only a limited number of specimens were 


gathered. It is confined to Kerry, Cork, and Galway. 


It is a North American plant, and there is reason to 
believe that it is not truly indigenous in Ireland. 
Mierocala filiformis was found only after a long search. 
It is a minute, slender, fairy-like plant, of an erect habit, 
only an inch or two high, topped by a rich yellow flower 
like a miniature gentian. It was seen first in wet ground 
near the sea, and again in ditches near the lakes. Carex 
punetata was growing almost on the seashore. It occurs 
only in Kerry and Cork, but is locally abundant. 

Other plants found on this expedition were—Carex 
extensa, Good.; Scirpus Tabernemontani, Gmel.; S. mari- 
timus, L.; Juncus maritimus, Lam.; Pinguicula lusitaniea, 
L.; Lobelia Dortmanna, L.; Drosera intermedia, Hayne; 
Elatine hexrandra, DC.; Mentha Pulegium, L.; Juneus 
tenuis, Willd.; Anthemis nobilis, L.: Bartsia viscosa, L.; 
Scutellaria minor, Huds.; Hypericum elodes, L.; Utricularia 
minor, L. (in ower); and Lastrwa emula, Brack. 

The two members of the Club, Mr. Evans and Dr. Paul, 
who had not come on at once to Kenmare, left Killarney 
on 31st July and travelled by rail vid Tralee and Castle- 
Gregory to Cloghane. The train to Tralee arrived too late 
to catch the last train cf the primitive light railway to 
Castle-Gregory, and this misfortune made it necessary to 


drive first to Castle-Gregory and then on to Cloghane— 


a distance altogether of about twenty miles. The evening, 
however, was fine, and the drive along the seacoast was 
much enjoyed. Arriving at their destination they found 
quarters at Mrs. O’Connor’s inn, situated in the little 


160 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. uxvi- 


village, and of very humble appearance, but clean and 
comfortable. Here they remained from the Wednesday 
evening till the Saturday morning, and they can recommend 
Mrs. O’Connor’s to any botanist who may desire accom- 
modation in that part of Kerry. 

The main object in view was to find the Killarney fern. 
Unfortunately, the first day, Thursday, was very wet, 
and the search was unsuccessful,—the searchers being 
compelled to return to the inn early in the afternoon, 
drenched. The next day, however, was fine, and, having 
with them as guide a very intelligent man belonging to 
the village, who professed to know where the plant was 
growing, they again passed up the valley of the Owenmore, 
a fine fishing stream, to the point where the road is crossed 
by a tributary burn issuing from Lough Cruttia. This 
tributary they followed up till they reached the Lough, 
a sheet of water about a mile long by a quarter of a mile 
broad. The guide led them up the rocky hillside on the 
south-west side of the Lough, to a point about 300 feet 
above its level, and showed them a pretty large plant of 
the fern growing in a deep hole among the boulders. 
There was no water near, and it seemed to be entirely 
dependent on the rain for the moisture it requires. One 
or two leaves were taken, but the plant was left undis- 
turbed. Another similar hole, under a great rock farther 
up the hillside, was pointed out, where a much larger 
plant was recently growing, but the whole of it had been 
rooted up and sold. The guide, who knew the fern well, 
said he had very carefully searched over the whole 
hillside, and looked into every likely hole, but that he 
knew of no other plant now remaining. It was satisfactory 
to see even a single plant of it, although one had to be led 
to the spot by a guide. 

Trichomanes radicans, Swartz, is found, or used to be 
found, in seven of the twelve botanical districts into 
which Ireland is divided; but in many of its former 
localities it has been exterminated. It was formerly 
plentiful in parts of Kerry, whereas it is now very rare 
in the country. In 1858 it was “abundant on the Tore 
Mountain ” near Killarney, and it was seen there as late 
as 1889; but Dr. Scully states in the “ Cybele Hibernica ” 


JAN. 1902. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 161 


that it is “nearly, if not quite, exterminated in the 
districts of Killarney and the Reeks.” Unfortunately it 
acquired a money value, and, wherever it could be 
obtained, the people of the locality earned a few shillings 
by selling it to tourists, not one in twenty of whom would 
be able to grow it when they had it. It is sad to think 
that so interesting a plant should be doomed to extinction 
to satisfy an ignorant and stupid cupidity. There was a 
dying specimen in the inn at Cloghane, which had evidently 
been quite recently gathered in the neighbourhood, and 
which a poor attempt was made to grow under impossible 
conditions. No plant of 7richomanes, except that seen at 
Lough Cruttia, was observed by any member of the Club 
during the expedition, but doubtless a good many isolated 
plants still occur, scattered here and there over the vast 
mountainous region of Kerry. The guide indicated one 
other spot, at some distance from the Lough, where he said 
it was to be found. 

The only other plant particularly noteworthy found in 
the neighbourhood of Cloghane, was the rare Sibthorpia 
europea, L., which was observed growing on the roadside 
near Kileummin, on a bare, moist, almost vertical bank. 
In Ireland this plant is confined to the Dingle peninsula. 

Other plants seen by Messrs. Evans and Paul, and not 
already mentioned as occurring at Killarney or Kenmore, 
were Althwa officinalis, L. (probably a garden escape) : 
Samolus Valerandi, L.; Pulicaria dysenterica, Gertn.; and 
Viola tricolor, var. Curtisii, Forst. 

Making an early start on Saturday morning, these two 
members of the Club journeyed back by Tralee and 
Killarney to rejoin the others at Kenmare, which they 
reached at midday, only regretting that their stay amid 
the romantic scenery of Cloghane had been so brief. 

The same day the whole party drove in the afternoon 
from Kenmare to Parknasilla, near Sneem, along a road 
which presented at every turn fine views of the mountains 
and of the picturesque estuary. The commonest plants by 
the wayside were Ulex Gallii, Planch, and Anthemis nobilis, 
L., the latter in great profusion. As we drove along, 
Messrs. Cowan and Boyd were each fortunate enough to 
find an interesting variety of the Royal fern, amid the 


162 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxvi. 


myriads of magnificent specimens growing in the water- 
ditches. Mr. Druery, to whom they have been sub- 
“mitted, proposes to call the variety found by Mr. Cowan, 
decomposita, and that found by Mr. Boyd, plumosa. At 
Parknasilla we found the Southern Hotel spacious and com- 
fortable, and there we remained until the party broke up. 
4th August.—Several members of the party, along with 
Dr. Scully and Mr. Colgan, drove through Sneem to a 
point about half-way to Derrynane, and then turned sharp 
to the right up the hill for a few miles, in quest of 
two very rare plants, Polygonum sagittifolium, L., and 
Simethis bicolor, Kunth, both of which were found. The 
Polygonum was discovered by Dr. Scully in 1889, growing 
abundantly in one or two localities in the neighbourhood 
of Castle-Cove, and it has not been found elsewhere in 
Great Britain or Ireland. It is “common in low grounds 
in the Northern United States.” “It seems best to regard 
it as an alien introduced by some accidental means, and 
now fully established in a wild locality” (““Cyb. Hib.”) The 
Simethis was found in crevices of the rocks near the road. 
Its headquarters are in the immediate neighourhood of 
Derrynane, but it also occurs for eight or nine miles 
east of that place, here and there by the shore of Kenmare 
River. Except for the one English station of Bourne- 
mouth, it is confined to this hmited locality in the south- 
west of Kerry, so that it may be regarded as one of 
our rarest plants. Saliz pentandra, L., was also observed on 
this excursion, an uncommon tree in Ireland, and probably 
not indigenous in the south. The other plants noticed 
have already been mentioned as belonging to the district. 

In the neighbourhood of the Parknasilla Hotel fine 
plants of Crithmum maritimum, L., were found growing on 
the rocks by the side of the estuary, and, in great 
luxuriance, on the gravel. Lastrwa cemula, Brack., was 
a common fern in the extensive and beautiful grounds 
of the hotel, and specimens of Carex extensa, Good., with 
very long bracts were gathered. 

Next day, 5th August, the members of the Club 
separated, and the meeting came to an end, to the great 
recret of all, for the beauty of the scenery and the 
occurrence of so many unfamiliar plants had rendered 


o 


Jan. 1902. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 163 


it peculiarly interesting and enjoyable. We were greatly 
favoured by the presence and assistance of Dr. Scully 
and Mr. Colgan, both adepts in the botany of Ireland, 
to whom our grateful thanks are due. Most of the party 
travelled back by Kenmare and Killarney direct to Dublin 
and Glasgow. Two subsidiary excursions were, however, 
carried out, one by Mr. Somerville, and the other by 
Messrs. Evans, Crawford, and Paul. 

Mr. Somerville proceeded alone to Valencia Island, 
taking the beautiful coach drive by Sneem, Waterville, 
and Cahirciveen, crossing from the latter place to the 
island, which is largely grass moorland. Euphorbia hiberna, 
L., was plentiful on the eastern side; Lastrea emula, 
Brack., frequent on the western side; while Bartsia 
viscosa, L., was observed on wet ground. The wooded 
northern end would probably reward botanical search. 
Growing in Knight’s Town with Sagina maritima, var. 
debilis, Jord., was Spergularia rubra, Presl., unrecorded 
for County Kerry in Preger’s “Top. Bot. of Ireland.” Mr. 
Somerville returned by rail to Killarney. 

Messrs. Evans, Crawford, and Paul paid a flying visit 
from Dublin to Connemara in search of the heath Erica 
Stuarti, which Dr. Charles Stuart, of Chirnside, found 
there in 1890. Travelling by rail to Ballinahinch, which 
is the nearest station to the low hill on which the heath 
was found, they were unable, after careful examination, 
to discover it again, although there is every likelihood 
that it is still growing there. rica Mackayii, Hook., was 
growing in abundance and in great beauty, and Mr. 
Crawford was fortunate enough to find in some quantity 
the particularly fine very double variety of it, which was 
exhibited to the Society at its last meeting, and which 
is again upon the table to-night. Nothing else of any 
special note was observed. 

Here follows a combined list of the more remarkable 
plants gathered during the whole excursion :— 

Nymphbea lutea, L.—Killarney. 

Castalia speciosa, Salisb.—Killarney. 
Viola Curtisii, Forster—Cloghane. 
Saponaria officinalis, L._—Muckross Abbey. 


Arenaria trinervia, L.—Muckross Abbey. 
Spergularia rubra, Presl.— Valencia. 


164 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


Hlatine hexandra, DC.—Kenmare. 
Hypericum Androszeemum, L.—Muckross Abbey. 
calycinum, L.—Muckross Abbey. 
— humifusum, L.—Kenmare. 

elodes, L.—Gap of Dunloe, ete. 
Altheea officinalis, L.—Cloghane. 

Geranium lucidum, L —Muckross Abbey. 
Euonymus europeus, L.—Killarney. 

Ulex Gallii, Planch—Kenmare, ete. 
Agrimonia Eupatoria, L.—Muckross Abbey. 
Saxifraga Geum, L.—Killarney, ete. 
umbrosa, L.—Killarney, ete. 

-—— tridactylites, L.—Killarney. 
Cotyledon umbilicus, L.—Killarney. 

Sedum album, L.—Gap of Dunloe. 

Drosera rotundifolia, L.—Killarney, etc. 
anglica, Huds.—Kallarney, ete. 

— intermedia, Hayne—Killarney, etc. 
Callitriche autumnalis, L —Killarney. 
Circeea lutetiana, L.—Killarney, ete. 
Pimpinella major, Huds.—Muckross Abbey. 
Rubia peregrina, L.—Muckross Abbey. 
Galium boreale, L.—Killarney. 

sylvestre, Poll.—Kaullarney. 

Aster Tripolium, L.—Kenmare. 

Pulicaria dysenterica, Geertn.—Cloghane. 
Anthemis nobilis, L.—Kenmare, etc. 
Petasites fragrans, Presl.—Muckross Abbey. 


[SEss. LXVI. 


Senecio vulgaris, var. radiatus, Koch.—Headford Junction. 
Erica Mackayii, Hook., and double variety--Connemara. 


Lobelia Dortmanna, L., Kenmare. 

Jasione montana, L.—Killarney, ete. 
Wahlenbergia hederacea, Reichb.—Killarney. 
Arbutus Unedo, L,.—Killarney. 

Statice rariflora, Drej.—Kenmare. 

Lysimachia nemorum, L.—Killarney. 

Anagallis tenella, L.—Killarney, etc. 

Samolus Valerandi, L.—Cloghane. 

Microeala filiformis, Hoffm. and Link.—Kenmare. 
Erythrea centaurium, Pers.—Kenmare. 

Sibthorpia europsea, L.—Cloghane. 

Veronica Tournefortii, C. Gmel.—Muckross Abbey. 
Bartsia viscosa, L.—Killarney, ete. 

Orobanche Hederze, Duby.—Killarney and Muckross. 
Utricularia minor, L.—Kenmare. 


Pinguicula grandiflora, Lam.—Killarney, and near Sneem. 


lusitanica, L.—Kenmare. 
Verbena officinalis, L.—Kenmare. 
Mentha Pulegium, L.—Kenmare. 


JAN. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


Calamintha officinalis, Moench.—Muckross. 
Scutellaria minor, Huds.—Gap of Dunloe. 
Salicornia herbacea, L.—Kenmare. 

Suzeda maritima, Dum.—Kenmare. 

Polygonum sagittifolium, L.—Derrynane. 
Rumex crispus, var. littoreus, Hardy—Kenmare. 
Euphorbia hiberna, L.—Killarney, ete. 

Salix pentandra, L.—Sneem. 

Sisyrinchium angustifolium, Mill—Kenmare. 
Simethis bicolor, Kunth—Derrynane. 

Juncus tenuis, Willd.—Kenmare. 

— maritimus, Lam.—Kenmare, ete. 

Alisma ranunculoides, L.—Killarney. 
Potamogeton lucens, L.—Killarney. 

perfoliatus, L.—Killarney. 

pusillus, L.—Killarney. 

Naias flexilis, Rosk. and Schmidt—Killarney. 
Eriocaulon septangulare, With.—Kenmare. 
Eleocharis acicularis, R. Br.—Killarney. 

Scirpus Tabernzemontani, Gmel.—Kenmare. 
maritimus, L.—Kenmare. 

Rynchospora fusca, Roem. and Schult.—Kenmare. 
Cladium jamaicense, Crantz—Killarney. 

Carex paniculata, L.—Muckross, 

divulsa, Good.—Kenmare. 

— remota, L.—Muckross. 

— Beenninghausiana, Weihe—Muckross. 
— extensa, Good.—Kenmare. 

punctata, Gaud.—Kenmare. 

Trichomanes radicans, Sw.—Cloghane. 

Lastrea Thelypteris, Presl.—Muckross. 

zmula, Brack.—Parknasilla, etc. 
Ophioglossum vulgatum, L.—Killarney. 
Hymenophyllum tunbridgense, Sm.—Killarney. 
— unilaterale, Bory—Killarney. 

Polypodium vulgare, var. semilacerum.—Killarney. 
Osmunda regalis, L.—Killarney, ete. 

Ceterach officinarum, Willd.—Kenmare. 
Equisetum variegatum, var. Wilsoni, Newm.—Killarney. 
Chara flexilis, Rosk. and Schmidt—Killarney. 
Nitella Nordstedtiana, H. and J. Groves—Killarney. 
translucens, Agardh—Killarney. 


166 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxvr. 


TuE BoTANICAL RARITIES OF A SUB-ALPINE PARISH. 
By James M‘AnpREW, Assoc. of Edin. Bot. Soe. 


(Read 18th February 1902.) 


The parish I refer to is that of Kells, situated about 
the middle of Kirkeudbrightshire, and formed by a hilly 
ridge—a spur of the Lowther and Lead Hills, running in 
a southerly direction—and two slopes, one to the west 
to the Blackwater of Dee, and the other to the east to the 
river Ken, these slopes being intersected by several shaded 
sub-alpine glens or, rather, ravines. Loch Ken forms part 
of the eastern boundary of Kells. With the exception of 
some arable land along the river Ken and Loch Ken, all 
the parish consists of moors and hills suitable only for 
sheep farms. The highest hill is Corserine, 2650 feet 
high. The salubrity and moistness of the climate, and 
the diversified surface of hills, bogs, dales, glens, burns, 
rivers, lochs, and woods, render this inland parish 
peculiarly favourable for the growth of cryptogamic plants, 
which here flourish in unusual profusion and variety, 
notwithstanding the fact that the two rock formations of 
the whole parish are granite and greywacké—rocks which, 
in general, are not very productive of plant life. The 
trunks of the trees, too, are luxuriantly covered with 
cryptogamic vegetation. 

I may here say that I have published in the “Transactions 
of the Dumfries and Galloway Natural History, ete., Society” 
lists of the Flowering Plants, Ferns, Mosses, Hepatic, and 
Lichens of the south-west of Scotland, from which I would 
cull the following from the Parish of Kells, showing that 
there is truth in the remark that that district is the richest 
in plants, which has been most carefully searched, and that 
too by one resident in the district. 

FLowerInG PLANTS.—On the hills and moors are such 
plants as—Thalictrum alpinum, L.; Saliva herbacea, L.; 
Lycopodium alpinum, L.; Sedum rosewm, Scop.; Carlina 
vulgaris, L.; Cardwus heterophyllus, Willd.; Hieracvum 
holosericewm, Backh.; three species of Drosera; Pinguicula, 
lusitanica, L.; and Listera cordata, R. Br., among heather 
on the hillsides. Lower down are Ranunculus Lenormandt, 


Fes, 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 167 


F, Schultz.; Radiola linoides, Roth.; Lathrea squamaria, 
L.; Melica nutans, L.; and Millium effusum, L., in the 
woods; Avena pubescens, Huds., and A. pratensis, L., on hilly 
pastures; Serratula tinctoria, L., by the side of Loch Ken. 
Hymenophyllum unilaterale, Bory; Polystichum angulare, 
Presl.; P. lobatum, Presl.; and P. aculeatum, Syme; with 
abundance of oak and beech ferns, flourish in the sub-alpine 
glens. The carices and the grasses are also well repre- 
sented. Among the former is Carex aquatilis, var. elatior, 
Bab., with its form virescens, Anders., in great plenty. 
What I consider the three rarest plants of the parish 
are—Juncus tenuis, Willd., gathered in two stations by 
myself in 1887, and since then in other two stations in Kirk- 
eudbrightshire ; Carex elongata, L., in 1887, in a lagoon in 
Kenmure Holms, and here also I found Calamagrostis 
lanceolata, Roth., in 1884, a grass which, as far as I am 
aware, has not been gathered elsewhere in Scotland. 
Mosses.—In bogs, and on wet hill slopes, ete., are 
found a great majority of the Sphagna of the British 
Islands. Among these are Sphagnum Austini, Sull., with 
var. imbricatum, Ldb.; S. medium, Limpr.; S. tenellum, Ehrh.; 
S. rigidum, Schp.; S. Milleri, Braith.; S. papilloswum, Ldb.; 
S. Girgensohnii, Russ. ; S. teres, Angstr.; and many vars. and 
forms of S. acutifolium, Ehrh. On the wet moors the 
Campylopi are very fine. On the higher hills are to be 
gathered —Rhabdoweissia crenulatus, Jameson; Dicranum 
Schistt, Ldb.; the Grimmias, decipiens, Ldb., incurva, 
Schultz., torquata, Hornsch., funalis, Schp., commutata, 
Hiib., and patens, B. and S.; Gdipodium GCriffithianum, 
Schwe.: Ulota Hutchinsie, Hamm.; the Grimmias, Hart- 
manni, Schp., and subsguarrosa, Wils., by the side of 
Loch Ken; Grimmia Doniana, Sm., on dry whinstone 
dykes. Grimmia Stirtoni, Schp.; Hedwigia ciliata, var. 
striata, Wils.; and Myrinia pulvinata, Schp., also occur. 
The rarer Hypnums, callichroum, Brid., intermedium, Ladb., 
aduncum, Hedw., eugyrium, var. Mackayii, Schp., brevirostre, 
~ B. and §., depressum, Dixon, etc., are all found. I also 
once gathered Buxbaumia aphylla, L., in the parish. 
Hepatic®.—The sub-alpine glens in Kells Parish are 
particularly suitable to the growth of Hepatic, of which 
many species are found. Some of the rarest are—Torella 


168 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. Lxv1. 


rivularis, Nees; several of the Lejeune; Radula aquilegia, 
Tayl.; and &. Lindenbergu, Gottsche; Lepidozia Pearson, 
Spr.; Jungermannia Pearsoni, Spr.; Scapania subalpina, 
Nees; Hygrobiella laaifolia, Hook.; Aplozia autunnalis, DC.; 
Metzgeria hamata, Ldb.; Aneura palmata, Hedw.; and 
Riccia glaucescens, Carr. The rarest hepatic I gathered in 
the parish was Harpanthus Flotovianus, Nees, but only a 
few stems of it. This hepatic has only been found in two 
or three places in the kingdom. 

Licuens.—The lichens are also in great plenty, especially 
the Cladoniz, of which there are about thirty species, 
besides varieties, and among these the rare Cladonia 
leptophylla, Ach. Of Cladoniz sent by me to Dr. Stirton, 
he made about sixteen forms of C. subsquamosa, Nyl. 
These are given in the “Scottish Naturalist” of 1888, 
as also several new forms of Usnea. Other genera of 
lichens are equally well represented. I may mention 
Platysma commiatum, Nyl.; Sticta intricata, var. Thouarsit; 
Umbilicaria pustulata, Hoffm., which occurs in great plenty 
across the river Ken in the neighbouring parish; fourteen 
species of Parmelia, as P. pertusa, Schrank, P. Borreri, 
Turn., P. incurva, Pers., etc.; and Leptogium Burgessit, 
Lightf. On sloping granite rocks on Cairnsmuir of Dee 
is found in two stations the very rare lichen Synalissa 
intricata, Nyl., which, as far as I am aware, has not 
been found elsewhere in Britain. The same hill has also 
Pilophoron fibula, Tuck. Dr. Stirton has in the “ Scottish 
Naturalist” named and described two new lichens from 
this parish. Parmelia reddenda, Strn., growing on ash 
trees. Some lichenologists maintain that this Parmelia 
is only a form of P. orrerit, Turn. I have found it 
sparingly in other places. The other lichen is Lithographa 
Andrewii, Strn., growing parasitically on Lecanora tartarea, L. 
Dr. Nylander, of Paris, has also named three new species 
from the parish, viz. Lecidea umbralis, Nyl., a form of 
L. Lightfootii, Sm., growing on alder trees; L. neglectella, 
Nyl., and Pannularia perfurfurea, Nyl. 

Fune1—I know very few fungi, but the rarest find 
I made among this class of plants was in 1878 of Spheria 
riccioidea, Bolt., or Hypocrea riccioidea, Berk. In the 
“Scottish Naturalist” of 1878, p. 304, is an interesting 


Fes. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 169 


note by the Rev. Dr. Stevenson, of Glamis, on this fungus. 
It is there mentioned that this remarkably rare fungus 
was only twice found on the Continent, and not in England 
since February 1790. I may say that I found this fungus 
in two stations in Kells Parish, and twice in the neighbour- 
ing parishes. It grows on dead willows. I have seen no 
record of any other one finding it. 


FuncrionaL INERTIA—-A PROPERTY oF PRroropLasM. By 
David Fraser Harris, B.Se.(Lond.), M.D., Lecturer on 
Physiology and Histology in the University of St. Andrews. 


(Read 15th February 1902.) 


I. Just as “dead” matter has two forms of inertia—that 
of rest (mass) and that of motion (momentum), so too, 
I think, has living matter (protoplasm, whether animal 
or vegetable). It is owing to the inertia of matter at 
rest that the heavy gate, swung on even almost frictionless 
hinges, cannot be instantaneously set in motion, and, when 
it has been set swinging, it is owing to its inertia of 
motion (momentum) that it continues to swing for some 
time after we have ceased to push it. Now, I think, 
protoplasm has a functional inertia—that property of 
remaining in the status quo ante for a longer or shorter 
time according to the function considered, that property of 
continuing to act as it has been acting, in spite of the 
application of a stimulus tending to effect a change of 
action, and that power of continuing to exhibit the 
phenomena it has been exhibiting after even the death 
of the organism of which it is a constituent. The inertia 
of protoplasm is, then, the capacity for remaining in the 
functional status quo ante. This inertia of “livingness” 
expresses itself under several different modes or categories 
—bio-chemically, as “latent period,” as “refractory period” 
(physiological insusceptibility), rhythmically, or as accom- 
panied by a conscious correlate, according as we study the 
manifestations of the livingness from the standpoints 
respectively of chemical change, time-relation to stimulus, 
affectability, alternation of metabolic phase, or finally 
consciousness. Livingness is, from the bio-chemical stand- 


TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN, VOL. XXII. M 


170 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Suss. LXVI. 


point, bound up with the two-phased process of metabolism 
in which, while anabolism and katabolism are coexistent 
and mutually adjusted, it is generally possible, at any 
given instant, to say, with regard to most tissues, whether 
anabolism or katabolism is the predominating or charac- 
teristic phase. There would, then, be a functional inertia 
of katabolism (or katabolic inertia), a tendency for that 
phase pre-eminently to be continued after the reception of 
a stimulus tending to induce any other metabolic distribu- 
tion (anabolism either equal to or greater than katabolism), 
and conversely, there would be a functional inertia of 
anabolism (or anabolic inertia), the tendency for that 
phase pre-eminently to be continued in spite of a stimulus 
of opposite nature. This power of maintaining the status 
quo ante of a particular phase of metabolism, I call the 
functional inertia of the protoplasm. As examples of 
katabolic inertia, there is that large class embracing all 
cases of local life, of organs, tissues or cells, after somatic 
death, the post-mortem expression of the functional imertia 
of katabolism, eg. the muscle of the familiar “nerve 
muscle preparation,” which still “acts” though removed 
from its nutrient lymph, the excised and isolated bloodless 
frog-heart beating on a glass plate for hours after the 
death of the animal, the isolated medullated nerves still 
giving evidence of conductivity for many hours after 
excision, the vivisected, non-nucleated portion of ZLacry- 
maria olor,’ and other Protista, the ciliated epithelium from 
frog’s gullet living for days as an isolated patch, and even 
the isolated cilium itself exhibiting movements “till it 
perishes.” In this class I do not include the cases of 
organs surviving by reason of perfused defibrinated blood, 
for here their metabolism is being constantly supported by 
nourishment apphed under artificial conditions; but I 
would include all cases of organs isolated from all nervous 
and vascular connections, and surviving by reason of the 
perfusion of salt solution. No food is thereby introduced, 
the NaCl is powerless to prolong life indefinitely—no 
longer than the time when the katabolic inertia of the 
protoplasm shall have been spent. Of course organs and 
tissues still im sitw in the dead body ean exhibit their 


1 Verworn. ‘General Physiology.”’ London, 1899, p. 570. 
Nf sy ’ p 


Fes, 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 171 


katabolic inertia; examples are numerous, ¢.y. the respiratory 
centres emitting impulses even after evisceration in Marmot 
(Marckwald), the post-mortem continuation of intestinal 
peristalsis, the medullated nerves remaining excitable three 
to four days after severance from the central nervous 
system, the growth of hairs, and all cases of local cell-life 
after death—spermatozoa in the vesiculee seminales, cilia 
in trachea, etc., and amceboid leucocytes generally. All 
eases of post-mortem bio-chemical change are illustrations 
of katabolic inertia, eg. the excised liver continuing to 
convert glycogen to dextrose, the isolated and _ bloodless 
muscle producing CO, in atmosphere of N or H, the tissues 
continuing to produce heat, to reduce deoxidisable material 
brought into contact with them, and the post-mortem 
formation of enzymes generally; also all cases of tissues 
living without food, whether it be total deprivation 
(starvation) or partial, as in the withdrawal of O,, or H,0O, 
are examples of katabolic inertia. Of course, it is not only 
in normal conditions that protoplasm exhibits its functional 
inertia—the very expression of its inertia, when not in 
harmony with the general well-being of the body, constitutes 
the “ disease.” 

Thus the Adipose Diathesis is the almost ineradicable 
and often inherited tendency of certain tissues to deposit 
fat; but this can be stated as accurately, thus—that fat- 
deposition is the result of a particular chemical expression 
of the functional inertia of certain forms of protoplasm, 
this particular expression of the inertia being “ morbid,’ 
in that it is abnormally long-continued and altogether 
excessive. Or, again, we have a pathological phemiadl 
manifestation of functional inertia of certain tissues in 
Diabetes mellitus. Their inertia expresses itself chemically 
in the excessive production of sugar—a tendency in many 
cases (as also in fat-deposition) not amenable to drugs 
(chemical stimuli), and morbid, in that it is a disregarding 
of the metabolic needs of other tissues, for such a quantity 
of circulating sugar is to them a poison. According to 
Professor Adami, the property of inertia of protoplasm 
is one of the essential conditions underlying the perverted 
“habit of growth” of certain cells which is responsible for 
many kinds of cancerous tumours. Professor Adami, both 


172 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. Lxv1. 


in his paper on “The Causation of Cancerous Growths,” * 
and in a private communication, acknowledges that what 
he had, since 1896, called “habit of growth” in certain 
cells, which ought not to be proliferating then or there, is 
“based upon that principle of inertia” concerning which 
he quotes at some leneth from my original paper.” 

I had early seen that it must be in virtue of the inertia 
of protoplasm that certain cells hold on their disastrous 
course of local growth, utterly oblivious to the vital needs of 
adjacent tissues, but I did not feel myself entitled to speak 
on matters pathological with that authority which belongs 
to a specialist in pathology. I felt sure the principle was 
capable of wide application, not only to problems in 
pathology but in embryology (and teratology), and in the 
study of inheritance in its widest aspects. Functional 
inertia seems as universal a property of living matter as is 
the inertia of non-living matter. In my original paper I 
used the term functional “momentum” as equivalent to 
katabolic inertia; I have not persisted in the use of the 
term, because of the very precise mathematical meaning 
(4MY’) assignable to “momentum”; if, however, momentum 
be used without this exact signification, and merely as a 
synonym for “inertia of matter in motion,” then there is 
a functional or protoplasmic momentum. 

All those eases insisted upon by Heidenhain of organs 
performing their functions, especially glands secreting, 
either in the absence of blood or after extreme vasocon- 
striction, are clearly cases of katabolic inertia; the secretion 
cannot be indefinitely kept up after the blood-supply 
(=food-supply) has been eut off, the apparent independ- 
ence is only temporary, the bloodless protoplasm indeed 
maintains its secretional status quo ante, but only so long 
as its katabolic inertia persists. Functional inertia ex- 
presses itself very markedly in the phenomenon known as 
“latent period” or “ physiological lost time.” In the case 
of stimulation of the cardiac Vagus, it is katabolic inertia 
that is responsible for the “latency.” It is very well 
known that this stimulus does not take effect at once, but. 
that the time of about a beat and a half (frog’s heart) may 


1“ Brit. Med. Journal,” 16th March 1901, pp. 624 and 626. 
* “ Brit. Med. Journal,” 15th Sept. 1900 (paper read August 1900). 


Fes. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 173 


elapse between the instant of the application of the stimulus 
and the consequent cardiae inhibition. The heart, in other 
words, gives no “outward and visible sign” of the impending 
change of condition during, it may be, two beats—the time- 
expression of the katabolic inertia of cardiae protoplasm. 
It is shorter but demonstrable in the mammalian heart. 
Again, it is in virtue of the katabclie inertia of nonstriated 
muscle that there elapses the relatively very long time 
(latent period) of 18” before stimulation of the splanchnic 
nerve is followed by inhibition of the intestinal movements, 
i.e. induces the anabolic phase. Similarly, the phase of 
predominating katabolism having been induced, e.g. in 
cardiac acceleration, it will be maintained for 30” (frog- 
heart) after the withdrawal of the accelerating stimulus, 
in virtue of the cardiac katabolic inertia. Thus, as 
exhibited under the time category, functional inertia is 
that property of protoplasm in virtue of which it does not 
respond to a stimulus (the time of non-response or latency 
being longer or shorter according to the tissue and function, 
in the case of vegetable protoplasm relatively very long— 
an hour or more), and is thus the opposite property to 
affectability or irritability. Viewed under the category of 
non-response itself, functional inertia is the property under- 
lying physiological insusceptibility, “refractory period ” 
and allied states; it is thus the functional counterpart of 
irritability. It is by reason of the property of irritability 
that living matter responds to stimuli, but it is in virtue 
of its other property of functional inertia that it does not 
do so instantaneously. It is by reason of its affectability 
that the quiescent heart performs a systole on stimulation ; 
it is by reason of its functional inertia that it performs a 
maximal systole—the “all or nothing” action, as it has 
been called, and in virtue of which the heart cannot be 
tetanised. Just as dead matter cannot be instantaneously 
caused to change its state, neither can bioplasm; by the 
inertia of its mass, or of its motion, “dead” matter tends to 
remain in the status quo ante; by the inertia of its living- 
ness (in relative rest or in relative activity) protoplasm 
tends to remain in its (functional) status quo ante. 

Passing to cases where there is a conscious correlate, we 
have, in the positive after-sensation, a good example of 


174 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxvi. 


katabolic inertia. An active state has been set up in an 
end-organ, and has thence been propagated into the central 
nervous system; a particular sensation is the conscious 
counterpart. ‘The stimulus is now suddenly withdrawn, 
but, as is well known, the sensation does not equally 
suddenly cease—it persists as the + after-sensation due to 
the katabolic inertia of the tissues involved. This is well- 
marked in the case of sight, where the + after-image is the 
correlative in consciousness of the continued activity (post- 
stimulant) of the retino-cerebral protoplasm, 7.¢. its katabolic 
inertia. It is to this inertia that the beautiful modern 
illusions of seeing movement are due, in the instruments 
known as kinematograph (kinetoscope, mutoscope, etc.). 

II. The functional inertia of resting protoplasm, «e. of 
the characteristically anabolic phase (anabolic inertia) is 
quite as well marked, though there may not be so many 
familiar examples. We have just spoken of the +4 after- 
image; we have a good example of anabolic inertia in the 
negative after-image. After retinal activity—the katabolic 
phase—has existed for some time, the phase of relative 
rest, reconstruction must supervene, and this gives in con- 
sciousness the — after-image (reversal of black and white, 
complementary colours, etc.). Now very often this fades 
away and is succeeded by the + after-image, that again 
by the —, there being a series of alternating metabolic 
phases—the rhythmical or oscillatory expression of the 
retinal functional inertia, the analogue in living matter of 
the to and fro swing of the pendulum or the vibrations of 
the jelly. 

Anabolic inertia is well expressed in terms of time- 
delay, by the familiar “true latent period” of the 
stimulation of muscle. The muscle is at rest or in its 
anabolic phase, and the functional inertia of this is ex- 
hibited in the no doubt short, but demonstrable, interval 
between the reception of the stimulus and the commence- 
ment of response. In striated muscle it is very short (less 
than ;t,”), in nonstriated it is much longer, 5”; in other 
words, nonstriated muscle has greater anabolic inertia than 
striated, and this agrees precisely with the conception of 
functional inertia being the counterpart of irritability, 
for nonstriated muscle has less irritability than striated. 


Fxs. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH ena 


Regarding the inhibition of intestinal muscle through 
splanchnic stimulation as the establishment of the phase 
of anabolism, we have anabolic inertia expressed in the 
persistence of the state of relaxation after the inhibitory 
stimulus has been withdrawn. This post-stimulant relaxa- 
tion may last for 25”. Similarly, after the withdrawal of 
stimuli in cardiac inhibition, there is a (post-stimulant) 
“latent period” before the heart resumes beating, due to 
the anabolic inertia of cardiac protoplasm. The latent 
period that exists before secreto-motor effects in glands 
appear, is the expression of anabolic inertia in glandular 
protoplasm: in stimulation of vagal pancreatic secreto- 
motor fibres, it is as long as 15” to 3’. Verworn' tells 
us that “the motion of cilia does not begin at the exact 
moment at which the light strikes them,” but only after 
a “latent period” of one to two seconds—this is anabolic 
inertia. 

More especially expressed under the category of rhythm, 
we have all those cases of intermittent discharges or series 
of effects from an (apparently) single stimulus, e.g. Ritter’s 
tetanus, Wundt’s tetanus, and the strychnine tetanus. 
These are rhythmic expressions of inertia, comparable 
to the oscillations of the jelly consequent on a single 
tap given to it. Functional inertia may express itself 
in the maintenance of a certain rhythm of discharge of 
impulses, as has been brought out by Professors Horsley 
and Schifer in their experiments upon the normal rate of 
discharge of cells of the spinal cord. They showed that 
whatever was the rhythm of stimulation, provided it was 
ten per second or more, artificially imposed upon the 
nerve-tracts proximal to the cells, the rhythm of discharge 
was always ten per second, not more. The protoplasm of 
these spinal cord cells has its own phase of physiological 
insusceptibility, its “refractory period,” and no artificial 
rate of stimulation will accelerate the rhythm (provided 
the stimulation be below a certain intensity)—this is 
functional inertia. The anabolic inertia of the cells of 
the reflex “centres” of the spinal cord must be the 
principle underlying the insusceptibility to single stimuli, 
and the necessity for “summation” of stimuli before the 

‘General Physiology,” p. 401. Macmillan: London, 1899. 


176 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. uxvi. 


action takes place. The nervous system, in common with 
other tissues, shows us many cases of insusceptibility, 
eg. to drugs and poisons. The idiosyncrasy of one man 
to a given drug in that he is peculiarly insusceptible to it, 
is as well expressed by saying that, owing to the magnitude 
of the functional inertia of some tissue of his, the drug 
has no influence, while owing to the smallness of the 
inertia of the tissues of another man, the drug has con- 
siderable influence. The man whose cerebral protoplasm 
has much anabolic functional inertia, eg. with respect to 
chloroform, will take a longer time to become anzesthetised 
by that drug than some other man whose protoplasm has 
less. 

III. In the more characteristically psychic sphere, 
examples of functional inertia, psychic inertia, are 
numerous. A person appears taller than he otherwise 
does, if his clothing shows longitudinal striping—the idea 
of extension up and down occupies the mind, and we carry 
more of it over into the estimate of the person’s height 
than we would have done had he been differently dressed— 
by its inertia (active phase) a given idea imparts to the 
subsequent one some of the characters of itself. 


A B 


SA 
Ya 


Na | 

Vis 

So in connection with the illusion as to the relative 
lengths of the lines A and #—the lines are of equal 
length, but D appears greater than A. Mental functional 
inertia seems to be responsible for the erroneous estimate. 
Owing to the manner in which the short converging lines 
turn back, as it were, upon the line A, they suggest the 
ideas of “backwards,” “the end reached,” “ limited,’ and 


Fes, 1902. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 177 


so on, so that in estimating the length of A there is a 
pre-existent disposition to see it short, limited, etc., 
evidently the effect on the notion (length of A) due to 
the (mental) functional inertia of the preceding idea— 
“end reached,” “bounded,” “limited,” ete, Similarly, the 
short diverging lines on the ends of # suggest “extension,” 
“outwards,” “boundaries not fixed, and so on, hence 
we carry over into the next idea—length of f&—by 
mental functional inertia some disposition to see B “long,” 
“going outwards,” or “upwards,” “not bounded,” and so 
on. Since in the notion, length of A by itself, there 
is a latent tendency to under-estimation, and in the notion, 
length of J, a tendency to over-estimation, we at once 
judge A shorter than 6 when the two ideas are present 
to the mind simultaneously. 

The well-marked tendency to think, say, or do what has 
been thought, said, or done before—to yield to habit, to 
the familiar—is nothing other than the expression of the 
functional inertia of psychic activity. Quite a number of 
people, for instance, will say “thirty or forty” for “ thirty 
or fewer” when in reading aloud they meet the latter 
phrase. The mental condition in hypnotism, where the 
suggestion has started a train of thought adhered to with 
astonishing tenacity, and worked out to its uttermost 
consequences in spite of all possible distractions, is surely 
well expressed as the inertia of psychic activity: the 
inertia—the obliviousness—has been by artificial means 
morbidly increased for the time being: it is an insuscepti- 
bility to all but a few stimuli, and may amount to actual 
sensory paralysis. So, too, it is mental inertia that 
causes certain persons to be refractory to hypnotic in- 
fluence. But examples could be indefinitely multiplied. 
Are not bigotry and fanaticism respectively the inertia 
of psychic rest and the inertia of psychic movement ? 
Superstition and an unenlightened dislike to change are 
surely due to the inertia of psychic rest. The lingering 
of superstition from generation to generation is an example 
of psychic inertia in the race—all failure to respond to 
intellectual environment, must arise from mental inertia, 
In the child-mind it is owing to the feeble degree of 
inertia of psychic rest and of psychic activity that it 


178 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. xvi. 


exhibits so high a degree of suggestibility. The child- 
mind maintains for so short a time, and in so slight a 
fashion, any one course of action or set purpose, that 
almost any fresh idea (suggestion) from parent or play- 
mate can divert it into a fresh channel, and the new 
idea, in turn, can be easily supplanted by some other 
notion newer still. There is so little inertia of position 
belonging to the idea in possession of the mind that the 
idea can be very easily supplanted, and the new idea has 
so little momentum that it can be at once turned out of its 
course by some new thing. ‘Thus a volatile nature is one 
with but slight mental inertia of movement; a “ dogged ” 
temperament is one with much. The great obstinacy of 
the uncultured, and the “fixed delusion” of the lunatic 
are cases of excessively developed inertia of psychic rest. 
Surely psychic anabolic inertia is responsible for the lack 
of correspondence between sensation and stimulus as 
formulated in the Weber-Fechne law; certain increments 
of stimulus not giving rise to any increase of sensation 
until certain intensity-limits are passed. The insuscepti- 
bility that exists through a whole series of increments of 
stimulus, from the last sensation-producing increment to 
the next one, seems one more instance of psychic inertia. 
Lastly, the differences in duration of reaction-time (“ per- 
sonal equation”) between various kinds of people are 
directly due to the differences in degree of the psychic 
anabolic inertia of their cerebral cells. 

The graphic record of reaction-time gives us a measure 
in fractions of-a second of the degree of their cerebral 
anabolic inertia, but their whole characters are a daily 
and familiar exposition of psychic inertia of rest or of 
activity respectively. 


THE LATENT LIFE OF PLANTS. 
By k. A. Ropertson, M.A., B.Sc, F.R.S.E 


(Read 13th February 1902.) 


The manifestation of plant life depends on certain 
external conditions, and in reference to these it is usual 
to make a distinction between the tonic and the stimulant 
effects. That particular combination of influences necessary 


2 


Fes. 1902.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 179 


to induce and maintain growth is regarded as tonic, while 
any variation in these conditions produces growth varia- 
tions, and is described as stimulant. It has to be re- 
membered, however, that the difference here pointed out 
is, after all, one of degree and not of kind. From this 
point of view plant growth is a continuous manifestation 
of irritability, and it is this power of responding, of 
manifesting irritability that, in the first instance, 
enables us to distinguish between a living and a dead 
organism. 

We take a stimulus here in its widest sense, as defined 
by Pfeffer (“ Physiology,” p. 11), as “a push to which the 
organism responds according to its inherent nature and the 
means at its disposal,” while any result immediately 
accruing or. appearing only after days or weeks have 
elapsed is a manifestation of irritability. 

When a motor stimulus is applied to resting plant 
protoplasm, as is well known, au interval of time elapses 
before the movement begins; and conversely, when the 
stimulus is one to inhibit a movement already in progress, 
a corresponding interval passes before inhibition. These 
intervals are the familiar latent periods, and it is during 
these periods that the protoplasm exhibits its property 
called functional inertia (Harris, Brit. Med. Assoc., Aug. 
1900). In the first case, it is functional inertia of 
anabolism; in the second, that of katabolism. One or 
other is always in evidence after a stimulus, and in many 
cases both, following in the order either of (1) anabolism, 
(2) katabolism, or the reverse. Plant physiology supplies 
copious examples of both phases. 

External influences are efficient as growth stimuli only 
when they are applied within definite limits of intensity. 
We have thus to recognise the existence of stimulatory 
limits, maxima and minima. The protoplasmic molecules 
have their own limit of swing and rate of vibration, and 
no amount of pushing, ze. of stimulation, will induce them 
to swing farther or faster. At the outset we are met with 
a “refractory period ”—a non-responsiveness of living 
matter beyond certain limits. This is the expression of 
its functional inertia. 

We take up seriatim cases of plant irritability with 


180 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxv1. 


the view of exhibiting this interesting property in its 
many varied aspects. 

Gravity—When a stem laid horizontally continues to 
erow in the same direction for some time before curving 
geotropically it exhibits functional inertia of anabolism, 
The time value of the inertia varies for different members, 
from a few minutes (Darwin, “ Nature,” vol. 65 p. 44) to 
an hour or more (Detmer, “ Physiology,’ p. 443). When 
the shoot curves past the vertical—the point of zero 
stimulation,—the other phase of katabolic inertia is pre- 
sented. This is, to use Harris’s analogy, the door swinging 
after you have ceased to push it. In those cases where a 
sense organ has been proved to exist (Pfeffer, “ Annals of 
Botany,” vii. p. 317, and Darwin, “ Annals of Botany,’ 
vol. xii. p. 567), from which the impulse is transmitted to 
a responsive organ, transmission time—including Czapek’s 
exposition and presentation period—has to be deducted 
from the reaction time to obtain the time value of the 
inertia. 

To place an upright support in the way of a twiner 
whose movement is due in part at least, if not entirely, to 
lateral geotropism, is a case of mechanically inhibiting a 
movement. If the support be removed before growth has 
rendered the curvature permanent, the revolving movement 
recommences, but only after a latent period, varying from 
a few hours to a few days (Darwin, “ Climbing Plants,” 
p- 21). This is katabolic inertia. 

Light and darkness—Light acts as a stimulus in virtue 
of its intensity and also of the direction of its incident 
rays. A plant which has been growing rapidly during the 
night does not have its growth retarded immediately on 
the approach of daylight, nor when placed in darkness 
atter being exposed to light is its growth immediately 
accelerated. In both cases, for an hour or more (Sach’s 
“ Physiology,” p. 559; Vines’ “ Physiology,” p. 395), in 
virtue of the functional inertia of the protoplasm, the 
previous conditions continue, and the growth curve con- 
tinues to rise in the first instance and to fall in the 
second. 

When Bacterium photometricum (Vines’ “ Physiology,” 
p. 525) is placed in darkness its movements are inhibited, 


=o =-- 


FEB. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Lot 


and when brought into light they recommence, but in 
neither case is the manifestation of irritability immediate. 
In the first instance, there is a period of katabolic, and in 
the latter of anabolic inertia, and the time values of these 
periods vary with the intensity of the light. 

Concentrated sunlight will inhibit the streaming of pro- 
toplasm of L/odea after five to six minutes, while recovery 
takes place in fifteen minutes to an hour (Ewart, “ Annals 
of Botany,” xu. p. 385). Here we have both phases, first 
the katabolic and then the anabolic. 

When CO, assimilation in Elodea has been inhibited 
by prolonged darkness, the recovery on exposure to leht 
requires from twenty minutes to half an hour (Darwin, 
“Proce. Camb. Phil. Soc.,” ix. 538). This is the expression of 
the katabolic inertia. 

In what Wiesner calls photo-mechanical induction of 
heliotropic heterauxesis, we have interesting cases where 
the functional inertia amounts to a physiological insuscepti- 
bility. Thus, in order to induce the maximum heliotropic 
curvature a definite time exposure is necessary, and no 
additional exposure will cause the organ. to curve farther 
or faster. For the cress and vetch, Wiesner (Vines’ 
“ Physiology,” p. 4535) found the period of photo-mechanical 
induction to be about one-third of the reaction period, 2.e. 
something over eight minutes for the former and under 
twelve minutes for the latter. Following this came the 
period of anabolic inertia lasting from twenty-five to 
thirty-five minutes, after which curvature began. 

A parallel case is presented in Lewes’ researches 
(“ Annals of Botany,” vol. xii. p. 420) on the movements 
of the chloroplast of Jlesocarpus. Lewes found that a 
definite time exposure—one and a half minute in 
sunlight and two minutes in diffuse hght—was necessary 
to bring about the greatest possible movement of the 
chloroplast, viz. rotation through 90°. Further, a definite 


time was necessary for the performance of the movement, 


viz. half an hour in the first instance, and twenty minutes 
in the latter. This supplies a very lucid demonstration 
that the protoplasmic molecules have their own rate and— 
extent of swing, and are not to be induced to pass it. It 
is the case of the free wheel bicycle pedal, which no amount 


182 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. uxvi. 


of pushing will cause to pass the dead point-—the dead 
point here being the horizontal for diffuse light and the 
vertical for sunlight. 

Under this category also come cases of attunement of 
Algie to light of particular intensity (Detmer, “ Physiology,” 
p. 426). 

Temperature.—Temperature variations induce growth 
variations in the course of a few hours. This period of 
anabolic inertia is relatively short when contrasted with 
that following variations in the other tonic conditions, 
such as pressure of oxygen or food supply (Pfeffer, 
“ Physiology,” pp. 511, 512). A rise of temperature from 
15°-20°C. stimulates tulip and crocus flowers to open 
after a latent period—anabolic phase—of five minutes or 
so. If while opening the temperature be reduced, they 
close, but not immediately; in virtue of their katabolic 
inertia they continue to open for a few minutes. Pfeffer 
states that the tulip is sensitive to a differertce in 
temperature of 4° C, while the crocus to 2° or 3°C. The 
former thus has much less functional inertia to change of 
temperature than the latter. 

At 46° C., protoplasmic streaming is inhibited in Hlodea 
after the short period of two minutes—katabolic inertia— 
while recovery requires 1—2 hours, a relatively prolonged 
period of anabolic inertia (Detmer, “ Physiology,” p. 420). 

In response to the directive stimulus of the heat rays, 
Lepidium seedlings execute negative thermotropic curva- 
tures, while Zea seedlings exhibit positive thermotropism. 
In both cases the curvature begins only after the lapse of 
a few hours—anabolic inertia. 

Contact.—Taking cases of contact irritability as exempli- 
fied in tendril climbers, insectivorous, and sensitive plants, 
we find that they display functional inertia under varied 
aspects, eg. phenomena of latent and refractory periods, 
physiological insusceptibility, and specific idiosyneracy. In 
the different species of Drosera the latent period varies 
from ten seconds to twenty minutes (Darwin, “ Insecti- 
vorous Plants”), while in the tendrils of the Passiflorew 
it may be from a few seconds to an hour (MacDougal, 
“Annals of Botany,” vol. x. p. 373). In contrast to the 
above, Dionwa and Mimosa have relatively so little ana- 


le Res ee 


Fes, 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 183 


bolic inertia that the response to contact appears imme- 
diate. On the other hand, the tendrils of the Ampelidee, 
with relatively little irritability, display much anabolic 
inertia, the latent period lasting for two hours or more. 

Cases of physiological insusceptibility appear in relation 
to particular amounts of stimulus. Thus, while a single 
light touch elicits a response in J/imosa, tor Yionea it has 
to be repeated, ac. a kind of double impact is necessary, 
according to Maefarlane. Drosera, on the other hand, 
exhibits a refractory period, inasmuch as the efficient 
stimulus is a continued series of such impacts, de. a 
pressure; while in tendrils, according to Pfeffer, the 
stimulus is contact with a rough surface, 7.e, a series of 
impacts simultaneously applied at discrete points of the 
sensitive organ. 

Injury.—Cases of traumatic stimulation are instructive 
both on account of the varied manifestation of irritability 
and of the great range in the time value of the latent 
period. This, as we find, may vary from a few seconds to 
as much as a week, and in some cases may be artificially 
prolonged to eight days. 

If we take fertilisation as a case of stimulation (Pfeffer, 
“Physiology,” p. 55), we may regard it as of a chemico-vital 
and traumatic character. Thus, as the spermatozoid breaks 
the continuity of the plasmatic membrane, and ploughs its 
way through the cytoplasm, we find as reaction to the 
traumatic stimulus the formation of a protective cell-wall 
on the egg. This takes place after a period of anabolic 
inertia varying from ten minutes in Fucus (Farmer and 
Williams, “ Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.,” 1898, p. 625) to a few 
hours in other forms. 

Again, a cell membrane may appear around a plasmo- 
lysed protoplast after fifteen minutes—or more—period 
of anabolic inertia (Pfeffer, “ Physiology,” p. 483). 

Injury to the maize epidermis stimulates protoplasmic 
streaming after fifteen minutes to an hour (Detmer, 
“ Physiology,’ p. 420). Lateral injury to the root apex 
induces traumatropic curvature and regeneration of the 
root tip after a latent period of an hour or so (Spalding, 
“ Annals of Botany,” vii. p. 423). By encasing the root in 
a plaster-cast, or lowering the temperature, the curvature is 


184 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. txvi. 


prevented, and the anabolic period may be prolonged for 
eight days. A fever reaction is induced in massive tissues, 
as potato tubers, by incised wounds after a reaction period 
of two hours or so (Richards, “ Annals of Botany,” x. p. 531, 
and xi. p. 29). According to Townsend (“Annals of Botany,” 
Xl. p. 515), amputation of a small piece of the root apex is 
followed after a latent period of twenty-four hours by a 
retardation of growth in the root and an acceleration of 
growth in the stem. The long latent period of five or six 
days elapses between the application of the traumatic 
stimulus and the manifestation of irritability—a peculiar 
healing reaction—in isolated leaves of Prunus lawro-cerasus 
(Blackman and Matthaei, “Annals of Botany,’ xv. p. 533). 

Oxygen.—Absence of free oxygen inhibits streaming in 
Chara, but only after a considerable period of katabolic 
inertia (Ewart, “Jour. Lin. Soc.,” xxxi. p. 421; also Farmer, 
“ Annals of Botany,” x. p. 286), while obligate aerobia con- 
tinue to move from five to sixty minutes in the absence of 
free oxygen (Pfeffer, “ Physiology,” p. 569). 

The list of examples might be indefinitely extended. 
Interesting cases of physiological insusceptibility are sup- 
plied in Arber’s researches on the CO, assimilation of 
halophytes (“ Annals of Botany,” xv. pp. 39 and 669), in the 
thermo-secretory phenomena of nectaries (Pfeffer, “ Physio- 
logy,” p. 286), in Pfeffer’s “ Chemotactic Application of the 
Weber-Fechner Law,” in the vital phenomena of parasites, 
fungal and other. On the other hand, Ewart’s researches 
on assimilatory inhibition (“ Jour. Lin. Soc.,” xxxi. pp. 364, 
554; “ Annals of Botany,” xi. p. 439) are a mine of examples 
of both phases of functional inertia. In many eases the 
biological significance of the time-value of the functional 
inertia is of the highest importance. Thus (Ewart, “ Annals 
of Botany,” xii. p. 378) mosses have much katabolic inertia 
to desiccation, and relatively little anabolic inertia to mois- 
ture; they continue to assimilate for two to five days during 
desiccation, and when desiccated they resume operations on 
moisture being supplied in the short period of a few hours. 
The same is true of other members of Alpine floras, and 
the importance of it is manifest. 

Passing on to consider the functional inertia of excised 
and isolated organs, we again find no lack of examples, in 


Fes. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 185 


consequence of the lower pitch of vitality and greater 
individuality of plant protoplasts. As the wheel continues, 
in virtue of its inertia of motion, to rotate, it may be for a 
considerable time after the driving gear is slipped, so many 
plant organs and cell organoids continue to function for a 
time when isolated. This is a manifestation of their kata- 
bolic inertia. Isolated chloroplasts, for example, assimilate 
for five hours (Ewart, “Jour. Linn. Soc.,” xxxi. p, 420); 
isolated endosperm of Aicinus lives and carries on meta- 
bolic change for six months (Van Tieghem, “ Ann. d. Se. 
Nat.,” 1876, Ser. vi., T. iv., p. 183), a fact which may be 
of interest in connection with xenia and double fertilisa- 
tion. Isolated scutellar epithelium secretes enzymes and 
corrodes starch grains (Brown and Morris, “Jour. Chem. 
Soc. Trans.,” vol. lvii., 1890, p. 494). Isolated fragments 
of swarmspores move, and of cytoplasm stream, while 
Demoor found that nuclei continued their mitosis after 
the cytoplasm was killed by CO, or chloroform (Pfeffer, 
“Physiology,” p. 52). Again, isolated leaves of Drosera 
continue active, translocation takes place in heads of 
cereals (Pfeffer, foc. cit. p. 585), and ripening in fruits 
after separation from the parent plant; and oak galls 
continue their internal metabolic changes when removed 
from the tree (MacDougal, “ Physiology,” p. 64). 

In the consideration of rhythm or periodicity we again 
meet with interesting examples of inertia. Thus, in virtue 
of their functional inertia, plants continue to exhibit daily 
periodicity of growth for periods varying from two days to 
as many weeks in continuous darkness. Some trees, like 
the oak and beech of temperate regions, which exhibit 
a seasonal periodicity, retain that periodicity when removed 
to countries where the vegetation is evergreen; they do so 
in consequence of their great amount of inertia. Other 
temperate trees, again, possessed of a smaller amount of 
inertia, lose their periodicity after a time and become ever- 
green, ¢g. the plum and the peach. On account of 
possessing relatively little inertia, again, some plants will 
“foree”” and flower out of season, others with more inertia 
are refractory. By cold storage—artificially keeping the 
plant in a condition of anabolic inertia—the refractoriness 
of the latter may be in some measure overcome. 


TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXII. N 


186 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. uxvi. 


Plants which have a daily periodicity of movement, 
such as sensitive plants, daisy, and so forth, exhibit post- 
stimulant periodic movements in continuous darkness. 
This is one expression of their functional inertia. 

Evidence on similar lines can be adduced from the 
interesting experiments of Darwin and Pertz (“ Annals of 
Botany,” vol. vi. p. 425), and others, on induced rhythm 
in different organs. 

Polarity, according to Detmer (“ Physiology,” p. 507), 
may be regarded as an “after effect phenomenon induced 
by gravitation and stretching beyond the life of the 
individual, as a phenomenon of inherent or stable induction, 
and therefore an inheritable disposition.” For the more 
or less indelible impression of this character by summation 
of effects, the property of functional inertia would be 
a necessary preliminary. On account of their greater 
functional inertia, polarity is more indelibly stamped on 
some plants than on others, and in the latter, in con- 
sequence of their smaller degree of inertia, it is possible to 
alter the polarity by the influence of external conditions. 
It would seem that in the acquirement of characters 
generally by living matter, we. in the “education” of 
protoplasm, functional inertia is a factor of great import- 
ance. 

The time taken for summation of effects, for the educa- 
tion or acquirement of characters, will depend on the 
amount of inertia displayed by the protoplasm in relation 
to the particular stimulus. Time is an element of the 
process, and this represents the time value of the funce- 
tional inertia. The following cases might be cited as 
bearing on this point in particular, but additional examples: 
will present themselves to every botanist. 

Stahl (“ Bot. Zeit.” 1884), by gradually adding glucose: 
to water in which M&thalium plasmodium was growing, 
succeeded in growing it ultimately in a 2 per cent. solu- 
tion, which would, under ordinary circumstances, have 
killed it. 

It is a well-known fact that sporeless and other varieties” 
of bacteria may be obtained by continued cultivation in 
particular nutrient solutions under special conditions. 

Again, it has been pointed out that some plants can be 


ee er 


Fes. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 187 


acclimatised, but others not at all; the former have relatively 
httle inertia as compared with the latter. 

Protoplasm can be gradually acclimatised to an atmo- 
sphere of 1 part oxygen to 4 of CO,, which, when 
directly applied, inhibits all movement (Lopriore; Mac- 
Dougal, “ Physiology,” p. 57). 

Consideration of these cases of single stimuli makes it 
clear that plant protoplasm has not always the same 
amount of functional inertia, and further, that the time 
value of the inertia varies very widely in different organs 
in respect of the same stimulus. Thus it ranges from 
periods of time measured by seconds to hours or days, and 
it has been indicated that it is possible to artificially 
lengthen the period. There still remain to be considered 
those cases where the amount of inertia is so considerable 
that more than one stimulus is necessary to elicit a 
manifestation of irritability, and where, furthermore, the 
inertia assumes the character of a physiological insus- 
ceptibility, inasmuch as the reaction is only called forth 
by a particular combination of stimuli. 

Pierce (“ Proc. Calif. Acad. Sce.,” Ser. IIT. 11, 1901, p. 83, 
also “Bot. Central. Bd.,” Ixxix., 1902, p. 36) descuibas a ease 
of redwood stumps producing white suckers. No chloro- 
phyll was developed, according to Pierce, because of the 
low inhibitory temperature; the shoots were parasitic on the 
underground parts of the tree. The temperature rose, and 
the inhibitory was replaced by an inducing stimulus, but 
yet no chlorophyll was developed. From our point of view 
the plants were thus manifesting great functional inertia 
of anabolism. Only when a second stimulus came into 
action (a change in the food conditions) was there a response 
in the production of green leaves. The anabolic inertia 
was here so great that ¢wo stimuli of a tonic character, 
conditions of temperature and food supply, were required 
to elicit the manifestation of irritability. 

A more extreme case still is furnished in the winter 
buds of Hydrocharis. Terras found (“ Trans. Bot. Soe. 
Edin.,” xxi., 1900, p. 318) that if covered up theSe buds 
could be kept in the dormant condition, that is in a condi- 
tion of anabolic inertia, for at least two years. To induce 
germination, heat, light, and oxygen were necessary. So 


188 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Suss. Lxvi. 


sreat was the anabolic inertia that ¢iree stimuli of a tonic 
character were required to elicit a manifestation of irrita- 
bility, in this case—growth. 

This example forms a transition to the condition of the 
dry resting seed, which may be taken as exhibiting the 
most extreme case of functional inertia. The Hydrocharis 
buds when dormant are not only living but are giving 
manifestations of life, inasmuch as they continue to respire 
to a slight extent throughout their dormant phase (Terras, 
Joc. cit.). In the dry seed we have an organism that is living 
but is affording no indication of life, inasmuch as it does 
not respire. If we regard respiration as merely an episode 
of nutrition (Giglio-Tos, “ Les Problemes de la Vie,” p, 54; 
“Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin.,” vol. xxi, 1901, p. 45), this non- 
respiration is what we might expect. That no respiration 
takes place in the dry seed has been conclusively proved 
by several interesting experiments by Kochs (Verworn, 
“ Physiology,” p. 132); Romanes (“Proc. Roy. Soc.,” vol. liv., 
1893, p. 335); De Candolle (“ Arch. Se. Phys. et Nat.” 
vil., "99, p. 517); Brown and Escombe (“ Proc. Roy. Soc.,” 
Ixi., 97, p. 160); and Thiselton-Dyer (“ Proc. Roy. Soe.,” 
Ixv., 99, p. 361). Respiration, as Chodat (“ Bull. d. Herb. 
Bois.,” vol. iv., 1896, p. 894) points out, “is not a necessary 
condition of life, but only a condition of its manifestation,” 
for the seed is living although not manifesting life. Even 
in regard to the manifestation of life, respiration would 
appear not to be a necessary condition in every case, for, 
according to Nabokich (“Jour. Roy. Mic. Soe.” 1901, 
p. 555), it is probable that some seeds can germinate 
without oxygen. If the air be moist, however, respiration 
begins, and as the moisture increases the respiration rapidly 
increases (Kolkswitz, “ Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges.,” xix., 1901, 
p. 285). 

The dry seed may be regarded as an organism whose 
functional inertia is infinite for any single stimulus, but 
relatively small for a given combination of stimuh, viz. 
heat, moisture, and oxygen, and if we add light in certain 
cases to the combination the response is still further 
accelerated ; for Heinricher (“ Ber. Deutch. Bot. Ges.,” xvii, 
1899, p. 308) finds that seeds of Veronica peregrina 
germinate 5—8 days sooner in daylight than in darkness. 


— 


Fes. 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 189 


To elicit that manifestation of irritability which we 
call growth, and which we take as evidence of life in the 
seed, three tonic stimuli are necessary. Not only must 
these be applied simultaneously, but they must be applied 
in the proper intensity. If any one or all the combination 
be applied in too great intensity, life may be destroyed. 
On the other hand, there is reason to believe that a single 
stimulus may be separately applied at an intensity far in 
excess of the limits, and yet produce no fatal result. In 
the experiments of Brown and Escombe (loc. cit.) seeds were 
subjected for 110 hours to the temperature of liquid air— 
183° to —192°C., and in those of Thiselton-Dyer, were im- 
mersed for six hours in liquid hydrogen—250°—252°C., 
and yet germinated. Jencic (“Cster. Bot. Zeit.,” li, 1901, 
p. 268), again, found that when air-dried seeds were sub- 
jected to a temperature of —18°C., their germination was 
accelerated. 

The latitude in regard to trespass of the upper cardinal 
point of temperature appears to be more limited. Dixon 
(“« Nature,” Ixiv., 1901, p. 256), however, finds that of seeds, 
specially Medicago sativa, exposed for an hour to 110°C., 
and a further hour to 121°C., 10 per cent. germinate. 
Jodin (“Compt. Rend.,” 129 (1899), p. 895) states when 
seeds of peas and cress are heated at 60° C. for twenty-four 
hours, and then for ten hours at 98° C., 30—60 per cent. 
retain their germinative power; further, these seeds in sealed 
tubes containing some water-absorbent, such as quicklime, 
will germinate after being submitted for twenty days to a 
temperature of 40°C. If we seek in the animal kingdom 
for cases to parallel the resting seed in its condition of 
“wie latente,’ or scheintod, we find them, perhaps, in the 
desiccated state of tardigrada and rotifera, and very likely 
it will be found that these organisms, when thoroughly 
desiccated, can withstand the same extraordinary tests as 
the dry seed. 

As to the molecular condition of the living matter of 
the dry seed, little can be said. De Candolle compares it 
with that of an explosive mixture: so long as the necessary 
conditions are unapplied the mixture remains quiescent, 
and will so remain for an indefinite period. Brown and 
Escombe are of De Candolle’s opinion, and hold that the 


1/90 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. LxvL 


protoplasm has passed from the kinetic to the static con- 
dition, and that under such circumstances, the low tem- 
perature being maintained, “it 1s difficult to see why there 
should be any limit to its perfect stability.” 

Protoplasm, when manifesting life, contains much water, 
and desiccation only suspends the vital manifestation, but 
does not, according to Giglio-Tos (loc. cit. p. 101), destroy 
the living substance. The composition of the molecules 
remains unaltered because the water does not enter chemi- 
cally into their constitution, but is only physically held as 
water of adhesion and of capillarity. The molecular move- 
ment ceases because of the absence of the intermolecular 
water, which serves as the medium of nutritive exchange. 
This view is essentially the same as that of De Candolle 
and Brown and Escombe, and according to it the possibilities 
as to the duration of the latent life of seeds appear very 
considerable. To this, however, there would appear to be 
some limit. Gain, eg., finds (‘Comp. Rend.,” exxx., 1900, 
p. 1643) that in mummy-wheat and barley, while the 
external appearance and chemical composition of the 
endosperm are unaltered, the embryo itself has undergone 
such marked chemical change as to be incapable of 
germination, and he concludes that the latent life has 
long ago expired. Of course, it is just possible that the 
seeds were chemically treated before being put into the 
mummy-cases by the Egyptians. There is no doubt, 
however, that seeds may retain their germinative capacity 
for very considerable periods of time. 

Sir William Thiselton-Dyer, in discussing the physio- 
logical bearing of his liquid hydrogen experiments on the 
phenomena of life generally, points out that, if the mole- 
cules of living matter be regarded as reduced to the static 
condition, resting protoplasm is in the condition of an ex- 
plosive, and there is no criterion whereby to distinguish 
living matter in the static condition from dead substance. 

This would appear to depend on the particular theory 
held as to living matter. In a purely chemical theory the 
difficulty is not an insuperable one. The explosive can 
always be distinguished from the inert mass by applying the 
proper conditions, just as one chemical substance can be 
distinguished from another by its reactions to particular 


Aprit 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 191 


tests. On a chemical theory, such as that of Giglio-Tos 
(Joe. cit.), the molecule of living matter is distinguished as 
living because it has a special chemical constitution, in 
virtue of which it can undergo a specific chemical reaction 
under certain conditions of environment. Given the 
necessary internal chemical composition and the necessary 
external conditions, the chemical reaction follows, externally 
visible as that manifestation of irritability called growth. 


OpiTtuaRY NOTICE OF THE LATE CHARLES STUART, M.D. 
By Commander F. M. Norman, R.N., Fellow, Botanical 
Society, Edinburgh. 


(Read 10th April 1902.) 


Deep and widespread regret was felt throughout the 
Border district, and in many places beyond its limits, 
when the death of this much-esteemed medical practitioner 
took place at his residence—Hillside, Chirnside, Bberwick- 
shire,—on 12th February 1902, in the seventy-sixth year 
of his age. His demise deprived me of an intimate and 
deeply valued friend of a quarter of a century’s duration, 
and the botanical and horticultural world of one of its chief 
ornaments and most devoted adherents. Dr. Stuart was 
“a man—every inch of him,” and his cheery welcome, 
genial presence, manly character, warm, kindly heart, and 
enthusiasm for Flora could not fail to impress all who 
had the privilege of his acquaintance. Certainly . his 
departure has created a void in the circle of my own 
friendships which can never be replaced. He lived a 
highly usefui, blameless, affectionate, Christian life, which, 
to the great advantage of his family and friends, was 
prolonged for some years beyond the proverbial “ three- 
score and ten.” 

Until eighteen months or so before his death he had 
always enjoyed good health, and his robust frame and 
excellent constitution showed no signs of breaking till 
he contracted the ailment which ultimately, after much 
suffering, laid him low. 

Amid many tokens of respect and affection from a 
large concourse of mourners, he was laid to rest in the 


192 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxvi. 


churchyard of the old Parish Church at Chirnside, within 
sight of the little garden which had been his chief delight 
for so many years—the garden whence had emanated the 
numerous productions which had so delighted his friends, 
enriched the horticultural world, and procured him such 
distinction in horticultural circles. 

Dr. Stuart, it is well known, was a representative of 
a collateral branch of the ancient Earldom of Moray, 
being a direct lineal descendant of the third son of the 
fourth Earl. His father, John Alexander Stuart, died in 
1869; and his son Charles, the subject of this memoir, 
was born at Woodhall, near Edinburgh, on 30th March 
1825; married, in 1851, Georgina, daughter of the late 
Rev. John Edgar, minister of Hutton, Berwickshire; and 
is survived by his widow and a large family of sons and 
daughters to mourn his loss. 

He was educated at the Edinburgh Academy, and 
at the University of Edinburgh, where he took his 
degree as Doctor of Medicine in 1846, and was also a 
Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons in Edinburgh. 
Two years after qualifying professionally, he settled at 
Chirnside, where he practised for fifty years—not until 
quite the close of the century having sought the services 
of a coadjutor and successor. His talents, skill, and 
energy secured for him a large and successful clientele. 

From an early date he was appointed Medical Officer 
for Chirnside and adjacent parishes, and did excellent 
service in that capacity. The poor found in him a true 
friend, for he was always solicitous in securing their 
interests and comforts, He was an Extraordinary Member 
of the Royal Medical Society in Edinburgh. 

The Free (now West United Free) Church of Chirnside 
were proud to number him among them, and he took 
a warm interest in the life and work of his church. His 
political views were broad-minded Liberal. 

From early years Dr. Stuart was an enthusiastic student 
of nature—especially of plants and trees, birds, and the 
phenomena of the seasons. He was an observing man, 
and, as he drove about the country on professional routes, 
nothing escaped his eye, and he always had something 
instructive and interesting to write or say about his 


o 


Aprit 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 193 


observations. He became a Fellow of the Botanical 
Society of Edinburgh on 10th July 1884, and of the 
Seottish Alpine Botanical Club in 1874, of which he was 
an enthusiastic adherent and a well-known and welcome 
freure. In fact, he was too enthusiastic, for there is but 
too good reason to fear that the incipient ailment from 
which he suffered was ageravated beyond recovery by his 
injudiciously insisting upon travelling to take part in a 
late meeting of that, his most favourite, Club. 

With that Club he discovered and secured two prizes, 
viz. a beautiful rose-pink variety of Veronica saxatilis on 
the Breadalbane Hills, near Killin; and in Connemara, in 
1890, a new form of heath, named Hrica Tetraliz Mackiana 
Stuartii. Having joined the Berwickshire Naturalists’ 
Club in 1854, he became its President for the year 1873, 
and to its Proceedings from time to time contributed a 
large number of interesting Papers on subjects connected 
with Natural History. 

Dr. Stuart’s achievements and successes in horticulture 
were numerous and important, and secured for him many 
well-deserved honours from Horticultural Societies, among 
them being the dedication to him of one of the volumes of 
“The Garden,” the leading paper of that “ilk ” in England. 

Evidently he devoted his attention to the Pansy very 
early (his favourite flower), for as long ago as 1854 he 
was a successful competitor at The Scottish Pansy Society, 
and in 1859, with the same flower, gained several 
important prizes at their show. In 1874 he began to 
turn special attention to hybridising, which was his 
specialty, wherein, in certain directions, he may be said 
to have been facile princeps. 

He began his experiments by crossing the Pansy with 
the old Viola, cornuta of gardens, and produced many 
beautiful hybrids, which had the merit of being true 
perennials and continuous bloomers, six of them having 
obtained a First-class Certificate from Chiswick, in 1876. 

He raised many beautiful Violas—especially a light 
yellow, rayless one—which were greatly admired. In May 
1880, by crossing Aquilegia Witmanni with A. glandulosa, 
he obtained the beautiful Columbine which perpetuates his 
name—Agquilegia Stuartit. 


194 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. LxvI. 


He was also successful in Primulas and Polyanthuses, 
particularly in gold-laced varieties of the latter; in raising 
an excellent self-stage red Auricula; and—to the envy, 
perhaps, of many amateurs and professionals—of cultivat- 
ing with conspicuous success numerous rare and difficult to 
rear Alpine Ferns and other Alpines. 

Latterly he turned his attention to the improvement of 
Trollius (globe-flower), and crossed the American with the 
European species with good effect; and he also produced 
some beautiful varieties of the Daffodil, and was the 
fortunate discoverer of a unique strain of that favourite 
flower, gseowing wild, or naturalised from ancient times, 
which is known as The Whitehall Daffodil. 

It was a real treat to a kindred spirit to ramble around 
Dr. Stuart’s extraordinarily well-stocked garden with its 
owner, where, in expatiating upon his favourites, he would 
“talk down hours to minutes.” It was ever a marvel to 
me how, in so small an area, such a vast collection of 
plants and flowers were always flourishing, and still there 
was space for experimental stations ! 

The lamented doctor was a man of much literary taste, 
and, in addition to his numerous contributions to the 
Berwickshire Club, and to certain Journals, wrote a 
pamphlet on the Yetholm gipsies. 

Mr. President and Gentlemen,—our Society, as well as 
other Societies, is distinctly the poorer by the decease of 
Dr. Charles Stuart, for, if not exactly a nobleman (though 
he was not far from being one), he was emphatically a 
noble man, whose name was an adornment, not only to our 
roll, but to the longer, more ancient, and more compre- 
hensive one of the Sons of Caledonia. 


NOTES FROM TIIE ARCHIVES OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY 
ON ITS OrIGIN, HISTORY, AND PRIVILEGES. By SyMINGTON 
GRIEVE. 

(Read 10th April 1902.) 


The Botanical Society was formed on the 17th of March 
1836, at a meeting held in Professor Graham’s Classroom 
at the College, Edinburgh, and was presided over by 
Dr. J. H. Balfour (afterwards Professor J. H. Balfour), 


Apri 1902.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 195 


and it was resolved to form a Society, with Professor 
Graham as President, and Mr. James M‘Nab, Curator. 
An Herbarium and Library were to be formed, and 
donations of plants and books received, and also plants 
and books to be purchased. This work was carried on 
with great energy, and the Society immediately took a 
position in the botanical world, which made it of great 
use, not only to its members, but to the University of 
Edinburgh. 

From its inception the Society was closely associated 
with the Royal Botanic Garden, at which it has, during 
each year of its existence, by the courtesy of the Professor 
of Botany, held its three summer meetings—the first of 
these having taken place on 12th May 1856. As it 
seemed desirable to the President and Council of the 
Society that they should become more fully acquainted 
with the history of the Society and its relation to the 
University and to the Royal Botanic Garden, the following 
notes have been extracted from its archives :— 


Amalgamation of the Botanical Society's Herbarium and 
that of the College, ete. Also regarding the Botanical 
Society’s Library. 


At a meeting of the Society, held in the Royal Institution, 
Sth November 1838, “The Treasurer read a copy of a 
Petition, signed by the majority of the Council: of the 
Botanical Society, dated 30th July 1838, and presented 


~ to the Town Council of Edinburgh, praying that, as Patrons 


of the University, they would consent to a union between 
the Botanical Society’s Herbarium and that belonging to 
the College. A letter from the President to the Town 
Council annexed to the Petition, containing a reeommenda- 
tion of the proposed union, was also read. The Treasurer 
stated that the Petition had been favourably received 
by the Patrons, and remitted by them to the Senators 
for further consideration. The President mentioned that 
the Petition had been duly considered by the Senatus, 
and a Committee appointed, of which he was Convener, 
to arrange the terms for carrying into effect the desired 
union, and that he had no doubt the matter would, in 
a very short time, be satisfactorily adjusted.” 


196 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxvt. 


At a meeting of the Committee of Management of the 
Botanical Society, held at 62 Great King Street, Ist 
December 1838, at 2 p.m, “The President stated, with 
reference to the proposed union with the College Herbarium, 
that he was not aware that any serious obstacle now 
existed to prevent its being carried into effect, and that, 
as Convener of the Committee of Senators to which the 
matter had been remitted, he would call an early meeting 
to endeavour to get the arrangement carried into effect 
with as little delay as possible.” 

At the ordinary meeting of the Botanical Society, held 
10th January 1839, it was reported by the Committee 
that “they had the satisfaction of stating that the arrange- 
ments, which have for some time been in progress with 
the Patrons and the Senators of the University, have now 
been brought to a close, and that both of these bodies 
have unanimously agreed to the union of the College 
Herbarium with that belonging to the Botanical Society 
on the terms proposed. In the course of the following 
week an Extract will be obtained from the Records of 
the Town Council containing the terms of the arrangement, 
which will be submitted to the Society at the next ordinary 
meeting. 

“In the meantime it may be satisfactory to state that 
the Society will thus obtain the (permanent) use of apart- 
ments in the University already fitted up for the reception 
of their Herbarium, and that the collections belonging to 
the University may now be arranged along with those of 
the Society.” 

At the ordinary meeting of the Society, held 10th 
January 1859, the Secretary invited the members to assist 
him with work at the Society’s Rooms in the College daily 
from ten to to four o’clock. 

At the ordinary meeting of the Society, held 14th 
March 1859, it was reported that the Committee of 
Management have to notice with peculiar satisfaction 
the union which has taken place with the College Herb- 
arium — the whole of which, along with the use of 
the apartments and cabinets in which it is contained, 
has. been conveyed over to the Society as the perpetual 
Curators of it, with permission to arrange the specimens 


ll ee hd 


APRIL 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 197 


and distribute the duplicates as they shall think 
proper. 

The following extracts from the Minutes of the Town 
Council of the City of Edinburgh explain what took place 
and what arrangement was made :— 


Exceret from Minute of Meeting of the Town Council, 
9th January 1839. 

Read a Report by the College Committee to which was 
remitted Memorial and Petition of the Botanical Society ; 
which Memorial and Petition, Letter from Professor 
Graham thereto appended, and Report of the Committee 
are of the following tenor :— 


To the Honourable the Patrons of the University of 
Edinburgh, the Memorial and Petition of the undersigned 
Office-bearers of the Botanical Society, for themselves, and 
in name of the Society, humbly showeth— 

That the Botanical Society was originated in March 1836 
by the Professor of Botany and some of the more advanced 
cultivators of this science in the city and neighbourhood. 

The objects for which it was instituted were threefold— 

(1) To form a general Herbarium, on scientific principles, 
for the use and information of members, as well as all other 
students of Botany. 

(2) To establish a system of exchange, by which plants 
from every country should be brought to Edinburgh as to a 
common centre,and from thence as widely dispersed among 
those who should enrol themselves as applicants for these, 
and the terms prescribed; and 

(3) To promote, by correspondence, essays, and other 
means, a well regulated taste for the study of Botany, an 
accurate inquiry respecting the phenomena of vegetation, 
and a general investigation into the properties and uses of 
plants. 

That the Society, which at its origin consisted but of 
twenty-one members, has in little more than two years 
become increased tenfold, its members amounting to about 
two hundred, of whom twenty-six are honorary members, 
eighty-two resident, sixty-four non-resident, and twenty- 
seven foreign members, comprehending most of the distin- 
guished names in botanical science throughout the world. 


19S TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxvi. 


That the objects which the Society had in view at its 
foundation have already been carried out to a very con- 
siderable extent. 

A large collection of British and Foreign plants has been 
acquired (the Countess Dowager of Dalhousie alone having 
munificently presented the Society with about 1500 species 
of rare and valuable Indian plants, collected under her 
own immediate superintendence), and not less than 150,000 
specimens from all parts of the globe have been contributed 
by members, a great proportion of which have again been 
as widely circulated among public institutions and individual 
collectors of Herbaria. 

That Her Majesty has been graciously pleased to honour 
the Society by becoming its Patron, and its design has 
received the general approbation and support of botanists 
both at home and abroad. 

It has also recently provided an appropriate diploma and 
seal, for the better distinguishing of its members and for 
attaching them more decidedly to the pursuit of its objects. 

That the Society have hitherto, by the kindness of the 
Professor of Botany, been allowed to hold their meetings 
(which occur monthly) in the Botanical Classroom, and 
have also been favoured by him with the use of the 
apartments in the College appropriated to the University 
Herbarium for the storing of their collections, and for 
effecting their annual distribution of plants. 

That being now firmly established, the Society are pro- 
ceeding to classify and arrange their collections, for which 
purpose they have had an Assistant-Curator, with a salary, 
constantly employed since the middle of December last, 
and from the scale on which their operations are now 
necessarily carried on, they find that his services will 
henceforth be permanently required. 

That the Society, having for their chief object to advance 
the cause of botanical science, and thereby promote the 
public benefit, it has occurred to them that the collections 
of plants which have from time to time been transmitted 
to the College, and are now deposited in an unarranged 
state in the apartments above mentioned, so as to be 
wholly unavailable for scientific purposes, might with great 
advantage for all parties be handed over to the Society, as 


Aprit 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Ie AS, 


well as the permanent use of these apartments, in order 
that a general Herbarium might be formed in connection 
with the University, to which all who cultivate the science 
of botany might have ready access for reference and study. 

That the Society, if this were granted, would immediately 
proceed to classify and arrange the joint collections, and 
would agree that they should become the University 
Herbarium, of which, however, the Society should continue 
perpetual Curators, but the Professor of Botany, for the time, 
to be Honorary Curator, with free access to the collection, 
whether a member of the Society or not. 

That, as the plants belonging to the Society already 
outnumber those belonging to the College, and as much 
expense must be incurred in their arrangement and pre- 
servation, it is to be hoped that the Honourable Patrons 
will be satisfied that the Society, in making the foregoing 
proposition, can have no other object than that of promoting 
the science they cultivate, and the general interests of the 
University where that science is so. zealously, ably, and 
successfully taught. 

May it therefore please the Honourable Patrons to take 
this Memorial into their favourable consideration, 
and accede to the proposal now made on behalf of 
the Botanical Society, and your Petitioners shall 
ever pray, ete. 

Signed—J. H. Balfour, Vice-President; Robert Kaye 
Greville, LL.D., Councillor; Dav. Falconer, Vice-President ; 
R. Christison, Vice-President; John Percy, Councillor; 
Pat. Neill, Vice-President; William M‘Nab, Councillor; 
Wm. Brand, Treasurer; James MacNab, Curator; W. H. 
Campbell, Secretary. 


LETTER from Professor Graham, dated 30th July 1838— 


My Lord Provost and Gentlemen,—Having read the 
foregoing Petition, I beg to express my anxiety that its 
prayer should be acceded to. Without some such arrange- 
ment I feel sure that the University Collection will, as 
from its first beginning in the period of the late Dr. Hope, 
remain utterly useless. With such an arrangement I feel 
equally sure that the Collection as it now stands will be 
made available, and that before long it will form only a 


200 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Ssss. uxvi. 


fragment of a much greater and very valuable collection, 
which it is very liberally proposed shall become the property 
of the University, 

Ros. GRAHAM, Professor of Botany. 


Report of the College Committee, dated 27th December 
1838: 3 

The College Committee, having resumed consideration 
of this Petition, and having communicated on the subject 
with the Senatus Academicus and with the Petitioners, are 
of opinion that the prayer thereof may be granted by the 
Magistrates and Council, with these explanations and 
conditions, v1z.— 

1. That the Society are to have no right of property in 
the rooms set apart for the University Herbarium, but that 
these are to be held by them during the pleasure of the 
Council and on condition that they shall remove therefrom 
at the term of Whitsunday on getting six months’ previous 
notice, it being understood that in this event, or in the 
event of the Society removing because of the apartments 
allotted for them becoming either inadequate or unsuitable, 
they are to be entitled to take the collections along with 
them, and also any cabinets, etc., which they may have 
fitted up, but with this proviso always, that in either case the 
collections should continue to be the University Herbarium 
just as before. 

2. That the members of the Senatus shall ex officio have 
access to the joint collection at all times. 

3. That the Professor of Botany, besides being Honorary 
Curator, shall be entitled for the instruction of his class 
to take out from the joint collections such portions thereof 
from time to time as he shall think necessary, the same 
being always duly restored, and that the Professor of 
Materia Medica shall have the same privilege with respect 
to his class. 

4. That a Report of the state and progress of the 
Herbarium shall be annually presented to the Senatus and 
the Town Council by the day of 

JAMES STARK, B. 

The Magistrates and Council approved of the foregoing 

Report, and granted and declared accordingly. 


Aprit 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 201 


Further Excerpts— 


19th May 1859.—There was laid on the table a Report 
by the Botanical Society on the state and progress of the 
University Herbarium as at October 1839. 


9th November 1841.—Read the following letter from 
the interim Secretary of the Botanical Society, Edinburgh, 
Ist November 1841 :— 

Sir,—I beg leave to send herewith for preservation 
to the Council a copy of the Fourth and Fifth Annual 
Reports for the Botanical Society, containing in Appendix, 
at page 82, the Society’s Report on the state and progress 
of the University Herbarium, ete., under their charge.— 
I am, etc., Wm. Branp, Interim Secretary. 


In the Report of the Committee presented to the 
Botanical Society at the ordinary meeting held 14th 
November 1859, it is mentioned that Mr. Kellerman, 
the Assistant-Curator, “has been chiefly engaged in clean- 
ing and arranging the various collections which belonged 
to the College Herbarium. This arduous task has now ~ 
been nearly completed (a boy having been engaged to 
assist the Curator and expedite the work). , 

At the’ meeting of the Society held in the Royal 
Institution on 12th December 1839, a letter from 
Dr. Neill was read, stating that the Patrons of the 
University had agreed to fit up with gas and size-paint 
two additional rooms for the use of the Society, and that 
it was hoped Dr. Traill might be accommodated elsewhere. 

Dr. Graham, on resigning the Chair, congratulated the 
Society on the very rapid progress which it had made. 

Dr. Greville, on taking the Chair, thanked the Society. 
He alluded to the services of their late President, under 
whose auspices the Society had made such progress, and 
to whose exertions they owed many of their most important 
privileges. He reminded them that the Society had, through 
him, obtained a room for their meetings in the College, and 
accommodation for their Herbarium; that he had effected 
a union with the College Herbarium, and acquired for the 
Society a (permanent)! right to the apartments and cabinets 


The right was not permanent, see preceding page (p. 200). 


TRANS, BOT. SOC. EDIN, VOL. XXII. O 


202 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxvi. 


in which it is placed; that through his influence chiefly 
the patronage of the Queen had been obtained. That 
the use of a room for the summer meetings of the 
Society at the Botanic Garden continued to be granted 
by him. 

In the Minutes of the meeting of the Botanical Society, 
12th June 1845, it is stated that “the Office-bearers, 
together with the Professor of Botany, constitute the regularly 
appointed Custodiers of the University Herbarium.” 

In a statement read to the Society by its Treasurer, 
Mr. Brand, at a meeting held at 6 York Place on 14th 
January 1847, it is mentioned that the balance in the 
Society’s favour was only £14 or £15, and that the 
Assistant-Curator was unpaid, and it was agreed to pay 
him £10 as part payment of his salary, and Professor 
Balfour mentioned that he intended to bring the subject of 
the University Herbarium under the notice of the Senatus, 
and he hoped some allowance would be made for the 
purpose of defraying the expenses connected with it. 

At a meeting of the Council, held at 5 Northumberland 
Street, 4th November 1857, it was remitted to Professor 
Balfour, along with Mr. P. N. Fraser, Mr. M‘Farlane, and 
Dr. Lawson, to arrange with the Janitor of the College for 
cleaning and heating the Society’s rooms there. 

Although hardly a meeting took place without donations 
of plants for the Herbarium or books for the Library being 
announced, an important event now happened which 
enriched the Society considerably. The following intima- 
tion explains this. It was read at an ordinary meeting 
of the Botanical Society, held at 6 York Place, on 10th 
December 1857 :— 

“At a meeting of the Wernerian Natural History 
Society, called by public advertisement, held in the 
Anatomical Room at the College, on Saturday, 28th 
November 1857, it was unanimously resolved that the 
said Society be dissolved, and, if agreeable to the Royal 
Physical Society and the Botanical Society, that a union 
be formed with them on the following terms :— 

“(1) That the members of the Wernerian Natural 
History Society should be received as members of the 
foresaid Societies, preserving the privileges (whether as life 


i 


—~ -- 


Aprit 1902.]_ BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 203 


or annual members) which they enjoyed as members of the 
Wernerian. 

