m\ WB: o;5ii>l"* u^muvi "Mm^: TRANSACTIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE TEANSACTIONS ^ -'.-*> CA2 oj ! L I 8 R A PEOCEEDINGS ^ .a* OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1B95 VOL. XXVIII. (Eleventh of New Series) EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDEE THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE BY SIR JAMES HECTOR, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S, Director Issued June, 1896 WELLINGTON JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE TRUBNER & CO., 57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL, LONDON, E.G. COREIGENDA. Page 6, line 16. For ilelontha read Melolontha. Page G, line 9 from bottom. For Leiiiax read Limax. Page 21 , line 19. For rostrate read rostrata. Page 37, lines 1 and 9. For Kakaparaoa read Kekeparaoa. Page 37, line 21. After near insert after some severe fighting. Page 37, line 29. For tu kanapa napa read Tu kanapanapa. Page 37, lines .38 and 44. For sister read daughter. Page 37. last line. For Hitangua, IMahaki read Itanga-a-Mahaki. Page 38, line 32. For Kakaparaoa read Kekeparaoa. Page 39. line 9. Kahungunu was the father of Tauhei. CONTENTS. TEANS ACTIONS. I. — Miscellaneous. \et. I. The Displacement of Species in New Zealand. By pages T. Kirk, F.L.S. .. .. .. ..1-27 II. True Instincts of Animals. By Charles W. Parnell 27- 36 III. The Ancient Tribe Te Panenehu. By Captain Gilbert Mair . . . . . . . . 3G- 40 IV. The History of Otakanini Pa, Kaipara. By S. Percy Smith . . . . . . . . . , il- 17 V. Volcanic Activity in Sunday Island in 1814. By S. Percy Smith . . . . . . . . 47- 49 VI. On Dusky Sound. By Richard Henry, Government Resident in charge of Resolution Island Reserve. Communicated by Sir J. Hector . .' .. -50-54 VII. Tlie Ceremony of i?a/mf. By Taylor White .. 54- .59 VIII. The Railwaj' and its Place in Social Economy. By A. G. Purchas, M.R.C.S.Eng. . . . . . . .59- 62 IX. Antarctic Research. By Major- General Schaw, C.B., R.E. .. .'. .. .. ..62-71 \. A Wellington Weather Prognostic. By Major-Gene- ral Schaw, C.B., R.E. . . . . . . 71- 73 XI. The Ultimate Problem of Philosophy. By William W. Carlile .. .. .. .. ..74-86 Xll. l\Iemorabilia of certain Animal Prodigies ; Native and Foreign, Ancient and Modern. By W. Colcnso, F.R.S., F.L.S. (Lond.), &c. . . ..87-97 XIII. Democracy. By the Rev. J. Bates .. .. 97-111 XIV. The Training of Teachers for Primary Schools. By the Rev. J. Bates .. .. " .. .. 111-117 XV. Abel Tasman and his Journal. By Dr. T. M. Hocken, F.L.S. .. .. .. .. .. 117-140 XVL On an Account of a IMassacre at the Entrance of Dunedin Harbour in the Year 1817. By A. Hamilton .. .. .. .. .. 141-147 XVII. On the Forests of New Zealand. By A. Hamilton 147-163 XVin. On the Rise and Progress of our Knowledge of the Oceanic Areas. By A. Hamilton . . . . 163-178 XIX. A Comparison of the Magnetic Screening produced by Different Metals. By J. A. Erskine, M.A. . . 178-182 XX. Magnetic Viscosity. Bv E. Rutherford, M.A., B.Sc, 1851 Exhibition Science Scholar . . . . 182-204 32390 viii Contents. II. — Zoology. XXI. New Zealand Sponges : Third Paper. By H. B. pages Kirk, M.A. .. .. .. .. .. 205-210 XXII. Notes on New Zealand Land Planarians : Part II. By Arthur Dendy, D.Sc, P.L.S., Professor of Biology in the Canterbury College, University of New Zealand . . . . . . . . 210-214 XXIII. Note on the Discovery of Living Specimens of Geo- nemertes nova-zealandia. By Arthur Dendy . . 214-215 XXIV. New Zealand Diptera : No. 1. By P. Marshall, M. A., B.Sc, F.G.S., Lecturer on Natural Science, Lincoln College . . . . . . . . 21G-250 XXY. New Zealand Diptera : No. 2. Mycetophilidce . By P. Marshall . . . . . . . . . . 250-309 XXYI. New Zealand Diptera : No. '6. Simtilidce. By P. Marshall . . . . . . . . ' . . 310-311 XXVII. On Dodonidia lielmsi, Fereday. By P. Marshall . . 312-313 XXVIII. Notes on some New Zealand Pishes, with Descrip- tion of a New Species. By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.Il.S., Curator of the Canterbury Museum .. .. .. .. .. 314-318 XXIX. Further Contributions to the Molluscan Fauna of New Zealand. By Henry Suter. Communi- cated by Captain Hutton, F.R.S. . . . . 319-323 XXX. On a Now Species of Deinacrida or Forest-cricket from Nelson. By Sir Walter L. Buller, K.C.M.G., D.Sc, F.R.S. .. .. .. .. 323-326 XXXI. Notes on New Zealand Ornithology, with an Exhi- bition of Specimens. By Sir W. L. Buller . . 326-358 XXXII. On the Occurrence of the Nankeen Kestrel of Aus- tralia (CercJineis cenchroides) in New Zealand. By Sir W. L. Buller . . . . . . . . .359 XXXIII. Notes on some Species of New Zealand Birds. By J. Walling Handlev. Communicated by Sir Walter Buller \. .. .. .. 360-367 XXXIV. Bird Life on a Run. By H. Guthrie-Smith . . 367-375 XXXV. An Ornithological Note. By R. Coupland Harding 376-377 XXXVI. Notes on Rare Lepidoptera in Wellington. By Walter P. Cohen . . . . . . , . 377-379 XXXVII. On the Unusual Abundance of certain Species of Plume-moths during the Summer of 1894-95. By G. V. Hudson, F.E.S. .. .. ,. 379 XXXVIII. Further Coccid Notes : with Descriptions of New Species, and Discussion of Questions of Interest. By W. M. Maskell, Registrar of the University of New Zealand, Corr. l\Iem. Rov. Soc. of South Australia . . . . . .' . . . . 380-411 XXXIX. Contributions towards a Monograph of the Aleiiro- dida, a Family of Hemiptera-Homoptera. By W. M. Maskell . . . . . . . . 411-449 XL. Zoological Notes, Nelson District. By R. I. Kingsley 449-450 XLI. On Animal and Vegetable Parasites associated with the Production of Neoplasms in Cattle and Sheep. By Archibald Park, M.R.C.V.S. Communicated by Sir J. Hector . . . . . . . . 451-454 XLII. Notes on the Clcadidcc of New Zealand. By W. F. Kirby, F.L.S., F.E.S. , Assistant in Zoological Department, British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington, London. Communicated by G. V. Hudson, F.E.S. .. .. .. 454-459 Contents. ix PAGES XLIII. List of New Zealand Hydroida. By H. Farquliar . . i59-468 XLIV. On the Habits of New Zealand Ants. By W. W. Smith, F.E.S. .. .. .. .. 468-479 XLV. On the Construction of the Comb of the Hive-bee. By Coleman Phillips .. .. .. 479-490 III.— Botany. XLVI. Notes on jMS. Descriptions of Collections made during Captain Cook's First Voyage. By T. Kirk, F.L.S. . . . . . . . . 491-498 XLVII. Notes on Dactylanthus taylori, Hook. f. By T. Kirk, F.L.S. . . . . . . . . 493-497 XLVIII. On Zannicliellin and Lcpila-na in New Zealand. By T. Kirk . . . . . . . . . . 498-500 XLIX. On the Products of a Ballast-heap. By T. Kirk . . 501-507 L. Notice of the Occurrence of an Undescribed Palm- lily on the Auckland Peninsula. By T. Kirk . . .508-509 LI. A Revision of the New Zealand Species of Hymeimii- thcra,'R.Bx. By T. Kirk .. .. .. 510-515 LII. Notes on Certain Veronicas, and Descriptions of New Species. By T. Kirk .. .. .. 515-531 LIII. New Zealand Musci : Notes on a New Genus. By Robert Brown . . . . . . . . 531-533 LIV. On some Additions to the New Zealand Flora. By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Curator of the Auckland Museum . . . . . . . . 534-537 LV. Botanical Notes, Nelson District. By R. I. Kingsley 537-588 LVI. Descriptions of Three New Native Plants. By D. Petrie, M.A., F.L.S. . . . . . . . . 538-539 LVII. List of the Flowering Plants indigenous to Otago, with Indications of their Distribution and Range in Altitude. By D. Petrie .. .. .. 540-591 LVIII. Phsenogams : A Description of a few more Newly- discovered Indigenous Plants; being a Further Contribution towards the making known the Botany of Nevv Zealand. By W. Colenso, F.R.S., F.L.S. (Lond.), &c. .. .. ..591-613 LIX. New Zealand Cryptogams : A List pi a few Addi- tional Cryptogamic Plants, of the Orders HepaticcB and Fjingi, more recently detected in New Zea- land. By W. Colenso . . . . . . 614-615 LX. Cryptogams : A Description of Two New Ferns, a New Lycopodiwn, and a New Moss, lately de- tected in our New Zealand Forests. By \V. Colenso . . . . . . . . . . 615-618 LXI. A Description of Three Ferns believed to be un- described, discovered more than Fifty Years ago in the Northern District of New Zealand. By W. Colenso . . . . . . . . . . 618-622 LXII. Note on a Branched Specimen of a Tree-fern {Hemi- telia smithii). By A. Hamilton .. .. 622-623 Ij'KUl. On Cordiceps rohertsii. By H. C. Field .. .. 623-624 IV. — Geology. LXIV. Notes on some Rocks from the Kermadec Islands. By R. Speight, M. A. .. .. .. .. 625-627 LXV. On a Deposit of Moa-bones at Kapua. By Captain P. W. Hutton, F.R.S., Curator of the Canterbury Museum .... . . . . . . . . 627-644 Contents. LXVI. On the ]Moa-bones from Enfield. By Captain F. W. pages Hutton . . . . . . . . . . 645-650 LXVII. On the Discovery of Moa-reniains on Riverton Beacli. By C. A. Evven. Communicated by Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S. .. .. 651-654 LXVIII. On the Behaviour of Two Artesian Wells at the Can- terbury ^luseum. By Captain P. W. Hutton, F.R.S , Curator .. .. .. .. G54-664 LXIX. On the Affinities of Harpagoriiis : A Letter to Pro- fessor T. Jenevy Parker by R. W. Sluifeldt, M.D., •Smithsonian Institution, Wasliington, dated 25th January, 1895 . . . . . . . . 