“(2) That two-thirds of the funds belonging to the 
Wernerian Society be given to the Royal Physical, and 
one-third to the Baraca Society. 

“(3) That all books on botanical sapieea be given to 
the Botanical Society. That all other books, except such 
as may be required for completing works in the College 
Library, be handed over to the Royal Physical Society. 

“(4) That the furniture of the Wernerian Society be 
handed to the Botanical Society. 

“(5) That the specimens in Natural History be trans- 
ferred to the College Museum. 

“(6) That the Minute Books of the Society and other 
private documents be deposited in the College Ribrary.” 

To carry the above into effect, Professors Goodsir and 
Balfour have conferred with the two Societies forenamed, 
and arranged that, in receiving the property to be assigned 
to them, these Societies shall undertake all the responsibil- 
ities which at present belong to the Wernerian Society. 

On the motion of Dr. Sellar, seconded by Mr. Murray, 
the proposal of the Wernerian Natural History Society was 
cordially approved of by the SBotanical Society and 
accepted accordingly, and the Council was empowered to 
carry out the arrangement on the above terms. 

At an ordinary meeting of the Botanical Society, held 
at 6 York Place, on 11th February 1858, it was announced 
by the Secretary that, at a meeting held on 23rd January 
1858, the Wernerian Society had confirmed the resolution 
of their previous meeting, with only one dissentient, a Dr. 
Macdonald, who protested that any of the funds or effects 
of the Wernerian Society should be handed over to the 
Botanical Society, and threatened legal proceedings. 

The members of the Wernerian Society altered the 
terms of the transfer, so that, in the event of Dr. 
Macdonald bringing an action, they were to be protected 
by each of the Societies—the Royal Physical and the 
Botanical—up to the value of the property each received 
from the Wernerian Societys 

On the motion of Mr. Anderson, seconded by Mr. 
Fraser, it was agreed that the Botanical Society should 


204 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. cxvr. 


relieve the members of the Wernerian Society as stipulated 
for under this new condition. 

From the Financial Statement of the Botanical Society, 
November 1857 to November 1858, submitted to the 
Society 9th December 1858, it appears that the cash 
received from the Wernerian Society amounted to £72, 5s., 
and cash obtained for books and forms of that Society, 
£5, 13s,—in all, £77, 18s. However, even with this 
sum handed to it, the Botanical Society was in such arrears 
with its payments that, after paying its printing account, 
which was due for three years, and other expenses, they 
had only a balance of £59, 15s. 8d. to carry forward to 
the next year. 

At a meeting of the Society, held in 5 St. Andrew 
Square, Edinburgh, on 12th March 1863, the following 
letter from the President, Professor Douglas Maclagan, 
regarding the change of the Society’s Herbarium and 
Library Rooms at the College, was read :— 


28 Heriot Row, 12th March 1868. 


Dear Sir,—lI regret that an unavoidable engagement 
will prevent me from being at the meeting of the botanical 
Society this evening, and I have therefore to request that 
you will bring before the Society, at private business, the 
following statement regarding the accommodation of that 
portion of the Herbarium which is at present in the 
University. 

Since my appointment to the Chair of Medical Juris- 
prudence there has been found the greatest difficulty in 
providing me with the apartments necessary for the business 
of my class. 

After much fruitless search, it was found that no other 
place was available except the rooms occupied by the 
Botanical Society. It was, at the same time, found no less 
difficult to discover a place in the College to which the 
Society could be transferred, and the Senatus accordingly 
agreed to grant a sum of money to take a room somewhere 
out of the College for the Society, but when I came to 
make the necessary inquiries*it was found impossible to 
get suitable rooms at a reasonable rent in a convenient 
locality. 


Aprin 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 205 


At this juncture Mr. Cameron, the University Janitor, 
placed at the disposal of the Senatus a room forming part 
of his house, sufficiently large to hold the Herbarium 
presses, and to allow of the work of distribution of 
specimens, etc., being carried on. 

The difficulties which had to be surmounted in this 
matter, and which I need not detail, left so little time 
for altering the rooms before the commencement of my 
lectures, that it was necessary to take prompt action in 
regard to the Botanical Society’s effects. After consultation, 
therefore, with Professor Balfour, it was agreed to accept 
Mr. Cameron’s offer, and under sanction of the House 
Committee of the University, the Society’s presses have all 
been safely moved, and the room, as you know, is now 
available for the purposes of the Society. 

I have to apologise for not having formally brought this 
before the Society previous to removing the presses, but 
there was no time to be lost, and I trust to the Society 
granting me a bill of indemnity for thus acting, on the 
consideration that it is better that it should be accom- 
modated within than without the University. 

The benches, etc., belonging to the Society which were 
in the other room, and not in actual use, are all put aside 
in a secure place. 

Let me remind the Society that they have not a 
permanent right to rooms in the University; that on 
receiving six months’ previous notice the Society must 
remove from the University at any May term that the 
Senatus may desire, and it was only the fact of my 
not being inducted in time enough, to give this notice, 
that the Society had not to remove at the ensuing 
Whitsunday. 

It is more than probable that notice will be given in 
time to make the removal necessary next year. 

As this would throw the expense of finding accommoda- 
tion on the Society, I venture to suggest that we ought 


1This action of Professor Douglas Maclagan caused a good deal of 
strong feeling among the members of the Society, who felt aggrieved. 
It appears that Protessor Douglas Maclagan made a mistake, and did 
himself a great injustice in acting as he did, but he was so popular that 
the event was soon forgotten. The Senatus of the University should 
have given the Society six months’ notice, which they did not do. 


206 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess, Lxvt. 


at once to address a strong memorial to the Commissioners 
for Woods and Forests, urging the importance of adding 
more accommodation to the present Museum in the 
Botanie Garden, and thus enabling us to have the whole 
of our valuable collection in one place. 

Have the goodness to lay this before the Society this 
evening.—And believe me to be yours truly, 

Toh Sadler ee DouGLas MAcLAGAN. 


The meeting appointed Professors Maclagan, Archer, and 
Balfour a Committee to draw up a Memorial to the Com- 
missioners of H.M. Works, urging upon their Lordships the 
necessity of providing more accommodation at the Royal 
Botanic Garden for the Herbarium and Library. 

At the meeting of the Society held on 9th April 1863, 
the Minutes of the meeting of 12th March 1863 were read 
and approved. 

The following Memorial to the First Commissioner of 
H.M. Office of Works asking for more accommodation at 
the Botanic Garden for the University Herbarium was also 
adopted at the meeting of 9th April 1863 :— 


To the Honourable the First Commissioner of Works, 

The Memorial of the President and Fellows of the 
Botanical Society of Edinburgh, humbly showeth— 

That the President and Fellows of the Botanical Society 
were appointed by the Patrons of the University in 1839? 
Joint-Curators of the University Herbarium, along with the 
Professor of Botany. 

That in 1851° an arrangement was made with the 
Office of Works, by which it was agreed that accommoda- 
tion should be granted for the Herbarium in rooms at the 
Royal Botanic Garden. 

That the collection was thereafter transferred to the 
Garden, and that it has been ever since accessible to every 
one who wishes to consult it. ; 

That the accommodation is now totally inadequate for 
the purpose, and that thus the collection of plants has 


? Should be 9th January 1839. 
* No note in Minutes of any such arrangement in 1851 or about 
that year, 


Aprit 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 207 


been materially injured and its usefulness impaired for 
want of room. 

That, in consequence of want of accommodation at the 
Garden, part of the specimens are now deposited in a room 
in the Janitor’s house at the College. 

That the cases holding the collection interfere at present 
with the prosecution of Botany in consequence of diminish- 
ing the size of the room in which the students meet for 
practical work with the microscope. 

In these circumstances your Memorialists humbly request 
that you will authorise steps to be taken for 
securing additional accommodation at the Garden 
for this very valuable collection of plants, which 
is the only public Herbarium in Scotland. 


Nothing seems to have come from this Memorial. 


The Minutes of the meeting, held at 5 St. Andrew 
Square, 14th December 1871, were signed by . the 
President, Professor Wyville Thomson, on approval 11th 
January 1872. These are the first Minutes of the 
Society that are signed. 

At this same meeting a Committee was appointed, of 
which Dr. Craig was Convener, to examine and report 
on the present state and position of the Society’s Library. 

At a meeting of the Council of the Society, held at 
5 St. Andrew Square, on 30th January 1872, Dr. Craig 
reported that he had visited the Society’s Library, along 
with Professor Balfour and Mr. Sadler, and he was of 
opinion that there were upwards of 1000 volumes in the 
Library, and that at least one-half of them required to 
be bound. To put the books in order, make a cata- 
logue, and provide cases for them would, he thought, cost 
fully £100. He suggested that a Committee might be 
appointed to ascertain whether Government would be 
disposed to take the Library under their own charge, 
and accommodate it in the Herbarium Hall.at the Botanic 
Garden. 

After some discussion, it was remitted to Professor 
Balfour to have an interview with Dr. Lyon Playfair, and 
Mr. Matheson of H.M. Office of Works, on the matter, 
before taking any decisive steps. 


208 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss, uxvr. 


The Council held a meeting at 5 St. Andrew Square 
on 5th March 1872, and at that meeting the following 
Minutes of the meeting of the Library Committee, held at 
5 St. Andrew Square, 5th March 1872, were read, which 
were as follows :— 

Present—Dr. Craig, Convener; My. Buchan, Mr. Evans, 
and Mr. Sadler. 

Dr. Craig stated that Professor Balfour had reported to 
him that he had had an interview with Mr. Matheson, of 
H.M. Office of Works, on the subject of handing over the 
Society’s Library to the Government, and Mr. Matheson 
was of opinion that the Society should make an offer of 
the Library, in the first instance, to Professor Balfour, as 
Regius Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden, and he to 
bring the matter under the notice of Government. 

This the Committee agreed to recommend to the Council. 


After some remarks from the Chairman (Professor 
Wyville Thomson) and Professor Balfour, the Council 
‘decided to bring the recommendation of the Library 
Committee before the next general meeting of the Society. 

The matter was brought up at the meeting of the 
Society, held at 5 St. Andrew Square, on 14th March 1872. 

It was moved by Dr. Anderson Henry, and seconded by 
Mr. Buchan, that the consideration of the recommendation 
of the Council as to the Society’s Library be delayed till 
the April meeting, when it would be disposed of. A 
notice to this effect to be put on the April billet. 


The Council of the Society met at 5 St. Andrew Square, 
30th April 1872. 

The following letter, drawn up by the Library Committee 
in accordance with instructions received at last general 
meeting, was read and authorised to be transmitted to 
Professor Balfour. The letter referred to read as follows:— 

BOTANICAL Society’s Rooms, 5 St. ANDREW SQUARE, 
EpinpurGH, 23rd April 1872. 
_ To Professor Balfour, 
Regius Keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden. 

Sir—wWe are authorised by the Botanical Society of 
Edinburgh to offer, through you, the Library of the Society 
to H.M. Board of Works, for the purpose of forming a 


Apri 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 209 


nucleus of a consulting library for the Herbarium in the 
Royal Botanic Garden of Edinburgh. 

‘The Library consists of about 1000 volumes, and many 
of the books are valuable and useful for Herbarium work. 
You are aware that the Herbarium at the Garden is open 
to the public, as well as to the members of the Society, and 
many of them consult it. There has, however, been long 
felt a want of books to consult in the examination of plants. 

The Society are aware that you, as Regius Keeper of the 
Garden, have endeavoured to remedy this defect by granting 
visitors the use of books from your own private library. 

The Society believe that no public collection of dried 


. specimens of plants can be available for scientific purposes 


without a consulting library. 

They therefore wish for the sake of the public, and for 
the advancement of Botanical Science, to do what they can 
to supply the deficiency. 

The Society will hand over to the Government the 
entire Library, and continue to send any botanical works 
which they may from time to time receive, on the 
understanding that the Government will provide for 
their accommodation and keeping, and that they will be 
open for consultation to the members of the Botanical 
Society, as well as to the public who may wish to consult 
the Herbarium. 

The Society have desired us to send this communication 
to you, with the request that you will forward it to head- 
quarters, with such a statement as you may think necessary 
to make. The Society believe that by this offer they are 
conferring a great favour on the public—that they are 
enhancing the value of the Herbarium at the Garden—as 
well as contributing in no small degree to the promotion 
of Botanical Science, and are thus endeavouring to secure 
for Scotland what England already possesses in the 
valuable Government Library at Kew. 

We enclose an extract from the Minutes of the 
Botanical Society, authorising us to make this offer. 

Signed in the name and by the authority of the Library 
Comunittee. 

WILLIAM Craic, M.D., C.M., 
Chairman of Library Committee. 


210 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess, Lxvt. 


At the meeting of the Society held in the Classroom, 
Royal Botanic Garden, 9th May 1872, it was reported by 
Professor J. H. Balfour that he had transmitted the letter 
from the Society to Government regarding the handing 
over of the Library to Mr. Ayrton, of H.M. Treasury, 
through Dr. Lyon Playfair, and that Dr. Playfair was 
to take the first opportunity of forwarding it. 

The following is a copy of the letter sent by Professor 
J. H. Balfour to the Right Hon. A. J. Ayrton :— 


Royal Boranic GARDEN, 
EDINBURGH, 16th May 1872. 

Dear Sir,—As Regius Keeper of the Edinburgh Botanic _ 
Garden, I have received the enclosed letter from the 
Botanical Society of Edinburgh, and now confirm it, with 
the request contained in it. I now forward it to you 
by the Hon. Commissioners of H.M. Works. At 
the same time I take the liberty of urging strongly the 
propriety of accepting the generous offer of the Society. I 
have long been asking for means of providing a consulting 
library in connection with the Herbarium in the Garden, 
and it is with great pleasure that 1 now transmit the 
Society’s offer. 

The Library contains many valuable books, which will 
be most serviceable to those who consult the Herbarium. 
I have long felt that the usefulness of the collection was 
much impaired by the want of books. 

I hope, therefore, that I shall be authorised to receive 
the gifts on the part of the Government, and that I may 
ask a letter to allow uniting the books in the Herbarvwm 
Rooms. 

I am satisfied as to the value of the Library, and I 
venture . . .’ to you the propriety of accepting it.—Your 
obedient Servant, 5 fed cD 3% 


At a meeting of the Council of the Botanical Society, 
held at 5 St. Andrew Square, Edinburgh, 5th June 1872, 
Professor Balfour read a letter from Mr. Ayrton, of 
H.M. Treasury, which had been addressed to Dr. Lyon 


1 A few words in this letter cannot be read, possibly the words omitted 
are ‘‘ to suggest.” 


Aprit 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH pg Els 


Playfair in answer to the letter transmitted by the Society 
through Dr. Playfair to Government regarding the handing 
over of the Library. Mr. Ayrton says: “It seems very 
desirable to carry through the proposal, and I will urge it 
on the Treasury as soon as I have had the estimate made 
of the expenses.” 

At a meeting of the Council of the Botanical Society, 
held at 5 St. Andrew Square, Edinburgh. 2nd July 1872, 
Professor J. H. Balfour stated that Mr. Matheson, of 
H.M. Board of Works, had visited the Botanic Garden 
according to instructions received from Mr. Ayrton, and 
had made an estimate as to the probable expense of 
providing room and cases for the Library. Mr. Matheson’s 
report would be submitted to Government. 

At a meeting of the Council of the Society, held at 
5 St. Andrew Square, Edinburgh, 5th November 1872, 
Professor J. H. Balfour reported the building for the 
accommodation of the Society's Library was now in 
progress. 

The Society met at 5 St. Andrew Square, Edinburgh, on 
14th November 1872, and the following letter from Mr. 
Matheson, of H.M. Office of Works, to Professor Balfour 
was read :— 

H.M. OFFICE oF WORKS, 
EDINBURGH, 30th September 1872. 

Dear Sir,— With reference to my communication with 
you regarding accommodation for the Library of the 
Botanical Society offered to the public, I have to state 
that the Lords Commissioners of H.M. Treasury having 
sanctioned the expenditure necessary for the accommoda- 
tion for the books, etce., I have been directed by the First 
Commissioner of H.M. Works, etc., to proceed with the 
erection of an apartment adjoining the Herbarium of the 
Royal Botanic Garden and supply the necessary cases and 
shelving.—I am, dear Sir, yours faithfully, 

tOBT. MATHESON. 


At a meeting of the Botanical Society, held 14th 
December 1876, Professor J. H. Balfour submitted a 
circular letter he was issuing regarding the Botanical 
Society of Edinburgh having presented their collection of 


bo 


12 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. uxvi. 


books to the Government——“ These, with additions since 
received, are now arranged in a room connected with the 
Herbarium at the Royal Botanic Garden.” 

Note-—Donations to the Herbarium from all sources 
used to be reported to the Society, and minuted in a 
general way. ‘This should still be done, as the Society 
are curators. 

Important. — At a meeting of the Council of the 
Botanical Society, held 5th February 1884, Mr. Andrew 
Taylor, the Assistant-Secretary, intimated that he had 
received, as Secretary, an additional £1 stg., making in 
all £2 this session, from Dr. Peter White, Yetholm, for 
duplicate British plants from the Herbarium, and asked 
instructions as to the disposal of the money. 

A Committee, consisting of Professor Dickson, Messrs. 
Neill Fraser, and Taylor, as Convener, was appointed to 
report as to the Society’s right of property in its duplicate 
plant specimens for distribution, in connection with the 
gift of its general Herbarium to the University. 

The Committee reported at a meeting of the Council of 
the Society, held 3rd March 1884, as follows :— 

“The Committee beg to report that the specimens in 
question are in a very confused condition as regards labels, 
etc.; that it is ten years since the Society last received 
money on account of duplicate specimens; and that, con- 
sidering all the circumstances of the case, it is expedient 
that the Society relinquish any claim of property it may 
have in its duplicates in favour of the University 
Herbarium ; and that the £2 in question be paid over to 
the Herbarium Fund.” 

The Council agreed to recommend the Society to adopt 
this report. 

The Society at its meeting, held at 5 St. Andrew Square, 
on 13th March 1834, agreed to the disposal of the dupl- 
cate specimens at the Herbarium as recommended by the 
Council. 

At a meeting of the Council, held 4th November 1884, 
a Committee was nominated to approach the Government 
with the view of getting them to purchase all or part of 
the library of the late Isaac Anderson Henry, Esq., for the 
Government Library at the Royal Botanic Garden. 


Aprit1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 213 


The Committee was appointed at the meeting of the 
Society held 15th November 1884. 

At a meeting of the Council, held 2nd December 1884, 
“Mr. Taylor made a report, as requested at last meeting 
of the Society, as to the terms on which the Society gifted 
their collection of books to the Government Library at the 
Royal Botanic Garden. In this report the letter offering 
the books to Government was quoted (ex Minute of Library 
Committee, 23rd April 1872,and adopted as an instrument 
of the Society on 30th April 1872)—this letter given in 
full, page 11. 

“Considerable discussion followed the giving of this 
report, especially regarding the manner, and by whom, the 
presents of books which the Society from time to time 
received should be acknowledged and handed over to 
Government. Ultimately the matter was left over to a 
subsequent meeting of Council.” 

At the meeting of the Council held 2nd February 1885, 
“The consideration of the form of acknowledgment for 
books received by the Society was referred to a Committee 
composed of Prof. Dickson, Mr. Taylor, and the Assistant- 
Secretary (Dr. J. M. Macfarlane), with power to draw up a 
suitable form for the approval of the Council.” 

At a meeting of the Council of the Society, held at 5 St. 
Andrew Square, lst April 1890, “ Prof. Balfour stated 
that he was glad to inform the Council that a Cwratorship 
of the Herbarium and Library had been established by 
Government, and that the salary of £150, rising by inere- 
ments to £200, had been voted for the purpose as an 
annual grant.” 

At a meeting of the Council, held at 5 St. Andrew 
Square, on 50th December 1890, Mr. Lindsay, President, 
in the chair, 

A letter was read from Prof. J. B. Balfour, suggesting 
that the Society publish its Proceedings monthly. In that 
letter, Prof. Balfour refers to the close relationship between 
the Royal Botanic Garden and the Botanical Society, as 
follows :— 

“T do not need to point out the intimate connection 
that there has always been between the Society and the 
Garden, and everyone would, I am sure, deprecate any step 


214 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. LXVI. 


that might in the smallest degree produce a tendency to 
separation. The Garden has benefited by the Society, the 
Society has benefited by the Garden, and procedure that 
led to separate publication of results of work done in the 
Garden would unquestionably tend to injure the Society, 
and in so doing would injure the Garden itself. 

“The publications of the Society go a long way to 
bringing of exchange books to the Garden Library, and it 
is therefore clearly on that ground alone, if on no other, 
the interest of those charged with the maintenance of the 
Garden to keep a jealous watch over the publications of 
the Society, to endeavour to support these, and to make 
them as valuable as possible. It would be suicidal in 
present circumstances to bring out a Garden Bulletin 
which would be practically a rival of the publications 
of the Society.” 

I feel sure that our members will generally agree with 
the sentiments of Professor J. B. Balfour as expressed in 
the foregoing letter. 


Her Late Majesty Queen Victoria becomes Patron of the 
Society. 

At a meeting of the Society, held at the Royal Botanic 
Garden, on 14th June 1838, “The Secretary stated. that 
a letter had been received by Dr. Graham (letter in Dr. 
Balfour’s possession) from Wm. Gibson-Craig, Esq., M.P., 
enclosing a communication from Lord John Russell, 
intimating that Her Majesty had been graciously pleased 
to become Patron of the Botanical Society. 

At the meeting of the Society held in the Royal 
Institution, on 14th February 1859, there was exhibited 
an impression of the Society’s Diploma on white satin for 
presentation to Her Majesty the Queen. 

Address to the Queen upon Her Majesty’s marriage to 
Prince Albert, read at meeting of the Botanical Society, 
13th February 1840. 

At the meeting of the Society held on 12th March 
1840, it was proposed that Professor Graham be requested 
to bring under the notice of H.R.H. Prince Albert the 
desire of the Botanical Society to elect him a British 
Honorary Member. 


———_-—- 


Aprit 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 2E5 


At a meeting of the Committee of Management of the 


Society, held on 14th May 1840, a letter from the Private 


Seeretary of H.R.H. Prince Albert was read, stating that 
the Prince would have much pleasure in seeing his name 
enrolled amongst the Honorary Members of the Botanical 
Society. The Prince was duly elected by acclamation. 
Letters of congratulation was sent by the Botanical 
Society to Her Majesty on the birth of the Princess Royal, 
afterwards Dowager Empress of Germany; and again on 


-the birth of the Prince of Wales, now His Majesty King 


Edward VII. 

At a meeting of the Society, held at 6 York Place, on 
9th January 1862, a letter of condolence to Her Majesty 
Queen Victoria on the death of H.R.H. Prince Albert, the 
Prince Consort. 

Sir George Grey acknowledged receipt of this letter 
through his Secretary, on 14th January 1862. 


Prince of Wales. 

At a meeting held on 12th March 1863, Professors 
Maclagan, Archer, and Balfour were appointed a Committee 
to prepare and transmit a congratulatory address to H.R.H. 
the Prince of Wales. 

At the meeting of the Society held on 9th April 1863, 
on the motion of the President (Professor Douglas Maclagan), 
and carried by acclamation, H.R.H. the Prince of Wales 
was elected an Honorary British Fellow of the Society. 

A congratulatory address upon the occasion of his 
marriage with Princess Alexandra of Denmark was ordered 
to be transmitted to His Royal Highness through the proper 
quarter. 

At a meeting of the Botanical Society, held at the 
Royal Botanic Garden on 14th May 1863, a copy of the 
Society’s Diploma, coloured by Dr. Greville, with leather 
case mounted with silver, for presentation to H.R.H. the 
Prince of Wales, were subjected to the meeting. 

On the 11th June 1863, a letter was submitted to the 
meeting at the Royal Botanic Garden from Lieut.-General 
Knollys, conveying the thanks of H.R.H. the Prince of 
Wales for his election as a member of the Society, and also 
for the Diploma sent him. 


216 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. xvi 


In 1901, ON HIS ACCESSION TO THE THRONE AS 
King Epwarp VII.; His MAJESTY GRACIOUSLY 
BECAME PATRON OF THE SOCIETY. 


At the meeting held at 5 St. Andrew Square, on 12th 
November 1863, on the motion of the President, Professor 
Douglas Maclagan, H.R.H. Prince Alfred was elected by 
acclamation a British Honorary Fellow of the Society. 
Professor Maclagan, President; Professor Balfour, Vice- 
President; and Dr. Greville, Secretary, were appointed 
a Committee to prepare and present the Society’s Diploma 
to the Prince. 

On 10th December 1863, a letter was submitted to the 
meeting from Major Cowell, conveying the thanks of 
H.R.H. Prince Alfred to the Society for his election as 
an Honorary Member. 

Professor Balfour also intimated that the deputation 
appointed at last meeting had waited upon His Royal 
Highness at Holyrood Palace, and presented it to him. 

His Royal Highness attended a special meeting of the 
Botanical Society, held in the Royal Society’s Rooms, 
Mound, Edinburgh, 24th March 1864, and inscribed his 
name on the roll of members. 

At the meeting of the Society held at the Royal Botanic 
Garden, on 14th May 1868, on the motion of Professor 
J. H. Balfour, a loyal address was voted to the Queen 
expressing the Society’s gratification at the deliverance 
of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh from the hand of the 
assassin, and also one to the Duke to a similar effect. 

At the meeting held on 11th June 1868, the Secretary 
laid on the table a letter from the Secretary of State 
(Gathorne Hardy) in reply to the loyal address which 
the Society had forwarded to Her Majesty the Queen, and 
which she had been graciously pleased to accept. 

At the meeting of the Society held on 9th July 1868, 
the Secretary laid on the table a letter from Colonel 
Augustus Liddellin reply to the address sent to H.R.H. the 
Duke of Edinburgh, stating His Royal Highness had been 
graciously pleased to accept it. 

tesolved at meeting of Society held at 5 St. Andrew 
Square, 12th February 1874, “To send an address of 


Aprit 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 217 


congratulation to H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh on the 
occasion of his marriage to H.I.H. the Grand Duchess 
Marie Alexandrovna of Russia.” 

The draft of the address was approved at a meeting 
held at 5 St. Andrew Square, 9th April 1874, and the 
Secretary authorised to forward it. 

A letter of thanks, written by command of his Royal 
Highness, and dated from Clarence House, St. James’, S.W., 
13th April 1874, was duly received by the President and 
Fellows of the Botanical Society. 

A letter of condolence, agreed to at the January meeting, 
to be sent to Her Majesty Queen Victoria on the death of 
the Princess Alice, was read at the meeting of the Society 
held at 5 St. Andrew Square on 4th February 1879, 
and the President and Hon. Secretary were authorised 
to sign it on behalf of the Society, and forward it to the 
Home Secretary for presentation. 

Letter of thanks received, dated 18th February 1879, 
and submitted to the Society at their meeting, 13th March 
1879. 

At a meeting held at the Royal Botanie Garden on 9th 
June 1887, it was resolved to send an address from the 
Society to Her Majesty Queen Victoria congratulating her 
upon her Jubilee. 

An acknowledgment was duly received from the Marquis 
of Lothian through his Secretary, dated 29th June 1887, 
stating that the address had been duly forwarded for 
presentation to Her Majesty. 

The Secretary of State wrote from Whitehall, 19th July 
1887, stating that Her Majesty had received the address 
“very graciously.” 

The Society met at 5 St. Andrew Square on 14th 
January 1892, and after the private business adjourned, 
owing to the death of H.R.H. the Duke of Clarence. 

At a meeting of the Council of the Botanical Society, 
held at 5 St. Andrew Square on Sth February 1901, 
it was remitted to the President and Colonel Bailey to 
draw up an address to be presented to the King on the 
occasion of his succession to the throne. 

On the motion of Dr. William Craig, it was agreed that 
the forthcoming billet be printed on white paper with 


TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXII. _ dz 


218 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THH [Sess. uxvi. 


a mourning margin, out of respect to the memory of the 
late Patron of the Society, Her Majesty Queen Victoria. 
At the meeting of the Botanical Society held at 5 St. 
Andrew Square 14th February 1901, the address of 
condolence with the King was read and adopted. 


Other Royal Personages who are, or have been, Members 


of the Botanical Society. 


His Majesty the King of Saxony, elected 10th January 
1859 a Foreign Honorary Member. 

His Majesty Frederick William 11, King of Prussia, 
elected a Foreign Honorary Member 11th April 
LE BU) 

His Majesty King Oscar 1. of Sweden, elected a Royal 
Honorary Fellow 10th January 1878. Letter of 
thanks sent by direction of the King, per his Minister 
in London, read at the meeting of the Society 14th 
March 1878. 

In addition to the above, His Late Imperial Majesty the 

Emperor of Brazil was an Honorary Fellow of the Society, 

who joined in December 1874. 


APPENDIX. 


CURATOR. 


Mr. James M‘Nab appointed first Curator 17th March 1836. 
Resigned at meeting 10th November 1836, but was prevailed upon to 
continue in office as Joint-Curator. 

8th December 1836.—At meeting held at the College, Mr. Stewart 
appointed Joint-Curator along with Mr. M‘Nab. 

10th December 1840.—At a meeting of the Committee of Manage- 
ment of the Society, it was proposed to elect, in addition to the other 
Office- bearers, a Curator of the Library, as it was increasing so fast. 
The Council resolved to postpone consideration. 

Ata meeting held on 15th May 1841, Mr. Brand gave notice of a 
motion-—“ That it is inexpedient that any extra Academical Teacher 
of Botany should in future hold the office of Curator of the Society's 
Herbarium and Library.” 

At the meeting of the Society held at the Royal Botanic Garden 
10th June 1841, the above motion was moved by Mr. Brand, seconded 
by Mr. Campbell, and carried unanimously. 

Considering the altered circumstances, and the invaluable services 
rendered to the Society by extra Academical Teachers of Botany, the 
Society might well consider the advisability of having the above motion 
rescinded. 

At a meeting of the Society, held 14th April 1842, a Memorial and 


. Apri 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 219 


Petition to Government for aid in defraying the salary of a Curator 
was read and approved. Mr. Brand intends to present this when in 
London. 

On the 12th May 1842, at the usual meeting of the Society, Mr. 
Brand reported, on the part of the Committee of Management, as to 
his proceedings in London with respect to obtaining an annual grant 
for the salary of a Curator for the Society’s Museum. 

From the third Annual Report by the Botanical Society, on the 
state and progress of the University Herbarium and the Botanical 
Library connected with it, there was evidently a want of funds, and 
an acting and salaried Assistant-Curator could not be appointed. This 
was at the end of 1843, but at the meeting held on 11th July 1844 
it was reported by the Council that they had obtained the services of 
Mr. Evans as Assistant-Curator for two years, commencing on 15th May 
1844, at a salary of £30 per annum. 

Sth March 1849.—Mr. George Lawson, Edinburgh, appointed 
Assistant-Curator ; the salary to be £35 per annum, if, after investi- 
gation, it was found that the Society could afford that sum or more. 

There were many well-known members of the Society who held the 
office of Curator, but in December 1862 an Honorary Curatorship was 
begun, and the Professor of Botany appointed to the office, and the 
post seems to have been held by the succeeding Professors of Botany in 
the University until 1901. Professor J. B. Balfour having resigned 
in 1901, the Society appointed Mr. Wm. Caldwell Crawford, F.R.S.E., 
their Curator. 


RULES. 


The original Rules agreed to are not entered in Minutes. 

Rules altered 14th December 1837.—‘‘ The Office-bearers of the 
Society shall consist of a President, four Vice-Presidents, six Councillors, 
one British and two Foreign Secretaries, a Treasurer, and a Curator 
who shall be elected annually by means of signed lists.” 


ROOMS FOR MEETINGS. 


The meeting of the Society 10th November 18536 was held in the 
Classroom of Professor Graham, at the College, at 7.30 p.m. Prof. 
Graham stated that, until more suitable accommodation could be 
obtained, he would make the Society welcome to the use of his Class- 
room. 

The Society having arranged to rent a Meeting Room at the Royal 
Institution from the Scottish Society of Antiquarians, held their first 
meeting there, on Sth November 1836. 

At a meeting of the Society, held 11th April 1839, the Secretary 
stated that Dr. Traill had given the Society the use of a room in the 
College, adjoining that in which the Herbarium is kept, to be employed 
as a Library and Consulting Room. 

The Society met in various rooms during subsequent years, and, 
among other places, at 6 York Place. The Society first met at 5 St. 
Andrew Square, on 15th November 1862. 


TEA AFTER MEETINGS. 


Proposed at meeting held at Royal Institution 10th January 1839. 
At the meeting held on 14th March 1839 it was arranged that tea 
should be provided at the meeting to be held on 11th April 1859, and 
has since been continued at the evening meetings. 


220 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. uxvr. 


EXTENSION OF THE ROYAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 


On the suggestion of Professor J. H. Balfour, at a meeting of the 
Council on 3rd November 1874, it was remitted to the Secretary and 
President to bring up the desirability of the Society addressing a 
Memorial to the Government at the next ordinary meeting of the 
Society. 

At the meeting held on 12th November 1874, it was remitted to the 
President and the Honorary Secretary to draw up a Memorial in favour 
of the extension of the Royal Botanic Garden, the Memorial to be 
signed by the President in the name of the Society, and transmitted to 
H.M. Government. 

The reply of the Government, through H.M. Office of Works, is 
dated 22nd January 1875. They declined to purchase part of the lands 
of Inverleith for an extension of the Botanic Garden, but said that, 
if either the city of Edinburgh or the University purchased the land 
and handed it over to the Oftice of Works, they would ask Parliament 
to vote the additional yearly cost of maintenance. 

The arrangements to purchase the Arboretum were completed 
between the Government and the Town Council of Edinburgh about 
May 1877. ; 


LOCAL PENNY POST ABOLISHED. 


At a meeting, held in the Royal Institution, of the Committee of 
Management of the Botanical Society, on 9th January 1840, it was 
ordered that, *‘ In consequence of the change in the local penny post 
delivery in and around Edinburgh of the Billets intimating the 
Society's meetings, ete., these should in future be delivered by a 
person, at as moderate a charge as could be arranged, say, 2s. 6d. a 
meeting.” 


HeEpPATICA OF BEN. LAWERS DISTRICT. 
By Symers M. Macvicar. 


(Read 10th April 1902.) 


I spent five weeks within the years 1900 and 1901 at 
Kiltyrie, near the base of Ben Lawers, with the object of 
becoming familiar with the Hepatic of the district. 
Several botanists have searched these hills for hepatics, 
but none have apparently devoted the whole of their time 
to this subject, judging from the number of additions to 
our flora, some being not very rare, which I was enabled 
to make. The localities searched by me were the range of 
hills from Ben Lawers to Creag-na-Caillich, and the low 
eround from Lawers to Killin. June was the month 
chosen as, the ground being still moist, most of rare 
fruiting species are then in best condition. 

Ben Lawers lies almost exactly in the centre of Scotland, 
and its hepatic flora combines both the eastern and the 


Aprit1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 221 


western types, but the former greatly preponderates. Only 
about one-fourth part of our Atlantic species occur, and 
then are mostly in small quantity. I include Lejewnea 
patens with these, but I cannot consider it as a species 
distinct from JL. serpyllifolia. The small typical plant 
which is confined, or almost so, to the west side of the 
country, where it is common, is distinct enough, but when 
it extends eastwards, and even in some of its forms on the 
west coast, one frequently meets with plants which, in my 
opinion, are indistinguishable from the small form of 
L. serpyllifolia. None of its characters are constant, either 
separately or when looked at as a whole; the size of 
stipule and postical lobe, the shape and direction of antical 
lobe, as well as its size and amount of chlorophyll, the 
manner in which it diverges from the postical lobe, the 
crenulation and height of wings of the perianth, and the 
intricate branching of the stems—are all characters which 
can be matched in some forms of JL. serpyllifolia. In the 
same manner, the characters which separate the small form 
of L. serpyllifolia from the large form can be seen In many 
intermediate forms, but in the case of Z. patens, we have a 
plant to a considerable extent constant in its form within 
a certain geographical area, and I think it is thus entitled 
to sub-specific or, at least, varietal rank.  Saecogyna 
viticulosa is the most noticeable of the Atlantic species of 
the district; it is confined here, as elsewhere when 
occurring in the centre of Scotland, to shaded ravines, and 
is not seen on exposed rocky banks, as is frequently the 
case on the west coast. 

Few alpine species are to be found below 2500 ft. 
except on Creag-an-Lochan, where moist shaded rocks 
descend to 1800 ft. From 2500 to 2800 ft. on most of 
the hills, and to about 3300 ft. on Ben Lawers, most of 
the rare species occur which affect wet ground, as the side 
of rills and marshy places. Above this to the summits, 
the ground is mostly bare humus, which is the favourite 
site for several of the rarer plants, such as the small species 
of Acolea and Marsupella. Some species, which are almost 
confined when on the lower ground to rocks, are to be found 
on this humus, and in this position generally have longer 
stems and grow in larger patches. On the east side of 


bo 


22 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. ixvi. 


Ben Lawers, the bare humus descends considerably lower, 
and as the snow remains for a longer period here than on 
the other parts of the hill, the small species will be found 
in good condition on the moist soil after they have become 
scorched on the south and west sides. Botanists who know 
only the localities on Ben Lawers for the rarer flowering 
plants will be disappointed if they search these places for 
hepatics. Here, as in many other places, it will be found 
that the poorest localities for phanerogams, and frequently 
for mosses, are the richest for hepatics, the presence of 
the latter being, with a few exceptions, almost entirely 
a question of moisture. 

There appears to be more limestone among the schists 
of Creag-an-Lochan than on the other hills, judging from 
the abundance there of some of the species, such as 
Jungermania Muelleri and Metzgeria pubescens, which prefer 
this soil. 

I have to express my thanks for assistance with critical 
plants to Mr. W. H. Pearson, Herrn Kaalaas and Stephani, 
and Prof. V. Schiffner. 

Plants new to the flora of the British Isles are marked 1. 
I have included all the species from the neighbourhood of 
which I have seen specimens. 

Frullania Tamarisei (L.)—Common on the low ground ; 
also common on rocks on the hills, ascending to 3200 ft. 
fF. fragilifolia, Tayl—Frequent on the low ground; rare 
on the hills, ascending to Creag-na-Caillich, 2600 ft.; on 
Ben Lawers, 2700 ft. & dilatata (L.)—Common on the 
low ground; very rare on the hills, and only seen once, 
at Creag-an-Lochan, 2000 ft. 

Lejeunea serpyllifolia (Dicks.)\—Common in ravines ; 
frequent on the hills, ascending to 3300 ft. JZ. patens, 
Lindb.—Rare; Finlarig Burn ravine as an intermediate 
form between this plant and var. cavifolia, Lindb., of 
L. serpyllifolia. L. calearea, Lib.—Very rare; on Thamnium, 
Finlarig Burn; on rocks, Creag-an-Lochan, 1800 ft.; 
Cam Chreag, 2700 ft. 

fiadula Lindbergii, Gottsehe—Frequent on the _ hills, 
ascending to 3900 ft., usually with sterile female flowers. 
Lf. complanata (L.)—Common on the low ground; noticed 
at Creag-an-Lochan, 2000 ft. 


oO 


Apri 1902.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 228 


Porella levigata (Schrad.)—Frequent in Finlarig Wood ; 
very rare on the hills, Creag-an-Lochan, 1800 ft. 
P. platyphylla (L.)—Confined to the low ground, where it 
is rather common. JP. rivularis (Nees)—Common on the 
low ground ; rare on the hills, ascending to 3200 ft. 

Pleurozia cochleariformis (Weiss.)—I did not meet with 
this species, but I have seen a specimen gathered on Ben 
Lawers by Greville, 1822. Mr. W. Young sent me a 
specimen from Glen Lochay, where he mentions that it is 
locally frequent. 

Anthelia julacea (L.)—Very common on the hills to 
4000 ft. I saw a plant on the shore of Loch Tay, with 
Saxifraga stellaris, doubtless carried down by a stream. 
A, Juratzkana (Limpr.)—Frequent on the higher parts of 
the hills, and apparently common on Ben Lawers from 
2800 to 4000 ft. The lowest specimen examined was 
from Creag-an-Lochan, at 1900 ft.; fruit common. 

Herberta adunca (Dicks.)—Rather common on the hills 
to 2900 ft. On the summit of Creag-na-Caillich, a small 
black form occurs with spreading leaves, which would 
hardly be recognised with the naked eye as this species. 
On the exposed parts of the hills, the plant is dark- 
coloured, leaves not furcate, and with shorter points. It 
has, however, only a superficial resemblance to H. Sauteriana 
of the Continent. 

Blephariozia ciliaris (L.)—Frequent, ascending to 4000 
ft. B. pulcherrima (Hoffm.)—Rare; on fir trees, Finlarig 
Wood. 

Trichocolea tomentella (Ehrh.)——Frequent in Finlarig Burn 
ravine. 

Blepharostoma trichophyllwm (L.)—One of the commonest 
species, ascending to 4000 ft. 

Lepidozia reptans (L.)—Frequent on the low ground. 
L. setacea (Web.)—Rare, except on the peat moss above 
Meiller, Ben Lawers, at 2500 ft.; Meal Gheaordie, W. 
Young. 

Bazzania trilobata (L.)—Rare; at foot of tree, Finlarig 
Wood. B. triangularis (Schleich.)— Very common in many 
forms, ascending to 4000 ft. 

Kantia trichomanis (L.)—Common, on stumps and banks 
on the low ground; ascends to 3000 ft. on Ben Lawers. 


bo 


24 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXVI, 


K. Sprengelit (Mart.)—Common on banks in Finlarig Burn 
ravine; Kiltyrie; Lawers Den; near Lochan-na-Lairige, at 
1500 ft. 

Cephalozia bicuspidata (L.)—Common ; noticed to 2900 
ft. OC. ewrvifolia (Dicks.)—-Common on decaying logs in 
Finlarig Wood; Ardmore Wood. Tt @. pleniceps (Aust.), 
Lindb.— Confirmed by W. H. Pearson.—Creag-an-Lochan, 
on bank at south end of precipice (c. per.), June 1900; 
on two places above the landslip, on moist rocky banks 
(c. fr.), 2000 ft., June 1901. In two of the localities 
it is accompanied with C. bicuspidata (L.), but is readily 
distinguished from it in the field by its larger leaves, which 
more resemble C. lunulefolia in shape, but are also larger 
than that species. C. flwitans (Nees)—Among Pleuroza, 
Glen Lochay, 1896, W. Young. C. denudata (Nees)— 
A green alpine form, Ben Heasgarnich, 1900, P. Ewing. 
C. divaricuta (Sm.)—Common on logs and stumps on the 
low ground; rather rare on the hills, ascending to 3900 ft. 
C. leucantha, Spruce.—In marshy ground, close to Lochan- 
na-Lairige, at 1550 ft. 

Pleuroclada albescens (Hook.)—Ben Lawers (ce. per.), 
3400 ft., on moist humus below a snow patch. 

Hygrobiella laxifolia (Hook.)—Common on the sides of 
streams both on the low ground and on the hills, ascend- 
ing to 3400 ft.; perianths frequently present, and fruit not 
rare. 

Eremonotus myriocarpus (Carr), Lindb. & Kaalaas.—On 
wet rocks, rare; Ben Lawers, 3100 ft. (ce. per.), 3900 it; 
Cam Chreag; Creag-an-Lochan, in plenty on one series of 
rocks, at about 2000 ft. 

Scapania resupinata (Dum.)—Rare, only seen on the low 
_ ground; Ardmore; Finlarig Wood, on boulders. S. sub- 
alpina (Nees)—Common in gravelly detritus at side of 
Finlarig Burn in the ravine; frequent on the hills, in moist 
detritus; very rarely on rocks; ascends to 3300 ft. S. 
aequiloba (Schweegr.)—Rare ; on rock ledges on the hills, 
among erect moss tufts, Creag-an-Lochan, 2300 ft; Cam 
Creag 3, 2700 ft.; Ben Lawers 3g, 3000 ft, 3200 ft. 
S. aspera, Mill. & Bern. — Finlarig Wood, 1900, P. 
Ewing. tS. crassiretis, Bryhn.—Ben Heasgarnich, on a 
wet rock, 3200 ft., July 1900, P. Ewing. Notes on this 


Aprit 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 225 


species will be found in “Journ. Bot.,” 1901, p. 210. S. 
undulata (L.)—— Common to 3300 ft. S. purpurascens, 
(Hook.)—Common to about the same height as the preced- 
ing. S. intermedia, Husn.—Rare; on a log, Finlarig Burn. 
S. trrigua (Nees)—Rather common in marshy places to 
1800 ft.; rather rare on the hills to 3200 ft., where it 
usually occurs on moist rock ledges among other species 
and mosses. SS. wliginosa (Swartz.)— Rare: ascends to 
3200 ft. 8S. rosacea (Corda.)—Rare ; but occurs on all the 
hills to 2800 ft., on soil, not on rocks; perianths common. 
This species never seems to be with us in any quantity: it 
is very difficult to get a good specimen. SS. curta (Mart.)— 
On a turf wall (c. per.) with Diplophyllum albicans, 
Kaltyrie. S. wmbrosa (Schrad.)—Rather common on logs 
in Finlarig Wood; Kiltyrie. 

Diplophyllum albicans (L.)\—Very common to 4000 ft. 
D. taxifoliwm (Wahlenb.)—Only seen in two localities on 
Ben Lawers, on a bank at 2800 ft. (ce per.), and at 
3000 ft. D. Dicksoni (Hook.)—Rare; on boulders, Creag- 
an-Lochan (ec. per.), 1900 ft; Ben Lawers, 3000 ft. 

Lophocolea bidentata (L.)—Common on the low ground. 
L. cuspidata, Limpr—Finlarig Burn ravine. JL. hetero- 
phylla (Schrad.)—Rare; only one specimen seen near 
Kaltyrie, among tree roots. 

Chiloscyphus polyanthos (l.)—This species does not 
appear to be common in the district; it is rare on the 
hills, ascending to 2800 ft. 

Harpanthus Flotowianus, Nees—Rare ; in several places 
at the side of streams on the east side of Ben Lawers, from 
2600—3200 ft.; on the south side to 5000 ft; Creag-an- 
Lochan, 2000 ft. This rare species generally is found at 
the edge of the streams with the undulate forms of Pellia, 
which are common in such places, and with Nardia obovata. 

Mylia Taylori (Hook.)—Rare; peat moss, Lochan-na- 
Lairige; frequent in a limited locality among wet rocks 
near Lochan Chait, from 2600—2700 ft. JL anomala 
(Hook.)—Less rare than the preceding ; peat moss, Lochan- 
na-Lairige; Meiller bog, about 1800 ft. 

Plagiochila asplenioides (L.)—Very common; ascending to 
4000 ft.; the larger form (major, Nees) is common in 
Finlarig Burn ravine. P. spinulosa (Dicks.)—Rather com- 


226 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. ixv1. 


mon in Finlarig Burn ravine, otherwise rare; very rare on 
the hills, but occurs in a few places on Creag-an-Lochan, 
1700-1900 ft. 

Jungermania cordifolia, Hook—Common in springs and 
sides of streams on Ben Lawers, from 2500-3300 ft. ; 
frequent on Cam Chreag and Creag-an-Lochan ; fruit 
common, and usually in abundance when present; Finlarig 
Burn, at 700 ft. and at 1200 ft. SJ. pumila, With.— 
Very common on wet rocks at the side of Finlarig Burn 
in the ravine; Kiltyrie; Creag-an-Lochan, on wet rocks, at 
1800 ft. J. atrovirens, Schleich. in Dum. Syll.; confirmed 
by Herrn Kaalaas and Stephani.-—In quantity on wet 
rocks, Creag-an-Lochan, 1800-2000 ft.; Ben Lawers, 
3200 ft.; Cam Chreag, 2700 ft.; Creag-na-Caillich, 
2600 ft. I cannot satisfy myself as to the position of 
this plant. In its dioicous inflorescence and flagelliform 
stems it agrees with J. riparia, but it differs much from 
that species, as I have seen it from rocks on the low 
ground, where it is of a dirty green colour, and with 
perianths which are pyriform and deeply plicate. J. riparia, 
however, occurs also in stoney marshy ground on the hills, 
and in these positions it is occasionally dark green in colour, 
and the perianth sometimes oblong-ovate. J. atrovirens 
agrees with J. pumila in its colour, shape of leaf, and to a 
large extent in its perianths, for although the perianth 
of J. pumila is typically fusiform and hardly plicate, it is 
not unfrequently oblong-ovate and plicate to the middle. 
Flagelle are also sometimes present on the stem, but not 
as a rule, and are very few when they do occur. The 
difference in the inflorescence is important, J. pumila 
being paroicous. The perianths of these plants being 
examined when they are at the same stage of growth, 
when it is mature, but before the egress of the capsule, 
it will be found that even under those conditions there is 
a considerable variation to be seen. On the whole, I am 
inclined to regard J. atrovirens as an alpine variety of 
J. riparia. J. riparia, Tayl—Rather common in wet 
places, both on the low ground and on the hills, ascending 
to 3200 ft. J sphwrocarpa, Hook—Rare; near the 
exposed summit of Creag-na-Caillich, at 2900 ft. as typical 
J. lurida, Dum.; on more sheltered ground, at 2700 ft. 


Aprit 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 227 


it occurs as an intermediate form between this and typical 
spherocarpa. 1 did not see this species on the low ground. 
J. crenulata, Sm—-Uncommon; Kiltyrie (ec. per.), on old 
turf wall; Creag-an-Lochan, in quantity (c. fr.) among 
moist gravel, 1800 ft., with marginal cells not well marked. 
Var. gracillima, Sm.—On banks on the low ground, Kiltyrie, 
Killin, Ardmore. J. autumnalis, DC. (J. subapicalis, Nees) 
—Very rare; on a rock in Finlarig Wood near the road, 
and close to the footpath leading to Creag-na-Caillich 
(c. per.). J. inflata, Huds——Not a common plant in the 
district; Meiller Bog, in quantity, fruit very scarce; in 
marshy ground, Ben Lawers, 2700 ft.; also occurs on dry 
rocks on Creag-an-Lochan, at about 1900 ft. as a small 
black form, which has the appearance of a Marsupella. 
J. bantriensis, Hook.—Rare; Finlarig Burn, on a wet bank; 
side of stream at Lochan-na-Lairige; Ben Lawers, from 
2700-3000 ft. Var. Muelleri (Nees)—Rather common 
on the low ground among wet rocks; very common on the 
hills, ascending to 3400 ft., frequently with perianths, but 
very rare in fruit. Although the small form of grassy 
rock ledges is very different from J. bantriensis, there 
are many forms among wet rocks which are very dificult 
to separate from it. tJ. heterocolpos, Thed.; confirmed 
by Herr Kaalaas—On a rock ledge, Creag-an-Lochan, 
at 1700 ft., with Bryum pallens and Mnium marginatum. 
This species is easily distinguished from any other of the 
Muelleri group by the leaves at the apex of the stem being 
deformed by gemme. J. barbata, Schmid—Uncommon ; 
on grassy ledges at Creag-an-Lochan; a stipulate form on 
Ben Lawers, 2600 ft. and on Creag-na-Caillich, 2700 ft. 
J. lycopodioides, Wallr.—Rather rare; ascending to 4000 
ft, and descending to 1800 ft. on Creag-an-Lochan. 
J. Flerkii, Web. & Mohr—Common from 1800—4000 ft., 
especially on grassy banks of streams. +-/. guadriloba, 
Lindb—On several places on the hills on wet grassy 
ground by the side of streams and rocks; Ben Lawers, 
south and west sides, from 2600-3000 ft.; Creag-an- 
Lochan, 1900 ft. and 2100 ft.; Creag-na-Caillich, 2800 ft. 
The Perthshire plant is more frequently three-lobed than 
four-lobed. A distinct species, its nearest allies being 
J. Flerkii and J. Kunzeana. In Lindb. and Arn., “ Musci 


228 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. Lxvi. 


Asi Borealis,’ p. 37, the characters will be found which 
distinguish it from these species. It is with J. Flarku 
that it is most likely to be confused in Britain, but can be 
distinguished in the field from it by the nearly transverse 
leaves, strongly gibbose sinus, margin of lobes markedly 
reflexed, with the point incurved. tJ. polita, Nees— 
Ben Lawers; in several localities on wet ground, usually 
by the side of streams, as at 2700 ft. in two places above 
Lochan Chait; on the south side at the side of stream, 
at 3000 ft.; on the west side, at 2700 ft. and at 3100 ft. 
In two localities mixed with Harpanthus Flotowianus; the 
other species mixed with it being Scapania undulata, 
S. rosacea (?), J. bantriensis, Nardia obovata, and Aneura 
pinguis. The male plant appears to be frequent. I have 
since found this very interesting addition to our flora 
on Ben Vorlich, Loch Lomond, on a bank near a waterfall, 
at 1900 ft. J. Kunzeana, Hiib—Rare: wet ground, 
usually at side of streams, Ben Lawers;. above Lochan 
Chait27.00 + f6.;.; southside; 2.900% ft. ; andj ansihe 
Ordinance ravine, 3900 ft. J. Helleriana, Nees—On 
decaying fir stumps in Finlarig Wood, in some quantity. 
J. minuta, Crantz.—Only seen in one locality, Ben Lawers, 
east side, 3300 ft. J. saxicola, Schrad.—Very rare; on a 
boulder at Creag-an-Lochan, 1800 ft. J. orecadensis, Hook. 
—Occurs on all the hills, but is not common: ascends to 
3200 ft.; male plant, at 3200 ft., on Ben Lawers; also in 
Glenlochy, gathered by W. Young. 

Nardia hyalina (Lyell.)—Uncommon (?); side of Morenish 
Burn (c. per.); not noted on the hills. NV. obovata (Nees) 
—Common at the side of streams on the low ground, and 
on the hills to 3200 ft.; fruit common. TV. subelliptica, 
Lindb. — Confirmed by Herr Kaalaas; on rock ledges, 
Creag-an-Lochan, 1800-3000 ft. (c fr.); Ben Lawers, 
3000 ft. (ce fr.). I am inclined to consider this as an 
alpine variety of WV. obovata; the rootlets have sometimes a 
purplish tinge, the leaves and bracts are not always dis- 
tinguishable from JV. obovata, and the free portion of the 
uppermost bracts are occasionally squarrose. In its typical 
state, however, it is readily distinguishable from the small 
V. obovata of rocks on the low ground. Barren forms, 
growing among Jungermania atrovirens, are difficult to dis- 


Aprit 1902.]_ BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 229 


tinguish from that plant. V. compressa (Hook. )—Submerged 
in a small loch, Creag Mhor, Glenlochy; P. Ewing, July 1898. 
A form with the leaves markedly squarrose. J. scalaris 
(Schrad.)—Common everywhere to 4000 ft. N. silvrette 
(Gottsche)—-A small alpine form on Creag-na-Caillich, 
2500 ft. . 

Marsupella emarginata (Ehrh.)—-Common on the hills; 
ascending to 5200 ft. JL Funckii (Web. & Mohr.)—On 
a disused road, Kiltyrie; on gravelly soil, Bein Ghlas, 
1000 ft; Ben Lawers, 1500 ft. This species has been 
reported as occurring on the hills, but I failed to find it 
there. Fruit is fairly common on the west coast, but I did 
not see it in Perthshire. JL ustulata, Spruce-—Creag-an- 
Lochan, 2000 ft., on rocks; Ben Lawers, in a few places, 
from 2700-3900 ft, on gravelly soil; fruit common. 
tM. condensata (Angstr.), Kaalaas non Lindb.—In abundance 
on bare moist humus on the east side of Ben Lawers, at 
3200 ft. Determined by Herr Kaalaas. This interesting 
addition to our flora forms a brown carpet on parts of the 
hill where little else grows, except Conostomum boreale. 
The shallow lunate sinus, without a hyaline border to the 
leaf, is characteristic, but the specimens were so luxuriant 
that I thought it could not be this species. Herr Kaalaas, 
however, mentions that he has seen similar large specimens 
from a few places in Norway. It is a high alpine species, 
confined to North Europe and the Austrian Alps. It is 
considered by Herr Kaalaas to be the same plant as J/ 
emula (Limpr.), with which opinion Prof. V. Schiffner 
agrees. A full account of the species, ‘with excellent 
figures, will be found in Kaalaas’s “ Beitrage zur Leber- 
moostiora Norwegens,” 1898. 

Acolea crassifolia (Carr..—Ben Lawers, 3900 ft. In 
quantity, on gravelly soil, near a snow patch (c. fr.). This 
species has been previously found in the district by 
C, J. Wild and G. Davies. A. varians (Lindb.) (Sareoscyphus 
conjertus, Limpr.).—Frequent in many parts of Ben Lawers, 
from 2800 ft. to at least 3400 ft., forming large patches 
on gravelly soil, and fruiting freely. This plant bears a 
close resemblance to A. crassifolia, and I find much difficulty 
in distinguishing them in the field. It has previously only 
been gathered on Ben Nevis as a few scattered stems, which 


230 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. uxvi. 


Mr. Pearson, in his “ Hepaticze of the British Isles,” mentions 
as being, in his opinion, different from A. varians, but | 
think that the fine specimens from Ben Lawers show it to 
be the same plant. A. corallioides (Nees)—Rather common 
on boulders in the western corrie of Ben Lawers, from 
2800-3200 ft. Fruit seen only in one place. Uncommon 
on the east side of the hill. A. coneinnata (Lightf.)— 
Common on the higher parts of Ben Lawers, from 2800— 
4000 ft., generally on earthy or gravelly soil; on earthy 
soil, at 1300 ft. Frequently in fruit. Occurs also on the 
other hills, but is not as common as the following :— 
A. obtusa (Lindb).—Common on boulders and rocks on Ben 
Lawers, frequent on the other hills; fruit frequent. 

Saceogyna viticulosa (Mich.)-—Rather common in Finlarig 
Burn ravine. 

Fossombronia. Dumortiert, Lindb.—On the sandy shore of 
Loch Tay, at Ardmore, in some quantity, in hollows in 
which there is decayed vegetable matter. This locality 
was shown to me by Mr. W. Young, from whom I had 
previously received specimens with spores. Mr. P. Ewing 
also sent me specimens, gathered by him in 1885, which 
he informs me were distributed under another name. It 
is an interesting addition to the flora of Scotland. This 
is the commonest species of the genus in Scandinavia, and 
should be looked for in other parts of Scotland on damp 
sandy heaths. 

Pallavicinia Blyttii (Mcerck.)—Ben Lawers, in several 
places, on small peaty banks on grassy slopes, from 3100— 
3400 ft. The bracts of the female flowers, which were 
present in all my gatherings, at once distinguished this 
species from Pel/ia. The frond is also more lobed than in 
Pellia, and the colour different ; when fresh, it bears a good 
deal of resemblance in colour to Salix herbacea, which oceurs 
on the same kind of ground; fruit not seen. 

Blasia pusilla, L.——Common in wet gravelly places on 
the low ground, Finlarig. Burn, ete.; only seen on the hills 
at Creag-an-Lochan, 1900 ft., on moist gravelly soil, and 
Meiller Bog, at about 1800 ft. 

Pellia epiphylla (.)—Common on the low ground, and on 
the hills to about 2700 ft., ascends to 3000 ft.; but not 
identified with certainty above this. P, Neesiana (Gottsche), 


— a 


Aprit1902.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 2351 


Limpr.—Frequent on the low ground and on the hills; 
above 2700 ft. it becomes commoner than the preceding, and 
ascends to 3300 ft. At the sides of small 1ills, on the high 
ground, an undulate form of Pellia is abundant, which belongs 
to both species, but mostly to the latter, as far as I found, 
from the specimens examined, which had inflorescence ; in 
the barren state they cannot be distinguished with certainty. 
P. calycina probably occurs on the low ground, but I did 
not see any specimens which I could distinguish with 
certainty. 

Aneura palmata (Hedw.)—On logs in Finlarig Wood. 
A. ambrosioides (Nees), Pears—Common among wet rocks 
in Finlarig Burn ravine; frequent in marshes, ascending 
to 2700 ft. A. pinguwis (L.)—Common on wet ground to 
3300 ft; fr, 3000-3200 ft. 

Metzgeria pubescens (Schrank.)—Very common on Creag- 
an-Lochan, on rock ledges; frequent on Ben Lawers to 
4000 ft.; not seen on the low ground. JL hamata, Lindb. 
—Rather common in Finlarig Burn ravine, rare otherwise ; 
Creag-an-Lochan, 1800 ft. JZ conjugata, Lindb—Common 
in Finlarig Burn ravine; occasionally on the hills, noted to 
2600 ft. I. furcata (L.)—This does not appear to be as 
common as the preceding species, but sufficient material 
was not brought home to give its distribution with any 
exactitude. The two last plants require to be in good 
condition to be distinguished from each other unless 
inflorescence be present. 

Marchantia polymorpha (.)—-Seen only in one locality. 
Ben Lawers, on moist ground, beneath boulders, in the west 
corrie, at 3200 ft. (ce. fr.). 

Conocephalus conieus (L.)—Common on the low ground, 
rare on the hills; Creag-an-Lochan, 1800 ft. ; above Lochan 
Chait, 2700 ft.; Ben Lawers, 5200 ft., with the preceding. 

Reboulia hemispherica (L.)—Rare ; on limestone wall by 
roadside between Killin and Kiltyrie. 

Preissia commutata (Lindenb.)—Common on the low 
ground, frequent on the hills, ascending to 3300 ft.; fruit 
common. ‘The plant on the high ground has smaller and 
narrower fronds than the low ground plant has, but I was 
unable to find any constant difference in the fruiting 
parts. 


232 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. ixvt. 


Riccia glauca, L.—Mr, Young gave me fresh specimens 
from the top of a wall at Finlarig. &. bifurca, Hoffm.— 
On moist gravelly soil in some quantity, Creag-an-Lochan, 
1800-2000 ft. 


THE BoTANICAL USE oF MUSGROVE’S XYLOL BLUE. 
By R. A. Rospertson, M.A., B.Se., F.R.S.E. 


(Read 10th April 1902.) 


This is what one might call a multum in parvo fluid, 
inasmuch as it removes paraffin, stains and clears at one 
operation. In an appended note, Professor Musgrove has 
kindly given the formula, method of preparation, and 
original purpose of the fluid. 

For making a rapid examination of samples of a ribbon 
during the process of sectioning, the advantages of this 
fluid are‘ obvious. While primarily intended for such 
temporary work it can be used for making more permanent 
preparations, and in this connection either for hand-cut or 
for paraffin sections, for staining en bloc or on the slide. 

For general botanical work dilute solutions are recom- 
mended, such as, one part of stock (sce imfra) to four, six 
or more parts of xylol. The addition of a small quantity 
of glacial acetic acid—one or two per cent.—to the xylol 
is also advantageous in some cases. The fluid should then 
be filtered before use. 

For en bloc staining, the tissue, thoroughly dehydrated 
is immersed for several hours in the dilute fluid. The 
time is regulated according to the stainability of the 
material and the strength of the solution; thus many 
fungi require at least a night in the one to four solution. 
It is then transferred to xylol and passed through xylol 
paratiin into paraffin. 

For on the slide staining, the slide with the sections 
affixed is left in the stain from a few minutes to several 
hours, the time being regulated as in en bloc work. They 
are then mounted in xylol balsam direct or after a pre- 
liminary rinse in xylol. 

Hand-cut sections receive similar treatment; first 
dehydrate in absolute alcohol, stain, rinse in xylol, and 


. =a) or 


bo 


Aprit1902.]_ BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 33 
mount in xylol balsam. For rapid work, or in the case of 
material very difficult to stain, the stock, or the 25 per 
cent. solution, may be used; the staining being then 
carefully watched, and stopped when just right. 

The dilute solutions give very satisfactory preparations 
of fungi, massive alge, liverworts, and lichens. (Sections 
of Spherobolus, Peziza, Marchantia, and Fucus were ex- 
hibited.) 

The cell-membranes of some fungi are particularly well 
stained, and in the case of fungal spores a selective action 
is observed, some spores staining well, others not at all, 
and the same differences are got with spores of the same 
fungus at different ages. In liverworts, again, the walls 
of the rhizoids stain very deeply, those of the thallus cells 
less so. 

The best results were obtained with material fixed in 
absolute alcohol, or in Bliss’ fluid followed by absolute 
aleohol. After Mann’s fluid, corrosive sublimate, or picric 
acid solutions, the results so far are not so good, but this 
point, which is somewhat unexpected, requires further 
investigation. 


At the request of Mr. Robertson, I take the opportunity 
of adding to his communication to the Botanical Society 
a description of the way in which the xylol blue stain was 
prepared. It should be mentioned that the purpose for 
which the stain was originally made was to provide a 
rapid method of making a preliminary examination of 
embryo-sections cut in paraffin. The use of the stain 
for specimens to be permanently mounted is due to Mr. 
Robertson, and not to myself. 

After numerous experiments with various dyes and re- 
agents, I found that by the following method a liquid 
could be made which, at one and the same time, dissolved 
the paraffin and stained and clarified the section. The 
formula for the solution is as follows :— 


Sodium hydrate ; d 1 grain. 
Toluidin blue. : ‘ 6 grains. 
Absolute alcohol : . 18 minims. 
Xylol : ; : . 600 minims. 


TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN., VOL. XXII. Q 


234 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. rxvi. 


It is important to follow exactly the instructions, and 
to use only pure ingredients, and special care must be 
taken to prevent the sodium hydrate becoming moist by 
contact with the fingers or undue exposure to the air. 

Into a perfectly dry and stoppered bottle of at least 
200 cc, put first the sodium hydrate. Add next the 
xyloi, and shake two or three times, and then add the 
toluidin blue. Again shake briskly. At this stage the 
liquid will appear blue, but the dye is merely in suspension; 
but, on adding the alcohol and shaking for a few minutes, 
the colour will change to claret. The liquid should be 
shaken occasionally during the next twenty-four hours, 
and then filtered ready for use. In most cases it will 
be found better to dilute it again with three times its 
bulk of xylol, as the stain is too dark. The use of a more 
dilute solution is referred to in Mr. Robertson’s paper. 

It is not advisable to make a large amount of the stain 
at one time, as, by exposure to light, precipitation occurs, 
and the liquid becomes colourless. 


J. MUSGROVH, M.D., F.R.C.S. 


THE ORIGIN OF THE BritisH Fiora. By J. G. Goop- 
CHILD, of the Geological Survey, F.G.S., F.Z.S., Custodian 
of the Collections of Scottish Geology and Mineralogy in 
the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art. 


(Read 8th May 1902.) 


There are very few botanists of the modern school who 
have not devoted some thought to the origin of the 
particular flora to which their attention happens to have 
been turned; and in thinking over some of. the anomalies 
in plant-distribution, they can hardly have failed to make 
more or less inquiry into the ancestral history of the plants 
in question. If we are to get a satisfactory answer to any 
such inquiries, it has long been recognised that it can only 
be obtained by searching Nature’s Records of the Past. 
These plainly enough inform us that the existing species 
of plants have descended from a line of ancestors who have 
survived through a long series of geographical, climatal, 


——_-—_— ~~ 


May 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 235 


and other changes; and who have gradually been ex- 
patriated, have dwelt for many generations amongst 
strangers in far-off lands, and who have left descendants 
which have, in their turn, slowly made their way back to 
the land whence the exodus took place, and then have 
gradually retaken possession of the ancestral home. 

With much of the history thus briefly outlined it is, of 
course, the special province of the geologist to deal. The 
question before him, in dealing with such matter, is not 
What is it? but What was it? And in searching for 
answers to that ever-recurring question he often obtains 
information which proves of interest to his fellow-workers ; 
and in passing it on to his botanical friends he is enabled, 
to some extent, to repay many obligations under which the 
help he has got from them has placed him. 

It may, perhaps, cause many botanists some little sur- 
prise to find that geologists take any interest in biological 
matters, seeing that it has so long been the fashion, in 
Edinburgh in particular, for geologists to confine their 
attention to the lifeless side of geology, and to take far 
more interest in making out the points of difference 
between two bits of stone than in deciphering the history 
of the forms of life which peopled the earth at the time 
when those stones originated. Tastes differ. My own 
lead me to regard all geological matters as subordinate to 
those relating to the Life of the Past. And I am 
disposed to attach very much greater importance to 
questions such as those specially under consideration in 
this paper than to such trivial questions as the difference 
between a dolerite and a diabase, or that between a basalt 
and a melaphyre, and so on. 

One of the many difficulties that beset a geologist in 
search of evidence of the kind under consideration is the 
extremely imperfect nature of the Geological Record. 
There is only a very small area in the British Isles where 
we may look, with any reasonable hope of success, for the 
kind of information we want. In that area, East Anglia, 
the records are to be obtained only along a narrow strip of 
seacoast ; and, even there, they may be said to be confined 
to the outcrop of strata which, in the aggregate, are only 
a few feet in thickness. In these, again, the evidence 


236 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess, txv1. 


consists mainly of the decomposed remains of twigs, leaves, 
and seeds—most of them too obscure to enable anyone to 
make out anything of value regarding their botanical 
position. Still, with patient work, long-continued, much 
good has been done with such of the material as promised 
good results. Long lists of plants have thus been recorded, 
and a vast mass of data has been got together and carefully 
studied. Then, again, where the evidence afforded by the 
plant-remains has failed to give the information reauired, 
indirect eyidence, often of considerable value, has been 
obtained from a study of the animal-remains associated 
with the plants. 

In considering the subject with this material before one 
it is necessary to constantly bear in mind the fact that 
the physical geography of Britain, as we see it to-day, is 
mostly quite recent in origin. There was a time, for 
example, and not so long ago either, when Britain stood 
much higher above the sea than it does now, and when 
the Forth was entirely a fresh-water river, and the wide 
space occupied to-day by the North Sea was land, with 
the Rhine flowing through the lower parts, and making 
its way to the Atlantic by way of Shetland. This was 
an event which may well have occurred long after man 
first peopled these parts. So, too, with the climate. 
Everyone is familiar with the fact that we have, as it were, 
only lately been favoured with temperate conditions, which 
eame after a prolonged Age of Snow; and many people 
are further aware that before that cold period these 
islands experienced many climatal changes of other kinds. 
Reflection upon these well-known facts should suffice to 
convince anyone that our present flora is the net outcome 
of a complex series of changes of environment in the 
past. 

We may now proceed to consider some of the evidence 
in support of this view in detail, always bearing in mind 
in doing so the important principle that the present 
physical geography of Britain dates back but a short 
time into the past. 

If we go back to consider what the vegetation of the 
Miocene Period was like, we find traces of a flora quite 
unlike that which prevails in Western Eurvpe at the 


5 ae 


May 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 237 


present day; and, as Clement Reid’ points out, we may 
at once dismiss that type. of vegetation from any further 
consideration in the present connection. Tracing the 
course of events onwards, we find evidence that an 
extensive break exists in Britain between the rocks of 
Miocene Age and those next newer in the series here: 
that is to say, we have no record of what plants or 
animals lived in Britain during the very long period that 
intervened between the close of the Miocene Period and 
the commencement of that of Pleiocene Age. So we have, 
as it were, lost our way there, so far as the ancestral 
history of the British Flora is concerned. 

When we-come to the Pleiocene rocks, which are well 
represented in Britam, we find that the earlier deposits of 
this age, such as the Coralline Crag and the Red Crag, 
do not help us much by any direct evidence as regards 
their flora. But the general nature of their fauna does 
help, if only in an indirect way, to throw some light upon 
what was going on in the plant world; for we may 
safely assume that, if the facies of the animals of one 
region betoken warm conditions,—or cold, as the case may 
be,—the plants also must have been those adapted to the 
same climatal conditions. The Coralline Crag has a dis- 
tinctly Mediterranean fauna; so we may safely assume 
that the plants would be, in a general way, of much the 
same kind as those found in the north-western part of 
the Mediterranean basin of to-day. It seems as if there 
existed, in that part of Britain, at least, a sea closed to 
the north and open to the south-east, and the Medi- 
terranean facies of the fauna is evidently a consequence of 
those geographical conditions. 

The fossils of the succeeding Red Crag seem to show 
that, with the changes in physical geography that were 
taking place, a communication was being gradually 
opened up between this southern sea and the colder 
waters of the sea to the north. There is no clear 
evidence to show that any large part of Britain at this 
time existed as a land area. It is more probable that 
only a small part did so—perhaps the northern part was 
land,—but of even this one cannot feel quite sure. 

1 “ Origin of the British Flora.” 


238 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. LXxvI. 


Important, but slow, changes, however, were in progress 
at each stage, by the operation of which Britain assumed 
more and more of its present features; but none of these 
changes have left any direct record of what was taking 
place in the vegetable world, nor of what species were 
living on the adjoining area that formed dry land. 

Following the Red Crag comes the marine deposit 
known as the Norwich, or Mammaliferous, Crag. The 
fossil contents of this tell us of increasing communication 
with the colder seas of the north, and also of the diversion 
elsewhere of the warmer currents that had previously 
reached what is now East Anglia from the south. Further- 
more, the remains of large vegetable-eating mammalia 
occurring in the Norwich Crag speak eloquently of the 
existence, not far off, of vast woodland areas and extensive 
pasture lands. 

Above the Norwich Crag come in two thin beds con- 
taining still larger percentages of boreal mollusea, whose 
species tell us plainly enough of increasing cold. These 
rocks are the Chillesford Crag below, and the Weybourne 
Crag above. 

Then follows a thin geological formation, which, in the 
present connection, is of the very highest importance. 
This is the well-known “Forest Bed,’ which, by the way, 
is not exactly what its name would seem to suggest.’ It 
is not an old woodland area submerged, but in reality 
it is part of the delta of a great river which flowed in the 
direction of what is now Britain from some continental 
area to the east. A considerable number of facts point 
to the river in question having been the ancestor of the 
present Rhine. The evidence shows plainly enough that 
the so-called Forest Bed is little else than a deposit formed 
a long time ago under exactly the same conditions as now 
obtain in the Norfolk Broads. The difference between the 
two lies in the fact that the river which gave rise to the 
old “ Broads” came from the east, and not from the west, 
as is the case with the Broads with which we are familiar 
at the present day. The essential differences between the 


‘ By the way, the word ‘“‘ Forest” simply meant, as its etymology 
suggests, a place outside of the limits of cultivation, without reference 
to the presence of trees, 


a 


May 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 239 


two, so far as we are here concerned, are that the plants 
entombed in the recent Broads date from the present time, 
and are native to England, while those in the older 
“ Broads” date very far back in time, if we estimate their 
antiquity by centuries; and, further, they had drifted from 
the Continent. 

Notwithstanding these points of difference, there is an 
extraordinarily close parallel between their respective floras, 
as anyone may see by merely glancing over the lists of 
plants given in Clement Reid’s “Geology of Cromer,” or 
those in the Geological Survey Memoir on the “Pleiocene 
Rocks of Britain.” Further reference may be made here 
to other works by the same author, such as the Annals 
of Botany, i. p. 177 (1888), and xu. p. 243 (1898), as 
well as to his “ Origin of the British Flora,’ Dulau, 1899, 
the latter being a work that ought to be read with the 
closest attention by everyone interested in the question 
with which this paper deals. 

Mr. Reid states' that “From the Forest Bed fifty-six 
species of flowering plants have now been determined. 
Two of them—the Water Chestnut and the Spruce Fir— 
do not appear to have belonged to our flora since the 
Glacial Epoch; the others are nearly all still living in 
Norfolk,’ and, he adds, “There is also a considerable 
number of seeds still undetermined, and at least two of 
these seem to belong to no living British plant. 

“The flora contained in the Cromer Forest Bed may be 
divided into two groups—the forest trees and the marsh 
or aquatic plants. Of the upland plants, and of the plants 
of dry or chalky soils, we at present know absolutely 
nothing. The forest trees are well represented, in fact 
they are better known than in any of our later deposits. 
We find the Maple, Sloe, Hawthorn, Cornel, Elm, Birch, 
Alder, Hornbeam, Hazel, Oak, Beech, Willow, Yew, Pine, 
and Spruce. This is an assemblage that could not well be 
found under conditions differing greatly from those now 
existing in Norfolk. There is an absence of both arctic 
and south European plants. The variety of trees shows 
that the climate was mild and moist. The occurrence of 
the Maple and the Hornbeam shows that the climate can 


1“ Pleiocene Deposits of Britain,” p. 185. 


240 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. uxvi. 


have been little, if any, colder than now. The aquatic 
plants point to the same conclusion, though not so definitely, 
as many of them are widely dispersed.” 

Mr. Reid gives lists of the estuarine, land, and fresh- 
water mollusca found in these same beds, and these tell 
very nearly the same story as do the plant-remains. When, 
however, we come to study the mammalian-remains, which 
have been obtained from the Forest Bed in great numbers, 
both as regards individuals and species, we seem to obtain 
evidence of a much more important kind, so far as the con- 
ditions affecting plant life are concerned. We must, of 
course, steadily bear in mind the fact that we are dealing 
with drifted remains, and that these probably came from 
various parts of the Basin of the Rhine, and not from any 
of Britain. But after making all due allowance for this 
fact, there is still much that has a most important bearing 
upon the question here under consideration. We have 
seen that the plants transported thither were of existing 
species; and further, as just stated, that the mollusca are 
mostly recent forms too, a few only being not native to 
Britain. Among these latter Mr. Reid gives the following:— 
Corbicula fluminalis (which does not live now nearer than 
the Nile); Valvata fluviatilis (Belgium and Germany) ; 
Hydrobia steinii (Sweden and near Berlin); H. marginata 
(South of France); and Lithoglyphus fuscus (Danube). 
Limax modioliformis, Pisidium astartoides, Paludina gibba, 
and Nematura runtoniana also occur. 

Amongst the mammals may be mentioned the follow- 
ing :—Elephas meridionalis (a gigantic species, even for the 
genus to which it belongs), #. antiquus, Myogale moschata, 
Arvicola intermedius, and other species. Trogonthervum 
cuviert (a large extinet ally of the Beaver), ten or more 
species of Cervus, Rhinoceros etruscus, Equus stenonis and 
E. caballus, Trichechus huaxleyi, Machairodus, Ursus speleus 
(the Grizzly Bear), Canis lupus, C. vulpes, Hyena crocuta, 
Yulo luscus, Bison bonasus, Ovibos moschatus, Caprovis savinit 
Alces latifrons, Hippopotamus amphibius, and Sus scrofa. 
With these have been found a long list of birds, reptiles, 
amphibia, and fishes. 

The points to notice are—(1) the large size of the 
mammalia, and especially of the herbivorous species. This, 


May 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 241 


of course, implies the existence, within the drainage area 
of the river, of a luxuriant vegetation, and much of it. 
(2) The number of extinct species. This clearly brings 
to our notice the fact that mollusea, and also plants, have 
longer lives as species than have mammalia—a fact of 
considerable importance in connection with many geo- 
logical questions. (5) The presence, along with the 
forms of mammalian life characteristic of temperate 
regions, of a distinetly sub-tropical fauna. (4) The 
most important fact of all, that certain distinctly arctic 
mammals were living within the basin of the Rhine at 
this period. I would refer especially to such animals as 
the Glutton and the Musk-Sheep, not to speak of others. 
Unless we are to assume that the habits of these animals 
are different now from what they were then, we are 
driven, it seems to me, to the conclusion that an outward 
migration from the colder regions of the north was already 
in progress, and had extended as far south as some of the 
northern parts of the Rhine basin. We have seen that the 
history of the marine mollusca in still earlier Pleiocene 
times had foreshadowed this event. What I want to 
suggest, in referring to these matters, is that, at the time 
under consideration, rather more snow was falling on 
Scandinavia than the summer’s warmth there sufficed to 
melt; and that, as time went on, the quantity left each 
summer, even on the lowlands, gradually became larger. 
An exodus of the fauna, and, necessarily, also of the flora, 
therefore gradually set in. Plants slowly retreated to 
what, for the time being, were to them more congenial 
habitats; and, as we shall see presently, it was a very 
long time before they returned. 

At this point we may, not unprofitably, turn to the 
consideration of the age of these events, as measured by 
ordinary chronological standards. One cannot, of course, 
be sure of every point in the argument that follows; but 
still there are some reliable facts to go upon. It is one 
of the first principles in Geology, and especially when 
we are dealing with the later Tertiary rocks, that the 
contemporaneity, or otherwise, of two given sets of rocks 


1 These may have drifted from the warmer southern parts of the 
basin of the Rhine. 


242 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxv1. 


which have been found under marine conditions, may be 
judged of by the percentage of extinct to living species of 
molluseca occurring in each—the comparison being made 
with reference, of course, to the species living in the 
respective adjoining seas. In this way a geologist would 
say that such or such a deposit in the Mediterranean 
area is contemporaneous with another such in Britain, 
because the percentage of extinct species of mollusca, as 
compared with those now living in the two respective 
areas, is identical. Measured by this standard, the oldest 
part of Etna is of about the same age as the Forest Bed. 
Now, after these strata beneath Etna were laid down, the 
whole of that vast pile, 10,000 feet in height and 90 
miles round, has been built up. Carefully observed data, 
obtained on Etna, point to that voleano having grown at a 
rate of about one foot in three hundred years. I should 
be inclined to set the rate at a much slower one even than 
that. Taking that, however, as a measure, the date when 
the Newer Pleiocene rocks there (and here) began to be 
formed would appear to be not less than three millions of 
years back in the past. Independent evidence of other 
kinds, which there is not room to give here, confirms -this 
estimate. Assuming, for the sake of argument, that these 
figures are approximately correct, we see that the changes 
which have affected western Europe during the last three 
million years have sufficed for the extermination of a large 
number of mammalia, and of some invertebrata also; but 
these changes, great as they have been in this time, have 
not sufficed for the extermination of a single plant. This 
fact is worthy of very special consideration, not only from 
the point of view of the biologist, but for that of the 
geologist as well, on account of its bearings upon the 
question of the Age of the Earth. 

Overlying this ancient Forest Bed, and therefore of 
later date than that deposit, occurs a marine deposit con- 
taining Ostrea, and an arctic mollusc, Leda myalis. This 
stratum in its turn, is in places succeeded by what is called 
the Arctic Fresh-water Bed, which contains Salix polaris, 
Letula nana, and the remains of the Pouched Marmot— 
Spermophilus. 

Then follows a grand display of rocks formed under - 


ee ee 


May 1902. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 243 


glacial conditions, and which are remarkably well seen in 
the cliffs on either side of Cromer. With these it is not 
necessary to deal in any detail, because we are only con- 
cerned here with the fact that a long and complex series 
of events followed the close of the period when the Forest 
Bed was formed, all of which were connected with the 
fact that an Age of Snow had set in, that it continued here 
a very long time, and that the area over which the nivosal 
conditions obtained became larger and larger as time 
went on. 

The essential features of this history which most con- 
cern us are, I think,—(1) the long duration of this Age 
of Snow; (2) the fact that it came on very gradually: (3) 
that the conditions to which it was due emanated, in the 
first instance, from Scandinavia; (4) that the “Gulf Stream” 
was in full operation all the time off the west of Britain 
and close to Norway; and (5) that the land stood much 
higher above the sea than it does at present. Many facts 
incline me to the belief that it was the elevation of the 
land which gave rise to these nivosal conditions, and it 
was also that same factor which helped to bring the river- 
valleys and the coast-line of the British Isles into some- 
thing like their present form. 

The sequence of events, so far as the plants are con- 
cerned, was, it seems to me, somewhat as follows :—First, 
the condensation of the aqueous vapour (derived from the 
aérial component of the “Gulf Stream”) in the form of snow 
instead of rain, first of all on the mountain summits, and 
then, as time went on, lower down, and on the lowlands, 
farther out from the mountain massifs. Mountain plants, 
if they were to hold their own, then had to extend their 
range outward in the direction of the lowlands. The lowland 
plants also had uncongenial climatal conditions against them 
on one side, and they had also the alpine invaders entering 
into competition with them. So, except on the southern 
and south-eastern margins of their normal stations, they 
too were not able to hold their own. Thus, as time went 
on, they gradually extended their range in the direction 
away from the margin of the snow, and in the opposite 
direction they slowly yielded place to the Alpine flora, 
which was, in turn, also changing ground in the same 


244 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. ixvi. 


direction, as the snow spread still farther outward. Thus, 
with extreme slowness, and without any violent catastrophe, 
the temperate Germanic flora spread to more congenial 
stations; the Scandinavian Alpine flora followed, and the 
Arctic flora brought up the rear, each extension southward 
probably keeping pace with the slow advance of the nivosal 
conditions. 

There is evidence to show that the Arctic fauna kept 
pace with its corresponding flora, and that, in the end, both 
had extended their range to countries hundreds of miles away 
from their normal stations. 

It is not difficult to understand how other changes that 
affected plant life were brought about. The piling up 
of extensive and thick mantles of ice over all the ground 
from Scandinavia across Britain to the south of Ireland, 
gave rise to exceptional meteorological conditions, perhaps 
affecting the isobars very materially, and certainly acting 
in another way which produced important effects upon 
plant life. I have held for so many years that the chief 
cause of the nivosal conditions that prevailed during the 
Age of Snow were the existence of the “Gulf Stream” 
close to the 100-fathom line west of Britain and Scan- 
dinavia, at a time when the land stood at a much higher 
level than it does now. One consequence that must have 
followed from the southward extension of the ice, was that 
nearly the whole of the aqueous vapour present in the aérial 
accompaniment of the “Gulf Stream” was either chilled 
into fog or congealed into snow close to the western margin 
of the land. The winds passing over the midland and 
eastern parts of the country were therefore cold, dry winds, 
all the moisture that could be got out of them having 
already been deposited on meeting with the upland area on 
the west. These dry winds, therefore, must sooner or later 
have given rise to steppe conditions. That such conditions 
did exist has clearly been shown by Mr. Reid. We have 
the remains of many steppe animals entombed in deposits 
of this age. And if there was a steppe fauna, it appears 
safe to conclude that there was a steppe flora present as 
well. 

The chronological order of change over any given area, 
so far as the flora is concerned, seems, then, to be thus—first, 


a 


May 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 24d 


the native flora, each section in its own place; then came the 
Boreal and Arctic floras, a large part of which must have 
presented a facies such as would be met with in the 
Siberian Tundras; next, but only on the south-east margin 
of the chief area occupied by ice and snow, followed the 
Steppe flora. It would not be very difficult to mark these 
belts on a map where these zones of vegetation occurred at 
the culmination of the Age of Snow—perhaps it has 
already been done ? 

The enormous amount of glacial erosion which was 
accomplished while the North Sea was occupied by land ice? 
proves conclusively, to my mind at least, that the Age 
of Snow was one of immense length. It may well have 
taken up the larger part of the time between the Forest 
Bed period and now. Hence, as the time occupied in these 
changes of station was so long, and the process of both 
expatriation and repatriation was so gradual, one need 
hardly wonder at the small amount of change that has 
ensued. 


To understand what followed after the climax of the 
Age of Snow was reached, we shall need to adopt some 
working hypothesis regarding the cause of this remarkable 
episode :—It is by no means necessary to suppose that the 
Age of Snow was characterised by a low temperature. 
All that is needed to account for the facts is to postulate 
such geographical conditions as should lead to a little— 
perhaps only a very little—more snow falling on the low- 
grounds each year than the heat of summer (which may 
have been considerable, even in Scotland) sufficed to melt. 
To make the snow, in the first instance, there must have 
been—(1) copious evaporation going on over the Atlantic ; 
(2) there must have been aérial currents to transport the 
resulting aqueous vapour in the direction required; and 
(3) refrigerators, in the shape of snow-covered areas, 
sufficiently powerful to congeal the aqueous vapour 


1] have endeavoured in several papers to explain how the Norwegian 
ice crossed the North Sea. Gravitation was but a subordinate factor. 
The chief paper is published in the “‘ Royal Physical Society’s Proceed- 
ings,” vol. xiv. p. 137, under the title of ‘‘Solar Energy in Relation 
to Ice.” 


246 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Szss. uxv1. 
directly into snow, instead of condensing it into rain, 
were also essential. If we assume that a belt of land of 
considerable altitude existed along a zone joining Seandi- 
navia and Britain, and that the so-called “Gulf Stream ” 
and its acrial accompaniment, the vapour-laden winds, were 
in full operation close to the western margin of the land 
throughout the whole period, it seems to me that nothing 
else is required to account for the facts in question. 
Elevated tracts of land, lying in the path of currents of air 
heavily charged with moisture, are the chief requisites ; 
and so long as the elevation was maintained above a 
certain level snow would be precipitated instead of rain, 
and glaciers and ice-sheets must, from the very nature of 
the case, have accumulated upon the land. 

Now it is thought, by many geologists, that the earth’s 
crust is everywhere more or less in the condition of unstable 
equilibrium. If natural forces remove much rock, for 
instance, from a limited area, and then transfer it to an area 
adjoining, a certain amount of adjustment of the earth’s 
crust must ensue. The land slowly rises, to a small vertical 
extent at a time, where the load has been eased off; and it 
slowly sinks, also to a small vertical extent, at the other parts 
where a load has been put upon it. Now, rain falling upon 
the land does not remain there, but either flows off- or is 
evaporated, or, more usually, it does both. If snow falls 
and does not melt, but passes into ice, the load remains, 
and must accumulate, if thawing does not ensue, or if the 
ice does not find its way off from the land in the shape of 
bergs. There is reason to believe that the ice, after a long 
period near the climax of the Age of Snow, was several 
thousand feet in thickness in the neighbourhood of the 
higher mountain masses. Each thousand feet of thickness 
presses upon the surface beneath it with a weight equivalent 
to something more than twenty-five tons to the square foot. 
Hence the aggregate thickness of the glacial envelope, even 
in the case of North Britain, must have been enormous 
beyond conception. It has seemed to me for many 
years back that the effect of so vast an accumulation was 
to depress the part of Britain where the load was greatest,’ 
and perhaps to affect the parts adjoining to a certain extent 


1 As Mr. T. F. Jamieson, of Ellon, was the first to suggest. 


May 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 247 


as well, even where the ice was thin. The consequences 
of such a depression were twofold: firstly, the sub- 
sidence gradually admitted the sea where there had 
formerly been land, and thus tended to ameliorate the 
climate; and, secondly, the depression lowered the moun- 
tain tops to an elevation much nearer to the sea-level, 
where it is warmer than it is at higher elevations. 
As a consequence, the precipitation began to take the 
form of rain instead of snow. So the glaciers were cut 
off at their source, and they quietly and slowly melted 
away as they stood, leaving the stones and mud with which 
their lower strata were charged, as a kind of sedimentary 
deposit, which gradually accumulated between the ice and 
the underlying rock in the case of the boulder clay; and 
which, where crevasses existed, gave rise, by the washing of 
sand and gravel from the surface of the ice into these fissures, 
to those remarkable deposits of sand and gravel which are 
generally known as Eskers, or as Kaims, in Scotland.? 

The sea was admitted up all the old river valleys, such, 
for example, as the Forth, the Clyde, the Tay, and others 
in Scotland, as well as in other cases in various other parts 
of the kingdom. Drowned river valleys, with the tops of 
the smaller hills standing up as islands, occur not only in 
the Forth, but all round the British Islands. 

It is important for our present purpose to remember 
that the places which would be the earliest to be dis- 
encumbered of their ice and snow, under the depressed 
conditions, would be the parts most remote from the great 
mountain masses, and especially those in the southern 
parts of the kingdom. Next in order to these were the 
hilltops themselves. Therefore the species of plants earliest 
to regain a footing would do so in either what were the 
maritime areas for the time being, or else in the newly 
exposed alpine region of the uplands. 

It seems highly probable (though it by no means follows. 
that it was really the case) that, as the climatal conditions 
became suitable, and as congenial soils and habitats became 


11Tt is but fair to myself to mention here that this explanation of 
the englacial original of boulder clay, and the formation of Eskers, 
was first put forward by myself in the ‘Geological Magazine,” for 
November 1874. Other writers have repeatedly put it forward as new 
since then. 


248 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Suss. LXVI. 


available, the expatriated vegetation gradually returned— 
the flora proper to the margin of the snow being the first 
to arrive, and then the other floras, rank behind rank, in 
reverse order to that which they followed when their 
exodus took place at the commencement of the Age of 
Snow. Most of this repatriation probably took place in 
the southern parts of Britain before the maximum limit 
of depression was reached, and long before the subsequent 
movement in the opposite direction commenced. 

It is well to bear in mind, in this connection, that there 
is a large area of shallow sea around the south-western 
parts of Britain, and that, in the transition period while 
the depression was still in progress, there was still a land 
communication across what is now the English Channel, 
as far as the Pyrenean and Armorican regions beyond. 
Likewise there was still land communication with the 
Continent at the southern part of the North Sea. 

I see no difficulty whatever, while bearing these facts in 
mind, in accounting for the extension of Pyrenean and 
Armorican plants, by way of the land route referred to, as 
far as Devonshire and Cornwall, or even to the south-west 
of Ireland. It is mainly a question of time, if the land 
communication be kept open; and even when the sub- 
mergence had gone so far as to admit the sea, the earlier 
. stages of that geographical phase were equally suitable for 
the transport of the seeds by flotation, by the immigration of 
mammals, and by the transportation effected by birds, ete. 

What has long been a cause for wonder with many 
geologists is, not how it has happened that a few plants 
have found their way from the Pyrenean areas to Ireland, 
but why it is that there were not more. 

The whole history is one that teems with interest to 
every student of biology. It is a most remarkable fact, 
that a whole temperate flora, after long banishment from 
an area where its place has been held for perhaps hundreds 
of thousands of years by Tundra and Steppe floras, should 
have been repatriated without showing any marked evi- 
dence of change, and should have almost entirely retaken 
possession of the land, with only a few of the invaders lett 
to tell of the changes that happened during the term of 
banishment of the former occupants of the land. 


JuxeE 1902. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 249 


ON THE HeEpATIC2 OF BALMORAL, ABERDEENSHIRE. 
By G. STABLER. 


(Read 12th June 1902.) 


In the year 1884 it was my privilege for about a fort- 
night in the month of July to be the guest of my friend 
Mr. J. Michie, His Majesty’s present Commissioner on the 
Balmoral Estate. Similarly in 1894, a little later in the 
season, for about three weeks, I again visited Balmoral. 
It was during these two periods that I spent a considerable 
portion of my time in making collections of Musci and 
Hepatice. 

It is on these gatherings, and on specimens collected 
by Mr. Michie during the winter and spring preceding my 
first visit, that this paper is founded. Perhaps I ought to 
explain that, although I have entitled this paper “ On the 
Hepatice of Balmoral,” I have not shrunk from incor- 
porating in my list a few habitats not strictly within the 
Balmoral domain. 

Permit me to give a brief outline of one of these 
digressions. Leaving Danzig Shiel, accompanied by Mr. 
Michie, on the evening of 14th July 1884, we called for 
a short time at Corriemulzie, and botanised in its lower 
part. We then drove on as far as the Duke of Fife’s 
shooting-box, near the junction of Glen Lui and Glen 
Derry, and thence walked to the cottage of the keeper, 
who gave us a “ Highland welcome.” In the twilight of 
the evening we had a stroll on the site of the old Mar . 
Forest, and here on a decaying pine I found beautiful 
specimens of Jung. Helleriana, which had previously been 
found in April in the Ballochbuie Forest by Mr. Michie, 
this being, so far as I am aware, its first discovery in 
Scotland. A little after one o'clock a.m., along with the 
keeper, we started up the Derry, and reached the head of 
the glen at daybreak. Not far from the base of a huge 
precipice of Ben MacDhui, we soon found Jung. Doniana 
and Scapania ornithopodioides. We were now on ground 
made classic by such eminent botanists as Donn, Hooker, 
Walker-Arnott, Greville, and Gardiner,—to say nothing of 
others of later date. After lunching on the lee-side of the 


TRANS. BOT. SOC, EDIN, VOL, XXII, R 


250 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. uxvr. 


cairn on the summit, we commenced our descent to the 
“shelter stone” at the head of Loch Avon, passing on our 
way over a large field of snow. Amongst other hepatics 
were found Plewroclada albescens, Jamesoniella Carringtont, 
Jung. saxicola (the second record for British Isles), and 
Marsupella Stablerc (its first record for Scotland). Climbing 
out, we took the nearest route to the Derry, and thence 
to Danzig Shiel, which we reached about midnight. 
Similarly in 1894, another day was spent in going to 
Glass Maol. 

The portion of the county more particularly examined 
is bounded on the south, roughly speaking, by a line from 
the summit of Lochnagar, along White Mountain to Loch 
Phadruig, and on the north from Lion’s Face down the 
river Dee to Balmoral Castle. 

In explanation of the long period elapsing between the 
collection of the specimens and the completion of this 
paper, I may say that it has been chiefly owing to eye 
troubles.on the part of myself. Most of the specimens 
were examined and determined long ago, but a few 
remained for reconsideration. This I was unable to 
carry out. Through the kind and efficient help of Mr. 
Symers M. Macvicar, the now eminent Scottish Hepati- 
cologist, the examination has been completed, and I here 
acknowledge my indebtedness, and thank him not only 
for this, but for drawing up the list from the specimens, 
and thus making the publication of it possible. 

A glance at Mr. Maevicar’s published list of the 
Hepatice of West Inverness and at the following list of 
Balmoral Hepatice will show considerable differences, 
although the two localities are in nearly the same latitude. 
These differences in the main are no doubt attributable 
to differences of altitude and distance from the sea, and 
the consequent difference of temperature. There are, no 
doubt, other less important factors. The only Plagiochila 
I found was P. asplenioides. PP. spinuliosa is reported 
rare. To me one of the most striking facts was the 
scarcity of Lejewnew, only L. serpyllifolia being found, 
and that not plentiful. In this elevated district I found 
no Frullania dilatata, and the genus Porella was very 
poorly represented. The rarely fruiting Blepharozia ciliaris 


} nl «ad eee 


JUNE 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 201 


was found here with abundance of colesules and in fruit, 
often luxuriating on old junipers in the forest. 

I ought to have included in my list Cesia crassifolia 
from Ben MacDhui. The specimen was isolated that its 
determination might be confirmed by Mr. M. B. Slater, of 
Malton. He fully endorsed my decision, after careful 
examination and comparison with other Scotch specimens. 
It has since been forwarded to Mr. Maevicar. 

The following is a list of species collected :— 


Frullania Tamarisci (L.), Dum.—Balmoral; Braemar. On decayed 

birch wood, Balmoral (Mr. Michie). 

fragilifolia, Tayl—Balmoral; Glen Beg; Corriemulzie. On 

decaying trunk of birch, Balmoral (Mr. Michie) 

Lejeunea serpyllifolia (Dicks.), Lib.—Balmoral; Glen Beg ; 
Corriemulzie. 

Radula complanata (L.), Dum.—Balmoral; Glen Beg (ce. fr.) ; 
Abergeldie; Corriemulzie. On damp wall, Balmoral (c. fr.) 
(Mr. Michie). 

—— Lindbergii. Gottsche—Glen Beg, 1884. 

Porella platy phy lla (.), Lindb.—Balmoral. 

Anthelia julacea (L.), Dum.—Ben MacDhui; Lochnagar, Ben 
Avon, and Lochnagar (Mr. Michie). 

Blepharozia ciliaris (L.), Dum.—On dead juniper bush, Balmoral 

(c. per), August 1894; among Dicranum, Balmoral, 1884 ; 

Lochnagar, 1884. On moist rock, Balmoral, 1884 (Mr. Michie). 

pulcherrima (Hoffm.), Lindb.—On wood, Carn Fiaclan (c. per.), 

July 1884; on wood, Balmoral, male plant, July 1884. 

Trichocolea tomentella (Ehrh.)—Ballochbuie Forest on peaty earth, 
November 1884 (Mr. J. Michie). 

Blepharostoma trichophyllum (L.), Dum.—Balmoral. 

Chandonanthus setiformis (Ehrh.), Mitt.—Balmoral, male plant, 
July 1884; Ballochbuie Forest, with Diplophyllum Dicksoni 
and Jung. minuta; Glen Beg; Braemar; Lochnagar. On a 
frequently submerged stone, Balmoral, March 1884 (Mr. 
Michie). 

Lepidozia reptans (L.), Dum.—Feindallacher Burn; Balmoral ; 

Lochnagar. On old bark of trees, Ballochbuie (Mr. Michie). 

setacea (Web.), Mitt.—Glen Beg, Braemar (c. per), July 1884 ; 

Lochnagar. On bare ground, Ballochbuie, and Lochnagar, 

May 1884 (Mr. Michie). 

Bazzania trilobata (L.), Gr. and B.—Balmoral. 

triangularis (Schleich.), Lindb.—Ben MacDhui; Lochnagar. 

tricrenata, Wahlend.—Balmoral; Ben MacDhui. 

Kantia trichomanis (L.), Gr. and B.—Balmoral; Braemar; Ben 

MacDhui; Lochnagar, On decayed wood, Balmoral (Mr. 

Michie). 

Sprengelii (Mart.)—Ballochbuie Forest, with Cephalozia 

bicuspidata and Scapania umbrosa. 

Cephalozia catenulata, Huben.—Balmoral, male plant, July 1884. 

lunulefolia, Dum.—On decaying wood, Corriemulzie and 

Ballochbuie Forest ; Balmoral (c. per.); Lion’s Face, Braemar. 

bicuspidata (L.), Dum —Ballochbuie; Ben MacDhui. On 

peaty sand, Balmoral (Mr. Michie). 

Lammersiana, Hiiben.—Ballochbuie Forest. 


2 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXVI. 


Cephalozia connivens (Dicks.)—Lochnagar, among Mylia Taylori 
and Jung. orcadensis, 1884, also among Lepidozia setacea 
and Jung. orcadensis, 1894. 

curvifolia (Dicks.), Dum.—On decaying wood, Ballochbuie 

Forest, with Jung. Helleriana; Abergeldie; Braemar. Balloch- 

buie (Mr, Michie). 

Sphagni (Dicks.), Spruce—Glen Beg, Braemar, with Mylia 

anomala and Lep. setacea. 

divaricata (Sm.), Dum.—Ballochbuie Forest ; Balmoral ; 

Braemar. Ballochbuie (Mr. Michie). 

leucantha, Spruce—Balmoral, with Lep. reptans and Tetraphis 

pellucida, August 1894. 

Pleuroclada albescens (Hook.), Spruce—Ben MacDhui, below a 
snow-wreath near Loch Avon, July 1884. 

Hygrobiella laxifolia (Hook.), Spruce—Braemar ; Lion’s Face, 1884. 

Scapania compacta (Roth.), Dum.—Glen Beg, Braemar, 1884. 

resupinata (L.), Dum.—Balmoral; Lion’s Face and Glen 

Beg, Braemar. 

subalpina, Nees—By the river Dee, Balmoral (ce. fr.), July 

1884. . 

—— equiloba (Schweer), Dum.—Lion’s Face, Braemar, 1884. 

nemorosa (L.), Dum.—Glen Beg, Braemar. 

ornithopodioides (Dill. Wither.), Pears—Ben MacDhui, with 

Jung. Doniana, 1884, 

undulata (L.), Dum.—Ben MacDhui; Glen Beg, Braemar ; 

Lochnagar. Ina spring near the summit of Lochnagar (Mr. 

Michie). 

purpurascens (Hook.), Tayl——Ben MacDhui; Glen Beg, 

Braemar. 

irrigua (Nees), Dum.—Lechnagar, 1894. 

uliginosa (Swartz), Dum.—Glen Beg, Braemar, 1884. 

helvetica, Gottsche—Balmoral, 1884. 

curta (Mart. ), Dum.—Balmoral. 

umbrosa (Schrad.), Dum.—On decaying wood, Ballochbuie 

Forest; Balmoral. On granite stones and on decaying trunk 

of Scotch Fir (Mr. Michie). 

Diplophyllum albicans (L.), Dum.—Balmoral; Glen Beg, Braemar ; 
Ben MacDhui. On gravelly and sandy soil, Balmoral (Mr. 
Michie). 

— Dicksoni (Hook.), Dum.—Ballochbuie Forest, with Chand- 
onanthus setiformis and Jung. minuta, 1884; Glen Beg and 
Lion’s Face, Braemar (c. per.), July 1884; Balmoral (c. per.), 
July 1884, with Jung. minuta; Feindallacher Burn (ce. per.), 
August 1894. 

Lophocolea bidentata (L.), Dum.—Lion’s Face, Braemar. 

cuspidata, Limpr.—Lion’s Face, Braemar, 1884; Balmoral ; 

Abergeldie. 

Chiloscyphus polyanthos (L.), Dum.—Ballochbuie Forest; Glen 
Muick ; Lochnagar. 

Harpanthus Flotowii, Nees—Lochnagar, male plant, July 1884 
and August 1894; Balmoral, with Kantia trichomanis, 1894, 

Mylia Taylori (Hook.), Gr. and B.—Balmoral and Glen Beg, 

Braemar, male plant, July 1884 ; Ben MacDhui; Lochnagar. 

anomala (Hook.), Gr. and B.-—Glen Beg, Braemar ; Lochnagar. 

Plagiochila asplenioides (L.), Dum,—Balmoral (c. per.), July 1884; 
Lion’s Face and Glen Beg, Braemar ; Balmoral (Mr. Michie). 

Jamesoniella Carringtoni (Balf.), Spruce—Amongst Sphagnum 
and Jung. Doniana, Ben MacDhui, July 1884, 


JuNE 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 253 


Jungermania riparia, Tayl.—Ballochbuie Forest, 1584. 

— crenulata, Sm., var. gracillima (Sm.)—On old roadway, 

Balmoral, 1884 (Mr. Michie). 

inflata, Huds.—On sandy soil, Balmoral, 1884 (Mr. Michie). 

bantriensis, Hook., var. Muelleri, Nees—Braemar, with 

Aneura pinguis, 1884. 

—— bicrenata, Schmid.—By side of river Dee, Ballochbuie, 1884. 

ventricosa, Dicks.—Balmoral; Ballochbuie, ete.; under the 

form porphyroleuca would come specimens from Ballochbuie 

Forest, Balmoral, Glen Beg, Ben MacDhui. On decayed 

trunk of tree, Ballochbuie (Mr. Michie). 

alpestris, Schleich.—Ben MacDhui, 1884. 

gelida, ‘l'ayl.—Ben MacDhui, 1884. 

incisa, Schrad.—Glen Beg, Braemar; Lochnagar. Craig 

Dalig (Mr. Michie). 

exsecta, Schmid.—On decaying wood, Ballochbuie Forest, 

with Scapania umbrosa, 1884; Glen Beg, Braemar, with 

J. ventricosa; Balmoral. 

—  Lyoni, Tayl.—On granite rocks, Balmoral Forest, with 
J. yventricosa and Chandonanthus setiformis, 1884. 

-—— gracilis, Schleich.—Among rocks, Braemar, 1884; Glen Beg, 

Braemar, with J. ventricosa, Chand. setiformis, and Cesia 

obtusa. 

lyecopodioides, Wallr., var. Fleerkii (Web. and Mohr.)— 
Ballochbuie Forest, with Ceph. divaricata, 1884; Balmoral, 
with J. minuta, Chand. setiformis, and Diplophyllum 
Dicksoni; Ben MacDhui; Lochnagar. Balmoral (Mr. Michie). 

— Helleriana, Nees—On decaying wood, with Ceph. curvifolia, 

Balmoral and Ballochbuie Forests, July 1884; Old Mar 

Forest, with Ceph. lunulefolia, July 1884 On decaying 

wood, Ballochbuie, April 1884 (Mr. Michie). 

minuta, Crantz.—Balmoral (c. per.), July 1884; Glen Beg, 

male plant, July 1884; Ballochbuie Forest, with Chand. 

setiformis and Diplophyllum Dicksoni, 

saxicola, Schrad.—Ben MacDhui, with Cesia obtusa, 1894. 

orcadensis, Hook.—Glen Beg, Braemar, 1884; Ben MacDhui, 

with J. Doniana, 1884; Lochnagar, with Ceph. connivens, 

Kantia trichomanis, Mylia Taylori, and Bazzania triangularis. 

Doniana, Hook.—Ben MacDhui, in several places, associated 

with Bazzania tricrenata, Mylia Taylori, Scapania ornithopo- 

dioides, Diplophyllum albicans, and J. orcadensis; male 
plants, July 1884. 

Nardia hyalina (Lyell), Carr.—Glen Beg, Braemar, with Ceph. 

Lammersiana, 1884; banks of river Dee, Ballochbuie, with 

Ceph. bicuspidata and Scapania undulata. 

obovata (Nees), Carr.—Ballochbuie Forest, with Scapania 

undulata. 

compressa (Hook.), Gr. and B.—Ben MacDhui, 1884. 

sealaris (Schrad.) Gr. and B.—Lochnagar. Ballochbuie (Mr. 

Michie). 

Marsupella emarginata (Ehrh.), Dum.—Glen Beg. Ben MacDhu 
(Mr. Michie). 

— Stableri, Spruce.—Ben MacDhui, July 1884. 

Cesia obtusa, Lindb.—Balmoral, 1884; Glen Beg, Braemar ; 

Lochnagar, with Blepharozia ciliaris and Jung. ventricosa, 

Ballochbuie (Mr. Michie). 

concinnata (Lightf.), Gr. and B.—Ben MacDhui, with Jung. 

alpestris, 1884; Glen Beg, Braemar; Lochnagar. 


254 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess, Lxv1. 


Cesia crenulata (Gottsche)—Glen Beg, Braemar, 1584. 

Pallavicinia Blyttia (Moerck), Lindb.—Lochnagar, with Kantia 
trichomanis, 1884; also among Cornus suecica, with Ceph. 
bicuspidata. 

Blasia pusilla, L.—By side of river Dee, Ballochbuie. 

Pellia epiphylla, L.—On wet soil, Balmoral (Mr. Michie). 

Aneura palmata (Hedw.), Dum.—On decaying wood, Balmoral, 

1884. On decaying wood, Ballochbuie, 1884 (Mr. Michie). 

ambrosioides (Nees), Pears.—lLion’s Face and Glen Beg, 

Braemar, 1884; Balmoral. 

pinguis (L.), Dum.—Braemar. 

Metzveria pubescens (Schrank.)—Lion’s Face, Braemar, with Jung. 

Lyoni, 1884. 

farcata (L.), Radd.—Baimoral. 

conjugata, Lindb.—Ben MacDhui, 

Marchantia polymorpha, L.—Glen Muick. On carbonised wood, 
near Balmoral Castle (Mr. Michie). 

Preissia commutata (Lindenb.), Nees—The Coyle, Abergeldie ; 
Corriemulzie, 1884. 


Specimens of the following additional species from 
Aberdeenshire have been seen by Mr. Macvicar :— 


Frullania dilatata, L.—Dry Den and Den of Rubislaw, 1836 
(Prof. Dickie), 

Porella rivularis, Nees—Glen Callater, c. per (Prof. Dickie}. 

Pleurozia cochleariformis, Weiss.—Ben MacDhui, 4th August 1830 
(Edin. Univ. Herb.). 

Jungermania cordifolia, Hook.—Lochnagar (Prof. Dickie). 

Kunzeana, Hiiben.—Amongst Blepharozia ciliaris, Lochnagar, 

1887 (P. Ewing). 

Marsupella sphacelata, Gies—Ben MacDhui, 1880 (W. West). 

Anthoceros punctatus, L.—On moist bank beside a small rivulet a 
little north of the Powder Magazine, Aberdeen (Prof. Dickie). 


REPORT ON THE EFFECTS OF A HAILSTORM TO GROWING 
TIMBER Crops. By Hucu C. Sampson, B.Se. 


(Read 13th March 1902.) 


On 12th June 1900, at Holmes Chapel, Cheshire, a 
very violent thunderstorm, accompanied by hail, occurred, 
and did a considerable amount of damage both to property 
and to vegetation generally. This happened at about three 
o'clock in the afternoon, when we could see and almost 
feel the approaching storm. The sky became so overcast 
that it was impossible to read in the house. The rumbling 
of the thunder gradually became louder, and the flashes of 


lightning more vivid. The threatening clouds came from 
the S.E. 


Mar. 1902.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 255 


The storm burst with a deafening peal of thunder 
directly overhead, and this was almost immediately 
followed by the hail. In a few moments the air was 
full of twigs and leaves which had been cut off the trees. 
Many of the hailstones which worked this havoc were 
one and a half inch in their longest diameter, while on 
an average they measured fully one inch. I have been 
told, on good authority, that some measured one and three- 
quarter inch in diameter. The structure of these hail- 
stones was curious. They were all more or less flat in 
shape, the shorter diameter being about half the length 
of the longer. One surface was concave and the other 
was convex. Most of them had an onion-like structure, 
being composed of successive layers of clear and of 
opaque ice. 

The thunderstorm was quite local, embracing a width 
of two miles and a length of about ten miles. To give 
some idea of the force of the storm, I may say that 
over one thousand square feet of plate glass (21-ounce), 
representing a quarter of the whole glass area in the 
greenhouses here, were broken. The opposite side of the 
valley, however, seemed to catch the force of the storm 
even more fully. At one place, roofing glass nearly half 
an inch thick was broken; and I noticed a field of early 
potatoes, which were nearly ready for raising, completely 
stripped of their leaves, and with only a few bare 
haulms left standing. The main roads, which are but 
slightly sheltered by trees, were strewn so thickly with 
twigs and leaves that these latter had to be swept up 
into heaps about four feet in height, and at intervals of 
about seventy-five yards. Many twigs were left hanging 
on the trees, which, after a few days, a quite a 
withered appearance. 

The storm, coming as it did in the middle of June, 
caught the trees when in their first full leaf. Thus 
numbers of the still tender twigs were cut clean off, and, 
owing to the loss of leaves, and the lessening of the 
feeding area, the year’s growth must have been corre- 
spondingly reduced. 

The wounds caused on the stems of trees were observed 
only on young bark which was still smooth, and no 


256 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sxss. LXVI. 


dainage was seen on the bark of branches more than two 
inches thick. Coppice-shoots seem to have suffered most, 
as the. bark was necessarily tender, owing to their rapid 
erowth. The wounds on such shoots seem also to have 
much more difficulty in healing. In all eases, trees with 
a natural tendeney to throw out horizontal branches, and 
especially when they were grown in the open, seem to 
have suffered most. The branch had then to encounter 
the full force of the blow from the hailstones, and thus the 
newly formed wood was often badly bruised. On the 
other hand, trees which tended to form vertical branches, 
and those grown in close woods, seem to have suffered 
less, as they had not to meet the full force of the blow, 
and the hailstones glanced off, leaving a comparatively 
narrow and clean cut which could soon heal. This can be 
very well seen in the case of the apple trees standing in 
the gardens here. Standard trees, which are allowed to 
grow naturally, have not suffered nearly so severely as 
those grown on the espalier system, with the branches 
trained horizontally. 


THE AMOUNT OF DAMAGE DONE TO DIFFERENT VARIETIES 
OF TREES. 


Coniferous trees seem to have suffered the least per- 
manent damage; owing to the narrowness of their needles, 
their foliage practically received no damage, and any 
wounds formed on the stem were soon covered by the 
exudation of resin. The wounds may, however, at some 
future time, impair the quality of the timber of conifers. 

Larch appears to have suffered most, owing most likely 
to the sparseness of its foliage, and to the fact that the 
needles come off in whorls, and leave the greater part of 
the stem bare. So far as I have observed, no larch cancer 
has yet made its entrance by any of these wounds. 

Scots pine appears to have been damaged to a consider- 
able extent, though not so badly as the larch, This is 
most likely due to its heavier foliage, which would more or 
less protect the stems. 

Spruce seems to have suffered the least damage, perhaps 
because being a shade-bearing tree, its living needles are 


a | 


Juty 1902.] BOTANICAL, SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 257 


carried well up the branches, others protect the branches 
on which they grow, as well as those lower down. 

In regard to broad-leaved trees, they may be named in 
the following order, commencing with those which were 
most damaged :—(1) willows and poplars, (2) ash, (8) 
sycamore, (4) oak, (5) alder, (6) beech, (7) birch. Except 
in the case of the willows and poplars, which have 
exceptionally soft bark, the order is the same as that in 
which these trees would stand if classified according to the 
thickness of their twigs, those with the thickest twigs 
being the most damaged. 


THE OCCLUSION OF WOUNDS. 

As I mentioned above, the wounds on conifers soon 
managed to cover themselves by means of the exudation of 
resin, except in the case of the Douglas fir, on which tree 
the wounds are still quite open. The rate of occlusion on 
broad-leaved trees, as far as I have been able to observe, is 
as follows, commencing with those which healed quickest :— 
(1) mountain ash, (2) beech, (3) alder, (4) ash, (5) birch, 
(6) sycamore, (7) oak, (8) poplars and willows. 


SHRUB AND TREE PLANTING IN IRELAND. 
By James WuytTock, Esq. 
(Read 10th July 1902.) 


Speaking rather as a professional gardener than as 
a botanist, I offer this communication on the supposed 
scientific methods in the past of cultivating trees and 
shrubs introduced into these Islands from all parts of the 
world. Forty years ago large landowners all over the 
kingdom were eager to form pinetums and plant so-called 
ornamental conifers on their estates, and almost invariably 
the gardener did this work and not the forester; indeed 
one may say with confidence that any good collections of 
recently introduced large conifers throughout the country 
were planted and tended by gardeners. 

For example, at Dropmore a gardener named Frost 
raised an avenue of Cedars of Lebanon, some Auracarias, 
and Abies Douglasi, so successfully, that the visitor, viewing 


258 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss, uxvr. 


these trees at the end of Frost’s life, marvelled that they 
could have been grown in so comparatively short a time. 
The method practised by the gardener was to keep all 
soil that had been used in pots, trimmings and road-parings, 
rotted heaps of leaves, and other garden refuse, to mix these, 
and throw them periodically on the surface; and as a result 
of these top-dressings the trees throve. 

We may also quote the example of Ochtertyre, near 
Crieff, where Sir Patrick Murray informed his gardener 
that his requirements from the garden would be small, 
and that the gardener might therefore devote his energies 
to the shrubberies and woods near the mansion. 

The resuit of a number of years’ work was one of the 
best collections of conifers in the kingdom. 

My further notes will refer to my twenty-five years’ 
experience in Ireland. In 1873 I had charge of Lord 
de Vesci’s garden and home woods at Abbeyleix, Queen’s 
County. Queen’s County at the above date was in the 
forefront in Ireland as regards arable farming and stock- 
breeding; the Agricultural Show in the county town, Mary- 
boro’, ranked next to the Royal Society’s Show in Dublin. 

A large tract of bog from which all the turf fit for 
firing had been cut away was at this time growing a fine 
wood of Scots pine, forty years planted, all the trees 
with straight, clean boles, and of an average diameter of 
fifteen inches. To a neighbouring heath-clad bog seeds 
of Scots pine had been wafted and a crop of trees resulted, 
many attaining a good height—these self-sown trees reach- 
ing in six years a height and strength equal to what 
transplants would have required ten years to reach. These 
unprotected, too, had remained untouched by rabbits and 
hares, whereas young adjoining plantations of transplants 
had to be carefully guarded with netting against these 
animals. 

Among trees that did well at Abbeyleix were Cupressus 
macrocarpa and the ordinary plantation trees—larch, spruce, 
and fir. The evergreen Magnolia grandiflora, both grew 
and flowered well. Rhododendrons, on account of the 
limey sub-soil, could only be grown by excavating deeply 
the natural soil and filling in peat soil, of which there 
was plenty close at hand. 


Jury 1902.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 259 


My next experience was in the south part of County 
Wicklow, where I had the management of the extensive 
home woods and gardens of Lord Fitzwiluam. This part 
of the county was colder and later than Queen’s Co.; the 
soil was thin, the cold, shingly sub-soil mixed with a 
strong clay. The portions of the property where tree 
planting was carried out ranged from 400 feet to 1100 
feet above sea-level. At the 400 feet level was a remnant 
of the old shillelagh oak forest that once extended to 
Donnybrook. The oaks still standing were very fine 
specimens, with long, clean, straight boles, 10 and 12 feet 
in circumference. It was in this wood only that the true 
shillelagh sticks were got, a shillelagh being an oak sapling 
taken up by the root, the root forming the head of the stick. 

This large estate, with its high hills, low valleys, varied 
soils, and varied aspects, gave exceptional facilities for 
testing the growth of the larch commercially, pro- 
bably the most valuable timber grown in Britain. One 
system of planting was adopted over the whole estate, 
a mixture of larch, Scots pine, fir, silver, common 
spruce, and some hard woods, chiefly oak, through them. 
The larch seemed to do equally well on the north side 
as on the south side of these hills, and grew well on the 
tops of the highest of them; all the planting was bole 
planting. A careful investigation was made throughout 
the whole of the plantations to try and detect any larch 
disease; the whole estate was pronounced clear of it, 
excepting two trees, growing with many more larches on 
a piece of ground, the subsoil of which was blue clay. 
Deep open drains intersected closely this piece of ground, 
still, it never became normally dry. Birch grew luxuriantly 
on this, but I should say larch should never be planted 
on soils with a cold clay subsoil. I have seen a great deal 
of high lands in Ireland of little value agriculturally, 
almost waste, that would grow excellent larch. The 
Government should plant these otherwise waste mountain 
tops; they would prove in time a valuable asset to the 
nation, and, at the same time, improve immensely the value 
of the surrounding country. 

One of the greatest drawbacks to the proper growth of 
woods and plantations in these islands is the destruction 


260 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sxss, uxvie 


done by rabbits. Many of the large landowners received 
Zs, 2d. to 2s. 4d. per pair for rabbits sent to some large 
centre of Manchester, and the result was that the rabbits 
were allowed to multiply to such an extent that scarcely a 
single tree—in woods from thirty to sixty years old—but 
had its roots a mass of rabbit burrows. The result of the 
presence of these burrows was the stunting of the tree. 

From my experience I am convinced that were rabbits 
strictly kept out of plantations, the tree crop at the end of 
forty years would be as good as one at seventy where 
rabbits were numerous. 


There was a long narrow strip of ground which it was 
desired to convert into a belt-plantation in order to shut 
out a view of the interior as quickly as possible, and a 
large area of grass-land had to be planted with clumps of 
conifers. The land was of a very poor nature—a few inches 
of soil on the top, all underneath being shingly, with a little 
clay running through it. 

Our mode of procedure was to trench the ground thirty 
inches deep during the summer, and in the autumn we 
planted the following trees and shrubs :—Abies Douglasi, 
A. grandis, Nordmaniana, magnifica, Cupressus Lawsoniana, 
and Thujopsis dolebrata, these were planted about thirty 
feet apart; and Scots pine and larch were planted thickly 
amongst them. In the course of six or seven years the 
trees grew to ten feet high and more. A. grandis grew the 
quickest, being thirty feet high sixteen years after plant- 
ing. A. Douglasi was the next quickest. 

The transplanting of large rhododendrons, and form- 
ing them into groups in new places, formed a_ part 
of these operations. I transplanted one rhododendron, 
20 feet in diameter, a distance of a quarter of a mile, and 
it grew afterwards with fresh vigour. I found in the 
transplanting of these large rhododendrons that if we dug 
out a hole, however large, for each shrub, and planted in 
that hole, the plants did not grow nearly so well as 
when a large bed of rhododendrons was made. In 
making the latter we marked off the size of the clump, 
threw out the whole earth inside the mark to the depth 
of two and a half feet, brought our plants, put them ‘in 
position in this pit, then threw the soil back again into the 


oe 


Jury 1902. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 261 


pit, mixing with it several cartloads of half-rotten dung and 
half-rotten leaves. The plants simply rushed into immense 
erowth in this new bed. There were also large clumps of 
rhododendrons made in gravel areas. The soil being 
limited to the clump, we top-dressed heavily with cow 
manure, which produced the finest foliage and splendid 
clusters of flowers on the best-named varieties of rhodo- 
dendrons. 

We were very successful in planting conifers in pits in a 
macadamised road for the purpose of concealing a long range 
of buildings. Some forty trees of Cupressus Lawsoniana, 
nearly 20 feet high, with good balls, were planted in a 
trench 2 feet deep and 12 feet wide, from which the old road 
metal had been removed, and fresh soil was then filled in 
round the roots. This work was done in the autumn, and the 
following season they grew away and became quite established, 
These trees now form a fine feature by the side of the 
carriage drive. 

I have treated my subject of tree planting mostly from 
an ornamental point of view. In expressing practical 
opinions regarding tree planting there must be a decided 
distinction made between planting for ornament and 
planting for utility and profit. The circumstances of our 
country are such that there is plenty of room for both. 

(1) As to utility and profit,— There are many 
thousands of acres on hillsides, on bog lands, and other 
places, that can only be called waste land. Patches of 
these waste lands that have been planted with trees prove 
that excellent timber can be grown on them; but planting 
on a large scale is too gigantic a work, and the profits to 
be realised too long to be waited for, to expect private 
enterprise to do it as it ought to be done. The Govern- 
ment should, and must eventually, take up this work; 
and the sooner the better, for until this is done the 
planting and best cultivation of extensive crops of timber 
will not be carried out with the capital and the scientific 
knowledge that work of such national importance demands. 

One reason for calling it of national importance is that 
the climatic condition is ameliorated. High barren lands 
and large waste tracts destitute of trees are mostly so 
exposed and arid that neither animal nor vegetable life 


262 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS [Suss. LxvI. 


ean flourish on them; whereas, if they were judiciously 
planted the climate would be softened, and the barren land 
would become a moisture-retaining, fertile soil. 

This growing of timber would also mean employment 
and the lessening of rural depopulation. 

(2) Planting trees for ornament. — Of the very many 
trees and shrubs introduced to this country in the last 
half-century there are probably not more than half a 
dozen adapted for growing profitable timber; and even 
these, excepting Abies Douglasi, are much too dear to plant 
extensively. In what better way could some of our wealthy 
landowners (whose number is ever increasing) spend a portion 
of their money than in adorning the surroundings of their 
homes with as great a variety of trees and shrubs as the 
limit of their grounds allow ? 

Beauty—something pleasing to the eye—is what is 
wanted here, and so it is admissible to follow a much 
higher and more expensive mode of cultivation. If top- 
dressings of enriched earth, and even good manure, were 
given much more than they are, we should not so often see 
the seraggy apologies for ornamental trees we do. Choice 
of species and varieties should be made to suit the climatic 
conditions and soil of the locality,—many trees and flower- 
ing shrubs grow and flower luxuriantly in the suburbs of 
London that would not live in the suburbs of Edinburgh. 

There exists a generally mistaken idea that the very 
ornamental Pinus insignis is not hardy. This has been 
proved to be false in some of the coldest districts. I have 
seen it planted beside the Scots pine, and during a severe 
blizzard in January the Scots pine was much scorched and 
injured, while P. insignis escaped unhurt. 


7. ae aa 2| 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS — 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


VOLUME XXII. 


Par? III. 


EDINBURGH: 

PRINTED FOR THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY BY 
MORRISON AND GIBB LIMITED. 

1904. 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


SESSION LXVIL. 


MEETING OF THE Society, November 13, 1902. 
Dr. Wittiam Watson, Vice-President, in the Chair. 


The following Officers of the Society were elected for 
the Session 1902-1903 :— 


PRESIDENT. 
Professor J. W. H. Trait, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., F.R.S. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS. 


W. CaLpwELL CRAWFORD, M.A.,| ALEXANDER SOMERVILLE, B.Sc., 
F.R.S.E. F.L.S. 
Rev. D. Pau, M.A., LL.D. Witiram Watson, M.D. 


COUNCILLORS. 


Professor Cossak Ewart, M.D. SyMincTon GRIEVE. 
F.R.SS. L. & E. J. A. TerRAS, B.Sc. 
Roperr Linpsay. Prof. Patrick GEDDES, F.R.S.E. 
Rosert A. ROBERTSON, M.A., B.Sc. J. RUTHERFORD HILL. 
JOHN MONTGOMERIE BELL, W.S. | JAMES WHYTOCK. 


ALEXANDER COWAN. 


| 
| 


Honorary Secretary—W1Lu1AM CraiG, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.8.E. 

Curator of Herbarium—W. CALDWELL CrawrorD, M.A., F.R.S.E. 

Foreign Secretary—ANDREW P. AITKEN, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 

Treasurer—RIcHARD Brown, C.A. 

Honorary Assistant-Secretary—R. Stewart MacDoveatt, M.A., D.Sc., 
F.R.S.E. 

Artist—Francis M. Carrp, M.B., C.M., F.R.C.S.E. 

Auditor—RosBErT C. MILLAR, C.A. 


X1V TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


LOCAL SECRETARIES. 


Aberdeen—Professor J. W. H. Tratt, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., F.R.S. 
Bathgate—Rosert Kirk, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. 

Berwick-on- Tweed—FRAnNcIs M. Norman, R.N. 
Birmingham—GerorGE A. Panton, F.R.S.E., 73 Westfield Road. 


as W. H. Witkinsoy, F.L.S., F.R.M.S., Manor Hill, Sutton 
Coldfield. 


Bournemouth—JOHN ARCHIBALD, M.D., F.R.S.E. 
Bromley, Kent—D. T. Puayratr, M.D. 
Calcutta—Davip Pratn, M.B., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Royal Botanic Garden. 


a Professor S. C. MAHALANOBIS, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.M.S., 
Presidency College. 


Cambridge—ARTHUR Evans, M.A. 
Croydon—A. Brennetr?T, F.L.S. 
Dundee—Professor P. Grpprs, F.R.S.E. 
East Liss, Hants.—JAMES SYKES GAMBLE, M.A., C.I.E., F.R.S. 
Glasgow—Professor F. O. Bower, Sc.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. 
is Professor J. CLELAND, M.D., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 
BF Professor G. F. Scott-Euuiot, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. / 
a ALEXANDER SOMERVILLE, B.Sce., F.L.S. 
Kilbarchan—Rev. G. ALISON. 
Lincoln—GrorGE May Lowe, M.D., C.M. 
London—WILLIAM CARRUTHERS, F.R.S., F.L.S. 
AS KH. M. Howtmes, F.L.S., F.R.H.S. 
a9 Sir Georce Kina, M.D., F.R.S. 
Melrose—W. B. Boyn, of Faldonside. 
Otago, New Zealand—Professor JAMES Gow Buack, D.Se., University. 
Perth—Sir Ropert Pouuar, F.R.S.E. 
Philadelphia, U.S.A.—Professor JoHN M. MACFARLANE, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 
Saharumpore, India—J. F. DutTurie, B.A., F.L.S. 
St. Andrews —Professor M‘IntTosH, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 


<; Ropert A. Ropertson, M.A., B.Sc. 
Dr. J. H. Witson. 
Toronto, Ontario—W. R. Rrppew1, B.Se., B.A. 
ae Ls Professor RAMSEY Wricut, M.A., B.Sc. 


Wellington, New Zealand—Sir James Hecror, M.D., K.C.M.G., 
F.R.SS. L. & E. 


Wolverhampton—Joun Fraser, M.A., M.D. 


— 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH mV: 


W. J. Cutten, Esq., 10 Darnaway Street, was proposed 
as a Resident Fellow of the Society by Mr. ALEXANDER 
SOMERVILLE, BSc, F.LS., and seconded by the Rev. 
im FA0L, M.A. LL.D: 


Professor BAYLEY BaLrour read a paper on “The 
Scottish Chenopodiacez.” 


Dr. D. Fraser Harris exhibited Grain from the 
Roman Granary in the Camp at Castlecary. 


Mr. A. W. Bortuwick, B.Sc., showed a specimen of 
Quercus ilex struck by lightning, and gave a review of the 
Effects of Lightning on Trees in general. 


Dr. J. M. Dauzret exhibited three new Chinese Plants. 


Mr. GEORGE WEST gave a demonstration of Micro- 
scopic Sections of Rock with Vegetable Remains. 


MEETING OF THE SocreTy, December 11, 1902. 
Dr. ArtHur Davies in the Chair. 


The TREASURER submitted the following Statement of 
Accounts for the Session 1901—1902 :— 


INCOME. 
Annual Subscriptions, 1901-1902; 63 at 1ds. : Paes 2 je we | 
Do. 1900-1901; 1 at 15s. : 3 015 0 
Composition for Life Membership . : ; : 2 2 0 
Transactions, etc., sold. : : ; ‘ ; : 110 0 
Subscriptions to Illustration Fund . L fk ‘ E 411 0 
Interest on Deposits in Bank . : ; : 3 : 2 6.6 


£58 9 6 


Xvi TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


EXPENDITURE. 

Printing (including Transactions for Session 1900-1901, 
£27, 14s.) ; ; P : , . ; ; £37 18 6 
Rooms for Meetings, Tea, etc. ; * é ‘ ; 6. S48 
Stationery, Postages, Carriages, etc. : A ; ; 4 79 
Fire Insurance on Books, ete. d : : ; 0 5 0 
£48 17 0 
Balance—being Excess of Income over Expenditure, . 912 6 
£58, 9G 

STATE OF Funps. 

Amount of Funds at close of Session 1900-1901. ~° £130 125 
Add—Increase during Session 1901-1902, as above . 9: 12.06 


Amount of Funds at close of Session 1901-1902, subject 
to Expense of Printing Transactions for Session 
1901-1902, estimated at £60 . b : ; “£140 ae 
Being:—Sum in Current Account with 
Union Bank of Scotland Ltd. . £16 0 8 
Sum in Deposit Receipt with do. 120 0 0 
Due by Treasurer , G ; 4 4 2 


As above —— 


£140 4 10 
Note.—Subscriptions in arrear, 1901-1902, 15s.; one member, three 
years, £2, 5s. 


The Report was adopted, and the Treasurer and the 
Auditor were thanked for their services. 


W. J. CuLien, Esq., 10 Darnaway Street, proposed by 
Mr. ALEXANDER SOMERVILLE, B.Sc., F.L.S., and seconded 
by the Rev. D. Pau, M.A., LL.D., was balloted for and 
duly elected a Resident Fellow of the Society. 


The following Candidates were proposed as Resident 
Fellows of the Society :— 


DonaLp Cameron M‘Intosu, Esq., M.A., 37 Warrender 
Park Terrace, proposed by Mr. ALEXANDER 
SOMERVILLE, B.Sc, F.L.S., seconded by Dr. R. 
STEWART MacDOouGaL.. 

J. C. Fraser, Esq., Comely Bank Nurseries, proposed 
by Mr. Ropert Linpsay, seconded by Dr. Wm. 
WATSON, 


a 


oe 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH XVil 


MarceLt Harpy, Esq., Bot. Dep., Univ. Coll., Dundee, 
proposed by Professor PATRICK GEDDES, seconded 
by Dr. R. Stewart MacDouGatt. 

Rev. Joun Taytor, B.D., 13 Hartington Gardens, 
proposed by Mr. ALEXANDER MorvTon, B.Sc., 
seconded by Dr. R. SrewartT MacDOouGaLt. 

WILLIAM Younc, Esq., Fairview, Kirkcaldy, proposed 
by Dr. R. Srewarrt MacDovuGa tt, seconded by 
Dr. WILLIAM CralG. 


Professor ParTrIcK GEDDES opened a discussion on 
Botanical and Naturalists’ Societies and the Current 
Movement in Education (Nature Study, Art, Technical 
Education). 


Mr. H. F. Taae, F.L.S., gave his communication on “ The 
Production experimentally of Aerenchyma.” 


The Fruits of several varieties of Cydonia were exhibited 
by Mr. JAMES WHYTOCK. 


Dr. R. Stewart MacDouGati exhibited a number of 
Museum Preparations illustrating the Dispersal of Fruits 
and Seeds, and the Germination of Seeds. 


MEETING OF THE Society, January 8, 1903. 
Dr. Witiiam Crate in the Chair. 


The following Candidates were balloted for, and duly 
elected Resident Fellows of the Society :— 


J. C. Fraser, Esq., Comely Bank Nurseries, proposed 
by Mr. Ropert Linpsay, seconded by Dr. Wm. 
WATSON. 

MarceL Harpy, Esq., Bot. Dep., Univ. Coll., Dundee, 
proposed by Professor PATRICK GEDDES, seconded 
by Dr. R. Stewart MacDouGatt. 

DonaLp CAMERON M‘InTosu, Esq., M.A., 37 Warrender 
Park Terrace, proposed by Mr. ALEXANDER SOMER- 
VILLE, B.Se., F.L.S., seconded by Dr. R. STEWART 
MacDouGatt. 

Rev. Joun Taynor, B.D., 13 Hartington Gardens, 
proposed by Mr. ALEXANDER Morton, B.Sc., 
seconded by Dr. R. Stewart MAcDOuGALL. 


XVill TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


WiLiiAM YounG, Esq., Fairview, Kirkcaldy, proposed 
by Dr. R. Stewart MacDouGatt, seconded by 
Dr. WILLIAM Cralc. 
The CHAIRMAN made a feeling reference to the death, 
since the last meeting, of Dr. ALEXANDER Prior, the last of 
the twenty-one Original Fellows of the Society. 


Mr. ALEXANDER COWAN submitted the “Report of the 
1902 Exeursion of the Scottish Alpine Club” (p. 317). 


Mr. A. W. Borruwick, B.Se., gave a résumé of the facts 
as brought up to date illustrating the Influence of Artificial 
Light on Plant Growth. 

Mr. F. C. Crawrorp, F.R.S.E., exhibited Carex humilis, 
Leysser ; with Notes. 

Dr. R. Stewart MacDovuGa.u showed Grubs of Jfelolontha 
vulgaris, with specimens of attacked Pinus, Picea, Larix, and 
Cupressus. 


MEETING oF THE Society, February 12, 1903. 
Professor J. W. H. Tratuu, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., President, 
in the Chair. 
The following Candidate was proposed as a Resident 
Fellow :— : 
WiLuiaM BEAVERLEY Cowlg, Esq., 26 Clyde Street, 
proposed by Mr. J. RurHErForD HILL, seconded 
by Dr. R. Stewart MacDOUGALL. 


Professor TRAIL gave his communication on “ Notes on 
the Flora of South-East Scotland” (p. 265). 


Professor BAYLEY BALFoUR communicated a paper by 
Mr. James Stirling, A.LC.E., entitled “ Notes on a Census 
of the Flora of the Australian Alps” (p. 319). 


Mr. Epwarp TxHompstonE and Dr. R. STEWART 
MacDouca.i exhibited specimens of Potatoes attacked 
by Chrysophlyctis endobiotica, Sch., the new disease of 
Potatoes ; with Notes. 


Mr. J. D. Fatconer, B.Se., exhibited Plant Remains 
from the Campbeltown Coalfield, collected by Mr. 
Cunningham. 


—" 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH x1X 


MEETING OF THE Society, March 12, 1903. 


Dr. Wittram Watson in the Chair. 


The following Candidate was balloted for as a Resident 
Fellow, and duly elected :— 


WILLIAM BEAVERLEY Cowlg,-Esq., 26 Clyde Street, 
proposed by Mr. J. RuTHERFORD HILL, seconded 
by Dr. R. Stewart MacDouGaL... 


Professor Bayley BALFouR gave a communication 
on “Repetitive Basipetal Branching in the Leaf of Begonia 
luzuriens, Scheidw.”; with lantern demonstration. 


Dr. Davin CHRISTISON presented a communication on 
“The Cowthorpe Oak,” by Mr. John Clayton ; with exhibition 
of photographs (p. 396). 

Mr. ALEXANDER SOMERVILLE, B.Sc, F.LS., gave his 
communication on “ Carex divisa, Hudson, as a Scottish 


Plant”; and showed specimens of one rediscovered by 
Mr. James Menzies in Forfarshire in 1901 (p. 309). 


Mr. T. Curnpert Day, F.C.S., gave a lantern demon- 
stration on Three-Colour Photography by the Sanger- 
Shepherd Method. 


MEETING OF THE Soctety, April 9, 1903. 
Dr. Witi1am Watson, Vice-President, in the Chair. 


The following Candidate was proposed as a non-Resident 
Fellow :— 


OWEN GILMORE, Esq., L.R.C.P., L.R.C.S.E., 5 Valley- 
field Street, proposed by Dr. R. Stewart Mac- 
DOovuGALL, seconded by Dr. Wm. Craic. 


Mr. W. CALDWELL CRAWFORD, M.A., F.R.S.E., made a 
communication on “ Tuberisation in Plants.” 


Mr. H. F. Tacc, F.LS. explained Methods of 
Mounting Mosses as Museum Preparations, with exhibi- 
tion of specimens. 


xx TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


Mr. James WuaytTock exhibited a large collection of 
Plants in Flower from the Palace Gardens, Dalkeith. 


Mr. Roperr Linpsay showed Primula megaseewfolia, 
Boissier; and Mr. JAMES GRIEVE a variegated Senecio 
vulgaris, and some tuber-clusters of Montbretia. 


MEETING OF THE Society, May 14, 1903. 
W. CaLpweLt Crawrorp, Esq., Vice-President, in the Chair. 


Owen GILMoRE, Esq., L.R.C.P., L.R.C.S.E., was elected a 
non-Resident Fellow of the Society. 


Professor I. BAYLEY BALFOUR made a communication on 
the Callitriches. 


Dr. Craic, on behalf of Mr. Muirhead, exhibited a plant 
of Primula rotundifolia, Wall, in bloom. 


MEETING OF THE SociETy, June 11, 1903. 
W. Catpwett Crawrorp, Esq., Vice-President, in the Chair. 
Mr. ALEXANDER SOMERVILLE, B.Sc., F.L.S., read a paper 


on the genus Polystichwm, Roth., and exhibited specimens 
from Scottish and Ivish localities (p. 312). 


Mr. Witi1aM Boyp thereafter exhibited a specimen of 
Paris quadrifolia with seven leaves. 


MEETING OF THE Society, July 9, 1903. 


W. CatpweLt Crawrorp, Esq., Vice-President, in the Chair. 


Mr. A. W. Borruwick, B.Se., exhibited a number of 
specimens of Fungi, illustrating various tree diseases. 


Mr. Taomas Berwick read a short paper on Laminaria, 
with easy methods of demonstrating the presence of 
Chlorophyll (p. 395). 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


SESSION LXVIL. 


SUGGESTIONS TOWARDS THE PREPARATION OF A ReEcorpD 
OF THE FLORA OF ScoTLaAND. By James W. H. Trait. 


(Read 12th February 1903.) 


Towards the close of last century it appeared to me 
desirable to obtain, as far as possible, a record of what 
was known about the flora of Scotland, to serve in future 
as a standard of comparison by which to mark changes 1n 
the flora, and possibly to show something of the causes on 
which such changes depend. Much had been done in the 
previous two decades in exploring districts that had long 
been unvisited by botanists, and of the results of most of 
these explorations I had kept notes: It seemed at the 
outset that little more was required than a careful com- 
pilation from the local floras formerly and _ recently 
published, and from the numerous lists or fuller articles 
that had appeared in botanical journals and transactions. 
But a more careful examination of these showed that we 
are still far from the accurate information that is necessary 
before a record can be prepared that could be used as a 
trustworthy standard for future comparison. 

Few of the floras or lists relate to natural areas, and 
fewer still supply the needful information with desirable 
completeness. Rarely is there even an attempt to show, 

TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXII. Ss 


266 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxvil. 


in a systematic way, the distribution of a species within 
the district included in the flora or list. A few localities 
are enumerated for many species, and the other parts of 
the districts are seldom if ever mentioned. Often little 
more is given than a mere list of names of species, without 
notes of whether these are natives, or introduced by man, 
and, if the latter, whether they are casuals or planted or 
naturalised, weeds of fields or near houses, rare or frequent. 
Or, if such notes are given, they are so in the most arbitrary 
way, and often mislead instead of aiding the inquirer. 
Naturally, the older books and lists are very defective in 
their treatment of critical groups, whether these relate to 
polymorphic genera or to forms usually regarded as varieties 
of polymorphic species. 

A good deal of experience in the use of the published 
records, and also in trying to work out the flora of limited 
areas In a systematic way, had led me to certain views 
with regard to the work that is still much required, both 
in the field and in the preparation of satisfactory records 
of local floras; and these views may be put forward for 
criticism. 

When the plants of Scotland were first studied, it was 
scarcely possible to do more than to note the occurrence of 
species here and there during journeys, and, naturally, 
more interest was excited by the rarer and more local 
species than by those common everywhere. It was hardly 
to be expected that local botanists could be found with 
knowledge and opportunity to qualify them for an ex- 
haustive study of the districts around their homes. A few 
localities became known as_ habitats, either from their 
vicinity to the larger towns or from exceptional wealth of 
species. Their reputation led to their being visited by 
generations of botanists, and all the more local and rarer 
forms in them were put on record, often many times. 
But they drew to themselves the attention that would 
otherwise have been distributed more widely over the 
country, and, in consequence, many districts remained 
almost unvisited until a late period, and comparatively 
few have been really well explored throughout. 

Some works on local floras endeavour to give somewhat 
full information with regard to the plants treated of, eg. 


‘ 
’ 
i. 
- 


Fes. 1903.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 267 


Dr. Buchanan White’s “ Flora of Perthshire”; but in most 
of even the larger works, and still more in the briefer 
ones, we usually find only a few localities enumerated, 
with the name of the collector or reporter for each, 
following a_ brief general statement such as “rare,” 
“frequent, “local,” “by streams,” “in fields.” Man’s 
share in the present state of the flora is very inconsistently 
treated. Common weeds of cultivated ground are admitted ° 
into every list without question, though many of them are 
dependent on man’s labour, not only for their introduction, 
but also for their continuance in the district. Others are 
relegated to a special list of species introduced by man, 
though they may show themselves as widespread as, and 
better able to retain their hold in the district than, the 
field-weeds, and along with them are associated many that 
are clearly mere outcasts and casuals, unhkely to appear 
in any one locality for more than one or two years unless 
reinforced. Species are included that have clearly been 
planted originally where they continue to be found, whether 
they have spread and become naturalised in aspect, or 
remain limited to the original spot. Some tree and shrubs 
are included, eg. the maples and lmes, while others are 
omitted even though they seed freely, e.g. the larch, spruce, 
and silver fir. 

The confusion becomes still greater when all species 
admitted into the local list run on in one series, in which 
some are noted as “introduced,’ while to others no such 
note is added, though not less evidently called for. Man’s 
influence in limiting or extending the numbers and range 
of distribution of species within a district is even less 
consistently treated in local lists than his share in their 
introduction. Remarks on it are usually limited to the 
few species that have become extinct, or are approaching 
extinction. 

One rarely finds information of a kind at all definite or 
serviceable with regard to the actual abundance and the 
relative increase or diminution of the commoner (therefore 
the usually characteristic) species of a district. Only now 
and again are terms employed such as imply actual refer- 
ence to the local conditions. Frequently they might have 
been copied from some text-book or general flora. 


268 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxvu. 


The districts and their local sub-divisions employed in 
the records of topographical botany in Scotland have varied 
considerably, and it is not always easy to correlate them 
so as to make the older ones of use for comparison with 
the more recent. Yet a good deal is lost if such com- 
parisons cannot be made. 

In the earliest works, eg. Sibbald’s “Scotia Illustrata’ 
‘(1684), the topographical information amounts to the 
notification of the species believed by the author to exist 
in Scotland, with special localities noted for a few. 
Lightfoot’s “Flora Scotica” (1778), and Hooker’s “ Flora 
Scotica ” (1821), proceed on almost the same lines. They 
do not attempt to indicate the local distribution of species 
in Scotland except by enumeration of localities for the 
rarer and local forms. 

Of the local floras, some of the earlier limit themselves 
to some distance around a town as a centre, without 
limitation to, or indication of, special districts, whether 
natural, such as river basins, or artificial, such as counties 
and parishes. Of this class are Greville’s, Balfour and 
Sadler’s, and Sonntag’s floras of the district around Edin- 
burgh, Dickie’s “ Flora Aberdonensis,” and P. Macgillivray’s 
“Flora of Aberdeen.” Others, e.g. Edmonston’s “ Shetland 
Flora,” and Hennedy’s “ Clydesdale Flora,” relate to natural 
areas, but with no systematic sub-division of the areas; 
and others limit themselves to political districts, such as 
Jchnston’s “ Botany of the Scottish Borders” and “ Flora 
of Berwick-on-Tweed,” Dickie’s “ Botanist’s Guide to the 
Counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and Kincardine,’ and Scott 
Elliott’s “ Flora of Dumfries, Kirkcudbright, and Wigtown.” 
White’s “Flora of Perthshire” is limited to the political 
area Perthshire and Clackmannan; but that area is chiefly 
the Tay basin, and is, in so far, natural, and it has been 
sub-divided in the “Flora” by river basins and geological 
formations. Thus the two methods are combined in this 
case. 

Mr. H. C. Watson’s works on the topographical botany 
of Great Britain added so greatly to the information 
available to local botanists, and to the precision and 
accuracy of that information by his careful analysis of 
earlier work, that his divisions of counties and vice- 


bd 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 269 


counties have been the basis for very much of the best 
topographical work of the past half-century. The con- 
sistent use of well-recognised divisions has allowed of 
the results being tabulated, and, by showing where con- 
spicuous gaps in the records existed, it has directed 
attention to these, and has led to their being filled. 

But there are very evident defects in the employment of 
divisions that are so often quite artificial and of unequal 
extent, even with the modifications in their boundaries 
and areas that Mr. Watson employed, and in which he 
has been followed. Within recent years the boundaries 
of many counties have been considerably altered, and in 
some cases the older records have been a good deal altered 
thereby, and may become misleading. In the valuable 
handbook of “ The Flora and Fauna of the Clyde District,” 
prepared for the meeting of the British Association in 
Glasgow in 1901, a strictly artificial method was followed, 
the basis of the river and firth being sub-divided by 
parallels of latitude and of longitude at each degree and 
half-degree; and the areas so bounded are denoted by 
capital letters. 

When we seek to gain from books or lists a trustworthy 
conception of the flora of the district of which each treats, 
and, still more, if we wish to compare the past condition 
as recorded for us with the flora as we know it, we find 
that, in almost every case, much is left untouched that we 
should greatly like to have a record of. That a plant has 
been observed in a district is worth noting as a fact in 
topographical botany, but much more is frequently desir- 
able. If it be a critical species or variety, we should know 
by whom it was determined, and if a specimen was seen 
by an expert, and has been preserved as a voucher. If 
there is no doubt as to accuracy of the determination, 
there are questions requiring an answer as regards its 
occurrence, such as the likelihood of its having been 
introduced by man, its frequency, whether it seems to be 
extending its range or losing ground, its habitats, etc.’ 
But to most such questions an answer is not often found 
in published records. 

The work so successfully begun by Mr. Robert Smith, 
and the value of which has been well urged by Dr. W. 


270 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. Lxvu. 


Smith and by Mr. Hardy, brings prominently into view 
the chief characteristic features of local floras; but, 
though it will thus add very greatly to our knowledge 
of the topographical botany of Scotland, it yet leaves 
much untouched, and there is ample room for other 
methods also in attacking the problem. It appears to 
me that success can be attained only by the co-operation 
of numerous workers, having a common end in view, but 
concentrating their efforts on such parts of the problem as 
leisure and opportunity give them a reasonable hope of 
advancing. More will be done of permanent value by 
knowing a limited area thoroughly.than by visits to 
localities noted for their floral wealth, though one’s 
herbarium may not contain so many rarities. 

A new factor to be considered in this connection has 
been introduced by the requirement now imposed on 
those that are entering the teaching profession, that 
they shall be qualified to give instruction in nature- 
study. It may reasonably be expected that among the 
new teachers some will seek to acquaint themselves with 
the natural objects of the districts in which they live. 
Indeed, to become successful teachers of the methods of 
nature-study they must know what resources are within 
their reach. Valuable aid may be looked for in a few 
years from them. But they also require aid; and it 
would be well that in the preparation of local floras this 
should be kept in view. 

It may be said that as yet I have been speaking chiefly 
of defects in such topographical records as we have, and 
that it is not enough to find fault, unless one is prepared 
to suggest improvements. I must pass on then to the 
questions of the information that topographical records 
should supply, and how they can be rendered most useful. 
In answering these questions we may also find help in 
determining the form or forms that they should assume. 

How much should the record contain? To this some 
would answer that it should include all plants of the 
district that clearly do not owe their presence in it to 
man, and also those introduced by man that now hold 
their place without his aid or in his fields against his 
will; but that no others should be mentioned. | Watson’s 


a 


Fes. 1903. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 271 


“ Topographical Botany ” is drawn up nearly within these 
limits. But even there the limits are not very consistently 
adhered to. 

To me it seems that more accurate results are arrived 
at if all plants are included except those known in a 
district on/y in cultivation, and that, even of these, the 
species commonly cultivated in fields and in gardens, in 
plantations and in woodlands, might with advantage be 
named in a separate list. The terms “native” and 
“indigenous ” denote only that the ancestors of the plants 
now living in any locality arrived in it, so far as we 
know, without man’s aid, by what we call natural agencies; 
for we have no evidence that any species in the Linnean 
sense 1s really indigenous in Britain, though certain 
varieties and “critical species” (in such genera as Rubus 
and Hieracium) are not yet known from elsewhere. Man 
has profoundly modified the British flora even as regards 
these “natives,’ and has admittedly brought into our 
islands a number of species that are included without 
question in our lists; while a good many that appear to 
be “native” in certain districts have in others evidently 
been introduced by man. The question really becomes 
narrowed down to the period when they were introduced, 
intentionally or otherwise, by man; but the time of 
introduction scarcely appears to warrant so absolutely 
different a treatment as the inclusion of some and the 
exclusion of others. Man’s agency must be recognised 
as a cause of great changes in the floras of the world. 
It is in a sense one of the natural forces that modify 
the vegetation of the world; and the difference between 
the action of unconscious forces and the conscious agency 
of man, though great in degree, should scarcely be reckoned 
as one of kind. Moreover, man’s aid in the migration of 
plants is often as unconscious as any of the natural forces. 
Is it not desirable to include all, as above suggested, in 
the local list, and, as far as possible, to ascertain and 
to record by what agency, and at what period, each has 
reached Scotland? Records do not exist of a kind such 
as to permit of our ascertaining whether species may 
not have been introduced, even within recent times, apart 
from man’s aid. 


272 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. xvi. 


The past and present distribution of each species should 
be ascertained in a very much more systematic way than 
has yet been done, or, except in a few cases, even 
attempted, the habitats should be indicated, and the 
frequency should be recorded on some definite scale. 
Absolute accuracy cannot be expected; but it should 
be possible to reach a degree such as to permit of the 
records being used by later workers as a scale by which 
to determine the changes that show themselves as the 
years go by, and perhaps to afford evidence of the causes 
that bring about these changes, both of increase and of 
decrease or extinction, of gain and of loss. A method 
that I have made use of to record the changed condition 
of the vegetation from year to year on made-up ground, 
and other places near Aberdeen, I have found very useful 
on limited areas, where a complete record of the species 
observed was kept, and the rarity or abundance of each 
was marked by a scale from | to 4, denoting rare, common, 
frequent, abundant, each also modified by the signs 
— and +. Thus I used twelve grades, from 1—, 
denoting extremely rare, to 4+, denoting abundance to 
the exclusion of other species. I found it possible in this 
way to follow with confidence rapid changes in the relative 
proportions of the species, and also to record the incoming 
of species new to a locality, and could follow the struggle 
among the various forms until a relative equilibrium was 
reached. 

For larger areas other methods have been employed. 
Buchenau, for example, in his “Flora der nordwestdeutschen 
Tiefebene” (1894), employs signs to distinguish four grades 
in the relation of plants to the district, viz. ** characteristic 
species; ™ confined to certain limited habitats, e.g. sea- 
coast, ete.; ‘|' species of middle or east Germany that have 
overpassed the south or east boundary of the north- 
west German plains; + adventitious plants, relatively 
late introductions, or immigrants, 

It is evident that the usual indications of frequency 
(frequent, common, rather local, ete.) are defective, as 
they do not indicate clearly the relative frequency of 
localities and of individual plants within these localities. 

W. Schemmann, in “ Beitrige zur Flora der Kreise 


0 Oe 


FEB, 1903. } BOTANICAL SOCIELY OF EDINBURGH 273 


Bochum, Dortmund und Hagen” (Verh. d. naturh. Ver. d. 
Preuss. Rheinlande u. Westfalens, 1884), employs a com- 
paratively simple scale in the form of fractions, the 
numerators of which denote the number of localities 
thus—1 in one place, 2 in a few places, 3 in several 
places, and 4 in many places; while the denominators 
denote frequency thus—1 sparingly, 2 commonly, 3 in 
quantities, e.g. % denotes in a few places in quantities, 
5 denotes in countless places in very great amount. 

The method I employ for my own notes, after various 
experiments and rejection of more than one method, is 
as follows :— 

After a general indication of the habitat (eg. sand- 
dunes, meadows, swamps, etc.), and of whether “native” 
or “alien,” with grade if “alien,” I use the Greek letters 
a, P, y, 5, € to denote the frequency both of localities and 
of plants within the localities. Thus two simple scales 
are formed for localities—ea denotes in one locality; 6 in 
two or three in a district, 2e. very local; y in a good 
many, yet local; 6 in many or common; «€ everywhere 
within suitable habitats. Within the localities « denotes 
only once found; f very rare, yet occasionally met with: 
y not rare, yet not common, to be found without diffi- 
eulty if looked for; 6 common; «€ abundant, even to 
exclusion of other species in some cases. These scales are 
combined readily, the first letter denoting localities, the 
second the individuals within these. Thus—ee denotes 
in one locality once found; «é in one locality, but common 
there; 68 in many localities, but rare within each; « 
universally present in suitable habitats, and abundant 
everywhere. 

On theoretical grounds the areas marked out by parallels 
of latitude and of longitude have the undoubted advantage 
of simplicity, if denoted in such a way as to combine brevity 
with freedom from error; but to be really useful the areas 
must not be large. For noting briefly and accurately the 
localities of plants in field-work, I use the 1-inch Ordnance 
maps, divided into areas by the minutes of latitude and 
the even-numbered minutes of longitude. The spaces so 
marked off are noted by co-ordinates along the margins of 
the map, these being capital letters from south to north, 


274 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sxss. ixvit. 


and small letters from east to west. Such a symbol as 
77 Br | .| denotes very closely the locality of some plant 
gathered on the bank of the Dee a few miles from Aber- 
deen. The addition of K after the square would show that 
it grew on the Kincardineshire side of the river. Thus a 
good deal of writing is saved. The method is also excel- 
lently suited to marking out on squared paper the actual 
distribution of each species in a district. 

But if the areas are large (ey. between half-degrees, 
extending to 900 square minutes) the advantage of pre- 
cision of reference is lost. They thus are useless alike 
for notebook and for subsequent mapping, and they are, of 
course, absolutely useless as indicating natural or well- 
known political areas. 

In this, as in so many other cases, no one method 
possesses all the advantages, and it is well to combine 
them, so as in the end to secure all the help that can be 
obtained. 

The geographical method, for publication, is most useful 
when the distribution is exhibited on maps, so that the 
eye can appreciate at one view the results expressed in 
words only at considerable length and in a form difficult 
to appreciate. With small areas it is, as already said, 
exceedingly useful in field work. But it is not desirable 
to ignore natural regions (such as river basins, etc.), though 
often difficult to define in some respects, and usually them- 
selves in need of sub-divisions based on varied conditions 
of environment. It is unwise, too, to set aside well- 
recognised political divisions, for these often appeal most 
strongly to the local naturalists, and their co-operation is 
most desirable in working out the distribution of both flora 
and fauna. Theoretically there is no reason why the 
investigation of, say, 20 or 25 square miles should not be 
as heartily entered on as that of a parish, of 140 as of the 
Cairngorm mountains, or of 2000 as of Aberdeenshire. 
Yet there is no question that fewer would undertake the 
one area than the other, though of nearly equal size. It 
is likely that some of the teachers now being trained will 
undertake the investigation of the districts around their 
homes, and to them the parish, or the district, is the area 
of greatest interest. To local societies the county or 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 275 


counties immediately adjoining the central town, or some 
former territorial division (still retained in popular use, 
though no longer corresponding with existing geographical 
divisions), or the river basin, is the region to be investi- 
gated. To the teachers it is of especial importance to 
learn what materials for nature-study are within reach, 
and the books or lists of most use to them are likely to 
be those that indicate distribution by parishes. But as 
parishes are seldom natural areas, and as it is desirable 
that records, whether of field work or when published, 
should be in form to permit of these latter areas also 
being recognised, it is necessary to combine the two sets 
of divisions. I have found that, by making use of the 
parish boundaries and watersheds of streams, along with 
local features, such as coast, lochs, lowland, and hill, it 
becomes possible to obtain areas of a relatively small size, 
with somewhat uniform characters throughout each, and 
that, with these as units, the distribution of species is well 
shown, whether frequent, local, or rare, by natural divisions, 
or by parishes and counties. By preparing maps of the 
species-distribution also, the record would be rendered very 
much more complete than has yet been accomplished in 
any published work on the flora or fauna of Scotland. 
From such local records a “Topographical Botany” of all 
Scotland could be prepared that would be found of very 
great value by our successors. Their preparation requires 
only industry, care, and accuracy, the critical species being 
submitted to experts for their verdicts. 

Briefly summarising the views stated above, they express 
these conclusions :— 

Much requires to be done before a complete account can 
be given of the flora of Scotland. The preparation for this 
demands the labour of many local botanists, each doing the 
work for a district around his home, or within so easy 
access as to permit of frequent visits. The local work 
done by them, and the general work resulting from their 
collaboration, should rest on the investigation of areas so 
planned as to be combined at will into parishes, counties, 
or natural districts, and such in size and in relation to 
environments as to show accurately the distribution as a 
whole, and any peculiarities of a noteworthy kind. For 


276 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxvul. 


each species and variety a map should be prepared to show 
the distribution, except where its rarity makes it desirable 
not to indicate the localities too minutely. The records 
should include, in the ordinary series, every species 
observed under such conditions as might lead to its being 
regarded as a wild plant (and in an appendix might be 
enumerated the plants cultivated in the country generally): 
but against each plant should be noted whether it appeared 
to be “native,” or “alien,” owing its presence in the district 
to man’s agency, intentional or unintentional. In the 
latter case, its condition as observed should be noted, 
whether only a suspected “alien,” or a “ denizen,” holding 
its place without man’s aid, or a “colonist,” continuing to 
grow as a weed of cultivated ground against man’s will, or 
a “casual” merely, dying out after a time, or planted 
where found. It should also be noted of the “aliens,” 
where possible, how they seemed to have been introduced, 
whether as outcasts, or escapes, or relics of cultivation, or 
with commercial products, ete. As to “native” plants, it 
might be stated whether their range of distribution or 
abundance was being altered noticeably by man or from 
natural causes. 

For each district, at least of larger-extent, the character- 
istic and local plants should be indicated, and also the 
immigrants from other districts, and those that reach a 
geographical limit in it. The grade of scarcity or of 
abundance should also be stated. Any plant-associations 
of a noteworthy kind, deserve mention. Information as 
to habitats, restriction to certain geological formations or 
soils, peculiar forms, associations with insects, either bene- 
ficial (as in pollination) or hurtful (galls or other injuries) 
diseases, and other matters of biological interest that might 
affect the flora might be included, or might form a com- 
panion volume to the “ Topographical Botany of Scotland” 
of the future. 

By the use of a few simple and easily understood con- 
tractions, local lists might easily give much more information 
on a good many of the above points than one usually finds 
in them, with very slight addition to their bulk. 

Lastly, the progress of investigation of the flora is of 
much interest, and the earliest record of each plant in a 


Fes. 1903.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Dae 


district should be noted, along with any noteworthy varia- 
tion of frequency. Such notes are of peculiar interest 
with reference to immigrants. 


TOPOGRAPHICAL BOTANY OF THE RIVER-BAsIns FORTH 
AND TWEED IN ScCoTLaND. By James W. H. Tralt. 


(Read 12th February 1903.) 


The following brief outline of the progress of botanical 
investigation in the basins of the rivers Forth and Tweed 
(an Scotland), and the abstract of county-distribution of 
their floras, in so far as I have been able to ascertain it 
up to 19035 from published records and other sources of 
information, have been prepared in the hope that they 
may be found useful to field botanists in the south-east 
of Scotland, and may help towards the preparation of such 
a record of the Scottish flora as is much to be desired. 

The counties included are Berwick, Roxburgh, Selkirk, 
Peebles, Haddington, Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Fife and 
Kinross, Stirling, and Perth and Clackmannan within 
the basin of the Forth. Parts of Fife and Stirling lie 
outside the basin of the Forth; but it is not possible, 
from the information within my reach, to determine from 
the records of the several plants published for these 
counties whether they refer only to parts of the counties 
beyond the Forth valley or to it also. Thus under these 
counties may be included a (very) few species not found 
in that valley. It has seemed more likely to be of use 
to include a// species known to me to have been recorded 
for any of these counties, whether truly indigenous or 
introduced originally by man. In the floras and lists that 
enumerate the plants of the counties, there are too often 
no indications of whether the various plants are indigenous 
or aliens, and such information as is given is at times 
apparently misleading. I have sought, as far as my 
knowledge of the flora of Scotland would allow, to indicate 
which must be regarded as aliens (marked +), introduced 
intentionally or unintentionally by man. Attention has 
been drawn to the many defective records, especially for 


278 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. Lxvu. 


certain counties, in the confident belief that many of these 
gaps will soon be filled. Probably materials exist in 
herbaria to add largely to what is on record. 

In a compilation like the present, errors as well as 
omissions are inevitable; but it is hoped that they will be 
pointed out and corrected, and that it may aid in stimu- 
lating the progress of inquiry. 

The south-east of Scotland was the earliest part of the 
country to receive investigation of its flora, Edinburgh 
being the centre where the study of botany began in 
Scotland. Sir Robert Sibbald’s “Scotia Illustrata,’ issued 
at Edinburgh in 1684, contains much information, though 
in a form unfamiliar to us, about the plants known to him, 
and he frequently mentions localities for plants, mostly in 
the valley of the Forth, besides giving a list of species “in 
septo regio Edinburgensi sponte nascentium.” Lightfoot’s 
“Flora Scotica,’ which appeared in 1778, and again in 
1789, gave a very great impulse to the study of the flora 
of Scotland. The information it contains on the basin of 
the Forth was derived mostly from Professor Hope, and 
from Mr. Yalden, who supplied a list of the plants found 
in the King’s Park, and from the herbarium made by Dr. 
Parsons (Professor of Anatomy in Oxford), while studying 
in Edinburgh. Comparatively few localities in the district 
are named by him. 

But a more important contribution to our knowledge of 
the flora of Edinburgh in the eighteenth century appeared 
only in 1900 in the “Annals of Scottish Natural History” 
in “A list of plants growing in the neighbourhood of Edin- 
burgh, collected in flower 1765 (1764-65), as a sketch of 
the Calendarium Flore of Edinburgh.” Of this, found 
among the papers left by Professor Hope, and bequeathed 
by his grandson, John Hope, W.S., in 1895, to the Royal 
Botanic Garden, a copy was communicated to me by 
Professor Balfour for publication. The records are not 
quite so restricted as the heading implies. 

Greville’s “ Flora Edinensis” (1824) is devoted to the 
“Flora of the environs of the Scottish Metropolis,” “to 
the distance of ten miles,” “with very few exceptions.” 
The localities are seldom quoted from the earlier records, 
but are mostly based on the field work of the author, 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 279 


and of Messrs. George Don, Patrick Neill, R. Maughan, 
and Walker Arnott as regards the vascular plants. 

In 1824 also, Mr. J. Woodfoorde published a small 
book, “ Indigenous Phzenogamic Plants . . . of Edinburgh.” 
Mr. H. C. Watson’s “ New Botanist’s Guide” (in Vol. IL, 
1837) enumerates some of the rarer plants, under the 
several counties. 

Field work by students of the University has been 
stimulated by the custom, begun by Professor Hope and 
continued by his successors, of giving a medal for the best 
herbarium collected within twenty miles of Edinburgh ; 
and weekly excursions during summer have long been a 
custom of the botanical classes. Much information has 
been accumulated by these means, as well as by the 
investigations of botanists resident in various localities, 
some of the results of which have appeared in various 
journals, including the Transactions of this Society. The 
“Flora of Edinburgh,” issued by Prof. J. H. Balfour and 
John Sadler (in 1863, 2nd Ed. in 1871), brought together 
much of the additional information ina handy form. Mr. H. 
C. Watson’s “ Topographical Botany,” issued privately to the 
author’s correspondents in 1875—74, stated the results (as 
known to him, and accepted by him as trustworthy in 
regard to indigenous and well-naturalised species) in 
tabular form under the several counties. A second edition 
of this work appeared in 1883, with many additions to 
lists from counties in other parts of Great Britain, but not 
many from the basin of the Forth. Mr. Watson had the 
advantage of the aid of Professors J. H. and I. B. Balfour, 
and of Dr. Boswell, who sent him catalogues of the plants 
known from the counties around Edinburgh on both sides 
of the Forth; and he also made use of a catalogue of the 
plants of Stirlingshire, published in 1875 by Mr. Croall. 

In 1894 appeared “ A Pocket Flora of Edinburgh and 
the surrounding District,’ by C. O. Sonntag. In the 
preface it is stated that “the localities given are taken 
partly from the late Professor Balfour’s catalogue, and 
partly from my own collection” (the latter, for rarer plants, 
being marked with an asterisk), and that the district of 
the flora measures “from thirty to forty miles in diameter.” 

Since 1886 onwards, Mr. Arthur Bennett has contri- 


280 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXVII. 


buted a list of additions to the county records of Scottish 
plants, compiled from the published notes of numerous 
botanists, English as well as Scotch; and among these 
additional records a good many relate to south-east 
Scotland. The flora of the county of Stirling has been 
very carefully investigated by Colonel Stirling and Mr. R. 
Kidston since the issue of the second edition of “ Topo- 
eraphical Botany,” and the additions discovered by them 
have been published in the “Transactions of the Stirling 
Natural History Society.” As part of the county is in the 
Clyde basin, some of the records from it may not refer 
to the Forth valley, but these are not many. 

The flora of Perthshire in the Forth basin (West Perth 
of “ Top. Botany”) is among the better known in Scotland, 
thanks to Dr. F. B. White’s “ Flora of Perthshire” (1898), 
and to subsequent papers on fubi by Rev. W. Moyle 
Rogers, and on fosa by Mr. W. Barclay. 

The basin of the Tweed has been the scene of much 
eareful work, and its flora in Scotland has been made 
known by J. V. Thompson’s “ Catalogue of Plants growing 
in the vicinity of Berwick-upon-Tweed” (1807), by Dr. 
George Johnston’s “Flora of Berwick-on-Tweed” (1829-31), 
and “Natural History of the Eastern Borders” (1893), 
and in the excellent publications of the Berwickshire 
Naturalists’ Club, and in other scientific journals, as well 
as in the works of H. C. Watson already referred to. 

In view of the length of time during which investigation 
of the flora of the basins of the Forth and the Tweed has 
been in progress, of the number of collections that have 
been made, especially around Edinburgh, of the high and 
well-deserved reputation of the botanists that have taken 
part in the work, and of the numerous published books 
and memoirs recording the results of their labours, it might 
well seem that there can be little remaining uninvestigated 
in either district, and that it is presumption in one that 
has done so little field work as I in south-east Scotland to 
criticise the labours of others. But the preparation of the 
census of Scottish plants made me aware of the gaps in the 
records for the several counties, and showed that it would 
not be possible to prepare a flora for any county in the 
country that could give a true and complete view of it at 


— a a 


Fes, 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 281 


the present time and could serve as a standard for compari- 
sons in future. The north-east counties have been among 
the less deficient, owing to the labours of local botanists 
from Forfar to Moray, and to the renown of Clova and 
Braemar as homes of alpine species. Yet in even this 
comparatively well-known district I have found it im- 
possible from published records to gain a true conception 
of the actual distribution of species. A few localities have 
been well explored, but from many parishes there is not a 
species on record, nor are there sufficient indications of 
relative abundance, of relations to man, and of other points 
that should be noted. My experience of the need, even 
in these counties, of widely extended field work with the 
new queries kept consistently in view, has shown me the 
value of such work, and the great need of it in all the 
Scottish counties, though necessarily in some far more than 
in others. One would hardly anticipate that in 1883, 
when the second edition of “Topographical Botany ” was 
published, Peebles should have been one of the two 
counties of Great Britain (out of 112 in all) from which 
few of the commonest plants could be certified. Though 
a good many additions have been made to the records for 
Peebles since then, it is still one of the most poorly 
represented of all the British counties. In the “ Flora 
of Edinburgh,” by Balfour and Sadler, and in that by 
Sonntag, “Linton” is occasionally given as a_ locality. 
I suppose this means West Linton in Peebles. “ Pentland 
Hills” are also not infrequent for species, some of which 
must certainly exist in Peebles; but without fuller in- 
formation this habitat does not allow of certainty as to 
the county to which it belongs. Selkirk is also less often 
noted in the lists than it certainly should be; and Rox- 
burgh is omitted at times when one would expect to find 
it included. Haddington and Linlithgow both show frequent 
gaps in the local records, in not a few cases these relating 
to species that can scarcely be absent from the counties. 
Edinburgh is one of the richest of all the counties of 
Scotland in number of species recorded from it, but its 
critical genera and species (¢.g. Ranunculus acris, Fumaria 
capreolata, age., Rubus, Rosa, Hieracium, Euphrasia) require 
revision. It is unlikely that many additions will be made 
TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXII. AI 


282 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sgss. vxvit. 
to the lists for Edinburgh, Fife and Kinross, Stirling, and 
West Perth and Clackmannan, yet even in these counties 
there is need of more thorough exploration, in view of the 
requirements specified above. No doubt much informa- 
tion would be obtained from a careful examination of the 
local collections in the Herbarium in the Royal Botanic 
Garden. 

In the hope of aiding in the investigation of the basins 
of the Forth and the Tweed, I have sought to prepare a 
list, showing what species that might be expected to occur 
in each county have not yet been reported from it, using 
H. C. Watson’s numerals for the counties (78 Peebles, 
79 Selkirk, 80 Roxburgh, 81 Berwick, 82 Haddington, 
83 Edinburgh, 84 Linlithgow, 85 Fife with Kinross (partly 
in the basin of the Tay), 86 Stirling (partly in the basin 
of the Clyde), 87 W. Perth with Clackmannan. I have 
in some cases enumerated those counties from which a 
plant is recorded; when a plant occurs in most counties IL 
have sought to draw attention to those from which it has 
not been recorded by the words, Not from, followed by their 
numbers in italics, “ Aliens” are denoted by + before the 
numbers, or after single numbers; (S.) denotes Sonntag as 
the authority ; (F.E.) denotes Balfour and Sadler’s “ Flora 
of Edinburgh.” 


DICOTYLEDONS. 


Clematis vitalba, L.—t in 82, 83, 85, 87. 

Thalictrum.—The aggregate, T. minus, L., is recorded from all the 
counties except Peebles, but the forms under it are not noted 
except dunense, Dum., in Haddington, Edinburgh, and Fife. 

—— majus, Crantz (as T. flexuosum), is recorded only from 85 (North 

Queensferry) and 87. 

flavum, L.—81. 83, 85. 

Anemone nemorosa, L.—In all. 

Ranunculus aquatilis, LAs an aggregate is recorded from all Scot- 
land, but the numerous forms have seldom been well wrought 
out. 

—— circinatus, Sibth.—83, 84 (S.), 85, 86, 87. 

— fluitans, Lam.—80, 81, 85 (F.E.), 86 (S.). 

trichophyllus, Chaix.—80, 82, 83, 85, 86. 

—— Drouettii, Godr.—79, 83. 

—— heterophyllus, Web.—Doubtfully recorded from 85 in “Top. Bot.” 

—— peltatus, Schrk.—78, 79, 80, 83, 85, 87; and var. floribundus, 83. 

— Baudotii, Godr.—80(?), 81(?), 82, 83, 84, all from ‘‘ Top. Bot.,” 
along with var. confusus, Godr. 


_ 


» 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 283 


Ranunculus Lenormandi, F. Scb.—Is recorded by Sonntag from 83, 
84, 85, 87. 
— hederaceus.—From all. 
sceleratus, L.—Recorded from all except 79 (if ‘‘ Linton” in 
F.E. refers to Peeblesshire). 
— Flammula, L.—From all. Var. radicans, Nolte., is no doubt 
common, though recorded only from 86. 
—— reptans, L.—85, by a few lochs, especially Loch Leven. 
—— Lingua, L.—Not from 78 and 82. 
—— auricomus, L.—WNot from 78 and 84. 
— acris. L.—From all, but the forms not distinguished. 
—— repens, L.—Common in all. 
— bulbosus, L.—Not from 84. 
—— sardous, Crantz.—Is this perhaps alien, though frequent? It is 
recorded from 80. 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87. 
— arvensis, L.—81, 82, 83, 84. Is this more than an alien ? 
— Ficaria, L.—In all. Var. incumbens, F. Sch., must occur, though 
not on record south of Perth. 
Caltha palustris, L.—In all. Var. minor, Syme, Pentland Hills (in 
which county ?), 86, 87. 
Trollius europeeus, L.—Not from 82. 
Helleborus viridis, L.—An escape or casual in 81, 82, 83, 85. 
foetidus, L.—As escape or casual in 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86. 
Eranthis hyemalis, I,.—Woods and pastures in 83 and 87; introduced. 
Aquilegia vulgaris, L.—A denizen or casual in 79, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87. 
Aconitum Napellus, L.—A frequent introduction, by streams in 81, 85 
85, 86. 
Acteea spicata, L.—A rare alien, in 83. 
Berberis vulgaris, L.—Recorded from every county, but no doubt an 
alien, 
Epimedium alpinum, L.—Introduced into woods in 83, 85, 87. 
Nymphea lutea, L.—Not from 78, 84. Var. intermedia, Ledeb., has 
been found in 86. 
pumila, Hoffm.—On record from 86, 87. 
Castalia speciosa, Salisb.—79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87. Possibly in- 
troduced into some places. 
Papaver.—It may be questioned if any of the species is more than a 
colonist, while several are mere casuals, e.g. P. somniferum, L., 
in 82, 83, 85, 86, 87. 
—— Rheeas, L.—Not Srom 79 (78(?) at Linton). Var. strigosum, 
Boenn., 87. 
— dubium, L.—In all. 
— Argemone, L.—Not from 78, 79. 
(P. hybridum, L.—Recorded in F.E., as in Hb. Grev., from 83, 
was probably only a casual. ih 
Meconopsis cambrica, Vig.—ft in 82, 83, 85, 86, 87. 
Glaucium flavum, Crantz. Recorded from 81, 82, 84, 85, is apparently 
on the way to extinction 
Chelidonium majus, L.—A frequent introduction in all the counties, 
almost a denizen occasionally. 
Neckeria bulbosa, N.E. Br.—f in 82; and N. lutea, Scop., f in 83, 
85, 86. 
claviculata, N.E. Br.—Not from 78, 79, 82. 
Fumaria capreolata, L.—The aggregate is recorded from all except 78, 
but the forms under that aggregate are much in need of revision. 
The following records are found, but cannot be accepted as 
authoritative :—pallidiflora, 79, 80; Borzei, 80, 81, 82, 85, 86, 87; 
confusa, 85, 86, 87; muralis, 86. 