665 LXX. Denudation as a Factor of Geological Time. By H. Hill, B.A., F.CJ.S. .. .. ..666-680 LXXI. Ruarehu and the Volcanic Zone in 1895 : No. IV. By H. Hill . . . . . . . . . . 681-688 v.— Chemistey. LXXII. On Iron from the Titaniferous Sand of New Zealand. By E. Purser. Communicated by T. H. Hustwick 689-694 LXXIII. On the Action of Potassium-Cyanide Solution upon Gold. By J. S. Maclaurin, B.Sc. .. ..695-708 LXXIV. Notes on J. S. Maclaurin's Paper on the Action of Potassium-Cyanide Solutions upon Gold. By William Skey, Government Analyst .. ,, 708-716 NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Twenty-seventh Annual Report .. .. .. .. 719-720 Accounts for 1894-95 . . . . . . . . . . 720 PKOGEEDINGS. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. On the Discovery of a New River and V^alley in the Vicinity of Milford Sound. Bv D. Sutherland. Communicated by Sir J. Hector . . " . . . . . . . . . . 724 Remarks on the late Dr. David Lyall, R.N. By T. Kirk .. 725 Remarks on Antarctic Research. By jMajor-General Schaw, C B R F 731 On a Cranial Fallacy. By E. Tregear, F.R.G.S. .. .. 732 On Seasonal Tinie-adjustmetit in Countries South of Lat. 30°. By G. V. Hudson, F.E.S. .. .. .. .. 734 Remarks on an Albino Tai and Naultinus versicolor. By Sir W. BuUer .. .. .. .. .. .. 735 'Remsixks on Aristotelia raceviosn. By T. Kirk .. .. 735 Remarks on Drawings of New Zealand Veronicas. By Sir J. Hector . . . . . . . . . . . • 735 Resolution with rogard to the late Professor C. V. Riley .. 736 Contents. xi Note on the Geology of the Outlying Islands of New Zealand, pages By Sir J. Hectoi- . . . . . . . . . . 736-738 Note ou Double-flowered Columbine. By T. Kirk . . . . 738 Election of Governors of New Zealand Institute . . . . 738 Discussion ou the Geology of the Outlying Islands of New Zea- land .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 738-743 On a New Species of Luminous Fish {Polyipmis kirkii). By Sir J. Hector . . . . . . . . . . . . 743 On an Eclipse Phenomenon. By Major-General Schaw, C.B., R.E. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 744 Exhibit of Sketclies by :\Ir. Deverill of the Outlying Islands . . 745 Abstract of Annual Report . . . . . . . . . . 745 Election of Officers for 1896 . . . . . . . . 745 List of Exhibits . . . . . . . . . . . . 746 AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. Life and Crystals : Anniversary Address by Professor A. P. Thomas, F.L.S., President .. .. .. .. 747 On Argon, the Newly-discovered Constituent of the Air. By Professor F. D. Brown . . . . . . . . . . 747-748 Social Problems: Poverty and Unemployed Labour in Civilised Communities. By F. G. Ewington .. .. .. 748 The Recent Chitral Difficulty, and the Future of the Country between Western Afghanistan and the Indus. Bv the Right Rev. W. G. Cowie, D.D. .. .. .... 748 The Dawn of the English Drama. By Professor C. W. Egerton 748-749 Two Coming Eclipses. By Professor H. W. Segar . . . . 749 Browning's Vision of Life. By E. A. Mackechnie . . . . 749 Art and Photography. By E. W. Payton . . . . . . 750 Abstract of Annual Report .. .. .. .. .. 750-752 Election of Officers for 1896 . . . . . . . . 752 PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. Periodimeter, for measurmg Periods of Rapidly-oscillating Cur- rents. By E. Rutherford, M. A. .. .. .. 754 Note of Occurrence of Miis rattus at Opawa. By A. C. Murray- Aynsley . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-54 On the Dicraniums of New Zealand. By R. Brown . . . . 754 Abstract of Annual Report . . . . . . . . . . 755 Election of Officers for 1896 .. .. .. .. 755 Exhibit of Nests and Young of the Katipo. By Captain Hutton 755 On tlie Holothurians of New Zealand. By Professor Dendy, D.Sc, President .. .. .. .. .. 755 OTAGO INSTITUTE. Exhibit of New Zealand Passion-flower. By F. R. Chapman . . 756 Remarks oti an Egg of Mcgapodius pritchardi. By A. Wilson . . 756 On a Method of Colour mixing. By Professor Scott . . . . 7-56 On the Etymology of the word " Penguin." By Dr. Hocken . . 756 Natural History: Notes of a Trip in the " Hinemoa." By Pro- fessor Parker . . . . . . . . . . . . 757 Notice of a Catalogue of Flowering-plants found near Dunedin. By J. Tennaut.. .. .. .. .. .. 757 On the Anti-toxin Treatment of Diphtheria. By Dr. W. S. Roberts . . . . . . . . . . . . 757 Professor Huxley, from the Point of View of a Disciple. By Professor Parker . . . . . . . . . . 757 Remarks on an Arrow-head Worm {Spadella) from New Zealand Waters. By Profes.sor Parker . . . . . . . . 758 xii Conte?its. On New Zealand Fisheries, and tlie Desirability of introducing pages New Species of Fish. By G. M. Thomson " . . . . 758 Abstract of Annual Report .. .. .. .. .. 758-759 Election of Officers for 1896 . . . . . . . . 759 Resolution regarding Dr. J. Murray completing the " Chal- lenger " Reports . . . . . . . . . . 759 HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. Anniversary Address by the President . . . . . . 760 The Zoda or Thodawar Tribe of Madras, and their Funeral Customs. By A. R. VV. Lascelles . . . . . . 760 Bimetallism. By W. F. Howlett . . . . . . . . 760 Reminiscences of the Tin-mines of Cornwall Seventy Years Ago. By the Rev. W. Colenso, F.R.S. . . . . . . 760 The Coinage of England under Charles I. By H. M. Lund . . 760 Native Names of Places. By Taylor White . . . . . . 760 On University Extension in New Zealand. By H. Hill . . 761 On Pond Spiders. By Taylor White . . . . . . 761 A Hunting Spider. By Taylor White . . . . . . 761 Rats nestmg in Trees. By Taylor White . . . . . . 761 The Moa and the Maoris. By Taylor White . . . . . . 761 On Antarctic Exploration. By the Rev. W. Colenso, F.R.S. . . 761 Abstract of Annual Report . . . . . . . . . . 761 Election of Officers for 1896 . . . . . . . . 761 NELSON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. On the Anti-toxin Treatment of Diphtheria. By Dr. J. Hudson 762 List of Exhibits . . . . . . . . . . . . 762 Abstract of Annual Report . . . . . . . . . . 762 Election of Officers for 1890 . . . . . . . . 762 Remarks on the Government of the New Zealand Institute . . 762 List of Exhibits . . . . . . . . . . . . 763 APPENDIX. Meteorological Statistics for 1895 Notes on the Weather for 1895 Earthquakes reported in New Zealand during 1895 Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute Ordinary Members of the New Zealand Institute Institutions and Persons to whom this Volume is presented Index 767 768 768 769 770-777 778-782 783-787 Corrigenda . . . . • • • - • • • • vi Contents .. .. •• • •• •• •■ vii-xii List of Plates . . . . • • • . . . • • xiii Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute . . . . xv Abstracts of Rules and Statutes of the New Zealand Institute . . xv-xvii Roll of Incorporated Societies . . . . . . . . xviii Officers of Incorporated Societies, and Extracts from the Rules xviii-xxi LIST OF PLATES. Note.— These are placed together at the end of the vohrnie. Author. HKB PAGE Platk I. HocKEN.—Tasman's Chart of New Zealand Coast . . 117 II. Hamilton. — Map of Otago Heads . . 141 III. H. B. Kirk. — Sponges . . •JIO IV. „ 210 V. JIabshall. — Diptera 249 VI. • • 249 VII. // // , . 249 VIII. „ . 309 IX. „ 309 X. -. . 309 XI. // // 309 XII. . 309 XIII. „ > • 309 XIV. • • • * 311 XV. JIarshall. — Dodonidia he hmi 313 XVI. Maskell.— Coccids 409 XVII. „ . . 409 XVIII. „ * • • • 409 XIX. „ 409 XX. II II . ■ • • • 410 XXI. // // • , , 410 XXII. „ . 410 XXIII. „ . . 411 XXIV. ^ilASKELL. — Aleurodids 445 XXV. „ 446 XXVI. ,, 446 XXVII. .., . . 446 XXVIII. „ . ■ ■ 447 XXIX. „ . • 447 XXX. „ • > • • 447 XXXI. // // 448 XXXII. ,1 . . 448 XXX 11 1. II • > ■ • 448 XXXIV. ,1 . . 449 XXXV. ,1 . 449 XXXVI. HuTTON.— Excavation for ^loa-bones at Kapua 627 XXXVII. Sutherland. — Map showing Discoveries at Milford Sound , , ■ . . 724 !lu? LIBRARY;^) NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND INTITULED " THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867." Board of Governors. (ex OFFICIO.) His Excellency the Governor. The Hon. the Colonial Secretary. (NOMINATED.) W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S. ; Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.E.S. ; W. M. Maskell ; Thomas Mason ; E. Tregear, F.R.G.S. ; John Young. (ELECTED.) 1895.— James McKerrow, F.R.A.S. ; S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S.; Major-General Schaw, C.B., R.E. Manager : Sir James Hector. Honorary Treasurer : \V. T. L. Travers, F.L.S. Secretary : R. B. Gore. ABSTRACTS OF" RULES AND STATUTES. Gazetted in the " New Zealand Gazette," 9th March, 1868. Section I. Incorjjoration of Societies. 1. No society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the provisions of "The New Zealand Institute Act, 1S67," unless such society shall consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate a sum of not less than fifty pounds sterling annually, for the promotion of art, science, or such other branch of knowledge for xvi Neto Zealand Institute. which it is associated, to be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the Board of Governors of the Institute by the Chairman for the time being of the society. 2. Any society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorpo- rated with the Institute in case the number of the members of the said society shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of money annually subscribed by such members shall at any time be less than £50. 3. The by-laws of every society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall provide for the expenditure of not less than one-third of the annual revenue in or towards the formation or support of some local public museum or library, or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and main- tenance of the Museum and library of the New Zealand Institute. 4. Any society incorporated as aforesaid, which shall in any one year fail to expend the proportion of revenue affixed in manner provided by Kule 3 aforesaid, shall from thenceforth cease to be incorporated with the Institute. 5. All papers read before any society for the time being incorporated with the Institute shall be deemed to be communications to the Insti- tute, and may then be published as Proceedings or Transactions of the Institute, subject to the following regulations of the Board of the Insti- tute regarding publications : — Eegulations regarding Publications. (a.) The pubUcations of the Institute shall consist of a current abstract of the proceedings of the societies for the time being incorporated with the Institute, to be intituled " Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute," and of transactions, comprising papers read before the incorporated societies (subject, however, to selection as hereinafter mentioned), to be intituled " Trans- actions of the New Zealand Institute." (6.) The Institute shall have power to reject any papers read before any of the incorporated societies. (c.) Papers so rejected will be returned to the society in which they were read. (d ) A proportional contribution may be required from each society towards the cost of publishing the Proceedings and Transac- tions of the Institute. (e ) Each incorporated society will be entitled to receive a propor- tional number of copies of the Proceedings and Transactions of the Institute, to be from time to time fixed by the Board of Governors. (/.) Extra copies will be issued to any of the members of mcorporatea societies at the cost-price of publication. 6 \11 property accumulated by or with funds derived from incor- porated societies, and placed in charge of the Institute, shall be vested in the Institute, and be used and applied at the discretion of the Board of Governors for public advantage, in like manner with any other of the property of the Institute. j ^ ^.i, 7 Subject to "The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867," and to the foregoing rules, all societies incorporated with the Institute shall be entitled to retain or alter tlieir own form of constitution and t'je by-laws for their own management, and shall conduct their own affairs. 8 Upon application signed by the Chairman and countersigned by the Secretarv of any society, accompanied by the certificate required under Rule No. 1, a certificate of incorporation will be granted under the seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as long as the foregoing rules of the Institute are complied with by the society. Abstracts of Eules and Statutes. xvii Section II. For the Management of the Property of the rustUutc. 9. All donations by societies, public departments, or private indi- viduals to the IMuseum of the Institute shall be acknowledged by a printed form of receipt, and shall be duly entered in the books of the Institute provided for that purpose, and shall then be dealt with as the Board of Governors may direct. 10. Deposits of articles for the Museum may be accepted by the Institute, subject to a fortnight's notice of removal, to be given either by the owner of the articles or by the Manager of the Institute, and such deposits shall be duly entered in a separate catalogue. 11. Books relating to natural science may be deposited in the library of the Institute, subject to the following conditions :— (a.) Such books are not to be withdrawn by the owner under six months' notice, if such notice shall be required by the Board of Governors. (b.) Any funds especially expended on binding and preserving such deposited books at the request of the depositor shall be charged against the books, and must be refunded to the Institute before their withdraw-al, always subject to special arrangements made with the Board of Governors at the time of deposit. (c.) No books deposited in the library of the Institute shall be removed for temporary use except on the written authority or receipt of the owner, and then only for a period not exceed- ing seven days at any one time. 12. All books in the library of the Institute shall be duly entered in a catalogue, which shall be accessible to the public. 13. The public shall be admitted to the use of the ^luseum and library, subject to by-laws to be framed by the Board. Section III. The laboratory shall for the time being be and remain under the exclusive management of the Manager of the Institute. Section IV. (Of Date 23rd September, 1870.) Honorary Members. Whereas the rules of the societies incorporated under the New Zealand Institute Act provide for the election of honorary members of such societies, but inasmuch as such honorary members would not thereby become members of the New Zealand Institute, and whereas it is expedient to make provision for the election of lionorary members of the New Zealand Institute, it is hereby declared, — 1. Each incorporated society ma}', in the month of November next, nominate for election, as honorary members of the New Zea- land Institute, three persons, and in the month of November in each succeeding year one person, not residing in the colony. 2. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated, together with the grounds on which their election as honorary members is recommended, shall be forthwith forwarded to the Manager of the New Zealand Institute, and shall by him be submitted to the Governors at the next succeeding meeting. 3. From the persons so nominated the Governors may select in the first year not more than nine, and in each succeeding year not more than three, who shall from thenceforth be honorary members of the New Zealand Institute, provided that the total number of honorary members shall not exceed thirty. ii XVUl Neio Zealand Institute. LIST OF INCOEPOEATED SOCIETIES. NAME OF SOCIETY. DATE Wellington Philosophical Society Auckland Institute .... Philosophical Institute of Cantbkbury Otago Institute ..... Westland Institute .... Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute - Southland Institute .... Nelson Philosophical Society OF INCORPORATION. 10th June, 1868. 10th June, 1868. 22nd Oct., 1868. 18th Oct., 1869. 21st Dec, 1874. 31st Mav., 1875. 21st July, 1880. 20th Dec, 1883. OFEICEES OF INCOEPOEATED SOCIETIES, AND EXTEACTS FEOM THE EULES. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Office-bearers for 1896. — President — ^W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S. ; Vice-presidevts — E. C. Harding. Sh James Hector, F.E.S. ; Council — Edward Tregear, F.E.G.S., Alaj or- General Schaw, C.B., E.E., Sh^ W. L. Duller, F.E.S. . H. Farquhar, W. AI. Maskell, G. Y. Hudson, F.E.S., Thomas Kirk, F.L.S. ; Secretary and Treasurer- — E. B. Gore ; Auditor — T. King. Extracts from tJie Rides of the Wclliiujtoii Fliilosophical Society. 5. Every member shall contribute annually to the funds of the Society the sum of one guinea. 6. The annual contribution shall be due on the first day of January in each year. 7. The sum of ten pounds may be paid at any time as a composition for life of the ordinary annual payment. 14. The time and place of the general meetings of members of the Society shall be fixed by the Council, and duly announced by the Secretary. AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. Office-bearers for 1896. — President — D. Petrie, M.A., F.L.S., Vice-jjresidents — Professor A. P. Thomas, F.L.S., J. H. Upton ; Coimcil — G. Aickin, J. Batger, W. Berry, Pro- fessor F. D. Brown, F.C.S., C. Cooper, E. A. Mackechnie, Incorporated Societies. xix T. Peacock, J. A. Pond, F.C.S., Eev. A. G. Purchas, M.E.C.S. Eng., T. H. Smith, J. Stewart, C.E.; Trustees— 'E. A. Mac- kechnie, S. P. Smith, F.E.G.S., T. Peacock; Secretary and Curator— T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S. ; Auditor— W. Gorrie. Extracts from the Rriles of the Auckland histitute. 1. An}' person desiring to become a member of tlie Institute shall be proposed in writing by two members, and shall be balloted for at the next meeting of the Council. 4. New members on election to pay one guinea entrance-fee, in addi- tion to the annual subscription of one guinea, the annual subscription being payable in advance on the first day of April for the then current year. 5. Members may at any time become life-members by one payment of ten pounds ten shillings, in lieu of future annual subscriptions. 10. Annual general meeting of the society on the third Monday of February in each year. Ordinary business meetings are called by the Council from time to time. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. Office-beaeees foe V^^Q.