284 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxvu. 


79, 81, 86, 87. The species of Fumaria in 
— officinalis, L.—In all. Scotland can scarcely 
— Vaillantii, Lois.—83. | be regarded as other 


Fumaria densiflora, DC.—Not from 75, 


—— parviflora, Lam.—80}, 82, 83 (?), than colonists. 
85 (?), 86, 87. 
Cheiranthus Cheiri, L.—On old ruins, and occasionally on rocks; t¢ 82, 
83, 85. 
Nasturtium officinale, R. Br.—In all. 
— sylvestre, R. Br.—81, 88, 85, 86, 87. In which counties is this 
native beyond question ? 
—— palustre, DC.—Not from 79. 
amphibium, R. Br. (as Armoracia amphibia, Koch.).—In F.E., 
from 85 and 85, but requires confirmation. 
Barbarea vulgaris, R. Br.—In all. 
stricta, Andrz. —f, 86. 
Arabis Turrita, L.—f. Does this still occur on any ruins in the 
counties ? 
—— hirsuta, Scop.—In all. 
perfoliata, Lam.—80 and 87. ‘‘ Doubtfully native,” ‘‘ Top. Bot.” 
Cardamine amara, L —WNot from 78, 82, 84. 
—— pratensis, L.—In all. 
— hirsuta, L.—In all. 
—— flexuosa, With.—Not from 84. 
impatiens, L.—‘t Debris of Salisbury Crags,” but not native. 
Alyssum calycinum, L.—Denizen or casual in 82, 83, 85 (S.) 
maritimum, L.—Casual in 85 (8.) 
Draba muralis, L.—Recorded (as a doubtful native, or t, or casual) 
from 80, 83, 85, 86, 87. 
———— nena, eve 
Erophila przecox, DC.—85. 
( inflata, Hook. fil.—May be found, as it occurs in Perthshire.) 
vulgaris, DC.—In all. 
Cochlearia officinalis, L.—From all the counties, but 79 + and 80 (?). 
alpina, H. C. Watson.—78, 80, 86, 87. 
— danica, L.—81 (?), 83, 85, 87. 
anglica, L.—83 (8.), 85 (8.). 
greenlandica, L.—Should be looked for in short turf on bare, 
rocky coasts.) 
Armoracia, L.—83, 85, 87. Escape or outcast. 
Hesperis matronalis, L.—Escape or outeast, 83, 87. 
Sisymbrium Thalianum, J. Gay.—In all. 
officinale, L.—In all, but is it always clearly native? The 
var. leiocarpum, DC., should be looked for. 
—— Sophia, L.—80 +, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 
polyceratium, L.—+, 83. 
——— pannonicum, Jacq.—Casual in 86; may be expected elsewhere. 
Alliaria, Scop.—In every district. In north-east Scotland it is a 
very donbtful native, 
Erysimum cheiranthoides, L.—A not uncommon casual, 80, 81, 
84, 85. 
— orientale, R. Br.—Casual in 86. 
Camelina sativa, Crantz.—Casual in 87; and var. foetida, Fr., casual 
in 85. 
Subularia aquatica, L —85 (?), 86 (S.), 87. 
Brassica,—The cultivated species (cabbage, turnips, rape, black mustard) 
have all been recorded more or less frequently from some of 
the counties, but they are mere casuals. 


( 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 285 


Brassica alba, Boiss.—Recorded from all except 78 (usually without 
intimation of not being native); can scarcely be regarded as 
even a colonist. 

—— Sinapistrum, Boiss.—Is a colonist in every county. 

monensis, Huds.—82 (?), ‘“‘Top. Bot.”; not in Floras of 

Edinburgh. 

Diplotaxis tenuifolia, DC.—Given as a doubtful native in 81, 85; there 
can be no doubt is f there, as well as in 86. 

—— muralis, DC.—80(?), 82(?)t, 85t, 86(?), 87 t. The claim of this 
to be considered native anywhere in the district is very 
questionable. 

Bursa Bursa-pastoris, Weber.—In all. Is not this at most only a 
denizen in Scotland? 

Coronopus didymus, Sm.—f in 85, 86, 87. 

Ruellii, All.—Not from 78, 79, 84. Only casual in 87. Its 

distribution suggests doubt of its being native in Scotland. 

Lepidium latifolium, L.—Recorded from 80, 81, 82, 85 as a doubtful 

native, but no doubt f. 

ruderale, L.—f little more than a casual in 80, 83, 85, 86, 87. 

campestre, R. Br.—Not from 78, 79, 80. 

hirtum, Sm.—WNot from 78. 

sativum, L.—As a casual in 83 and 85. 

Draba, L.—<As a casual in 85. 


HT | 


Thlaspi arvense, L.— Not from 86. ee colonist only. 
Iberis amara, L.—f in 79, 80, 81, 83, 85, 87; but seldom more than a 
casual. 


Teesdalia nudicaulis, R. Br.—Not from 82, 84, 86, 87, but should be 
found in one or more. 

Isatis tinctoria, L.—A casual, 82. 83. 

Crambe maritima, L.—81, 84, 85, on sandy seashores. 

Raphanus Raphanistrum, L.—<A colonist. Not from 86. 

maritimus, Sm.—‘‘ Seacoast, near Elie”; F.E. 

Reseda lutea, L.—Given (usually without query as to its being native) 
from 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, but fF 

———iaheola U.N ot from 78. Elsewhere given as native, but its 
claim to be so seems to require investigation. 

—— alba, L.—A casual on sandy soil, in 85, 84, 85, 86 (S.). 

Helianthemum Chamecistus, Miller.—WNot from 84. 

Viola palustris, L.—In all. 

odorata, L.—Is reported from 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87, often as 

if native, but no doubt f. 

. 0, 81, 82, 83, 85. 

Riviniana, Reichb (V. sylvatica, Fr.).—In all. 

silvestris, Reichb.—84. 

ericetorum, Schrader.—Not from 79, 80, 81. 

lactea, Sm.—78 (?). 

tricolor, L.—In all. 

arvensis, Murray.—No doubt in all, though not specially recorded 

from some counties. 

(—— Curtisii, Forster.—Has not been detected in the district, but 
should be found on sandy coasts. ) 

Polygala vulgaris, L.—The aggregate is reported from all except 79 ; 
but the segregate only from 86 (Ewing), and P. serpyllacea, 
Weihe, only from 78, 81, 82 (S8.), 83, 85, 86, 87. 

Dianthus Armeria, L.—f, 80 (?), 85, 85 (?). 

barbatus, L.—f, 83. 

— deltoides, L.—Not from 79, 80, 86. Var. glaucus, L., 83. 

—— cesius, Sm.—t, 85. 


Rune 


286 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxvm. 


Dianthus Caryophyllus, L.—f, (Inchcolm) 85. 

Saponaria officinalis, L.—f, 83, 84, 85, 87. 

Silene Cucubalus, Wibel.—In all; but var. puberula, Syme, only 
from 82, though no doubt in other counties also. 

—— maritima, With.—WNot from 78, 79, 80, 86. 

—— Armeria, L.—Casual in 85, 84. 

— conica, L.—82, 83 (S8.). 

—— anglica, L.—80f, 82, 83, 85, 86+. A doubtful native. 

—— quinquevulnera, L.—Casual in 83. 

— acaulis, L.—On high hills in 86, 87. 

— nutans, L.—Very local in 85. 

——. italica, Pers.—f, 83. 

—— noctiflora, L.—80, 81 (?), 82, 83 (?), 85, 86, 87+. A colonist in 
some of its habitats. 

Lychnis alba, Miller.— Not from 80. 

—— dioica, lL.—In all. 

-—— Flos-cuculi, L.—In all. 

—— Viscaria, L.—80, 83, 85, 86, 87. 

——— Githago, Scop.—Not from 78, 79. This, in Scotland, so far as I 
have seen, is barely a colonist. 

Cerastium tetrandrum, Curtis, and C. semi-decandrum, L..—Not from 
TogUs). - 

—— glomeratum, Thuill.—In all. The var, apetalum, Dum., though 
not recorded is probably not rare. 

— triviale, Link.—In all. The varieties have not been distinguished 

within the district. 

—— alpinum, [..—86, 87, on hills. 

arvense, L.—WNot from 78, 84. 

Stellaria aquatica, Scop.—80 (?), 86. 

nemorum, L.—WNot from 78, 82, 84. 

—— media, L.—In all. The varieties have not been wrought out for 
Forth or Tweed. 

—— umbrosa, Opiz.—85. 

—— Holostea, L.—In all. 

—— palustris, Retz.—Not for 78, 79, 82(?), 84. 

— graminea, L.—In all. : 

uliginosa, Murr.—In all. 

Arenaria verna, L.—81, 83, 85 (S.). 

tenuifolia, L.—Has been recorded from 83, 84 (S.), 85, 86 (8.). 

trinervia, L.—WNot from 78. 

—— serpyllifolia, L.—The aggregate is recorded from all the counties, 
but of the varieties, only leptoclados, Guss., from 87. 

Sagina apetala.—The aggregate from all except 78, 79. The segregate 
from 81, 82, 85, 86, 87. 

—— maritima, Don.—82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87. No variety has been 
recorded from Forth or Tweed. 

— ciliata, Fr.—80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87. (F-.E. does not give 
this for 83.) 

—— procumbens, L.—In all. 

—— subulata, Pres]l.—WNot from 78, 79, 80, 82. 

nodosa, Fenz].—Not from 78. 

Spergula arvensis, L.—The aggregate from all counties (a colonist), 
but the forms not distinguished, though, no doubt, sativa, 
eee is that meant; var. vulgaris, Boenn., should be looked 
or. 

Buda rubra, Dum.—Not from 78, 79. 

marina.—The aggregate from 81, 82, 83, 85, 87. Var. neglecta, 

Kindb., 81, 85, 86, 87. 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 287 


Buda media, Dum.—85, 86 (S.). 
Polycarpon tetraphyllum, L.—80 (?), casual in 86. 

(Claytonia sibirica, L., and C. perfoliata, Donn. may be looked 
for as semi-naturalised in damp woods, often looking much 
like natives). 

Montia fontana, L.—Not from 79, 82. The forms have not been 
recorded from Forth or Tweed. 
Elatine hexandra, DC.—86, 87. 
Hypericum Androsemum, L.—Woods in 80, 81, 83; 85, 86, 87; Ff, 
though not always so recorded. 
-—— calycinum, L.—t in 82, 85, 87. 
—— quadrangulum, L.—The aggregate from all. 
— dubium, Leers.—78, 79, 81, 84, 
85 (?), 86, 87, It would be well to have these 
— quadratum, Stokes.— Not from revised and confirmed. 
78 and S84. 
— humifusum, L.—WNot from 78 and 84. 
— pulchrum, L.—In all. 
—— hirsutum, L.— Not from 84. 
— elodes, L.—Sonntag gives this for 85 and 86. 
Althea officinalis, L —f, 86 (?) 
Lavatera arbosea, L.—82, Bass, and 85, Elie; very doubtfully native. 
Malva moschata, L.—Not from 78, 79, 84. 
sylvestris, L.—Not from 78, 79. 
rotundifolia, L.—Not from 79, 84. 
Thé claim of these mallows to be ranked as natives is at least 
doubtful. In the ‘‘Flora of Perthshire” they are regarded 
as + or as mere casuals. 
Tilia. Of this genus, the numerous trees do not often seem to spring 
from self-sown plants, most having been evidently planted. 
—— platyphyllos, Scop., T. europea, Hayne, and T. cordata, Miller, 
all ‘occur as ornamental trees in the district. 
Radiola linoides, Roth.—80, 81, 82 (S.), 83 (S.), 85, 86, 87. 
Linum catharticum, L.—Not from 78. 
perenne, J..—83, a casual. 
—— usitatissimum, L.—Relic of cultivation, or casual in 82, 85, 84, 
85, 86, 87. 
Geranium sanguineum, L.—WNot from 78, 79, 84, 57. 
nodosum. I..—?+ in 85, 84. 
pheum, L.—t in 82, 83, 84, 85, 87. 
sylvaticum, L.—In all. 
pratense, L.—In all. 
pyrenaicum, Burm. f.—80, 83, 85. Is this truly native ? 
molle, L.—In all. 
pusillum, L.—80, 81, 82, 83, 84 (S.), 85, 86, 87 cas. Near 
Aberdeen I have never found this, though it has been recorded 
from there. Are all the above figures trustw orthy % ? 
rotundifolinm, L.—(?) + in 82 83, ‘Top. Bot.”; not in F.E. 
dissectum, L.—In all. 
columbinum, L.—80, 82 (S.), 83, 85, 86. 
lucidum, L. - Not from 78,79. Is it not sometimes an escape, or 
planted? 
Robertianum, L.—In all. 
Erodium cicutarium, L’Herit.— Not from 78, 79. 
—— moschatum, L’Herit.— Casual. 
Oxalis Acetosella, L.—In all. 
corniculata, L.—A weed, +, in gardens, near Aberdeen, may be 
looked for.) 


—~ 


288 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. xvii. 


Impatiens Noli-tangere, LL.—t in 80, 83, 84 (8), 87, casual. 

lex Aquifolium, L.—Not in 78. 

Kuonymus europeus, L.—80, 81, 83 (84, 85) (?) t, 86t. Is this native 
in the district ? 

Rhamnus Frangula, L.—t in 86, and no doubt in other counties also. 

Acer Pseudoplatanus, L.—f, and very often self-sown thereafter, 
probably in all the counties. 

(—— platanoides, L.—No doubt commonly planted, though not 
recorded. ) 

——- campestre, L.—Recorded from 78, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 
often with no indication of alien origin, yet a doubtful native 
anywhere in Scotland. 

Genista anglica, L.—WNot from 84. 

tinctoria, L.—78 (8.), 80, 81, 83 (?), 84, 85 (?). 

Ulex europeeus, L.—In all. 

Gallii, Planch.—Pentland Hills (Sonntag, (? 78 or 85), 80, 86(S.), 

87 (8.) 

— nanus, Forst.—Very doubtfully in 81, 83, 85. 

Cytisus scoparius, Link.—In all. 

Laburnum alpinum, J. 8S. Presl., and L. vulgare, J. 8. Presl., are 
frequent in all districts in shrubberies, and often spring up from 
the seed of the introduced plants, so as to appear at times 
almost wild. 

Ononis repens, L.—In all. 

spinosa, L.—81, 82, 83, 85 (?), 86, 87 (S.). Owing to the con- 

fusion between O. spinosa and var. horrida of O. repens, L., 
these records should be revised. 

Trigonella purpurascens, Lam,—83, 85. 

Medicago sativa, L.—f, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87. 

falcata, L.—86, casual. 

lupulina, L.—In all. 

denticulata, Willd.—f, 78, 80, 85, 86. Merely a casual usually. 

arabica, Huds. (M. maculata, Sibth )—t in 78, 80, 83, 84 (S.), 

85, 86, 87, as a casual usually. 

Melilotus officinalis, Lam.—Not from 78, 79, 84. From 81, 82, 83, 
given as if native; from 80, 85, 86 as probably +; and from 87 
ast. A doubtful native. 

— alba, Desr.—Not from 78, 79, 84. From all the remaining 
counties as t, or probably so. 

—— arvensis, Wallr.—85, 86, casual. (A common casual near Aber- 

deen.) 

indica, All —t, 86, casual. 

Trifolium pratense, L.—In all. 

medium, L.—In all. 

squamosum, L.—Casual in 86. 

incarnatum, L.—A relic of, or casual from, cultivation. 82, 85, 84. 

arvense, L.—WNot from 84. 

striatum, L.—Not from 78, 79. 

scabrum, L.—82, 83, 85. 

hybridum, L.—Generally cultivated and casual. Not 79, 80, 81. 

repens, L.—In all. 
fragiferum, L.—Given in ‘‘ Top. Bot.” for 81, 82, 83, 85 (not in 
F.E. for 83, 85). 

agrarium, L.—86+. ‘‘Common in pastures and roadsides” 
(Sonntag), but apparently in error for true T. procumbens, L.; 
the latter name apparently applied to T. dubium, Sibth., which 
he does not mention, though it may be included under his 
T. filiforme, L. 


|| | 


Pee ae ala 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 289 


Trifolium procumbens, L.—Not from 7S. 
dubium, Sibth.—In all, usually under the name of T. minus, Sm. 
—— filiforme, L.—80, 82, 83, 84, 85. These records should be 
verified. 
Anthyllis Vulneraria, L.—Not from 78. 
Lotus corniculatus, L.—In all. 
tenuis, Waldst. and Kit.—80 f, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87 (?). Should 
be verified. 
uliginosus, Schkuhr.—In all. 
Astragalus danicus, Retz.—Not in 78, 79, 80, 86. 
glycyphyllus, L.— Not in 78, 79. 
Oxytropis uralensis, DC.—85, 87 (?). 
Ornithopus perpusillus, L— 83, 85, 86, 87 
Onobrychis vicizfolia, Scop.—82, 83, 84 (S.), 85 (?). Not noted as f, 
yet probably so. 
Vicia hirsuta, Gray.—In all. 
gemella, Crantz.—80, 85, 85 +, 86 casual, 87 (?) +. Probably 
not native. 
Craeca, L.—In all. 
Orobus, DC.—WNot from 79, 82, 86 (8.), 87. 
sylvatica, L,—Not from 84. 
sepium, L.—In all. 
lutea, L.—83 (‘* Top. Bot.,” not in F.E.), 84 (S.), 85, 86 (S.). 
sativa, L.—Frequent casual, or escape from cultivation. 
angustifolia, L.—Not from 78, 79, 81 (?). 
lathyroides, L.—Not from 78, 79, 84, 87. 
Lathyrus Aphaca, L.—Casual in 83. 
pratensis, L.—In all. 
latifolius, L.—-t in 83. 
sylvestris, L.—81, 85, 87, probably escapes. 
montanus, Bernh.—In all. Var. tenuifolius, Reichb. f. Recorded 
from 83. 
Prunus spinosa, L.—In all. 
insititia, Huds.—80, 81, 85, 85, probably t in all. 
domestica, L.—t in 83, 85 (S.), 86. 
— Avium, L.—WNot in 84. 
—— Cerasus, L.—t+ 83, 87. 
Padus) 5:——In all. 
Spirea salicifolia, L—aA frequent ornamental shrub, t+ in 83, 85, 
86, 87. 
— Ulmaria, L.—In all. 
Filipendula, L.—81, 83, 85, 87 (S.), probably t. 
Rubus ideus, L.—In all. Var. obtusifolius, Willd., 85, 86; var. 
asperrimus, Lees, 87. 

The ‘“ Brambles” of the Forth and Tweed valleys have been 
investigated by the Rev. W. Moyle Rogers in West Perth, and 
(less fully) in 81, 84, and 86, but the lists for the other counties 
are in want of thorough revision. That being so, and the 
distribution of these plants throughout having been fully dis- 
cussed in the recent numbers of the ‘* Annals of Scottish 
Natural History,” I sball not take up space by repeating the 
list here. 

saxatilis, L.—Not from 82, 84. 

— Chamemorus, L.—WNot from 81, 82, 84, 85. 

Geum urbanum, L.—In all. 

rivale, L.—In all. 

——- rivale x urbanum (=G. intermedium, Ehrh.).—WNot from 78, 84. 
Fragaria vesea, L.—In all. 


ee ihek: 


a 


290 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxvil. 


Fragaria elatior, Ehrh.—Recorded as an escape in 82, 83, 85. Other 
cultivated forms may also be among those occasionally found on 
waste ground and by roads. 

Potentilla norvegica, L.—86, casual. 

recta, L.—82 and 85, casual. 

— verna, L.—81, 82, 83, 85 (S.). 

—— silvestris, Neck. (P. Tormentilla, 5S Scop. ).—In all. 

i procumbens, Sibth.— Not from 78, 79, 82, 84. 

—— reptans, L.—WNot from 84. 

— Anserina, L.—In all. 


rupestris, L.—83 (?). 

argentea, L.—Not from 78, 79, 86. 

fruticosa, L.—+ in 88, 85, 87 (S.). 

palustris, Scop.—Not from 78. 

Sibbaldi, Hall. f—78, 86, 87, on high hills. 

Alchemilla arvensis, L. —In all. 

—— vulgaris, L.—From all the counties, but the varieties recorded 
only from—pratensis, Schmidt, 83, 86; alpestris, Schmidt, 86 ; 
filicaulis, Buser, 86. 

alpina, L..—86, 87, on hills. 

( argentea, Lam.— Probably may be found as an outcast or escape.) 

Agrimonia Eupatoria, L.—Not from 84. 

odorata, Miller.—86. 

(Aremonia agrimonioides, DC.—Occurs as an escape or outcast in various 

parts of Scotland, ‘and probably here also.) 

Poterium Sanguisorba, L.—80, 81. 82 +, 85 +. 

officinale, Hook. £79) 80, 81. 

Rosa.—In this genus, as among the Brambles, there is much need of a 

careful and thorough revision of the records and herbaria, in 
light of the conclusions arrived at in recent years. Mr. W. 
Barclay has lately done much by papers and personal field work 
to remove the difficulties that beset the study of the Roses of 
Scotland. It appears scarcely worth while to enumerate the 
older determinations of the varieties under R. canina and others, 
both species and varieties being accepted now in widely different 
significance in a good many cases. 

—— pimpinellifolia, Ib “f. , Spinosissima, L.—In all. 

—— involuta, L._(Now regarded as made up.of hybrids) 79, 81, 82, 
83, 84. Var. Sabini, Woods. 81, 82, 83, 84. 

mollis, Sm.—Not from 82, 84. 

tomentosa, Sm.—In all. 

rubiginosa, L.—Not from 78, 79, 80. Generally regarded as a 
doubtful native in Scotland, though often its habitats look much 
like those of a truly native species. 

eanina, L., R. glauca, Vill., and R. coriifolia, Fr., have not been 
distinguished in the past in this part of Scotland, hence the 
records are not trustworthy. 

arvensis, Huds.—+ (?) in 82, 85, 86. 

sempervirens, |.., and R. alpina, L., have been recorded from 84, 
but had been planted, or were escaped. 

Pyrus Aria, L.—81, 83, 85, 86, probably +, though not always marked 
so. No doubt in the other counties also. 

intermedia, Ehrh.—* in 85, 87. 

Aucuparia, Hhrh.—WNot from 84. 

communis, 1..—83, 84, no doubt +t. 

Malus, L.—78, 80, 81 (?) t, 83, 84, 86 +, 87. Probably + in some 
at least of these, and requiring revision, the forms under the 
species not being distinguished. 


eal. 


lsat 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 291 


Crategus Oxyacantha, L.—From every county, yet a doubtful native. 
The varieties have not been distinguished in the records, except 
monogyna, Jacq., from 87. 
Saxifraga oppositifolia, L.——Pentland Hills (? which county), 86, 87. 
stellaris, L.—78, 79, 85, 86, 87. 
— Geum, L.—Outeast or casual in 83, 85. 
—— umbrosa, L.—t in.82, 83, 85, 86, 87. 
—— Hirculus, L.—81, 87 +t. Is not the ‘‘Source of the Medwyn, 
Pentland Hills, eighteen miles south-west of Edinburgh” in 78? 
‘Top. Bot.” omits 78, but gives 83. 
—— aizoides, L.—86, 87. 
—— tridactylites, L.—79, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87. 
—— granulata, L.—In all. 
—— hirta, Haw.—86, 87. 
—— hypnoides, L.—78, 83, 85, 86, 87. 
Chrysosplenium oppositifolium, 1.—In all. 
alternifolium, L.—Not from 84. 
Parnassia palustris, L.— Not from 78. 
Ribes Grossularia, L.—Recorded as ‘doubtful native” from 78, 83, 85, 
86, 87. No doubt in every county, but only as a denizen or 
casual. 
—— alpinum, L.—‘‘ Probably introduced.” 80, 81, 83, 84. 86, 87. 
I have not seen this as a native in Scotland. 

rubrum, l..—‘‘ Probably introduced.” 83,86, 87+. The varieties 
have not been recorded except for 87, whence sativum and 
petrzeum are given as f. 

—— nigrum, L.—‘‘ Probably introduced.” 83, 85, 87 f. 

Cotyledon Umbilicus, L.—87. (Escape or planted ?). 

Sedum roseum, Scop.—Pentland Hills. (which county?). 81, 83, 85, 
86, 87. 

—— Telephium, L.—Not from 78, 84. Marked f from 85, 86, 87, but 
not from the other counties, yet its claim to be reckoned native 
in Scotland is very doubtful. The var. Fabaria, H. C. Watson, 
is named from 79 and 87 ft. 

—— villosum, L.—Not from 82. 

—— album, L.—f in 82, 84 (S.), 85 (S.), 85. 

—-- dasyphyllum, L.—f in 82, 83, 85 (¢?), 87. 

—— anglicum, Huds.—82 (S8.), 85, 86, 87. 

-— acre, L.—Not from 79. 

—— reflexum, L.—f, in 82, 83, 85, 86, 87. 

—— rupestre, L.—f 86. 

Sempervivum tectorum, L.—f in 82, 83, 85. 

Drosera rotundifolia, L.— Not from 84. 

anglica, Huds.—81 (extinct ?), 84, 85, 86, 87. 

—— intermedia, Hayne.—85 (?) in ‘‘ Top. Bot.” 

Hippuris vulgaris, L.—Not from 78, 84. 

Myriophyllum spicatum, L.—Not from 79, 81, 82. 

alterniflorum, DC.—Noet from 79, 82. 

Callitriche stagnalis, Scop.—Not from 84. 

hamulata, Kuetz.—83, 86, 87. 

—— autumnalis, L.—80, 82 (S.), 85, 85, 86, 87. 

Peplis Portula, L.—79, 81, 83, 85, 86, 87. 

Lythrum Salicaria, L.—79, 80, 81, 82, 83 (S.), 85+, 86, 87. 

Epilobium angustifolium, L.—Not from 78. With + in 85. 

hirsutum, L.—Not from 7 

parviflorum, L.—Not from 78, 84. 

—— roseum, Schreb.—82 (8.), 83, 85 (?), 86. 

—— tetragonum, L.—This aggregate is not reported from 84. 


292 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. txvit. 


Epilobium adnatum, Griseb.—83 (?), 87 (?). 

—— obscurum, Schreb.—WNot from 81, 82, 84. 

alsinefolium, Vill.—80, 85, 87. 

—— anagallidifolium, Lam.—85, 86, 87. 

Several hybrids of this genus have been found in 86 by 
Messrs. Stirling and Kidston. 

(inothera biennis, L.—t or casual in 83, 84, 85, 87. 

Circeea lutetiana, L.—Not in 78, 84. 

alpina, L.—Has been recorded from 82, 83, 85, 86, 87. 

—— intermedia, Ehrh.—79, 81, 83, 86. Owing to the two last forms 
being seldom distinguished clearly in local lists, the records for 
them are very uncertain. 

Hydrocotyle vulgaris, L.—Not from 78 (?) and 80. 

Eryngium maritimum, L.—Recorded from 82, 83, 85, 87. Does it still 
exist in these ? 

Astrantia major, L.—An occasional outcast or planted, 84, 86. 

Sanicula europa, L.—Not from 78. 

Conium maculatum, L.—Not from 78(?). Is this certainly native in 
Forth or in Tweed ? 

Smyrnium Olusatrum, L.—81, 82, 83, 85, 86 (escape), 87. The 
evidence for this being native in Scotland requires confirmation. 

Apium graveolens, L.—Escape or casual in 83, 85, 87. 

nodiflorum, Reichb. f.—80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85. Var. repens, 

Hook f., 82, 83. 

inundatum, Reichb. f.—Not from 78, 79, 84. 

Cicuta virosa, L.—Not from 78, 82, 84. 

Carum Petroselinum, L.—An escape or casual, 78, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87. 

Carui, L.—Escape ort near houses in 83, 84, 85, 86, 87. 

Sison Amomum, L.—81, casual. 

Falcaria vulgaris, Bernh.—87, casual. 

Sium latifolium, L.—82 (? ‘‘ Top. Bot.”), 84 (S.), 85 (?), 86. 

erectum, Huds.— Not from 78, 79, 84, 86. 

Aigopodium Podagraria, L.—In every district. In north-east Scotland 
its distribution is very suggestive of its introduction by man, 
though now often abundant and apparently native. 

Pimpinella major, Huds.—80+, 83, 84 (8.), 85 (?), 86 (S.), 87 Tf. 

Requires revision. 

Saxifraga, L.—In all. 

Conopodium denudatum, Koch.—In all. 

Myrrhis Odorata, Scop.—Often abundant by streams, but appears to be 
a relic of early cultivation. 

Cheerophyllum temulum, L.—In all. 

aureum, L.—83 (8.), 86 (S.) ; can be only a casual. 

Scandix Pecten-Veneris, L.—Not from 78, 79, 87. Is it more than a 
colonist ? 

Anthriscus vulgaris, L.—Not from ‘78 (?), 79, and witht in 80. Is it 
native ? 

——- sylvestris, Hoffm.—Not from 80. 

Cerefolium, £,.—Outcast or casual in 85. 

Fceniculum vulgare, L.—Casual, 85. 

Crithmum maritimum, L.—‘‘ Said to grow on islands in the Firth of 
Forth, but not now to be found,” Greville, in “Fl. Edin.” 
(1824). 

- Hinanthe fistulosa, L.—81, 85 (?) (not in F.E.). 

pimpinelloides, L.—87 t¢ (?). 

—— lLachenalii, C. Gmel.—82. 

—— Crocata, L.—Not from 78, 79. 

—— Phellandrium, L.—81, 82, 83. 


Oo 


Fes. 1903.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 29 


ABthusa Cynapium, L.—Not from 84. Only a colonist. 

Silaus flavescens, Bernh.—80, 81, 82, 83, 88. 

Meum Athamanticum, Jacq.— Not from 79, 81, and with + from 82. 

Ligusticum scoticum, L.—81, 82, 83, 85, 

Angelica sylvestris, L.—In all. 

Archangelica officinalis, Hoffm.—85 +, 87 +. 

Peucedanum palustre, Mceuch.—83, probably in error. 

sativum, Benth. and Hook. f.—Casual in 85, 86, 87. 

—— Ostruthium, L.—83 (S.), 85, 86, 87. No doubt? in all, though 
not so marked in 83, 85. 

Heracleum Sphondylium, L.—In all. 

Coriandrum sativum, L.—Casual, 83. 

Daucus Carota, L.—Not from 78. 

gummifer, Lam.—80 7 (?). 

Caucalis arvensis, Huds.—83 (‘‘Canonmills; not now to be found.” 

F.E., ? casual). 86 (S.), casual, 

Anthriscus, Huds.—In all. 

nodosa, Scop.—80, 81, 83, 85. 

Cornus sanguinea, L.— Not from 78,79, 87. Only as an introduced shrub. 

Adoxa Moschatellina, L.—Not from 78, 84, and doubtfully from 85. 

Sambucus nigra, L.—From all the counties, usually without query as 

native, yet very doubtful as such. Var. laciniata, L.. where 

planted. 

racemosa, L.—Often planted, and sometimes apt to spread. 

— Ebulus, L.—80, 81, 83, 84 (S.), 85, 86, usually given as native, 
but requires scrutiny as such. 

Viburnum Opulus, L.—Not from 78, 79, 84. So frequently planted | 
and easily dispersed that its being native is very doubtful. 

—— Lantana, L.—81, 83, 85,86. Almost certainly +. 

Symphoricarpus racemosus, Michx.—Frequently introduced in shrub- 
beries, and often looking almost naturalised. 

Linnea borealis, L.—81, 83. 

Lonicera Caprifolium, L.—Given as native in 83, 84, and from 
‘* Linton” (? which), 85 (?), but certainly t. 

—— Xylosteum, L.—? 82, 83. 

alpina, L.—?7 Slateford. 

Periclymenum, L.—In all. 

Galium boreale, L.— Not from 78, 79, 82, 83, 84. 

Cruciata, L.—In all. 

—— verum, L.—In all. 

—— erectum, Huds.—83 (?), 86. 

— Mollugo, L.—Not from 78, 79, 85. 

=—— saxatile, .—In_all. 

—— sylvestre, Poll.—78, 80, 85, 86, 87. 

—— palustre, L.—The varieties require to be looked for in Forth and 
Tweed. 

—— uliginosum, L.—Not from 82, 84. 

—— anglicum, Huds., has been recorded from 80, and G. Vaillantii, 
DC., from 83, but in error. or perhaps as casuals. The genus 
should receive attention in the district. 

—— Aparine, L.—In all. 

Asperula odorata, L.— Not from 78. 

taurina, L.—?+ in 79, 81, 83, 85. 

Sherardia arvensis, L.—In ail. 

Valeriana dioica, L.—Not from 87. 

—— officinalis, L.—Al]l] the counties. Probably these records refer to 
sambucifolia, Willd., but it is not named, Mikanii, Syme, is 
named only for 86, in Ewing's ‘‘ Glasgow Catalogue.” 


294 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. rxvu. 


Valeriana pyrenaica, L.—Not rare as an introduction, 82, 83, 84, 89, 
86, 87. 
Centranthus ruber, DC.—Called “‘ doubtful native,” in 82, 83, 84 (8.), 
85, and ¢ in 87. No doubt f. 
Valerianella olitoria, Poll.—Not from 79 
—— eriocarpa, Desv.—84 (8.), 85. 
rimosa, Bast.—85 (? colonist). 
— dentata, Poll.—WNot from 78, 79, 84, 86. 
Dipsacus sylvestris, Huds.—Pentland Hills (? which county), 81 , 
83, 85, 86+, 87(?). Is it not + in all? 
pilosus, L.—f in 83, 85. 
Scabiosa Succisa, L.—In all. 
——- Columbaria, L.-—80, 81, 82, 84+ (S.), 86, 87. 
arvensis, L.—WNot from 78. 
Kupatorium cannabinum, L.—Not from 78, 79, 54. 
Solidago Virgaurea, L.—Not from 78; but var. cambrica, Huds., is 
recorded from Pentland Hills. 
Bellis perennis, L.—In all. 
Aster Tripolium, L.—81, 82, 83, 85. 
Erigeron acre, L.—80. 
canadense, L.—Casual, in 86. 
Filago germanica, L.—Not from 84 or 78 (?), Linton. 
minima, Fr.— Not from 78. 
Antennaria dioica, R. Br.— Not from 84. 
Gnaphalium uliginosum, L.—In all. 
sylvaticum, I..—In all. 
supinum, L.—86, 87. 
Inula Helenium, L.—85 + (S8.), 86(?), in Ewing’s ‘Glasgow Cata- 
logue,” but cannot be native. 
Pulicaria dysenterica, Grtn.—81, 82, 84 (8.), 86. 
Xanthium spinosum, L.—Casual in 86. 
Bidens cernua, L.—80, 81, 83, 84. 85. 
tripartita, L.—83, 84, 85, 86, 87. 
Achillea Millefolium, L.—In all. 
Ptarmica, L.—In all. 
Anthemis tinctoria, L.—Casual, 85. 
—— Cotula, l.—80, 82, 83, 85. Is this native? 
— arvensis, L.—Not from 79. Marked + in 86, and should probably 
be so more often than it is. 
nobilis, L..—Escape or outcast ; recorded from 79, 81. 
Chrysanthemum segetum, L.—Not from 78, 79. A colonist only. 
Leucanthemum, L.—In all. 
—— Parthenium, L.—From every county (as native, except for 78), 
certainly +. 
Matricaria inodora, L.—Not from 80, The forms never specified. 
— maritima, L.—81, 83, 85. 
—— Chamomilla, L.—80, 83, 85, 86, 87. _ Is this native anywhere in 
Forth or Tweed ? 
—— discoidea, DC.—83, on railway embankments, etc. 
Tanacetum vulgare, L.—Not from 78, 84. Its habitats cause great 
doubt as to its being native. 
Artemisia Absinthium, L.—81, 82, 83, 84, (?) + in 85, 87, and probably 
should be so elsewhere. 
vulgaris, L.—WNot from 78. Chiefly near villages and by roads. 
campestris, L.—t in 85, 86. 
maritima, L.—81, 82, 85(?) Var. gallica, Willd., 82. 
Tussilago Farfara, 1..—In all. 
Petasites fragrans, Pres].—t in 81 (S.), 82, 83, 85. 


bo 
Yo) 
Or 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


Petasites officinalis, Mcench.—In all. 

albus, Geertn. ‘—+ in § 85, 86, = 

Doronicum Pardalianches, L.—+, 82, 83, 85. 86, 87. 

—— plantagineum, L.—+. 82, 83, 85. 

Senecio vulgaris, L.—In all. 

sylvaticus, L.—Not from 84. 

—— viscosus, L —Not from 78, 80 (?), 82(?), 84 

—— erucifolius, L.—8&0, 81. 

—— Jacobea, all. 

—— aquaticus, L.—In all. 

saracenicus, L.—t, 82, 84, 85 (?), 86 (2). 

Carlina vulgaris, L.—79, 81. 

Arctium Lappa, L.—The aggregate is recorded from every county, but 
the forms have not been discriminated. 

—— majus, Bernh.—(82, 84, 85) in F.E., 86 (?) Ewing’s “Glasgow 

Catalogue.” 

nemorosum, Lej.—81, 83 

—— minus, Bernh.—Not from 79, 80. 

intermedium, Lange.—82 (F.E.), 86. 

Carduus pycnocephalus, LL.— Not proms 78, 84, with + from 79. 

nuts iv 78, S4 > o i(? ) 

crispus.— Vot from 80. 

Cnicus lanceolatus, Willd.—In all. 

eriophorus. Roth.—t, 83, 84, 85, 87. 

— palustris, Willd.—In all. 

—— pratensis, Willd.—t, §4 (8.). 

—— arvensis, Hoffm.—The varieties have not been recorded except 
from 87; and setosus, Bess., also from 84 (S.), 85, 86. 

Onopordon Acanthium, L.—+, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86. 

Mariana lactea, Hill.—Given as native from 82, 85, 85, but certainly +. 

Saussurea alpina, DC.—87. 

Serratula tinctoria, L.—+ in 87 

Centaurea montana, L.—+ in 83. 

nigra, L.—In all. 

Scabiosa, 87 t. 

Cyanus, L.—Not from 79. A colonist. 

Calcitrapa, L.—A casual in 87. 

Cichorium Intybus, L.—Recorded from 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85. No 
doubt + in all. 

Picris hieracioides, L.—+t, 80. 

echioides, L.—80, 81, 82, 85, 87. No doubt casual or t+. 

Crepis taraxacifolia, Thuill.—t, 80. 

virens, L.—In all. 

—— biennis, L.—+, 80, 82, 86. 

—— succisifolia, Tausch.—78, 80, 81, 85, 85 (?), 87. 

——— paludosa, Mcench.—In all. 

Hieracium.—The older determinations of species in this genus are so 
uncertain, except for a few, that it seems useless to refer to 
them. In recent years several have been ascertained for 86 by 
Messrs. Stirling and Kidston, and some for 87 are enumerated in 
the ‘‘Flora of Perthshire.” The genus, as a whole, requires 
revision for the rest of the district. A list of Scottish Hieracia, 
with their distribution by counties, as far as known to me up to 
1902, is contained in ‘* Annals of Scot. Nat. Hist.,” 1902, 
pp. 244-250. 

Hypocheris glabra, L.—87. 

—— radicata, L.—In all. 

Leontodon hirtus, L.—80, 82, 83, 85. 


“, 0 


AT 


296 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXVII. 


Leontodon hispidus, L.— Not from 84, 86. 

autumnalis, L.—Var. pratensis, Koch., is recorded from 86 only. 

Taraxacum ofticinale, Web.—Var. erythrospermum, Andrz., only from 
83, 85. Var. palustre, DC., not from 79,84. Var. udum Jord., 
not recorded. 

Lactuca virosa, L.—81, 82+ (S.), 83, 85, 86, 87. 

muralis, Fresen.—t, 85, 86, 87. 

Sonchus oleraceus, L.—In all. 

asper, Hoffm.— Not from 80, 84. 

arvensis, L.—In all. 

palustris, L.—‘‘Lochend.” Not found there of late. F.E., 

? error. 

Tragopogon pratense, L.—Not from 78, 79, 54. Var, minus, Mill, 
82, 83, 85. 

Lobelia Dortmanna, L.—85, 86, 87. 

Jasione montana, L.—79, 85 (?). 

Campanula glomerata, L.—82, 85. 

—— Trachelium, L —82, 83, 85, 86. Is this native ? 

—— latifolia, L.—Not from 78, 84. 

—— rapunculoides, L.—t, 82, 83, 85. 

—— rotundifolia, L.—In all. The varieties have not been recorded. 

—— persicifolia, L.—t, 83, 84 (8.}. 

—— Rapunculus, L.—t, 85, 86 (S.). 

patula, L.—t, 82, 83 (8.). 

Specularia hybrida, A. DC.—Casual in 82, 85, 56. 

Vaccinium Vitis-idzea, L..—Not from 82, 84. 

uliginosum, L..—87. 

—— Mpyrtillus, L.—In all. 

Schollera Oceycoccus, Roth.—Not from 52, 84, 

Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, L.—78, 81. 

Andromeda Polifolia, l..—80, 86, 87. 

OCalluna Erica, DC.—In all. 

Erica cinerea, L..—In all. 

Tetralix, L.—In all. 

Loisleuria procumbens, Desv.—85 (?), 86. 

Ledum palustre, L.—86, 87, probably t+. 

Pyrola rotundifolia, I,.—Recorded from 73, 80, 81, 83, 85, 87, but 
much needs revision. 

—— media, Sw.—80, 81, 82, 83 (S.), 85, 87. 

—— minor, L.—WNot from 78, 81, 82. 

secunda, L.—84 + (8.), 86 + (S.), 87. 

Statice Limonium, L.—85 (?). 

Armeria maritima, Willd.—81, 82, 85, 85, 86. 

Primula acaulis, L.— Not from 78. Var. caulescens, Koch., 82, 83, 85. 

veris, L.—Not from 78, 79. ? + in 87. 

farinosa, L..—78. 

Lysimachia thyrsiflora, Ait. 
these ? 

— vulgaris, L.—Doubtful native. 81 (? extinct), 83, 84, 85, 86, 87. 

Nummularia, L.—t, not from 82, S4. 

nemorum, L.—In all. 

Trientalis europea, L.—Not from 78, 80, 82, 54. 

Glaux maritima, L.—Not from 75, 79, 80, 54. 

Anagallis arvensis, L.—Not from 78, 79. 

cerulea, Schreb.—82. 

—— tenella, L.—81, 82, 83, 84, 89. 

Centunculus minimus, L.—81, 85, 87. 

Samolus Vaierandi, L.—81, 82, 84, 85, 86 (Ewing's ‘‘ Gl. Cat.”), 


83, 84, 86, 87. Is this native in all 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 297 


Fraxinus excelsior, L.—Frequent in all counties, and possibly native 
as well as planted. 

Ligustrum vulgare, L.—+, not from 78, 79, 82. 

Vinea major, L.—+, in 82, 83, 85. 

minor, 1..— Not from 78, 79, 80, 87, + though often appearing to 
be native. 

Erythreea Centaurium, L.—Not from 79 and (?) 78 (Linton). 

littoralis, Fr.—S82. 

pulchella, Fr.—s2. 

Gentiana Amarella, L.—80, 81, 82, 83, 85 (2), 86. 

campestris, L.—The aggregate not from 84. The forms now 

separated (G. campestris, seg., and G. baltica, Murbeck), have 
not been distinguished in the records from Forth or Tweed. 

acaulis, L.— Occurs, as an escape, in 83. 

Limnanthemum peltatum, C. Gmel.—81. Probably introduced inten- 
tionally. 

Polemonium czruleum, L.—81, 82, 85, 84, 85, 86, 87. A denizen or 
casual. 

Cynoglossum officinale, L.—81, 82, 83, 84, 85. 

Asperugo procumbens, L.—Casual in 82, 83, 84(S.), 85. 

Symphytum officinale, L.—Not from 78, 82. A doubtful native. 

tuberosum, L.—Not from 78, 80. 

asperrimum, Donn.—t, 83, 85. 

Borago officinalis, L.—Casual or +, 82, 83, 85, 86. 

Anchusa sempervirens, L..—t, 82, 83, 85. 

officinalis, L.—85, 86 (S8.), casual or outcast. 

Lycopsis arvensis, L.—From all counties ; a colonist. 

Pulmonaria officinalis, L.—t, 85, 85. 

Pneumaria maritima, Hill.—81, 82, 85. 

Myosotis palustris, Relh., var. strigulosa, Mart. and Koch.—83, 86. 

repens, G. Don.— Not from 82, 84. 

—— sylvatica, Hoffm.—79, 80, 81, 85, 86, 87, casual. Not usually 
murked as ‘‘ doubtful native.” Its claim to be native requires 
confirmation. It is often an escape or outcast. 

— arvensis, Lam.—In all. 

— collina, Hoffm.—Not from 75, 79, 80. 

versicolor, Reichb.—In all. 

Omphalodes verna, Mcench.—Escape or planted, 83, 84 (S.). 

Lithospermum officinale, L.—82, 83, 85, 87 +. Doubtful as a native 

plant. 

arvense, L.—Not from 79, 87. Spread by agriculture, if not t. 

—— purpureo-cceruleum, L.—+, 86. 

Echium vulgare, L.—Not from 78, 79. 

Volvulus sepium, Junger.—81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87. Often, if not 

usually, an escape. 

Soldanella, Junger.— 82, 87. 

Convolvulus arvensis, L.— Not from 78, 79, 80, 84. 

Cuscuta Epilinum, Weihe.—Casual, 82 (S.), 83. 

europea, L.—80 (?) t, 88 (?). 

—— Epithymum, Murr.—83 (?), 85 (?), 86. 

Trifolii, Bab.—t, 82, 83. 

Solanum Dulcamara, L.— Not from 75, 79, 54. 

nigrum, L.—Not from 78, 79, 82, + or casual. 

Lycium chinense, Mill.—t, 85. | 

Atropa Belladonna, L.—t, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87. 

Hyoscyamus niger, L.—80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86. Is this native here ? 

Verbascum Thapsus, L.—Not from 79, 80. Marked + for 85, and pro- 
bably should be so in other counties. 


TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXII. U 


298 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxvul. 


Verbascum pulverulentum, Vill.—t, 84. 

—— Lychnitis, L.—t, 85, 86. 

nigrum, L.—t, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86. 

Linaria Cymbalaria, L.—82, 83, 85, 86, 87, t in Scotland, though not 
marked as such in local floras. 

Elatina, Mill.—86. 

repens, Mill.—t, 83, 86, 87. 

—- vulgaris, Mill_—In all. Is it native? 

viscida, Mcoench.—80, 81, 85 +, 86+. 

Antirrhinum majus, L.—+t, 83, 85. 

Scrophularia aquatica, L.—81, 83, 84 (?), 85, 87. In need of revision. 

umbrosa, Dum.—80, 81, 88, 84, 85. 

—— vernalis, L.—t, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87. Seldom noted as not native. 

Mimulus Langsdorffii, Donn.—t, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87. (Very frequent in 
north-east Scotland.) 

Limosella aquatica, L.—82. 

Veronica hederifolia, L.—(? colonist). Not from 78. 

- polita, Fr.—(? colonist). Not from 79. 

agrestis, L.—(? colonist). In all. 

Tournefortii, C. Gmel.— Not from 79: a colonist. 

fruticulosa, L.—t, 83. 

serpyllifolia, L., in all; var. humifusa, Dickson.—87. 

alpina, L.—86 (?), 87 (?). 

Chameedrys, L.—In all. 

montana, L.—Not from 78, 84, 85 (?). 

Anagallis-aquatica, L.—Not from 84. 

Beceabunga, L.—In all. 

Euphrasia officinalis, L.—The aggregate is recorded from every county, 
but of the segregates only E. brevipila, Burn. and Gr., 87, and 
E. gracilis, Fr., 86, are recorded from Forth and Tweed. 

Bartsia Odontites, Huds.—Recorded from all the counties, but the 
varieties not distinguished. 

——— viscosa, L.—85, 86. 

alpina, L.—85 (?). 

Pedicularis palustris, L.—In all. 

——— sylvatica, L.—In all. 

Rhinanthus Crista-galli, L. 
White, 87. 

major, Ehrh.—81, 85 (?colonist). The varieties under both 
species should be wrought out. 

Melampyrum pratense, L.— Not /rom 78. The varieties require to be 
studied here, only montanum, Jobhnst., from S87, being yet 
recorded from Forth or Tweed. 

—— sylvaticum, L.—80, 81, 85 (?), 87. 

Orobanche major, L.—Sibbald records what may be this, under this 
name, as ‘* Upon the Buck of Burntisland,” but it has not been 
found in Fife by others. 

rubra, Sm.—85. 

minor, Sm.—85 (Syme, in ‘‘ Top. Bot.’’). 

Lathreea squamaria, L.—79, 80, 81, 83, 86, 87. 

Utricularia vulgaris, L.— Not from 78, 84, 86, 87. 

neglecta, Lehm.—79, 80. 

— minor, L.—Pentland Hills (? which county), 81, 85, $5, 86, 87. 

intermedia, Hayne.—81, 85, 87. 

Pinguicula vulgaris, L.—In all. 

lusitanica, L.—86 (Ewing’s ‘‘ Gl. Cat.’’). 

Verbena officinalis, L.-—t, 85. 

Mentha rotundifolia, Huds.—+, 83, 85. 


Popeate 


In all. Var. Drummond-Hayi, F. B. 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 299 


Mentha alopecuroides, Hull.—t, 8&6. 

longifolia, Huds.—81, 82, 83, 85 (?). 

—— viridis, L.—t, 83, 85 (S.), 87. 

—— piperita, L.—Is this anywhere native here? 79, 80, 81, 83, 85, 86. 

— hirsuta, L.—In all. 

——- sativa, L.—Not from 78, 79. 

-—— rubra, Sm.—83, (?) t. 

—— pratensis, Sole.—83 (?). 

=——— arvensis, I.—In all. 

— Pulegium, L.—Pentland Hills (? which county), 81, 85, 85. Is 
this native anywhere here ? 

Lycopus europeus, L.—78, 80, 82 (S.), 83 (S.), 84, 85, 86, 87. 

Origanum vulgare. L.—Not from 78. 

Thymus serpyllum, L—In all. 

Chameedrys, Fr.—78, 82. 

Calamintha Clinopodium, Benth.— Not from 78. 

- arvensis, Lam.—80, 81, 82, 83, 85. 

officinalis, Moench.—87 (?). 

Salvia Verbenaca, L.—81, 83, 85, 86. 

Nepeta Cataria, L.—81, 85 (?), 86, 87, probably t. 

Glechoma, Benth.—Not from 78, 87, 

Scutellaria galericulata, L.—Not from 78, 85 (?). 

minor, Huds.—86. 

Prunella vulgaris, L.—In all. 

Marrubium vulgare, I.—80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 87 casual. Probably not 
native. ; 

Stachys Betonica, Benth.—80, 81, 83, 84 (?), 85. 

palustris, L.—In all. 

— ambigua, Sm.—(palustris x sylvatica), Pentland Hills, 80, 81 (?), 
82, 83, 87. 

—— sylvatica, L.—In all. 

arvensis, L.—Not from 78, 79, 86. 

Galeopsis Ladanum, L.—The aggregate from 80 +, 82, 83, 85, 86. 

— versicolor, Curt.—A colonist. Not from 82, 84. 

Tetrahit, L.—From all counties; a colonist. 

Leonurus cardiaca, L.—t, 83, 85. 

Lamium intermedium, Fr.—Not from 79, 81, 84, 86. Colonist ; like 
L. amplexicaule, L., and L. purpureum, L., which occur in every 
county. 

——— hybridum, Vill.—A colonist. Not from 79, 82. 

— maculatum, L.—t, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87. 

-——. album, L.—Probably a denizen, in every county. 

Galeobdolon, Crantz.—t, 82, 83, 85, 86. 

Ballota nigra, L.—80, 81, 82(?) +, 83, 85 (?), 86, 87 casual. Var. 
foetida, Koch., 82, 83, 85, 87 casual. 

Teucrium Chameedrys, L.—t, 83. 

Scorodonia, I..—In all. 

Ajuga reptans, L.—In all. 

Plantago major, L.—In all. 

media, L.—Not from 78, 79, 84. 

lanceolata, L.—In all. 

maritima, L.—81, 82, 83, 85, 87. Lay 

-—— Coronopus, L.—Not from 78, 79, 80, 86. The varieties of 
Plantago should be looked for in Forth and in Tweed. 

Littorella juncea, Berg.—Not from 78. 

Herniaria glabra, L.—81, probably in error, 

Scleranthus annuus, L.—In all. 

Chenopodium polyspermum, L.—81. 


300 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. uxvm. 


Chenopodium Vulvaria, L.—82, 83, 85 (7) t. 

album, L.—-From all. Var. incanum, Mogq., 78. 

— murale, L.—80 (?). 

— hybridum, L.—t, 82 (8.), 83, 84 (8.), 85 (S.). 

— urbicum, L.—81 (?), 83 (?), 85 (7). 

— rubrum, L.—81, 83 (?), 85, 87 t. 

—— botryodes, Sm.—85 (?). 

— glaucum, L.—t, 85. 

Bonus-Henricus, L.—In every county, but a doubtful native. 

Beta maritima, L.—82, 83, 84, 85, 86 (8.), 87, seashore. In how far 
native ? 

Atriplex littoralis, L.—81, 8 82, 83 (?), 84 (2), 85, 87. 

—— patula, L.—Not from 79, 80. Var. erecta, rs not from 79, 
80, 87. Var. mreuctitolig (Sm.), not from 79, 80, 84 

== hastata, L.—Not from 78, 79, 84 

—~ deltoidea, Bab.—80 ft, 81, 83, 86. 

—— Babingtonii, Woods.—-81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87. 

— laciniata, I..—83, 85, 87. 

portulacoides, L.—85 (?), 85 (?). 

Salicornia herbacea, L.—82, 83 (?), 85, 87. 

Suzeda maritima, Dum.—82, 83 (2), 84 (?), 85, 87 

Salsola Kali, L.—81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87. 

Poiygonum Convolvulus, eine: 

aviculare, L.—In all. Vars. agrestinum, Jord.; vulgatum, Syme ; 

rurivagum, Jord., all from 87, and littorale, Link., 82, 83, 85. 

— Raii, Bab.—82, 83, 85, 87. 

—— Hydropiper, L.—Not in 78. 

— minus, Huds.—85 (?), 87. 

—w— mite, Schranck.—86. 

= ersicariaas le ——lneallllis 

—— lapathifolium, L.— Not from 79. 84. 

— maculatum, Trim and Dyer.—89, 87. 

— amphibium, L.—In all. 

-—— Bistorta, L.—79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87. ? native in any. 

-—— viviparum, L.—85, 86, 87. 

Fagopyrum esculentum, Moench.—Casual in 82, 83, 89. 

Oxyria digyna, Hill.—86, 87. 

Rumex conglomeratus, Murr.—Not from 79. 

sanguineus, L.—Not from 79, 86. Var. viridis, Sibth., 82, 83, 85, 

86, 87. 

maritimus, L.—81 +, 85 (?), 86 casual, 87. 

limosus, Thuill.—82 (?). 

—— pulcher, L.—80, casual. 

obtusifolius, Geen all. 

-—- crispus, L.—In all. 

-—— domesticus, Hartm.—WNot from 82; crispus x obtusifolius (acutus, 
L.), 78, 80, 81, 83, 85, 86, 87: domesticus x obtusifolius 
(conspersus, Hartm.), 78, 80, 81, 85, 87. 

—— Hydrolapathum, Huds.—80, 81, 85. 

—— alpinus, L.—t, 83, 85, 86, 87. 

— Acetosa, l..—In all. 

— scutatus, L.—t, 83, 85. 

| Acetosella, L.—In all. 

Asarum europeum, L.—+t, 83, 84, 85. 

Daphne Mezereum, L.—+ 83, 85. 

Laureola, L.—t+, 81, 83, 85, 86, 87. 

Hippophae aisranatiieg. C i 82, 83, 84, 85. 

Euphorbia Helioscopia, L. —From all counties, but only a colonist. 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 301 


Oo 


Euphorbia dulcis.—87 casual. 

— Ksula, L.—+, 82, 83, 84, 85. 

—— Cyparissias, L.—+, 83, 85. 

—— Paralias, L.—t, 85. 

—— portlandica, L.—+, 84, 85. 

—— Peplus, L.—A colonist. Not from 78. 

—— exigua, L.—A colonist. Not from 78, 79, 86. 

— Lathyris, L.—t, 85. 

—— purpurata, Thuill —+, 87. 

Buxus sempervirens, L..—+, 83, 85. 

Mercurialis annua, L.—82, 83, 85, 86 

— perennis, L.—In all. 

Ulmus montana, L.— Not from 80, often planted. 

surculosa, Stokes —?, 80, 81, 83, 86. Var. suberosa, Ehrh., 81, 

83, 87. 

Humulus Lupulus, L.—+ Not from 78, 79, 82, 84. 

Parietaria officinalis, L.—Not from 80, 84. In how far is this native in 
Forth and Tweed ? 

Myrica Gale, L.—Pentland Hills (in which county? ), 79, 85, 84, 85, 
86, 87. 

Betula alba, L.—The aggregate in all. 

—— verrucosa, Ehrh.—78, 85, 85 +, 86, 87. 

—— pubescens, Ehrh.—78, 80, 83, 85, 86, 87. 

nana, L.—78, 81 (?). 

Alnus glutinosa, L.—From all. 

Carpinus Betulus, L.—t, 78, 81, 85, 85, 86, 87. 

Quercus Robur, L.—From all. Var. peduneculata (Ehrh.). Not from 
79, 81. In how many counties truly native? Var. sessiliflora 
(Salisb.), 78, 81, 83, 85+, 86, 87. 

Castanea sativa, Mill.—+, 83, 84, 85, 86. 

Fagus silvatica, L.—Not from 79. Usually planted, though often self- 
sown. 

Salix triandra, L.—80, 81, 83, 87. 

— pentandra, L.—From all counties except 78 (?) 

fragilis, L.—From all counties. How far is it native? Var. 

britannica, F. B. Whire, 80, 85, 87. 
alba, L.—Not from 82. Almost certainly planted in most places. 
Var. vitellina, L., 80. 

cinerea, L.—In all. 

aurita, L.— Not from 82. 

Caprea, L.—In all. 

repens, L.—Not from 82, 78 (?). 

phylicifolia, L.—Not from 82, 84, 78 (?), 85 (?). 

nigricans, Sm.—78, 80, 81, 83, 86, 87. 

viminalis, L.—Not from 79, 82,78? Very often t. 

Lapponum, L.—83. 86, 87. 

herbacea, L.—86, 87. 

reticulata, L.—87. 

purpurea, L.—Not from 82, 85. Often planted. 

alba x fragilis.—S8U, 83, 84(?) 85 (?). 

aurita x cinerea.—80, 86 (?). 

aurita x Lapponum.—83. 

aurita x repens (ambigua, Ehrh.).—80, 81. 

Caprea x cinerea.—85. 

Caprea x nigricans.—83. : , 

Capree x viminalis forms,—(acuminata, Sm.).—81, 83: (ferru- 

ginea, G. And.), not from 78, 82, 87; (Smithiana, Willd.), 33, 
84, 85, 86(?); (stipularis, Sm.), 80. 


87. Often a mere casual. 


~ 


CdD) ee a a lee 


302 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. rxvu. 


Salix cinerea x Lapponum.—83. 

fragilis x triandra.—80, 85, 86. 

—— purpurea x viminalis.—78, 80, 81, 83, 84(?), 86. Occasionally 
planted. 

triandra x viminalis.—80, 81. 

Populus alba, L.—t, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87. 

canescens, Sm.—t, 78, 80, 81. 

—— tremula, L.—WNot from 82, 84. 

nigra, L.—t, 85, 84, 86, 87. 

Empetrum nigrum, L.—WNot from 84. 

Ceratophyllum aquaticum, agg.—81, 83, 84, 85(?), 86. The segregates 

are recorded thus— 
— demersum, L.—83, 84, 85(?), 86. 
—— submersum, L.—84, 85 (8.). 


MONOCOTYLEDONS. 


Elodea canadensis, Michx.—t, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87. 

Stratiotes Aloides, L.—+, 83, 84 (8.). 

Malaxis paludosa, Sw.—85, 86, 87. 

Corallorhiza innata, R. Br.—81, 83, 85, 87. 

Neottia Nidus-avis, L.—Not from 78. 

Listera cordata, R. Br.—Pentland Hills (in which county? ). Not from 

78 (2), 84. 

— ovata, R. Br.—Pentland Hills (? 78), and all other counties. 

Goodyera repens, R. Br.—80, 81, 84, 85. 

Cephalanthera ensifolia, Rich.—83, 85. 

Epipactis latifolia, All—Not from 78, 79. 

violacea, Bor.—84 (?). 

—— palustris, Crantz.—81, 82, 83 (?), 85, 87. 

Orchis pyramidalis, L.—81, 85. 

Morio, I..—83, in error. 

—— mascula, L.— Not from 78. 

—— latifolia, L._—ageg. From all counties. 

— — incarnata. L.—Not from 78, 81, 83, 85 (?). 

——- latifolia, L.—seg. Not from 78, 50, 81, 87. 
—— maculata; Ly. —Not from 80. 

Habenaria Conopsea, Benth.—WNot from 78, 82 

—— albida, R. Br.—85, 86, 87. 

- viridis, ie Br.—Not from 78, 80. 

— hbifolia, R. Br.— Wot from 78, 79. 

chloroleuca, Ridley.— Wot from 78, 

Iris foetidissima, L.—t, 83, 85, 87. 

Crocus aureus, Sibth.—t, 83. 

Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus, l.—t, 81, 83, 85, 86, 87. 

poeticus, L.—t, 82. 

Galanthus nivalis, L.—t, 88, 85, 86, 87. 

Ruscus aculeatus, L.—t, 83, 85. 

Asparagus officinalis, L.—+, 82. 

Polygonatum multiflorum, Alb.—t, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87. 

Maianthemum Convallaria, Weber. —t, 84. 

Convallaria majalis, L.—t, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87. 

Allium Scorodoprasum, L. 226i. 85. 

vineale, L.—Not from 78, 80, 82, 86 (?), 87. 

— oleraceum, L.—81, 85. 

paradoxum, ne 83, 84. 

.—t, 81,83, 85. 

——- ursinum, L..—WNot in 78. 


— 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 303 


Scilla verna, L.—81. 

Ornithogalum umbellatum, L.—t, 83, 85, 86. 

nutans, L..—Escape in 83. 

Lilium Martagon, L.—Kscape in 83. 

Tulipa sylvestris, L.—t, 83, 84, 85. 

Gagea fascicularis, Salisb —80, 83, 84, 85 (?), 86. 

Colchicum autumnale, L.—t, 83, 87 (S.) 

Narthecium Ossifragum, L.—Not from 82, 78 (?). 

Tofieldia palustris, Huds.—86, 87. 

Paris quadrifolia, L.—83, 85, 86, 87. 

Juncus bufonius, L.—In all. 

squarrosus, L.—In all. 

compressus, Jacq.—80, 83, 84. All much need confirmation. 

Gerardi, Loisel.— Not from 78, 79, 80, 7 e. occurs in all not purely 
inland counties. 

tenuis, Willd.—(?), + 86. 

balticus, Wild.—85, (? in Forth basin). 

glaucus, Leers.—In all. 

effusus x glaucus (= diffusus, Hoppe.), 85 (?), 87. 

effusus, L.—In all. 

conglomeratus, L.—In all. 

maritimus, Lam.—84 (8.), 85 (?), 86 (S.) 

supinus, Mcench.—Not from 79, 80. The varieties have not been 
recorded here. 

obtusiflorus, Ehrh.—82, 83 (?), 84 (?). 

lampocarpus, Ehrh.—Not from 80. 

acutiflorus, Ehrh.—Not from 80. 

castaneus, Sm.—87. 

biglumis, L..—86 (?), 87. 

triglumis, L.—86, 87. 

Luzula vernalis, DC.—Not from 78, 79. 

maxima, DC.—In all. 

nivea, DC.—+, 83, 85. 

spicata, DC.—86, 87. 

campestris, DC.—Not from 79. 

erecta, Desv.—From all counties. Var. congesta alone is specially 
named, for 83, 84, 85, 86, 87. 

Typha latifolia, L.—Not from 78. Certainly + in most, possibly in all 
the counties. ; 

angustifolia, L.—83 (?), 85, 86. 

Sparganium ramosum, L.—In all. 

— simplex, Huds.—WNot from 75, 52, 84. 

affine, Schnizl.—Not from 78. 

minimum, Fr.—79, 83, 86, 87. 

Arum maculatum, L.—79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85+, 86, 87+. Probably t+ 

in several counties. 

Acorus Calamus, L.—t, 86. 

Lemna trisulca, L.—80, 81, 82 (?), 83, 85, 86. 

minor, L.—Not from 78. 

gibba, L.—83, 84 (?), 85 (?), 86. 

—— polyrrhiza, L.—85, 84 (?). 

Wolffia Michelii, Schleid.—Introduced, in 1870, into 83. 

Alisma Plantago-aquatica, L.—WNot from 78. 

-—— ranunculoides, L.—Not from 78, 79, 84, 86. Var. repens, 

Davies, 87. 

Sagittaria sagittifolia, L.—t, 86. 

Butomus umbellatus, L.—t, 83, 84 (S.), 87. 

Triglochin palustre, L.—In all. 


Gee le Bla Bal lal 


| 


304 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. uxvut. 


Triglochin maritimum, L.—WNot from 78, 79, 80 (inland counties). 

Potamogeton natans, L., seg. Not from 86. 

polygonifolius, Pour.—In all. Var. pseudofluitans, Syme, 86. 

coloratus, Hornem.—79, 80, 81, 52. 

alpinus, Balb.—Not from 79, 80, 54 (?). 

heterophyllus, Schreb.— Not from 80, 82, 83 (?), 84. 

nitens, Weber.—80, 85, 86. 

lucens, L.—WNot from 78, 82, 84. 

decipiens, Nolte.—80, 81, 86. 

angustifolius. Presl. (=P. Zizii, Roth.)—79, 80, 81, 36, 87. 
prelongus, Wulf.—WNot from 78, 82, 83 (?), 84, 57. 

perfoliatus, L.—WNot from 78, 82. 

crispus, L.—Type reported from all but 87 (?). Var. serratus, 
Huds., 87. 

densus, L.—80, 82, 83. 

zosterzfolius, Schum.—85 (?), 86 (?). 

obtusifolius, Mert. and Koch.— Not from 78, 82, 83(?), 84. Var. 
fluvialis, Lange and Mort., 87. 

Friesii, Rupr.—79 (?), 85, 86. 

pusillus, L.—WNot from 78. 

— Sturrockii, Ar. Benn.—S§6. 

— pectinatus, L.—Not from 78, 79, 82. 

—— interruptus, Kit.—80, 81, 83. 

filiformis, Nolte.—81, 85, 85. 

Ruppia rostellata, Koch.—82. 

Zannichellia palustris, L.—Not from 78, 84, 85 (?). 

pedunculata, Reichb.—87 (?). 

Zostera marina, L.—82, 83, 85. 

Eleocharis acicularis, R. Br.—78, 83, 85, 86, 87. 

- palustris, R. Br.—In all. 

uniglumis, Reichb.—82, 84, 85. 

multicaulis, Sm.—WNot from 80, 82, 78 (?) (Pentland Hills). 

Scirpus pauciflorus, Lightf.—From all except 78 (?) (Pentland Hills). 

ceespitosus, L.—Not from 82. 

—— fluitans, L.—81, 83, 85, 86, 87 (?). 

—— setaceus, L.—In all. 

—— lacustris, L.—Not from 78, 84. 

—— Tabernemontani, Gmel.—82, 85, 87. 

—— maritimus, L.—WNot from 78, 79, 80. 

—— sylvaticus, L.—Not from 82, 84. 

—— Caricis, Retz.—79, 80, 81, 82, 83. 

rufus, Schrad.—WNot from 78, 79, 80. 

Eriophorum vaginatum, L.—In all. 

angustifolium. Roth.—In all. 

latifolium, Hoppe.—(Pentland Hills), 81, 83, 87. 
Rhynchospora alba, Vahl.—86, 87, 

Schcenus nigricans, L.—81, 85, 86 (?). 

Cladium jamaicense, Crantz.—81. 

Carex dioica, L.—Not from 78, 82. 

pulicaris, L.—Not from 78, 82. 

—— pauciflora, Lightf.—85, 86, 87. 

incurva, Lightf.—82 (?), 83 (?), 84(?), 85, 86 (S.) (?). 

—— divisa, Huds.—83, in error. 

—— disticha, Huds.—Not from 78 (?) (Pentland Hills}. 

arenaria, L.—81, 82, 83, 85, 86 (?). ; 

—— teretiuscula.—Not from 78 (?) (Pentland Hills). Jar. Ehrhartiana, 

Hoppe, 86. 
— paniculata, L.— Not from 78 (?) (Pentland Hills). 


Beek beeen 


FEB. 1903. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 306 


t 


Y 


Carex vulpina, L.—Not from inland counties, 78, 79, 80. 


Pape eee el eh) acess an mete 


muricata, L.—Not from 78 (?) (Pentland Hills). 

divulsa, Good.—83 (?). 

remota, L. —Not from 78, 82, 8&4, 85. 

axillaris, Good.—83 (?). 

Boeninghausiana, Weihe.—83. 

curta, Good.—Not from 78 (?) (Pentland Hills). 

ovalis, Good.—In all. 

atrata, L.—86. 

Hudsonii, Ar. Benn.—83 (?), 84 (?), 85 (2). 

acuta, L.—80, 81, 83(?), 84 (2), 85(?), 86. Var. gracilescens, 
Almq., 86. 

rigida, Good.—78, 80, 86, 87. 

aquatilis, Wahlenb. (as var. elatior, Bab.).—Not from 82, 83. 

Goodenovii, J. Gay.—In all. Var. juncella, T. M. Fries., 86. 

flacea, Schreb.—In all. 

limosa, L., age.— Not from 78, 79, 82, 83 (2). 

magellanica, Lam.—83 (8.), 85, 86, 87. 

limosa, L., seg.—80, 81, 84, 85, 87. 

pilulifera, L.—Not from 82, 84. 

verna, Chaix.—In all. 

pallescens, L.— Not from 80, 82, 84. 

panicea, L.—In all. 

vaginata, Tausch.—86. 

eapillaris, L.—87. 

pendula, Huds.—81, 82, 83, 86, 87. 

strigosa, Huds.—83 (?). 

sylvatica, L.—Not from 78, 84. 

levigata, Sm.—WNot from 80, 82, 84, 87. 

binervis, Sm.—WNot from 84. 

distans, L.—-81 (?), 82, 83 (?), 84(8.), 85, 86. 

fulva, Good.— Not froin 82, 78(?) (Pentland Hills). 

extensa, Good.—81, 82, 83 (?), 85. 

flava, L., agg.—In all. The forms require to be wrought out in 
light of more recent views. 

filiformis, L.—79, 80, 81, 83. 

acutiformis, Ehrh. (paludosa, Good.).—Not from 84, 85 (?). 

riparia, Curtis.—81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 87. 

rostrata, Stokes (ampullacea, Good.).—From all except 78 (?) 
(Pentland Hills). 

vesicaria, L.—Not from 82, 84, 78(?) (Pentland Hills). 

pulla, Good.—86 (?), 87. 


Setaria viridis, Beauv.—Casual, 80, 85. 


Phalaris canariensis, L. 


Casual, 83, 85, 86, 87. 
arundinacea, L.—In all. 


Anthoxanthum odoratum, L.—In all. 


Puellii, Lecog. and Lamotte.—Casual, 80. 


Alopecurus myosuroides, Huds.—78, 82 +, 85 +, 86, 87, casual. A 


doubtful native in any. 
fulvus, Sm.—t, 85, 86 (S.). 
geniculatus, L.—In all. 
pratensis, L.—In all. 


Stipa capillata.—86 (S.), casual. 
Milium effusum, L.—Not from 78, 82. 
Phleum pratense, L.—In all. 


arenarium, L.—82, 83, 85, 86. 


Mibora verna, Beauv.—Casual, 82, 86. 
Agrostis canina, L.—Not from 81. 


306 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Spss. uxviz. 


Agrostis palustris, Huds.—Not from 80. Var. stolonifera, L., 86. 
vulgaris, L.—In all. Var. pumila, L., 78 (?) (Pentland Hills) 
82, 83, 85, 86, 87. Var. nigra, With., 87. 
Polypogon monspeliensis, Desf.—Casual, 80, 85, 86. 
littoralis, Sm.—Casual, 80, 85. 
Calamagrostis epigeios, Roth.—80(?), 85 +, 86. 
lanceolata, Koth.—83 (?). 
Gastridium australe, Beauv.—Casual, 80. 
Apera Spica-venti, Beauv.—t, 83, 86. 
interrupta, Beauv.—Casual, 83. 
Ammophila arundinacea, Host.—Not from 78, 79, 80, 84. 
Lagurus ovatus, L.—Casual in 87. 
Aira caryophyllea, L.—In all. 
preecox, L.—In all. 
Deschampsia czespitosa, Beauv.—From all counties. Var. pseudo- 
alpina, Syme, 86. 
alpina, R. and 8.—86. 
—— flexuosa, Trin.— Not from 82. Var. montana, Hook. f., 86, 87. 
( discolor, R. and S.—Ought to occur in the district, though not 
yet recorded.) 
Holeus mollis, L.—In all. 
lanatus, L.—In all. 
Trisetum pratense, Pers. (Avena flavescens, L.).—In all. 
Avena pubescens, Huds.— Not from 78, 79, 82. 
— pratensis, L.—Not from 78, 82, 84. Var. alpina, Sm., 87. Var. 
longifolia, Parn., 85 (?). 
strigosa, Schreb.—Colonist or casual. 
fatua, L.—t, not from 78, 79, 84, 86. 
Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Beauv.—From all counties. Var. nodosum, 
Reichb., is the commoner form, though specially noted only 
from 86, 87. 4 
Sieglingia decumbens, Bernh.—In all. 
Phragmites communis, Trin.—In all. 
Sesleria coerulea, Ard.—86. 
Cynosurus cristatus, L.—In all. 
echinatus, L.—Casual, 85. 
Keeleria cristata, Pers.—Not from 78, 84. 
Molinia varia, Schranck.—From all counties. Var. depauperata, Lind1., 
83, 85, 87. 
Catabrosa aquatica, Beauv.—Not from 78, 79, 80, 84. 
Melica nutans, L.—80, 81, 83, 84, 86, 87. 
uniflora, Retz.—Not from 78, 82. 
Dactylis glomerata, L.—In all 
Poa annua, L.—In all. 
—— alpina, L.—83 (8.), 86, 87. 
glauca, Sm.—86, 87. 
Balfourii, Parn.—87. 
nemoralis, L.—Not from 81, 82, 84, 85 (?). 
compressa, L.—80, 81, 83, 85(?), 86. 
Chaixii, Vill.—Casual, 80. 
pratensis, L.—In all. Var. subccerulea, Sm., 84. 
trivialis, L.—In all. 
Glyceria fluitans, L.—In all. 
—— plicata, Fr.—wNot from 78, 79, 83, 87. 
—— aquatica, Sm.—83, 84, 85, 86, 87. i 
— maritima, Mert. and Koch.—Not from the inland counties 78, 79, 80. 
distans, Wahl.—83 (?), 85, 86, 87 (?). 
Festuca procumbens, Kunth.—81 (?), 83 (?), 85 (?), 86 t. 


PORE 


Fes, 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 307 


Festuca rigida, Kunth.—82, 83, 85, 87. 
——- rottt cellioides, Kunth.—83 (?), 85, 86. 
— Myuros, L.—Probably +, 81, 8%. 
-— sciuroides, Roth.—Not from 79, 82, S4. 


a OVI all. 
—— rubra, L., agg.— Not from 80. Var. arenaria, Osbeck, 81, 83 (?). 
85. 


—— sylvatica, Vill.—83, 85 (?), 86, 87. 
—— elatior, L.—Not from 80. Var. pratensis, Huds., not from 78, 84. 
—— arundinacea, Schreb.—78, 83, 84, 85, 86. These records should 
be revised. 
Bromus giganteus, L.— Not from 78. 
ramosus, Huds.— Not ey 78. 
erectus, Huds.—82 (S8.), 83, 85. A doubtful native. 
madritensis, L.— Casual, S3eoo. 
secalinus. L.—83, 84 (S.), 85 (?), 86, 87 (S.). A doubtful native. 
Var. velutinus, Schrad., 83 (?). 
racemosus, 7S. 81, 83 (S.), 87. 
commutatus, Schrad.— Not from 80, 81, 84. 
arvensis, L.—t, 85, 86 (S8.). 
The species in the section Serrafaicus of the genus Bromus 
require revision in Forth and Tweed. 
Brachypodium gracile, Beauv.—In all. 
—— pinnatum, Beauv.—83 (?). 
Lolium perenne, L.—In all. Var. ar bee Schum., casual 83. Var. 
italicum, Braun., +, 82, 83, 84, 85, 8 
temulentum, L.—t, 82, 87. 
Agropyron caninum, Beauy.— Not from 82, 84. 
—- repens, Beauv.-—In all. Var. barbatum, Duval-Jouve, recorded 
from 78, 86, doubtless occurs widely. 
-—— pungens, R. and &., var. Jittorale, R eichb.—83, 
acutum, R. and §.—-83, 85. 
junceum, Beauv.—83, 85, 87. The species of Agropyron should 
be studied. 
Lepturus filiformis, Trin.—82, 83 (?), 84, 85 + (?). 
Hordeum secalinum, Schreb. Ba 83, 85. 87. Probably not native. 
—— murinum, L.—80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86. 
marinum, Huds.—84 (S.), 85 (?), 87. Is this native ? 
Elymus arenarius, L.—82, 85. 


i ve 


GYMNOSPERMS 


Juniperus communis, L.—Not from 78 (?) (Pentland Hills), 54, 55 (?). 
nana, Willd.—87. 
Taxus baccata, L.— Not from 79 80, 82, 84. Probably + in most 
counties. 
Pinus sylvestris, L.—In all counties, but usually t. 
A number of other conifers are frequent in plantations and 
shrubberies. 


VASCULAR CRYPTOGAMS. 


Hymenophyllum tunbridgense, Sm.—78, 86. 
‘unilaterale, Bory.—85, 86, 87. 

Cryptogramme crispa, R. Br.—Not from 82, 83 (?), 84. 
Asplenium Adiantum-nigrum, L.—Not from 78. 

— marinum, L.—81, 85, 85. 

viride, Huds.—83, 84 (?), 85, 86, 87. 


308 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE |Sess, uxvin. 


Asplenium Trichomanes, L.—In all. 

Ruta-muraria, L..—In all. 

germanicum, Weiss.—80, 85 (?), 85. 

-—— septentrionale, Hull.—s0, 83. 

Athyrium Filix-foemina, Roth.—In all, but varieties not distinguished. 

alpestre, Milde.—86, 87. 

Ceterach officinarum, Willd.—81 + (?). 

Scolopendrium vulgare, Symons.—Not from 78, 84. 
Woodsia hyperborea, R. Br.—87. 

Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh.—Not from 78. Var. dentata, Hook., 84, 86. 
——- montana, Bernh.—86. 

Polystichum Lonchitis, Roth.—86, 87. 

lobatum, Presl—Not from 84. Var. aculeatum, Syme.—81, 83, 
85, 86. 

angulare, Pres].—80, 81, 85 (?), 85. 

Lastrea Thelypteris, Presl.—85 (?). 

Oreopteris, Presl.—Not from 82, 84. 

— — Filix-mas, Presl.—In all. Var. affinis, Bab., 81, 85. Var. 

paleacea, Moore, 85, 86, 87. 

— cristata, Presl.—84, in error. 

—— spinulosa, Presl.—88, 83, 85, 86, 87. 

—— dilatata, Presl.—In all. Var. alpina, Moore, 86. 

—— emula, Brackenb.—80 (?), 81 (?). 

Polypodium vulgare, L.—In all. Var. serratum, Willd., 36. 

Phegopteris Dryopteris, Fée.— Not from 82. 

poly podioides, Fée.—Not from 78, 82. 

Osmunda regalis, L.— Not from 78, 79, 80, 85, 85 (?). 

Ophioglossum vulgatum, L.—Not from 7S. 

Botrychium Lunaria, Sw.—Not from 78. 

Equisetum maximum, Lam.—81, 83, 55. 

arvense, L.—In all. 

—— pratense, Ehrh.—83, 84, 85, 86, 87. 

—— sylvaticum, L.—In all. 

—— limosum, Sm.—In all. 

—— hyemale, L.—81, 83, 85 (?), 87. 

—— variegatum, Schleich.—82, 85, 86 (5.) 

Lycopodium Selago, L.—Not from 78, 84, 85. 

inundatum, L.—85, 87. ~ 

—— clavatum, L.—Not from 82, 54. 

alpinum, L.—Not from 82, 84, 85. 

Selaginella selaginoides, Gray.—Not from 78, 84. 

Tsoetes lacustris, L.—85, 86, 87. 

— echinospora, Dur.—87. 

Pilularia globulifera, L.—83, 84, 85, 87. 


CHARACEA. 


Chara fragilis, Desv.—-Not from 78. 81,84. Var. barbata, Gant., 79, 81, 
86. Var. capillacea, Coss. and G., 86. Var. Hedwigii, Kuetz., 
80. Var. delicatula, Braun, 80, 81, 86, 87. 

aspera, Willd.—79, 85, 87. Var. subinermis, Kuetz., 85. 

-—— polyacantha, Braun.—79, 80, 85. 

— contraria, Kuetz.—82, 85. Var. hispidula, Braun, 85. 

-—— hispida, L.—81, 82 (?), 85 (?). Var. rudis, Braun, 80, 82. °- 

vulgaris, L.—Not from 75, 81, 84. 

Nitella translucens, Ag.—838 (?), 85 (?), 86, 87. 

flexilis, Ag.—86, 87. 

—— opaca, A.—Not from 84. 


Mar. 1903.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 309 


CAREX DIVISA, HUDSON, AS A SCOTTISH PLANT. 
sy ALEX. SOMERVILLE, B.Sc., F.L.S. 


(Read 12th March 1903.) 


It may, I believe, be said with truth that few genera of 
British plants have more felt the inroads of drainage and 
agriculture than the genus Cavex—our Sedges—represented 
in these Islands by some seventy species. Being in the 
main paludal, that is marsh-loving, plants, the conversion 
during the past century of tracts of country from undrained 
areas into ploughed land capable of yielding cereals 
and root-crops, has limited not a little those areas 
where the lower-ground Carices at least are to be met 
with, so that the stations for these are now, in many 
cases, widely dissevered and isolated. 

What I have stated has led me to bring before the 
Society a Sedge to which considerable interest attaches, a 
species which, though it occurs in various counties in 
England, in three in Wales, and in Wexford and Dublin 
in Ireland, has been reliably recorded from but one county 
only in Scotland—Forfarshire,— where, curiously, it had until 
lately continued practically perdu tor no less than eighty- 
eight years! 

The species I refer to is Carex divisa, first described by 
Hudson, a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, in the 
first edition of his “ Flora Anglica,’ published in London 
in 1762, that is a hundred and forty years ago. This 
Sedge was, in the summer of 1901, re-found near Montrose 
in Forfarshire by a Mr. James Menzies, as mentioned in 
the “ Annals of Scottish Natural History” for that year, 
at page 230. 

In regard to the floral structure of the species it may 
be said here that the inflorescence consists of a few short 
spikelets, all similar, and crowded into a somewhat ovate 
head, each spikelet having several staminate, 7¢. male, 
flowers at its top, those below being pistillate. The stems 
of the plant are erect and very slender, and rise to a 
height of a foot or more; the leaves too are long and very 
narrow. 


310 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ SESS. LXVU. 


With marshes near the sea as its habitat, C. divisa is, in the 
British Isles,a local plant. In England, for example, we find 
it oceurring sparingly from Cornwall along the south coast, 
and up the eastern coast as far as to south-east Yorkshire, 
in which district there is perhaps more of it than anywhere 
else, for Robinson, in the “Flora of the East Riding,” 
recently issued, says that though not of common occurrence, 
it is plentiful, where found, at stations near Hull. 

Our object here is to refer to what we now know of 
this Sedge as a Scottish plant. Highty-two years ago, 
Sir William Hooker, in his “ Flora Scotica,’ published in 
1821, stated, on the testimony of George Don—whose 
accuracy at that time had not been impugned—that C. 
divisa occurred in a “Marsh near Montrose, and 
sea-coast of Angus-shire, chiefly im marshy places.” 
Hooker probably obtained his information from an elaborate 
paper by Don himself, entitled, “ Account of the Native 
Plants in the County of Forfar,” which was contributed in 
1813 to Headrick’s “General View of the Agriculture of 
the County of Angus or Forfarshire.” In this account, on 
page 31, where allusion is made to the plant under our 
notice, there occurs the following sentence:—‘“ By the 
roadside, in coming from the North Water Bridge, he 
(i.e. the botanist) will find the C. divisa, one of the rarest 
Curices.” 

As Hewett Cottrell Watson asks in the “Cybele 
Britannica” in 1852, was it not strange that neither 
Mr. Gardiner, whose admirable “ Flora of Forfarshire ” 
appeared in 1848, nor any other botanist up to that time, 
would seem to have verified or confirmed any one station 
for the plant in Forfarshire? But what shall we say to 
the fact that until 1901, and completing an interval of 
eighty-eight years, no botanist had been able, of his own 
knowledge, to declare C. divisa to be a Forfarshire plant, 
but instead had to fall back on the statement made by 
Don. 

It is indeed satisfactory that Don’s doubted information 
of such old date should, in our day, be proved to be correct. 
In August of 1901, Mr. James Menzies, a member of the 
Perthshire Society of Natural Science, brought from a 
marsh near Montrose some specimens of a Carex new to 


Mar. 1903. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 311 


himself, and submitted them to Mr. William Barclay, 
Perth, the well-known authority on our wild roses. He, 
in turn, forwarded them to Mr. Arthur Bennett, F.L.S., our 
Associate, who replied: “I can make nothing else of the 
specimens than C. divisa of Hudson, a very interesting 
re-find after many years have passed”; and, he added, 
“The specimens have evidently been arrested in growth, 
probably from drought, and are small and not well de- 
veloped, but they are C. divisa, Hudson.” 

By the meeting by Mr. Menzies with this Sedge in 
Forfarshire, not only is Don’s doubted record of it from 
that county confirmed, but the plant is with confidence 
restored to the flora of Scotland. 

In the “Phytologist” for 1842, at page 405, there 
appears a communication from the late Thomas Edmonston, 
of Shetland, a Professor of Botany for a short time in 
Glasgow, who, as is known, had a remarkable but brief 
eareer. In this communication, Edmonston gives a list oi 
additions made by himself to the known flora of ten miles 
round Edinburgh, in which list curiously there appears the 
following item :—“ Carex divisa. Pentland hills, scarce.” 
Professor Trail, however, in his “ Topographical Botany of 
Scotland,” treats this record as unreliable, and as an error, 
as the occurrence of (. divisa in the Pentlands has never 
been confirmed. 

I am indebted for much of the information in this paper 
to the short article referred to, contributed by Mr. Barclay 
to the “ Annals of Scottish Natural History ” in1901, in 
which he embodied valuable notes sent to him by Mr. 
Bennett regarding Don’s connection with the Sedge in the 
county of Forfar, with the plants of which district Don 
was, as we know, so intimately acquainted. 


[At the reading of this paper there was exhibited a 
dried specimen of C. divisa, Hudson, from Forfarshire, and, 
for comparison, specimens from Suffolk (collected by 
Mr. E. S. Salmon, F.L.S.), and from Co. Wexford (collected 
by Miss L. 8. Glascott, and confirmed by Mr. Arthur 
Bennett, F.L.S.)]. 


312 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. txvu. 


ON THE GENUS POLYSTICHUM, ROTH (ASPIDIUM, SWARTZ, 
IN PART), WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO P, ANGULARE, PRESL., 
AND TO ITS DISTRIBUTION IN SCOTLAND. By ALEX. 
SOMERVILLE, B.Sc., F.L.S. 


(Read 11th June 1903.) 


It is well to be reminded occasionally that our British 
Ferns, including the Adder’s-tongue and Moonwort, number 
no more than forty-seven species, grouped into twenty 
genera. 

Ferns are the most highly organised of cryptogamic 
plants, and, by their elegance and grace, never fail to 
command our admiration, whether we look at the humble 
moss-like Hymenophyllum or at the arborescent tree-fern of 
Australasia, the Himalayas, and elsewhere. 

Though ferns are widely separated from flowering-plants 
in the important respect that they do not develop nor are 
reproduced by seeds, but, instead, by microscopic spores 
filled with structureless protoplasm, they, on the other 
hand, do claim kinship with phanerogams in possessing an 
internal vascular structure of stem, of remarkable tough- 
ness, which has, doubtless, much to do with the elegance of 
their outward form. 

Fern foliage is strikingly varied, as may be gathered 
from a strvey of our British species. This circumstance 
helps not a little in classifying the various species. It is 
not by the foliage, however, so much as by the varied 
conditions and arrangement found in the fructification, 
that ferns are grouped. Accordingly it is on inconspicuous 
points that fern classification is mainly based, points which 
are often more readily seen before the plant reaches 
maturity, than when it is in the mature state. The points 
of distinction require painstaking examination, and the 
consequence is that the superficial student contents himself 
with looking to external form, and there being, as it were, 
two strings to the bow he has to use in determining his 
plant, he, exercising his choice, selects the easier, and 
sueceeds fairly well. 