— President — Professor Arthur Dendy, D.Sc. ; Vice-presidents— T>x . W. Thomas, Dr. W. P. Evans; Hon. Secretary— 'R. Speight; Hon. Treas^irer— Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S. ; Coiincil—YL. E. Webb, E. M. Laing, S. Page, P. Marshall, F. C. Binns, and Dr. W. H. Synies. Extracts from the Rules of the Philosophical Instittite of Canterbury. 8. Members of the Institute shall pay one guinea annually as a sub- scription to the funds of the Institute. The subscription shall be due on the 1st November in each year. The Institute may also admit associates, who shall contribute five shillings annually to the funds of the Institute, and shall have all the privileges of members, except that they shall not have the power to vote, or be entitled to the annual volume of the Transactions. 9. Members may compound for all annual subscriptions of the current and future years by paying ten guineas. 15. The ordinary meetings of tlie Institute shall be held on the first Wednesday in each month during the mouths of May to October, both inclusive. OTAGO INSTITUTE. Office-beaeees foe 1896. — President — A. Hamilton; Vice-presidents— G. M. Thomson, F.L.S., J. S. Tennant, B.Sc. ; Hon. Secretary — Vroiessor Parker, F.E.S. ; Hon. Treasurer — J. E. Don, M.A. ; Other Members of Council — F. E. Chapman, T. M. Hocken, F.L.S., A. Bathgate, E. Mel- land, Professor Scott, M.D., A. Wilson, M.A., J. McLeod ; Hon. Auditor — D. Brent, M.A. XX Neio Zealand Institute. Extracts frovi the Constitution mid Rules of the Otago Institute. 2. Any person desiring to join the society may be elected by ballot, on being proposed in writing at any meeting of the Council or society by two members, and on pajanent of the annual subscription of one guinea for the year then current. 5. Members may at any time become life-members by one payment of ten pounds and ten shillings in lieu of future annual subscriptions. 8. An animal general meeting of the members of the society shall be held in January in eacli year, at which meeting not less than ten members must be present, otherwise the meeting shall be adjourned by the members present from time to time until the requisite number of members is present. (5.) The session of the Otago Institute shall be during the winter months, from May to October, both inclusive. WESTLAND INSTITUTE. Office-beakebs fok 1896. — President — A. H. King; Vice-president — D. Macfarlane ; Hon. Treasurer — T. O. W. Croft; Trustees — J. Chesnev, A. Mahan, D. Barron, H. L. Michel, J. Churches, A. E. Cresswell, W. L. Fowler, T. H. Gill, A, J. Morton, E. W. Wade, Dr. Macanclrew, and Dr. Kendall. Extracts from the Rules of the Westlaiid Institute. 3. The Institute shall consist (1) of life-members — i.e., persons who have at any one time made a donation to the Institute of ten pounds ten shillings or upwards, or persons who, in reward of special services ren- dered to the Institute, have been unanimously elected as such by the Committee or at the general half-yearly meeting; (2) of members who pay two pounds two shillings each year ; (3) of members paying smaller sums, not less than ten shillings. 5. The Institute shall hold a half-yearly meeting on the third Mon- day in the months of December and June. HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE. Office-bearers for 1896. — President — Eev. W. Colenso, F.E.S., F.L.S., &c. ; Vice-president — T. C. Moore, M.D. ; Council~J. W. Craig, H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S., T. Humphries, J. S. Large, Dr. Milne-Thomson, T. Whitelaw ; Hon. Secre- tary—W. Dinwiddie; Hon. Treasurer — G.White; Auditor — J. Crerar. Extracts from the Rules of the Haivke's Bay Philosophical Institute. 3. The annual subscription for each member shall be one guinea, payable in advance on the first day of January in every year. 4. ]\Iembers may at any time become life-members by one payment of ten pounds ten shillings in lieu of future annual subscriptions. (4.) The session of the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute shall be during the winter months from INIay to October, both inclusive ; and general meetings shall be held on the second Monday in each of those six months, at 8 p.m. Incorporated Societies. XXI SOUTHLAND INSTITUTE. Office-bearers. — Trustees — Ven. Archdeacon Stocker, Rev. John Ferguson, Dr. James Galbraith. NELSON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. Office-bearers for 1Q96. — President — The Bishop of Nelson; Vice-presidents — A. S. Atkinson, F.L.S., and Dr. W. J. Mackie; Council— D^. L. Boor, Messrs. E. Lukins, W. F. Worley, J. G. Bartell, and J. Holloway; Hon. Secretary — R. I. Kingsley; Treasurer— T)v . J. Hudson; Curator— B.. I. Kiugsley ; Assistant Curator — E. Lukins. Extracts from the Rules of the Nelson Philosophical Society. 4. Members shall be elected by ballot. 6. The annual subscription shall be one guinea. 7. The sum of ten guineas may be paid in composition of the annual subscriotion. 16." Meetings shall be held on the second Monday in every month. 23. The papers read before the Society shall be immediately delivered to the Secretary. LxJ LI 8 R A R Y / . TRANSACTIONS TEANSACTIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE, 1895. I. — MISCELLANEOUS. Art. I. — The Displacement of Species in Netv Zealand. By T. KiEK, F.L.S. [Presidential Addre&s to the Wellington Philosophical Society, 3rd July, 1895.'] In the absence of civilisation, the indigenous fauna and flora of any country is liable to little or no change from external causes. Aerial and marine currents may occasionally bring spores or even seeds of exotic plants ; more rarely, insects or birds may be introduced by gales of unusual violence ; migra- tory or aquatic birds may introduce the eggs of insects, or even molluscs, as well as seeds and fragments of terrestrial or lacustrine plants, which have become attached to their feathers ; and certain terrestrial or fiuviatile molluscs may be introduced by drifted logs ; but after a certain thne any increase in the number of species by agencies of this kind must become extremely rare, and can occur only at distant intervals. It may therefore be concluded that in all proba- bility the constituents of the fauna and flora of this colony, with possibly the exception of the larger Ratite birds, were in much the same condition when they were first seen by Cook and Vancouver as they had been for many previous centuries. But with the advent of civilisation vast and far- reaching changes speedily take place : axe and fire rapidly alter the face of the country ; portions of the forest are felled, burnt off, and replaced by grass — a change which of itself involves a multitude of other changes ; the unfelled portions of the forest are laid open to violent winds, so that the surface-rooting trees are blown over in large numbers, while the increasing dryness of the atmosphere acts unfavourably 1 2 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. on the undergrowth, wliich is still further injured by the depredations of Cbittle ; gradually the plants less able to resist changed conditions disajapear, and with them many insects, lizards, and birds, which are unable to obtain then- usual food in the new environment. But the space occupied by the displaced plants is not long allowed to remain unoccupied. An army of encroaching weeds speedily takes possession of the vacancy : thistles, star- thistles, docks, groundsels, brambles, briars, and a hundred other unattractive invaders make their appearance, and in- crease the severity of the struggle for the survivors of the indigenous flora. From sea-level to the highest points reached by the miner or shepherd, from the North Cape to the Ant- arctic Islands, their hosts press forward, ever seizing some new position, just as on a larger scale they have long since occupied the vicinity of the chief ports on the great lines of ocean travel from Britain to the Cape of Good Hope, from Yokohama to Cape Horn, so that wherever the traveller lands from his floating home he finds himself surrounded by familiar plants which have in a greater or lesser degree amal- gamated with the vegetation of the country which they have invaded, and which to a large extent they will ultimately over- come. And, most unhappily, this invasion is not restricted to phanerogamic plants. Numbers of injuinous fungi accom- pany their hosts. Eust, mildew, and bunt blight the hopes of the wheat-grower at the moment of fruition. The grazier too often sees his pastures rendered useless by the ravages of smut and ergot ; while the cultivators of edible fruits and vegetables can point to special enemies of almost every kind of plant grown for its value as an article of food. Nor is this all. Numbers of species, almost equally insidious in their de- velopment, are parasitic, not only on members of the indi- genous flora, but on the naturalised weeds themselves ; so that the circle of infection is constantly widening, while the scientific knowledge and practical skill of the cultivator are taxed to the utmost limit. Further, the invading army of plants has brought in its train a still more dangerous host of animals ; and as in the vegetable kingdom the most injurious forms were found amongst the less highly organized kinds, so in the animal kingdom the invaders whose agency is most dreaded are members of the Invertebrata : the mussel scale, the fluted scale, the black scale, and many others, together with numerous species of plant-lice, will occur to you as belong- ing to lowly-developed forms of Insecta. Higher in the scale, the Hessian fly, wire-worm, turnip-fly, and others ; while numerous species of earth-worms, molluscs, birds, T. Kirk. — Displacement of Species in Nciu Zealand. 