JUNE 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH als 


I have not the intention of entering here on a detailed 
description of fern fructification and early development; of 
the prothallus and the alternation of generations, on which 
so much has been written and might here be said, but, as 
it is the case that no fewer than forty of our forty-seven 
native species fall naturally into one tribe, the Polypodiee 
(the remaining seven being peculiar, and grouped in three 
small tribes), a few remarks regarding the fructification of 
the Polypodiew may be appropriate. 

Fern spores, as said, are microscopic and beyond the 
unassisted eye to see. In the aggregate they form the 
fern-dust of imaginative writers. They are not naked and 
exposed to the atmosphere, but are contained in minute, 
long-stalked capsules (capable, as is mentioned by Mr. 
G. F. Scott Elliot, F.LS., in his recent book, “ Nature 
Studies,” of holding sixty-four spores), and known 
each as a_ sporangiuwm, which bursts when ripe by 
the rupture of the annulus surrounding it, so shedding 
the spores. These sporangia, or spore-cases, are de- 
veloped on the under surface of the fern frond, 
and they form, grouped together, the circular patches 
known each as a sorus, which are so well seen in the 
common Polypody. These sori, except in two small 
genera, Polypodium and Gymnogramme, are protected, being 
sheltered by an umbrella-like covering, known as the 
indusium, which is either circular and button-like, or 
kidney-shaped, or continuous with the reflexed margin of 
the frond itself. 

In the genus Polystichum, our shield-ferns now under 
notice, the indusium which covers the sporangiwm-cluster is 
orbicular, ze. circular, and it is also peltate, i.e. target- 
shaped or shield-like, in being attached by the centre of 
its under surface to the surface of the fern itself by a 
stalk. This shield-shaped indusiwm is the cause of the 
plants being called shield-ferns. 

Of the genus Polystichum there may be said to be three 
British species, viz. Lonchitis, aculeatum, and angulare. 
We are at present showing the last-named, angulare, 
because of the fact that it is a plant of apparently increas- 
ing rarity, “ whether,’ as Mr. Arnold Lees remarks, from 
being “a running-out species, or one that has decreased from 

TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXII. xX 


o14 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. txvm. 


eradication, it is difficult to decide.” Many good Scottish 
botanists have never seen P. angulare growing. I show 
specimens gathered forty years ago by Mr. P. Neill Fraser 
of this Society, on Great Cumbrae Island, where I fear it 
is now quite extinct, and also from Loch Ranza, Arran, in 
which island I am doubtful if it is now to be found. I 
also show specimens obtained many years ago at Inverkip, 
tentrewshire, where, and along the coast to Skelmorlie, it 
used to be plentiful. Dr. Thomas Scott, F.L.S., records it 
from above Greenock, and Mr. D. A. Boyd, from Portin- 
cross, Ayrshire; and Mr. John Smith, Kilwinning, also is 
acquainted with three spots in Ayrshire where it occurs. 
I show a specimen obtained by myself last year in the 
extreme south of Ayrshire. 

Perhaps the most interesting of the sheets shown is 
that of specimens gathered by me in the woods at Skipness, 
in the Kintyre peninsula, in 1899. This record of the 
plant, with the exception of one from Lochgilphead, noticed 
in Moore’s “ Nature-Printed Ferns,’ published forty-four 
years ago, and of which there seems to have been no 
subsequent confirmation, is, according to Professor Trail, 
the only record from Argyllshire, or from any part of the 
west of Scotland north of Arran. Mr. Charles T. Druery, 
F.LS., President of the Pteridological Society, who has seen 
my Skipness specimens, says, as his label attached shows: 
“This is P. angulare, beyond a doubt, despite the locality.” 

The only other counties in Scotland from which 
P. angulare seems to be definitely recorded, and which, 
with one exception (viz. the first), are given in Professor 
Trail’s “Topographical Botany of Scotland,” are Kirkeud- 
bright, in the parish of Kells; Wigtown,—these both as 
recorded by our Associate Member, Mr. James M‘Andrew; 
Roxburgh; and Berwick, at Pease Dean, where Rev. Dr. 
Paul states it to be abundant; and there is also an old 
doubted record from Midlothian. 

In Ireland, which seems to have a congenial soil and 
atmosphere for the growth of the plant, we find it 
occurring, according to Preger’s “Irish Topographical 
Botany,” in every county, and in England it is also 
widely distributed, being recorded from Cornwall and 
Northumberland, and from many intervening counties. 


Juxe 1903.]} BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 315 


In concluding, I should like to refer briefly to the 
points which distinguish from one another the three 
British species of shield-ferns, viz. P. Lonchitis, P. aculeatum, 
and P. angulare. 

It will no doubt surprise some that we do not here 
include /obatwm, especially as it is a name used both in 
an aggregate and in a segregate sense in the “ London 
Catalogue of British Plants.” Opposite views are held 
as to whether we have two distinct plants in /obatum 
and aculeatum. The balance of opinion seems to be with 
those who consider that we have but one, viz. aculeatum, 
and that what has been known as /obatwm is but an early 
or immature state of the former, with the fronds more 
lanceolate and rigid, and with pinnules confluent and 
decurrent, or that at best it is but a variety of aculeatum. 
Newman, in his “ History of British Ferns,” Ed. 3, p. 112, 
published in 1854, gives it as his opinion—(1) That the 
dividing of the bipinnate aculeate ferns into three species— 
lobatum, aculeatum, and angulare—probably originated in 
an error of nomenclature, due to the various independent 
namings of Linnzus, Hudson, Kiintze, Willdenow, and 
Sir J. E. Smith; (2) that the three names, lobatum, 
aculeatum, and angulare, were not intended to represent 
three objects; and (3) that there was a disposition to 
reunite them as one species. Thomas Moore, in referring 
to this in his “ Nature-printed British Ferns,” published in 
1859, says: “It is doubtful if Linneus knew anything of 
angulare, though there is hardly any room to doubt that 
he included the other two under aculeatum.” This, Moore 
says, is the view which he himself and Newman had both 
adopted. 

One or two more recent opinions on this matter may 
also be mentioned. 1. We find Mr. F. Arnold Lees, 
perhaps the best botanist in the north of England, re- 
marking as follows in his “Flora of West Yorkshire,” 
published in 1888:—“The form J/obatum of Smith is 
frequent wherever the type occurs, but is not a true 
variety.” 2. Mr. Charles T. Druery, to whom I have 
submitted a considerable series of what might be supposed 
to include examples of both lobatum and aculeatum, replied: 
“TIT do not consider there is any real distinction between 


316 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess, uxvn. 


so-called lobatum-genuinum and aculeatum.” 3. Mr. Wm. 
Stewart, Glasgow, has no belief in lobatum as a sub-species, 
and considers it only a form of aculeatum. 4. Mr. Robert 
Kidston, F.R.S., who informs me that “a specimen of 
lobatum, under cultivation, eventually assumed the typical 
form of aculeatum, though the change in assuming the 
typical form of wculeatwm took some years to accomplish.” 
From all this it would seem that lobatum is but an early 
state of aculeatum. 

Of the three acknowledged British species, then, of 
Polystichuin, we take first P. Lonchitis, looked on as the 
type of the genus, and occurring in all four divisions of 
the Kingdom. It is a mountain rock-plant—rather 
almost an arctic species, for it is found in the high 
latitudes of Europe, Asia, and America, and also in the 
Himalayas. It ranges on the Breadalbanes up to 3400 
feet, and is found most frequently nestling below large 
boulders. It is the most hardy British fern, and an 
evergreen. Its main characteristic is that its numerous 
and sometimes overlapping pine are not divided into 
pinnules. In its mature state, this, which we know as 
the Holly Shield-fern, is not confoundable with either of 
the other two. 

Regarding P. aculeatum and P. angulare, though these, 
when normally grown, are sufficiently distinct from one 
another, they are occasionally somewhat closely alike, and 
liable to confuse even the experienced eye. Various 
points of distinction may be touched off as follows, viz.:— 

1. aculeatum is more glossy in appearance, and more 
rigid in texture ; 

angulare is more lax and drooping, and the teeth 
of the leaves being long-awned, the whole plant 
is softer in appearance and to the touch. 

2. aculeatum has its pinnules wedge-shaped, 7.e. shaped 
like an acute angle at their base or point of 
attachment, and they are almost sessile, ze. they 
ean hardly be described as stalked ; 

in angulare, on the other hand, the base of the 
pinnules is in the form almost of a right angle, 
and the pinnules are distinctly stalked, so dis- 
tinetly, Dr. Thomas Scott remarks, that when 


June 1903.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH wy ¢ 


the frond is held to the light there is seen a 
clear line along each side of the axis of the 
pinna, between it and the pinnules, a line quite 
absent in the case of aculeatum. Further, with 
regard to the pinnules of angulare, it is also 
pointed out by Dr. Scott that they possess a 
characteristic rounded lobe at the lower outer 
extremity of the triangle, a lobe absent in 
aculeatum. 

3. In aculeatum the pinne of the lower part of the 
rachis gradually diminish in size downwards till 
near its lower end; 

in angulare the pinne stop abruptly, and somewhat 

higher up the sézpes, or part of the stem below 
the pinne. 

4. In both species, while the stipes is clothed with 
membranous, chaffy, reddish-coloured ramenta or 
scales, these scales, in the case of angulare, are 
larger, shaggier, and more copious than in 
aculeatum. 

I have to apologise, not only for the length of this 
“Note,” but also for the fact that so much that is stated 
in it is common knowledge, still I hope it may afford 
interest to some, and that it may also stimulate a desire 
to study those nature-forms to which we have been 
referring. 


Report OF THE 1902 ExcuRSION OF THE SCOTTISH 
ALPINE CLuB. By ALEXANDER Cowan, Esq. 


(Read 8th January 1903.) 


The members of the Scottish Alpine Botanical Club met 
at the Caledonian Station, Edinburgh, on Monday, the 28th 
July 1902, and travelled to Tyndrum, where it had been 
arranged to hold the Annual Meeting, and where comfort- 
able quarters were found in the Royal Hotel. On the 
following day, Tuesday, the 29th July, the members 
present, viz.:—Mr. Boyd, President; Dr. Paul, Vice- 
President ; Dr. Craig, Dr. Church, Mr. Potts, Mr. Craw- 
ford, together with the writer, who was present as a visitor 


318 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. txvu. 
on the invitation of the President, drove down the valley 
to the foot of Ben Laoigh, whose summit, owing to the 
unfavourable weather, was clothed in mist. The members 
spent the greater part of the day examining the rocks on 
the north side of the mountain. All the well-known plants 
were found. It is therefore considered unnecessary to give 
a list. The members returned in the afternoon by the 
same route, with the exception of two of the party who 
walked round the mountain in order to explore the Corrie, 
where the Parsley Fern, Allosorus crispus, was found in 
large quantity and in great luxuriance. Only one member 
of the party climbed to the summit, and he had a most 
unpleasant and uncanny experience in the thick wetting 
mist, no view, of course, being possible. 

The Annual Business Meeting of the Club was held in 
the evening. 

The second day, Wednesday, the 30th, was spent at 
Loch-na-bee, where plants of the supposed Scirpus fluitans 
were obtained. ‘Two of the party afterwards explored the 
hill at the south side of the loch, but found nothing new 
except a species of Salix, with which they are unacquainted, 
and which has yet to be named. 

On the third day, Thursday, the 31st, the members went 
by train and steamer to Port Sonachan on Loch Awe, where 
two nice varieties of the Lady Fern were found by Mr. 
Boyd, plants of which were secured. 

The weather, which on the first day was damp and 
unpleasant, was on the whole fair; but the meeting, as 
far as regards the plants of any interest found, was a 
disappointing and unsuccessful one. The Cystopteris 
montana, it is gratifying to add, was seen in such 
quantity that it is not likely soon to become extinct. 
Kobresia caricina was found in considerable quantity 
also, but probably owing to the cold season was not 
over four inches high, and Azalea procumbens was seen in 
large quantity. 

The attendance of members, which was not large to 
begin with, was still further reduced before the end of the 
meeting, owing to some of those present having to leave to 
keep other appointments elsewhere. The meeting broke 
up on Friday, 1st August. 


Fes. 1903.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 319 


NOTES ON A CENSUS OF THE FLORA OF THE AUSTRALIAN 
Aups. By James Stiritinec, A.LCE.; Gov. Geolst. of 
Victoria; Cor. Mem. Linn. Soe. N.S.W. 


(Read 12th February 1903.) 


In preparing a census of the Flora of the Australian 
Alps, the author has in view an inquiry into the origin 
and distribution df the mixed types of plants now flourish- 
ing on the higher altitudes over South-East Australia, 
and its relation to the Tertiary Floras of South-East 
Australia. 

The present census is a _ preliminary contribution 
towards that object, and as an aid to correlation with other 
Alpine Floras. 

During the years 1875 to 1888 he collected 1019 
species of plants in the valleys, ridges, peaks, and table- 
lands of the region, at elevations between 2000 and 
7000 ft., most of which were named by the late Baron 
Ferdinand von Mueller, Government Botanist.1 The area 
over which the plants were collected stretches from the 
heads of the Yarra River in Victoria, in a north-east 
direction along the main watershed line dividing the 
streams flowing north into the Murray River from those 
flowing south and south-east, to the Gippsland Lakes and 
the Southern Ocean ; and in the lateral watershed lines and 
tablelands to the region around Mount Kosciusko in New 
South Wales; and covers an area of about 15,000 square 
miles. 

The general study of the Flora shows” that here, as 
elsewhere, climatic conditions have exerted a dominating 
influence in the evolution of varietal forms. This is 
particularly noticeable in the Myrtacez, especially in the 
genus Lucalyptus. It has been pointed out that— 

“The existence of small colonies of mountain species 
in the lowlands, as, for instance, #. pauciflora and E£. 


1 “ Phanerogamice of Mitta Mitta Source Basin.” Trans. Roy. Soc. 
Viet., Part I., 1882 ; Part II., 1884. 

2“ Physiography of Australian Alps.” Trans. Aust. Assoc. for 
Advancement of Science, Sydney Meeting. 


320 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. txvul, 


viminalis (b), points to survivals from a time when the 
climate*was much colder than it is now. The oscillations 
of level which have affected the coast-line of the southern 
half of this continent may be well studied in Gippsland. 
These must certainly have produced variations of climate 
extending back beyond the Cainozoic period. 

“The Gippsland Alps have not been submerged 
beyond a contour line of some 800 to 1000 ft. above 
sea-level, not only during that period of time, but 
that land surface must have been continuous backwards 
to the time when the Mesozoic coal measures of Gippsland 
were formed. 

“The lauraceous and other plants which have been 
found in the Miocene’ drifts of Gippsland indicate, as 
does also the fauna of the marine limestones of that 
district, a warmer climate than of the present day. 

“Lake Karng at Mount Wellington, if a moraine lake, 
points, on the other hand, to an Alpine climate, descending 
to within at least 3000 ft. of the sea-level. Such changes 
of climate have evidently been attended by a corresponding 
change in the Tertiary Flora, in which that element, which 
is now characteristic of Australia, has gradually pre- 
dominated. Such changes of climate may also account in 
part for the great number of recorded types of Eucalypts 
and their varieties, and of which no less than 35 occur in 
Gippsland. 

“Geological formation, as producing variation of soil, 
has no doubt influenced the present distribution of 
the Eucalypts, but its effect cannot be made out so 
clearly as those produced by climate; but the broad 
features can be readily seen by anyone travelling through 
Gippsland.” ” 


PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE MAIN WATERSHED LINE OR 
DivipInG RANGE. 


The physical features of the main watershed line 
present a diversity of contour: long sinuous ridges rising 
into flat-topped mountains, as Mount Howitt; to coned 

1 Now classed as Eocene. 


“The Eucalypts of Gippsland.” A. W. Howill, S.S.C. Trans. 
Roy. Soc. Vict. 


BOGO 
oMyrtleford 


Marysville 
ler 
Cranton® 


Berwick 

° Tanjil 

° Nannar-goon A 
Warragul 

© Moe 


BULN-BULWN 


° iguanaCre 


Bairnsdale 
° 


~—4000' LEVEL 


2000" LEVEL 


3p NETongueing 
snk WascEakers 
MP Bulla Bulla > 


ALPS 


VICTORIA. 


James Stirling. 


IS) (0) 22, 


SCALE OF MILES. 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 321 


peaks, The Twins, 6000 ft.; to dome-shaped heights, as 
Mount Hotham, 6100 ft; broadening out into flat expanses 
of tableland at lower levels, as Baw Baw Plains, 5300 ft.; 
descending into low gaps or saddles, as Tongio Gap, near 
Omso, 3000 ft.—thus affording an easier access from the 
northern basin to the seaboard; and again rising into 
rugged and escarped mountains, as Mounts Tambo, 4700 
ft., and Cobberas, 6025 ft.; or into aguille-shaped peaks, 
as Mount Pilot; or the still loftier irregular contours 
of the snow-clad mountain plateaux surrounding Mount 
Kosciusko, 7250 ft. above sea-level. _ 

Lofty tablelands occur on the lateral watershed lines ; 
those north of the main watershed line in Victoria comprise 
the Bogong High Plains, 6000 ft., and the Omeo Plains, 
3000 ft. This depressed tableland, which covers an area 
of 24 square miles, has a small lake in its centre, 3} miles 
long by 14 wide, which is fed by rains and storm-waters 
from the surrounding hills. It has no visible outlet, the 
character of the surrounding country consisting of open tree- 
less plains, merging by gentle slopes into the encircling 
timbered ranges. Those south of it comprise the Snowy 
Plains, about 5000 ft.; Dargo High Plains, 5000; and 
the Nuninyong and Gelantipy tablelands, each over 3000 ft. 
above sea-level. 

In close proximity to one of these plateaux (Bogong 
High Plains), on a lateral watershed line, the highest peaks 
in Victoria are situated, notably, Mount Bogong, 6508 ft. 
at its northern extremity; Mount Cope, 6015 ft. at its 
eastern rim; and Mount Feathertop, 6305 ft. at the 
south-west margin. 

The physical features and climatic conditions of all the 
higher plateaux are distinctly Alpine. Flat expanses of 
moorland, and undulating rises, covered with alpine flowers 
and snowgrasses, mosses, and lichens, at the sources of 
springs; and groups of gnarled and stunted gum scrub 
{eucalyptus) on the lower lying shelves. Although the 
surface is rocky in parts, the soil of most of the table- 
lands, except that of the Mount Kosciusko plateau, is rich 
voleanic, and is highly productive. During midsummer, 
about the beginning of February, these highlands are 
covered with a most luxuriant verdure, the richness and 


322 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxvit. 


softness of which is hardly conceivable by those who have 
not seen similar localities. The bright emerald tinted 
carpeting of snowgrasses, the variegated colours of numerous 
herbaceous plants, and dwarfed but diffuse shrubs, with 
crystal streams (small source runnels) traversing the area, 
make a most striking contrast to the brown and parched 
appearance of the lower lands and valleys, literally languish- 
ing in excessive dryness at this season of the year. The 
grandeur and sublimity of the surrounding scenery, seas of 
mountains rising wave-like on every side, presenting almost 
infinite shades of blue and purple colouring, the extreme 
rarity of the air and other conditions which lend an 
additional charm to the landscape, leave an impression on 
the mind of the beholder not easily effaced. Although 
these highlands form excellent summer pasturages, upon 
which stock fatten rapidly—so rich and nutritive is the 
herbage,—yet, owing to the severe frosts, snow, and sudden 
climatic changes, they are for many months of the year 
perfectly inhospitable. Snow frequently falls to a depth of 
twelve feet in these regions, and, where at all shaded from 
the sun’s direct rays, remains throughout the entire summer, 
forming young glaciers, which, however, never mature, owing 
to the variation in summer temperature, to which even 
these regions are subject. 

Some of the evidences of this ancient highland are 
found in the localities now occupied by coatings of basalt 
overlying widespread river gravels and clay stones (which 
contain the remains of Eocene flora) resting on silurian or 
metamorphic rocks. Some of the present rivers, such as 
the Mitchell, Dargo, and Mitta Mitta, have eroded their 
courses along the margin of these lava flows to a depth 
of 4000 feet, leaving the height of the underlying Eocene 
strata and the depth of the basaltic coating plainly 
discernible, 

The present elevated plateaux, as might be expected, 
form the gathering grounds of most of the principal streams, 
traversing deep valleys with extremely picturesque contours, 
such as the Snowy River, Mitchell, and Latrobe, flowing 
south into the Southern Ocean and the Gippsland Lakes ; 
and the Murray, Mitta Mitta, Ovens, King, and Goulburn 
Rivers flowing north and north-west. 


Diviptine Rance, HEAD Or Kine RIVER (p. 320). 


Mowtnt FEATHERTOP (p. 321). 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 323 


The main watershed line is not an original axis of 
elevation, but on the contrary has assumed its present 
‘position by a long continuous process of denudation and 
erosion from a once extensive highland existing during later 
Eocene, or early Miocene times. High ridges of Silurian 
slates, in which auriferous quartz veins occur, as Mount 
Feathertop, 6300 ft. above sea-level, and bold rounded 
mountains of granite or granitiform gneiss, and metamorphic 
rocks, as Mounts Buffalo, 6000 ft., and Bogong, 6508 ft., 
‘stand out on the lateral watershed lines. Some of the peaks | 
on the main watershed line, such as the Cobberas Mountain, 
6075 ft., are the cores and surrounding consolidated ash- 
beds, ete., of old palzozoic volcanoes of Lower Devonian 
age. While on the flanks of the Main Divide, isolated and 
now elevated remnants of the old Middle Devonian seabeds 
occur as limestone or sandstone beds, at an elevation of 
from 1000 to 3000 feet, as at Bindi, Buchan, Tabberabbera, 
ete. Massive conglomerated sandstones, and inter-bedded 
igneous rocks, forming rugged heights and clifis of Upper 
Devonian age, cover a considerable portion of the area, as 
the bold escarpments of the Moroka Valley at Snowy Bluff, 
and Mount Tambo, near Omeo Plains. 

Magnificent Eucalyptus forests clothe the sub-alpine 
levels, certain species, as Lucalyptus sieberiana, occurring in 
altitudinal zones, others, as #&. Gunnii, E. stellulata, and 
L. pauciflora, struggle up as stunted gnarled stems to the 
elevation of 6800 ft. on the northern slopes. At the 
highest elevations arboraceous vegetation is entirely absent, 
or represented by low diffuse and gnarled varieties of LF. 
pauciflora. Several of the herbaceous plants of the higher 
altitudes may be cultivated as esculents, and others used 
medicinally. The edible plants of cold temperate climates 
eculd be cultivated successfully in a large extent of this 
mountainous country. 

There is great variation in many composite herbs of 
the Australian Alps during different seasons, sports being 
abundant in dry seasons, and the reversion to foliaceous 
forms very remarkable. 

Among medicinal plants flourishing in the sub-alpine 
areas are Atherosperma moschatum (or native sassafras), 
Daviesia latifolia (the native hop), Comesperma volubile, 


324 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. txvit. 


Drimys aromatica (native pepper tree), Aciphylla glacialis 
(native parsnip), Leptomeria aphylla (native cranberry), 
Pimelia axiflora (native hemp), and many Eucalyptus trees 
and myrtaceous shrubs yielding valuable oils. 

In the eastern region adjacent to the Australian Alps, 
especially in the watershed of the Snowy River valley, 
there is a remarkable commingling of types of a tropic 
facies with others of a distinctively antarctic character 
The Snowy River finds its source runnels in the Mount 
Kosciusko plateau, 7000 ft. above sea-level, and the 
Maneroo tableland at lower altitudes in the southern 
portion of the state of New South Wales. 

In this region may be seen the effects of varying 
hygrometric and other meteorological conditions in the 
evolution of varietal forms, such species as Craspedia 
Richea, Helichrysum rosmarinifolium, among the Composite ; 
Daviesia latifolia and several Acacias among the Legu- 
minose; and in the forms of the arboreous Drimys 
aromatica, and Panax sambucifolius; several myrtaceous 
shrubs; Styphelia ericoides, Gentiana saxosa, and the 
ubiquitous Wahlenbergia gracilis. 

Of the 10,000 species of plants peculiar or indigenous 
to Australia, not more than one-tenth occur in the 
Australian Alps at altitudes above 2000 ft. or in the 
altitudinal zone between 2000 and 7000 ft. 

The proportion between the Phanerogams and Crypto- 
gams of the species collected is as follows :— 


Phanerogams (80 arden) . 249 genera 678 species. 
Cryptogams : al Olek ies Elie 
ALO) sipey LOnO Meee 


There is much work to be done in the latter division 
before a final comparison can be made. 

It will be seen that of the known 182 natural orders 
of Phanerogamic plants occurring in Australia, nearly one- 
half occur in the Australian Alps. 

The principal orders of plants which contain the 
greatest number of genera and species are as follows :— 


(p. 


KOSCIUSKO PLATEAU 


Mount 


ON 


XPLORING PARTY 


~ 
“ 


I 


UCALYPTUS FOREST, SUB-ALPINE LEVEL (p. 


+ 
4 


In a k 


the Peet neti a ae 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 325 


Musci 


47 genera 96 species 25 species above 5000 ft. 

Leguminosie A ae | ma 19 a a 
Composite . 715 teh Tae 28 Re 5 
Filices ee i. HOU 6 a i 
Myrtacez Gs we ADS x 8 5 os 
Cyperacez . LG. ee 36) oe 7 ri = 
Graminee . LO,SSs sayin 29 * 
Lichens Faia ap S: 35 5 is 
Epacridez . Geis a4 = oe 9 si 2 
Proteacez . 6s oes 7 3 
Orchideze Otay. 519 ia bay a l = * 
Rutaceze as 24° 11 A mt 
Labiatze Semis Lien 3 _ ” 
Liliaceze fay TGei as 1 ns 55 
Scrophularinee . 5 ,, BA iets fi * “si 
Umbellifere . Sie. TSS 6 * 
Euphorbiacez esate 1s 1 55 Ee 
Caryophyllez 5D 12 ry i 5 vy 
Goodeniacec . AN Lia 1 ~ es 
Ranunculacez Seas 1 aes ia 


Thus it will be noted that the Lichens, Composite, 
Mosses, Graminew, and Leguminose are represented by 
the greatest number of species at the altitudes above 
5000 ft.; the Rutacez, KEpacridee, Myrtacez, Scrophu- 
larineee, Ranunculacee, Caryophy lle, Proteaceze, Cyperacez, 
Ferns, and Umbelliferee coming next in the order given. 

The numerical proportion of the species of Phanero- 
gams represented in the Australian Alps as distributed in 
the different Australian States is as follows :— 


Victoria . ; P : : 5 GAS 
New South Wales . : : = 588 
Tasmania : ‘ : : 2° 3 }5%5) 
Queensland . : : : . 228 
W. Australia . : : i 5 dae 
S. Australia . : P ; 3 35 


The greater number in New South Wales is accounted 
for by the fact that a considerable portion of the Australian 
Alps, including the highest altitudes above 6500 ft., is in 
the southern part of that State; although the greatest 
areal extent of the mountain ranges and lateral tablelands, 
known as the Australian Alps, or where the maximum 
number of species occur, is in Victoria. 

The strictly endemic species are not less than sixty, 
and those endemic to South-East Australia and Tasmania 
amount to about ninety. 

On the whole, there is a greater affinity with the 
Tasmanian Alpine Flora than with that of any other 
region. 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXVIl. 


Analysing the orders richest in species in relation to 
other floras, or comparing the relative magnitudes of the 
nine largest orders, we get the following :— 


ee | AUSTRALIA. TASMANIA. | NEW ZEALAND. WORLD. 

| 

| 

| SEE ss ES ed aS ae 

| Leguminos:e Leguminose | Compositie Composite Composite 

| Composite Myrtacez Orchidew Cyperacee Leguminose 

| Myrtacez Proteacez Epacridee Graminee Gramineze 
Cy peracex Composite Leguminosee | Scrophularinee | Orchidez 

| Graminee Graminee Cyperace Orchide Rubiaceze 

| Proteaceae Cy peraceze Graminee Rubiaceze Euphorbiacee 
Orchideze Epacridez Myrtacee Epacrideze Labiate 

| Epacridez Goodeniacee | Liliaceze Umbelliferze Myrtaceze 

| Rutacez Orchidez Proteacee Ranunculacee | Cyperacez 

| Labiatee 

| Liliacez 

| Umbelliferze 

| Scrophularines | 

| Ranuneulacee | 

| Euphorbiace 

| Goodeniace 

| Caryophyllez 

| Pittosporeze 

| 
Leguminose has most species in S.E., next in 8.W. of Australia, least in tropics, 
Composite s 3 S.E. 53) Sisal Fe ,, tropics. 
Myrtacez Us S.E. Ra Wie 5 5, tropics. 
Cyperacee a S.W. ee Sok a ,,  tropies. 
Graminez 5 tropics ,, 58.H. 3 53!) SORE: 
Proteacez Fi S.W. aH ee eelae 55 ;, tropics. 
Orchide ; S.E. ee Was 7 ;, tropics. 
Epacride 5 S.E. Se Ens ee ;; tropics. 
Rutacee 1 3 S.E. ae ae 33 » tropics. 
Ranunculacee 5 S.E. SA Wie ; », tropics. 


1 Rutacee, after Australia, abounds most in India. 


In his introductory essay to the “ Flora of Tasmania,” 
Sir J. D. Hooker remarks that the chief peculiarities of the 
Australian flora, as a whole, are, that it contains more 
genera and species peculiar to its own area, and fewer 
plants belonging to other parts of the world, than any 
other country of equal extent; about two-fifths of its 
genera, and upwards of seven-eighths of its species, are 
entirely confined to Australia; that many of the plants 
have a very peculiar habit of physiognomy, giving in some 
cases a character to the forest scenery, as Eucalypti, 
Acaciz, Proteaceze, Casuarine, Conifer; are themselves 
of anomalous or grotesque appearance, as Xanthorrhcea, 


Casuarina, Banksia, ete. 


Many genera and species display singular peculiarities, 


Fes, 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH a0 


as the ovules of Banksia; calyptra of Eucalyptus; stigma 
of Goodeniacee ; staminal column of Stylidium ; irritable 
labellum of various Orchidezx ; flowers sunk in the wood of 
some Leptospermez; pericarp of Casuarina; receptacle 
and inner staminodia of Eupomatia; and stomata of 
Proteacez. | 

Notwithstanding these peculiarities, Hooker considers 
that it is impossible to regard the-Australian vegetation 
in any other light than as forming a peculiar, but not 
aberrant or anomalous, botanical province of the existing 
vegetable kingdom. 

The great specific difference between the plants of the 
south-eastern and south-western parts of Australia is 
referred to as being greater than that between Australia 
and the rest of the globe. 

It is also pointed out that most of those Australian 
orders and genera which are found in other countries 
round Australia have their maximum development, in 
Australia, at points approximating in geographical position 
towards those of neighbouring countries. 

It is noteworthy that the following orders represented in 
the Australian Alps abound, after Australia, most in South 
Africa, or in extra tropical South Africa :— Proteace, 
Rutaceze, Restiacee, Thymelexe, Droseraceze, Polygaleex, 
Santalacee, Irideze, Epacridez, and Rubiacez. 

The forecast given by Sir J. D. Hooker that the ante- 
eedents of the peculiar Australian flora may have inhabited 
an area to the west of the Australian continent, analogous 
with South Africa, and that the bonds of affinity between 
the Antarctic, Australian, and South African floras indicate 
them as members of one great vegetation which may have 
covered as large an area as the European does in the 
northern hemisphere, is one which, I think, receives ample 
confirmation by the most recent phytographic research. 

It is also noteworthy that a number of plants from 
the mountains of New Guinea occur in the Australian 
Alps. There is also a mixture of forms peculiar to the 
Himalayas; Kurrum Valley, Afghanistan; the mountains 
of North Borneo; and Morocco (Africa). 

The occurrence of New Zealand and Polynesian types 
of plants in the Australian Alps and Tasmania, along with 


328 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. rxvi 


distinctively antarctic types is peculiar. It is suggested 
that the Polynesian features have been derived from some 
Pacific islands which have since been overrun by an 
Indian vegetation, and Tasmania peopled by New Zealand 
and antarctic forms before the Australian vegetation spread 
over it and replaced them. Such Australian genera as 
Hriostemon, Kennedya, Acacia, Leptospermum, Banksia, 
Didiscus, Coprosma, Leucopogon, Lomatia, Grevillea, Exo- 
curpos, Casuarina, Araucaria, Microtis, Stypandra, ete., are 
represented by species in the New Hebrides and New 
Caledonia. 

The following genera and species occurring in the 
Australian Alps, some of which are European forms, are 
represented in the floras of the islands south of New 
Zealand (Fugean and Kerguelen islands) :—Caltha introloba, 
Drimys aromatica, Cardamine hirsuta, Drosera Areturi, 
Stellaria media, Sagina procumbens, Colobanthus subulatus, 
Geranium  dissectum, Pelargoniums, Oxalis magellanica, 
Geum urbanum, Acena Sanguisorbe, Epilobium tetragonum, 
Myriophyllum elatinoides, Apium australe, Oreomyrrhis 
andicola, Coprosma hirtella, Erechthites, Stellaria radicans, 
Gentiana montana, Limosella aquatica, Samolus repens, 
Plantago Brown, Chenopodium glaucum, Lomatia ilierfolia, 
Fagus Gunnii, Astelia, Juncus bufonius, Oreobolus Pumalio, 
Hierochloe redolens, Trisetum subspicatum, and Festuca. 

While the anomalies between the New Zealand and 
the Australian vegetation are certainly very great, yet 
there are numerous points of affinity which are all the 
more remarkable. Among these is the great amount of 
generic affinity in the three largest orders—Composite, 
Orchidee, and Graminee. Hooker states that of the 
240 genera of Australian plants common to New Zealand, 
60 are almost exclusively confined to the two areas, while 
fully one-quarter of the New Zealand species of Phane- 
rogams are natives of Australia, 115 being confined to the 
two countries, and that 20 of these are alpine plants in 
both countries. The greatest generic affinity exists among 
the Cryptogams. 

The proportion between the arboreous, semi-arboreous 
(shrubs), and herbaceous plants, excluding the Graminee 
and Cryptogams, is as follows :—168; 46; 162. 


cx 


Fes. 1903.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 329 


The several classes of mountains so ably described by 
Professor Geikie in the “ Transactions of the Royal Scottish 
Geographical Society”’ are represented in the Australian 
Alps. 

The Cobberas Mountains are examples of the Tectonic 
class, and Mounts Tabletop, Tambo, etc., of the Relict 
class. 


The order RANUNCULACEA is represented by a number 
of Alpine herbs, among which is the apparently endemic 
Caltha introloba, so closely resembling a New Zealand 
species. The large white-petalled FR. anemoneus is a 
striking floral feature of the Australian alpine areas, 
along with the yellow-petalled buttercups, R. Mwelleri and 
Rk. Millani. 


The order DILLENIACE2 is represented by a single 
genus Hibbertia, with six species ascending to sub-alpine 
habitats between 3000 and 4000 ft., such as H. stricta, 
Hi. serpyllifolia, H. linearis, H. diffusa, H. dentata, and H. 
pedunculata. 


MAGNOLIACEZ is represented by Drimys aromatica 
(the native pepper tree), at elevations of from 2000 to 
4000 ft. This species forms a handsome small tree. At 
the higher alpine levels between 5000 and 6000 ft. it is 
dwarfed to a low diffuse and gregarious shrub with thick 
leaves and bark. 


MoNIMIEZ is represented by two beautiful trees at 
sub-alpine habitats, Atherospermum moschatum, the native 
sassafras of medicinal value for heart affections, and the 
handsome foliaged Hedycarya Cunninghami. Both ascend 
in humid gullies to 4600 ft. elevation. 


LAURACE# is only represented by the peculiar climbing 
plants Cassytha melantha and C. glabella, which cover 
shrubs up to elevations of 4000 to 5000 ft. 


The European order CrUCIFER& is represented by mostly 
European genera, the ubiquitous Cardamine lirsuta now 
occurring all over the Alps up to 7000 ft., along with 


1 Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1901, September, vol. xvii. 
TRANS, BOT. SOC. EDIN, VOL. XXII. ; b's 


330 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxvit. 


Erysimum capsellinum up to 6500 ft. C. dictyosperma at 
5000 ft., and an Arabis, A. glabra, at 4800 ft. 


VIOLACE®.—There are several genera at the higher 
levels. Viola caleyana ascends to 6500 ft., V. betonier- 
folia and the procumbent V. hederacea ascend to 5000 ft., 
Hybanthus filiformis to 4000 ft., and the ever fragrant 
Humenanthera Banksii, which forms a small tree at the 
lower levels up to 3000 ft., and a spinous shrub, var. 
angustifolia at the higher altitudes up to 6000 ft. 


None of the genera of the order PITTOSPOREA are 
represented above 4600 ft. Pittosporum bicolor, which 
forms a small robust tree at the lower levels of 2000 ft., 
is reduced to a small shrub at the sub-alpine levels of 
4000 ft. Similarly Bursaria spinosa, which at the lower 
sub-alpine limestones of Bindi is a profusely flowering and 
fragrant small tree, is dwarfed to a spinous divaricate 
shrub at 4000 ft. 

Billardiera longiflora and JB. scandens ascend to 
4000 ft. 


DrosERACEX. — Two species of the genus Drosera are 
common. One, a distinctly alpine form, D. Arecturi, 
flourishes in damp flats near melting snow at 6000 to 
7000 ft.; the other, D. auriculata, ascends in sub-alpine 
habitats to 4000 ft. Both species are insectivorous. 


HYPERICINES. — Hypericum japonicum, in the form of a 
var. gramineum, ascends to 5000 ft. levels. 


POLYGALEZ.—One genus, Comesperma, is represented by 
species at the higher levels, C. ericinum up to 6000 ft., 
and C. retusum to 4000 ft. Another interesting species, 
C. volubile, only reaches the lower sub-alpine habitats at 
3000 ft. The root of this species is of medicinal value, 
having an agreeable sarsaparilla flavour. 


Rurace®.'—Among Rutaceous plants none are more 
generally distributed than the Native Fuchsia, Correa 
luwrenciana, especially on the sub-alpine littoral slopes, 
where it is frequently gregarious. 


1 Vide “Notes on the Rutacez of the Australian Alps.” By J. 
Stirling. Trans. Linnzean Society, New South Wales. 


a 


Fes. 1903.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 33 


The arboreous Zieria Smithit, var. macrophylla, ascends in 
sub-alpine habitats to 4800 ft. Among Boronias, B. algida, 
B. pilosa, and Bb. polygalifolia are common all over the 
highest altitudes between 4000 and 6500 ft. 

The genus Lriostemon contains a number of hardy 
species, apparently endemic to our Australian highlands, 
including the sparsely distributed C. ozothamnoides, a robust 
shrub on rocky situations. £. phylicifolius is common 
between 4000 and 6000 ft., together with 2. trymalioides ; 
EL. alpinus and £. ovatifolius grow luxuriantly on the 
high mountain tops, between 4500 and 7000 ft.; also 
LE. correifolius. All the other species ascend to 4000 ft. 


LINE”. — The ubiquitous Linum marginale, or native 
flax, is robust at 5000 ft.: it is thicker stemmed and larger 
leaved, with deeper blue flowers, at the higher levels. 


GERANIACEX.—Geranium sessiliflorum ascends to 5000 
ft., along with Pelaryonium australe, and the endemic 
Oxalis, O. magellanica. The ubiquitous O. corniculata also 
ascends to 5000 ft. 


MALVACE&. — Only one species, Plagianthus pulchellus, 
ascends to sub-alpine areas of 3000 ft. 

STERCULIACEZ, — Two genera are represented at sub- 
alpine habitats, Commersonia dasyphylla up to 4500 ft. 
and Lasiopetalum dasyphyllum up to 4000 ft. 


? 


TILIACEA.— Only one species, Eleocarpus holopetalus, 
ascends to 4000 ft., although £. cyaneus is noted from a 
3000 ft. altitude. 


EUPHORBIACEA is represented by six genera at the 
higher levels. Poranthera microphylla ascends to 6500 ft., 
Micrantheum hexandrum to 4000 tt., Psewdanthus divarica- 
tissimus to 5000 ft., Beyeria viscosa and B. opaca, var. 
linearis, 4000 to 4600 ft., Phyllanthus thymoides to 
4000 ft, P. Gunnit and Bertya Cunninghamii ascend to 
3600 ft. 

Urticace&%. — The nettles are represented by two 
genera, Australina pusilla up to 4000 ft., and Urtiea incisa 
up to 5000 ft. 


CUPULIFERH. — The evergreen native beech, Fagus 
Cunninghamu, a fine straight-stemmed tree, ascends to 


332 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. txvit- 


sub-alpine levels on the western flanks of the Alps, in 
the Yarra and Talbot valleys, to 3000 ft. 


CASUARINEA:.—Two of the she-oaks, Casuarina suberosa 
and C. distyla, are found at altitudes of 3000 to 4000 ft, 
principally as low shrubs. 


SAPINDACEA. — Only one genus, with three species, 
Dodonea viscosa, D. procumbens, and D. boroniefolia, ascend 
to alpine areas, 4000 to 5000 ft. 


STACKHOUSIEA. — All the species of the genus Stack- 
housia reach alpine habitats, S. linarifolia to 4600 ft., 
S. viminea to 5000 ft, and S. pulvinaris, in the higher 
summits, 5000 to 7000 ft. 

PorTULACEZ.—Two of the species of the genus Clay- 
tonia ascend to the higher levels, C. pygmea to 5000 ft., 
and C. australasica, between 6000 and 7000 ft. 


CARYOPHYLLEA is well represented by three genera at 
the higher altitudes, Stellaria, by S. multiflora, to 4000 ft., 
S. pungens to 5400 ft. S. flaccada to 6000 ft.; by Sagina 
procumbens up to 5000 ft., and the endemic Colobanthus 
Benthamianus at 6000 to 7000 ft.;  Scleranthus, by S. 
biflorus up to 6000 ft.; and the alpime species, S. mniarvides 
between 5000 and 7000 ft. 


POLYGONACE®. — Several genera are represented by 
species at the lower sub-alpine levels up to 3000 ft., but 
only one, Muehlenbeckia polygonoides, ascends to 4000 it. 


LEGUMINOSH.—22 Genera. 76 Species—At the sub- 
alpine habitats, the well-known Acacias are in greatest 
profusion, comprising, among others, the interesting shrubs 
A. vomeriformis, A. myrtifolia, A. siculiformis, the first 
two being more abundant on the open, heathy, stony 
northern areas, and the latter on the sands and gravels 
of the different streams. The arboreous species, A. 
decurrens, A. melanoxylon, A. penninervis, and _ others, 
are distributed in open forest lands throughout the 
area, nowhere eregariously unless in the heads of the 
gullies with southern aspect. I have noticed that the 
general form of the species A. decurrens and A. melano- 
aylon, when occurring on the stony northern slopes, is 
essentially different from that which they assume in the 


a 


Fes. 1903.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 339 


most shaded localities of southern littoral aspect. In the 
former stations the general form of A. decurrens, for 
instance, is that of a rounded, short, and thick-stemmed 
tree, frequently attaining a height of eighty feet, smooth 
barked, and lightly foliaged. The percentage of tannin 
is also different, those on the dry slopes containing the 
highest percentage of tan material. A. alpina is a low, 
diffuse species, especially prolific on the highest altitudes. 

Nearly the whole of the different species of the genera 
Daviesia, Pulteneu, Bossiwa, and Oxylobivm are prolific on 
dry northern areas, especially the two last. Like the 
Acacias, many species of Daviesia, as D. corynbosa and 
D. ulicina, are greatly affected by hygrometric conditions 
in their form and habit, especially D. latifolia, which 
attains the size of a small tree at the 4000 ft. level, north 
of Mount Bogong, and is of high medicinal value. 

Similarly Pultenea, Muelleri, and two Oxylobiums, O. 
alpestre and O. ellipticum, thrive in rich luxuriance in rocky 
situations amid the snowy regions, their bright yellow and 
brown flowers giving tone to the landscape. Among 
Bossieas, B. bracteosa and B. foliosa are prolific on the 
high tablelands at similar altitudes. Hovea longifolia 
shows great variations in the form and thickness of its 
leaves and in the depth of blue and purple colouring of its 
flowers. In the sub-alpine valleys, Kennedya monophylla 
(native sarsaparilla) flourishes luxuriantly. 


RosacE&.—Two genera occur in the alpine and sub- 
alpine areas, Rubus gunnianus and RL. parvifolius, 4000 to 
4500 ft, and Acena ovina and A. Sanguisorbe, both 
antarctic species, at 5000 to 6000 ft. The Enropean 
Alchemilla vulgaris ascends to 3000 ft. 

SAXIFRAGEA.—Only one species, Bauera rubioides, is 
seen at the 4000 ft. levels, although B. sessiliflura ascends 
to 3000 ft. 


ONAGREZ.—One species, the ubiquitous Hpilolium 
tetragonum, was observed up to 5000 ft. 

SALICARLE.— The ubiquitous Lythrum Salicwria of 
European type ascends to 4000 ft. in swampy areas. 


HAtoraGE&.—Two species, Haloragis tetragyna and 
Myriophyllum pedunculatum, oceur up to 4000 ft. 


ood TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. txvir. 


The order Myrracka is represented not only by the 
arboreous form of the genus Lucalyptus, but also by a 
number of shrubs of the genera Callistemon, Leptospermum, 
Beckea, and others. Of the latter, Callistemon salignus, var. 
sieberiana, is met with not only margining the principal 
streams of 2000 ft., but also ascending to the source 
runnels intersecting the higher plateaux, where, along with 
Beckea gunniana, and dwarfed varieties of Leptospermum 
and Kunzea, it forms dense undergrowths in the neighbour- 
hood of Sphagnum beds. 

Among Eucalypts, the species “. stellulata, EB. Gunnii, 
and #. pauciflora are perhaps the most generally distri- 
buted at the higher levels, ascending to the edge of the 
snowy plateaux as dwarfed, stunted, and gnarled gum- 
scrub. In the humid shady slopes at lower elevations up 
to 4000 ft. lofty forms of £. Globulus and EF. amygdalina 
are met with, while on the opposite side of the ranges or 
spurs are several species of stringy bark, as #. macrorhyncha 
and JL. capitellata; the change is in some places so marked 
as to exhibit a distinct line of demarcation from the blue 
and white gums to the stringy barks. 

On the heathy spurs varieties of 2. piperita and £. 
obliqua are met with, while on damp flats, and on the 
rich soil of upland gullies, varieties of #. stuartiana are 
seen. 

The economic value of the Hucalyptus as timber is so 
well known that a few remarks on its uses may not be out 
of place in these notes. 


NovTES ON THE GENUS EvucALYPTUS—Economic USEs. 


The term “gum tree,’ as applied to the Hucalyptus 
vegetation, is distinctly erroneous, as the exudation from 
the bark is a substance called “kino.” Some botanists 
and chemists have further misnamed this exudation by 
calling it “ gum-resin,” or “resin.” It is by no means an 
unimportant product, as, in addition to possessing astrin- 
gent properties, when boiled in an iron saucepan, it forms 
a good ink, and will stain leather black. The leaves of 
the blue gum (£. Globulus), when pulverised and mixed 


FEB, 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH DDO 
with limewater and copperas (sulphate of iron), give an 
entire black on cotton and wool, and upon leather give a 
light coloured tan. The swamp gum (/. Gunnii) and the 
messmate (/. obliqua) are similarly worthy of attention. 
It is also probable that the residue left after the distill- 
ation of oil from the leaves may be utilised for tanning 
purposes. 

I may state that the total number of species of 
Eucalyptus in Australia and Tasmania, according to Baron 
Ferdinand von Mueller’s census, is 151; 60 per cent. of 
which are available as timber trees, the remainder being 
arboreous or shrubby forms. 

In New South Wales there are 48 species, of which 
6 per cent. are restricted to the State; and in Victoria 
there are 55 species, of which 9 per cent. are restricted to 
the State. Of the 35 Victorian species, 21 occur in the 
Australian Alps. 

Eucalyptus Globulus (blue gum).—Baron Ferdinand von 
Mueller states that within the last twenty years not even 
the royal oak of England has had such an extensive 
literature devoted to it as the blue gum; and of these 
works there are no less than 76, which of themselves 
would fill a large volume. 

The timber is of a rather pale colour, hard, heavy, 
strong, and durable, more twisted than that of L. ob/iqua 
(messmate), L. amygdalina (white gum), and many other 
fissile kinds, but not so interlocked as that of £. rostrata 
(red gum), £. melliodora (yellow box), and most of the 
species termed box trees. Its specific gravity varies from 
‘698 (?0°968) to 1:108. In transverse strain its strength 
is about equal to English oak. Its durability is greater 
than that of the so-called white gum trees and all stringy 
bark trees. In house-building it is one of our best timbers 
for joists, studs, rafters, or any other heavy scantlings, and 
is very largely used for this purpose. It will be seen that 
the blue gum stands pre-eminent among the woods of all 
countries in regard to strength, bearing nearly five times 
the strain of American cedar. There is every reason to 
believe, therefore, that it will be largely in demand when 
its valuable properties become better known in European 
markets, 


336 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxvit. 


Besides its timber, it has many other valuable 
properties. The blue gum has, on the whole, exercised 
already on regions of the warm temperate zone (where 
it has been introduced) a greater influence — scenic, 
industrial, and hygienic—than any other single species of 
arboreous vegetation ever reared anywhere. Thus (as in 
Algeria) it has transformed the features of wide, formerly 
treeless landscapes, has already from its quick growth 
afforded many places timber and fuel for rapidly increasing 
settlement, and rendered also many a miasmic locality 
permanently habitable. To bacteria and other micro- 
organisms eucalyptus oil proves as fatal as phenie acid. 
Flesh of any kind is as well preserved by eucalyptus oil as 
by creosote, while beef sprinkled with it will dry hard 
without putrefaction. Various parts of the tree yield 
froma 1b2"9,.02.° to 4 bv 12 oz. per of pure potash, 
while valuable oils (eucalyptus) are yielded by the 
leaves and other parts, which are now largely in use by 
pharmacopeeists generally. 


Eucalyptus amygdalina (white gum, peppermint tree). 
—This magnificent tree has a wide range along most of 
the eastern humid districts of Victoria. Several trees 
measured gave approximately heights of 400 ft. Mr. 
Howitt also, in Gippsland, obtained measurement of giant 
forms up to 410 ft.; but greater heights are recorded. 
The species must be ranked with the sequoias of California, 
and the blue gums of Victoria and Tasmania, as among the 
great giants of the vegetable creation. 

It is useful for many kinds of carpenter's work; in 
drying it does not twist. When stems are straight, as found 
in forest valleys, the wood splits readily into palings, and 
this with such facility that in some particular instances a 
labourer has split 620 palings of 5 ft. length in one day. 
The timber is not heavy comparatively, as it floats in 
water, unlike that of many other Eucalypts; it is 
particularly well adapted for shingles, palings, and rails, 
and is greatly used in shipbuilding, especially for keelsons 
and planking. 

The ashes of the foliage yield 10 per cent. pearl ash: and 
from 1000 lb. of fresh leaves, with their stalklets and 
branches, the yield of eucalyptus oil by far surpasses that 


FEB, 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Siow | 
of all other congeners, amounting to as much as 500 oz. 
or 3:12 per cent., as shown in the following table of 


yields obtained by Mr. Bosisto :— 


Per 1000 1b. of Leaves, Stalklets, and Branches. 


E.viminalis. . yields 7 oz. of eucalyptus oils. 
E. melliodora " 7 i 

E. obliqua : : = 80 * 

E. Globulus ; : 4 120 

E. gonioealyx . : 500 AO x 

E. leucoxylon . : 3, 6d " 

E. amygdalina 


» 500 


>» 


It is mainly on account of this large yield of febrifugal 
properties that many give preference to the peppermint 
eum for plantations in any paludal fever region, its only 
drawback being that it does not grow so rapidly as the 
blue gum, nor does it so readily accommodate itself to 
diversity of soils. It is hardier, however, and it has been 
known to grow to a height of 60 ft. in nine years. 

Eucalyptus viminalis (white gum, manna tree).—In 
favourable situations of deep forest glens this tree rises to 
a very great height. One measured by Mr. D. Boyle was 
found to be 320 ft. high, and had a stem base 17 ft. in 
diameter. The timber varies from light to dull brick 
colour; that from straight stems is employed for shingles, 
rails, and also rough building material. It is not so 
durable as the wood of some other kinds of Eucalypts, but 
is stronger than that of 2. amygdalina and EL. obliqua. 
Boards half an inch thick,sawn from the tall-stemmed smooth 
varieties grown in moist forest glens, were found to last 
twice as long as pine boards one inch thick. The stems of 
this variety are of an almost uniform thickness up to a 
great height, and mast-like in straightness. When so 
chosen, the wood is pale and compact, and does not warp. 
The smaller branching trees on open ridges and plains are 
noted for exuding a sugary substance called manna, which 
is considered a great luxury. 

Eucalyptus sieberiana (white gum-topped stringy bark). 
—This valuable tree, attaining a height of 200 ft. or 
more, is common in the alpine and sub-alpine habitats. 
The trunk is sawn into good timber, and is also used for 
posts and rails; the wood is recommended for timbering 


338 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. xvi. 


shafts. It resembles much more that of the blue gum 
than the stringy bark trees; it is hard, and when seasoned, 
difficult to cut, but it burns well even when fresh. This 
wood is of superior quality, light, tough, and elastic. It is 
used for the swingle trees of buggies, ploughs, ete., but it 
will not endure underground. 

Eucalyptus Gunnii (eider gum). — Under favourable 
conditions this tree attains a height of 250 ft., but usually 
it is not tall, often crooked or much branched. The wood 
is hard and very good for many purposes of artisans; it 
does not split well, but is good for fuel. The tree is 
noted for yielding a sap of not unpleasant taste, which 
is converted into a kind of cider, hence the common 
name. 

Eucalyptus obliqua (stringy bark, and messmate gum). 
—This valuable tree is straight stemmed, of rapid growth, 
attaining a maximum height of 300 ft. It is one of the 
most important in regard to its abundance, being the most 
gregarious of all our forest trees, and, on account of the 
ease with which the wood is worked, it supplies a large 
proportion of the ordinary sawn hard timber for rough 
building purposes. Being very fissile, it is also extensively 
split into fence rails, palings, and shingles; it is light 
coloured. The specific gravity of the wood varies from 
0°809 to 0:990, or from 50 to 604 1b. per cubic foot. 
Mr. F. Campbell found the tensile strength per square inch 
to be equal to a pressure of 8200 to 8500 lb. Baron 
Ferdinand von Mueller has shown that the bark is 
suitable for the manufacture of paper, not only for 
packing, mill- and paste-boards, but also for printing and 
writing. The utility of this tree is therefore very great. 


RHAMNACEA.— Represented by 3 Genera at sub-alpine 
habitats.—Pomaderris apetala, which ascends in shrubby 
form to 4000 ft., forms a dense undergrowth at the lower 
levels, straight stems attaining a height of from 15 to 20 ft. 
P. elachophylia, P. elliptica, and P. phylicifolia ascend to 
3000 ft. 


Cryptandra amara ascends to 4000 ft., a pretty white- 
flowered shrub. 


DO 
Ve 
So) 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 
Colletia pubescens, a spiny shrub, ascends to 3000 ft. 


ARALIACEH.—One species of Panax, P. sambucifolius, 
of very variable habit, ascends to 4000 ft. The Jeaves in 
the sub-alpine form are narrower than that in the lowlands, 
and more pinnate. 


UMBELLIFERZ—Some of the alpine species, such as 
Aciphylla glacialis, Oreomyrrhis pulvinifica, O. andicola, 
Huanaca hydrocotylea, Azorella cuneifolia, and A. dicho- 
petala, and also Didiscus humilis, which flourish best 
between elevations of 5000 to 7000 ft, are very char- 
acteristic. A. glacialis is readily eaten by stock, and may 
become available for culinary purposes by cultivation. 
A Seseli, S. harveyanus, is also abundant between 5000 
and 6000 ft. 


SANTALACEZ.—In addition to the well-known species, 
Exocarpos cupressiformis (native cherry tree), which ascends 
to sub-alpine levels of 4000 ft., several shrubby species, 
with pleasantly acidulous berries,as £. stricta, EB. humifusa 
(of Polynesian aftinities), and #. nana, ascend, along with 
Leptomeria aphylla, Omphacomeria acerba, and Choretruim 
lateriflorum, 4000 to 5000 ft. altitudes. 


In the PROTEACE2, an order whose maximum of species 
is reached in Western Australia, we have a few apparently 
endemic forms, as Grevillea miqueliana, G. alpina, ete. 
The valuable notes given by the Government botanist in 
his examination of the “ Vegetable Fossils of the Auriferous 
Drifts of Victoria” (p. 10), appear to indicate some resem- 
blance between the existing forms of tropical Grevilleas, 
and the vegetation of the Pliocene era. It is to be hoped 
that further palzeontological researches may yet be available 
for correlation purposes, enabling the pre-existing flora to 
be more satisfactorily compared with the present, and 
by this means to trace out the successive changes which 
have taken place, not only in the surface configura- 
tion, but in the flora and fauna of our present alpine 
regions. One species of Proteaceze herein referred to, viz. 
Persoonia juniperina, is suggested by Professor Tate, of 


340 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. Lxvu. 


South Australia, as a probable survival of an alpine flora 
of Pliocene date.’ 

Another species, the handsome Ovites lancifolia, is an 
inhabitant, almost exceptionally, of the higher and colder 
regions, not descending in this area below 5000 ft. 

Several of the Hakeas and Grevilleas form small trees 
at the sub-alpine habitats, but become dwarfed to almost 
prostrate shrubs at the higher altitudes. 

The Banksias do not thrive above 4000 ft. altitude. 
Telopea (the waratah) is restricted to the eastern valley of 
the Snowy River (coast range). 


THYMELE”.—The most extensive genus here represented 
is that of Pimelea, containing several species known 
as possessing valuable industrial properties, as P. axflora 
and others, which yield a fine brown dye, and superior 
bast of great tenacity, and the more compact bush P. 
ligustrina, of medicinal value,—the former more abundant 
on shady hillsides at lower levels, and the latter on the 
wooded depressions on the high tablelands up to 5000 ft. 
Another species, P. alpina, is common as a diffuse small 
leaved form at the higher altitudes up to 7000 ft. in open 
situations. 


RusBiAcE&.— Two genera, Coprosma and Asperula, are 
represented by species, C. hirtella and <A. oligantha, at 
the higher levels, 4000 to 6000 ft. 


CAPRIFOLIACE&.—The only species of the native elder- 
berry, Sambucus gaudichaudiana, ascends to 5000 ft., and 
in the form and thickness of leaves and general habit 
differs considerably from the lowland form. 


~ 


Composita.—25 Genera. 74 Species—The extensive 
order Composite next claims attention. Bentham re- 
mirks: “The Composite are the most extensive of 
flowering plants, and represented in every quarter of the 
globe in every variety of station,” and that there are five 


1 Trans. Roy. Soc., 8.A., “ Notes on the Proteacese of the Australian 
Alps,” by J. Stirling. 


a 


Fes. 1903. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 341 


hundred species indigenous to Australia. I have noted 
great variation in the growth of many composite herbs in 
the Australian Alps during different seasons, sports being 
abundant in dry seasons, and the reversion to foliaceous 
growths very remarkable. The florets in JMicroseris 
Forsteri, for instance, becoming pedicellate and assuming 
the form of an Umbellifer. The genera Brachycome, Aster, 
Senecio, and Helychrysum are most abundant; Brachycome 
is represented by the herbaceous species &. decipiens, B. 
diversifolia, etc., which yield a fine carpeting of flowers 
on the open grassy ridges and flats during early summer, 
ascending to the alpine regions at the higher plateaux 
6000 ft. elevation. & nivalis occurs at the highest 
elevations up to 7000 ft. 

Aster includes, among other arboreous forms, the ever- 
_seented native musk (4. argophyllus), which attains its 
ereatest luxuriance among the deeply vegetated and shaded 
glens on the sub-alpine littoral slopes where humidity 
prevails. Shrubs, as A. stellulatus, A. myrsinoides, are 
more evenly distributed in open northern areas along the 
banks of streams, although the latter is represented by 
dwarfed forms on the lower ridges of the higher plateaux. 
Such herbs as A. Celmisia, which gives a_ noticeable 
character to the physiognomy of the alpine vegetation, 
Gnaphalium alpigenum, Erigeron pappochromus, Antennaria 
uniceps, and Leontopodium latipes, are apparently restricted 
to the grassy alpine stations where the hygrometric con- 
ditions are suitable to their growth; and shrubs, as A. 
Muelleri, A. alpicola, and A. megalophyllus, are common at 
4000 ft. elevation. 

The Helichrysums, hke the Brachycomes, are _princi- 
pally herbaceous, represented both by species on the lower 
sunny areas of undulating country, as H. semipapposum, 
H. apiculatum, and by the larger-flowered H. bracteatum 
(syn. H. lucidum) on the higher tablelands, and, as remarked 
in a previous paper, “covering these highlands with fields 
of bright golden yellow flowers, giving a distinctive 
character to the landscape; while at similar elevations 
the diffuse H. baccharoides covers acres with dense under- 
growth.” 

The new species discovered during the visit of the 


342 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess uxvit. 


Australian Association to the Alps, H. Stirlingii, is 
restricted to 4000 ft. elevations round Mt. Hotham. 

At lower levels, 2000 to 3000 ft. along the courses 
of some of the principal streams, the shrubby species H. 
rosmarinifolium is met with, a var. thyrsoides ascending 
to 5000 ft. which, when drying, emits a delightful 
fragrance. 

Helipterum anthemoides flourishes best at the higher 
elevations, and an alpine variety of H. wanum, var. 
auriceps. 

The remarkable variation in the alpine form of 
Craspedia Richea is noteworthy, the alpine variety being 
very distinct from the lowland form. 

Cotula alpina and Abrotanella nivigena, together with 
Senecio pectinatus, flourish at the higher elevations. S. Bed- 
fordii grows as a tree at the sub-alpine habitats up to 
4500 ft. 


CAMPANULACEA&. — Only two genera are represented at 
the higher levels by herbaceous species, Lobelia gelida, and 
the ubiquitous Wahlenbergia gracilis, up to 6000 ft.; the 
latter has more violet-blue coloured flowers than the low- 
land form, the leaves are more tomentose, and the stem 
shorter. 


CANDOLLEACEA.—T wo very marked species of Stylidiwm 
occur, one, S. graminifolia, is very luxuriant at 4000 to 
5000 ft., and the other, S. serrulata, up to 6000 ft. The 
sensitive stigma of these species is very characteristic. 


GOODENIACEH.—5 Genera. 11 Species. Mostly sub-alpine. 
—This order is only represented at the higher levels by 
two species of the genus Velleya, viz. V. paradoxa and J, 
montana, Which ascend to 6000 ft. elevation. 

The var. cordifolia of Goodenia hederacea does not 
ascend above 3500 ft., while the species G. ovata, plentiful 
and gregarious at the lower sub-alpine areas of 2000 ft., 
only ascends to an elevation of 3000 ft. 


GENTIANE® is also represented by two genera, the bright 
pink-flowered Hrythrea australis and the white-flowered 
Gentiana suxosa, up to 6000 ft. the latter a very prominent 
feature in the summer pasturages on the tablelands. 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 343 


PLANTAGINEXZ. — One species, Plantago  stellaris, is 
common between 5000 and 7000 ft., especially at the 
higher levels. 


SOLANACE®.—Only one Solanum, S. vescum, ascends to 
4000 ft. levels. 


The extensively distributed order ScROPHULARINEZ is 
represented principally by herbs and under-shrubs of the 
genera Huphrasia and Veronica. Among the former the 
species L. Brownii, which ascends to 6500 ft, and £. 
antarctica, cover the grassy highlands during mid-summer 
with their beautiful yellow flowers, whilst on the grassy 
ridges at lower levels . speciosa predominates along with 
E. scabra. 

Among Veronicas, V. Derwentia is common on shaded 
hillsides, V. perfoliata on rocky bluffs up to 5000 ft., and 
V. gracilis on damp grassy flats at the lower levels up to 
3000 ft. V. densifolia ascends to 5000 ft, and V. 
serpyllifolia between 5000 and 6000 ft. 


LENTIBULARIEZ.—On damp flats the lowly Utricularia 
dichotoma flourishes between 5000 and 6000 ft. 


ASPERIFOLLE. — Myosotis suaveolens and Cynoglossum 
suaveolens ascend to 5000 ft. 


Among the Lapriar#&, an order consisting principally of 
herbs and shrubs, occurs the perhaps solitary arboreous 
form Prostanthera lasianthos, an inhabitant of most densely 
vegetated gullies of littoral aspect. At sub-alpine altitudes 
of 2000 to 4000 ft. an apparently alpine species, P. 
cuneata, may be found growing from the crevices of rocks at 
the highest elevations. 

The ubiquitous Ajuga australis ascends to 5000 ft, 


Next in importance are the hardy “native heaths” or 
EpacripE&. The plants of this order, although numeri- 
cally less as regards species than the Composite or 
Leguminose, are still, owing to their extensive 
distribution over the whole area, more frequently met 


344 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. yxy. 


with, the principal genus being Styphelia, with which 
Baron Ferdinand von Mueller bas now included a number 
of previously formed separate genera.' 

The species of Styphelia herein referred to consist 
principally of shrubs and undershrubs of heath-hke form, 
from the robust and erect S. lanceolata, S. scoparia, ete., 
which attain their most luxurious growth on the wooded 
sub-alpine ranges near and on the Great Dividing Range, 
where condensation and _ precipitation of vapour is 
greatest and most continuous,—to the decumbent and 
diffuse S. serrulata, flourishing on the drier stony northern 
areas at lower elevations. At the higher levels S. collina 
and WS. glacialis, flourish between 5000 and 6000 ft.; 
S. montana ascends to 5000 ft. 

Another genus, Hpacris, is represented on sandy soils, 
at the sub-alpine habitats, by the lovely crimson and white 
E. impressa; and struggling to higher elevations along 
courses of streams are seen dwarfed forms of the otherwise 
erect EL. heteronema of lower levels; while abundant on the 
damp upland marsh lands are seen varieties of #. mzecro- 
phylla; and on the stony crests of ridges the alpine species 
E. paludosa, E. petrophila, and E. serpyllifolia ; and among 
the Sphagnum beds, Richea Gunnii, between 4000 and 
6500 ft. 


ERICACEH.—This distinctly European order, especially 
characterised by the genus Hrica in the British Highlands, 
is only represented by two shrubs in the Australian Alps. 
The snow bush, with fine large leaves and beautiful snow- 
white berries, Gaultiera hispida, and Wittsteinia vacciniacea, 
with pink and white berries; these species are not met 
with below 4000 ft., and ascend to 6000 ft. levels. 


The ORCHIDE& are not at all prevalent at the higher 
levels; I have not observed any above 5000 ft.  Diuris 
pedunculata ascends to these elevations. 

Many of the species occur at the sub-alpine habitats, 
between 2000 and 4000 ft. Dipodium punctatum is 
prolific at 4000 ft. along with Caladenia Patersoni and 
Glossodia minor. 


1 « Systematic Census of the Plants of Australia,” 1883, p. 105. 


Fes. 1903.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 345 


AMARYLLIDE (Hypoxide) is represented by one species, 
Hypoxis hygrometrica, at the 5000 ft. altitudes. 


Lintacea.—The genus Dianella is represented by the 
species D. tasmunica, which is luxuriant at 5000 ft., and 
ascends to 6000 ft. -Astelia alpina also occurs between 
4000 and 5000 ft. 

The little spring flower Wurmbea dioica is common on 
sub-alpine flats up to 4000 ft. along with Cesia vittata 
and Stypandra glauca, and also the small flat-leaved 
AXerotes longifolia, used by the aborigines for making 
baskets. 

None of the grass trees, such as Yanthorrhea australis, 
ascend higher than 3000 ft. 


JUNCACEA, the very ubiquitous Luzula campestris, ascends 
to 5000 ft., Juneus falcatus to 5000 ft., and several others 
to 4000 ft, as J. bufonius, J. communis, and J. pris- 
matocarpus, up to 4000 ft. 


Among the CyYpERACE#, however, there appear to be 
a few species of the extensive genus Carex which are 
restricted to the alpine regions of Victoria and Tasmania, 
as C. acicularis, between 4000 and 6000 ft.; C. Buxbawmii, 
C. gunniana, at 5000 ft., ete.; although some of the species 
are represented in Europe and North America, and also 
in north Asia. 

Carex Pseudo-Cyperus ascends to 5000 ft., along with 
C. canescens. Cyperus lucidus is common up to 4000 ft. ; 
the diminutive Oreobolus Pumilio is found at the higher 
altitudes between 6000 and 7000 ft.; Carpha alpina 
between 5000 and 6000 ft. In Lepidosperma, L. concavum, 
and ZL. lineare ascend to 4000 ft.; Unceinia tenella forms 
tufts between 3000 and 4000 ft. 


The important order GRAMINE# which, as_ regards 
number of species, stands next to the Leguminose through- 
- out the world, is here represented by 19 genera and 38 
species, principally, as regards number of species, by the 
genera Agrostis, 5; Danthonia, 4; Poa, 4; Hierochloe, 3 ; 
Stipa, 3; Panicum, 3; Andropogon, 2; Hhrharta, 2 ; 
Agropyron, 2; and others; but in respect to territorial 

TRANS, BOT, SOC, EDIN, VOL, XXII. cb 


346 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. rxvu. 


range of single species none are more extensively distri- 
buted than the well-known “ Kangaroo grass,” Anthistiria 
ciliata. The Poas are the tallest grasses to be met with 
in these regions. Culms of P. dives are frequently seen to 
attain a height of twelve feet in shaded hillsides, the whole 
plant being succulent and nutritious, and may hereafter 
repay cultivation. 

All the local Danthonias at the higher levels, and the 
Festucas at the sub-alpine habitats, are good fodder grasses. 
A species of TZrisetum, T. subspicatum, is apparently re- 
stricted to the higher mountain regions of Victoria, New 
South Wales, and Tasmania. 

The genera Anthistiria, Danthonia, Agrostis, Trisetuin, 
Agropyron, LEchinopogon, Hierochloe, are represented by 
species above the 5000 ft. altitude. 

There are 9 genera and 22 species growing at eleva- 
tions between 5000 and 7000 ft. 


CONIFER. 


The Conifers are only represented by a low dwarfed 
shrub at the higher levels, Nageia alpina, restricted 
to 5000 to 6000 ft.; in the valley of the Snowy River, 
trees of Snowy River pine, Callitris verrucosa, ascend to 
3000 ft. 


FILICES (FERNS). 
23 Genera. 51 Species. 


The genera Lomaria, Pteris, Asplenium, Cheilanthus, 
and Grammitis are represented by species at the higher 
altitudes over 5000 to 7000 ft. Botrychium lunaria and 
Lomaria alpina occur at the highest elevations. 


The genera richest in species are— 


Pteris 9 
Asplenium 6 
Lomaria ; . : 5 
Gleichenia . é ; : an XS 
Polypodium . 4 
Dicksonia 3 
Aspidium 3 


a a a 


a 


2 


Fes. 1903.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 347 


The tree-ferns, Dicksonia antarctica, reach a height in 
humid gullies of 50 ft, but do not ascend higher than 
4500 ft. 

The maximum number of species flourish between 
2000 and 4000 ft. in the humid gullies and on the rocky 
spurs. 

There are 10 genera and 8 identical species common 
to Arran (Scotland) and the Australian Alps. 

Musct (Mosses). 

Of the 70 genera and 170 species of mosses occurring 
in the Australian Alps, a number are identical with those 
of Stewart Island (south of New Zealand), and 31 genera 
and 10 species are common to the Australian Alps and 
Arran (Scotland). The genera and species common to 
the Australian Alps and Arran are marked with an 
asterisk. 

The genera containing more than four species over the 
whole area at all elevations are as follows :— 


Bryum . ‘ . 16 species.  Fissidens . ‘ . 7 species. 
Grimmia . : on ar Trichostomum . s) Ooms, 
Rhyncostegium Ug Ding ae Bartramia . Bimees: 
Barbula . ; per tame ee | Entosthodon Da ean 


The genera represented by species at the highest 
elevations between 5000 and 7000 ft. are— 


Bartramia . : . 5 species. | Polytrichum 1 species. 
Zygodon 5 ae Brachythecium . Tacs 
Breutelia Mie Dicranella . KV; 
Bryum ee Blindia Js bade 
Campylopus ae Sphagnum . ; Sail = Sa 
Grimmia Diss at Tortula Boaters 
Philonotis . ly a Encaly ptra Deg 55 
Meesea 1 ave Apalodium Lpeesh 
Atrichum . Is *%; Hypnum ipa 
Pogonatum Sennen 


Thus, while the genera Bryum and Grimmia contain 
the greatest number of species at all altitudes, Lartramia 
and Zygodon have the most species in the highest 
altitudes. 

LICHENES. 
Represented in the Australian Alps between 2000 and 
7000 ft. levels by 47 Genera and 95 Species. 

Most of the species enumerated are common to the 

sub-alpine areas and the adjacent lowlands, the greatest 


348 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. yxvit. 


number on the southern or south-eastern slopes and 
valleys which trend towards the Gippsland Lakes or the 
Southern Ocean. 

The genera richest in species are Parmelia, 14; 
Cladonia, 14; Calicium, 13; Parmelia and Peltigera being 
abundant in the Sphagnum beds of Mount Bogong, 6000 
to 6500 ft. 

During the visit of the Australasian Association to the 
Australian Alps in 1890, the Rev. Thomas M. Wilson 
collected 38 species, representing 17 genera from one 
locality alone, viz. from the slopes and summit of Mount 
Hotham, 6100 ft., and in the adjacent Ovens Valley to 
the north—Cladonia, 6 species; Cladina, 1; Stereocaulon, 
3; Siphula, 1; Usnea, 1; Newropogon, 1; Peltrgera, 1; 
Sticta, 1; Parmelia, 4; Theloschistes, 1; Umbiliecaria, 2 ; 
Lecanora, 4; Placodium, 1; Urceolaria, 1; Bruellia, 5: 
and in the Ovens Valley—Calicium, 4; Pertusaria, 1; 
Heterothecium, 1; Verrucaria, 1. 

There are no less than 22 genera and 16 identical 
species common to Arran and the Australian Alps. 


Funct AND Micro-FUNGI. 


Of the 20 genera and 26 species of micro-fungi 
collected between 2000 and 6000 ft. elevation, a number 
are exotic; no less than 15 genera and 7 identical species 
occur in Arran. The genera containing the greatest 
number of species are— 


Agaricus. ; . 6 species. | Puccinia 2 species. 
Polyporus . : Aa Sian Ro Isaria ‘ : 2 
Stereum . : He ox ib Uredo 9 aoe 


All the other genera were represented by only one 
species. 


COMPARISON WITH A BriITISH AREA. 


During a recent visit to Arran and the Clyde Valley, I 
was able to compare a list of the plants published in the 
British Association 1901 Handbook, as having been 
recorded from that island, with those occurring in the 
Australian Alps. 

I found that there were no less than 36 natural orders, 


4 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 349 


and 151 genera common to both areas, and 68 identical 
species, viz.— 


70 genera of Phanerogams Gremae grasses, etc.) 27 identical species. 
10 3 Ferns : Ess 


” 


2 y Lycopodiums ; : ¥iG 2 % 
1 genus of Sphagnum . : : ae (a | 7 
31 genera of Mosses : ; eelO x 
22 ss Lichens ; : = all® . 
15 3 Fungi and micro- fungi : . 4 3 


A number of these plants, particularly herbaceous 
Species, are evidently immigrants to the Australian area, 
others are apparently common to both areas. 

I have marked with an asterisk (*), on the follow- 
ing Census, the genera and species common to both 
localities. 


CENSUS OF THE FLORA OF THE AUSTRALIAN 
ARS: 
ANGIOSPERM &. 
DICOTYLEDONES. 
CHORIPETALZ HypoayNn&. 


RANUNCULACES. 
Clematis.* 
C. aristata (Br.). TT.) NSW S45. 4. Oyen AY 
Var. coriacea ascends in sub-alpine gullies to an altitude of 
4600 ft. 
C. microphylla (Br.). T.,. AN ES Wig So An ee Oey) W.iA. 
Var. leptophylla ascends to 3000 ft. iu southern slopes. 
Myosurus. 
M. minimus (Linn.). N.S.W., S.A. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Ranunculus.* 


R. aquatilis (Dod.). A Merit nl : 
Common on sub-alpine streams, and near marshes up to 
2000 ft. 


R. Millani (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Endemic on Mts. Kosciusko and Bogong at elevations of 
6000 to 7000 ft. 
R. anemoneus (F. v. M.). NS: We 
Endemic to Mt. Kosciusko and adjoining peaks, also on Mt. 
Bogong, etc., 6000 to 7000 ft. 
R. gunnianus (Hook.), AD cee Wes 
Alpine, endemic to Australian Alps and Tasmania, 4500 to 
7000 ft. 
R. Lappaceus (Sm.). Be NSW vg, (cane ale Dee eae 
Var. Plebeius subsericeus at the higher levels, 6000 ‘t., petals 
rich yellow. 


Note.—T. Tasmania. W.A. Western Australia. 


N.S.W. New South Wales. N.A. Northern Australia. 
§.A. South Australia. N.Z. New Zealand. 


Q. Queensland. 


350 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. uxvit. 


Ranunculus* continued 
R. Muelleri (Benth.). N.S.W. 
Endemic to Mt. Kosciusko. 
R. rivularis (Bks. and Sol.). 1; (ONS: Wy aA 
Ascends to 6000 ft. 
R. hirtus (Bks. and Sol.). NS.W., Qi: .WaAcy tied 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
R. parviflorus (Linn.). 'D., ANSW., (S285) aoe 
Ascends to 3000 ft. on northern valleys. 
Caltha.* 
CO. introloba (F. v. M.). 1.2 gS We 
Endemic to Australian Alps and Tasmania. Mts. Kosciusko, 
Bogong, Hotham, etc., 5000 to 7000 ft. 


DILLENIACE. 
Hibbertia. 
H. densiflora (F. v. M.). TONS We) SoA. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
H. stricta (Br.). Ts, UN-SW., 7S.As.” .Q.,, AE 
Var. calycina ascends to 3000 ft. 
H. Billardieri (F. v. M.). ae INESSWes et eAe : 
Var. ovata ascends to 2000 ft., Tambo Valley. 
H. serpyllifolia (Br.). A N.S: Wi: 
Ascends to 4600 ft. 
H. pedunculata (Br.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 3600 ft. on northern slopes of Mt. Kosciusko. 
H. linearis (Br.). N.S.W., Q. 
Ascends on northern slopes to 3600 ft. 
H. diffusa (Br.). N.S.W. 
Similar aspect to H. linearis. 
. dentata (Br.). NES EW ain @: 
3000 ft., Snowy River \ valley. 


ee 
lool 


MAGNOLIACE®. 
Drimys. 
D. aromatica (F. v. M.). TN. SW 
Sub alpine. Small tree at 2000 to 4000 ft.; at higher levels, 
5000.to 6000 ft., low diffuse shrub (thick leaves). 


MONIMIEA. 
Atherosperma. 
A. moschatum (Lab.). AS SNESSWe 
Ascends in deep gullies to 4600 ft. 
Hi educa ya. 
H. Cunninghami (Tul.). N.S.W., 
Ascends in moist gullies of southern slopes to 4600 ft.; a fine 
small tree. 


LAURACE. 
Cassytha. 
C. glabella (Br.). Dey eNO Weg! Shon OQ ane Wee 
Covers scrub at 4000 ft. elevation. 
C. pubescens (Br.). Te N SS W.,. sSaksirQ.,. "Wass 
C. melantha (Br.). Aes, GaN. WV oy iksttes EE oc 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 351 


CRUCIFER. 
Barbarea.* 
B. vulgaris* (Br.). NESS is Nadas 
(Var. australis.) 
On banks of streams up to 3500 ft. 
Arabis.* 
A. glabra (Crantz.). N.S. W. 
Ascends on northern streams up to 4600 ft. 
Cardamine.* 
C. dictyosperma (H.). T.,) a NSW 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
C. hirsuta * (Linn.). TS NES Wey ont) (QE p ia 
Ubiquitous all over the Alps up to 7000 ft. 
Erysimum.* 
E. blennodioides (F. v. M.). NGS Wigs Asse 
(Blennodia alpestris.) 
Ascends to 2000 ft. on northern streams. 
E. capsellinum (F. v. M.) N.S.W. 
Ascends to 6500 ft. on Mt. Bogong. 
Capsella. 
C. antipoda (F. v. M.). Ale 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
C. Bursa-pastoris.* 


VIOLACE&. 
Viola.* 
V. betonicifolia (Sm.). TD ste Nao... poses 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
V. hederacea (Lab.). ie ON: W.. SAL Gr 
Mt. Bogong slopes to 5000 ft. 
V. caleyana (G. Don.). Ce NGS: Wi: 
Mt. Bogong to 6500 ft. 
Hybanthus. 
H. filiformis (F. v. M.). NESW hee 
Ascends to 4000 ft. on southern ridges. 
Hyimenanthera. 
H. Banksii (F. v. M.). Tp NSW: 
Ascends in stunted spinous form to 6000 ft. at Mt. Bogong 
(var. angustifolia). 


PITTOSPOREX. 
Pittosporwm. 
P. undulatum (And.). ARES EES YR A 
On southern valleys at 2000 ft. 
P. revolutum (Aiton). NES: W., . Q. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
P. bicolor (H.) EAS OW 
Common on Main Dividing Range at 4000 ft. ; ascends to 
4600 ft. on high ridges. 
Bursuria. ’ 
B. spinosa (Cav.). Poy NGS. W gy, 2A... =O: tn Wi pees 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Marianthus. 
M. procumbens. of Iyeeered Re by sere ee UA 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
M. bignoniaceus (F. v. M.). S.A. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


352 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxvir. 


Billardiera. 
B. longiflora (Lab.). TS eSoW 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
B. scandens (Sm.). EOE 4, esaae ue: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
B. cymosa (F. v. M.) N.S.W., S.A. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. on southern ridges, 
Cheiranthera.* 
C. linearis (Cunn.). N.S: W.,;, S:As; “Q: 
Ascends on northern ridges to 3000 ft. 


DROSERACEZ. 
Drosera.* 

D. Arcturi (H.). N.S.W., S.A. W.A., N.Z. 

Sub-alpine ; summits of Mts. Hotham, Bogong, Kosciusko, at 
altitudes of 6000 to 7000 ft. 

D. spathulata (Lab.). TS ONISW SS SAL (O5 Ne 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 

D. auriculata (Back). TU eINS. We, Sao 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 

D. peltata (Sm.). ey RNESAWist IS cA. AO) 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


N.Z. 


> 


HYPERICINES. 
Hypericum.* 
H. japonicum (Thun). is. ONS. W., S.A. Q., » Wee 
Ascends to 5000 ft. Gramineum, a well-marked variety, 
occurs. 


POLYGALEA. 
Polygala.* 
P. sibirica (Linn.). NESSW.5. 2: 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Comesperma. 
C. volubile (Lab.). SSN SSW apeoticg «Ment ies 
Ascends 3000 to 4000 ft. 
C. retusum (Lab.). SUAS TASES 
Common at higher altitudes, between 5000 and 6000 ft. 
C. ericinum (DC.). i eens: W., 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 


TREMANDRE. 
Tetratheca. 
T. ciliata (Lind). Akeate eM 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
T. pilosa. 1. 
Ascends to 2500 ft. 


RUTACES. 
Zierv. 
Z. Smithii (And.). N.Sa5 
Ascends to 4800 ft. Var. “macrophylla common between 
3000 and 4000 ft. 
Boronia. 
B. algida (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Common on summits of higher Alps up to 7000 ft.; Mt. 
Bogong, 6500 ft. 


Ol 
yo 


FEB. 1903. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 3 


Boronia—continued— 
B. pilosa (Lab.). 1 
Between 4000 and 6000 ft. 
B. polygalifolia (Sm.). To {NS We ecks 7 
All over Alps up to 6000 fr. Var. anemonifolia also occurs, 
and a var. resembling B. pimata is sometimes met with. 
Eriostemon. 
E. phylicifolius (F. v. M.). 
Common near summits of Mts. Cobberas, Bogong, and 
Hotham, between 4000 and 6000 it. 
E. umbellatus (Turez.). N.S.W. 
This is considered as a lowland form of E. phylicifolius; it 
ascends to 2000 ft. 
. lamprophyllus (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 6000 fr. 
. ozothamnoides (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends in northern valleys to 6000 ft. 
. lepidotus (Spreng.). <A var. NSW; -S:4.7 0: 
. alpinus (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Common between 5000 and 6500 ft.; Mt. Bogong, 6500 ft. 
. ovatifolius (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Occurs between 4600 and 7000 ft. on the higher areas of Mt. 
Bogong. 
. correifolius (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Between 3000 and 6000 ft. ; syn. of Asterolasia Muellerii. 
E. pleurandroides. 
On stony northern slopes at 3000 ft. 
E. trymalioides (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Near summits of higher Alps, above 5000 to 7000 ft. ; Mt. 
Bogong, 6500 ft. 
E. Crowei (F. v. M.). NSeW., -@: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
E. trachyphyllus (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
On southern valleys up to 4000 ft. 
E. myoporoides (DC.). NSW, ~.Q: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 


SH Hee & & 


co) 


Correa. 

C. emula (F. v. M.). S.A. 
Ascends to 3600 ft. 

C. alba (And.). TE.) NSW pees 
Ascends to 2000 ft. on southern slopes. 

C. speciosa (And.). E.- NSaWes a2, )- 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 

C. lawrenciana (H.). Pans 
Common up to 5000 ft. altitudes ; a very prolific flowering 

shrub. 


ZYGOPHYLLEZ. 
Zygophyllum. 
Z. glaucescens (F. v. M.). i, NS.We Pe AgiG: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


LINEZ. 
Linum.* 
L. marginale (Cunn.). T., NSW. S.A, QO, Wes 
Very robust at 3000 to 4000 ft.; ascends to 5000 feet. 
(Native flax.) 


354 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. rxvu. 


GERANIACE&. 
Geranvum.* 
G. carolinianum (Linn.). TNS W., “8:45, Qe aiwee 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
G. sessiliflorum (Cav. ). Toe NSW: 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
Pelargonium. 
P. australe (Willd.). T.,. N.S:W., S:A., Q., — WA geeeeee 
Ascends to 8000 ft.; Mt. Bogong, 6000 ft. 
Oxalis.* 
O. magellanica (Fors.). tb Nsa: 
Ascends to 5400 ft. 
O. corniculata (Linn.). Tas) NUS Wig. SSA, (ON 
Ubiquitous ; ascends to 3000 ft., common; found on Mt. 
Bogong to 6000 ft. 


MALVACEZ. 
Plagianthus. 
P. pulchellus (Gray). T., oNcSeW. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Howittia. 
H. trilocularis (F. v. M.). NESW... 2A. 
On southern valleys of Snowy River ascends to 2000 ft. 


STERCULIACE&. 
Commuersonia. 
C. dasy phylla (And.). INS Wz, (Q} 
Ascends to 4500 ft. 
Lasiopetalui. 
L. dasyphyllum (Sieb.). TN OW 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Brachychiton. 
B. populneum (Br.). 
Ascends to 3000 ft. (Carrajung.) 


TILIACEA. 


Eleocarpus. 
E. holopetalus (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
E. cyaneus (Aiton). SNES Wig os 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


EUPHORBIACEA. 


Poranthera. a 
P. microphylla (Bron.). TNS. W., 65.4.0 Qs) Wea eee 
Ascends to 6500 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
Micrantheum. 
M. hexandrum (H.). Te Na We, cencaes 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Pseudanthus. 
P. divaricatissimus (Ben.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 5000 fr. 


"eC 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 355 


Beyeria. 
B. viscosa (Miq.). Dd NSS Wa, (ea, 2 Se oy Ae 
Ascends to 4600 ft. 
B. opaca (F. v. M.). Ds WANES Whe SH Ae 
A var. linearis ascends to 4000 ft. 
Rieinocarpus. 
R. pinifolius (Desfon.). ae NS. W5-.Q: 
Ascends to 2000 ft., Snowy River valleys. 
Bertya. 
B. Cunninghamii (Plan.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 3600 ft. 
Amperea. 
A. spartioides (Bron.). Ty NS i Wao eas Ge 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Phyllanthus. 
P. thymoides (Sieb.). N.S: W.,) S:A 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
P. Gunnii (H.). pl Degas SEN Ve er shy 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Adriana. 
A. tomentosa (Gaud.). N.S. W... S.A. {OQ Sea ears one 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


URTICACES. 
Australina. 
A. pusilla (Gaud.). Ce NCS. W. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Ortica.* 
U. incisa (Poir.). PN SSW. SS. Ale ee 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 


CUPULIFER&. 
Fagus.* 
F. Cunninghamii (H.). aly 
Ascends to 3000 ft. in southern and western gullies. 


CASUARINE. 
Casuarina. 
C. quadrivalvis (Lab.). Ty INS: Weaeoses 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
C. suberosa (O. & Die.). ees fer al 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
C. distyla (Ven.). T.; NESW. S:Aaae Wee 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


VINIFER &. 
Vitis. 
V. hypoglauca (F. v. M.). NSW iQ: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


SAPINDACEA. 
Dodonea. 
D. viscosa (Linn.). Ty,  NUSIW., Soka Qt Wek. meee ee 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
D. procumbens (F. v. M.). NSW 508.4: 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
D. boronizfolia (Don.). N.S.W., S.A, Q. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 


356 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sxss. uxvit 


STACKHOUSIE. 
Stackhousia. 
S. pulvinaris (F. v. M.). Ti Swe 
Summits of higher Alps between 5000 and 7000 ft. 
S. linarifolia (Cun.). Te NS Wiaretay i) 
Ascends to 4600 ft. 
S. viminea (Sm.). NSW Os) NOAZ 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 


PORTULACEA. 
Claytonia.* 

C. pygmeea (F. v. M.). INES WiniaosAcns We 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 

C, australasica (H.). DC VENSSW a aDeAls Was 
Ascends to 7000 ft. ; Mt. Bogong, 6500 ft. 

C. calyptrata (F. v. M.). Ts; NES SW.., “SAAS ) “Q/2emiye 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


CARYOPHYLLEA. 
Stellaria.* 
S. pungens (Bron.). eS We, “SoAe 
Ascends to 5400 ft. 
8. flaccida (H.). Te Nese ve 
Ascends to 6000 ft. 
S. multiflora (H.). PS (UNGSAW sg SaAs, . WeAcy sNem: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
S. glauca (With.). 
Common up to 2000 ft. 
Sagina.* 
S. procumbens * (Linn.). NGS WW: 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 


Colobanthus. 
C. benthamianus (Fen.). Nes: W: 
(C. subulatus). 
Restricted to the higher Alps, between 6000 and 7000 ft.; 
Mt. Bogong, 6500 ft. 


Scleranthus.* 
S. pungens (Br.). INeS Wine. Ale 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
S. biflorus (H.). ae NGS. Win Q. 
Between 2000 and 6000 ft. 
S. mniaroides (F. v. M.). N.S. Wi 
On higher Alps between 5000 and 7000 ft. 
Spergularia, 
S. rubra (Camb.). EU NES: Wis 0 Ss Als: Wee 
Ubiquitous ; ascends to 3000 ft. 


Polycarpon. 
P. tetraphyllum (Leef.). SrA.) WA. 
Ubiquitous ; ascends to 2500 ft. 


SALSOLACE. 
Chenopodium.* 
C. ambiguum (glaucum). 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


Frs. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 357 


POLYGONACE®. 
Polygonum.* 
P. prostratum (Br.). TONS Wy SSLANe<O Wick: 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
P. minus (Hud.). TT. NSIW., SAS NOs Wes 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Rumex.* 
R. Acetosella.* 
Ubiquitous up to 3000 ft. 
Muehlenbeckia. 
M. adpressa (Meis.). T., N.S. We, VSeaer WAG 
Ascends to 2000 ft. in northern gullies. 
M. axillaris (H.). Ts, NESS WA 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
M. polygonoides (F. v. M.). NS. W.., Seay 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 


CHORIPETALZ PERIGYNA. 


LEGUMINOSA. 
Oxylobium. 
O. ellipticum (Br.). Deg NESOW 50 Oe 
: Ascends to 6500 ft. 
O. alpestre (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 

On higher Alps between 5000 and 7000 ft.; Mt. Bogong, 
6500 ft. 

O. procumbens (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 

Ascends to 5000 ft. 

Mirbelia. 
M. oxylobioides (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 

Pretty shrub, 2600 to 4500 ft. One var. has keel of flower 
purple, another on margin of watercourses has an orange- 
coloured keel. 

Gompholobvwm. 
G. Huegelii (Ben.). Eon NeW 
Var. leptophyllum ascends to 4000 ft. 
Spheerolobium. 
S. vimineum (Sm.). Ts NESW, ora: 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Viminaria. 
V. denudata (Sm.). D5) ONS Wir osae 1 Qi. SWisAL. 

Ascends to 2000 ft. 

Daviesia. 
D. latifolia (Br.). ft aN es 

Ascends to 5000 ft.; most luxurious as small tree at 4000 ft., 
very variable. 

D. corymbosa (Sm.). SEW cy Anh Gs 

Ascends to 3000 ft.; two well-marked varieties are common. 

D. ulicina (Sm.). NSW S.AG, 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
D. buxifolia. 
Between 2000 and 4000 ft. 
Aotus. 
A. villosa (Sm.). Ree SS Pe 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Pultenea. 
P. daphnoides (Wend.). De, a ue Wiege Al, 
Ascends to 2600 ft. 
P. Benthamii (F. v. M.). 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 


358 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXVI. 


Pultenwa—continued— 


P3 


ge} acl “lnc: Slash “tach Inof ano) ej ns} ins) 


PB: 


Gunnii (Ben.). Dee SUNG Wis 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


. tenella (Ben.). 


Asecends to 5000 ft. 


. ternata (F. v. M.). INESSWa Qs 


Ascends to 4000 ft. 


. scabra. N.S. W. 


Ascends to 2000 ft. 


. styphelioides (Cun.). Nis. W.. 


Ascends to 3900 ft. 


. subumbellata (H.). DoE EW 


Between 4000 and 6000 ft. 


. hibbertioides (H.). 


Ascends to 4600 ft. 


. mollis (Lind.). S.A. 


Ascends to 2000 ft. 


. puniperina (Lab.). Ae 


Ascends to 4000 fc. 


. foliolosa (Cun.). N.S.W. 


Ascends to 2000 ft. 


. Muelleri (Ben.). 


Endemic between 4000 and 6000 ft. all over the higher Alps. 
fasciculata (Ben.). Tes INS. Wi. 
Sub-alpine ; between 4000 and 5000 ft. 


Dillwynia. 
D. ericifolia (Sm.). TEUMINGSAWE,: “TosAan@): 


Very variable ; ascends to 3000 ft. 


D. juniperina (Sieb.). N.S.W., Q. 


Ascends to 3000 ft. 


D. cinerascens (Br.). Teen weWVicy AeA Wicks 


Ascends to 4000 ft. 


Platylobium. 


1 
fe 
iP 


formosum (Sm.). Ty SNES AW O: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 

obtusangulum (H.). A, eae 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 

triangulare (Br.). Shed tS Ne 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 


Bosswia. 
B. foliosa (Cunn.). N.S.W. 


les} alee) = les! lee) 


iB: 


Var. ascends to 5000 fr. 


. prostrata (Br.). Tea MN SEV. MA ems 


Ascends to 3000 ft. 


. microphylla (Sm.). N.S.W. 


Ascends to 2000 ft. 


. cinerea (Br.). 


Ascends to 2000 ft. 


. braecteosa (F. v. M.). 


Common on. tablelands between 4000 and 6000 ft. 
riparia (Cunn.). TNS gute. As 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


Hovea. 
H. heterophylla (Cunn.). TONGS WE aesA) «iQ: 


Ascends to 4000 ft. 


H. longifolia (Br.). TNs GS. WW by ee aaa Iy,) ad as 


Ascends to 6500 ft.; the alpine form is characterised by 
rusty-revolute tomentose leaves (Bogong). 


ti a 


Fes. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 359 


Goodia. 
G. lotifolia (Salis.). Bes VENESIWi Se 1528.37 CO) ON WAY 
Ascends to 4000 ft.; very fine flowering shrub, and 
gregarious. 
Lotus.* 
L. corniculatus * (Linn.). TS) Ns W574 5.8 
(Europe). Ubiquitous ; ascends to 4000 ft. 


L. australis (And.). T NSW. TSE Geena | N-A: 
(Polynesia). Ascends to 5000 ft. 
Psoralea. 
P. adscendens (F. v. M.). gS NSS: ng er 
Var. parva ascends to 5000 ft. 
Indigofera. 
I. australis (Will.). Ty, NESW’... Ss Ass SQ ee 


Ascends to 4800 ft. ; common in sub-alpine areas. 
Swainsonia. 


S. phacoides (Ben.). NiSIWi. 18. Ar Os OW Ac. NA 
Ascends to 3600 ft. ; very fine purple flowers. 
S. lessertiifolia (DC.). AT 9. y NS Wit Ae 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Desmodium. 
D. varians (End.). Es cNa. Wis, 1 Q: 
Ascends to 3600 ft. 
Glycine. 


G. clandestina (Wen.). 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
G. Latrobeana (Ben.). 
Ascends to 3200 ft. 
Kennedya. 
K. rubicunda (Ven.). Ore Nos Wis ee 
Ascends to 2600 ft. on southern ridges. 
K. prostrata (Br.). TE PPIs Wes, : Rocce = Gisener YW SAA 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
K. monophylla_ Ven.). es» BPS. VW. Gate Abe Oe 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Cassia. 
C. australis (Sims). N.S. Ws Qs aA 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Acacia (Pungentes). 
A. siculifurmis (Cunn.). ee De te 
Ascends to 6000 ft. 
A. juniperina (Will.). TD: Wigs VO 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
—— (Uninerves). 
A. armata (Br.). RSW 98-4, AWA 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
A. vomeriformis (Cunn.). es SW. Stk. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
A. stricta (Will.). jie oa A 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
A. penninervis (Sieb.). Paes: Wy, Ge 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
A. pycantha (Ben.). N.S.Wi) StA. 
A-+cends to 4000 ft. 
A. amcena (Wen.). N.S.W. 
Ascends from 2000 to 4000 ft. 
A. lunata (Sieb.). N.S.W., Q. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


NS.W., SA, Q, W.A. 


T. 
pee ea 


360 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE | Sess. uxvm. 


Acacia (Uninerves)—continued— 
A. pravissima (F. v. M.). NESW. 
Ascends from 2000 to 5000 ft. 
A. myrtifolia (Will.). Ts ) NSW, S24., 1Qs ieee 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
(Plurinerves). 
A. subporosa (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
A. melanoxylon (Br.). RNS Wag 8S. 
Ascends to 4500 ft. ; a fine timber ; ornamentai tree. 
A. oxycedrus (Sieb.). xt UNS AWes Aa 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
A. verticillata (Will.). AS TENUSAW «58 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
— (Julifere). 
A. dallachiana (F. v. M.). 
Var. between 4000 and 5000 ft. 
A. alpina (F. v. M.). NSS? W. 
Var. on higher Alps, between 5500 and 7000 ft. ; widely dis- 
tributed, Mt. Bogong. 
A. longifolia (Will). T.. N.S.W. S:A., -Q: 
Var. phlebophy la, between 3000 and 4000 ft. 
—— (Bipinnate). 
A. Mitchelli (Ben.). S.A. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. ; rare in these regions. 
A. discolor (Will.). TL. SW. 
Asecends to 4000 ft. 
A. decurrens (Will.). Tea NS: Wrest sola t OE 
Ascends to 4500 ft. Common w rattle. 
A. dealbata (Link.). ee Ne .5 aecA 
Ascends to 4000 ft. Common wattle. 


ROSACEA. 
Geum.* 
G. urbanum ~* (Linn.). T.. N.S.W., S.A. N.Z., “Eareepel 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Rubus.* 
R. gunnianus (H.). Ls 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
R. parvifolius (Linn.). Ds.) INES OW Seas, els 
Ascends to 4500 ft. 
Alchemilla.* 
A. vulgaris* (Linn.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Acena. 
A. ovina (Cun.). ES INES AW cps Ais, ile eee 
Ascends to 6000 ft. Antarctic species. 
A, Sanguisorbee (Vahl.). T., NUSW.,,S-A.,, Q, .N-Zs see 
Ascends to 5000 ft. Antarctic species. 


SAXIFRAGEL. 
Bauera. 
B. rubioides (And.). sy, oN Nice ons 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
B. sessiliflora (F. v. M.). 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 61 


CRASSULACE. 
Tillea. 
T. verticillaris (Can.). TEs. SINGS Wine snaGee ret Wi Ac 
Common up to 3000 ft. 
T. purpurata (H.). ie NS. Wa. oo AS eas 
Ascends to 2500 ft. 
T. macrantha (H.). TP .5. LCSW SSA 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


ONAGRE, 
Epilobium.* 
E. tetragonum (Linn.). TNS Wie sane sO) SOWA FINS Zi. 
Europe. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
E. glabellum (Forst.). 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
SALICARIA. 


Lythrum.* 
L. Salicaria* (Linn.). a, N-SSW., 5: A232 8@ ss Burope. 
Common up to 4000 ft. in swampy areas. 


HALORAGES. 
Haloragis. 
He micrantha (Br.). T.,, N.S.W.;.-S.A;,-Q@;; N.Z., Japan, Ind. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
H. tetragyna (Br.). i NES: Wi, 1SAS2 IOP aeizi 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
H. teucrioides (Gray). Eps SINUS IW. SS Aer Oe WWeA.. 
Ascends to 2600 ft. 
Myriophyllum.* 
M. pedunculatum (H.). is ASSAG Wea 
In streams, up to 4000 ft. 
M. elatinoides (Gaud.). Ase NSW) OA NGz ee europe: 


MYRTACEA. 
Calycothriz. 
C. tetragona (Lab.). TE, NESS Wee 28245 Os. Woks 
Ascends to 2000 ft., western slopes. 
C. Sullivani (F. v. M.). 
Ascends to 3000 ft.; rare. 
Lhotzkya. 
L. genetylloides (F. v. M.). S.A. 
Ascends to 2000 {t., western slopes. 
Thryptomene. 
‘TY. mitchelliana (F. v. M.). S.A. 
Ascends to 2000 ft., western slopes. 


Beckea. 

B. diffusa (Sieb.). Ee NOS: Wey tS AS 
Ascends to 3700 it. 

B. gunniana (Schaur.). De Nis. We 
Common between 5000 and 6000 ft.; Mt. Bogong, 6000 ft. 

B. crenatifolia (F. v. M.). 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 

TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXII. 2A 


362 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. yxvit. 


Leptospermum. 

L. scoparium (R. and G. Foster). Au 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 

L. lanigerum (Sm.). eye NaS: Wig eee ae 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 

L. attenuatum (Sm.). NSW... 
Ascends 2000 to 3000 ft. 

L. juniperinum. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 


, NSW Soe 


Kunzea. 
K. Muelleri (Ben.). N.S.W. 
Endemic between 5000 and 7000 ft.; Mt. Bogong, 6500 ft. 
<. parvifolia (Schau.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
<. corifolia (Reich.). Te eNE SAW. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
K. peduncularis (F. v. M.). N.S. 
Between 4000 and 500 ft. 


x 


Pa 


Callistemon. 
C. salignus (Can.). NESAW:, ‘Q: 
Var. siebieriana, between 4000 and 5000 ft.; Mt. Bogong, 
6000 ft. 
C. lanceolatus. N.S.W., Q. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


Melaleuca. 
M. squarrosa (Donn.). ie SNES AW soa 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
M. gibbosa (Lab.). Seas 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
M. ericifolia (Sm.). a SPINS SV icg Gaara Oe 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


Eucalyptus (Renanthere). 
E. stellulata (Sieb.). NESW: 

Ascends to 5000 ft. 

E. pauciflora (Sieb.). A NSS Nene ase 
, Ascends to 6800 ft.; a dwarfed, stunted shrub; forms 
forests at 4500 to 5500 fr. 

E. regnans (F. v. M.). nao: We 

(White gum or blackbutt.) 

Ascends to 3000 ft.; tallest form, size 400 ft. 

E. amygdalina (Lab.). i, SSW 

(White gum.) 

Ascends to 4500 ft., varied species. Three well-marked 
varieties, narrow-leaved ones to 4500 ft. in shaded 
localities; broad-leaved ones on sunny, dry slopes, up to 
4000 ft. on N. side of spurs. 

E. obliqua (Lher.) (Messmate). Te NSW a 
Ascends to 4000 ft.; forms forests with E. siebieriana, E. 
viminalis, and E. amygdalina. 

E. stricta (Sieb.). N.S.W. 

At 4000 ft., Buchan and Snowy Rivers. 
E. macrorhyncha (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 

Ascends to 3000 ft., Dividing range (Wentworth). 
E. capitellata (Sm.). INES AWS? Soc 

(Stringy bark. ) 
Ascends to 3000 ft. in Tambo Valley. 


Pomaderris apetala (p. 363). 


GIPPSLAND FOREST SHRUBS. 


Fep 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 365 


Eucalyptus (Renanthere)—continued— 
E. eugenioides (Sieb.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 3000. ft.; forms forests in Wentworth and Tambo 


Valleys. 
E. piperita (Sm.). N.S. W. 
Ascends to 3000 ft.; this species is allied to E. eugenioides. 
E. pilularis (Sm.) N.S.W 
(Blackbutt. ) 


Ascends to 3500 ft. 
E. siebieriana (F. v. M.). AP Nes nize 
(White gum-topped stringy bark.) 
Forms zones of growth, common between 3500 and 4500 ft. ; 
two well-marked varieties occur—white ironbark, in 
Mitchell River Valley to 4500 ft., and woollybutt, in 
Tambo Valley at 4000 ft. 
Eucalptus (Parallelanthere). 
E. Globulus (Lab.). pl DAR dS 1 
(Blue gum.) 
eps to 4000 ft. in isolated colonies; Tambo Valley, 2000 
; Mitta Mitta Valiey, Gelantipy, 3000 ft. 
E. Gunnii (). ES ENN-S Wie S24: 
Ascends to 3000 ft., Mt. Livingstone, forms two varieties ; 
and to 5000 ft. on met tablelands , dwarfed form. 
E. pulverulenta (Sims.). NS.W. 
Ascends to 3000 ft., Omeo Plains. 
E. stuartiana (F. v. M.). Ah NSW ee 
Ascends to 2500 ft., Dargo and Omeo Road. 
E. viminalis (Lab.). PENS We 15.86 
Ascends to 4000 ft., Livingstone Ck., two varieties ; Darge 
High Plains, 4500 it. 


RHAMNACE. 
Pomaderris. 
P. elliptica (Lab.). Te NESW. UN.Z: 
2000 to 3000 ft. 
P. vacciniifolia (Reis. and F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
At 3100 it. 
P. apetala (Lab.). dD Bre ams 8 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
P. betulina (Cun.). N.S.W. 
At 3000 it. 
P. racemosa (H.). A A ea oie: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
P. elachophvlla (F. v. M.). 
At 2000 to 3000 ft. 
P. phylicifolia (Lod.). F: 
Ascends to 3500 it. 
Cryptandra. 
C. amara (Sm.). ea Wi ag: OS 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 
_ Colletia. 
C. pubescens (Brog.). Tee Nuss 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


ARALIACEA’. 
Astrotricha. 
A. ledifolia (Can.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


364 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXVII. 


Panac. 
P. sambucifolius (Sieb.). AP Weg: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 


UMBELLIFER., 


Hydrocotyle.* 
H. laxiflora (Can.). INDSEW 2, oA, AQ 
At 2000 to 3000 ft. 


Didiscus. 
D. humilis (H.). eae SoWe 
Sub-alpine, at 4500 ft. 
Trachymene. 
T. Billardieri (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
At 3000 to 3800 ft. 
Azorella. 
A. Muelleri (Ben.). 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 
A. cuneifolia (F. v. M.). 
At 4000 to 6500 ft. ; Mt. Bogong, 4800 to 6500 ft. 
A. dichopetala (Ben.). 
Ascends to 5800 ft. , Mt. Bogong. 


Huanaca. 
H. hydrocotylea (Ben.). be 
At 4000 to 6500 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
Apium.* 
A. prostratum (Lab.). TR ONS SEW., SoA... (On aie 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
A. leptophyllum (F. v. M.). NES Wee Q): 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Seselv. 
S. harveyanus (F. v. M.). 
At 5000 to 6000 ft. 
Aciphylla. 
A. simplicifolia (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
A. glacialis (F. v. M.). Nose W 
At 5000 to 6500 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
Oreomyrrhis. 
O. andicola (End.). As INES: Wis: 2st pay: 
At 5000 to 6000 ft. 
O. pulvinifica (IF. v. M.). N.S. W. 
Higher Alps, 6500 to 7200 ft.; Mt. Bogong, 5800 to 6508 ft. 


SYNPETALZ PERIGYN. 


SANTALACEA. 
Thesium. — 
T. australe (Br.). PA SEN SH... 1Q? 


’ 
At 2600 to 3000 ft. 
Choretrum. 
C. lateriflorum (Br.). N.S.W. 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 
Leptomeria. 
L. aphylla (Br.). NESS Wig) eas 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Onvphacomeria. 
O. acerba (Can.). NSA: 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 


Fes. 1903.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 365 


Exocarpos. 

E. cupressiformis (Lab.). Dy) NESE WS SHAR Ol Wadd 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 

B. spartea (Br.). N.S.W., S.A. Q., W-.A. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 

E. stricta (Br.). Te erlNS Wiss, «Sake 
Ascends to 3800 ft. 

E. humifusa (Br.). T., N.Z., Sandwich Islands. 
Ascends to 6000 ft. 

E. nana (H.). Tr. 
At 4000 to 6000 ft. 


PROTEACE. 
Conospermum. 
C. patens (Schl.). NESAWs; Gea 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


Persoonia. 
P. confertiflora (Ben.). 
Ascends to 5000 ft.; at 2000 ft. an erect shrub, at the higher 
levels dwarfed and divaricate. 
P. linearis (And.). INES Wie ©) 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
P. rigida (Br.). N-SSW. 
Ascends to 3500 ft. 
P. myrtilloides (Sieb.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
P. chameepeuce (Lhot.). N-S.W. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. as a decumbent shrub. 
P. juniperina (Lab.). Te ESSWi, aosae 
Ascends to 5000 ft. all over the Alps asa divaricate shrub. 
Orites. 
O. lancifolia (F. v. M.). 
Endemic, 5900-7000 ft., in the higher altitudes ; Mt. Bogong, 
6500 ft. 


Grevillea. 
G. ilicifolia (Br.). S.A. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
G. alpina (Lind.). 
At 2500 to 6000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 


G. rosmarinifolia (Cun.), N.S.W. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
G. miqueliana (F. v. M.). 
At 4000 to 5000 ft., fine shrub. 
G. Victorie (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
G. juniperina (Br.). NES A's 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
G. confertifolia (F. v. M.). 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 
G. parviflora (Br.). IN:S: Wi As 
Ascends to 4000 ft. as a dwarfed var. 
G. australis (Br.). Tee NSE 
Ascends to 4000-5000 ft.; a much branched shrub. 
G. raiosissima (Meis.). NCS SW. 


Ascends to 3000 ft.; is rapidly becoming extinct at the higher 
levels. 


366 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sess. yxvit. 


Hakea. 

H. eriantha (Br.). N.S.W. 

At 3000-4000 ft. ; an erect arborescent shrub. 
H. lasiantha (Br.). 
H. rugosa (Br.). S.A. 

Ascends to 3000 ft. ; a very prostrate species. 
H. nodosa (Br.). Abe 

Ascends to 2000 ft. 
H. acicularis (Br.). ee NES Wi 

At 4800 to 5000 ft. ; a small tree, 15 ft. high. 
H. microcarpa (Br.). Ae NES. We 


Ascends to 5000 ft.; a stout rigid shrub, about 12 ft. high, at 
the lower levels, but becomes almost prostrate at the 
higher altitudes. 

Lomatia. 
L. ilicifolia (Br.). N.S.W. 

At 2000 to 5000 ft.; arboreous shrub, 20 ft. high at sub-alpine 
habitats. 

L. longifolia (Br.). N.S.W. 

Ascends to 4000 ft. ; attains a height of 12 ft. at sub alpine 
habitats. 

Telopea. 
T. oreades (F. v. M.). 

Ascends in Snowy River Valley to 3000 ft. ; attains a height 
of 50 ft. at the sub-alpine habitats. 

Banksia. 
B. collina (Br.). Nis. Wis = Q: 

Ascends to 2000 ft. 

B. marginata (Cav.). Eee NSO Wer aac 
Ascends to 3000 ft.; small bushy tree, Omeo district. 
B. integrifolia (Linn.). IN-SEWE,, 7Q: 
Ascends to 4500 ft.; a low diffuse shrub. 
B. serrata (Linn.). SS NOI Ge 
Ascends to 2000 ft.; on the southern sub-alpine sandy areas. 


THYMELE. 
Pimelea. 
P. alpina (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
At 5000 to 7000 ft.; Mt Bogong, 6500 ft. 
. glauca (Br.). ey NGS. W.., SvAt On@: 
At 2000 to 3000 ft. 
. ligustrina (Lab.). Tae NC OAs, Sane 
At 3800 to 6000 ft. ; 5800 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
. axiflora (F. v. M.). Alea ONES Ne 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
. pauciflora (Br.). Eee NGSWis Ok 
At 2000 to 4000 ft. 
. serpyllifoha (Br.). NGS. W . 1) iS 2Ac a) Wen 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
. flava (Br.). TS wNiSaWige sence Qe a) WAL 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
. curviflora (Br.). DN Saw Gtuncass en @: 
Ascends to 3500 ft. 
. dichotoma. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


ae) lash tae) es tas|= dno} Ino} lag) 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


RUBIACE. 
Coprosma. 
C. pumila (H.). aT eNGAL 
At 4000 to 5000 ft. 
C. Billardieri (H.). Oe NESE We 
(C. microphylla.) 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
C. hirtella (Lab.). TS NS Wis pene 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
Opercularia. 
O. aspera (Geer.). NSS LO! 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Asperula.* 
A. oligantha (F. v. M.). TS 
‘Ascends to 6000 ft. .» Mt. Bogo 
Galium.* 
G. australe (Can.). f HEN AS See gars yesley Oe 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


0g A, 


S.Wey SoA <Q! 
on 


Co 
o 


CAPRIFOLIACES. 
Sambucus.* 
S. gaudichaudiana (Can.).  - NiSi Wee SnAey ee @! 
At 3000 to 5000 ft. 


COMPOSITA. 
Lagenophora. 
L. Billardieri (Cass.). ES; 
Japan. 
Ascends to 3500 ft. 
L. emphysopus (H.). 4 SNS. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


Brachycome. 
B. diversifolia (Fos. and Mey.). NS Way a5. A.. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
. radicans (Steetz.). T., N.S.W. 
. Scapigera (Can.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
. angustifolia (Cun.). en. We 
At 2000 to 3000 ft. 
. exilis (Sond.). INE SEW ens; Ae 
Ascends to 5000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
. ptychocarpa (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
. dicipiens (H.). AL a PSA ee A Soha 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
. nivalis (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
At 5000 to 7000 ft. ; Mt. Bogong, 6000 ft. 
. stricta (Can.). Ta We 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
ciliaris (Less.). Ts) INS Wes) Seal. Gh. van 
At 3000 ft. 
Calotis. 
C. glandulosa (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
C. seabiosifolia (Sond. and F. v. M.). N.S. W., S.A: 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


lee} tes} fos} les] les} Nee) lesfloe) 


w 


N.S.W. SA, Q, W.A. 


367 


Ind., 


368 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXV. 


Calotis—continued— 
C. scapigera (H.). NSW. 5.25, @ NA. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
C. lappulacea (Ben.). NSW: SvA. 
At 2500 ft. 


5 Qo Wee 
Aster.* 
A. megalophyllus (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
A. alpicola (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
At 4000 to 6000 ft. 
A. rosmarinifolius (Cun.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 6000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
A. argophyllus (Lab.). Te NESW 
(Native musk.) 
Ascends to 5000 ft. ; dwarfed and stunted at this elevation. 
A. myrsinoides (Lab.). Se NES WE cae 
At 2000 to 5000 ft. 
A. stellulatus (Lab.). TE RINE S Wiest EAs ye 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
A. florulentus (F. v. M.). NSE Ws 
Ascends to 4000 tt. 
A. microphyllus (Pers.). ey NESAW:,. seas 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
A. iodochrous (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
A. glandulosus (Lab.). USNS ere tee 
Ascends to 5800 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
A. adenophorus (F’. v. M.). NESW. 
Asvends to 4000 ft. 
A. Muelleri (Sond.). 
At 6000 to 7000 ft., Kosciusko Plateau. 
A. Huegelii (F. v. M.). Te ONESSWE,1 Scale Vea 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
A. Celmisia (F. v. M.). eNESAWE 
At 4000 to 7000 ft.; Mt. Boyong, 6500 ft. 


Vittadinia. 
V. australis (Rich.). Th ae Wie 525s, ae 
Ascends to 2500 ft. ; at Omeo, 1 ft. 18 in. 
Erigeron. ; 


E. pappochromus (Lab.). Ae SENESEAVE: 
Alpine at 6000 to 7000 ft. ; Mt. Bogong, 6500 it. 
Gnaphaliwm.* 
G. japonicum (Thum.). act INJSIWa, USA Qe ese 
At 4000 to 6000 ft. 
G. alpigenum (F. v. M.). Abe 
Alpine at 4500 to 6500 ft. ; 6500 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
G. Traversii (H.). NESW. 
Ascends to 3500 ft. 
Antennaria.* 
A. uniceps (F. v. M.). NGS. W. 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
Leontopodium. 
L. latipes (F. v. M.). Te INES: We 
At 6000 to 7000 ft.; Mt. Bogong, 6500 ft. (native edel weiss). 
Podolepis. 
P. longipedata (Cun.). SUSSWi we: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
P. acuminata (Br.). T,, N.S.W., SiA:,Q. 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 369 


Leptorhynchos. 
L. squamatus (Less.). T:, ) SESOW,,” S-Ae 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
L. tenuifolius (F. v. M.). S.A. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
L. elongatus (Can.). ES. NSS Wao Stang OS ave 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Helipterwm. 
H. anthemoides (Can.). Tf. SESW. k SAL O! 
At 3000 to 6500 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
H. incanum (Can.). Pee NESW eter 
Var. auriceps, 2000 to 4000 ft.; an alpine form common 
between 5000 and 6000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
H. dimorpholepis (Ben.). INS Wik SAG Wks 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Helichrysum. 
H. scorpioides (Lab.). TS. INOS ene cle 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
H. obtusifolium (Sond. and F. v. M. ys NSW, S.ALe WA: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
H. lucidum (Henckel.). D2, INSoW:5- pene We Ace. “NERS 
(syn. H. bractiatuin.) 
Narrow leaved var., 2000 to 3000 ft.; Alpine var., 5000 to 6000 
ft., Mt. Bogong. 
. leucopsidium (Can.). T.. NS.W.;. GSeke 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
. apiculatum (Can.). TP. N.S. W., S25 SOSVPWEA... -N_Ae 
1 ft. 15 in.; ascends to 3000 ft. 
. semipapposum (Can.). TNS: We Sees EO WeAL 
Ascends to 5000 fr. 
. rosmarinifolium (Less.). Do NSW 
Var. thyrsoides, 2000 to 5000 ft. .. Mt. Bogong. 
. ferrugineum (Less.). i SS. Woes 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
. baccharoides (F. v. M.). Ay 
Common berween 5000 ae 6500 ft.; Mt. Bogong, 6500 ft. 
. pholidotum (F. v. M.). NGS. Wee ee 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
H. Stirlingii (F. v. M.). 
At 4600 ft., Mt. Hotham. 
Cassinia. 
C. aculeata (Br.). Te USL iene 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


Te Fe ee 


Humea. 
H. elegans (Sm.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Izodia. 
I. achilleoides (Br.). S.A. 
Ascends to 3000 fr. 
Craspedia. 4 
C. Richea (Cass.). Tt N.SW.,. 8.4.>°Q5, (WAGE sas Ne 
Very variable ; lowland forin, “4000 ft.; var. alpina, 5000 to 
6000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
Cotula. 
C. australis (H.). Ti: NESW. <SA, ( On SWeae 
Ascends tu 2000 fr. 
C. alpina (H.). T.. cDtS.W- 
Sub-alpine ; at 3000 to 6500 ft., Mt. Bogong. 


370 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXVII. 
Cotwla—continued— 
C. filicula (H.). D5 SNES We 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Centipeda. 
C. orbicularis (Lour.). T., NSW. S.A, 'Q.) Wie 
At 2500 to 3000 ft. 
Abrotanella. 
A. nivigena (F. v. M.). 
At 4000 to 7000 ft.; 6000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
Senecio.* 
S. pectinatus (Can.). TNE SS Wie 
Sub-alpine ; at 6000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
S. lautus (Sol.). TT, NS W., S.A.,, Qs. W.A., NCAGRSAREZ: 
Ascends to 3600 ft. : 
S. vagus (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
8. australis (Rich.). NGS Wino eke 
At 3000 to 6000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
S. georgianus (Can.). OS eIN SS Woe pS eaccue ne 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
S. Bedfordii (F. v. M.). rN Sei. 
Ascends to 4800 ft.; this forms a fine tree at the lower 
levels. 
Erechtites. 
K. hispidula (Can.). a NESE Wa wb eA “WisAe 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Cymbonotus. 
C. lawsonianus (Gaud.). De NGS: Wi SAs tO, “Weae 
Ascends to 6000 ft. 
Centaurea. 
C. australis (Ben.). NS Wer: 
Ascends to 3500 ft. 
Microseris. 
M. Forsteri (H.). Tee BNGSAW 2, ease WWealce aN Eze 
Ascends to 5000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 


CAMPANULACE&. 
Lobelia.* 
L. gelida (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 6000 ft. 
L. concolor (Br.). INESSWe,, US. A5 2Q: 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
L. simplicicaulis (Br.). NES aWien ese 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
L. anceps (Thun.). NZS eS. At., America: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Isotoma. 
I. axillaris (Lind.). INE SAW sO: 
Ascends to 2800 ft. 
I. fluviatilis (F. v. M.). RAMEN ESAWis fis cAcy iQ). 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Wahlenbergia.* 
W. gracilis (Can.). De NGS aWees (Soc, O35") WAG eens 
NIZA nds sSivAk 
Ascends to 5000 ft.; very variable; Mt. Bogong (deep blue 
petals). 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH Diol 


CANDOLLEACE. 
Candollea (Stylidium). 
C. graminifolia (Swar.). Ts IN SAW} Sea @! 
Ascends to 6000 ft.; maximum luxuriance at 4000 ft.; Mt. 
Bogong, 6000 ft. 
C. sobolifera (F. v. M.). 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
C. calearata (Br.). SuAnS WisAe 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
C, serrulata. 
Mt. Bogong, 6000 ft. 
Levenhookia. 
L. dubia (Sond). Ts. N:SWej? SAGeaies 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


GOODENIACE. 
Dampiera. 
D. stricta (Br.). Sy, NESW 5.0 she 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Scevola. 
S. hispida (Cav.). N-S2W:.,, * Q: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
S. emula (Br.). De NSW. S.A. Wee 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
S. microcarpa (Cav.). T. N.S.W.,. jae: 
Ascends to 2500 ft. 
Selliera. 
S. radicans (Cav.). LD 2N.S. W.,, SsAg Nee 
Antarctica ; ascends to 3000 ft. 
Goodenia. 
G. ovata (Sm.). PeeNSaW.., .osAcne@e 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
G. hederacea (Sm.). NESSW.,-  Q: 
Ascends to 3500 ft. Vr. cordifolia. 
G. Macmillani (F. v. M.). 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
G. elongata (Lab.). Ue N:SSW.,sseae 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Velleya. 
VY. paradoxa (Br.). Alby 
Ascends to 6000 ft. 
V. montana (H.). i NES We 
Sub-alpine, at 4500 to 6000 ft. 


N.S.W., SA, Q. 


) 


SyNPETALa HypoGyNn”. 


GENTIANES. 
Limnanthemum. 
L. crenatum (F. v. M.). NS: We, 2s: Ave GaN ae 
At 3000 to 3500 ft. 
L. geminatum (Gris.). NSW, = Qa 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 
Sebeca. 
S. ovata (Br.). TES Wigs ee AGee Cen Veer: eines 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
S. albidiflora (F. v. M.). LS Peas 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


B74 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess LXVIL. 


Krythrea.* 
E. australis (Br.). Ts NSW. S:A5" Qs, Wace 
From 2000 to 6000 ft. 
Gentiana.* 
G. saxosa (Fors.). TONGS UW. S.A: 
Alpine form, 400 to 6200 ft., Mt. Bogong. 


LOGANIACE. 
Mitrasacme. 
M. serpyllifolia (Br.). ey ap NSW 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Logan. 
L. floribunda (Br.). IMESANE 
Ascends to 2500 ft. 


PLANTAGINES. 
Plantago.* 
P. varia (Br.). INE So Wis A? Gane aie 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
P. stellaris (F. v. M.). NESE Wi 
Alpine, 6000 to 7000 ft.; 6300 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
P. Gurnni (H.). eo NES ae 
Alpine, ascends to 4000 ft. 


PRIMULACEA. 
Samolus. 
S. repens (Pers.). Th INES Wine iSt Acs Qt VEAL.) aie 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


JASMINE (OLEACEA). 
Notelea. 
N. ligustrina (Vent.). De NES Wi 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


APOCYNES. 
Alyxia. 
A. buxifolia (Br.). We, NESW,” 19-45 Os fi Weas 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Lyonsia. 
L. straminea (Br.). dle 
Ascends to 2500 ft. 


, NSW. 


ASCLEPIADE&. 
Tylophora. 
T. barbata (Br.). NES: W. 
Ascends to 2500 ft. 
Marsdenia. 
M. rostrata (Br.). - N.S.W., Q. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


CONVOLVULACE®. 
Convolvulus. 
C. erubescens (Sims.). T., N.S.W., S.A., Q. W.A., N.Z., Europe. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
C. sepium (Linn.). Oe NGS Wis, oan AW SAL 
Ascends to 3000 feet. 
Dichondra. 
D. repens (R. and G. Fors.). T., N.S.W., S.A. Q,, WA. Daa 
N.Z., Ind., S. Af., S. Amer. 
Ascends to 2500 ft. 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


Wilsonia. 
W. rotundifolia (H.). WS Woe a ORAL 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


SOLANACE. 
Solanum* 


S. nigrum * (Linn.). Te, NESS Wes 3 S2Acl SOs WAG 


Ubiquitous ; ascends to 2500 ft. 
S. vescum (F. v. M.). E.;.  DeSW: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
S. aviculare (Fors.). Te) NESW Stace - Oar eheze 
Ascends to 2500 it. 
Lycvwm. 
L. australe (F. v. M.). DESOWS,.. SOsA PAL 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Anthocercis. 
A. Eadesii (F. v. M.). N.S.W., S.A. 
Ascends to 3600 ft. 


SCROPHULARINES. 
Mimulus.* 


Oo 
~I 
Oo 


M. repens (Br.). ee NSS Wy. SAS Gea eWees, 5 ENA: 


Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Gratiola. 
G. peruviana (Linn.). AT 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
G. nana (Ben.). PANS: W. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Limosella. 


L. aquatica (Linn.). Ro NCS. W.. “SAC IWERG eI N A: 


(L. antaretica). Ascends to 2100 it. 
Veronica.* 

Y. densifolia (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 

V. perfoliata (Br.). N.S.W. 
Common at 4000 to 5000 ft. 

V. Derwentia (Lit.). Ess. bocca Wiese. = Stan ge 
Ascends to 5800 ft.; Mt. Bo gong. 

V. nivea (Lind.). 2.8 SSW 
Sub-alpine ; at 5000 ft. 

VY. serpyllifolia (Linn.). N.S.W. 
At 5000 to 6000 ft. 


Euphrasia* 


E. Brownii(F.v.M). 1. NS.W., SA, Q, W.A. 


At 4000 ft.; at pe  it., Mt. Bogong. 

E. scabra (Br.). A Sees: Wee 0A. Os We 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 

E. antarctica (Ben.). N.S.W. 
At 5000 to 6500 ft. 


LENTIBULARIEX. 
Utricularia.* 


U. flexuosa (Vahl.). P., INS WSs Oe 


At 2500 ft. u 
U. dichotoma (Lab.). T., SAY. esi + Oe 
At 5000 to 6000 ft. 


N.S.W. > (SA OS, AWA, 


N.A. 


N.A. 


374 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [ Sess. uxvmr. 


GESNERIACE&®. 
Fieldia. 
F. australis (Cun.). NUS: W.- 
Ascends to 3000 ft.; on fern trees. 


BIGNONIACE. 
Tecoma. 
T. australis (Br.). IN SHV Se Ace aN ae 
Ascends, on southern slopes, to 3500 ft. 


ASPERIFOLLA. 
Myosotis.* 
M. australis (Br.). AE NESS hey) sea a ieee 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
M. suaveolens (Poir.). DenaNeSae 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
Cynoglossum. 
C. suaveolens (Br.). ee NOs Wey visas 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 


LABIATA. 
Plectranthus. 
P. parviflorus (Will.). INESMWisy S24... 00: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Mentha.* 
M. laxiflora (Ben.). NES AWE 
Ascends to 3000 feet. 
M. australis (Br.). De NESEWis Sele SQ WiOAR Ngee 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
M. gracilis (Br.). A SNESS Wee MovAL 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
M. satureioides (Br.). Meee INES Week (SAce abe PWIA: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Lycopus.* 
L. australis (Br.). Te INES Wise (Seno ae: 
Agscends to 3000 ft. 
Salvia. 
S. plebeja (Br.). NESSW)., ~Q: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Scutellaria.* 
S. mollis (Br.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
S. humilis (Br.). i N-SaWa, 0 SA) VO: 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 
Prostanthera. 
P. lasianthos (Lab.). ee SNES Wee cOsas yO: 
Ascends to 3800 ft. 
. rotundifolia (Br.). Wee SHAW ire mate yo 
At 2000 to 3000 fr. 
. hirtula (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
P. denticulata (Br.). NES SWe 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
P. cuneata (Ben.). TNS Wi: 
Common at higher elevations up to 6000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
. phylicifolia (F. v. M.). N.S.W., Q. 
Ascends to 3600 ft. © 
>, decussata (F. v. M.). 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 


ag} ago) 


no} —8La0) 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


Westringia. 
W. senifolia (F. v. M.). 
At 3000 ft. 
Ajuga.* 
A. australis (Br.). ES" N-S-W 3 US ae, ee O: 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
Teucrium.* 
T. corymbosum (Br.). pam FES)" Sai S a: aa 8 
Ascends to 2500 ft. 


VERBENACE. 
Verbena. 
VY. officinalis (Linn.). T., NS Wa S-As: iG: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


EPACRIDES. 
Styphelr i. 


S. humifusa (Pers.). TD gy N.S. Weg see 


At 2200 ft. 

. lanceolata (Sm.). Te ONS: We, (Oe 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 

. collina (Lab.). i. ANAS W,, , 3-28 
Ascends to 5000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 

. glacialis (F. v. M.). 
At 5000 to 6000 ft. 

. virgata (Lab.). J ie 
Ascends to 4000 fr. 

. montana (F. v. M.). ee NSS We 
At 4000 ft. 

. Macrei (F v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 

. ericoides. PEN Saigo Ann mee 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 

. biflora (Spren.). NS Wow O- 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 

. Fraseri (F. v. M.). To NSW. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 

. juniperina (Spren.). NSW: /@: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 

. serrulata (Lab.). ‘Es. NES: Wie 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 

. scoparia (Sm.). je NSW 
Ascends to 3000 it. 

. apiculata 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


Brachyloma. 
B. daphnoides (Ben.). Pp. NGS Wie eas, Gr 
At 2000 to 4000 ft. 
Trochocarpa. 
T. Clarkei (F. v. M.). 
Asceuds to from 4000 to es ft. 
T. pumila (F. v. M.). Zien BS SAE 
At 3000 to 5000 ft., Mt. Boar 
Epacris. 
E. impressa (Lab.). Ts. Save eae 
Ascends to 4500 ft. 


TR 


Spi idpy \ tdpl dp’ 


TR 


RM RN PR 


Ca TUDE 2 C2 


376 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


Epacris—continued — 


E. petrophila (H.). le eave 


Alpine ; at 4000 to 6000 ft , Mt. Bogong. 


E. paludosa (Br.). NSW. 


2000 to 5000 ft. 


E. heteronema (Lab.) ee NGS We 


Sub-alpine ; at 4000 to 5000 ft. 


E. serpyllifolia (Br.). ee SNES We 


Alpine’; at 6000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 


E. microphylla (Br.). TT. NS.W., S.A, Q. 


At 3000 to 4000 ft. 


Sprengelia. 
S. incarnata (Sm.). MD NGS Wiese eae 


Richea. 


Ascends to 2000 ft. 


R. Gunnii (H.). TT: 
Alpine ; at 4000 to 6000 ft. in Sphagnum beds, Mt. Bogong. 


ERICACEA. 


Gaultiera. 
G. hispida (Br.). NSW 


At 4000 to 5000 ft. 


Wattsternra. 
W. vacciniacea (F.v. M.). 


Restricted at 4500 to 5500 ft. 


MONOCOTYLEDONES. 
CaLycr& PERIGYN2. 


ORCHIDEA. 


Dendrobium. 
D. speciosum (Sm.). IN Sawa: 


Ascends to 3000 ft. 


D. striolatum (Reich.). N.S.W. 


Ascends to 2000 ft. 


Dipodium. 
D. punctatum (Br.). T.,  N:SiW., (“SA 6Qs, nO WieAr aoe 


At 2000 to 4500 ft., Mt. Pogony. 


Spiranthes. é 
S. australis (Lind.). T., N.S.W.,. (Si: Ag Q, NZ eames 


Ind., Siberia. 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 


Thelymitra. 
T. ixioides (Swartz). Ey LANGS. W;, cs dauey GO) Semen 


Ascends to 2000 ft. 


T. aristata (Lind.). TT. N.S.W., S.A, W.A. 


T. longifolia (R. and G. Forster). 


Ascends to 4000 ft. 


Ascends to 3000 ft. 


T. antennifera (H.). Aes SSAC AWN AS 


Diuris. 


Ascends to 2000 ft. 


D. punctata (Sm.). N.S! Wee 82k 


Ascends to 3000 ft. 


D. maculata (Sm.). Bs yy MINES. ay gs HOA ot 


6 in. to 1 ft. high ; ascends to 3000 ft. 


SESS. LXVII. 


T. NSW. SA, Q. WA. 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


Diuris—continued— 
D. pedunculata (Br.). TS) SES ears Ae 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
D. sulphurea (Br.). Ps Ds Wie ae 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
D. longifolia (Br.). Dg Oot eae Rae 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Prasophyllum. 
P. patens (Br.). T., NSW: 28:4. Ser 
At 2000 to 4000 ft. 
P. fuseum (Br.). Ty SSW SA ee 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Microtis. 
M. porrifolia (Br.). 1. NSW. S.Aes POT ayes 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Corysanthes. 
C. fimbriata (Br.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Pterostylis. 
P. curta (Br.). Ps NSW. SAS: 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
P. nutans (Br.). i USS We; (i ALe fee 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
B. nana (Br.). 2A, W.A. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
P. cucullata (Br.). Ts. SiA. 
Ascends to 2500 ft. 
Caladenia. 
C. Menziesii (Br.). Pe A. | WA. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
C. Patersoni (Br.). PANS. W.., S:A Oy eae 
Ascends to 4200 ft. 
C. latifolia (Br.). ee NES, WS ~ SiA. isee 
Ascends to 2200 ft. 
C. suaveolens (Reich.). os NCS AWe 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
C. carnea (Br.). ine NS: W.;, S.A5, 18 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Glossodva. ’ 
C. major (Br.). ee SESW... Ase ee 
At 2000 to 4000 ft. 
C. minor (Br.). NSIWe, Q: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 


IRIDEX. 
Diplarrhena. 
D. Morvea (Lab.). Es eS W- 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Patersonia. 
P. longiscapa (Sweet.). Te, Wiseees 
Ascends to 2100 ft. 
P. sericea (Br.). NS.W., Q.- 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


AMARYLLIDE (HYPOXIDE#). 
oa ra ; 
A. hygrometrica (Lab.). E.,» IN-SUW.S abAas) 08 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXII. 


=<] 
~I 


378 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE | Sess. LXVI. 


CaLycea Hypogynz., 


LILIACE&. 
Smilax. 
S. australis (Br.). N:S.W., QQ: INZAL 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Drymophila. 
D. cyanocarpa (Br.). De) Noo Wie 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Dianella. 
D. tasmanica (H.). 2 NESW. 
Ascends to 6000 ft.; most luxuriant at 5000 ft, Mt. 
Kosciuska slopes. 
D. longifolia (Br.). i NSW ee 
Ascends to 2800 ft. 
D. revoluta (Br.). TS NES Wie S24), (O56. Wires 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 
Eustrephus. 
E. Brownii (F. v. M.). INES: We, ©: 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Astelia. 
A. alpina (Br.). i, NES. W 
Alpine ; at 4000 to 5000 ft. 
Wurmbea. 
W. dioica (F. v. M.). VAAN: S. Wine eA 4O: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Bulbine. 
B. bulbosa (Haworth). Te ANUS SWeeeS Acs. cE 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Thysanotus. 
T. tuberosus (Br.). INES SWey eats, OS, SING 
Ascends to 3500 ft. 
T. Patersoni (Br.). DS INS Weg SACs 9 WV SAE 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Cosia. 
C. vittata (Br.). TT, NESSWE, (Sek5 1: 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 
Tricoryne. 
T. elatior (Br.). Tye NSS2Wi 1 StAc @.,, Wikee 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Stypandra. 
S. glauca (Br.). N.S. W., @:, ‘Was 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
S. ceespitosa (Br.). ay NES Wiese: 
Ascends to 3000 {t. 
Xerotes. 
X. longifolia (Br.). Ta, INUSIW., S.A. 3Q: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
NXonthorrhea. 
X. minor (Br.). Te ENES-W..5) S.A: 
Ascends to 2500 ft. 
X. australis (Br.). tT. 
Ascend to 3000 ft. 


TYPHACEA. 
Typha. 
T. angustifolia (Linn.). T., ON.S.We sS/A.. Qs W. AS Ngee 
Ubiquitous ; ascends to 3000 ft. 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


Sparganium. 
S. angustifolium (Br.). NESSWic30) OS 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


FLUVIALES (ALISMACE). 
Triglochin. 
T. mucronata (Br.). SA. WAG 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Potamogeton. 
P. natans (Linn.). Tis, ONS. Wis ete (Oe 
Ubiquitous ; at 2500 ft. 
P. crispus (Linn.). N.S JW (SA OE 
Ascends on swamps up to 3000 ft. 


N.A. 


JUNCACES. 
Luzula. 
L. campestris (Can.). T., . DES Weee peace 
Ubiquitous ; ascends to 5000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
Juncus.* 
J. faleatus (Meyer). Ey. ONES W. 
Sub-alpine ; ascends to 5000 ft. 
J. bufonius* (Linn.). T.;  N.S.W.y 2S:AeOe 
Ubiquitous ; ascends to 4000 ft. 
J. communis (Meyer). t. “NSW... S245 402 
Ubiquitous ; spent to is )00 as 
J. pallidus (Br.). it 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
J. prismatocarpus (Br.). dbs 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 


RESTIACES. 
Aphelia. 
A. Pumilio (F. v. M.). 41 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
Centrolepis. 
C. aristata (Reemer and Schultes). TS Noszws 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
C. strigosa (Rceemer and Schultes). T., Aiea; 
Ascends to 6000 ft. 
C. videns. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Restio. 
R. australis (Br.). T)7 NSIW: 
Sub-alpine ; at 3000 to 6000 ft. 
R. tetraphyllus (Lab.). Ts NESW S.4c 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Calostrophus. 
C. lateriflorus (F. v. M.). Tp BGS Wey) eee 
Ascends to 6000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 


ACALYCES Hypoayn &. 
CYPERACE. 
Kyllingia. ' 
K. intermedia (Br.). N.S..Wi5) eke ae 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Cyperus. 
C. Eragrostis (Vahl.). NS. W., SrAS4 @: 
Ascends to 2500 ft. 


, NSW, Ske or 


ee 


W.A. 


WEA: 
W.A. 


NSW. S.A) IOamaene 


S.A., 
oun 


WitAe 


(SX) 
if 
eo) 


W.A. 
W A. 


380 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXVIL. 


Cyperus—continued— 
C, globosus (Allioni). Q). 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
C. lucidus (Br.). DS INS VV ser osteo as ae 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 
Heleocharis (Eleocharis). 
H. sphacelata (Br.). T., NSW. SA. OQ) eae eee 
Pacific. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
H. acuta (Br.). NGS sen Os yore 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


Scirpus. 
S. crassiusculus (H.). ie G OAV 
At 3500 ft. 
S. cartilagineus (Spr.). 4, .SN.S:W.,: 08: Az, (OS sae 


Ascends to 200 ft. 
S. polystachyus (F. v. M). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Oreobolus. 
O. Pumilio (Br.). ye MINES AW es PING, 
Alpine ; at 6000 to 7000 ft. 
Carpha. 
C. alpina (Br.). Ls) ANESSW 
At 5000 to 6000 ft. 
Schenus.* 
S. brevifolius (Br.). IN SaWe SA Qs. WAL 
At 3000 ft. 
Lepidosperma. 
L. longitudinale (Lab.). Ao EINES: Wis 9ScAn = WEAS 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
L. concavum (Br.). He IN One nero. ca, s Gy aN e 
At 2000 to 4000 ft. 
L. lineare (Br.). ey INES Wise ose 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 
L. tortuosum (F. v. M.). 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
L. filiforme (Lab.). TT... GNSS Wi523S-As 
Sub-alpine ; ascends to 3000 ft. 
Cladium.* 
C. Mariscus (Br.). INSS: Wi5) (8. Ac Oey ENA: 
Ubiquitous ; ascends to '3000 ft. 
C. teretifolium (Br.). NS: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
C. Gunnii (H.). iS ESR eect: 6 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Caustis. 
C. flexuosa (Br.). NESAW.; 2Q:, UN: A: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Uncinia. 
U. tenella (Br.). 7: 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 
U. riparia (Br.). TENS We 
z Sub-alpine ; ascends to 3000 ft. 
Carex.* 
C. cephalotes (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
C. acicularis (Boott). Ts SW 
At 4000 to 6000 ft.; Mt. Bogong, 5000 ft. 


FEs. 


1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


Carex*—continued— 


C 


. inversa (Br.). EEN SAW eacain@): 
At 2000 to 4000 ft. 

. canescens (Linn.). NSW: 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 

. echinata (Murray). N.S. W. 
Ascends to 4500 ft. 

. hypandra (F. v. M.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 

. acuta (Linn.). N.S. Ws, 7Q: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 

. Buxbaumii (Wahlen), N.S.W. 
At 3000 to 5000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 

. Preissii (Nees). W.A. 
At 2000 to 4000 ft. 


', gunniana (Boott). 7 NESSWee se Sone 


Ascends to 5000 ft. 


', alsophila (F. v. M.). 


Ascends to 4000 ft. 


C. longifolia (Br.). ree SANGO. Wiesner 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
C. Pseudo-Cyperus (Linn.). i. NSA ase 
Ascends to 5000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
GRAMINES. 
Panicum. 
P. sanguinale. IN-SSWi) @),. WitAsaeeN@ae 


P. 


Ascends to 3000 ft. 
. melananthum. INESSW.5 7 Q. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


Spinifex. 


Ss 


. hirsutus. 


Ascends to 2000 ft. 


Hemarthria. 
H. compressa. SHAG TSS DESIWe OO: TaN 


At 2000 to 3000 ft. 


Andropogon.* 
A. refractus. NESAWigr Oar Nea 


Ascends to 2000 ft. 


A. montanus. NES: Wi, “Q) INVAL 


Anth 


Aeris COAL T se NS Wey O. Wil: NuA. 


Ehrh 


Ascends to 2000 ft. 
astiria. 


(Kangaroo grass). 
Ascends to 6000 tt. 
arta. 


E. juncea. Te NSW 


Ascends to 4000 ft. 


Mierochloe. 
H. redolens. T., N.S.W., N.Z., Antarctic, America. 


Ascends to 5000 ft. 


H. rariflora. Ae INESEN 


At 2000 to 3000 ft. 


Stipa. 


Ss 
8 


. setacea. SPAR ay leare NS Wiese nae 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 

. scabra. S.A, .N.S:W:, Qi; Weds 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 


AT Antes 


S Ale LT SINS Wil OnmaWe Ae amine Ze 


N.Z. 


382 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ SESS. LXVII- 


Dichelachne. 
D. crinita. SAU TA BC SaWoet mr, Wile teas 
At 2000 to 3000 ft. 
Pentapogon. 
P. Billardieri. SiAS Ta NS. W- 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Echinopogon. 
E. ovatus. SHAS, iso INtShWerQ.. “WEAD. SINGAs 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
Agrostis. 
A. Muelleri. N.S.W. 
At 5000 to 6000 ft. 
A. seabra. SAGES SESW. 
Sub-alpine ; ascends to 4500 ft. 
A. Solandri. HAG TE. NS Win es aWisA: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
A. quadriseta. S-As, T.,. IN.S:W.,. (G0 WEA. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
A. cylindrica. WAS 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
A. frigida. TS qeNESAW* 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
A. nivalis. N.S.W. 
At 5000 to 6000 ft. 
Atra.* 
A. ceespitosa. SuAG Te INGSAW. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Trisetwm.* 
T. subspicatum. T., N.S.W. Antarctic, ete. 
At 4000 to 7200 ft. ; 6500 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
Danthonia. 
D. penicillata. SAL CUR WIN. SW.) (Qae AWA: 
; At 5000 to 6500 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
D. robusta. N.S.W. 
Ascends from 4000 to 6000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
D. nervosa. Soc, ME, aNSSAWe WEAR 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
IPG? 
P. Billardieri. SsA.,. T., WA 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
P. czespitosa. SAR Tis ONES. Win Ose Weds 
Ascends to 6000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
P. dives. 
Very restricted species, stems 12 ft. high, at 4000 to 5000 ft. 
P. australis. 
At 6000 to 7000 ft. 
Festuca.* 
F. hookeriana. T, N:s.W. 
Sub-alpine ; at 3000 to 5000 ft. 
Bromus.* 
B. arenarius. DeAGS GINS Wire enw NV eA 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Agropyron.* 
A. scabrum. SAS Ts INES Wi en WA 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
A. pectinatum. ese: Ws, 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Total—S. A218, (T5293, NS2W. 31; e@elis, Wi Ase; INAS 


FEs. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 383 


The following introduced species are also now abundant :— 
Dactylis glomerata, Briza major, B. minor, Holeus lanatus, Lepturus 
incurvatus, Hordeum murinum, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Lolium 
perenne, L. temulentum, Bromus sp., Phalaris minor, Poa annua, 
Pennisetum italicum. 


GYMNOSPERM. 


CONIFER. 
Nageia. 
N. alpina (F. v. M.). P.-E 
Restricted to 5000 to 6000 ft. ; a small shrub. 


ACOTYLEDONES VASCULARES. 


RHIZOSPERM. 
Azolla. 
A. pinnata. (Br.). N SAW: SxA.5 3 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 


LYCOPODINES. 
Lycopodium. 
L. Selago (Linn.). Pe) ANS: Wi 
At 6000 to 7000 ft.; 6500 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
L. clavatum (Linn.). Ts NS. 
At 4000 to 5000 ft. 
L. Jaterale (Br.). ap. S. W., SAG, aaee 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
L. densum (Lab.). SEIN 20 gs Ae 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Selaginella. 
S. preissiana (Spring.). 
Ascends to 6000 ft. 
S. uliginosa (Spring.). 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


T, | N.SoW.,) (Sie Oe WEA 
T. NSW. SAG 


FILICES. 
Ophioglossum. 
O. vulgatum (Bauhin). ONS Wig ee ere AG 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
Botrychium. 
B. lunaria (Swartz). fA BSG, 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
B. ternatum (Swartz). TT SW oe 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Trichomanes. 
T. venosum (Br.). Ts NLS) oO 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Hymenophyllum. 
H. nitens (Br). T., - SES Wed: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
H. tunbridgense (Sm.). NES aie: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 


384 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXVIL. 


Gleichenia. 
G. circinata (Swartz). ih 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
G. dicarpa (Br.). ae MNES! Wise) 
Ascends to 4800 ft., Mt. Bogong. 
G. flabellata (Br.). a aN ae a: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Osmunda. 
O. barbara (Thun.). De IN SW. to uAege oO) 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Alsophila. 
A. australis (Br.). D2 NES Wis 2: 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Dicksonia. 
D. Billardieri (F. v. M.). Os ON: SEW., eA, 2 A@? 
Ascends to 4000 ft., gullies north side of Mt. Bogong. 
D. davallioides (Br.). INES We, 1Q: 
Ascends to 3500 ft. 
Davallia. 
D. dubia (Br.). UN SEWiey oO: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Lindsaya. 
L. linearis (Swartz). TENS: Wings sls Qe Werke 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Adiantum. 
A. zthiopicum (Linn.). ie ENS AW S44, (OQ) ayes 
Ascends to 6000 ft. 
Chetlanthes. 
C. tenuifolia (Swartz). T.. N-S.W:, S:A., Qi) ” WrAg ea 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 


ji NSW. Peas! OL eRee 


Pteris. 
P. falcata (Br.). et NES Wine: 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
P. umbrosa (Br.). N.S.W., Q. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
P. arguta (Aiton). ees Neos Wey es 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
P. aquilina (Linn.). T.;.. NSW (Se Ac Os aliWieaw 
Ubiquitous ; ascends to 5000 ft. 
P. incisa (Thun.). Os GNESI We, eS shea): 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
P. comans (Forster). eee N.S...) (@: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Lomaria. 
L. discolor (Will.). ON SsWiy (Ory, OQ: 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
L. lanceolata (Spreng.). SPINS. Wings 2A. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
L. alpina (Spreng.). LS tN. Ws 
From 3000 to 7000 ft., Mt. Kosciusko ; 6500 ft., Mt. Hotham. 
L. fluviatilis (Spreng.). TS NES AW. 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
L. capensis (Will.). M52 NES Wise mock, 22): 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Blechnum. 
B. cartilagineum (Swartz). NiS. Wij. (Q} 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


W oodwardia. 
W. aspera (Mett.). N.S.W., Q. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Asplenium. 
A. trichomanes (Linn.). FE. NESW: 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
A. flabellifolium (Cav.). Al 
Ascends to 6000 ft. 
A. hookerianum (Colen.). N.S.W. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
A. bulbiferum (Fors.). P.,: DSSS Sale «ee 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
A. umbrosum (Sm.). Ty. RSW 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Aspidium. 
A. aculeatum (Swartz). T., N.S.Ws SA: 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
A. capense (Will.). i NSW 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
A. decompositum (Spreng.). T.5: NESSWs, SSs85, 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
A. hispidum (Swartz). As 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Polypodium. 
P. australe (Mett.). i NSW s: (OR 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
P. pustulatum (Forster). ENS Weeeee 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
P. grammitidis (Br.). ee) NS 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Grammitis. 
G. rutifolia (Br.). R= N.S:W., “S-A.; (Qe ee 
Ascends to 6300 ft., Mt. Bogong. 


' MUSCINE. 
MUSCI. 
1. SPHAGNACE. 
Sphagnum.* 


S. *cymbifolium. 
Ascends to 5000 to 6000 ft. 


2. POLYTRICHACE. 
Atrichum.* 
A. *(Catharinea) Muelleri. 
At 4000 ft., at Grant. 
Pogonatum. 
P. alpinum. 
At 5000 ft. 
Polytrichum.* 
P, *juniperinum. 
At 4000 ft. 
P. *commune. 
Ascends to 5000 ft., Dargo High Plains. 
Dasonia. 
D. polytrichoides. 
At 3000 ft. 
D. superba. 
At 4000 ft. 


or 


386 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sus. LXVII. 


3. DICRANACEA. 
Dicranella.* 
D. rufo-aurea. 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
Dicnemon. 
D. calycinum. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
Blindia.* 
B. robusta. 
Ascends to 7000 ft.; Mt. Bogong, 6500 ft. 
Dicranwn.* 
D. dicarpum. 
At 2000 to 3500 ft. 
D. Billardieri. 
At 2000 ft. 
D. punctulatum. 
At 2000 ft. 
D. Sullivanii. 
Ascends to 2000 ft. 
Ceratadon.* 
C. *purpureus (var. australis). 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Campylopus.* 
C. introflexus. 
Ascends to 6000 ft. 
C. torquatus. 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
C. Martensi. 
Ascends to 4000 ft. 
Rhynchostegium. 
nm. patulum. 
R. distratum. 
R. cucullatum. 
R. laxatum. 
R. pseudo-murale. 
R. pseudo-Teesdalii. 
R. tenuifolium. 
R. subclavatum. 
R. densifolium (? dentiferum). 
Pleuridium.* 
P. curvulum. 


4, SKITOPHYLLACE® (FISSIDENTACE#). 
Fissidens.* 
. rigidulus. 
. semilimbatus. 
. tenellus. 
. perpusillus. 
. *adiantoides. N.Z. 
. asplenioides. INGZ: 


. Sullivanii. 


Fee Fag] ey ye ey 


5. GRIMMIACEA. 
Grimmia.* 
G. *apocarpa. 
At 3000 ft. 
G. lanuginosa. 
At 7000 ft., Mt. Kosciusko. 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


Grimmia*—continued— 
G. Sullivanii. 
At 6500 ft. 
G. *leucophea. 
At 3000 ft. 
G. eylindropyxis. 
At 4000 ft. 
G. australis. 
At 3500 ft., Omeo. 
G. mutica. 
At 3000 ft. 
G. austro-funalis. 
At 3000 ft. 
G. cyathocarpa. 
At 3500 ft. 
G. flexifolia. 
At 3000 ft. 
G. procumbens. 
At 3000 ft. 
G. cygnicolla (syn. G. pulvinata) ; var. obtusa. 
At 4000 ft. 
Hedwigia.* 
H. *ciliata. 
Leucobryum.* 
L. candidum. 
L. conocladum. 
6. TORTULACE. 
Phascum.* 
P. disrumpens. 
3500 to 4000 ft. 
Weisia.* 
W. nudiflora. 
3000 to 4000 ft. 
W. flavipes. 
3000 to 4000 ft. 
Tortula.* 
T. rubra. 
3000 to 4000 ft., Omeo. 
Barbula.* 
. propinqua. 
. microphylla. 
. lamellosa. 
. brevisetacea. 
. sullivaniana. 
. vesiculosa. 
. calycina. 
Trichostomum.* 
leptotheca. 
. pseudopiliferum. 
. adjusta. 
. nervosum. 
. crassinerve. 
. papillosum. 
Latrobeana. 


eofeollecieolockecioe 


BHEARHAH 


7. ORTHOTRICHE. 
Orthotrichum. 
O. laterale. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 


387 


388 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Suss. LXVII. 


Apalodium. 
A. lanceolatum. 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
Zygodon. 
Z. brachyodus. 
Ascends to 6000 ft. 
Z. Brownii. 
Ascends to 5000 ft. 
Z. minutus. 
At 6500 ft. 
Dissodon. 
D. nova-valesia. 
Ascends to 3500 ft. 
Rhystogoneum. 
R. Hookeri. 
R. gracellimii. 
R. Muelleri. 


8. FUNARLA. 
Entosthodon. 
E. laxus. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
E. minuticaulis. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
E. apophysatus. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
E. Taylori. 
E. Sullivanii. 
Funaria. 
F. hygrometrica. 
At 3000 ft. 
F. pulchridens. 
At 3000 ft. 
Physcomitriwm. 
P. subserratum. 
Ascends to 3600 ft. 
P. subspicatum. 


9. BARTRAMIACEA. 
Bartramia.* 
B. hampeana. 
At 2000 to 7000 ft. 
B. patula. 
At 6500 to 7000 ft. 
B. erecta. 
At 6500 to 7100 ft. 
B. Kosciuskii. 
At 7000 ft. 
B. pygmeeola. 
At 6500 ft. 
B. austro-pyrenacee. 
At 3000 ft. 
Philonotis.* 
P. adpressa. 
At 4000 ft. 
P. fertilis. 
Ascends to 6000 ft., Mt. Bogong. 


FEB. 1903, | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


Breutelia.* 
B. aftinis. 
Ascends to 4500 ft. 
B. commutata. 
Ascends to 6500 ft. ‘ 
Conostomum.* 
C. eurvirostre. 
At 3000 to 4000 ft. 


- 10. BRYACE. 

Bryum.* 

B. breviramulosum. 

Ascends to 3000 ft. 
. subrotundifolium. 
. pyrothecium. 
Ascends to 3000 ft. 
. nutans. 
Ascends to 3500 ft. 
. erysoneurum. 
At 4000 to 6000 ft. 
. erassum. 
crassinervium. 
. attenuatum. 
Billardieri. 

3000 to 4000 ft. 
subleptothecium. 
leptothecium. 
inzequale. 

. acithecium. 
. Sullivanil. 
. altisetum. 
. robustum. 
Cyathophorum. 
C. pennatum. 
At 3500 ft. 


iti Wit WO 


11. CRYPHHACES. 
Cryphea.* 
C. squarrulosa. 
C. muelleriana. 


12. NECKERACE. 
Neckera.* 
N. hymenodontea. 
At 3500 ft. 
N. aurescens. 
Lepyrodon., 
L. Lagurus. 
3000 to 4000 ft. 


13. HOOKERIACE®. 
Hookeria. 
H. nigella. 
At 4000 ft. 
Pterugophyllum.* 
P. nigellum. 
At 3000 ft. 


390 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


14. LEUCODONTACE. 
Porotrichum.* 
P. divulsum. 
P. deflexum. 
P. ramulosum. 
P. clandestinum. 


15. LESKEACEA. 

Thuidium.* 

T. plumulosiforme. 

At 3000 ft. 

T. suberectum. 
Bartrela. 
Hypopterygrum. 

H. conemnum. 

H. Mueller. 

H. novee-zealandie. 

H. ciliatuin. 
Sauloma. 

~ S. tenella. 


16. SEMATOPHYLLE. 
Rhaphidorhynchum. 
R. homomallum. 
R. calidoides. 


17. STEREODONTE. 
Plagiotheciwm. 
P. denticulatum. 
eeAt 300) it: 
Amblysteguum. 
A. convolutifolium. 
At 4000 ft. 
A. riparium. 
At 4500 ft. 
Acrocladiwm. 
A. auriculatum. 
At 3500 fi. 
A. politum. 
Stereodon. 
S. cupressiformis. 
At 3500 ft. 


18. HYPNACER. 
Hypnum.* 
H. (Ptycomnion) aciculare. 
At 3000 ft. 
*H. cupres-iforme. 
At 4000 ft. 
H. (Cupressina) sigmangium. 
At 3800 tt. 
H. Koseiu-ki. 
At 7000 ft. 
Brachythecvwm.* 
B austro-alpinum. 
B. paradoxuin. 


HEPATICA. 
Marchantia. 
M. polymorpha. 
Timbrya (sp.). 


SESS. LXVII. 


FEB. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


MISCELLANEOUS SPECIES IN THE COLLECTION, 

Macromitrium. 

M. microstomum. 

M. Muelleri. 

M. erosulum. 
Mielichhoferia. 

M. Sullivanii. 

M. microdonta. 

M. australis. 
Leptostomum. 

L. inclinans. 

L. flexipile. 
Carovaglia. 

C. sciuroides. 
Meteorium. 

M. fulvum. 

M. molle. 

M. Billardieri. 
Harrisonia. 

H. australis. 
Braunia. 

B. erosa. 
Eremodon. 

E. octoblepharis. 
Astomum. 

A. krauseanum. 
Leptotrichum. 

L. Muelleri. 
Leptangium. 

L. repens. 


THALLOPHYTA. 
LICHENES. 
Collema.* 
C, leve. Forms granulatum and isidiosum. 
C. plumbeum. 
C. leucocarpum. 
Synechoblastus. 
S. senecionus. 
S. leucocarpus. Var. minor. 
Leptogium. 
*L. lacerum. Var. intermedium. 
*L. tremelloides. Var. agurium. 
L. victorianum. 
L. pecten. 
L. inflexum. Var. limbatum. 
*L. scotinum. 
Myriangium. 
M. durizi. 
M. dolichosporum. 
Sphinctrina. 
S. microcephalata. 
Calicium.* 
C. chrysocephalum. Var. filari. 
C. niveum. 
C. Victoriz. 
C. parvulum. 


392 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXVI. 


Calicium* —continued. 
C. roseo-albidum. 
C. capillare. 
C. biloculare. 
J. nigrum. Var. minutum. 
*C. curtum. 
C. trachelenum. Var. elattosporum. 
*C. hyperellum. Vars. validus and perbreve. 
©. ochrocephala. 
C. gracilenta. Var. leucocephala. 
Trachylia. 
TT. lecanorina. 
Spherophoron. 
S. australe. Var. proliferum. 
Gomphillus. 
G. baceomyceoides. 
Baomyces.* 
B. fungoides. 
B. heteromorphus. 
Thysanothectum. 
T. hyalium. Vars. sqaamulosum and entortum. 
T. Hookeri. 
Cladoma.* 
C. pyxidata. Var. marginatus. Ascends to 3000 ft. 
*C. macilenta. 
C. corniculata. 
C. aggregata. 
C. cenalen. 
*C. furcata. Ascends to 3000 ft. 
J. retipora. Ascends to 3000 ft. 
*C. gracilis. 
C. degenerans. - 
*C. erispata. 
C. xanthoclada. 
C. cornucopioides. 
C. verticillata. Ascends to 3500 ft. 
C. cenotea. Ascends to 2500 ft. 
Parmelia.* 
. saxatilis. 
. conspersa. 
. perlata. 
. meizospora. Ascends to 2000 ft. 
reparata. 
oleraceum. 
. aleurites. 
Borreri. 
pertusa. 
. australiensis. 
.caperata. Ascends to 3500 ft. 
. alpicola. 
. physodes. 
. Mougeotii. 
Stictina.* 
S. crocata. 
Physcia. 
P. flabiensis. 
Cladina.* 
C. aggregata (clalhrina ? ). 


* 


* 
aclschachaclahacla-lachachaclashahachac) 


Fes. 1903. | 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 393 


Peltigera.* 
P. dolichortiza. 
P. distichorhysa. 
*P. polydactyla. 
Nephronium. 
N. cellulosum. 
N. melaxanthus. 
Sticta. 
S. Freycinetii. 
S. dameecornis. 
S. Fovescala. 
Arthonia sp.* 
Endocarpon. 
E. samptelli. 
Chiodicton. 
C. stromatheca. 
Ramalina. 
R. minuscula. 
R. complanata. 
R. maculata. 
R. implanta. 
Grapshin (7). 
G. laurdenia. 
Electra. 
E. australiensis. 
Lecidea.* 
L. comaterum. 
L. Victorize (Braloriz). 
Bealina. 
B. Victoriz. 
Lecanora.* 
L. leucopsida. 
Lichina.* 
L. confinis. 
Neuropogon. 
N. melaxanthum. 
Usnea.* 
U. barbata. 
Siphula. 
S. Muelleri. 
Stereocaulon. 
S. ramulosum. 
S. proximus. 
Pertusaria sp.* 
Physcia.* 
P. parietina. 
P. flabiensis. 
P. chrysophthalma. 
Graphis.* 
G. glaucoderma. 
Theloschistis. 
T. velifer. 
Umbilicaria.* 
U. cylindrica. 
U. polyphylla. 
U. antharcina. 


TRANS. BOT. SOC, EDIN. VOL, XXII. 2G 


394 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Szss. LXV. 


Psoroma. 

P. hypnorum. 

P. paleacum. 
Placodvum. 

P. elegans. 
Urceolaria sp. 
Bruellia. 

B. myriocarpa. 

B. geographica. 
Verrucaria sp.* 
Hleterothecium sp. 
Hymenocharti. 

H. purpurea. 
Cortictum. 

C. leve. 
Calocera. 

C. corusa. 
Cornicularia sp. 

47 Genera. 95 Species. 


FUNGI AND MICRO-FUNGI. 

MAMeidiwm.* 

A. Ranunculacearum. 
Puceinia.* 

P. agenophoree. 

P. Malvacearum. 
Uredo.* 

U. Bulbinea. 

U. Cichoracearum. 
Nectria.* 

N. ferruginea. 
Ustilago.* 

U. Digitarie. 
Asteroma.* 

A. Rose. 
Leptoria sp. 
Polyporus.* 

P. ochroleraceus. 

P. oblectans. 

P. (Placoderus) australis. 

P. (Placoderus) igniarius. 

P. compressus. 
Dedalea. 

D. unicolor. 
Pleodrictyon. 

P. gracile. 
Pexza.* 

P. apiculata. 
Polysaccum. 

P. pisocarpium. 
Scleroderma.* 

S. vulgare. 
Agaricus.* 

A. scandens. 

A. muellerianus. 

A. fascicularis. 

A. procerus. 


JuLx 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 395 


A garicus-— contimued— 
*A. campestris. 
*A.(Omphalia) umbelliferus. 

Lycoperdon.* 

L. celatum. 
Inoderma 

I. arenarius. 
Cyathus. 

C. fimicola. 
Isaria.* 

I. fuciformis. 

I. umbrina. 
Bovista. 

B. lilacina. 
Nematogoniwm. 

N. aurantiacum. 
Pestalozziella. 

P. circulare. 
Patellaria sp. 
Sterewm.* 

S.. lobatum. 

S. hirsutum. 

S. elegans. 
Thelephora.* 

T. pedicellata. 


REVISED Note on LAminaArIA. By THomas BERWICK, 
St. Andrews. 
(Read 9th July 1903.) 


Demonstrations of the Masked Chlorophyll in fronds of above, 
for Class purposes. 


(1) If a frond of Laminaria of any length—the longer 
the better—after being simply air-dried, be passed with 
moderate rapidity with both hands through an ordinary 
bat-wing or bunsen flame, at once the brown colouring 
matter (Phycophzin)’ disappears, the discharge of a misty 
vapour accompanying the change. 

(2) By placing a coin heated to the proper temperature 
on frond, and exerting pressure, a series of green impressions 
can be immediately produced. Metal stamps of various 
designs act similarly. To obtain printed impressions the 
letters require to stand well out. 

(3) By playing a lens upon frond for a short time, green 


; 1 Botanical Microtechnique. By Dr. A. Zimmermann. Translated 
by J. E. Humphrey, 8.D., 1896, p. 104. 


396 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE  [Sgss. xvi. 


spots are got, and there is a beautiful demonstration in 
miniature of the misty vapour making its escape. 

(4) The Phycophein retreats like a cloud before the heat 
(this is observable in the first experiment). 

When a metal mould of an Ivy leaf is heated and 
pressed on the frond, one gets an impression of the same 
size as the mould well defined in green, and three minutes 
after removing metal, an outline beyond the contour line in 
pale green, which latter is surrounded by another outline in 
pale brown impinging on the natural brown. 

(5) If a heated double split ring be applied on frond, the 
ring forms a light green circle, bordered on either side by a 
broad green band. Towards the periphery in three minutes 
the condition as in Ivy leaf is seen, a hght green succeeded 
by a light brown ring appearing. 

From the central brown area, corresponding with the 
hollow of the ring, similar phenomena occur in three 
minutes—a light brown ring next the brown (natural), and 
a light green ring beyond. 

After an exposure to air of a few hours, and an afternoon 
and night wrapped up in paper, and thus excluded from 
atmospheric agency, the central brown (natural) area of the 
manipulated frond is surrounded by a green ring, and a 
brown occupies the place of the previous green ring. 

Towards the periphery of the figure, one finds a green 
ring touching the natural brown of the frond, and within 
the green ring a circle of brown. 


CowTHORPE Oak. By Joun CLayTon. Communicated by 
Dr. Davip CurisTIson. (With Photo. Illustrations.) 
(Read 12th March 1903.) 


The oak tree at Cowthorpe, near Wetherby, is acknow- 
ledged to be the largest in diameter of all oaks that are 
known. It therefore commands an attention that is 
specially its own—as a king among men—and it is 
doubtful whether any other living tree has had as much 
written about it as it has, for wherever books on forestry 
in the English language are printed and read, so far has | 
spread the fame of the Cowthorpe Oak. 


ad 


Mar. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 397 


Famous English trees and the records we have re- 
specting them have furnished data to the scientific men of 
all countries; no other country being possessed of the 
double blessing of wonderful trees and reliable recorders. 
The recorders deserving to be remembered in connection 
with our subject are John Evelyn, Robert Marsham, 
H. Rooke, Dr. Hunter, J. G. Strutt, London, and Empson. 
The records consist of a statement such as—that in a certain 
locality, on the date of writing, there was a tree of such a 
species, which girthed so many feet and inches at, say, 
5 ft. from the ground; that the spread of the head was so 
many feet; the height so many feet; that the trunk was 
sound or not, as the case might be; and any other peculi- 
arity. Statements like these would seem valueless to most 
people, and not worth recording, but being facts, scientific 
men can with them in after times prove or disprove theories 
of great interest and importance. One particular theory 
being De Candolle’s, which claims for trees the possibility 
of an immortal life. Besides, the statements afford means 
of comparison, and without them it would not be known 
that some of the dimensions of the oak at Cowthorpe are 
larger than those of any other oak that is known. 

John Evelyn was the first to make a number of records, 
and his “ Sylva; or, Discourse of Forest Trees,” published in 
1664, was so popular that afterwards he was known as 
Sylva Evelyn. At present “Evelyn’s Diary” is a more popular 
work ; to his credit it may also be remembered that he was 
one of the founders of the Royal Society. It is only a little 
more than two hundred years since Evelyn wrote the 
“ Sylva,” and of the noteworthy trees which he mentioned 
there are only three living at the present time—the Yew 
at Crowhurst, the Great Chestnut at Tortworth, and the 
Greendale Oak in Welbeck Park, near Worksop. 

The yew tree at Crowhurst, in Surrey, stands to the east 
of the ancient church of that place—in the graveyard. In 
records of Edward 1s time the church is mentioned. 
‘Within the building there are monuments with a date as 
early as 1450, and several others without a date which must 
be earlier still,as they are of Saxon and Norman workman- 
ship. Our oldest trees are generally near some church, and 
it seems as if the sacredness of the edifice helps to shelter 


398 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. txvu- 


and preserve them. This yew is one of about half a dozen 
which very closely compete for the distinction of being the 
largest in Britain (Photo. No. 1). It girths 34 ft. 4 in. on 
the ground ; at 3 ft. above the ground, 324 ft.; and at 5 ft. 
above, 30 ft. The pieces of paper pinned to the trunk 
indicate the girthing places—3 ft. and 5 ft. above the 
ground. The foliage and twig growth of the tree are very 
healthy and vigorous, but the trunk is hollow, and is a mere 
shell. There is a door which admits to the cavity, which 
is seated all round, being quite large enough to hold a 
number of people, for it measures in diameter 8 ft. one way 
and 9 ft. 3 in. another. Since Evelyn’s time, it would 
seem this tree has not increased in girth, for he then speaks 
of it as being about ten yards in compass. The Great 
Chestnut at Tortworth, in Gloucestershire, is a tree about 
which there has been much discussion. In summertime its 
head appears a dense mass of healthy foliage (Photo. No. 2). 
The trunk girths 49 ft. 2 in. at 4 ft. from the ground—the 
place indicated by the paper pinned to the tree. This tree 
is on the Earl of Ducie’s estate, and is about a hundred 
yards away from another very old and beautiful church. In 
1646, when John Evelyn recorded the measurements of the 
Greendale Oak, it was evidently in a flourishing condition. 
It was 88 ft. high, “the diameter of the head was 81 ft. 
from bough end to bough end,” and was very fresh and 
sound, The Greendale Oak is in Welbeck Park, and belongs 
to the Duke of Portland. Visitors at the Dukeries will not 
see this tree unless they inquire for it specially, as it stands 
a little away from the ordinary drive, in an open glade 
(Photo. No. 3). A roadway was cut through the trunk in 
1724, as a consequence, it is said, of an after-dinner bet of 
Henry, the first Duke of Portland. Since then it has been 
the custom of the successive dukes to pass through the 
roadway with their brides shortly after marriage. The 
height of the archway when newly made is given as 10 ft. 
2 in. Now at the highest point it is only 9 ft. 3 in., and 
at the lowest it is only 84 ft., thus it is evident that the 
trunk has shrunk considerably, and does not stand as high 
out of the ground as it did formerly. At present the 
trunk girths 30 ft. 1 in. at 42 ft. from the ground, 
or at the place indicated by the paper which appears 


Mar. 1903. } BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 399 


in the photograph. The highest twig reaches an altitude 
of about 54 ft. 

The observations of Robert Marsham .were communi- 
eated to the Royal Society by Dr. Hales in the middle 
of the eighteenth century. He in various ways contri- 
buted to our knowledge of forest trees. His measurements 
of the Cowthorpe Oak were the earliest which were properly 
verified by bearing the date of the measurements, and the 
name of the measurer. Marsham was a Norfolk gentleman 
who travelled extensively in England at a time when travel- 
ling was not so easy, for besides visiting Cowthorpe and 
other places, his records respecting the Tortworth Chestnut 
show that he had wandered as far as Gloucestershire. 

Dr. Alexander Hunter, of York, published an edition of 
Evelyn’s “Sylva” in 1776, with copious notes, which form 
a very valuable addition. Dr. Hunter corresponded with 
Marsham and many prominent scientific men. In this way 
he collected his published information respecting large and 
noted trees. The yew trees near Fountains Abbey he 
may have measured, but the dimensions he gives of the 
Cowthorpe Oak must be of a date long before his time, for 
they do not agree either with the measurements of his 
contemporaries, or the proportions shown by his excellent 
print of the celebrated tree. Dr. Hunter’s work has in all 
probability spread the fame of the Cowthorpe Oak more 
than that of others. His dimensions of the tree are always 
given in popular descriptions—perhaps because they are 
the largest,—but though it is likely they once were correct, 
they are so no longer, and in quoting them some explan- 
ation ought to be given, or certainly a very exaggerated 
idea will be formed of what the old tree is at 
present. 

Major Rooke in 1790 published descriptions and sketches 
of Remarkable Oaks at Welbeck and in Sherwood Forest. 
The Greendale Oak and others are carefully drawn and 
described, but the tree which bears his name, and is called 
the “ Major Oak,” is not mentioned by him. He had heard 
of the Cowthorpe Oak through Mr. Marsham, but was 
-ignorant of Dr. Hunter’s work, though it had been pub- 
lished thirteen years before. This fact seems to show a 
slow circulation of books in those days. 


400 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxvu. 


Jacob George Strutt, who was a landscape painter, 
travelled throughout England and Scotland during 1822 
and several years following, sketching and painting forest 
trees distinguished for their size and antiquity. He left us 
fifty beautiful and faithful pictures, as memorials of grand 
trees scattered all over our island. 

J. C. Loudon published the “ Arboretum Britannicum ” in 
1838. It is a work of eight volumes, consisting of prints 
and letter-press, illustrative of all the information which 
he could gather about trees. Ten thousand pounds sterling 
was the cost of the production, and the sale was so slow 
that all Loudon was worth had to be pledged to the 
publishers for payment. It is said, the work and anxiety 
connected with it shortened the life of the author. How 
very often is scientific enterprise, not only unremunerative, 
but attended with disastrous loss. 

Charles Empson published a pamphlet on the Cowthorpe 
Oak in 1842. He, in conjunction with four others, visited 
the tree, and took minute particulars and measurements in 
January of the same year. These measurements, which 
seem to have been taken with extreme care, along with a 
truthful print (which accompanies his pamphlet), form an 
important link in the history of the oak from the time of 
Dr. Hunter to the present. Who Empson was it is im- 
possible to tell now, or anything more about him than that 
his name will always be remembered in any really worthy 
account of the venerable tree. 

In 1893, or fifty-one years after Empson, the investiga- 
tions, measurements, photographs, etc., were made, which 
are the subject matter of this paper. Four times during 
that year the Cowthorpe Oak was visited—in January, 
April, June, and October—with a view of seeing the tree 
under the aspects of the various seasons, and collecting at 
each time as much local information as possible. Besides, 
pilgrimages have been made to the tree once or twice in 
each year since. 

Cowthorpe is a small village about four miles north-east 
of Wetherby. It is within a bend of the river Nidd. The 
church there was built in 1458, and is regarded with much 
interest. The old oak is near the church, and again the 
proximity of the two suggests it as probable that the tree 


Mar. 1903. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 401 


may have received some protecting influence from the sacred- 
ness of the church. In a photograph of the tree from the 
north the church appears, and in that from the south the 
old manor house is seen. When the tree was seen for the 
first time it was in January, but the earlier photographs 
were taken in April (Photo. No. 4). From the photographs 
it will be readily understood that the first sight of the cele- 
brated Cowthorpe Oak was a disappointment. It seemed 
merely a heap of decaying stumps and props. However, 
after having made a circuit of the trunk outside the palings, 
which are about 5 ft. high, the sense of disappointment 
about the old monarch gradually gave place to a feeling of 
respect. The diagram shows the dimensions of the tree in 
various ways. The measurements were taken very carefully 
on 16th June 1893, and when tabulated as they are on the 
subjoined table, they can be easily compared with the measure- 
ments of others. The comparison shows the dimensions 
of the tree have diminished since Dr. Hunter’s measure- 
ments were taken. That the old tree as it decays should 
shrink and settle somewhat into the ground is natural, and 
the difference between the earlier and later measurements 
is due to this circumstance mainly. 


TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS of the CowrHoRPE Oak from the 
time when first recorded to 1893. 


Measurements in Dr. HUNTER’s edition of Evelyn’s ‘‘ Sylva,” which must have 
been taken about 1700— 


Girth on ground . - : - : : - : . 78 ft. 

Length of branch - : 3 . < F : = 4aeat. 

Height of tree . : ‘ : ; : : - - 80 ft: 
1768. ROBERT MARSHAM’S measurements— * 

Girth 4 ft. above ground . : : : : : . 463 ft. 

ae is oe : - ; : : : . 365 ft. 


sn Gift. ~ . saft, Vin: 
No hollow or cavity mentioned. 


1774. Aug. THOMAS MavDeE’s measure. Had heard it to be 81 ft. 6 in. 
in girth, but ‘his measure a few inches above ground was 54 ft. No cavity is 
mentioned. Wind storm in 1703 damaged the tree, but the leading branch was 
torn away in 1718. 


1776. The date of Dr. HuUNTER’s portrait of the tree. In the portrait no 
cavity appears, and none is mentioned in his letter-press description. 