3 and even mammals, whether introduced purposely or acci- dentally, affect alike both fauna and flora. Naturalisation, Displacement, etc. It may be advisable to remind you that a plant or animal is said tobe naturahsed in a new country when it has become so thoroughly established as to be able to perpetuate itself spontaneously. The term, however, must not be confused with acclimatised, which, as popularly used, conveys the erroneous idea that the organization to which it is applied has been specially adapted to its new environment by having passed through a series of changes. What is called " ac- climatisation" is based on the snnple fact that many plants and animals are able to flourish under conditions differing from those under which tliey were originally placed. Displacement, although usually attended by a diminution in the number of individuals, is sometimes accompanied by increase, as is the case with those insects which now obtain a large supply of food from introduced plants, and consequently exhibit a vast increase in numbers. Eeplacement can only be said to occur when the naturalised organism occupies the position of that which it has displaced ; the displacement being approximately, although perhaps not actually, com- plete. On the other hand, complete displacement is not always followed by immediate replacement. The tuatara (Sphenodon punctatum), for instance, has been all but de- stroyed on the mainland by the wild pig and the cat, but these cannot be said to have taken the place of the tuatara — their agency has been wholly destructive. On the other hand, the place formerly occupied by the Maori rat in the North Island is now so fully occupied by its old enemy the black rat as to afford a striking instance of complete replace- ment. It will be useful to bear these distinctions in mind when considering the influence exerted by introduced organ- isms on the flora and fauna of any country. It is not proposed to consider in detail the effects produced by naturalised organisms on the flora and fauna of the colony, but merely to draw attention to various cases, more or less of a typical character, and to state the general results so far as they have been ascertained. Invertebeata. Although there is some probability that certain species of Infusoria, Eotifera, and possibly Hydrozoa have been intro- duced into the colony, there is no direct evidence to that effect ; while so little is known respecting either native or introduced Entozoa, beyond the fact that several species have made their appearaiace here as uninvited guests, that atten- 4 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. tion may at once be directed to the earth-worms, of which several European species have become naturahsed, and suc- ceeded in replacing indigenous forms in various localities in both Islands. "When recently travelling in the upper portions of the valleys of the Eangitikei and Turakina I found that in localities where a few years back native worms were plentiful the introduced Lumhricus terrestris (L.) had spread over large areas of grass-land to such an extent that it was impossible to find a single square foot of earth free from its castings, while in many places its burrows rendered the soil so spongy that it was dangerous to the passing horseman. As a rule, native worms are most frequent in unploughed land ; a single plough- ing destroys large numbers, and if the land is frequently ploughed the native kinds speedily disappear — a restilt in- variably accelerated by the advent of introduced species, which quickly effect a complete replacement. It is stated that a large worm which, in the Kaipara, frequently attained a length of over 20in., and was used as food by the Maoris, has not been seen of late years : I believe it has not been described. Amongst Arachnida the small introduced mite known as the red spider {Tetranyclms telarius) has increased enormously in some districts, and is found on native and introduced shrubs alike ; but my knowledge of the indigenous species of this group is not sufficient to enable me to state whether actual displacement may be observed or not. Many spiders of kinds usually found in or about dwelling-houses in Europe have been accidentally introduced, but it is not clear that they have succeeded in replacing indigenous species. "When the limited area to which many of our indigenous insects ai'e restricted is considered in connection with the wide area over which clearing operations have extended, it will be difficult to evade the conclusion that many species, and possibly entire genera, have become extinct, their places being now occupied by introduced species, although under different conditions ; but this can hardly be considered true replacement, and, so far as known to me, no instance has been observed of an introduced insect having extirpated an indi- genous species, although not a few of the latter have become rare in districts where they were formerly plentiful, and in all probability the food-supply of others has been reduced by the agency of the honey-bee. Amongst the indigenous insects which are now to be met with only in diminished numbers is the elephant beetle (Lasio- rhyncltns barbicornis, Eabr.), which was formerly plentiful in the vicinity of Wellington, as in other districts, but is now comparatively rare. Its high degree of specialisation invests it with exceptional interest, so that its diminution can only be witnessed with regret. T. KiKK. — Displacement of Species in Neiu Zealand. 5 Amongst introduced insects are numerous Coccidae, of which there are upwards of twenty species, many of them being highly injurious, the three most dangerous perhaps being the fluted scale {leery a purcliasi, Mask.), which affects many species of indigenous and cultivated trees and shrubs ; the mussel scale {Mijtilaspis pomornm, Bouche), the great pest of the apple, but also found on numerous shrubs and trees, both introduced and indigenous ; and the black scale {Lecaninni olece, Bern.), all of which are widely dispersed, and may be found intermixed with the indigenous Dactylopius gla2LGUs (Mask.), and other native forms, which have increased to a large extent owing to the large supply of introduced plants available for food, and possibly to the absence of enemies. In the case of the Dactylopius, at least, this increase is occasion- ally accompanied by a partial abandonment of the native pltints on which it formerly subsisted. Thei'e does not appear to be any instance of the replacement of a native scale- insect by an introduced species. The number of naturalised aphidian insects is even larger than that of the Coccidte ; but, unlike the members of that group, they do not come into competition with indigenous species, as the family can scarcely be said to be represented in the indigenous fauna, a single undescribed species of doubtful affinity being the only form observed at present ; it is small, apparently rare, and seems restricted in its choice of food to a purely herbaceous ground- sel (ErecJitites prcnantlioidcs, DC). The introduced kinds, however, have increased to a vast extent, and in many in- stances infest different kinds of plants to those on which they usually live in Europe. Amongst the most troublesome are Aphis pruni (Reaum), on the plum; A. amygdali (Fonsc), on the peach ; A. mali (Fabr.), chiefly on pome fruits; Siphono- p>hora fragaricce (Koch), on the strawberry; and ScJiizoneura lanigera (Hans.), on pome fruits: all of which are widely distributed ; while Phylloxera vastatrix (Planch.) is only found in the north. Thrips appear to be in course of displacement by intro- duced species, but my knowledge of this group is insufficient to allow of details being given on this occasion. Few New Zealand residents of the present day can form any accurate idea of the injury and annoyance inflicted upon the early settlers by the native flesh-fly, which was formerly most abundant in all districts. A spade or other implement used by a man with greasy hands would speedily become fly-blown. Newly-cooked fresh meat could scarcely be trans- ferred from the camp-oven to the table before it was attacked, while blankets or woollen garments were speedily rendered useless when exposed. But this troublesome pest has prac- tically disappeared, having been displaced by the introduced 6 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. house-fly (Musca domestica, L.). The early settlers recognised the beneficial agency of the intruder, and carried it from the ports to the interior in paper cages. In many districts the common mosquito, the sand-fly, and the small native flea have disappeared under the beneficial results arising from drainage and other improvements of a similar character. Amongst indigenous insects which have increased to a large extent owing to the more copious supply of suitable food afforded by