In 1829 Dr. JESSOP measured the tree, and the measurements are given by 
J. G. Strutt— 


Girth on ground . - 5 : . 5 : Se AUG 

3, oft. above ground : ; : : : , = 40-it. 
Length of branch . : : : : : ee Ube 
Circumference of branch . = : : : - - 8 ft. 
Height of tree . 45 ft. 


Cavity big enough to hold 40 men, and hollow throughout to the top. Leaves 
are sessile, and acorns are on stalks. 


402 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. Lxvit. 


1829, Oct. A cor. of J. C. LOUDON measures— 


Length of largest living branch, about : : : . 48 ft. 

Girth of branch 3 ft. from bole . ; 8h ft. 
Branch supported by 3 props which rested on stone pedestals, 

Height of tree, including dead branch , ; 56 ft. 

Diameter of cavity on ground ; ; : . | 9 ft. 10 in. 


Branch torn away by storm in 1722. 
1834. Lauper says the main branch was rent away by a storm in 1718. 


1842. CHARLES EMPSON’S measurements— 


Girth on ground . : 5 ; ; ; 4 > ~O0Mts 
veh ineal ft, above ‘ground ‘ ‘ 3 : : ! + “oOtits 
ap eal a : , ; : ; > | Abies 
» 4 ft. nf : : ‘ : 5 . oeft. Gin. 
aE Oulbe 35 36 ft. 3 in. 

83 ft. = and close under the areat branch 34 ft. 6 in. 
Length of main branch : : : ; 2 SOs at 
Girth of ns close to trunk . P 3 ; ‘ 3 Opt: 

” 3 3 ft. from trunk . : : 8 ft. 4 in. 
39 AA 9 ft. 3 : ; : 6 ft. 9 in. 
oA 17 ft. 5s : : : 5 ft. 3 in. 

Height of tree, including dead wood . F é ; . 43 ft. 

30 without : : . : . 380 ft. 

Length of second principal branch . : . 980 ft. 

Girth a 4 8 ft. from trunk . ; 5 ft. 

Diameter of cavity on ground. : 5 pe cbiLaah, 

Average diameter 8 ft. above sround . 3 : F f iho 

12 ft: a : : “ , : 7 ft. 


Soil—deep Tich loam on fine clay. 
Prof. Burnett’s estimate of age, 1600 years. 


1853. GricorR, in| his “‘ Arboriculture,” says: ‘‘Cattle enter the cavity 


for shade and shelter ;” hence it appears there were no palings round the tree 
then. 


1879. Rev. THomMAs WaHITE, Rector of Cowthorpe for thirty-five years, 
says: ‘I think the venerable tree has shrunk very much in my time.” 


1883. A cor. of ‘‘ Notes and Neh says: ‘‘The tree bears acorns.” 
Girth on ground . C ; ; : o 5 =. JOdmtts 
» 3 1t. above ground ; : : : : : . 445 ft. 


1888. H. Crosstey, of Wetherby, says: ‘‘ The consequence is that the tree 
has shrunk somewhat during recent years.”’ 


1893. JOHN CLAYTON’S measurements— 


Girth on ground . ; : : : : F Be BAUS, Shut 
», oft. above ground . ; ; : : >. <aastos 
ao oe tt. “5 ‘ A f : | 36 ft. 104 in. 

Length of main branch : : : ‘ : f . 33% ft. 

Girth of branch 2 ft. from bole . ; : c : 9 ft. 9 in. 

ae 5 ft. fe) tilts) mint 

Distance of underside of branch from the er ound near 

the bole : : : , : : 7 ft. 3 in. 
Ditto 6 ft. away from the bole . : E : : 7 ft. 8 in. 
Diameter of cavity on ground : : . 13 ft. x 9 ft. 
FA 2 ft. above ground Sis ft al sine 8 hb erg 

a0 5 ft. a : é 10} ft. x 73 ft. 

Opening into cavity, west side on ground . 3 . 6 ft. wide. 

Ditto 4 ft. above ground . 5 : é : . 34 ft. wide. 

Ditto 6 ft. . oft. wide: 


Opening into cavity, south side, cireular in ‘shape, and 
4 tt. diameter. 
Height of tree, including dead wood . : ; : =» | BST ette 


The tree is supported by 25 props, disposed mostly on the south and east 
sides. There is a paling round the tree about 5 ft. high. It seems as if it had 
been put up from twenty to forty years ago. 


Mar. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 403 


A Cowthorpe man, named OarTks, said: ‘‘ The tree has shrunk very much in 
my time, and, in shrinking, the tree has twisted—the eastern branches towards 
the south.” 


There is to be seen a circle all round the tree 14 ft. away from the bole, 
showing that the soil was once thrown up about the bottom of the tree. 


Age of the tree estimated to be about 500 years. 


From an acorn borne by the celebrated old tree in 1893, a young plant has 
been reared and planted near its parent as a memorial. 


In forest trees the work of death and decay is first seen 
at the extremities of the highest branches. These branches 
in a dying tree lose their leaves and twigs, and the tree 
becomes what is called stag-headed. This fact suggests 
that death in the roots commences in the extremities also, 
supposing the suggestion to be true, it is easy to understand 
why old trees shrink and settle into the ground (Photo. 
No. 5). The diagram is drawn on this supposition, and will 
illustrate what we mean. 

Allow the figure under the year 1700 to represent the 
roots of the Cowthorpe Oak at that time, and assuming that 
the roots perish by decay at their extremities (as we know the 
branches do), then by 1842 their decay will have shortened 
them, probably to the dotted line anent that year, and will 
thus have made room for a general sinking or subsidence of 
the tree, the sinking of course being caused by the weight 
of the tree. The subsidence will also be gradual, according 
exactly with the progress of decay in the roots; and by 
1893 their further decay will have shortened them again, 
say, to the second dotted line, and thus made room for a 
further subsidence. 

It is impossible to prove a subsidence of trees in general 
as they grow old and decayed, because records are not made 
respecting their elevations. But the subsidence of the 
Greendale Oak, which has already been referred to, is beyond 
a doubt. The picture is a copy of a print of the Greendale 
Oak published in 1727, or three years after the roadway 
was cut through the tree. Along with the print is a state- 
ment that the archway was 10 ft. 2 in. high. In 1775 the 
height of the arch was measured again, and the former 
measurement was confirmed (Photo. No. 7),—this is given in 
Dr. Hunter’s “Evelyn’s Sylva” (Photo. No. 3). In 1894 the. 
highest point in the arch was 9 ft. 3 in. from the ground. 
Thus this evidence shows a subsidence in the Greendale Oak 


404 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. Lxvur. 


of 11 in., a fact which is important, for although there is ample 
independent evidence that the Cowthorpe Oak has sunk 
somewhat into the ground, yet it is more assuring to find 
that other trees do the same under similar conditions. 

In 1879, the Rev. Thomas White, who had been Rector 
of Cowthorpe for thirty-five years, writes, “I think the 
venerable tree has shrunk very much in my time.” In 
1888, H. Crossley of Wetherby says, “The tree has 
shrunk somewhat during recent years.” In 1895, a Cow- 
thorpe man named Oates (sixty-seven years old) said, “ The 
tree has shrunk very much in my time” (Photo. No. 9). 
In 1842, Empson gives a girth close under the great branch, 
which he stated was 84 ft. from the ground, but this branch 
in 1893 was only 7 ft. 3 in. from the ground. These two 
measurements in fifty-one years show a subsidence of the 
tree during the time of 15 in. There is collateral evidence 
of the subsidence, furnished by the slanting position at the 
present time of the three props, which already supported 
the main branch in October 1829, for then they would be 
upright, and the difference between the upright position 
and the present slanting one shows a decrease in the 
elevation of the branch of 2 ft. There is another circum- 
stance in connection with the Cowthorpe Oak which should 
be considered when comparing the earlier measurements 
with those of a later date. Sometime before Empson wrote 
(viz. 1842), the soil was dug up all round the tree at a 
distance of 13 or 14 ft. from the bole, and was thrown up 
about the bottom of the tree. By this operation the cireum- 
ference of the tree where it meets the soil would be reduced, 
but certainly not so much as some writers would lead us to 
believe, for the trenching round the tree is evident to-day, 
and it was so little that one may see it could not affect the 
tree’s dimensions as seriously as it has been asserted. 

The explanations and proofs of the subsidence of the 
Cowthorpe Oak may be tedious, but they are important, as 
the phenomenon established thereby is common to forest 
trees. And without the explanations it would be impossible 
to reconcile the various measurements from the earliest time 
until now. 

(Photo. No, 5.) The diagram shows the shape of the 
trunk of the tree, the diameter of which is greatest on the 


Mar. 1903. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 405 


ground and gradually gets less above. To be consistent with 
this shape, if we were to dig below the level of the ground the 
diameter would become greater still; but, instead of digging, 
suppose the tree were raised 15 in., or to the elevation it 
had in Empson’s time, 1842—-and Empson’s measurement 
of the girth on the ground, 60 ft., appears quite credible 
and accurate, although it is certain the girth in 1893 was 
only 54 ft. 3 in.—and suppose the tree were raised still 
further to make up for the subsidence between the dates of 
Dr. Hunter’s measurements and Empson’s, then Dr. Hunter’s 
girth, 78 ft., would also appear credible. Thus the apparent 
discrepancies in the measurements of the girth of the tree 
on the ground are fully and reasonably explained. Other 
discrepancies in the measurements will be seen in the table, 
but none are serious, and most of them can be accounted 
for by the same reasons that have been employed in reconcil- 
ing the measurements of the girth on the ground-level. 

We are therefore prepared to receive Dr. Hunter's 
measurements as the dimensions of the tree before its 
decline, and if we can realise them properly we shall have 
a better idea of the former magnificence of the Cowthorpe 
Oak, and why it became so famous. Many people have seen 
the Major Oak at the Dukeries, near Edwinstowe. It is a 
wonderful tree, and is generally regarded as a sight worth 
seeing. But the Cowthorpe Oak was a much grander sight, 
as may be readily conceived by comparing a diagram of the 
two trees drawn to one scale. The Major Oak is 53 ft. high ; 
the Cowthorpe Oak was 80 ft. high. From bough end to 
bough end of the Major Oak, it measures 94 ft. In this 
respect the Cowthorpe Oak measured about 120 ft. The 
Major Oak at 5 ft. from the ground girths 293 ft.; at the 
same level the Cowthorpe Oak girths 36 ft. 10 in. 

It is difficult to imagine a more suitable place for the 
largest development of a growing tree than the situation 
of the Cowthorpe Oak. The conformation of the locality, 
and its natural and artificial surroundings, would at all 
times make it a warm and sheltered spot. The tree is 
about the middle of a field which slopes gently towards 
the river—the river being near enough to afford a con- 
stant supply of moisture. At present there are other 
trees near it, but when it was young and in its prime, it 


406 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. txvu. 


evidently stood somewhat alone—a condition favourable 
for the full attainment of its utmost magnitude. The 
soil where the oak stands is alluvial, and is both rich and 
deep. 

If tradition may be trusted, it is nearly two hundred 
years since the first token of decline appeared in the Cow- 
thorpe Oak. In November 1703, a terrible wind-storm 
swept over western Europe. In its violence it damaged 
the tree to a large extent; but it was another November 
storm, in 1718, that wrought the most injury, for by it 
the leading and central branch was torn away. It is also 
said that in 1722 the tree suffered much damage from 
another storm. After these disasters, the work of decay 
would doubtless proceed more rapidly, and now the work 
is so nearly accomplished that it seems impossible for the 
tree to survive much longer. However, what remains 
puts forth new shoots and leaves every season, though 
imperceptibly dwindling each year. In 1893 it bore 
a good crop of acorns, considering its ruined state. The 
acorns were not sessile, but were on long stalks. From 
some of them young plants have been reared, and, by 
permission of the late Mr. Montagu, of Ingmanthorpe, one 
has been planted, in the hope that it will perpetuate the 
memory of the doomed giant. The young oak is planted 
near its illustrious parent, and is securely fenced in. The 
Rector of Cowthorpe, the Rev. Mr. Clarke, has kindly 
undertaken to be the guardian of its youth. 

Interesting as the Cowthorpe Oak is on account of its 
size, it is no less so when considered in relation to its age. 
Therefore we claim to be allowed to extract to the full the 
lesson which it teaches in this respect. 

In the beginning of this century, the elder De Candolle 
promulgated the theory that trees never die of old age, 
and, barring the accidents of injury and disease, they would 
live for ever. Of course a doctrine so novel was not 
accepted at once, but before the century was half gone we 
find that it had taken strong hold in the scientific world, 
and among its adherents were Dr. Lindley and Dr. Asa 
Gray, both very eminent and learned botanists. The 
discovery of the Big-trees of California, and the indisput- 
able testimony of their antiquity furnished by the annual 


Mar. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 407 


rings, seems to have completed the argument in favour of 
the theory. For since then the controversy has ceased. 
But the theory is so contrary to what is known of life 
that gradually it is beginning to be doubted, and now 
distinguished professors of forestry hesitate to commit 
themselves either for or against it. 

We will quote Dr. Asa Gray’s explanation of the 
theory :' “For the tree (unlike the animal) is gradually 
developed by the successive addition of new parts. It 
annually renews not only its buds and leaves, but its wood 
and its roots, everything, indeed, that is concerned in its 
life and growth. Thus, like the fabled son, being 
restored from the decrepitude of age to the bloom of 
youth, the most recent branchlets being placed by means 
of the latest layer of wood in favourable communication 
with the newly formed roots, and these extending at a 
corresponding rate into fresh soil, why has not the tree 
all the conditions of existence in the thousandth that it 
possessed in the hundredth or the tenth year of its age ? 

“The old and central part of the trunk may, indeed, 
decay, but this is of little moment so long as new layers 
are regularly formed at the circumference. The tree 
survives, and it is difficult to show that it is liable to 
death from old age, in any proper sense of the term.” 

It is clear De Candolle sincerely believed in his theory, 
for he worked continuously a number of years gathering 
evidence in its favour. The literature dealing with notable 
trees was at his command. This, along with his own 
observations, led him to believe that the oaks were among 
the veterans of Europe, but that of all species the yews 
attained the greatest age (of course it will be remembered 
he arrived at this judgment before the Sequoias or the 
Big-trees of California were discovered). From a number 
of sections of trees of various species, he assumed that he 
could determine an average growth by measuring the 
annual increment of each species. Thus he made the 
increase of the oak and yew on an average to be one- 
twelfth inch in diameter annually. And with this rate of 
increase, he computed the ages of three celebrated yews in 


1 Page 80, vol. 2, of ‘‘ Gray’s Essays,” published by Macmillan & Co., 
London, 1889. 


408 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxviz. 


England, and one in Scotland. He reckoned the age of 
one of the yews near Fountains Abbey to be more than 
twelve centuries, taking a measurement of Pennant’s as 
the basis of his computation. In this instance he confirms 
his reckoning by affirming that the tree was known in the 
year 1132—at the time when the foundations of the 
Abbey were laid. This statement is unreliable, and is due 
entirely to a passage in Burton’s “ Yorkshire Monasteries,” 
bearing the comparatively recent date of 1757, where it 
is said—“ We are told by tradition, the monks resided 
under these yews whilst they built the monastery.” The 
yew at Crowhurst already mentioned, when speaking of 
John Evelyn, De Candolle estimated to be fourteen 
centuries old. The age of another yew at Braburn, in Kent, 
he estimated at three thousand years. And the yew 
at Fortingall, in Scotland, at twenty-five to twenty-six 
centuries. The irregularity which is apparent in the 
computed ages of these four yews is vastly augmented by 
the ages of yew trees in general, and De Candolle contends 
that such an irregularity is just what might be expected, 
and he regards the irregularity as confirmatory of the 
theory of the indefinite longevity of trees. 

About 1830,or at the time when it seems the theory might 
be most generally accepted, Prof. Burnett assigned sixteen 
hundred years as the age of the Cowthorpe Oak. That 
Prof. Burnett made the assertion from a computation made 
according to De Candolle’s theory there is no doubt, and 
his computation must have been based on some published 
measurement, for, as far as can be gathered, Prof. Burnett 
was never at Cowthorpe. Nevertheless Prof. Burnett's 
estimate of the age of the Cowthorpe Oak is commonly 
received, but as we believe it to be inaccurate and greatly 
exaggerated, we imply a want of faith in the basis of his 
computations; and this is so. We regard De Candolle’s 
theory as altogether untrue, and not sustained by facts. 
In justification of these remarks, let us consider the 
photograph. 

The picture (Photo. No. 6) represents a portion of the bole 
of an oak as it was laid in the timber yard of Messrs. 
Ackroyd,of Birkenshaw, in August 1894. It had been grown 
at Ravenfield, in an ancient park situated midway between 


No. 1.—TRuNK OF YEW TREE AT CROWHURST. 


Girth—34 ft. 4 in., on the ground ; at 3 ft. above, 324 ft.; at 5 ft. above, 30 ft. 


Photo. taken August 1895. 


“POST Laqaqday Wayn}, *oj0oYd 


i=} 


) OY} OAOGE "4F F 4B “UL Z “Ay GF-- YQATY 


‘(paxy st aeded ayy araya *97) pune 


“HIMOMIMOT, LY LANISHHD LVAUY) 40 YNAAT,—'zZ ‘ON 


Soi ee 


“POST AUN UWAYD) *070UT 


ro) 


*‘punoas ayy aroqe "43 Fp yu “ur TL 97 0 
‘IVO WIVAGNAWUH AO ANOUT—'E ‘ON 


AILr) ‘POLI ul Youowyy qno SBM ABM pvod oOuLL 


im 
ow 


ae 


SEEN FROM NORTH. 


4,—COWTHORPE OAK, 


No, 


April 1898. 


Photo, taken 


*puUNoOAS oY} OFUL LAYIUVY 919908 OF FL POMOTL[V 8900d 
ayy Jo Avoap ayy su Sssa[ 925 p[NOM VO adadoygAMOH oy JO JU@BAINSvOLL PUNOLS ayy MOY SMOYS WRLSVIp OUT, 


‘aungord ayy ut uaas aq Avut ssuryy [BnuUYy 944 Suey v YILAY 


‘a10q AAMT, AVO AO NOMOAG—'g ‘oN 


Tre treures luff , 
) fa y : Cy, aN 
RL Wj C Ye naw I, Meike 


No. 7.— GREENDALE OAK IN 1775. 


teat > a j 
Ud Ccatl fiey of he (, 
’ 


From a print in Dr. Hunter’s edition of ‘* Evelyn’s Sylva.” 


Mar. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 409 


Doncaster and Sheffield. The tree was felled in 1885, 
when it contained altogether 1000 cubic feet of market- 
able timber. Another portion of the bole (which was 
18 ft. long, or the same length as the one represented) had 
been cut up and sold. Thus the bole originally was one 
straight piece 36 ft. long without a branch, and had an 
average diameter of about 5 ft. all sound and clean wood. 
Certainly it was the finest timber tree we ever saw. A 
cross section of this tree displayed admirably the annual 
rings, from the centre to the circumference, and thus 
afforded a splendid test of De Candolle’s theory. From 
the heart to the circumference it measured 27? in., and if 
we compute the age of the tree according to De Candolle 
by allowing one-twelfth of an inch for each year’s increase 
in diameter, the tree had been growing six hundred and 
sixty-six years, but really it was only two hundred and 
twelve years old, according to the testimony of the annual 
rings. The annual rings were not uncertain or confused, 
on the contrary they were clear and legible throughout, 
and furnished such evidence of the tree’s age as would 
have convinced De Candolle himself. 

If Prof. Burnett had seen the section whilst he was 
engaged in calculating the age of the Cowthorpe Oak, it 
is likely he would have taken the ratio of yearly increment 
from the section, and rejected that of De Candolle’s theory. 
Had he done so, he would have made out the Cowthorpe 
Oak to be, not sixteen hundred years old, but only five 
hundred and forty-five years. We suppose his calcula- 
tion would be something like this—at 5 ft. from the 
ground the Cowthorpe Oak girths about 36 ft. Divide 
this dimension by three, and roughly the diameter is 
found to be 12 ft. Half this is 6 ft. or 72 in., which 
would represent the radius. The radius of the section is 
about 28 in., in which are 212 annual rings. How many 
annual rings ought there to be in 72 in.—the radius of the 
Cowthorpe Oak? Answer 545. 

But we cannot accept the age of the old tree from any 
calculation based on ratios, whether they be those of the 
section or of De Candolle, or of any other tree. For no two 
trees grow alike, and no one tree increases in the same 
ratio one year after another. And if a small section were 

TRANS. BOT: SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXII. r 2D 


410 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxvm. 


taken from the circumference of the Cowthorpe Oak itself, 
and the rings measured with a view of arriving at the annual 
increment of the tree throughout its life, this method would 
be quite as fallacious, for trees when they are young grow 
much faster than when they are old. 

Whilst considering the photograph (No. 6) of the section, 
let us see whether it supports or opposes De Candolle’s 
theory of indefinite longevity of trees. From the centre to 
No. 1 there are 100 annual rings of growth. From No. 1 
to No. 2 there are 50 rings. From No. 2 to No. 3 
there are 20 rings, and from No. 3 to the circumference 
there are 42 rings. That is, for one hundred and fifty 
years, or to No. 2, the tree had increased upon the 
whole in a uniform degree, but during the next twenty 
years the growth slowed down to less than half as much, 
and the last forty-two years of its existence it had slowed 
down still more, so that there was hardly any growth at 
all. This decadence in growth during the latter years is 
said to be only apparent, and not real. For, during the latter 
years, the tree is said to be so much bigger than what it 
was formerly, that though the annual layer of growth which 
covers the whole tree is thinner, the extended area of the 
surface of the enlarged tree is so much more as to account 
for the difference in the thickness of the annual growth. 
This explanation might be convincing in the absence of the 
photograph, but with the photograph before us it is not, 
for that plainly indicates that the thickness of the annual 
growth was nearly uniform to the time when the tree would 
be one hundred and fifty years old, notwithstanding that 
during all those years the surface of the tree would be annually 
enlarging. Therefore the lessening of the thickness of the 
annual growth in the latter years is distinctly different to 
what had happened during the one hundred and fifty years 
before, and it is a natural decadence which had come with 
years, that pointed as certainly to death from old age, as 
it flatly contradicted the theory of indefinite longevity of 
trees, 

If we could have watched this tree during all the two 
hundred and twelve years of its life, we should have seen 
it grow in height and spread of branches till perhaps it 
was seventy to one hundred years of age. Then for fifty 


Mar. 1903.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 411 


years its appearance in these respects would not alter. 
The amount of foliage it would put forth each year would 
increase, for the twigs would have ceased as a whole 
from extending, and as they became effete towards their 
extremities, younger and more numerous twigs would push 
out somewhat lower down, and all would bear leaves. 
Thus we see the constant increase in the amount of foliage 
would be quite adequate to support an annual increment 
such as the section displays for one hundred and fifty years 
of its hfe. Then younger twigs would not so readily 
push forth, consequently the leaves would become fewer, 
and the annual increment, as shown by the section, would 
become less; and had not the tree been cut down this 
process would have gone on—increasingly so—till the top 
had become stag-headed and the bole of the tree hollow. 
Asa Gray, in his statement of De Candolle’s theory, says: 
“The old and central part of the trunk of the tree may, 
indeed, decay, but this is of little moment, so long as new 
layers are regularly formed at the circumference. The tree 
survives, and it is difficult to show that it is liable to death 
from old age in any proper sense of the term.” But toa 
tree, the becoming hollow is of great moment. The trunk 
is the only channel for the sap to pass from the roots to 
the head, and if the channel be narrowed by decay, less sap 
will pass, and there will be fewer leaves as a consequence, 
and the new layers formed at the circumference will become 
thinner. This process only needs to go on a while and the 
tree will no longer survive, and old age and its attendants 
will as surely bring about the death of the tree as they do 
that of other living organisms. 

Having refuted De Candolle’s theory, and shown how 
unreasonable Prof. Burnett’s calculation is respecting the 
age of the Cowthorpe Oak, we now take upon ourselves the 
task of stating, not definitely, the age of the tree, but 
particulars of its history, during the hundred years that it 
has been known and recorded, with the hope that these 
particulars may help us to form an estimate of the age— 
within rather extended limits it is true, but probably as 
near as it is possible. 

We have seen that in the life of a tree there is a period 
when it grows in all directions, and another period when 


412 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sgss. yxvn. 


its general appearanee—such as height and spread of limbs 
and foliage—remains almost unaltered, and a third period 
which is one of decay. The third period in the life of the 
Cowthorpe Oak we know almost perfectly, and the problem 
is, What was the duration of the other two periods? From 
evidence afforded by other trees, we think the time would 
not be much more than double the duration of the third 
period. 

In Sherwood Forest and the neighbourhood there are 
some remarkable trees. At Studley the trees are finer still. 
But it is at Castle Howard that arboreous vegetation reaches 
nearest to perfection. There the natural conditions seem 
to be exceedingly suitable to the well-being of trees, and it 
is evident that the conditions have been aided for nearly 
two hundred years with all the ability at the command of 
man. 

The work in connection with building of Castle Howard 
—the laying out of the grounds and the planting of trees 
was commenced in 1702, and was finished in 1731. Thus 
the magnificent avenues there must be composed of trees 
about one hundred and eighty to two hundred years of 
age. The species which most abound are limes, beeches, 
and oaks. Their condition is that of a vigorous old age; 
they look well, but are certainly all on the decline. Here 
and there one has fallen as the consequence of premature 
decay and storms. In approaching the mansion, there is 
a number of large old oaks to be seen, 15 and 16 ft. in 
girth, all hollow and stag-headed. This circumstance is 
so peculiarly theirs, that one is bound to believe them 
to be the remains of a generation which flourished before 
that of the present plantation, and would be large and fully 
developed trees at the time Castle Howard was building, 
and similar in age and vigour to that of the later genera- 
tion at the present time. Thus their decay has been 
accomplished in one hundred and fifty to two hundred 
years. The stage of decay at which these trees have 
arrived is about the same as that of the Cowthorpe Oak. 
Suppose, therefore, we take the two generations of oaks at 
Castle Howard as a criterion to ascertain the age that oaks 
will live to under favourable conditions, and we shall find 
the age to be three hundred and fifty to four hundred years. 


Mar. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 413 


With the knowledge that trees are not necessarily old if 
they have a large girth,—for trees with a large girth always 
grows faster than those with a less girth, and in proportion 
to the size they ultimately attain. Yet it seems absurd to 
ascribe four hundred years as the duration of the life of the 
Cowthorpe Oak, which for seventy years has been regarded 
nearly as old as the Christian era. However, all trust- 
worthy evidence favours such a term, and if we incline to 
extend it to five hundred or six hundred years, it is more 
than the evidence warrants. Two hundred years since, 
the older generation of oaks at Castle Howard must have 
been fine trees, otherwise the fastidious founder of that 
place would have cut them down. Indeed, their condition 
would be like that of the Cowthorpe Oak, as it is nearly 
two hundred years since the first great branch was severed 
from it, and before that date its proportions were exceed- 
ingly grand, and no signs of decay had appeared. Since 
then the decline of the Cowthorpe Oak and the old oaks 
at Castle Howard has been about equal, and the cireum- 
stances of both are so parallel that whatever age is assigned 
to one must by all that is reasonable be assigned to the 
other. 

The rapid progress of decay in the Cowthorpe Oak is 
another circumstance that points to a moderate duration of 
its life. Dr. Hunter’s picture represents the tree in 1776. 
In 1893, searcely one hundred and twenty years after the 
photograph, Photo. No. 4 represents the tree. If the tree 
was hollow in Dr. Hunter’s time, it is not apparent in his 
print, nor does he speak of it in his letter-press description. 
Thomas Maude saw the tree in 1774, and he made a cal- 
culation showing the quantity of timber in it, supposing 
the trunk to be sound. Robert Marsham measured the 
tree in 1768, and he does not say anything about the 
tree being hollow. Hence if the tree was hollow one 
hundred and twenty years since, it could not be seen 
from the outside, otherwise one of these observers would 
certainly have seen it and mentioned it. In 1893 the 
diameter of the hollow on the ground was 13 ft. one way, 
and 9 ft. the other, and it had two entrances. 

Perhaps there is nothing which shows so forcibly the rapid 
progress of decay as the contrast between Dr. Hunter’s print 


414 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


and the photographs of the ruined tree in 1893. And in 
presence of these pictures, which cover only a period of 
120 years, the question may be asked, Does the age of the 
Cowthorpe Oak appear to be 400, 500, or 600 years? If 
we allow 400 years, then the tree was 280 years old at the 
time of Dr. Hunter’s print, and since then it has been 120 
years in coming to the present stage. If we allow 600 
years, the tree was 480 years old at the date of Dr. Hunter's 
print. If 500 years be allowed (and it seems to us the 
utmost that can reasonably be assigned as the age of the 
Cowthorpe Oak), this would allow 120 years for the decay, 
and 380 years for growth and the partial declension which 
shows itself in Dr. Hunter’s print. 

Dr. Hunter’s print is a faithful portrait of the tree in 
1776, as is shown by another print, which depicts the tree 
about the same time, although it appears in the “ Gentle- 
man’s Magazine” for 1831. Another picture of the old 
tree was sent to us by Mr. Carruthers, of the British 
Museum. It was published in 1806. In all the three 
engravings (Dr. Hunter’s included) there is no sign of a 
cavity in the trunk; but in 1822, when J. G. Strutt was 
sketching the tree, the cavity was not only apparent, but 
could be entered in two places. Loudon, in 1829, says 
the floor of the cavity measures 9 ft. 10 in. across. 
Empson’s picture, dated 1842, shows the opening to the 
hollow or cavity, and in his dimensions he states that at 
the base it measured 11 ft. across. In 1893 our measure- 
ment was 13 ft. This dimension and the photograph will 
show that the trunk was merely a shell. 

Notwithstanding the careful and prolonged study of the 
Cowthorpe Oak, and the many efforts we have made to 
correct error respecting it, we have little hope that writers 
for popular papers will be influenced by them. Only six 
months since, a writer for a leading periodical who had 
had access to the results of our research, declared the tree 
to be sixteen hundred years old, and the print (date we 
believe is 1872) shows what an illustrated paper will do 
in exaggerating things, when it is compared with an actual 
photograph. 


a 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


VOLUME XXIL 


Part IV. 


EDINBURGH: 


PRINTED FOR THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY BY 
MORRISON AND GIBB LIMITED. 


Pm 


CONTENTS. 


A New West-Australian Plant: Drosera bulbigena, A. Morrison. 
By Alexander Morrison, M.D. 


“ 


Note on the Formation of the Bulb in West-Australian Species of 
Drosera. By Alexander Morrison, M.D. 


Preliminary Report on the Botany of Captain Dowding’s Colombian 
Expedition, 1898-99. By T. A. Sprague, B.Sc., F.L.S. 


On a Botanical Visit to the Balearic Islands in April 1903. By 
James W. White, F.L.S. . . : i : : : 


Excursion of the Scottish Alpine Botanical Club to Fort-William 
and Arisaig in 1903. By Alexander Cowan ; : 


Notes on the Origin of Lenticels, with Special Reference to those 
occurring in Roots. By J. A. Terras, B.Sc. (With Illustration) 


APPENDIX 


INDEX 


425 


436 


448 


450 


459 


470 


| 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


SESSION LXVIIL. 


_MEETING OF THE Society, November 12, 1903. 
J. RurHerrorp Hitt, Esq., in the Chair. 


The following Officers of the Society were elected for 
the Session 1903-1904 :— 


PRESIDENT. 
Professor J. W. H. Trait, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., F.B.S. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS. 


ALEXANDER SOMERVILLE, B.Se.,| Ropert <A. ROBERTSON, M.A., 
F.L.S. B.Sc., F.R.S.E. 
Witiram Watson, M.D. Ropert Linpsay. 


COUNCILLORS. 


Joun MonteGomerie Bett, W.S. J. RUTHERFORD HILL. 
ALEXANDER COWAN. JAMES WHYTOCK. 
SyMINGTON GRIEVE. Rev. D. Paut, M.A., LL.D. 
J. A. Terras, B.Sc. A. W. Bortuwick, B.Sc. 
Prof. Patrick Geppes, F.R.S.E. | Percivaut C. WaITE. 


Honorary Secretary—Wi.Lu1aM Craic, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.S.E. 

Curator of Herbarium—W. CALDWELL CrawrorD, M.A., F.R.S.E. 

Foreign Secretary—ANDREW P. AITKEN, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E- 

Treasurer—RIcHARD Brown, C.A. 

Honorary Assistant-Secretary—R. Stewart MacDoveatt, M.A., D.Sc., 
F.R.S.E. 

Artist—Francis M. Cairp, M.B., C.M., F.R.C.S.E. 

Auditor—RoBerT C. MILuar, C.A. 


XX11 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


LOCAL SECRETARIES. 


Aberdeen—Professor J. W. H. Trait, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., F.R-.S. 
Bathgate—Ropert Kirk, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. 
Berwick-on-Tweed—F rancis M. Norman, R.N. 
Birmingham—W. H. Wivkusoy, F'.L.S., F.R.M.S., Manor Hill, Sutton 
Coldfield. 
Bournemouth—JOHN ARCHIBALD, M.D., F.R.S.E. 
Bromley, Kent—D. T. Puayrair, M.D. 
Calcutta—Davip Pratn, M.B., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Royal Botanic Garden. 
- Professor S. C. MAHaALANosIs, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.B.M.S., 
Presidency College. 
Cambridge—ArTHUR Evans, M.A. 
Croydon—A. BENNETT, F.L.S. 
Dundee—Professor P. Gepprs, F.R.S.E. 
East Liss, Hants —James SYKES GAMBLE, M.A., C.I.E., F.R.S. 
Glasgow—Professor F. O. Bower, Sc.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. 
Professor J. CLELAND, M.D., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 
Professor G. F. Scorr-Euuiot, M.A., B.&c., F.L 
ie ALEXANDER SOMERVILLE, B.Sc., F.L.S. 
Kilbarchan—Rev. G. ALISON. 
Lincoln—GEorGE May Lowe, M.D. 
London—WIL.LIAM CARRUTHERS, F.R.S., F.L.S. 
- E. M. Houmes, F.L.S., F.R.H.S. 
a Sir GrorcE Kina, M.D., F.R.S. 
Melrose—W. B. Boyn, of Faldonside. 
Otago, New Zealand—Professor JAMES Gow Buack, D.Sce., University. 
Perth—Sir Ropert Pouuar, F.R.S.E. 
Philadelphia, U.S.A.—Professor JOHN M. MACFARLANE, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 
Saharumpore, India—J. F. Dutuie, B.A., F.L.S. 
St. Andrews —Professor M‘IntosH, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 


A Ropert A. Ropertson, M.A., B.Sc. 
iA Dr. J. H. Wixson. 
Toronto, Ontario—W. R. RIppELL, B.Sc., B.A. 
= " Professor Ramsay Wricut, M.A., B.Sc. 


Wellington, New Zealand—Sir James Hector, M.D., K.C.M.G., 
F.R.SS. L. & E. 


Wolverhampton—JouHN Fraser, M.A., M.D. 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


Xxlll 


The TREASURER submitted the following Statement of 


Accounts for the Session 1902-1903 :—— 


INCOME. 
Annual Subscriptions, 1902-1903; 65 at 15s. 
Do. 1901-1902; 1 at 15s. 


Transactions sold 
Subscriptions to Illustration Fund . 
Interest on Deposits in Bank . 


Balance—being Excess of Expenditure over Income, . 


EXPENDITURE. 
Printing (including Transactions for Session 1901-1902, 
£50, 4s. 9d.) . 
Rooms for Meetings, Tea, etc. 
Stationery, Postages, Carriages, etc. 
Fire Insurance on Books, ete. 


STATE OF FunpDs. 


Amount of Funds at close of Session 1901-1902 
Deduct—Decrease during Session 1902-1903, as above 


Amount of Funds at close of Session 1902-1903, subject 
to Expense of Printing Transactions for ‘Session 


1902-1903 3 
Being:—Sum in Current Account with 
Union Bank of Scotland Ltd. . at Woh 
Sum in Deposit Receipt with do. 120 0 0 
Due by Treasurer ; ; : 20 9 


As above 


£48 15 0O 
Orel 5:10 
Pop aye AY 
48 AO 
3>50OVS6 
4 fa ee TF 
LO) 1424S 
2040) 7 
S61 528) 9 
6) 20 
fe a a ae 
Oro 0 
aHf(Ye ai. 
£140- 4 10 
10 14 8 
£129 10 2 
£129 10 2 


Note.—Subscriptions in arrear, 1902-1905, £1, 10s. 


The Accounts were passed by the Society. The Treasurer 
and Auditor were cordially thanked for their services. 


XXxl1V TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


J. R. Davivson, Esq., 17 Lutton Place, was proposed as 
a Resident Fellow of the Society by Mr. W. W. Situ, 
M.A., and seconded by Dr. R. Srewarr MacDouGatt. 


The Honorary ASSISTANT-SECRETARY read two com- 
munications from Dr. Alexander Morrison, viz. “A new 
West-Australian Plant, Drosera bulbigena, A. Morrison” 
(p. 417); and “Note on the Formation of the Bulb in 
Drosera” (p. 419), communicated by Professor Bayley 
Balfour. 


Mr. A. W. Bortuwick exhibited specimens illustrating 
Fungus attacks on Trees. 


Mr. Witu1AM YounG showed a fine example of the 
Bird’s-nest Fungus. 


MEETING OF THE SocrETY, December 10, 1905. 


Ropert Linpsay, Esq., in the Chair. 


J. R. Davipson, Esq., 17 Lutton Place, proposed by Mr. 
W. W. Smiru, M.A., and seconded by Dr. R. Stewart Mac- 
DoUGALL, was balloted for as a Resident Fellow, and duly 
elected. 


M‘Taccart Cowan, Esq., Jun., 33 Drummond Place, 
was proposed as a Resident Fellow by Mr. A. W. Borru- 
WICK, B.Sc., and seconded by Mr. W. W. Smita, M.A. 


Mr. ALEXANDER SOMERVILLE read a communication from 
Mr. James White, F.L.S., President of the British and 
District Pharmaceutical Association, “On a Botanical Visit 
to the Balearic Islands in April 1903,” and exhibited 
specimens in illustration (p. 456). 


The Honorary ASSISTANT-SECRETARY showed several 


specimens of Young Spruce killed by attack of Crane-Fly 
Maggots. 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH XXV 


MEETING OF THE Society, January 14, 1904. 


Rosert Linpsay, Esq., in the Chair. 


M‘Taccart Cowan, Esq., Jun., 33 Drummond Place, 
proposed by Mr. A. W. Borruawick, B.Se., and seconded by 
Mr. W. W. Smitu, M.A., was balloted for as a Resident 
Fellow, and duly elected. 


Mr. WILLIAM Evans read a communication on “The 
Hepatic of the Edinburgh District.” 


Mr. A. W. Bortuwick read Mr. T. A. Sprague’s. “ Pre- 
liminary Report on the Botany of Captain Dowding’s 
Colombian Expedition, 1898—1899 ” (p. 424). 


Mr. H. F. Tace exhibited Museum preparations of Cuscuta 
Seedlings, and Flowering Branches of Cuscuta reflexa. 


MEETING OF THE Society, February 11, 1904. 


Professor J. W. H. Traini, M.D., F.R.S., President, 
in the Chair. 


Mrs. MAXWELL, Bangholm Bower, Goldenacre, recom- 
mended by the CouncimL as a Lady Member, was duly 
elected. 


Mr. WiiuiaAM Evans read a communication by himself 
and Mr. W. Epcar Evans on “ A Contribution towards an 
Alien Flora of the Edinburgh District,’ and exhibited 
specimens. 


- Mr. ALEXANDER CowaN read his “ Report on the Scottish 
Alpine Club Botanical Excursion in 1903” (p. 448). 


Mr. W. CaLpWELL CrAWFrorD exhibited specimens of 
Potatoes grown in Soils Unsterilised and Sterilised. 


Mr. A. D. RicHarpson brought forward some Twigs of | 
Fraxinus excelsior, showing abnormal Phyllotaxis. 


XXVI1 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE 


MEETING OF THE Society, March 12, 1904. 
Rk. A. Ropertson, Esq., M.A., B.Sc., in the Chair. 


J. C. Porracs, Esq., 8 Corennie Gardens, was proposed 
as a ltesident Fellow by Mr. Duncan M‘GLAsHAN, and 
seconded by Dr. R. Srewart MacDOuGALt. 


JAMES FINLAYSON, Esq., 8 Thirlestane Road, was proposed 
as a Resident Fellow by Dr. R. Srewarr MacDoueatt, 
and seconded by Dr. WILLIAM Craic. 


Mr. R. A. Ropertson, gave his communication on 
“Variations in Lycopodium clavatum, L.,” and illustrated 
it with lantern slides. 


Mr. James A. TERRAS read a paper on “ Negative 
Variation in expanding Tulip.” 


My. J. RuTHERFORD HILL gave an exhibition of Chinese, 
South American, and French Orange Oils, and their Con- 
stituents. 


MEETING OF THE Socrety, April 14, 1904. 


Ropert Linpsay, Esq., in the Chair. 


The following Candidates were balloted for, and duly 
elected Resident Fellows of the Society :— 


J. C. Porracr, Esq., 8 Corennie Gardens, proposed 
by Mr. Duncan M‘Guasnan, and seconded by 
Dr. R. StEwart MacDouGatt. 


JAMES FINLAYsSoN, Esq., 8 Thirlestane Road, proposed 
by Dr. R. Stewart MacDoucatt, and seconded 
by Dr. Witttam Craic. 


The Honorary ASSISTANT-SECRETARY communicated, on 
behalf of the Rev. Albert B. Weymouth, M.A., a paper on 
“The Trees of the Hawaiian Islands.” 


Mr. James A. TErRRAS read his communication on 
“ Notes regarding the Origin of Lenticels” (p. 450). 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH XXV1l 


Mr. James Wnayrock exhibited Flowering Plants from 
the Palace Gardens, Dalkeith. 


Mr. A. W. Borruwick showed some Preparations of 
several Forest Trees in the various conditions of Flower 
and Fruit. 


MEETING OF THE SocreTy, May 12, 1904. 
W. CaLpwett Crawrorp, Esq., in the Chair. 


The Honorary ASSISTANT-SECRETARY exhibited speci- 
mens illustrating Cocoa and its Manufactured Products, 
and gave a short account of the growth of the plant. 


Mr. Potts exhibited some specimens of Saxifrages grown 
to) ro) 
by himself, and of some natural crosses. 


MEETING OF THE Socrety, June 9, 1904. 


W. CaLpwELi Crawrorp, Esq., in the Chair. 


Mr. A. W. BortHwick exhibited a number of abnormal 
Cones of Picea nigra. 


Mr. W. W. Smiru exhibited Polygala austriaca, Krantz. 


MEETING OF THE Society, July 14, 1904. 


W. Catpwett Crawrorp, Esq., in the Chair. 


Mr. J. Ruruerrorp Hitt exhibited the Fruit of Solanwm 
Melongena (the Egg Plant). 


On behalf of Mr. W. Malcolm Miller, the Honorary 
ASSISTANT-SECRETARY showed specimens of Potato Seed- 
lings exhibiting variation in behaviour as regards tuber 
production. 


TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 


SESSION LXVIIL 


A NEW WEST-AUSTRALIAN PLANT: DrOSERA BULBIGENA, 
A. Morrison. By ALEXANDER Morrison, M.D. 


(Read 12th November 1903.) 


DROSERA BULBIGENA, A. Morrison. — Stem filiform 
terminating in a few-flowered raceme, rootstock forming 
a bulb; stem-leaves with a lunar-peltate lamina, those at 
base reduced to scales. Sepals ovate, with long cilia-like 
teeth, glabrous, half as long as petals. Styles in two, 
sometimes three, tufts of subacute filaments spreading 
from the base, or occasionally also dividing higher up 
into two or three branches. 

Coolup, Murray River (R. Helms). Wet flats, Lower 
Canning River (A. Morrison). 

Plant 3—6 cm. in height above ground, quite glabrous, 
with a rootstock of 4 cm. or less covered with pale brown 
fibrous remains of the old axis and sending out a few long 
horizontal processes close to the surface of the ground; at 
the base terminating in a bulb covered with thick dark 
brown scales, or forming a series of bulbs developed in 
succession downwards. Stem erect, slender, flexuose, its 
leaves on slender petioles of 2—3 mm. dilated at the base 
but without stipules, lamina truncate orbicular 2 mm. or 
less in diameter and reflexed on top of petiole which is 


TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL, XXII. 2E 


418 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. txvut. 


attached close to the truncate margin, one or two of the 
lowermost leaves reduced in size, and 1—3 lanceolate scales 
at the base. Raceme unilateral on a peduncle of 1 em. or 
more above last leaf, pedicels somewhat longer than sepals 
which are 2—3 mm. including the teeth, ovate and glabrous; 
petals 4-6 mm. ovate or obovate, obtuse, white; filaments 
dilated at the top, anther-cells distinct. The flowers 
vary in number from 1—6 in the raceme, and are mostly 
5-merous, but the styles are only 2—3 in tufts of 6-12 
shghtly tapering filaments. Irregularities have, however, 
been noted, as a male 4-merous flower; another hermaph- 
rodite and 4-merous, but with 35° styles; and one 
8-merous showing 8 petals, but with the seventh sepal a 
short way down the pedicel, and the eighth, like a bract, 
still lower, while the seventh and eighth stamens are 
connate, and the styles are in two main divisions, with 
numerous branches spreading from the base. The bracts 
are frequently absent and variable in size, lanceolate and 
more or less ciliate, or setaceous, sometimes in pairs. 

The affinity of this plant is clearly with Drosera Baunkswi, 
R. Br., and D. myriantha, Planch., not only in the important 
character of the style-branches, which are fewer than in 
any other species of the cauline type of Drosera, but also 
in the general similarity of most of the other characters. 
These three species by themselves form, by reason of their 
less divided styles, a small group connecting the long- 
stemmed species of the Lrgaleium section with those of 
section Rorella, in most of which the styles are simple or 
few-branched. 

The presence of stipules to the upper leaves in D. Banksia, 
as described, is unknown in any of the cauline species of 
Drosera, and their description as such may have been due 
to an error of observation, not subject to correction up to 
the present time, as that species is not recorded as found 
by any collector since Banks and Solander. Bracts are 
not uncommon, although irregular on the inflorescence of 
some species, and they sometimes answer to the description 
of the stipules of D. Banksii, as thin, narrow, and scarious ; 
so that between the upper stem-leaves and the flowers, 
some of these organs may have been observed and _ hastily 
noted as deciduous stipules. 


. Nov. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 419 


NOTE ON THE FORMATION OF THE BULB IN WEST- 
AUSTRALIAN SPECIES OF DRoSERA. By ALEXANDER 
Morrison, M.D. 

(Read 12th November 1903.) 

The presence of more than one bulb on the root of Drosera 
bulbigena’ suggested a closer examination of specimens, in 
order to determine their mode of formation, especially of. 
the extra bulbs. The rootstock is seen to be covered with 
the pale brown fibrous remains of the rhachis of the 
previous year’s plant,—the present axis being enveloped 
in it from the bulb to the surface of the ground. A 
moderate number of short horizontal roots, copiously 
provided with hairs, spring from the rootstock, penetrat- 
ing this fibrous sheath, while from its upper part—close 
to the surface of the ground—proceed commonly one or 
more long out-runners smooth and apparently of the same 
structure as the rootstock itself, with occasionally a short 
lateral root provided with hairs. Such long processes, or 
stolons, are common on some Australian orchids, for 
instance some species of /terostylis, in which they 
frequently end in bulbous swellings; but in this species 
of Drosera no distinct thickenings have so far been 
observed. 

The majority of plants of D. bulbigena have only one 
bulb; but two, three, or even four such are met with— 
arranged in series, the one directly below the other. At 
about one inch below the surface the rootstock expands 
at its base into a short conical body, closely applied to the 
upper surface of the bulb, but continuous with it only by 
means of a slender and very short pedicel. The bulb 
itself is enveloped in thick dark brown scales, and is 
subglobular in form, flattened on the upper side, and 
somewhat pointed below. It appears to have been de- 
veloped from the enlarged extremity of the rootstock— 
to which the name of pro-bulb may be given—by a 
- process of budding from its lower surface. In the case of 
a plurality of bulbs, the same budding process has taken 
place in the formation of new bulbs,—each successive one 
being formed on the end of a prolongation of the axis 

1 See page 1. 


420 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess, rxvitt, 


from the base of the preceding bulb to a greater or less 
distance below. This process, which is quite like the 
old rootstock, is smooth, and pale in colour, and in dried 
specimens is sometimes seen to be loosely wrapped in 
a membranous covering, evidently an exfoliation. This 
downward extension of the plant’s axis is an exact 
counterpart of the rootstock above it, terminating like it 
in the pro-bulb expansion, with the true bulb attached 
to its under surface. The close association of the two 
structures appears to exist from an early stage in their 
development, as shown in one plant in which the fourth 
bulb-formation on its axis is seen of very small size at 
the end of a process 2 mm. in length. In this case 
the one is about as large as the other, namely, 1 mm. 
in diameter,—although at a later stage the bulb will attain 
larger dimensions. The brown scales of the true bulb are 
quite distinct from the membrane of the rootstock, and 
appear to be an exfoliation from its substance of annual 
occurrence. As the downward budding process takes 
place during the flowering period, resulting in the for- 
mation of a reserve of nutriment for the plant during the 
immediately following dry season, so we may assume as 
highly probabie that at an earlier period, when the winter 
rains followed the long dry summer, the base of the root- 
stock must send a shoot upwards to form the stem of 
the plant that makes its appearance above ground in the 
course of the winter. This pro-bulb, therefore, may be 
regarded as containing the dormant bud, or buds, from 
which the plant is annually renewed,—these being the 
homologues of those buds known as the winter buds or 
hybernacula in the axils of the rosette-leaves of Huropean 
species of Drosera. It may be a nice point for consideration 
whether the pro-bulb or the bulb is the really permanent 
organ on which the plant depends for its annual regener- 
ation. Unfortunately, direct observation of the earliest 
stages of the growth of the new axis of the plant is difficult 
of attainment, seeing that after the flowering season of the 
bulbous species of Drosera is over all that was visible of 
them above ground quickly disappears, and nothing to 
indicate their presence can be detected till the new stem 
appears above the surface in the following spring. 


OO 


Nov. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 421 


In DP. calycina the same arrangement of parts is seen as 
in D. bulbigena, and on a larger scale—the stock ending 
in the swollen pro-bulb capping the bulb itself, or con- 
tinuing farther downwards through one or more successive 
bulbs. When the upper bulbs in a series are atrophied 
and shrivelled, it is not clear from what portion of the 
axis the new stem sent up in the spring took its origin; 
this would depend on whether the rootstock died down 
to the lowermost bulb, or retained its vitality for some 
distance above that point. As the rootstock between the 
bulbs of a series is sometimes seen enveloped in a loose 
membranous covering, it would appear as if the previous 
years axis had perished, and that the existing one had 
sprung from a point below the upper bulb; and if further 
proof is required of the development of the bulbs taking 
place from above downwards, the existence of this sheath, 
which can only be the remains of a preceding rootstock, 
will supply it. The presence of a new stem taking an 
independent course through the soil to the surface is 
seldom or never seen, the direction taken being always 
exactly in the line of the old one, from whatever point it 
may have arisen. A second stem is, however, not un- 
frequently observed, in various species of Drosera, to spring 
from a node of the rootstock at different levels between 
the bulb and the surface of the ground, but only as a 
branch, though usually within the same sheath as the 
main axis, 

A recent examination of fresh specimens of various 
species of Drosera confirms to a large degree the state- 
ments above made, the distinction between the tissues of 
the living plant and the remains of the growth of previous 
years, as well as the arrangement of the scales on bulb and 
rootstock, being much better seen. 

In D. stolonifera, which is one of the forms having the 
leaves arranged in rosettes, the large bulb of a fresh 
specimen (with flowers partly expanded) was bisected, and 
on removing one half of it a bud was displayed projecting 
downwards into its substance from close to one side of the 
base of the rootstock. This bud was as yet no more than 
about one and a half lines long, and diverged slightly to 
one side, namely, inwards towards the axis of the plant. 


422 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. rxvi. 


No scales were detected on its basal portion, and no 
distinct bulb was differentiated on it at its termination, 
but a small circle of pointed scales was seen closely applied 
to and converging near the tip, which is visible beneath them 
smooth and rounded. In other more advanced specimens 
the form of the growing process is distinctly bulbous, and 
its enlargement is seen to have taken place almost entirely 
on the external aspect, as indicated by the scale-tips being 
few and distinct from one another, compared with those on 
its inner aspect. The direction of the scales is evidently 
downwards on the external surface, but through excessive 
growth of that part by an interstitial hypertrophy of the 
concrete bases of the scales, the direction of the free tips 
of these organs becomes gradually changed towards the 
distal end of the bud, so that as the bulb enlarges the 
terminal seales, though still holding the same position 
relative to the part to which they are attached, and the 
same direction relative to the apex of the bud, come to 
point upwards. The axis of the bud has thus been turned 
completely round, so that its apex instead of being the 
lowermost point of the young shoot, is now the uppermost 
point of the new bulb. The process gone through is 
similar to that seen in the development of the anatropous 
ovule, and the result is that the terminal scales of the bud 
springing from the rootstock now form the apical bud of 
the bulb, situated close to its point of origin, and imme- 
diately below the parent stock. Here, then, is evident: 
provision for the next year’s stem, and proof that the bulb 
is the dormant bud, which, though in its turn also perish- 
ing, continues the life of the plant from one season of 
activity to the next. 

In D. erythrorhiza (its flowering season past) the same 
structural arrangements are seen, even more neatly defined. 
The bulb is more dense in its consistence, and deeply 
coloured to its centre, while the great number of thin 
scales in which it is closely wrapped shows that many 
years must have passed since the annual budding from the 
original rootstock first began. The lateral process or 
pedicel connecting it with the rootstock continues slender 
and rounded, and the globular bulb is somewhat flattened 
vertically, while the reversed scales are collected together 


Noy. 1903. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 425 


so as to form a small compact cone, erect by the side of 
the pedicel, with its apex closely applied to the centre of 
the base of the rootstock. 

In young plants of D. calycina, with stem and leaves 
developed, but without flowers, the bulbs of ‘last year are 
seen brown and shrivelled, while from the bottom of 
some a new axis of white living tissue_has been sent straight 
down, in one instance for half an inch below the base of 
the bulb. From near the margin of the flat lower end of 
the rootstock, at this part copiously furnished with strong 
smooth roots, a stout process has been pushed through the 
bottom of the old bulb, which is now a mere husk, and 
continued downwards as a new axis, clavate like that from 
which it springs, and bearing attached to its lower truncate 
extremity a small globular body, the new bulb.’ It bears 
on its surface a few acute scales like the old rootstock, but 
these point downwards, and no roots are present on the 
process. The young bulb at its end is quite globular, and 
though almost touching its peduncle, the constriction 
between the two passes completely round, leaving only a 
narrow connecting pedicel. A few scales are seen pro- 
jecting from the very narrow sinus between, and in the 
light of what has been seen in D. erythrorhiza and 
D. stolonifera, a closer examination of the few specimens 
available shows that these are attached, not to the clavate 
peduncle on which the small bulb is borne, but to the bulb 
itself, and that other scales are present on one side of the 
bulb, few in number, but sufficient to show the passage 
from those directed downwards through the horizontal to 
the upward direction, as seen more distinctly in the larger 
bulbs of the rosette-forms. The upper shrivelled bulbs, 
when there is more than one present, are seen as a band 
or ferrule of wrinkled brown tissue encircling the white 
shaft of the rootstock, on which they are quite loose and 
movable. In another plant of this species a brown and 
dead bulb was found on being cut open to be a mere shell, 


1 This is not a rootstock, though similar in shape, differing as it does 
in origin and in function, and the term ‘pro-bulb’ would be more 
appropriately applied to it than, as first suggested, to the base of the 
rootstock bearing the stem. It is significant that, while the downward 
bud from the rootstock takes its origin laterally, the bulb itself keeps a 
central and permanent position in relation to the axis of the plant. 


424 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. rxvum1 


but concealing within it a small budding shoot, the tip of 
which just touched its lower end. 

If we conceive the plant of Drosera as consisting essentially 
of an axis bearing numerous nodes which give origin to 
organs variously modified according to their position on 
the axis, we see in the cauline type a great elongation of 
the internodes, through which the true leaves are removed 
from the surface of the ground and distributed at wide 
intervals along the stem. This arrangement of the leaves 
is In strong contrast with that seen in the rosette-forms 
with bulbs in which the axis is so contracted that all the 
leaves lie spread out flat in close contact with the ground. 
It may be supposed to be advantageous to the plant to 
have its leaves exposed in this way, whether for the 
exercise of the ordinary functions of the leaf, or for the 
capture of insects; while a converse advantage is secured 
by the use of the leaves as prehensile organs, through 
which it adheres to the branches of other plants, supporting 
its weak stem by that means, as in D. macrantha, for 
example, which is sometimes to be seen rearing its raceme 
of large white flowers erect above shrubs several feet high. 
An advantage of even greater importance, in a climate 
subject annually to a long dry season, is gained in 
the extension of the root downwards, which gives to the 
plant additional security against drought. This is effected 
by an expansion of the internodes of the shoot sent down 
from the rootstock for the regeneration of the bulb, as 
described above, the short pedicel of the rosette-forms 
being extended into an organ that places the new bulb in 
a deeper position, where it will be less exposed to the 
chance of desiccation. The habit of prolonging the axis 
downwards in this way is mostly seen in the cauline type, 
but not exclusively so; while, on the other hand, in the 
climbing D. macrantha, the new bulb is formed separate 
from the old, and diverging at an angle, as is the case 
in the Orchidee. 


i 


JAN, 1904. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 425 


‘PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE BOTANY OF CAPTAIN 
Dowpine’s CoLompiaN ExpepiTion, 1898—99. By T. A. 
SpraGUE, B.Se. (Edin.), F.L.S., Assistant in the Herbarium, 
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 


(Read 14th January 1904.) 


In the summer of 1898 I heard, through Professor 
Bayley Balfour, that Captain (now Rear-Admiral) H. W. 
Dowding, R.N., was contemplating an expedition to the 
South of the Republic of Colombia, and that he desired to 
be accompanied by a botanist, as part of the country to be 
visited was botanically unexplored. On Professor Balfour’s 
advice, I made arrangements to join the expedition, and, after 
a short time spent at Kew and the British Museum (Nat. 
Hist.), gathering information on the vegetation and flora of 
Colombia, left England in October 1898 in company with 
Captain Dowding. 

Our route was briefly this:—up the Orinoco and its 
tributary the Meta to the village of Cabuyaro, then by 
mule across the //anos and the Cordilleras to Bogota, thence 
vid Jirardot along the Magdalena valley to Pitalito in the 
South of the Department of Tolima, and finally across the 
Eastern Cordilleras to the village of Mocoa, the capital of 
the Caqueta territory ; here we separated, Captain Dowding 
returning to England in consequence of ill-health, vid Pasto, 
Tumaco, and Panama, while I descended the rivers Putumayo, 
Aguarico, and Napo to the Amazon, arriving in England in 
December 1899. 

The task of determining my collection, in itself laborious 
owing to the scattered state of the “literature” on Colombian 
plants, and to the poverty in Colombian material of the 
two great British Herbaria, has been undertaken in the 
intervals between other official work, and has sometimes 
been suspended for months together. Up to the present 
date (December 1903), only the Polypetale have been 
‘completely worked out, and as the determination of the 
collection will probably not be completed for some 
considerable time, it has been decided, with the per- 
mission of the Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, 
Kew, to publish at once the following diagnoses of new 


426 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. txvmt. 


species; the majority of the specimens described were 
collected by myself during the expedition, but a few of them 
are allied species, previously represented in the Kew 
Herbarium, and in these cases the collector’s name is given. 
Descriptions of two new American Bignoniace are appended, 
The enumeration of species collected, with their geographical 
distribution, ete., and a discussion of the general results 
attained, is reserved for a subsequent paper. 

[ desire to record here my indebtedness to the Royal 
Society for a grant of £50 towards my expenses on the 
expedition, and to Professor Chodat for the description of 
Securidaca amazonica; my thanks are also due to Mr, Hemsley 
and all my colleagues, and more especially to Dr. Stapf, for 
much kindly assistance and advice on critical points. 


DILLENIACEA. 


Saurawa pulchra: ramuli crassi superne nigri ut petioli 
tuberculati; lamina obovato-oblonga, apice rotundata vel 
cuspidata, 12-19 cm. longa, margine tenuiter dentato- 
serrulata, venis lateralibus utrinque 20-22, tertiariis 
irregularibus ; pagina superior nitidula glabra, inferior 
minute pulverulenta; panicule crasse paucifloree; flores 
2°5 cm. diam.; sepala extra pulverulenta; stamina circa 42 ; 
styl minimi. 

San Agustin, Tolima, No. 323. 


Saurawa cequatoriensis: ramuli superne nigri ut petioli 
strigoso-setosi; lamina obovato-oblanceolata, apice breviter 
acuminata, 10°5-14 cm. longa, margine serrulata, venis 
lateralibus utrinque 16—17, tertiariis irregularibus; pagina 
superior nitidula glabra, inferior inconspicue pulverulenta, 
venis setosis; panicule graciles plurifloree; flores 1°3 cm. 
diam.; sepala extra strigulosa; stamina circa 55. 

Bafios, Ecuador, Spruce, 4989. 


Saurauja floribunda, Benth. MS. in Herb. Kew.: ramuli 
fusci internodiis elongatis; petiol strigulosi pulverulenti ; 
lamina oblanceolata, apice obtusa interdum _brevissime 
acuminata, 28-37 cm. longa, margine minute denseque 
denticulata, venis lateralibus utrinque 19—23, tertiariis 
irregularibus ; pagina superior seabriuscula, inferior pulveru- 


Jan. 1904. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 427 


lenta; panicul floribunde longepedunculate ; flores 1°25 
em. diam.; sepala utrinque dense pubescentia; stamina 
42-44. 

Pallatanga, Ecuador, Spruce, 5540. 


Saurayja Sprucet: petioli dense pulverulenti; lamina 
obovato-oblonga, apice abrupte acuminata, 25°5-30 em. 
longa, margine denticulata, venis lateralibus utrinque 28—30 
patulis, tertiariis regularibus; pagina superior scabriuscula, 
inferior pulverulenta; panicule pluriflore; flores 2°25 em. 
diam.; sepala extra pulverulenta, intus pubescentia ; stamina 
ultra 150; styli minimi. 

Chimborazo, Ecuador, Spruce, 6195. 


Saurauja Schlimii: yramuli fusci ut petioli longe 
ferrugineo-setosi; lamina obovata, apice breviter acuminata, 
16—20 em. longa, margine setuloso-serrulata, venis lateralibus 
utrinque 17—21, tertiariis satis regularibus ; pagina superior 
minute tuberculata, inferior pulverulenta, venis setulosis ; 
panicul pauciflorz ; sepala extra dense pubescentia ; stamina 
circa 40; styli longi, stigmatibus majusculis. 

Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Schlim, 789. 


FLACOURTIACE.E. 


Casearia camporum: a C. fockeana, Miq., foliis brevioribus 
abrupte acuminatis, floribus minoribus staminodiisque crassis 
differt; ramuli ‘purpureo-fusci, novelli puberuli; petioli 
breves; lamina oblonga vel elliptico-oblonga, 6—8°5 cm. 
longa, venis lateralibus utrinque 6—7, supra nitidula 
glabrescens, subtus presertim venis prominentibus puberula; 
umbelle 20—35-florz ; calycis lobi oblongi apice rotundati, 
4-5 mm. longi, tomentelli, anthesi patentes; connectivum 
apice pilis paucis satis longis ornatum ; staminodia clavata 
1:25 mm. longa; ovarium pilosum, haud tuberculatum. 

Cabuyaro, Rio Meta, No. 167. 


POLYGALACE. 


Securidaca amazonica, Chod.: rami brevissime pubescentes 
vel velutini, regulariter et divaricate ramosi, apicem versus 
subcurvati ; folia herbacea vel chartacea elliptica vel ovato- 
elliptica subobtusa subtus et superne pubescentia vel 


428 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Ssss. Lxvut. 


brevissime tomentosa, petiolo brevi tomentoso; Jamina 
60x30, 45 x 33, 45 x 26, 50 x 22 mm.; racemi axillares 
vel terminales, rhachi arcuata breviter tomentosa elongata 
(10 cm.) laxe denticulata; flores pedicellati haud conferti 
10 mm. longi; ale glabrescentes breviter unguiculate nervis 
pluribus repetite dichotomis subliberis; petala superiora 
quam carina breviora apice parum dilatata subretusa late 
linearia reduplicata ciliata; carinz limbus cucullatus longior 
quam latus; crista conspicua flabelliformis plicata ; ovarium 
gibbosum antice et postice pilosum ; stylus basi tenuis medio 
vittzeformis et dilatatus adscendens S-formiter curvatus, 
apicem versus haud latescens sed angustior ; samara breviter 
eibbosa ala tenui acie ventrali erecta dein sensim curvata, 
dorsali regulariter descendente, inde inzqualiter oblongo- 
obovata glabra. 
San José, Rio Putumayo. 


HY PERICACE A. 

Vismia floribunda: a V. eayennensi, Pers., sepalis fructu 
patentibus, petalis eglandulosis staminibusque glabris recedit ; 
arbor parva glaberrima habitu V. cayennensis; lamina 
pergamentacea; cymez floribunde; sepala ovato-oblonga 
fructu patentia; petala mucronulata, eglandulosa, facie 
interna villosa; staminodia breviter clavata, apice villosa; 
staminum phalanges polyandre (25—30), podio apice excepto 
glaberrimo, filamentis specialibus glabris; anther glandula 
unica. Mocoa, Caqueta territory, No. 401. 


Vismia Sprucei: species inter V. cayennensem et V. 
floribundam intermedia; arbor 30-pedalis; lamina tenuiter 
coriacea, nervo medio venisque subtus quam in V. floribunda 
magis prominentibus; cyme floribunde; sepala oblonga, 
fructu reflexa; petala sparse glandulosa, facie interna dense 
villosa; staminodia subquadrangularia recta, apice villosa ; 
staminum phalanges polyandre (35-40), podio parte 
inferiore glabro, apice ut filamenta specialia  villoso; 
anther glandulis duabus approximatis. 

Panure, Rio Uaupes, Brazil, Spruce, 2601. 


BOMBACEZ. 


Matisia Dowdingii: arbor alta, cortice griseo rugoso; 
lamina oblongo-lanceolata, basi cuneata, apice acutiuscule 


os 


. 


Jan. 1904. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 429 


acuminata, 22-27 cm. longa, membranacea discolor 3- 
plinervis, supra glabra, subtus stellatim pubescens ; pedicelli 
solitarii ut calyces vivide castaneo-velutini; calyx 
campanulatus, basi attenuatus, 3 cm. longus; petala extra 
tomentella,intus basi glabra, ceterum sericea; tubus stamineus 
curvatus, intus glaber, cruris liberis  stylum _paullo 
superantibus ; ovarium dense pilosum. 


Mocoa, Caqueta territory, No. 370 


STERCULIACEAE. 

Sterculia colombiana: a S. rugosa, R.Br., foliis brevioribus 
ellipticis subtus pilis minoribus numerosioribus vestitis 
differt; arbor excelsa, ramulis rugosis cinereis; petioli 
puberuli, supra applanati; lamina elliptica apice obtusa vel 
retusa, basi cordata, 13-19 cm. longa, 5—7-nervis, supra 
glabra, subtus stellatim incana, validissime reticulata; 
panicule 9—12 apicibus ramulorum congestez, multiflore, 
tomentelle; ff. masc.: calycis lacinie lanceolate medio 
appendiculate ; columna staminea curvata basi papillosa, 
antheris sessilibus; fl. fem. fructusque desiderantur 

San José, Rio Putumayo, No. 618. 


MALPIGHIACE. 

Tetrapteris tolimensis: rami novelli ferrugineo-tomentelli, 
demum glabrescentes ; lamina ovato-oblonga vel oblonga, basi 
rotundata apice obtusa interdum cuspidata, 8—10°5 em. 
longa, venis lateralibus utrinque 6—7 subtus prominentibus 
pubescentibus ; inflorescentia tota ferrugineo-tomentella, 
foliis floralibus majusculis; umbelle 5—4-florz in paniculam 
pyramidalem dispositee ; pedicelli crassiusculi, supra medium 
bracteolati; calyx 8-glandulosus; petala glabra, lamina 
oblonga auriculata, ungue crasso ; filamenta inferiorem supra 
trientem anther inserta; ovarium pilosum,  stigmate 
semiuncato; samara anisoptera, alis  lateralibus — basi 
distinctis, crista dorsali alata. 

San Agustin, Tolima, No. 271. 


OXALIDACEA. 

Oxalis insignis: ab O. hedysaroidi, H.B.KK., bracteis 
ciliatis, pedicellis brevioribus et filamentorum majorum 
pilositate recedit; herba 3-pedalis ; petiolus communis 5-— 
12:5 em. longus; foliola ovata, basi acutiuscula, apice 


43.0 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. cxviu. 


emarginata, subtus glaucescentia, terminale 3-6 cm. longum; 
bracteze lanceolate, sparse ciliate ; pedicelli filiformes 3—4 
mm. longi; filamenta majora parte libera dense pilosa, 
minora glabra; ovarium stipitatum, stylis pilosis; capsula 
sepalis sesquilongior ; semina in loculis solitaria. 

Pitalito, Tolima, No. 232. 


ANACARDIACEAE. ° 


Tapirira pilosa: a T. myriantha, Triana et Planch., foliis 
subtus dense pilosis venulisque supra impressis recedit ; 
arbor 40-pedalis, follis imparipinnatis 3—5-jugis; lamina 
oblonga utrinque angustata, apice breviter obtuseque 
acuminata, 10-19 cm. longa, supra glabrescens fusca venulis 
impressis, subtus dense pilosa; panicule foliolorum par 
infimum vix attingentes; jl. fom.: petala late ovata, rotundata 
vel emarginata, staminibus effetis longiora; discus 
crenulatus ; ovarium dense flavo-pilosum ; fl. mase. bacceeque 
desiderantur. } 

San José, Rio Putumayo, No. 616. 


PAPILIONACE. 


Galactia camporum: a G. jussieana, Kunth, proxima 
habitu erecto, calyce basi attenuato vexilloque obtuso recedit; 
suffrutex erectus, basi 2—3-ramosus; foliolorum lamina 
oblongo-elliptica, basi emarginata, apice obtusa mucronulata, 
supra pubescens nitidula, subtus reticulata dense pubescens ; 
ealycis pilosi lacinize laterales tubo paullo longiores ; corolla 
glabra, vexilli obovati obtusi apice ciliato excepto; ale 
oblongee ; legumina subrecta, dense pubescentia. 

Cabuyaro, Rio Meta, No. 166. 


MIMOSACE.E. 


Inga olivacea: ab I. nobili, Willd., affini bracteis propriis 
florum spathulatis corollaque quam calyx plus duplo longiore 
recedit ; rami novelli subangulati, ut pedunculi ferrugineo- 
tomentelli, glabrescentes ; folia 5-juga; petiolus haud alatus, 
glandulis profunde excavatis; lamina elliptico-oblonga 
abrupte acuminata, basi cuneata, 14°5—20 em. longa, supra 
glabra, subtus sparse puberula; spicee breves semiorbiculares; 
florum bracteee propriz spathulate persistentes; calyx 


Jan. 1904.] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 431 


adpresse pubescens dentibus minimis; corolla sericea lobis 
lanceolatis. 
Between Villavicencio and Bogota. 


Inga gracilior: ab I. leptoloba, Schlecht., bracteis propriis 
spathulato-oblongis corolleque lobis brevioribus recedit ; 
arbor 15—20-pedalis, ramulis pallidis leviter costatis; folia 
3-juga, petiolis haud alatis, basi incrassatis ; lamina elliptica 
vel oblongo-elliptica, basi cuneata, apice acuminata, 13-17 
em. longa ; spice breves dense ; bractez propriz spathulato- 
oblong, extra pilose; calyx anguste tubulosus 4 mm. 
longus; corolla gracilis circa 85 mw. longa, lobis 1°5 mm. 
longis, tenuiter sericea. 

Mocoa, Caqueta territory, No. 365. 


LECYTHIDACEZ. 


Lecythis prealta: ab L. elliptica, H.B.K., affini inflor- 
escentiz rhachide flexuoso lenticelioso nervisque lateralibus 
numerosioribus recedit ; arbor vasta cortice cinereo; lamina 
elliptica, basi rotundata, apice rotundata retusa vel breviter 
acuminata, tenuiter reticulata, venis lateralibus majoribus 
utringue 18—22, minoribus parallelis interjectis; inflor- 
escentia circa 20 cm. longa, ramis satis patentibus ; ovarium. 
semi-inferum 4-loculare vel inconspicue 8-loculare, ovulis 
loculorum basi erectis. 

San José, Rio Putumayo. 


MELASTOMATACEAE. 


Rhynchanthera orinocensis: (§ Anisostemones) caulis longe 
glanduloso-pilosus; folia breviter petiolata, anguste ovata, 
breviter acuminata, basi rotundata, 4°3—5°5 cm. longa, 
margine ciliato-serrulata, utrinque adpresse pilosa, 7—9- 
nervia ; rami floriferi laterales 5—4-flori; calycis lobi tubum 
equaptes ; petala obovata, apicem versus ciliata; anther 
rostrum gracile elongatum antice inflexum: capsula ovoidea. 

Caicara, Orinoco. 


Meriania hecamera: a M. splendente, Triana, aftini lamina 
basi cuneata petiolisque brevibus recedit; arbor ramulis 
tetragonis, junioribus compressis ; petiolus 2—2°5.cm. longus; 
lamina obovata, breviter acuminata, basi cuneata, 7-14°5 cm. 
longa, 5-nervis, subtus venis minute furfuraceis, ceterum 


432 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sxss. txvum. 


elabra; panicule cymose terminales; calyx breviter 
campanulatus, undulato-lobatus ; petala 6 obovata; stamina 
12; ovarium 6-loculare. 

Between Pitalito and Mocoa, No. 344. 


Leandra caquetana: ab L, dichotoma, Cogn., affini calyee 
elanduloso-setuloso petalisque brevioribus recedit; ramuli 
petioli pedunculique setulosi; lamina late ovata, breviter 
acuminata, 4—5°5 cm. longa, membranacea, supra setulosa, 
subtus venis exceptis glabriuscula ; paniculee 4—6 cm. longe; 
calyx dense glanduloso-setulosus, dentibus exterioribus 
subulatis ; petala oblongo-lanceolata, obtusiuscula; ovarium 
5-loculare, apice brevissime glanduloso-setulosum. 

Mocoa, Caqueta territory, No. 409. 


Miconia perplezans : a M. polyandra, Gardn., affini stamini- 
bus 10 antherisque auriculatis recedit ; arbor ramulis petiolis 
inflorescentiaque dense stellato-furfuraceis; lamina lanceolata, 
breviter acuminata, basi attenuata, 7-12 cm. longa, 5-nervis, 
discolor, supra glabra, subtus stellatim puberula; panicula 
angusta compacta; calycis lobi deltoidei; petala oblique 
obovata, leviter retusa; stamina 10, connectivo basi postice 
auriculato; ovarium usque ad medium liberum. 

Cabuyaro, Rio Meta, No. 31. 


Miconia acutipetala: (§ Eumiconia) arbor parva, ramulis 
pallidis, novellis ut petioli setulosis; jugi.folia inequalia, 
lamina ovata, breviter acuminata, basi anguste truncata, 
4—8'5 cm. longa, obscure crenulato-ciliata, 5-plinervis, 
membranacea, utrinque sparse setulosa ; paniculee terminales 
axillaresque pedunculis gracilibus additis 4—5 em. longe; 


calyx truncatus, 2 mm. longus, basi stellatim pilosus, | 


denticulis subulatis; petala lanceolata acuta 5-nervia; anther 
1-porosze, connectivo postice calcarato, antice auriculato ; 
ovarium 2-loculare, loculis 1-ovulatis. 

San José, Rio Putumayo. 


Tococu caquetana: (§ Hypophysca) a T. parviflora, Spruce, 
aflini calyce stellatim tomentello petalisque oblique obovatis 
recedit ; caulis fohaque 7. parviflcre; panicule 4—5 cm. 
longe ; calycis tubus ceylindricus stellatim tomentellus, 
superne setulosus, dentibus interioribus rotundatis, exteri- 
oribus brevibus subulatis; petala 5, oblique obovata ; 


ES 


Jan. 1904. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 433 


stamina 10, antheris 2 mm. longis; ovarium 35—4-loculare, 
apice minute puberulum. 
San José, Rio Putumayo, No. 604. 


CUCURBITACE. 

Gurania pedata: a G. coccinea, Cogn., affini foliis pedatis 
calycisque dentibus angustioribus recedit; petiolus 5-10 em. 
longus, sparse longeque pilosus; foliola elliptico-ovata vel 
oblanceolata, acute acuminata, margine ciliata, remote 
spinuloso-denticulata, utrinque glabra, terminale apice 
trifidum vel trilobum, 10—17 cm. longum; pedunculus folio 
suo paullo brevior vel zquilongus, gracillimus ; calyx sparse 
pilosus, tubo ovoideo dentes subulatos equante; petala 
breviter lanceolata; anther lis G. coccinew similes. 

Mocoa, Caqueta territory, No. 393. 


BEGONIACEA. 

Begonia andreana: herba 2-pedalis, caule erecto; folia 
petiolata, ovato-oblonga, acuta, glabra, penninervia; inflor- 
escentia multiflora 25-30 cm. diam., pedunculis pluries 
dichotomis; ji. masc.: sepala 2 suborbicularia; petala 2 
anguste obovata; filamenta libera, toro convexo inserta, 
antheris duplo vel sesqui-longiora, connectivo ultra loculos 
producto ; jl. fem.: lobi 5 ovati vel ovato-oblongi; styli 3 
trifidi, ramis iterum bifidis, supra spiraliter evolutis ; fructus 
ala maxima subtriangulari, margine superiore horizontali 
recto 1°75 em. longo, inferiore curvato, duabus ceteris multo 
munoribus. 

Villavicencio, Colombia, No. 133. 


RUBIACE. 

Sipanea acinifolia, Spruce, MS. in Herb. Kew.: ab 8. 
pratensi, Aubl., calycis laciniis ovario vix duplo longioribus, 
glandulis duabus interpositis, recedit; herbacea caulibus 
decumbentibus, lateralibus Horiferis erectis ; internodia 3 cm. 
hand attingentia; folia mediocriter petiolata ovata vel 
-oblongo-ovata, 7-16 mm. longa, utrinque setulosa: inflor- 
escentia terminalis, 1—3-flora; ovarium dense setulosum, 
1-5-2 mm. longum; calyx 3 mm. longus, laciniis lineari- 
-subulatis ; corollze tubus extra sparsissime pilosus; anthers 
apicem tubi subattingentes. 


TRANS: BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL. XXII. 2F 


. 


434 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. rxvim. 


Orinoco: Caicara, Sprague, No. 383; Maypures, Spruce, 
No. 3562. Also from the Lower Amazons. 


Isertia alba: ab I. hypoleuca, Benth., proxima foltis 
subtus manifeste reticulatis corolleque albsee indumento 
recedit; arbor 40 pedes attingens; folia obovata, breviter 
acuminata, basi cuneata,supra glabra, subtus dense sordideque 
ineana, manifeste reticulata; calycis tubus truncatus integer, 
infra apicem leviter constrictus; corolla alba, extra pubescens, 
sinu basi haud tumido, lobis contortis anthesi reflexis. 

Eastern Cordilleras between Pitalito and Mocoa. 


Tsertia Purdiei: I. coccinew, Vahl, habitu accedens, differt 
autem calyce truncato, foliisque subtus inecanis; folia 
elliptico-oblonga, caudato-acuminata, basi Jeviter cuneata, 
supra glabra, subtus sordide inecana manifeste reticulata ; 
calyx truncatus integer, haud constrictus, appresse pubescens ; 
corolle tubus extra sericeus, lobi spathulati, quam tubi tertia 
pars longiores, extra verruculosi, anthesi reflexi; anther 
7 mm. longee. 

Muso, Colombia, Purdie. 


Sabicea camporum : inflorescentia sessili habituque erecto 
ad S. canam, Hook. f., accedit, sed calyce hirsuto (in S. cana 
flocculoso) prima visu distinguitur; frutex erectus 1—1}- 
pedalis, basi 2—3-ramosus; folia oblongo-obovata, obtusa, 
breviter petiolata, supra scabra, subtus venis pubescentibus 
ceterum coacto-tomentella; inflorescentiw sessiles axillares 
congeste; calyx ovarium plus duplo  superans, lobis 
lanceolatis, denticulo glanduloso interposito; corolle tubus 
4-5 mm. longus, extra hirsutus, intra fauce villosus, iobi 
2 mm. longi; antherve 1°5 mm. infra incisuras inserte. 

Cabuyaro, Rio Meta, No. 43. 


BIGNONIACE. 


Anemopegma grandiflorum: ex aftinitate A. Karstenit, 
Bur. et K. Sechum,, a quo differt ovulorum seriebus 6 pro 
loculo, floribus foliisque majoribus; frutex scandens ramis 
preter nodos glabris teretibus, striatis ; folia conjugata cirrho 
terminali trifurcato clausa, petiolo subtetragono supra 
breviter piloso 1°5—2 em. longo, petiolulis supra pilosis 
5-8 mm. longis, lamina foliolorum elliptica vel oblongo- 


Jan. 1904. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 435 


elliptica breviter acuminata obtusa, 10-12 em. longa, 
4°5—6 em. lata, utrinque dense minuteque punctata, herbacea, 
subconcolore, nervis lateralibus utrinque 6—7;  phylle 
stipulas simulantes rhomboideo-ovatze obtuse, subsessiles 
glabre, 1-2 cm. long, 8-17 mm. lati; cyme axillares 
pauciflore ; bracteze subulatee 3 mm, long; pedicelli 7—8 
mm. longi; calyx campanulatus truncatus, ope microscopii 
lepidotus, glandulis patelliformibus instructus, margine 
sparse breviterque ciliatus, 8-10 mm. longus, intus lepidibus 
densius obtectus; corolla tota 6°75—8 em. longa, tubo recto 
2°5—2°75 em. longo, dein campanulato-infundibuliformis, 
lobis 1°5—1°75 em. longis, basi 11-12 mm. latis, intus 
papillosis, extra glabra, intus infra staminum insertionem 
pilosa; stamina 5 em. supra corolle basin affixa, majora 
22o. ems, minora 2:b\,em., theca mm., staminodium 
7 mm. longum; discus pulvinatus 2°25-2°5 mm. altus; 
ovarium basi angustatum, leviter striatum, lepidibus 
minutis densissime obtectum, 4—4°5 mm. loneum (parte 
inferiore ovulifera elliptica 2°5 mm. longa, parte superiore 
oblonga); stylus 6-65 cm. longus, basi incrassatus ; 
stigmatis lamine ellipticze rotundatz; ovula pro loculo 
6-seriata, serie quaque 6+7-ovulata; capsule elliptica, 
stipite quam calyx breviore, valvis coriaceis nitidis 8 em. 
longis ; semina (juventute) ala opaca suberosa, 2°5 em. lata, 
1°5—1°75 em. longa. 
Trinidad: Botanic Gardens Herbarium, No. 6812. 


5 
9. 


Tecoma Hassleri: ab affini 7’. ochracea, Cham., calycis 
tomento facillime detergibili, foliolisque subtus arachnoideo- 
tomentosis recedit; arbor d—8 m. alta, °3—4 m. diametro, 
ramis validis, novellis ipsis (preter nodos tomentosos) 
glabris, tetragonis, vetustioribus subteretibus, nigropunctatis ; 
folia digitato-quinata (vel trifoliolata), petiolis 4°5—7°5 em. 
longis, supra superne sulcatis inferne applanatis, + tomentosis; 
petioluli laterales subnulli, medii 1—3 cm., terminales 
2-5—4°5 em. longi; lamina obovato-oblonga, 6—10°5 cm. 
longa, 3—6°5 em. lata, obtusa, apice rotundata vel breviter 
acuminata, basi rotundata, apicem versus serrato-dentata, 
supra scabra dense lepidota, subtus inter  venulas 
arachnoideo-tomentosa; flores in racemum  congestum 
dispositi; pedicelli 4—7 mm. longi, dense tomentosi; calyx 


436 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. rxvut. 


tubuloso-campanulatus quinquedentatus, 15-17 (12-30) 
mim. longus, extra tomento aureo facillime detergibili, post 
delapsum tomenti niger, intus glaber, dentibus rotundatis 
mucronatis densius vestitis; corolla infundibuliformis, 
6—6°5 cm. longa, lobis 1°5 cm. longis extra pilosis, lutea, 
parte anteriore intus densissime villosa; stamina 7—8 mm. 
supra basin inserta; filamenta minora 16-18 mm., majora 
25—25 mm.longa; staminodium 7 mm.; thece 3—3°5 mm.; 
ovarium glabrum 4—4°5 mm. longum; stylus 26-27 mm.; 
discus vix 1 mm. altus. 
In campo prope San Hstanislao, Hassler, 4159, 4164. 


On <a BOTANICAL VISIT TO THE BALEARIC ISLANDS 
IN Apri, 1903. By James W. Wuits, F.LS., President 
of the Bristol and District Pharmaceutical Association. 
Communicated by ALEX. SOMERVILLE, B.Se., F.L.S. (With 
Specimens in Illustration.) 


(Read 10th December 1903.) 


Many good things come to him who pursues a hobby. 
I do not say to him who possesses a hobby, for my own is 
to me a bright attraction ever in sight but always ahead of 
me, pleasantly and irresistibly luring me on to a pursuit 
that can never end in possession, because there can be no 
finality in the work that the pursuit entails. 

Delightful experiences le thickly by the track along 
which the field-botanist is beckoned; and among them, 
journeys to foreign lands in search of plants are perhaps 
the richest in charm and suggestion. Pictures of bygone 
rambles rise radiant in the memory as one turns over the 
herbarium sheets, and such visions not only awaken and 
recall many happy scenes, but stimulate to new effort and 
research. Probably no trip will more delight and soothe 
my fancy in after hours than that which has inspired the 
present paper. 

The date was Monday the 20th of April, in the Easter 
vacation, and as my fellow-traveller’s engagements made it 
necessary for him to be again in England on the 8th of 
May, there resulted eighteen days for a couple of botanists 
interested in the European flora to use to the best advan- 


Dec. 1903.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 437 


tage. Now, if one wants to gather plants at that early 
period, it is before all things essential that one should go 
as far south as possible. And a careful comparison of 
maps and time-tables showed that we could certainly have 
a day or so longer in the Balearic Islands than in any 
other spot on the same parallel of latitude. Sicily we 
intensely desired, and Corsica we greatly longed to see, 
but the first was too far away, and from the second the 
return steamers did not fit in. We learnt also, on turning 
to the books, that we should certainly find in the Balearics 
a very remarkable and interesting vegetation, richer in 
extent and in quality than that possessed by any other 
European district of similar size. Taking the relative 
areas of Corsica and Sardinia combined, of Sicily, and of 
the Balearic Isles, it has been estimated that while the 
first contains 1 endemic species in 933 sq. kilometres, 
and the second 1 in 336, the Balearics possess 1 in 95. 
This group of islands taken together are about equal in 
area to the county of Somerset, and their native plants 
comprise nearly 1400 species of flowering plants and 
ferns. Of that number more than 1000 belong also to 
the peninsula of Spain, and almost as many to Italy, 
France, and Algeria respectively, showing that when the 
vegetation is compared as a whole with that of neighbour- 
ing countries, an evident fact is that, excepting some species 
that are entirely special, and some others rare and little 
known that give to it a peculiar character, the flora of the 
Balearic group is very closely allied to that of the countries 
named. But the striking feature of this flora is that it 
contains about 40 species known to grow only in one other 
country, and 50 which are at present unknown elsewhere 
in the whole world. 

At 9 am. on 21st April we left Paris for Barcelona, 
and twenty-four hours later set foot in that big Spanish 
port. There was time to look around, and for calls at the 
steamboat office and a bank; and it may be useful to note 
that one gets at least a peseta more for an English 
sovereign in Barcelona or Palma than is given in London. 
At 2 P.M. we were off for Minorca in a small steamer with 
very small engines, a good deal of cargo, and a good many 
hours allowed for the voyage. 


438 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. xxv. 