introduced plants, whether naturalised or culti- vated, three species of Coleoptera deserve special mention. The grass-grub {Odontria zealandica, White) in the larval state is terribly destructive to the roots of grass, and has increased to a marvellous extent with the progress of settle- ment. The grub takes the place occupied by the cockchafer {Melontha vulgaris, Steph.) in Europe, but the perfect insect is less destructive, although occasionally injurious to fruit-trees. (In all probability 0. hrunneum, Broun, is equally dangerous.) A small beetle {Colaspis imncticollis , Broun), now occurs in vast numbers, the perfect insect feeding upon pome fruits, and doing much damage. The native borer {Mmona Jiirta, Fabr.) is another destructive insect unhappily now occurring in vast numbers. In its larval state it bores galleries in the trunk of Olearia solandri (Hook, f.), Cassinia retorta (A. Cunn.), and effects a comparatively small amount of injury ; but when citrads or other fruit-trees are attacked the galleries are more numerous and more extensive. In some localities it has for- saken the Cassinia, &c., and evinces a marked preference for the lemon, orange, and lime. Amongst introduced Mollusca must be enumerated the common snail {Helix aspersa, Miiller), which, from its depre- dations in the garden and field, has become a pest throughout the colony. It is generally agreed that several of the smaller native Helicid£e have become rare since this shell was first observed in x\uckland, about 1868 ; but there is no direct evi- dence to show that their diminution has been caused by their lai'ger and more robust congener, although in some cases their food-supply must have been diminished by its ravages. The common garden-slug [Leinax agnstis, L.) and the large brown slug {Arion hortensis, L.) are generally naturalised also, but are not nearly so destructive as the Helix. Limncea stagnalis (L.) is abundantly naturalised in the Avon at Christchurch, and may have some connection with the comparative infre- quency of the smaller native molluscs in that river. Fishes. There is no evidence to show that the few native fresh- water fishes have suffered from the introduction of the Prussian T. KiifK. — DisjjUicement of Species in New Zealand. 7 carp {Carassias vulgaris, Nord.), the trotit (Salvia fario, L.), or from other fluviatile species ; but in some locahties eels have increaseri largely from the increased food-supply aiiorded by the trout-fry. In other localities, especially iu deep water, the trout have suffered severely from the attacks of the fiy fungus [Sajjrolegnia ferox, Kutz.), but there is no evidence to show that native fishes have been attacked by the same scourge. Amphibia and Eeptilia. Very few of the Amphibia and Eeptilia have been intro- duced. A green frog from Australia (Hyla peronii) has become naturalised in many parts of the North Island, and shows a great liking for the young of the smaller nativ'e lizards, which, after considerable effort, are swallowed entire. It may be worth while to mention that some years ago I was shown several specimens of the water-nev.'t {Triton cristatus, L.), said to have been found at the Bay of Islands. It would be interesting to learn by what agency it was introduced, and whether it still survives in that locality. Snakes have been introduced into several localities either by accident or design, but, so far, no species has become naturalised. The most serious loss amongst the indigenous Eeptilia is the tuatara (Sphenodon punctahtm, Gunth.), which has been all but extirpated on the mainland, chiefly by the agency of the wild pig, the cat, and probably the grey rat. It is still to be found in some quantity on several of the outlying islands. The gecko (Naultinus paciticus) has of necessity decreased with the destruction of forests, although it is still to be found in diminished numbers as far south as the South Cape Island, which is, I believe, the extreme southern limit of Eeptilia. Several of the smaller species have become comparatively rare from the repeated burnings of the taramea and other surface vegetation, which afforded shelter alike to the lizards and the insects and Mollusca, forming their principal food. Birds. Birds have suffered more severely than any other section of the fauna from the ravages of introduced mammals, in addition to which the burning of the surface vegetation has deprived many species of food and shelter, while in other cases the food-supply has been reduced by insects. Doubt- less a large proportion of the species that have suffered most severely are forms that had lost much of their oiiginal vigour and were gradually dying out ; yet it is most unfortunate that birds of such exceptional interest as the kakapo and kiwi should have their extinction accelerated by the introduction 8 Transactions. — 2Iisccllaneous. of such pests as the stoat, weasel, and ferret, which are annihilating the surviving portions of one of the most remark- able collections of indigenous birds in the world. The kakapo {Striiujops liabroptilus, Gray) has suffered so severely from introduced agencies that it is now on the verge of extinction in many districts where it was formerly found iu comparatively large numbers. Its eggs, being merely laid in holes at the base of trees, have been attacked by rats, the young birds by wild cats, and the old birds by dogs, stoats, weasels, and by pigs. It still lingers in the centre of the North Island, and is found in larger quantity on some parts of the west coast of the South Island, but its extirpation through- out the colony at a near date seems absolutely certain. It is not iu all cases an easy matter to determine whether a given species has suffered more extensively from competition with naturalised forms or from the direct changes in environ- ment effected by man himself. The destruction of the forest over wide areas at once deprives many organisms of both shelter and food, as iu the case of the kaka (Nestor meridionalis , GniL), which was formerly abundant where it is now rarely or never seen, a fact all the ujore to be regretted from its feed- ing largely upon insects. The kea (Nestor notahllis, Gould) has suffered but little from this cause, but numbers have been purposely destroyed on account of the ravages effected by them amongst sheep ; still, in the high mountain districts in- habited by this bird it cannot be considered either rare or local. The parrakeets (Flatycercus novcB-zealandm, Spai-rra, and P. auriceps, Kuhl) occurred in large flocks, and were very de- structive to the grain-crops of the early settlers ; but under the combined attacks of rats, wild cats, and especially of man, they have become comparatively rare and local. One of the most interesting birds in the colony, the huia (Heteralocha acutirostris, Gould), restricted to the Euahine and Tararua Eanges and their offshoots, partly, without doubt, from the ravages of cats, but especially from the more merciless attacks of collectors, has become extremely rare. Formerly a pair or two could usually be found at the back of the Wainuiomata without any great difficulty, but they seem to have disajopeared from that locality. The migratory birds, the long-tailed cuckoo (Eudynamis taitensis, Sparrm) and the bronze-winged cuckoo (Ghrijsococcyx lucidus, Gml.), are becoming increasingly rare, but without any obvious cause, except possibly the decrease of Gerygone flaviventris (Gray), in whose nest both parasites usually deposit their eggs. It is worth while to remark that both the cuckoos may occasionally be seen all through the winter seasons. The silver-eye (Zosterops lateralis, Lath.), although still to be Seen in large numbers in nearly all parts of the colony, is less plentiful in many districts than formerly. T. KiKK. — Displacement of Species in Neto Zealand. 9 but the balance of evidence seems to point to its having been introduced from Austraha by natural agencies. The tui (Prosthemadera novce-zcalandice, Gml.), the bell- bird {Anthornis melanura, Sparrm), and the stitch-bird. {Pogo- nornis cincta, Dubus) appear to have alike suffered from the diminution of their food-supply caused by the introduction of the honey-bee, while they have been incessantly attacked by cats and rats ; the tui, however, shows the greatest power of resistance, as it is still to be found throughout the colony, although in greatly diminished numbers. The bell-bird, which formerly existed in large numbers in both the North and South Islands, has become extremely rare and local in the North, although more plentiful in the South ; while the stitch-bird appeal's to have been driven to its last refuge in the Little Barrier Island, where it still forms the prey of the destructive collector. It has been suggested that one cause of the disap- pearance of the bell-bird from the North Island is the diminu- tion of its food-supply caused by the honey-bee, which is plentiful in nearly all districts ; but this v/ould render it difficult to account for its preservation in the South Island, where bees are equally plentiful. It may possibly be found that the increase of bees has been injurious to certain indi- genous insects, but at present there is no evidence to that effect. The little bush-wren {Xenicus longipes, Gml.) is almost extirpated in localities where it was once plentiful, and. the North Island robin [Petroica longipes, Less.) is rarely to be seen even in sparsely-settled districts ; while the little fern- bird (Sphenceacus punctatns , Quoy and Gaim) has become comparatively rare in numerous swamps and reed-beds where it was once common. The ground-lark {Anthus novce-zea- landicz, Gml.) maintains its ground in country districts, al- though it has become rare in the vicinity of towns, partly, perhaps, from its being attacked by cats and rats, or by boys still more merciless. So also the familiar forest-bird the fantail (Bhipidura Jlabellifera, Gml.), although its numbers have been greatly reduced in nearly all localities. All, or nearly all, the small native birds suffer alike from the attacks of rats and wild cats. The saddle-back {Creadiou caruncula- tus, Gml.) has become very rare throughout the limited por- tion of the North Island to which it was naturally restricted, and is now in danger of extermination on the Little Barrier Island, where it was formerly plentiful. It is almost super- fluous to mention the increasing scarcity of the beautiful native pigeon (Carpophaga novce-zealandicR, Gml.). Notwith- standing its former abundance throughout the colony, there is scarcely a single district in which it is to be found in large numbers at the present time. Although it has not escaped 1 0 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. the ravages of rats and wild cats, the injury effected by these agencies is but trivial when compared with the destruction wrought by settlers, who have shot it during all seasons, on account of its value for food. The native quail {Cohirnix novcB-zealanclics, Quoy and Gaim.), once common over large portions of the colony, is practically extinct; so far as I am aware, not a single specimen has been seen for some years past, although it is believed to survive in the district between Lake Wakatipu and the Cosmos Peaks. Birds of this class suffer perhaps from the progress of settlement more severely than any others ; their food is diminished, and numbers are destroyed by the surface-burnings so frequent in the early stages of a pastoral district, while they are attacked by birds of prey, cats, rats, and dogs whenever they venture into the open, and their eggs are destroyed by the weka. The great diminution in the numbers of the northern and southern wekas [Ocydrovius earli, Gray, and 0. atistraMs, Sparrm) affords strong testimony to the intensity of the struggle for existence. Both formerly occurred in great abund- ance, both are hardy birds, and both are extremely wary ; but under the changed conditions produced by the introduction of the sheep and rabbit the wekas have greatly dmiinished in numbers, and are now but seldom seen near settlements. The southern weka is more plentiful ni mountain districts than the northern, but it has become more wary. Although both suffered to some extent from the attacks of rats, wild cats, and dogs, no appreciable diminution was observed until the intro- duction of stoats and ferrets, against which they are clearly unable to contend. The striped rail (Balkis lyhilij^pensis , L.) does not seem to have diminished so largely as might have been expected, but owdng to the excessively shy habits of this bird it is not easy to form an opinion. Hutton's rail {Cabalus modestus, Hutt.), of the Chatham Islands, one of the most remarkable, as it is one of the rarest, of ocydromine birds, is on the verge of extinction, if it be not already extinct. It has only been found on the Islet of IMangare, which, according to a valued correspondent, is now under settlement, the first act of the settler having been to capture all the specimens of the Cabalus that he could find, in order to realise tlieir market- value. It is a lamentable oversight that this small islet, the value of which could have been but trivial, was not purchased long ago in order to insure the preservation of this singularly interesting bird. The swamp-hen {Poiyhyrio melanotus, Temm.) seemed for a time to increase with the progress of settlement rather than to diminish, but of late years there has been a marked dimi- nution of its numbers, which may possibly be traced to the destruction of its eggs by the ubiquitous rat. T. Kirk. — Displacemejit of Species in Kcic Zealand. 11 The small snipe (Gallinago imsilla, Buller) has become extemely rare in the few habitats where it has been observed, in all probability from its eggs having been destroyed by rats. Mr. James Baker informed me that in the early days of Auck- land he had observed from twelve to twenty together on the shores of the Hauraki Gulf, but I believe it has not been observed in that locality since 1868. The white heron [Ardea alba, L.) has long been known to be extremely rare in the colony, but of late years it has almost disappeared, chiefly, it may be, from the rapacity of collectors, although it has doubtless suffered from the at- tacks of the large hawk, and from rats, &c. The blue heron {Ardea sacra, Gml.) appears to have suffered but little in comparison with its white relative, as there are but few suitable places on our coasts where one or two pairs may not be seen by a patient watcher. Of late years extensive inroads have been made amongst the Anatidge, all of which are greatly diminished in numbers. About fifteen years ago the paradise-duck {Casarca variegata, Gml.) was very com- mon on the east coast of the Wellington District, between Cape Palliser and Castlepoint, but at the present time the traveller may ride the entire distance w'ithout seeing a speci- men. The eggs and young birds have suffered from the at- tacks of rats and wild eats, while stoats and weasels are said to have disposed of the adults, and numbers have been shot for mere sport. The same diminution of numbers has been observed in the South Island, where it was always more plentiful than in the North. The browu duck (Anas chlorotis. Gray), the grey duck (^4. sujjerciliosa, Gml.) the little teal [Querq^icdula gibberifrons, Miiller), and the black teal {Fuligula novcs-zealandics, Gml.), have been specially sought by the sportsman, with the result that where large numbers were formerly seen only a comparatively few indi- viduals can be found to-day. They have also suffered severely from the depredations of rats. Speaking generally, the oceanic birds that breed on the coasts of New Zealand appear to have suffered but little from introduced enemies, their breeding-Dlaces being usuallv out of reach of rats or wild cats. Captain Fairchild, of the Government steamer " Hiuemoa," is of opinion that the al- batros and its allies are less numerous on the ^Auckland and Campbell Islands than formerly, but the diminution can only have been caused by the ravages of the collector. The feet of the larger kinds are in demand for tobacco-pouches, and the heaS is mounted for ornamental purposes. Some years ago the late Mr. Charles Traill informed me that large numbers had been killed on the Antarctic Islands for the sake of the wing-bones, which were in demand for pipe- 1 2 Tr ansae tions . — Miscellaneous . stems. But nearly all the Procellaridae, the Laridae, and the Pehcanidae are still to be found in vast numbers. In 1891 I visited the Snares, and was filled with amazement at the number of petrels that made their appearance on the approach of evening. From the surface of tiie sea to the greatest height at which it was possible to distinguish them they were to be seen in myriads, and gave me such an idea of their vast numbers as 1 had never before been able to realise ; while their rapid but graceful evolutions were a never-ending source of pleasure. The scene reminded one of the countless vistas of stars opened to the eye of the ob- server through a good telescope, or, perhaps better still, of the ever advancing and receding hosts of bacteria to be seen in infusions under a high power of the microscope. The vast assemblage of penguins to be seen on the Bounty Islands did not impress me with nearly such overwhelming ideas of the numbers of marine birds as that memorable aerial scene at the Snares. The common shag {PJialacrocorax varius, Gml.), which was formerly frequent on the banks of fresh-water, and more rarely of tidal, rivers, has certainly diminished of late years, although there is no danger of its immediate extinction ; but, on the whole, there seems very little, if any, diminution in the numbers of the marine cormorants. Passing from the sea-birds to the Apterygidae, a widely different state of affairs is found to prevail. Apteryx. mantelli (Bartl.) of the North Island is in much the same position as A. anstralis (Shaw) and A. 07ceni (Gould) of the Soutli Island (but also found sparingly in the North). All alike are extinct, or nearly extinct, over large districts in which they were formerly so plentiful that explorers and surveyors calculated on their furnishing a considerable portion of the food-supply ; but this is now entirely out of the question, and every year brings the date of their complete extinction appreciably closer. Their supply of food is indirectly reduced by the rabbits, which in some cases have invaded their haunts ; their eggs are destroyed by wekas and rats ; and the adult birds are killed wholesale by stoats, weasels, wild cats, and occasionally by dogs w'hich have escaped from domestication. The com- plete extinction of these interesting birds by agencies now in operation will not extend over a lengthened period. It is not easy to determine the effects produced by inti'O- duced birds upon the indigenous birds of the colony, nor in all cases to trace the lines along which their influence has been exerted ; but it is advisable to make brief mention of the kinds that have become most exteiisively naturalised. The Chinese pheasant (Phasiamis torquatus, Gml.) is abundant in many districts, and by its superior vigour has almost completely T. Kirk. — Displacemcnl of Species in Neiv Zealand. 