We rolled along over the waves at about eight or nine 
knots an hour. My doings for the rest of that day and 
the night following are of no particular interest to anybody, 
but there was then developed the sole tinge of sadness that 
pertains to my recollection of the trip. Going on deck 
next morning we were running along under the low rocks 
of Minorca, and presently entered the splendid harbour of 
Port-Mahon, passing on the left the graves of our soldiers 
for whose loss, and that of the forts they defended, Admiral 
Byng was condemned and shot. Masses of warm grey 
rock, houses tier above tier—dazzlingly white, with red 
roofs and bright green shutters,—the “sapphire sea” 
below, and a sky of as deep a hue above, formed a scene 
not easy to describe, but which is familiar to most 
Mediterranean travellers. Before the vessel had moored 
we were boarded and welcomed by Don J. Rodriguez, the 
veteran naturalist, whose name is indelibly impressed on 
Minorean botany. He had been advised of our coming by 
my old friend Mr. E. M. Holmes, well known in Mahon 
and elsewhere as “le premier algologue Anglais.” After 
lunch, three gentlemen, botanists of Mahon, were intro- 
duced, and under their guidance we at once started on a 
walk to Cala Mesquida—a lovely bay four miles to the 
north-east, where many rare plants abound. On _ rocks 
skirting the road we saw a big shrubby wormwood 
(Artemisia arborescens), the largest European species, and 
Capparis spinosa, not yet in flower. Next, Perula communis, 
a gigantic umbellifer nine feet high, two species of 
Frankenia, and two of Asphodel. The smaller asphodel 
(A. fistulosus) is only about a foot high, while the larger 
(A. albus) reaches four to five feet, and is among the 
commonest, as well as the most ornamental, plants in the 
islands, growing everywhere indifferently on the highest 
hills or on ditchbanks in the lowlands. It appears that 
this plant bears locally three different names at three 
stages of its growth. Before the flowering stem appears it 
is “ Purrasa,’ when flowering it is called “Au Bo,” and 
finally, when dry, “Caramusha.” My informant insisted 
on this being written down, as he knew no similar instance. 
A strong spinous shrub bearing delicious-looking yellow 
fruit, much like a small choice apple, next arrested 


Dec. 1903.] | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 439 


attention. This proved to be Solanum sodomeum, an 
introduced species, and the fruit were “ Dead Sea apples,” 
handsome to look on but utterly uneatable. Passing over 
some low hills we reached the beautiful coast and came 
upon a wealth of rare plants. Yellow masses of QOnonis 
erispa, most viscid and glandular, which when pressed 
seems to incorporate itself with the paper into one sticky 
mess; Senecio Rodriguezii; Digitalis dubia, a pale-coloured 
ery soft at 


foxglove, very soft and velvety; Euphorbia imbricata ; 


and the two latter grow only at Cala Mesquida. The 
fragile, filiform stems of the little vetch have to be 
extricated from the midst of prickly bushes, up through 
which they invariably grow, and to obtain them uninjured 
one must exercise all that patience and restraint in 
language for which the field-botanist is noted. The 
number of spinous and prickly plants in the locality was 
remarkable. Thorns and prickles prosper well in that 
country, and fences are cheap and good. A thicket of 
Oxycedrus juniper overgrown with Smilax is quite un- 
approachable. But besides those, the Calycotome spinosa, 
Juneus acutus, and other well-known species, there were 
scattered about among the stones many inviting mossy- 
looking cushions of close texture, hemispherical in shape, 
and often four or five feet in circumference, tempting the 
weary pedestrian with their apparent softness. But | far 
from affording a comfortable seat to the wayfarer, these 
cushions of Astragalus poterium are masses of interlacing 
needles, among which the small white flowers appear. 
Other similar but coarser cushions are formed by plants of 
Sonehus spinosus. From neither is it possible to prepare 
satisfactory specimens for the herbarium.  <Asparagus 
horridus, too, consists of little else than two-inch spines, 
sharp, and so tough and strong that I had to tread portions 
under foot to flatten them enough for pressing. Yet the 
young shoots of this plant are tender and edible, and they 
appeared to furnish all the table asparagus that was served 
during our stay in the islands. The coast thereabout 
reminded one of the choicest Channel Island scenery, but 
is even more rocky. Minorca is a solid mass of stone. 


440 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess, txvim. 


The exposed surfaces weather in a curious way into sharp 
knife-edged ridges, and loose fragments lie in profusion 
everywhere. Returning in the twilight from that first 
excursion over a specially rough hillside, I asked one of our 
guides if the whole island was of that nature. “Oh no,” 
he said, “not at all, in many parts it is quite different— 
far more stony!” Quarrying is unnecessary, for building 
material lies at hand in plenty, and the difficulty is to 
clear land for cultivation. Thick walls bound the fields, 
and walls are often built around fruit trees with the 
double purpose of giving them protection and of getting 
rid of the stones. Rubble masonry in the islands is 
marvellously well built and durable without mortar, and 
immense labour and patience are displayed in terracing 
hillsides for agriculture. But the people have been always - 
skilful in the handling of stone, for does not ancient 
history tell us that the Baleares were the champion 
slingers of the world? Possibly they were more success- 
ful with their native pebbles than when, later, they took 
to using leaden balls, for one historian goes so far as to say 
that the lead melted in the air from the extreme violence 
with which it was slung. 

And the prehistoric masons of Minorca in remote 
antiquity possessed the art of building in high perfection. 
Their monuments, the “ talyots,” “taulas,’ and “ navetas,” 
built of hugh blocks and slabs, are well preserved at this 
day. They are peculiar to the Balearic Isles, have no aftinity 
with the megalithic remains in other countries, and their 
purpose can only be conjectured. 

The next morning we drove to Albufera. The dusty 
wayside was bright with flowers, among which Boragin- 
aceee were prominent. The deep blue of borage, the vary- 
ing violet and purple of many species of Echiwm, and the 
quieter hue of Cynoglosswm pictum furnished much of the 
colour. In striking contrast arose here and there tall 
spikes of Celsia erctica, the most showy plant in Minorea, 
with blossoms as large as a crown piece—yellow, blotched 
with red. Other good things gathered thereabout included 
Lepidium Carrerasvi (peculiar to Minorca), Salvia clandestina, 
Ephedra fragilis, Ornithogalum arabicum, Briza minor, and 
some rare Leguminose. 


Dec. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 441 


Several of our commonest species at home—such as the 
dandelion, daisy, and deadnettle—are entirely absent from 
the islands. Their places are taken by plants of very 
different character. On waste ground everywhere is a 
pretty, graceful sort of thistle (Galactites tomentosa); and 
quite as common is the squirting cucumber (L£ebalium 
Hlateriwm). Sufficient of the drug grows wild in Minorca 
to supply the needs of a century at the present rate of 
consumption. 

There is no pasture in the Balearics, and therefore few 
of the grasses that make our English hay,—no cats’-tails, 
fox-tails, or dogs’-tails, nor, in fact, any species with the 
name pratensis. And, as a consequence, there are no milch 
cows and no butter. Goats, pigs, and sheep pick up what 
they can among the rocks, by the roadsides, and on the 
stubbles. Sheep, as the most dainty feeders, come off the 
worst. As they wander over the stones, gaunt and hungry, 
pitiful objects, with every rib showing, they tell you 
plainly that it is useless to ask for mutton-chops in the 
islands. Cow’s milk, beef, and butter are city luxuries, to 
be obtained only by much favour and many pesefas. The 
universal custom is to breakfast on a peculiar rich, light 
bun or cake called “ ensiamada,” which is much more readily 
eaten than described. It is slightly indigestible, and with 
coffee or chocolate stands by one well until the midday 
meal. 

It is vain to look for English hedgerow flowers that 
beautify our deep lanes and wood-borders in the springtime. 
There are no sweet violets, bluebells, or red campions; no 
golden celandine, stitchwort, or blue speedwells. We 
bruise no broad-leaved ramsons under foot and sniff their 
odour, Nor does marsh-marigold edge willowy copses 
with its splendid flowers. No upland fields are gay with 
gorse or daffodils, nor in the south does “modest woodruft 
scent the mossy shade.” But yet our British hawthorn 
seems quite at home, flowering in April. We noted also 
the blackthorn, large nettle, and some docks. Oddly 
enough, the whole six Balearic geraniums are common 
Bristol plants. In all else no vegetation could be more 
unlike. The hillsides are covered with red and white 
Cistus, lavender, Genista, mastic, and big shrubs of heath 


442 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. uxvimt. 


and rosemary and myrtle; while the undergrowth is often 
of several species of Helianthemum and labiates, sprinkled 
with white flowers of Cyclamen balearicum, the “San Pera 
Violet” of the natives. Here and there is a clump of the 
curiously jointed Ephedra frayilis, a juniper, a pomegranate, 
or a fig springing wild from clefts in the rock. Interesting 
and beautiful as are all these, they are excelled in Minorca 
by the plentiful and luxuriant Huphorbia dendroides, a most 
elegant bush when in bloom. The stem of this species is 
quite woody, and sometimes a foot or more in cireum- 
ference. It rises in regularly three-forked branches into a 
beautiful pale green hemisphere five or six feet high. The 
largest trees are of Quercus Ilex. Exposed to the constant 
sea-gales, these are all bent and twisted to the southward 
by the prevailing wind. Pinus halepensis is the only 
native pine. Smaller and less picturesque than the 
cultivated species, 1t yet affords a pleasing prospect from 
the light green of its soft outspreading tufts of leaves. 

The mastic (Pistacia Lentiscus) in the Balearics, as on 
the Riviera, forms as a mere bush the chief constituent of 
the underwood. Buta very old tree was pointed out to 
us in Minorca as one of the largest in existence. Its 
branches covered a space about thirty feet in diameter, 
which would make it probably as large as the celebrated 
tree at Bordighera. In cultivation, instead of clover-fields, 
one sees great sheets of the vivid crimson flowers of 
Hedysarum coronariwm, the Minorean forage plant that has 
been found well suited to a dry and windy climate. 

At Albufera we came to a large fresh-water lake, with 
some brackish marsh between it and the sea. Here was 
abundance of Leucojum Hernandezii. We saw it later in 
Majorea, but elsewhere it grows only in Sardinia. Near 
the water’s edge were WSulicornia fruticosa, and Suceda 
Ffruticosa; and close at hand Lavatera cretica, Lotus creticus, 
Melilotus messanensis, Vicia atropurpurea, and Scrophularia 
ramosissima. On the shore were also some enormous 
tamarisks of great age; some of the trunks being ten to 
twelve feet in circumference. One object of this day’s 
excursion was to obtain the Daphne vellewoides, Rodrig., 
abundant on the Isla Colom. Landing on that island from 
a fisherman’s boat we immediately came upon plenty of the 


Dec. 1903. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 443 


rare and beautiful little shrub, bearing small white flowers 
low down upon the branches, and very evidently distinct 
from all other daphnes. This reflection applies to all the 
Balearic rarities without exception. These endemic species 
are remarkable for the strikingly decided characters that 
separate them from their congeners. They indeed are 
“species of the first order.’ Hardly had our boxes closed 
upon the daphne twigs, than a fine Arum was sighted (A. 
muscivorum)—its spathe resembling a hog’s ear, reddish, 
and very hairy. Here also many bulbs of the great squill 
(Urginea scilla) protruded from the scanty soil in all 
directions, some as big as a child’s head. JI learnt that the 
natives are well aware of the medicinal properties of squill, 
and, moreover, have the practice of keeping a plant upon 
the staircase of each house as a charm against erysipelas. 
Then appeared the proprietor of the island, a singular 
figure. Clad in rags, rope sandals, and a battered straw hat, 
he was yet monarch of all he surveyed on that lonely rock. 
He was at pains to explain to us that our lovely Arum 
was a pest in his domain, and how fortunate it was that 
pigs would eat it, and indeed liked it. 

On the following day, by the kindness of a local land- 
owner, we were enabled to visit the Barranco de Algendar. 
Outside Mahon we met a fisherman running at full speed 
with a heavy basket on his back, and were told that the 
custom was always to run into town with a catch, some- 
times from ten miles out. Our guide remarked further 
that his countrymen were a hardy race. The island, he 
said, swept by cruel winds and lacking water, produced 
barely enough to sustain the inhabitants. They therefore 
could never make full use of their digestive apparatus, and 
as most diseases, he believed, arose from keeping it too 
thoroughly employed, good health and long life resulted. 
The consumption of alcohol, however, threatened trouble, 
amounting as it now did annually to two dollars per head 
of the population. I fancy that there would be consterna- 
tion here at home also if our use of intoxicants stood at 
that same figure, but the trouble would be in the national 
exchequer, and not in the temperance councils. But I feel 
sure that my Minorean friend did not wish to be taken 
seriously. A land that can produce three crops of potatoes, 


444 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. uxvim. 


and that, wherever scratched by a primitive wooden plough, 
is stated to yield half as much again as a similar area 
would upon the mainland, should not be despised. Any 
community that adheres to the main principles of temper- 
ance, plain living, and abundant exercise, will of necessity 
be hardy and long-lived. 

The famous Barranco is a fissure, or cafion, riven through 
the plateau of miocene rock that occupies the whole of 
southern Minorca. Following a sinuous course of six or 
eight miles from near the centre of the island to the coast, 
its pinnacled rocks and precipices, two or three hundred 
feet high, are grandly picturesque. A stream threads the 
bottom of the gorge, and cliffs alternately close in to make 
a dark narrow cleft through which the water rushes like a 
millrace, or open out that the sun may play on the orange 
gardens and subtropical vegetation that flourish at the 
bottom of the moist ravine, where the air is always soft and 
warm. Sheltered entirely from the high winds of the 
uplands above, this is one of the few spots in the island 
where palms and citrus fruits can reach perfection. 
Laurus nobilis attains the height of fifty feet, and rare 
plants are frequent along the rocky escarpments. Paonia 
corallina abounds, a variety differing from our Steep Holms 
plant by its glabrous follicles. A decoction of the root is 
much used as a remedy for epilepsy. Delphinium staphis- 
agria also is plentiful, and Urtica pilulifera, the most 
vicious and venomous of nettles. Other new species met 
with that day were Viola stolonifera, Lotus tetraphyllus, 
Ononis minutissima, Sibthorpia africana,  Micromeria 
Rodriguexti, M. filiformis, Scolopendrium Hemionitis, and 
Selaginella denticulata. 

One of the last rambles from Mahon took us westward 
along the harbour to Villa-Carlos, a suburb founded by the 
British under the name of George Town. Here stand our 
soldiers’ deserted barracks, untenanted since the occupation. 
When an English ship of war visits the place, the blue- 
jackets play football in the barrack square under windows 
from which their compatriots looked out a century and 
a half ago. Two Mesembryanthemums (erystallinum and 
nodijflorum) grow here on rocks by the sea, and the curious 
Ophrys speculum that has a mirror-like patch on its 


Dec. 1903. ] BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 445 


labellum. As we were discussing by the roadside a 
peculiar Chlora that seemed new to us, some Menorquins 
passed, and their remarks were translated by our companion 
as follows :—“Oh yes, they are Americans. Most of the 
medicine that people take nowadays comes from America. 
They travel here and gather our weeds, and compound the 
remedies on their return.” 

Time will not permit me to do more than mention 
many things that could not escape observation — the 
dazzling cleanliness of the towns, the courtesy of the 
people, and their kindly feeling for everything English, 
and beyond that the manifest traces of a still existing 
influence of the old British occupation. 

We left Minorea feeling that we would fain have 
stayed forty days instead of four, both on account of the 
intrinsic charm of the place and the extreme kindness that 
we received from our Spanish con/réres. 

After a starlight passage on the night of the 27th, the 
sun rose as we entered Palma Bay, and its rays fell on the 
eapital of Majorica, its great Gothic cathedral, its wind- 
mills, and its palms. A more enchanting scene cannot be 
imagined. 

Majorca is the largest and most fertile of the islands. 
The soil is so rich, the climate so soft, and the natural 
scenery so beautiful that many endearing names have 
been bestowed upon it throughout the ages. Approached 
from the sea the aspect is more Oriental than European. 
And the more prominent vegetation—the abundant Ayaves, 
prickly pears, caroubs, and fine date-palms, as also the 
dwarf native palmetto (Chamerops humilis) which covers 
many wild rocky slopes by the sea—all give an Eastern 
colouring that harmonises well with the old Moorish 
buildings, and with the fine mountains that glow in blues 
and purples beyond the Palma plain. This great plain, 
protected on-the north and east by high ranges, of which 
the most elevated peaks reach 5000 feet, is closely culti- 
vated, and produces a long list of vegetables, cereals, and 
fruits. The attention of a stranger is arrested by the 
number of wind-sail pumps used for irrigation, and by the 
universal practice of planting almond and fig trees in the 
cornfields. The pruning of these fruit trees leaves them 


446 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess, rxviil- 


open in the centre to the sun, so that the amount of shade 
thrown in that brilliant climate is insignificant, and may 
even be beneficial to the crops. As regards other trees, 
Quercus Ilex and the small native pine cover large tracts 
among the mountains, whilst the olive is more abundant 
in the lower regions, where it appears to have been 
cultivated from very ancient times. The giant olives of 
Valdemosa certainly must have been planted by the 
Moors, possibly a thousand years ago. (Gnarled, twisted, 
and contorted into fantastic shapes, the heartwood gone 
ages ago, and the outer shells, though still vigorous and 
sustaining tall stems, often split into three or four separate 
trees now standing several feet apart, these extraordinary 
trees are more suggestive of a monstrous vegetation imagined 
by a Doré or a Dante than of symbols of peace and amity. 
Of native timber in our sense of the term, there is none in 
Majorca. The antiquated and expensive system of cooking 
by charcoal still prevails throughout the islands, with the 
result that practically all the large trees have been 
destroyed by the charcoal burner. A truly lamentable 
result of the demand for this costly and unwholesome fuel 
is that the beautiful Balearic box-tree (Buxus baleariea), 
known only in Majorica and at one small spot in Spain, 
a handsomer and more elegant plant than our British 
species, has been almost completely destroyed. At one 
time it is said to have formed actual forests among the 
mountains. Some of the trunks attained the size of a 
man’s body and furnished wood for cabinetmaking; but 
about the year 1851 they were all cut down and converted 
into charcoal. At the present time, a few small bushes 
merely are scattered over the cordillera of the north. We 
ourselves found only two. 

I am not gomg to weary you with a detailed account of 
excursions in Majorca, but will only note briefly the rich- 
ness of our gatherings in the few localities we were able to 
visit. On the shores of Palma Bay and the slopes under 
Belver Castle grow a large number of rare plants, viz. 
Silene cerustoides, S. rubella, Arenaria procumbens, Helian- 
themum umbellatum, H. Serre, H. salicifolium, Fumana 
Spachii, Paronychia urgentea, Anthyllis cytisoides, Ononis 
breviflora, Hedysarum spinosissimum, Bubocastanum ineras- 


Dec. 1903.]  BOYANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 447 


satum, Linaria triphylla, Lavandula dentata, Sideritis 
romana, Avena bromowes, Lamarkia aurea, Aygilops ovata, 
and 4. triaristata. 

Passing across the island to the mountain village of 
Pollensa, we made our way up the beautiful Val de Tern- 
ellas as far as Castel del Rey, and met with many Balearic 
specialities, viz. Hypericum balearicum, Rhamnus balearicus, 
Rubia balearica, Smilax balearica, Polygala rupestris, Alkanna 
lutea, Vincetoxicum nigrum, and Chamerops humilis. 

From Pollensa, also, we reached the charming hamlet of 
Ariant, lying to the north-east amid a circle of towering 
rock pinnacles. By the mule-path over the Col we saw 
Delphinium pictum, not yet in flower, and masses of Phlomis 
italica. On the coast, beyond Ariant, we were successful 
in finding the most interesting plant of the whole trip, the 
very latest discovery in the Balearic flora. Six years ago 
Mr. Clarence Bicknell, on a journey through the mountains 
with mules, strayed from the track in a fog, and so came 
upon a new species of Pimpinella that now bears his name. 
Prior to our visit, no botanist but himself had seen this 
plant growing, and without his instructions we should not 
have found the place. Sheltered among huge masses of 
rock fallen from stupendous precipices above, at a spot 
where another thousand feet of cliff shelves down to the 
sea below, Pimpinella Bicknelli is safe enough from man’s 
interference. Although of robust habit, it may, of course, 
be a decadent or dying-out species, under ban of some 
inexplicable natural limitation; but if so, its destiny will 
be worked out alone amid the solitude and desolation of 
that grand north coast. My fond hope is that some day 
I may revisit the spot at a time when the plant shall be 
in fruit, for that had not developed in April. 

For the rest, there might be much to say on the beauty 
of Miramar, preserved in its pristine wildness by the 
Austrian Archduke Ludvig Salvator, a distinguished 
scientist and the friend of all naturalists, who has there 
a house filled with Majorcan antiquities and works of art. 
On his domain we first saw Hippoerepis balearica, Brignolia 
pastinacefolia, and Allium subvillosum. And of charming 
Soller, too, the “Garden of the Hesperides,’ where loaded 
orange boughs bend to the earth, and the cool evening air 


448 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Sess. rxvim. 


is heavy with rich perfume of many flowers. All the 
fruit-trees of Europe seem to flourish side by side in the 
eroves of Soller. There we climbed on to the Sierra, to 
the Col de Lofra, a twelve hours’ tramp, to be rewarded 
with Brassica balearica, Genista cinerea, Taraxacum obova- 
tum, and Helichrysum Lamarki. ‘There also we scrambled 
in the torrent-bed of the Couma to get Helleborus lividus, 
Pastinaca lucida, Linarva fragilis, and Scutellaria Vigineuxit, 
the most delicate of labiates. Very few folk indeed have 
ever met with the latter, for which one has to crawl 
between the boulders into crevices deep and damp. And 
apart from botany, it is delightful to walk about the streets 
and look through widely-open doors into the great tiled 
halls, spotlessly clean, and gay with palms and flowers, 
and get a glimpse at the far end of oranges and pelar- 
goniums beyond. All the houses, rich or poor, stand wide 
open all the time, as if the people were ambitious to show 
off their neatness and good taste to every passer-by. Door- 
bells are unknown and knockers rare. If no one be at 
home, the doors remain open just the same. The friendly, 
simple people are everywhere good-natured and anxious 
to please. Not a beggar, lout, or ill-behaved person did 
we see in that fascinating land, where men and customs 
change but slowly, and where the people have all the 
virtues of those who mix but little with the outer world. 
They do not know the American or British tourist; no 
preparation has been made for him, and no one speaks his 
language. Who shall say that his coming is greatly to be 
desired ? 


EXCURSION OF THE SCOTTISH ALPINE BOTANICAL CLUB 
TO Fort-WILLIAM AND AkIsalc, JULY 1903. By ALrx- 
ANDER COWAN. 


(Read 11th February 1904.) 


The Club met on the evening of Monday, 27th July, at 
the Chevalier Hotel, Fort-William, and devoted Tuesday, 
the 28th, to Ben Nevis, where a pleasant day was spent 
in exploring the corrie. The Members were accompanied 
by Mr. Symers M. Macvicar, and they are greatly indebted to 


Fes. 1904. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 449 


him for much useful information regarding the botany 
both of the neighbourhood of Fort-Wilham and of Arisaig. 
’ The day was fortunately fine, but, apart from the usual 
varieties of ferns found on high mountains, little of interest 
was found, except— 
Cerastium trigynum, 
Euphrasia scotica, 
E. gracilis; 
also a plant of Athyrium alpestre, var. flevile, and a very 
erispy variety of the Parsley fern, A/losorus crispus. Of 
ferns seen— 
Lastrea dilatata alpina, 
Athyrium alpestre, and 
Allosorus crispus 
were found in great abundance and luxuriance. 

On Wednesday, 29th July, the Members journeyed to 
Arisaig by the forenoon train, and made the Arisaig Hotel 
their headquarters until Saturday, Ist August. The 
afternoon of this day, Thursday the 30th, and Friday the 
31st were spent in the neighbourhood of Arisaig, per- 
mission having been granted to the Members to botanise on 
the low ground of the Arisaig property by Mrs. Nicholson, 
the proprietress. The following are the principal plants 
found near Arisaig :— 

Blysmus rufus, 
Callitriche platycarpa. 
Centunculus minimus. 
Carex fusca. 

C. filiformis. 

Drosera anglica. 

D. rotundifolia. 

D. obovata. 
Hymenopbyllum tunbridgense. 
H. unilaterale. 

Juncus maritimus. 
Lastrea amula. 
Pinguicula Jusitanica. 
Pyrola media. 

Rubus saxatilis. 

Salix pentandra. 

Scirpus Tabernemontani. 
Veronica scutellata. 

The Members left on the morning of Saturday, Ist 
August, having spent a very pleasant and interesting week, 
its latter days in a district which had never before been 
visited by the Club. The weather was, fortunately, all 


TRANS. BOT. SOC. EDIN. VOL, XXII, 2G 


450 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [Szss. cxvamt, 


that could be desired, though in other parts of the country 
this week was an exceedingly wet one. Although the list 
of rare plants found is not a very long one, still some of 
them are of great botanical interest, and well repaid the 
Members for their visit. The only rare plant reported to 
exist in this neighbourhood, but unfortunately not found 
by any member of the party, is Carex banninghauseniana. 
On the other hand, a rare plant’ was discovered in the 
district, not hitherto reported upon. 


Note.—With regard to Centunculus minimus found by Mr. Boyd, it 
is interesting to note that, according to Dr. Boswell Syme, the plant has 
never previously been found so far north in Scotland. 


NOTES ON THE ORIGIN OF LENTICELS, WITH SPECIAL 
REFERENCE 0 THOSE OCCURRING IN Roots. By J. A. 
TERRAS, B.Sc. (With Illustration.) 

(Read 14th April 1904.) 


That the initiation of those secondary meristematic divi- 
sions which give rise to cortical phellogen is intimately 
connected with, and probably dependent on, the mechanical 
stresses set up by secondary growth in thickness, is at least 
indicated by the constant association of the two cambial 
rings, the formation of bundle cambium always preceding 
that of phellogen. If this be granted, it is natural to 
suppose that the form and structure of the cells resulting 
from at least the earlier divisions of the phellogenetic 
initials must to a certain extent depend on similar stresses ; 
while in the case of later divisions, the form primarily 
impressed on the initial cells will be retained under the 
influence of inheritance long after the casual stresses have 
been removed. That such a fixation of characters impressed 
on meristematic cells by external and temporary causes 
is common in tissues, is sufficiently indicated by the 
phenomena occurring in the case of scar formation where 
injury to a dividing meristematic cell causes it to form 
daughter cells differing in character from those originating 
from similar but uninjured parents. The difference so 
produced may persist throughout life, or at anyrate long 
after the disappearance of the exciting cause and even 
of the cells originally injured. 


_ APR. 1904. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 451 


In most phellogens two distinct kinds of tissue formation 
may be recognised, viz. that characteristic of normal cork 
formation and that which gives rise to Lenticels. 

The initial divisions which set up these two types of tissue 
formation take place under very different external conditions. 

. Those phellogen initials which will ultimately give rise 
to typical cork cells undergo their first divisions beneath a 
continuous epidermis and cuticle which exerts a high radial 
stress on the dividing elements, while, on the other hand, a 
Lenticel initial may be regarded, from a purely anatomical 
point of view, as a phellogenetic element in which division 
is relatively unhampered by external mechanical forces. 
That this merely mechanical aspect of the case is neces- 
sarily complicated by internal physiological processes, such 
-as conditions of intercellular nutrition, transpiration, etc., 
as well as by external, environmental, and probably also 
phyllogenetic relationships, will be denied by no ‘one. 
But, as even the approximate solution of such a problem 
as the causation of lenticellar formation is for the present 
quite unattainable, I desire to direct attention solely to 
those mechanical relationships of position and pressure), 
which undoubtedly play an important part in the origin of | 
these structures. 

As Stahl pointed out, the first corkcambial divisions 
take place in cortical cells occupying positions in which 
Lenticels ultimately arise. The first cortical cells to 
re-enter the meristematic condition are therefore those 
which give rise to Lenticels, indicating that the environ- 
ment of these elements is better suited for the promotion 
of cell division than is that of normal phellogen initials. 

A consideration of the form exhibited by individual cells 
resulting from meristematic division within a lenticellar 
area leads to the conclusion that one of the factors in this 
environment, which makes for cell division, is a reduction 
of external pressure. This view is also supported by the 
irregularity of the meristematic divisions from which the 
rounded, loosely aggregated, complementary cells are formed. 
While in other portions of the phellogen there is but one 
initial layer; the meristem underlying.a Lenticel is usually 
composed of several radially disposed cells, all undergoing 
tangential division. 


452 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXVIIL. 


The circumstance that the divisions taking place in 
normal lenticellar meristem are not only more numerous 
than those characteristic of most phellogens, but are 
also more markedly centripetal in direction, the greater 
number of cells being formed towards the outer side of the 
phellogen, may perhaps also be taken as at least partial 
evidence in favour of the view that in these areas the inward 
epidermic pressure is minimal, though obviously many other 
causes must be active in determining such relationships. 

The question of the suberisation or otherwise of the 
complementary cells relates rather to the functions per- 
formed by them than to the form which they exhibit, and 
which must at least in part be looked upon as a mani- 
festation of the stresses to which their initial cells were 
subjected during division. The only compression stress to 
which the cells of an approximately superficial meristem 
like a normal hypodermic phellogen can be exposed during 
the period of lenticellar formation must be the pressure 
exerted by the elastic epidermis and cuticle; a pressure 
which along with its main cause, viz. secondary growth in 
thickness, is at this season nearing, if it has not already 
reached, its maximal value. The tangential tension due 
to this cause often amounts, as pointed out by Pfeffer, to 
as much as ten atmospheres, and as the radial pressure 
resulting therefrom varies directly as this value, and 
inversely as the square of the radius, it must in a narrow 
stem reach very considerable dimensions. 

The relations of position which points of lenticellar 
origin bear to other plant organs have also to be taken 
into consideration, as on these must to a large extent 
depend the pressures to which the lenticellar initials are 
subjected. 

In the great majority of stems with superficial periderms, 
the primary lenticellar divisions take place in cells lining 
the air space below a stoma, or group of stomata. In 
such a position there can be little if any radial pressure 
on the dividing cells, as their free surfaces abut on a cavity 
communicating with the atmosphere by an aperture, which 
must itself constitute a point of weakness in the epidermis. 

That the elements originating from these cells ultimately 
rupture the stoma and tear the surrounding tissues, scarcely 


APR. 1904. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 453 


affects the argument, as once division has been set up, 
and the meristematic condition definitely assumed, the 
lenticellar elements, from being merely passive structures 
acted on by pressures induced by a relatively distant 
cambium, enter an active condition, and in their turn 
exert positive pressures on the inactive tissues in their 
neighbourhood. In the case of stems with deep periderms 
the relation between the structures is more complicated, 
but even here, according to Devaux, the Lenticels arise 
beneath subtending stomata. The intervening tissue, 
though possibly rendering the release of pressure due to 
the stoma more diffuse, can hardly exert any marked 
pressure on its own account, so that in this case also the 
active stresses are those due to the epidermis. 

The origin of Lenticels on leaf sears, as in Abies pectinata, 
Daphne, etc., though still requiring further elucidation, also 
seems to point in the direction of initiation under conditions 
of minimal pressure. In these cases the Lenticels appareutly 
arise before the fall of the leaf, in the phylloptotic phellogen, 
and are therefore in a position in which radial pressure is 
greatly reduced owing to the absence of an elastic epidermis, 
while the base of the leaf, largely composed of dead parenchyma, 
can scarcely exert any great force on the surface of the 
abscission layer. 

Those Lenticels which occur in pairs, one on each side 
of a leaf scar but apparently external to it, still require 
more accurate investigation, with the object of determining 
their point of origin; as it may possibly happen that they 
will ultimately fall to be included in the same category as 
those of Abies and Daphne. 

As regards the Lenticels described by Weiss in stems 
of monocotyledons where they bear a definite relation to 
the axillary buds, further informaticn is also still required. 

We have now to consider the conditions under which 
Lenticels arise in roots. As Devaux points out, these are 
always situated at the bases of lateral rootlets lying either 
to right and left or directly above and below them. 

The accompanying figures, however, show that this is 
but a partial statement of the case, so far at least as 
concerns the point of origin. 

The primary Lenticels of a root normally arise beneath 


454 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Sess. LXVIII. 


the cortex of a young lateral rootlet, in that region where 
the phellogen. of the old root crosses the cortical tissue of the 
branch in order to establish communication with the corre- 
sponding layer of the latter. All the tissue primarily outside 
this phellogen, whether on the old root or the young one, is 
ultimately exfoliated. In this case, however, unlike that of 
the stem, the normal phellogenetic divisions precede slightly 
the formation of the lenticellar meristem, with the result that, 
though the external cortex is not entirely thrown off at the 
period when the lenticellar initials begin to divide, its cells 
have already lost their turgidity and begun to wither, owing 
to the formation of internal cork. The primary cortex of 
the young root is, moreover, separated from that of the 
parent by a cylindrical fissure extending from the surface 
of the latter to its phellogen, and it is on the ring-like 
area lying between the base of this fissure and the central 
cylinder of the young root that the Lenticels arise. 

The divisions taking place in this area are tangential to 
the old root, and due, as above mentioned, to the necessity 
of uniting the two phellogens so as to provide a continuous 
cork covering, but do not arise in a definite pericycle, the 
cells of which have in this region been utilised at an earlier 
period for the production of the lateral root. For the same 
reason there is no endodermis above the dividing cells, 
and the only radial pressure to which they are exposed is 
that set up by the rapidly withering cortex of the branch 
root, a stress which in any case cannot reach large dimen- 
sions, and is further reduced by the presence of the 
cylindrical fissure above referred to. The cells of the 
normal phellogen, covering the remainder of the parent root, 
are on the other hand subjected to the radial pressure of 
an elastic endodermis together with that of the other 
cortical layers. 

The surface in which the cortex of the young root comes 
in contact with the phellogen of the parent has been 
already referred to as a ring lying between the central 
cylinder of the young root and the cylindrical fissure 
separating the two cortices. 

In the majority of cases the lateral rootlet is considerably 
the thinner of the two, and where this is so, the superficial 
curvature of the parent may, for the present purpose, be 


APR. 1904. | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 455 


considered a negligible quantity so far as the area of origin 
of the branch rootlet is concerned. 

The ring on which the Lenticels may arise is then flat, 
and the radially directed pressure must be practically the 
same over the whole of its surface. It is precisely under 
these conditions that Lenticels tend to occur above and 
below the young rootlet, as well as laterally and obliquely. 

When, on the other hand, the branch rootlet is so large 
relatively to the parent as to cause the ring-like surface of 
contact to become an ellipse curved round the cylindrical 
surface of the old root, then the conditions are considerably 
altered, and the areas of minimal pressure come to be 
situated at the sides of the lateral rootlet not above and 
below it. 

In such eases lateral Lenticels alone are formed. 

That this rule is not constantly adhered to is probably 
due to the abortion of some of the possible Lenticels, an 
occurrence which may take place at any time, so that, 
even when the rootlet is relatively quite thin, it often 
happens that only two lateral Lenticels can be discovered, 
or indeed only one may appear, either to right or left of 
the base, or there may be an entire absence of Lenticels in 
a moderately old root. 

The roots of a considerable number of plants were 
examined with respect to the point of origin of their 
Lenticels, but by far the most instructive preparations 
were obtained from roots of Alder growing naturally in 
water. In these the cortex remains in position for a much 
longer period than in the case of roots from a drier environ- 
ment, thus rendering the relations between the Lenticels 
and the cortex of the lateral rootlet more easily discernable, 

That the exceptional mode of life of these roots does not 
cause any abnormality in the Lenticels, so far at least as 
their position is concerned, is shown by the occurrence of 
similar relationships in roots from ordinary soils. It 
is, however, considerably more difficult to obtain good 
preparations of these, as the cortex of the lateral rootlet is 
usually cut off by the pericyclic cork very soon after the 
primary division of the lenticellar initials has taken place. 
The cortical tissue then dies, and at the same time shrinks 
considerably, causing the Lenticels to lie apparently outside 


456 TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE [ Szss. LXVIIL. 


it. ‘This shrinkage is, however, in most cases easily allowed 
for, as it is naturally greatest at the base, the oldest part, 
of the rootlet. 

So far, the position of primary Lenticels alone has been 
discussed, but as the root increases in thickness, secondary 
structures of the same kind arise at apparently indeterminate 
points of the surface. 

It is difficult to obtain any clue to the causes underlying 
the formation of these organs, and though the determination 
of their points of origin may possibly depend on accidental 
rupture of the cork covering, and the formation of new 
initial areas beneath the old phellogen, this is only a sug- 
gestion with hardly any evidence to support it. 

Apart from the effect of pressure on the initial cells, 
another partial cause of lenticellar formation is to be found 
in excess of moisture, either in the form of water or of 
moist air. 

The best evidence of this is perhaps to be found in the 
hypertrophy of lenticellar organs in moist situations. 

When a stem or root bearing Lenticels is placed in water 
or suspended in a saturated atmosphere, the division of the 
lenticellar initials often becomes so accelerated, and the 
cohesion of the complementary cells so increased, as to give 
rise to the formation of long worm-like outgrowths of 
erenchymatous tissue, which may easily be mistaken for 
roots, though undoubtedly true roots may arise beneath the 
Lenticels at a later period. 

The numerical proportion which the Lenticels on the 
lower side of a branch bear to those on the upper varies 
within somewhat wide limits, as the following numbers 
taken from Devaux will show :—TIn a three-year-old shoot 
of Lime there were 6°7 Lenticels per square centimeter on 
the upper surface and 7-7 on the lower, while in a one-year- 
old shoot of Alder, the upper surface bore 9-7, the lower 
10°8, in the same area. It is interesting to notice that a 
three-year-old branch of the same tree had 4°6 on the upper 
as compared with 3:7 on the lower. 

These numbers do not indicate any very marked difference, 
and, in ascribing that which does exist to differences of 
moisture, it must be borne in mind that in many cases the 
growth in thickness of a branch is greater on the upper 


wal 
Le | 


APR, 1904, | BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH 457 


than on the under side, often very considerably so, with the 
result that the Lenticel bearing phellogen is stretched over 
a wider area on the upper surface than on the under, and 
the number of primary Lenticels per square centimeter 
thereby reduced. 

It may, however, be observed that in nearly every case 
cited with respect to the effect of reduction of pressure on 
Lenticel formation, an excess of moisture may also be 
assumed. As regards stomata, the air space on which the 
Lenticel initials abut is frequently filled with saturated air. 

When a Lenticel arises beneath another tissue, such as 
the base of a leaf, or the cortex of a lateral root, the presence 
of that tissue above the dividing cells increases the amount 
of available moisture, and to that extent facilitates division. 
We may then conclude that at least one partial factor in 
the formation of lenticellar organs is the reduction of pres- 
sure above their initial cells, while another in all probability 
is to be found in the presence of moisture. 

For the history and literature of this subject, Devaux’s 
paper in the “ Annales des Sciences Naturelles Botanique ”* 
should be consulted. 


1 M. H. Devaux, ‘‘ Recherches sur les Lenticelles.” ‘‘ Annales des 
Sciences Naturelles Botanique,” ser. 8, t. xii. pp. 1-240, pl. 1-6. 1900. 


DESCRIPTION OF PLATE. 


A. Primary cortex of lateral root. 

B. Primary cortex of parent root. 

C. Pericyclic phellogen of parent root. 

D, Pericyclic phellogen of lateral root. 

F. Secondary cortex of parent root. 

L. Lenticel. 

Fig. 1. Longitudinal section of a root of Alder (Alnus glutinosa) 
passing through the base of a young lateral rootlet, and 
showing two Lenticels placed vertically one above and one 
below the rootlet. ‘The primary cortex of the parent root is 
already torn and almost cast off, that of the lateral rootlet is 
still adhering. 

Fig. 2. Transverse section through a similar root, showing two Lenticels 
lying one to right and one to left of the rootlet. 


In both figures the young Lenticels clearly lie beneath the cortex 
of the lateral rootlet. 


ee: 


wi if 
ie 


o 


ROLL 


OF 


THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH. 


Corrected to November 1904. 


Patron: 
HIS MOST GRACIOUS MAJESTY THE KING. 


HONORARY FELLOWS. 


Date of Election. 
Dec. 1877. His Masesty Oscar I]. KING or SWEDEN. 


BRITISH SUBJECTS (.imITrep To sxx). 

Nov. 1896. Baker, J. G., F.R.S., F.L.S., late Keeper of the Herbarium, Royal 
Gardens, Kew, 3 Cumberland Road, Kew. 

Nov. 1888. Dyer, Sir Wrtu1AmM TurNeER THISELTON, M.A., LL.D., K.C.M.G., 
C.LE.. F.R.S., Director, Royal Gardens, Kew. 

Jan. 1866. Hooker, Sir JosepH Darron, M.D., G.C.S.L., C.B., D.C.L. Oxon., 
LL.D. Cantab, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., The Camp, Sunning- 
dale, Berks. 

Mar. 1895. Kine, Sir GEorGE, M.B., K.C.I.E., LL.D., F.B.S., F.L.S., c/o 
Grindlay & Co., 4 Parliament Street, London, S.W. ;— 
Corresponding Member, April 1878. 

Dec. 1882. OLiver, DanteL, F.R.S., LL.D., F.L.S., 10 Kew Gardens Road, 
Kew ;—Non-Resident Fellow, Nov. 1851. 

Noy. 1896. Warp, H. MarsHact, Se.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany, Cam- 
bridge. 


FOREIGN (Limirep 10 TWENTY-FIVE). 


Mar. 1895. Borner, Dr. Ep., Membre de I’ Institut ;—Corresponding Member, 
June 1879. 

June 1902. Bonnrer, Gastron, Professor of Botany, Paris. 

June 1902. Brirron, NatHANIEL Lorp, Director of the Botanic Garden, New 
York. 

Dec. 1885. DxEtrrxo, Dr. FrepErico, Professor of Botany in the University, 
and Director of the Botanic Garden, Bologna ;—Corresponding 

. Fellow, Jan. 1873. 

May 1891. Eneter, Dr. Avoir, For.M.L.S8., Professor of Botany in the 
University, and Director of the Royal Botanic Garden and 
Museum, Berlin ;—Corresponding Fellow, Jan. 1886. 

June 1902. Fartow, Dr. WitLIAM GILson, Harvard, U.S.A. 

Dec. 1892. GorpeL, Dr K. E., For.M.L.8., Professor of Botany in the 
University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Munich. 

Dec, 1885. HitpeBranp, Dr. F., Professor of Botany in the University, and 
Director of the Botanic Garden, Freiburg i. Br. 

‘Jane 1902. Letcurirn, Max., Baden-Baden. 

Mar. 1895. Prerrer, Dr. WitueLM, Geh. Hofrath, Professor of Botany, and 
Director of the Royal Botanic Garden, Leipzig ;—Correspond- 
ing Member, Jan. 1886. 


460 APPENDIX 


Date of Election, 

Mar, 1895. SarcEnr, CuarveEs 8., Professor of Arboriculture, ond Director 
of the Arboretum, Harvard ;—Corresponding Member, March 
1878. 

Dec. 1885. ScuwenpEnrer, Dr. 8., For.M.L.S., Professor of Botany in the 
Oniversity, Berlin. 

Dec. 1892. Sorms-Lausacn, Grar. H. zu., For.M.L.S., Professor of Botany 
in the University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, 
Strasburg. 

Feb. 1876. SrraAspurcer, Dr. Epuarp, For.M.RS., For.M.L.8., Professor 
of Botany in the University, and Director of the Botanic 
Garden, Bonn ;— Corresponding Fellow, Tan. 1873. 

Dec. 1885. TisrGHEM, PuitipPE vAaN, Membre de l'Institut, For.M.L.S., 
Professor of Botany, Paris ;—Corresponding Fellow, April 
1877. 

June 1902. Timirsazew, Dr. K. A., Professor of Botany, Moscow. 

June 1902. TrELwase, Dr. Witiiam, Director of the Botanic Garden, 
Missouri. 

Mar. 1895. TrEuB, Dr. M., Professor in the School of Agriculture, and 
Director of the Botanic Garden, Buitenzorg ;—Corresponding 
Member, Jan, 1886. 

June 1902. Vécurine, Dr. HERMANN, Professor of Botany, Tiibingen. 

Mar. 1895. Vries, Dr. H. pr, Professor of Botany in the University, 
Amsterdam. 

June 1902. WarpuEem, Dr. ALEXANDER FISCHER VON, Professor of Botany 
and Director of the Imperial Botanic Garden, St. Petersburg. 

Dec. 1885. Warmine, Dr. Eveenn, For.M.L.S8., Professor of Botany in the 
University, and Director of the Botanic Garden, Copenhagen. 

June 1902. Wrrsner, Dr. Juvtus, Professor of Plant Anatomy and Physiology, 
Vienna. 


RESIDENT AND NON-RESIDENT FELLOWS. 


No distinguishing mark is placed before the name of. Resident Fellows who 
contribute annually and receive Publications. 

* Indicates Resident Fellows who have compounded for Annual Contribution 
and receive Publications. 

t Indicates Non-Resident Fellows who have compounded for Publications. 

t Indicates Non-Resident Fellows who do not receive Publications. 


Date of Election. 


Noy, 1884. Alexander, J., 46 Clarendon Road, Bedford. 

April1902. Alexander, Thomas, 66 Marehmont Road. 

Dec. 1866. *Archibald, John, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.S.Ed., Hazelden, Wimborne 
Road, Bournemouth. 

Mar. 1902. Ashby, Sidney F., B.Sc., 110 Liverpool Rd, Birkdale, Southport. 

Dec. 1888. fBailey, Colonel Fred., R.E., 7 Drummond Place. 

April1887. Bainbridge, A. F., Brunstane, Arboretum Road. 

May 1872. *Balfour, I. Bayley, Sc.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.s8., F.G.S., King’s 
Botanist, Professor of Botany, and Keeper of the Royal Botanic 
Garden, Inverleith House,—PRESIDENT. 

Dec. 1863. Barnes, Henry, M.D., F.RS.E., 6 Portland Square, Carlisle. 

Feb. 1857. *Bell, John M., W.S., Hast Morningside House. 

May 1891. *Berwick, Thomas, 56 Worth Street, St. Andrews. 

Dec. 1879. *Bird, George, 33 Howard Place. 

July 1870. *Black, James Gow, Se.D., Professor of Chemistry, University of 
Otago, New Zealand. 

May 1888. *Bonnar, William, 8 Spence Street. 

Jan, 1899. Borthwick, A. W., D.Sc., Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. 

Dec. 1886. *Bower, F. O., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., l'.L.S., Professor of Botany, 
University of Glasgow, 1 St. John's Terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. 

Jan. 1871, *Boyd, W. B., of Faldonside, Melrose. 

April1857. tBrown, George H. W., Victoria, Vancouver Island. 

Feb, 1870. Bramwell, John M., M.D., 33 Wimpole Street, London, W. 

Dec, 1890, Brown, Richard, C.A., 23 St. Andrew Square,— TREASURER. 

Jan. 1902. Bruce, William, B.Sc., Hast of Scotland Agricultural College, 
13 George Square. 


APPENDIX 461 


Date of Election. 


Dec. 


Dee. 
Feb. 


Dec. 


Feb. 
Mar 


1864. 


1878. 


1882. 


1858. 


1848. 
1895. 


April 1848. 


June 
Dec. 


July 


1875. 
1855. 


1896. 


April 1865. 


Mar. 
Feb. 
Jan 

Mar. 
Dec. 


July 
Feb. 


Nov. 


Dec. 
Dec. 
July 
Dec. 
Jan. 
July 
Dec. 


Dee. 
Dee. 
Nov. 
Jan. 


Mar. 
Feb. 


Dec. 
Dec. 


Feb. 


April 1904. 


Nov. 
July 
July 
Dee. 
Jan. 

Dec. 
Mar. 


1900. 
1870. 
1904. 
1905. 
1866. 


1897. 
1874. 


1881. 


1902. 
1903. 
1871. 
1892. 
1894. 
1869. 
1859, 


1865. 
1869. 
1885. 
1883. 
1890. 


1902. 


1860. 
1858. 


1894. 


1861. 
1860. 
1872. 
1865. 
1903. 
1859. 
1862. 


. 1871. 


1881. 


1874. 


- 1895. 
1887. 


1903. 
1889. 


*Buchan, Alexander, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., See. Scot. Met. Soc 
2 Dean Terrace. 
*Buchanan, James, Oswald House, Oswald Road. 
Caird, Francis M., M.B., C.M., F.R.C.S.Ed., 13 Charlotte Square,— 
ARTIST. 
tCarruthers, William, F.R.S., F.L.S., Central House, Central Hill, 
London, S.E. 
Christison, Sir Alexander, Bart., M.D., 40 Moray Place. 
Christison, Lady, 40 Moray Place. ‘ 
Christison, David, M.D., 20 Magdala Crescent. 
*Clark, T. Bennet, C.A., New Mills House, Balerno. 
7Cleland, John, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy, University of 
Glasgow. 
Coldstream, Wm., B.A., B.Sc., c/o Messrs. Coutts &: Co.. 59 
Strand, London ;—Non-Resident Member, May 1861. 
qtCooke, M. C., M.A., LL.D., 53 Castle Road, Kentish Town, 
London. 


ae, 


**Cowan, Alexander, Valleyfield, Penicuik. 


¢Cowan, Charles W., Dalhousie Castle, Midlothian. 
Cowan, M‘Taggart, jun., 33 Drummond Place. 
Cowie, William Beaverley, 26 Clyde Street. 
*Craig, Wm., M.D., F.R.C.S.Ed., .R.S.E., 71 Bruntsfield Place, 
HONORARY SECRETARY. 
*Crawford, F. C., 19 Royal Terrace. 
Crawford, William Caldweil, M.A., 1 Lockharton Gardens, 
Colinton Road, Edinburgh,—Honorary CuRAror. 
Croom, Sir J. Halliday, M.D., F.R.C.S.Ed., F.R.C.P.Ed., 25 
Charlotte Square. 
Cullen, W. J., 10 Darnaway Street. 
Davidson, J. Randolph, M.A., B.Sc., Dollar Academy. 
*Davies, Arthur E., Ph.D., F.L.S.. Tweed Bank, West Savile Road. 
Day, T. Cuthbert, 36 Hillside Crescent. 
*Dowell, Mrs. A., 13 Palmerston Place. 
*Drummond, W. P., 8 Wardic Road. 
Duckworth, Sir Dyce, M.D., 11 Grafton Street, Piccadilly, 
London, W. 
*Duncansoo, J. J. Kirk. M.D., F.R.S.E., 22 Drumsheugh Gardens. 
Duthie, J. F., B.A., F.L.S., Carlton House, Kew Green, Kew. 
Elliot, G. F. Scott, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., Newton, Dumfries. 
*Evans, Arthur H., M.A., 9 Harvey Road, Cambridge. 
Ewart, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.SS. L. & E., Professor of Natural 
History, University of Edinburgh. 
Falconer, J. D., M.A., B.Sc., Geological Laboratory University of 
Edinburgh. 
tFarqubarson, Rey. James, D.D., 47 Mardale Crescent. 
7Fayrer, Sir Joseph, M.D., K.C.S.1., F.R.SS. L. & E., 16 Devon- 
shire Street, Portland Place, London, W. 
Ferguson, R. C. Munro, M.P., of Raith and Novar, Kirkcaldy. 
Finlayson, James, 8 Thirlestane Road. 
tFoggo, R. G., Kaimes Road, Murrayfield. 
Fox, Charles H., M.D., 35 Heriot Row. 
*Fraser, John, M.B., C.M., 13 Heriot Row. 
tFraser, John, M.A., M.D., Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton. 
Fraser, J. C., Comely Bank Nurseries. 
*Fraser, Patrick Neill, Rockville, Murrayfield. 
Fraser, Sir Thomas R., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Materia 
Medica, 13 Drumsheugh Gardens. 
*Gamble, James Sykes, M.A., F.L.S., High Field, East Liss, 
Hants. 
Geddes, Patrick, F.R.S.E., Professer of Botany, University 
College, Dundee. : 
tGeikie, Sir Archibald, LL.D., P.R.SS. L. & E., Director- 
General H.M. Geolog. Survey, 4 Jermyn Street, London. 
Gibb, W. Oliphant, 21 Royal Terrace. 
*Gibson, A. H., 28 Dalhousie Terrace. 
tGilmore, Owen, L.R.C.P., L.R.C.S.E., 49 Acre Lume, Brixton, 
London, S.W. 
*Grieve, James, Redbraes Nurseries. 


4.62 


APPENDIX 


Date of Election. 


Dec, 1895. 


Feb. 1879. 


Dec. 1868, 
Jan. 1903. 
Mar. 1902. 
June 1862. 


Dec. 1860. 


Noy. 1894. 
Feb. 1902. 
April 1886. 
May 1867. 
Feb. 1878. 


June 1893. 
Feb. 1891. 
May 1877. 


Nov. 1877. 


Jan. 1874. 
April 1883. 


Jan. 1869. 
June 1889. 
Feb. 1863. 


Jan, 1895. 
Jan. 1881. 


Feb. 1886. 
Feb. 1902. 
Jan. 1903. 
June 1880. 


Feb. 1902. 
June 1850. 
Feb. 1882. 
June 1897. 
Dec. 1896. 


Jan. 1902. 


Dec, 1872. 
Feb. 1890. 
Mar. 1883. 
Nov. 1875. 
May 1874, 
Jan. 1899. 
July 1878. 
Dec. 1878. 


Mar. 1898. 


April 1883. 


July 1889. 


Mar. 1874. 


Noy. 1873. 
June 1893. 
June 1891, 


April 1904. 
Dec. 1808. 
July 1884. 


Jan. 1878. 


*Grieve, Sommerville, 21 Qucen’s Crescent. 
*Grieve, Symington, 11 Lauder Road. 
Hardie, Thomas, M.D., F.R.C.P.Ed., 10 John’s Place, Leith. 
Hardy, Marcel, Bot. Dept., Univ. Coll., Dundee. 
Harris, David Fraser, M. De B.Sc., F.S.A., F.R.S.E., St. Andrews 
University. 
tHaynes, Stanley Lewis, M.D., St. Michael's, Malvern, Worcester- 
shire. 
tHector, Sir James, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.SS. L. & E., F.L.5 
Wellington, New Zealand. 
Hepburn, Sir A. Buchan, Bart., Smeaton Hepburn, Prestonkirk. 
Hewat, Archibald, F.F.A., 13 Hton Terrace. 
Hill, J. R., Secretary, Pharmaceutical Society, York Place. 
*Hog, Thomas Alex., of Newliston, Kirkliston. 
tHolmes, E. M., F.L.8., F.R.H.S., Curator of Museum, Phar. Soc. 
of Great Britain, Ruthven, Sevenoaks, Kent. 
Hunter, Robert James, 15 Moray Place. 
tJamieson, Thomas, 10 Belmont Strect, Aberdeen. 
*Johnston, Henry Halcro, C.B., D.Sc., M.D., F.L.S., Liewtenant- 
Colonel R.A.M.C., Orphir House, Orphir, Kirkwall. 
Kerr, Jobn Graham, F.RS.E., Professor of Zoology, Glasgow 
University. 
*Kirk, Robert, M.D., F.R.C.S. Ed., Bathgate. 
Lindsay, Robert, Kaimes Lodge, Murrayfield ;—Associate, July 
1879. 
tLivesay, William, M.D., Sudbury, Derby. 
*Loudon, William, York Road, North Berwick. 
tLowe, George May, M.D., F.R.C.P., ‘‘ The Rays,” Newport, 
Isle of Wight. 
MacDougall, R. Stewart, M.A., D.Se., 13 Archibald Place. 
Macfarlane, John M., Sc.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Botany, 
University of Philadelphia, U.S.A. 
M‘Glashan, D., 11 Corrennie Gardens. 
M‘Hattie, J. W., 22 Melville Terrace. 
Ms Intosh, Donald Cameron, M.A., 37 Warrender Park Terr Ces 
*M‘Intosh; Wi. C., MD.. LL.D. FRISS. LL: & Haass 
Professor of Natural History, St. Andrews. 
Mackenzie, D. F., Estate Office, Mortonhall. 
M‘Laren, Hon. Lord, 46 Moray Place. 
M‘Murtrie, Rev. John, M.A., D.D., 18 Inverleith Place. 
+Macvicar, Symers M., Invermoidart, Acharacle, Fort- William. 
Mabalanobis, 8. C., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Presidency College, Calcutta, 
India. 
Massie, William Hall, Redbraes House, Edinburgh. 
+Maw, George, F.L.S.. F.G.S., Benthall, Kenley, Surrey. 
*Millar, R. C., C.A., 6 Regent Terrace,—AUDITOR. 
Milne, Alex., 32 Hanover Street. 
*Milne, John Kolbe, Kevock Tower, Lasswade. 
Mitchell, Rey. Dr., 14 Abereromby Place. 
Morton, Alex., B.Sc., 17 Lutton Place. 
+Muirhead, George, FP. R.S.E., Gordon Estates Office, Fochabers. 
*Norman, Commander Francis M., R.N., Cheviot House, Berwick- 
on- Tweed. 
Orrock, Miss Robina, 7 Spence Street. 
*Paul, Rev. David, M.A., LL.D., Carridale, Fountainhall Road,— 
ForEIGN SECRETARY. 
*Paxton, W., Orchaniton, Fountainhall Road. 
+Pettigrew, J. B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.SS. L. and E., Professor of 
Medicine, St. Andrews. 
*Potts, George H., of Mettes Mount, Lasswade. 
+Pullar, Sir Robert, J.P., F.R.S.E., Tayside, Perth. 
tPrain, David, M.D., F.L.8., F.R.S.E., Royal Botanic Garden, 
Calcutta. ; 
Pottage, J. C., 8 Corrennie Gardens. 
+Ramsbotham, 8. H., M.D., Fairstead, Ripon Road, Harrogate. 
*Rattray, John, M.A., B.Se., F.-R.S.E., Zullyburn Terrace, Glasgow 
Road, Perth. 
*Reid, Jas. R., C.M.G., 11 Magdala Crescent. 


APPENDIX 463 


Date of Election. 


Dee. 1869; 


Dee. 


June 
Mar. 
July 
Dec. 
Dee. 


Jan. 
Feb. 


Jan. 

Feb. 
Jan. 

June 
Nov. 
Dec. 
Feb. 


Feb. 
Dec. 


April 1846. 


May 
Dec. 


July 
Dee. 
Jan. 
July 
Feb. 
Dec. 
Dec. 


May 


Jan. 


Jan. 


Jan. 
Dec. 


Dec. 
” Mar. 
Mar. 
Jan. 


July 


July 
May 


June 
June 
Jan. 

Mar. 


Feb. 


1890. 


1898. 
1902, 
1882. 


1887. 


13891. 


1851. 
1891. 


1902. 
1886. 


1890. 


1874. 


1883. 


1892. 


1902. 


1902. 


1887 


1888. 
1888. 
1886. 
1895. 
1902. 


1884. 
1901. 
1901. 
1890. 


*Robertson, A. Milne, M.B., C.M., Hawea, Rodway Road, Roe- 
hampton, London, S. W. 
Robertson, Robert A., M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer on Botany, Botanical 
Department, Bute Medical School, St. Andrews. 

Russell, Dr., Cadham, Markinch. 

Sampson, Hugh C., B.Se., P.O. Box 855, Pretoria, South Africa. 
*Sanderson, William, F.R.S.E., Talbot House, Ferry Road. 
tScott, J. S., L.S.A., 69 Clowes Street, West Gorton, Manchester. 
*Semple, Andrew, M.D., F.R.C.S.Ed., Deputy Surgeon-General, 

10 Forres Street. 
*Sibbald, Sir John, M.D., F.R.S.E., 18 Great King Street. 
*Smith, J. Pentland, M.A., B.Sc., 21 Oakshaw, Paisley. 
Smith, W. W., M.A., Royal Botanie Garden, Edinburgh,—- 
Honorary ASSISTANT-SECRETARY. 
Somerville, Alexander, B.Sc., F.L.8., 4 Bute Mansions, Hillhead, 
Glasgow. 


“*Somerville, William, (ic.D., B.Se., F.R.S.E., 4 Whitehall Place, 


London. 
Sprague, Thomas Bond, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., 29 Buckingham 
Terrace. 
+Stabler, George, Levens, Milnthorpe, Westmoreland. 
Stewart, Robert, $.S.C., 7 East Claremont Street. 
Story, Fraser, University College, Bangor, N. Wales. 
Tagg, Harry F., F.L.S., Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. 
Terras, J. A., B.Se., 40 Findhorn Place. 
flownsend, F., M.A., F.L.S., Mem. Bot. Soc. Fr., Honington 
Hall, Shipston-on-Stowr. 
*Trail, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Botany, 
Aberdeen. 
Turnbull, Robert, B.Sc., Board of Agriculture, 4 Upper Merrion 
Street, Dublin. 
7Waddell, Alexander, of Palace, Jedburgi. 
Waite, Percival C., 13 Nile Grove. 
Wallace, John W., Wallace Hall, Auldgirth, Dumfries. 
Watson, William, M.D., The Lea, Corstorphine. 
Whaytock, James, Palace Gardens, Dalkeith. 
Williamson, Wm.. 4 Meadowbank Terrace, Edinburgh. 
*Wilson, John H., D.Sce., F.R.S.E., Greenside Place, St. Andrews ;— 
Associate, Nov. 1886. 
7Yellowlees, David, M.D., LL.D., 6 Albert Gate, Dowanhill, 
Glasgow. 
Young, William, Fairview, Kirkcaldy. 


CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 


Areschoug, Dr. Fredrik Wilhelm Christian, Emeritus Professor 
of Botany in the University, Lund. 

Ascherson, Dr. Paul, Royal Herbarium, Berlin. 

Bohnensieg, Dr. G. C. W., Conservator of the Library of the 
Museum Teyler, Haarlem. 

Brandis, Sir Dietrich, Ph.D., F.L.S., Ex-Inspector-General of 
Indian Forests, Professor of Forestry in the University, Bonn. 

Brefeld, Dr. Oscar, Professor of Botany in the University, 
Geheimrath Regierungsrath, Breslau. 

Caminhod, Dr. Joaquim Montera, Rio de Janeiro. 

Candolle, Casimir de, Geneva. 

Cheeseman, T. F., F.L.S., F.Z.S., Curator of the Museum, Auck- 
land, New Zealand. 

Cleave, Rey. W. 0., LL.D., College House, St. Helier, Jersey. 

Clos, Dominique, M.D., Corresp. de l'Institut, Honorary Professor 
of Botany in the Faculty of Sciences, Toulouse. 

Constantin, Dr. J., Director, Jardin des Plantes, Paris. 

Cramer, Dr. Carl Eduard, Professor of Botany, Zurich. 

Eeden, Fredrik Wilhelm van, Director of the Colonial Museum, 
Haarlem. 

Elving, Dr. Fredrik, Professor of Botany in the University, and 
Director of the Botanic Garden, Helsingfors. 

Errera, Dr. Leo, Professor of Botany in the University, Brussels. 


464 


APPENDIX 


Date of Election. 


Jan. 


Mar. 
Jan. 


June 
Dee. 
May 


June 
April 
Jan. 
Jan. 
June 


June 
June 


Jan. 
Jan. 
Dec. 


June 


Mar. 


Feb. 
Mar. 


Novy. 
May 


June 
Novy. 
June 


Dec. 
June 


Dee. 


June 


Mar. 
Feb. 
Feb, 
Mar. 
June 


Dec. 


June 
April 
April 
Mar. 
Jan. 
June 


1878. 
1895. 
1886. 
1902, 
1887. 


1891. 
1902. 


1887. 
1886. 
1886. 
1902. 


1902. 
1902. 


1873. 
1878. 
1868. 


1902, 
1881. 


1876. 
1895. 


1888. 
1876. 
1902. 
1888. 
1902. 


1887. 
1902. 


1870. 
1902. 


1886. 


1876. 


1871. 
1886. 
1891. 
1885. 


1895. 


1893. 


1902. 
1904. 


1894. 
1895, 


Garecke, Dr. August, Geheimrath Regicrungsrath, Professor of 
Botany in the University, and First Assistant in the Royal 
Botanic Musewm, Berlin. 

Guignard, Léon, Membre de l'Institut, Professor of Botany, Paris. 

Haberlandt, Dr. Gottlieb, Professor of Botany in the University, 
and Director of the Botanic Garden, Graz. 

Hanbury, The Marquis Sir Thomas, K.C.V.O., La Mortota, 
Ventigmiglia. 

Hansen, Dr. Emil Christen, Director of the Physiological Depart- 
ment of the Carlsberg Laboratory, Copenhagen. 

Henry, Augustine, M.D., Royal Gardens, Kew. 

Henriques, Julio A., Professor of Botany in the University, and 
Director of the Botanic Garden, Coimbra. 

Horne, John, F.L.8., Hxz-Director of the Royal Botanic Garden 
Mauritius, Sea Braes, St. Clements, Jersey. 

Janczewski, Dr, Eduard Ritter von Glinka, Professor of Plant 
Anatomy and Physiology in the University, Cracow. 

Luerssen, Dr. Christian, Professor of Botany in the University, 
and Director of the Botanic Garden, Kinigsberg. 

MacMillan, Conway, Professor of Botany in the University of 
Minneapolis, and State Botanist, Minnesota 

Maiden, J. H., Director of the Botanic Garden, Sydney, N.S.W. 

Mijoshi, Manabu, Professor of Botany in the Imperial University, 
Tokio. 

Millardet, Dr. Alexis, Professor of Botany in the Faculty of 
Sciences, Bordeaux. 

Oudemans, Dr. C. A. J. A., Emeritus Professor of Botany in the 
University of Amsterdam, Arnheim. 

Radlkofer, Dr, Ludwig, Professor of Botany in the University of 
Munich. 

Raunkivwer, Christen, Assistant in the Botanic Garden, Copenhagen. 

Rodrigues, Dr. Joas Barboza, Director of the Botanic Garden, 
Rio Janeiro. 

Sodiro, Luis, Professor of Botany in the University, Quito, Ecuador. 

Stahl, Dr. Ernst, Professor of Botany in the University, and 
Director of the Botanic Garden, Jenu. 

Sully, W. C., Cape Town. 

Terracciano, Dr. Nicolao, Director of the Royal Gardens, Caserta, 
Campanie. 

Tubeuf, Dr. Car] Freiherr von, Regicrungsrath, Miinich. 

Tyson, W., Librarian Department of Agriculture, Cape Town. 

Wettstein, Dr. Richard, Ritter von Westerheim, Director of the 
Seed-Central Nation, Vienna. 

Wildpret, H., Director of the Botanic Garden, Orotava. 

Wille, Dr. Johan Nordal Fischer, Professor in the University, 
and Director of the Botanic Garden, Christiania. 

Willkomm, Dr. Maurice, Professor of Botany, and Director of 
Botanic Garden, Prague, Bohemia. 

Wood, John Medley, A.L.S., Curator of the Botanic Garden, 
Durban, Natal. 


ASSOCIATES. 
Bennett, A., F.L.8., 6 Edridge Road, Croydon. 
Campbell, A., 62 Marchmont Road, Edinburgh. 
Evans, William, 38 Morningside Park, Edinburgh. 
Landsborough, Rey. D., Kilmarnock. 
M‘Andrew, James, 21 Gillespie Crescent, Edinburgh. 
Nichardson, Adam D,, 8 Sciennes Gardens, Edinburgh. 


LADY MEMBERS. 


Aitken, Mrs. A. P., 38 Garseube Terrace, Murrayfield. 
Balfour, Mrs. Bayley, Inverleith House. 

Grieve, Mrs. Symington, 11 Lauder Road. 

Maxwell, Mrs., Bangholm Bower, Goldenacre. 
Pearson, Miss C. C., 27 Royal Terrace. 

Sanderson, Mrs. W., Z'albot House, Ferry Road. 


APPENDIX 


THE SOCIETY EXCHANGES PUBLICATIONS WITH— 


AMERICA. 
CANADA, 
Halifax, . . Department of Agriculture. 
Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science. 
Montreal, . . Horticultural Society. 
Ottawa, . . Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada. 


Department of Agriculture. 
Natural History Society. 
Toronto, . . Canadian Institute. 


Costa Rica. 
San José, . . Instituto Nacional. 


Unirep Srates. 
Ames, Iowa, . Department of Agriculture. 
Auburn, Ala., . Department of Agriculture. 
Austin, Texas, Agricultural Experiment Station. 
Boston, Mass., Massachusetts Horticultural Society. 
Society of Natural History. 


Cambridge, Harvard Universit 
Mass., y: 
Chicago, Ill., . University of Chicago. 
Cincinnati, Society of Natural History. 
Iowa, § Lloyd Botanical Library. 
Colorado 
Springs, Col. Colorado College. 
Davenp ie Academy of Natural Sciences. 
owda, 


Indianapolis, . Indian Academy of Sciences. 
Ithaca, N.Y., . Cornell University. 


He ial ad } State Agricultural College. 
Kansas, 
ge Botanical Department, University of Minnesota. 
a "9 
Wet ee Academy of Arts and Sciences. 
/OnN. 
New York, . « Academy of Sciences. 


American Museum of Natural History. 
Columbia University. 
Torrey Botanical Club. 
Philadelphia, . Academy of Natural Sciences. 
University of Pennsylvania. 
Rochester, N.Y., Rochester Academy of Sciences. 
St. Louis, 
Missouri, 
et Cour. ' University of California. 
SanFrancisco, 
Calif., : 
Topeka, Kansas, Academy of Science. 
Trenton, N.J.,. Natural History Society. 
Washington, . National Academy of Sciences. 
United States Geological Survey. 
Smithsonian Institution. 


} Botanic Garden. 


California Academy of Sciences. 


TRANS. BOT. SOC, EDIN. VOL. XXII. 2H 


466 


Washington, 


Caracas, 
Monte Video, 
Rio de Janeiro, 


Jamaica, 


Trinidad, 


Cape Colony, 
Durban, Natal, 


Calcutta, 


Ceylon, 
Straits 

Settlements, | 
Buitenzorg, « 
Tokio, 


Sydney, . 


Wellington, 


Brisbane, 


Perth, 


Hobart, . 


Melbourne, . 


APPENDIX 


. United States Department of Agriculture :—Bureau of 


Plant Industry—Division of Agrost logy ; Division 
of Botany; Division of Entomology ; Division of 
Forestry ; Division of Microscopy; Division of 
Pomology ; Division of Soils; Division of Vege- 
table Pathology: National Herbarium; Office of 
Experiment Stations. 


Soutu AMERICA. 


. Junta central del Aclimatacion. 
. Museo Nacional de Monte Video. 


Museo Nacional. 


WEST INDIES. 


Botanical Department. 
Royal Botanic Garden. 


AFRICA. 


. Botanical Department. 


Botanic Garden. 


ASIA. 


. Indian Museum. 


Royal Botanic Garden. 


. Royal Botanic Garden, Peraleniya. 


Botanic Gardens and Forest Department. 


. Botanic Garden. 
. Imperial University College of Agriculture. 


AUSTRALASIA. 


New South WALES. 


. Department of Agriculture. 


Royal Society of New South Wales. 


New ZEALAND. 
New Zealand Institute. 


QUEENSLAND, 


Department of Agriculture. 
Royal Society of Queensland. 


Wesr AUSTRALIA. 


. Department of Agriculture. 


TASMANIA. 


. Royal Society of Tasmania. 


VICTORIA. 


. Department of Agriculture. 


Royal Society of Victoria. 


Cracow... 
Graz, 
Vienna, . 


Antwerp. 
Brussels, 


Liege, 


Copenhagen, 


Amiens. . 
Cherboure, . 


Lille. . 
Lyons, 
Marseill: . 
Paris, 
Toulouse. 


Berlin. 
Bonn, 


Braunschweig, . 


Bremen, . 
Breslau. . 
Erlangen, 


Giessen 
Halle, 


Hamburg, 
Heidelberg, . 
Kiel, . 
KGnigsherg. 
Munich. . 
Stuttgart, 


Alnwick, 
Belfast, 
Bristol, 


APPENDIX 467 


EUROPE. 


AUSTRIA. 


. Academia Umiejetnésci. 
. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Steiermark. 
. Kaiserlich - Kénigliche 


zoologisch-botanische Gesell- 
schaft. 


BELGIUM. 


. Vlaamsch nat. en Genceskundig Congress. 
. Académie Royale des Sciences, 


des Lettres, et des 
Beaux-Arts de Belgique. 
Institut Botanique, Bruxelles. 


Société Royale de Botanique de Belgique. 


. Botanic Garden. 


DENMARK. 


. Botaniske Forening. 


FRANCE. 


. Société Linnéenne du Nord de la France. 
. Société Nationale des Sciences Naturelles et Mathe- 


matiques. 


. Institut Colonial de Marseille. 

. Société Botanique. 

. Faculté des Sciences de Marseille. 
. Société Botanique de France. 

. Société Francaise de Botanique. 


GERMANY. 


. Botanischer Verein fiir die Provinz Brandenburg und 


die angrenzenden Lander. 


. Naturhistorischer Verein der preussischen Rheinlande, 


Westfalens, und der Regierung-Bezirks Osnabruck. 
Niederrheinische Gesellschaft fiir Natur-und Heilkunde. 
Verein fiir Naturwissenschaft. 


- Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein. 
- Schlesische Gesellschaft fiir vaterlandische Cultur. 
. Physikalisch-medicinische Societiit. 
Frankfort-am- | 
Oder, | 
. Oberhessische Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heilkunde. 
. Kaiserliche leopoldino-carolinische deutsche Akademie 


Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein des Regierungsbezirks. 


der Naturforscher. 


. Botanische Staatsinstitute. 

. Deutsch ostafrikanische Gesellschaft. 

. Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Schleswig-Holstein. 
. Physikalisch-oekonomische Gesellschaft. 

. Baierische Gesellschaft. 

. Verein fiir Vaterlandische Naturkunde. 


GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 


. Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club. 
. Natural History and Philosophical Society. 


Bristol Naturalists’ Society. 


Buckhurst Hill, Essex Field Club. 


468 APPENDIX 


Dublin, . .  . Royal Dublin Society. 

Edinburgh, . . Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society. 
Royal College of Physicians. 
Edinburgh Geological Society. 
Royal Society of Edinburgh. 
royal Physical Society. 
Royal Scottish Geographical Society. 
Royal Scottish Society of Arts. 
University of Edinburgh. 

Glasgow, . . Natural History Society. 
Royal Philosophical Society. 
University of Glasgow. 


Leeds, . . . Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union. 
Liverpool, . . Literary and Philosophical Society. 
London,. . . Board of Agriculture. 


Editor of Gardeners’ Chronicle. 

Linnean Society. 

Editor of Nature. 

Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 

Quekett Microseonical Clnb. 

Royal Gardens, Kew. 

The Royal Society. 

Royal Horticultural Society. 

Royal Microscopical Society. 
Manchester. . Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society. 
Durham, .  . College of Science. 
ene Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham, 

ewcastle- Eee 
{ and Newecastle-upon-Tyne, and the ‘Tyneside 


upon- Tyne, Naturalists’ Field Club. 


Norwich, . . Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society. 

Perth, . . . Perthshire Society of Natural Science. 

Plymouth, .  . Plymouth Institution. 

Watford, . . Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club. 
HOLLAND. 

Amsterdam. . Koninklijke Akademie van Wettenschappen. 

Haarlem, . . Koloniaal Museum. 


Musée Teyler. 
Nederlandische Maatschappij ter Bevordering van 
Nijverheid. 
Luxembourg, . Société Botanique du Grand-duché de Luxembourg. 


ITALY. 
Florence, . . Soc. Botanico Italiano. 
Rome, . . . Reale Instituto Botanico. 
PORTUGAL. 
Lisbon, . . . Academia real das Sciencies. 
Editor of Broteria. 
RouMANIA, 
Bucharest... Institut Botanique. 
Russia. 
Helsingfors, . Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica. 
Kieff, . . . Société des Naturalistes. 
Moscow, . . Société impériale des Naturalistes. 


St, Petersburg, Hortus botanicus imperialis. 


=, 


Christiania. 


Tund, . 
Stockholi. 


Opsala, . 


Basel, 
Berne, 
Geneva 
Zurich. . 


APPENDIX 469 


SCANDINAVIA. 


. Nyt Magazin. 
. Universitas Lundensis. 
. Kong]. Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien. 


Sveriges Offentliga Bibliotek. 


. Societas Regia Scientiarum. 


SWITZERLAND. 


. Schweizerischer Botanischer Gesellschaft. 
. Naturforschende Gesellschaft 

. Herbier Boissier. 

. Naturforschende Gesellschaft. 


EOIN) i ee, 


Accounts of Society, 1899-1900, 1900-01, 
1901-02, 1902-03, iiia, iiib, xv, 
Xxiil. 

Address of Condolence to the King 
(title only), via. 

Alien Flora of the Edinburgh District, 
A Contribution towards an, xxv. 

Alpine Botanical Club, Scottish, Ex- 


cursion to County Kerry in 1901, | 


156. 


Fort-William and Arisaig in 
1903, 448. 

-——— Killin in 1900, 40. 

——— Tyndrum in 1902, 317. 

America, Plant Distribution in Eastern, 
viii a. 

Arisaig, Scottish Alpine Botanical Club, 
Excursion to, 448. 

Archives of the Botanical Society, on 
its Origin, History, and Privileges, 
Notes from the, 194. 

Argyllshire, Hepatice of, viiia. 


Australian Alps, Notes on a Census of 


the Flora of the, 319. 

Species of Drosera, Note on 
Bulb in, 419. 

Balearic Islands in April 1903, On a 
Botanical Visit to the, 436. 

Balfour, Professor, ix, xv, xix. xx. 

Balmoral, Hepatice of, 249. 

Bark, Use of the term, 30. 

Beard, J., Se.D., 126. 

Begonia luxurians, Repetitive Branch- 
ing in the Leaf of, xix. 

Ben Lawers, Hepatice of, 220. 

Berwick, Thomas, 395. 

Borthwick, A, W., xviii. 

Botanical Rarities of a Sub-Alpine 
Parish (Kells), The, 166. 

Botany of Captain Dowding’s Colombian 
Expedition, 1898-99, Preliminary 
Report on the, 425. 

Bulb in West Australian Species of 
Drosera, Note on the Formation of 
the, 419. 

Burkill, J. H., M.A., 109. 

Callitriches, The (title only), xx. 

Carex divisa as a Scottish Plant, 309. 

Census of the Flora of the Australian 
Alps, Notes on a, 319. 

Chara baltica, First Recorded Occur- 
rence in Scotland of, 13. 

Chenopodiacez, Scottish (title only), xv. 

Clayton, John, 396. 

Clova Mountains, Phanerogamic Flora 
of, 109. 

Cocks, Llewellyn J., 41. 

Colombian Expedition, Botany of Cap- 
tain Dowding’s, 425, 


Congress at Paris in 1900, Account of 
the Botanical (title only), va. 
County Kerry,Scottish Alpine Botanical 
Club Excursion to, 156. 
Cowan, Alex., 317, 448. 
Cowthorpe Oak, 396. 
Craig, Dr. William, F.R.S.E., elected 
Honorary Secretary, ia. 
XVili. 
Crawford, F. C., 13. 
Crawford, W. C., M.A., F.R.S.E. va, 
xox 
Day, T. Cuthbert, F.C.S., xix. 
Discussion on Botanical and Naturalists’ 
Societies (title only), xvii. 
Drosera bulbigena, 417. 
Dry-rot, Notes on Recent Experiences 
with, 106. 
Edinburgh District, A Contribution to- 
wards an Alien Flora of the, xxv. 
Evans, William, xxv. 
Evans, W. Edgar, xxv. 
Exhibits by— 
Bailey, Col. Fred., R.E., via. 
Borthwick, A. W., v6, vilib, xv, 
XX, XXIV, XXVIi. 
Boyd, W. B., viia, ivb, x, Xx. 
Cowan, A., viib. 
Craig, Dr. W., xii, xx. 
Crawford, F. C., iva, vb, xviii. 
Crawford, W. C., xxv. 
Dalziel, J. M., M.D., xv. 
Falconer, J. D., B.Se., xviii. 
Grieve, J., xx. 
Grieve, Symington, viia, viiia. 
Grieve, Mrs. Symington, viiia. 
Harris) DiS. IVD xyexve 
Hill, J. Rutherford, iv}, via, 
XXV1, X¥Xvii. 
Hooker, Sir Joseph, vb. 
Lindsay, R., iva, va, via, viia, 
Villa, X, XX. 
MacDougall, Dr. R. S., iva, xvii, 
Xviii, xxiv, xxvii. 
Man, E. H., viiid. 
Miller, M., xxvii. 
Murray, J. A., M.B., vb. 
Potts, G. H., xxvii. 
Richardson, A. D., xxv. 
Robertson, R. A., x. 
Smith, W. W., M.A., xxvii. 
Somerville, A., iva, va. 
Tage, H. F., viiib, xix, xxv. 
Thompstone, E., xviii. 
Watson, Dr. W., viia. 
West, G., x. 4 
Whytock, J., iv 6, viia, ix, x, 
xvii, XX, XXVIi. 
Young, W., xxiv. 


INDEX 


Exhibits of— 
Andromeda polifolia major, viia. 
Arenaria gothica, iv b. 
Aulacomnion turgidum, viia. 
Bird’s-Nest Fungus, xxiv. 
Bulbine aloides, via. 
Buphane, vb. 
Busxus rosmarinifolia, viia. 
Carex humilis, xviii. 
Chrysophlyctis endobiotica, xviii. 
Cocoa, xxvii. 
Coleophora, via. 
Cornus elegantissima, viia. 
C. variegata, Viia. 
Coryopsis spicata, viia. 
Crane-Fly Maggots, xxiv. 
Cuscuta Seedlings, xxv. 
Cydonia, xvii. 
Cyrtophyllum concavum, iv a. 
Daphne hybrid, viia. 
Diatoms, x. 
Didymodon recurvifolius, viia. 
Edgeworthia papyrifera, viia. 
Eranthis hyemalis, va. 
Erica Mackavi, vb. 
Forsythia Sieboldii, viia. 
Fraxinus excelsior, xxv. 
Glossina morsitans, iv a. 
Gyromitria, Vila. 
Ilex paraguayensis, via. 
Listera ovata, vilia. 
Lycoperdon saccatum, Viiia. 
Marica gracilis, via. 
Melolontha vulgaris, iva, xviii. 
Mitosis, vb. 
Monsonia ovata, via. 
Montbretia, xx. 
Noerkia hibernica, ivb. 
Nuttalia cerasiformis, viia. 
Oils, xxvi. 
Ophioglossum vulgatum, Viiia. 


Osmunda regalis decomposita, viib. 


Paris quadrifolia, xx. 
Petasites fragrans, Va. 


Picea nigra, abnormal cones, xxvii. 


Pinguicula caudata, iva. 
Polygala austriaca, xxvii. 


Primula floribunda, var. Isabel- 


lina, Va. 

hybrid, x. 
megasecefolia, Xx. 
rotundifolia, Xx. 
Quercus Ilex, Xv. 

Ribes alpinum, iva. 
Robinia Pseudacacia, vb. 
Ruppia spiralis, iva. 
Saponaria ocymoides, viiib. 
Saxifraga hybrid, viiia. 
oppositifolia, vila. 
Scirpus lacustris, iva. 
maritimus, iva. 
triqueter, iva. 
Scottish Mosses, vila. 
Senecio vulgaris, XX. 
Simethis bicolor, xii. 
Solanum Melongena, xxvii. 
Spirea Thunbergii, viia. 
Statice lychnidifolia, va. 
Strophosomus Coryli, iva. 


47] 


| Exhibits of— 

Symphytum officinale, var. patens, 
xil. 

Tesselatoma papillosa, iva. 

Valeriana officinalis, viiia. 

Veronica arborea, via. 

epacridea, Vila. 

Woods, via. 

“* Yerba,” or Paraguay Tea, via. 

| Ferns, especially the Filmy Ferns of 
Jamaica, On the, 1. 

Flore of the Australian Alps, Notes on 
a Census of the, 319. 

——— of the Edinburgh District, A 
Contribution towards an Alien, xxv. 
of the West Highlands during 
the Eighteenth Century, and at the 

Present Time, 17. 

Forth and Tweed in Scotland, Topo- 
graphical Botany of the River-Basins, 
277. 

Fort- William, Scottish Alpine Botanical 
Club Excursion to, 448. 

Frost on Euglena, The Influence of 
(title only), vilb. 

Functional Inertia —A Property of 
Protoplasm, 169. 

Geddes, Professor Patrick, F.R.S.E., 
ix, Xvii. 

Giglio-Tos’s Theory of Living Matter, 
45, 

Glaucium flavum, 13. 

Goodchild, J. G., F.G.S., F.Z.S., 234. 

Grieve, Symington, 194. 

Hall Chie mle 

Harris, D. F., B.Sc., M.D., 169. 

Hepatice of Argyllshire, viiia. 

Balmoral, 249. 

Ben Lawers, 220. 

Hdinburgh District, xxv. 

Heredity in Plants and Animals, The 
Track of, 126. 

Hill, J, Rutherford, ivd. 

Huie, Miss L. H., viibd. 

Hunter, Dr. James, F.R.S.E., 106. 

Killin, Scottisk Alpine Botanical Club 
Excursion to, 40. 

King—a Patron, His Majesty the, 
vilia. 

Laminaria, Revised Note on, 395. 

Latent Life of Plants, The, 178 

Lenticels, Notes on the Origin of, 450. 

Light on Plant Growth, Influence of 
Artificial, xviii. 

Lycopodium clavatum 
XXVI. 

M‘Andrew, James, 166. 

MacDougall, Dr, R. Stewart, ix. 

Macfarlane, Professor J. M., Se.D., 
Villa. 

Maevicar, Symers M., 17, 220. 

Merulius lacrymans, vb, 106. 

Methods of Mounting Mosses, xix. 

Micro-Methods, Notes on, x, 

Microscopic Sections of Rock with 
Vegetable Remains, xv. 

Morrison, Alexander, M.D., 417, 419. 

Moss Hunt in Argyllshire (title only), 
viia. 


(title only), 


472 


Murray, A., vila, Viiia. 
Musgrove’s Xylol Blue, The Botanical 
Use of, 232. 
Negative Variation in expanding Tulip 
(title only), xxvi. 
New Fellows— 
Alexander, T., ix. 
Ashby, 8. F., viiib. 
Bruce, W., vo. 
Canch, T. R., iva. 
Cowan, M‘T., xxv. 
Cowie, W. B., xix. 
Cullen, W. J., xvi. 
Davidson, J. R., xxiv. 
Dunbar, A. D., vb. 
Falconer, J. D., viib. 
Finlayson, J., xxvi. 
Fraser, J. C., xvii. 
Gilmore, O., xx. 
Grierson, G. A., ix. 
Grieve, Mrs. Symington, x. 
Hardy, M., xvii. 
Harris, D. F., viiib. 
Hewat, A., viib. 
Mackenzie, D. F., viib. 
M‘Hattie, J. W., viib. 
M‘Intosh, D. C., xvii. 
Massie, W. H., vib. 
Maxwell, Mrs., xxv. 
Pottage, J. C., xxvi. 
Sampson, H. C., viiib. 
Smith, W. W., vid. 
Story, F., viid. 
Tagg, H. F., viib. 
Taylor, H., vib. 
Taylor, Rev. J., xvii. 
Wallace, J. W., vib. 
Wallace, W., va. 
Williamson, W., ivd. 
Whytock, J., via. 
Young, W., xviii. 
New Honorary Foreign Fellows, xi. 
New Corresponding Members, xi. 
Norman, Commander F. M., R.N., 191. 
Obituary Notices— 
Charles Stuart, M.D., 191. 
R. C. Alexander Prior, 
F.L.S. (title only), xviii. 
Observations on some of the first formed 
Pinetums in Scotland and Ireland, 
xil. 
Officers of the Society, 1900-01, 1901-02, 
1902-03, 1903-04, ia, ib, xiii, xxi. 
“Olour” (title only), ix. 
Origin of the British Flora, The, 234. 
Paul, The Rev. David, LL.D., 1, 40, 
89, 156. 
Phanerogamic Flora of the Clova Moun- 
tains, in special relation to Flower 
Biology, The, 109. 


M.D., 


INDEX 


Photographic Method of Nature Print- 
ing from Leaves (title only), ivb. 
Photography, Three-Colour (title only), 
xix. 
Plant Distribution in Eastern America, 
viiia. 
Polystichum, On the Genus, 312, 
Presidential Addresses— 
The Rev. David Paul, LL.D., 
1900-01, 1-12 ; 1901-02, 89-105. 
Prof. J. W. H. Trail) Mealy aD 
F.L.S., F.RS., 1902-03, 265-308. 
Primula, The European Species of the 
Genus, 89. 
Problem of the Study of Field Botany 
with relation to a Regional Survey 
(title only), ix. 


| Repetitive Branching in the Leaf of 


ot Begonia luxwrians, Xix. 


| Report on the Effects of a Hailstorm to 


Growing Timber Crops, 254. 
Robertson)" ORi~ ASS = MAL eee es 
F.R.S.E., ix, x, xxvi, 45, 178, 232. 

Sampson, Hugh C., B.Sc., 254. 

Sesia bembeciformis in Scotland, The 
Spread of (title only), ix. 

Shrub and Tree Planting in Ireland, 
257. 

Somerville, Alex., B.Sc., F.L.S., 13, 
309, 312. 

Sprague, T. A., B.Sc., F.L.8., 425. 

Stabler, G.,-249. 

Stirling, James, A.I.C.E., 319. 

Supplementary Report on Mosses, 41. 

Suggestions towards the Preparation of 
a Record of the Flora of Scotland, 
265. 

Tagg, H. F., F.L.S., xix. 

Terras, J. A., B.Sc., xxvi, 450. 

Three-Colour Photography (title only), 
rab 

Topographical Botany of the River- 
Basins Forth and Tweed in Scotland, 
277. 

Trail, Prof. J. W. H., M.A.,; M.D:, 
F.L.S., F.R.S., 265, 277. 

Tree Growth, Effects of Weather on, 71. 

Trees of Hawaiian Islands, xxvi. 

Tuberisation in Plants, xix. 

Turnbull, R., B.Sc., 30. 

Tweed, Topographical Botany of the 
River-Basins Forth and, 277. 

Tyndrum, Scottish Alpine Botanical 
Club Excursion to, 317. 

Waterston, James, M.A., ix. 

West, George, Xv. 

Weymouth, Rev. A. B., M.A., xxvi. 

White, James W., F.L.8., 436. 

Whytock, James, xiv, 257. 

Willis, J. C., M.A., 109. 


pe eT 


I