13 absorbed the common pheasant (P. colchicus, L.), which was introduced at an earher date, and has added considerably to the food-supply o[ the colony, but, excepfpossibly by diminish- ing the food of certain indigenous species, does not appear to have exercised any injurious influence. The partridge {Ferdix cinerea, Briss.), the Tasmanian quail {Cotiiraix australis, Lath.), and the Australian quail (C. ■pcctoralis, Gould), al- though liberated in large numbers, have not become generally naturahsed, chiefly owing to the ravages of rats and wild cats. The beautiful Cahfornian quail {Ortyx califorjiica, Steph.) has become plentiful, especially in thinly- wooded districts. The white swan {Cygims olor, Gnd.) lias been liberated in several localities, and increased rapidly until the rats and Maoris discovered that its eggs and young birds were good for food, when a speedy diminution took place, so that at present its numbers are but small. The black swan (C. atratus, Lath.) is abundantly naturalised in many localities from the North Cape to Canterbury, and sometimes occurs in tliousands, as in the great lagoon at the entrance to the Opaw-a Eiver, where it seems to have displaced Porphyrio melanotus. Its simul- taneous appearance in so many localities between 1865 and 1868 proves that it must have been a spontaneous immigrant, and that its naturalisation is not due in any large degree to its having been introduced by man. The self-assertive sparrow {Passer domesticus, L.) is per- haps more abundantly naturalised from the North Cape to Stewart Island than any other bird, and, although it steals the grain of the farmer and the fruit of the orchardist without scruple, makes some return by the destruction of hosts of the cultivator's enemies, especially during the breeding season ; but, occurring in such vast numbers, it must have trenched upon the food-supply of the smaller indigenous birds, in which it has been assisted by the yellowhammer {Emberiza citrinella, L.), the skylark {Alauda arvensts, L.), the hedge-sparrow {Accentor modularms, L.), the gi'ey linnet {Fringilla cannatena, L.), the green linnet {F. cliloris, L.), the chafdnch {F. ccslebs, L.), the goldfinch {F. cardiielis, L.), and especially by the starling {Stcrnus vulgaris, L.), which occurs in immense flocks in nearly all districts. The Australian mainah {JMy- zantha garrula, Vig. et Hors.), with the thrush {Tiirdus musicus, L.) and the blackbird (T. merula, L.), in all pro- bability have been less injurious. I am not aware of any other birds that have become so generally naturalised as to require mention here. Mabimalia. The indigenous terrestrial mammals are restricted to two species of bats — the long-eared bat {Mystacina tuherculata, 14 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Gray) and the short-eared bat (Chalinolobus morio, Gray), which, although often local, are occasionally seen in con- sidercible numbers. Both are less frequent than formerly, owing to the destruction of large areas of forest, and pos- sibly to their food having been diminished by naturalised birds. The so-called Maori rat (Mus maorium, Hutton), and the Maori dog, long since extinct, were introduced by the Maoris, and used for food. For a long time the Maori rat was supposed to have been extirpated by the black rat {Mus rattus, L.), which is especially plentiful in certain parts of the North Island, and the grey rat {Mus dccumanus, L.), which is established throughout the colony. The Maori rat is, however, still to be found on several islets in the North, and appears to be not uncommon in the northern parts of the South Island. The ravages of the grey rat upon native birds have been repeatedly mentioned, but its partiality for the freshwater bivalve Ihiio aucklandicus is not so well known. In tributaries of the Waikato, where this mollusc is abundant, small heaps of its shells may be seen on the banks with the front margins bitten through by the rodent, which, after extracting the animal, has left the empty shell as a mute wntness to his voracity. The mouse {Mus muscnkis, L.) is to be found everywhere, and, when occurring in great abund- ance, often causes the grey rat to abandon the field. In country districts it feeds upon the seeds of sheep-sorrel, wire- weed, and other prostrate plants during the winter season. The injuries effected by the wild cat are too well known to need further mention, and the same may be said of the dog escaped from domestication. The domesticated ox and the horse can scarcely be said to have exercised any directly deleterious effects on the native fauna, except, perhaps, upon the earthworm ; but the sheep, by devouring the food of other animals, has been only less injurious than the rabbit, and, like that unwelcome intruder, ranges from sea-level to the limits of perpetual snow. At present no serious damage has been sustained from the hare. The wild pig, however, has been a terrible enemy to young birds, and, in a few localities, the goat has assisted, by de- stroying the shrubs which formed their shelter. In addition to the widespread destruction caused by bringing fern- and forest-land under cultivation, the indigenous fauna has suffered severely from naturalised worms, insects, birds, and mammals — partly through the diminution of the food-supply caused by the invaders ; from their superior vigour ; often from their predaceous habits ; and from their rapid increase, which in many cases has enabled them to crowd the native species off the field. With the exception of the sheep, rabbit, cat, and especially of the stoat, ferret, and T. Kirk. — Displacement of Species In New Zealand. 15 weasel, the greater portion of the injury has been effected by animals which have been introduced through inadvertence or accident. Natural Eeplacement amongst Plants. Before considering the injuries sustained by the flora from the numerous naturalised plants, it seems desirable to de- scribe a kind of natural replacement which may be observed to a greater or less extent in nearly all forest districts. On forest or scrub being felled and burnt off, unless grass-seed is sown immediately, certain species of fungi or of mosses make their appearance, Fanaria connivens (Hampe), being perhaps the most frequent ; next, the bracken; more rarely, GleicJicnia circinata (Sw.). The latter, however, is soon overpowered by the former, and the entire area is quickly covered with a luxuriant growth of " aruhe," thus affording a suggestion as to the way in which the wide fern-clad " pakihis " were origi- nally formed and the timber replaced by fern. But a more striking form of replacement is often to be witnessed : a dense growth of the makomako {Aristotelia raccviosa, Hook, f.) takes the place of the pines and broad-leaved trees which have ftillen under the axe. Not infrequently the makomako forms a kind of coppice, the dense growth killing off' most of the branches, so that the plants form long, straight rods ; the stronger individuals, outgrowing the others, develope branches, and, being thus enabled to assimilate a larger amount of nutritive matter, become more robust, and, gaining, complete mastery, prevent the weaker from obtaining their fair por- tion of air and light, so that at length they die out, leaving the more vigorous specimens to form a mako- mako grove ; these repeat the process amongst them- selves, the weakest continually going to the wall, until the undergrowth becomes more or less open, when various shrubs and trees make their appearance, and a new piece of mixed forest replaces the makomako, which has become compara- tively rare. In many parts of the Kaipara the first tree to make its appearance after a clearing has been formed is the fuchsia (F. excorticata, L. f.), which often occurs in vast abundance, to the exclusion of almost all other plants ; it grows less rapidly, however, than the makomako, and is more speedily interspersed with other shrubs and trees. Another plant which often makes its appearance in large quantities after clearing is the poroporo (Solanum avlculare, Forst.), which is less permanent than either of the preceding. In 1864, owing to the Maoris having fired upon our troops along the line of the Great South Eoad, between Drury and the Waikato, the heavy forest on each side of the road vv^as felled for a width of about 2 chains and burnt off" when a 16 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. remarkably strong growth of poroporo sprang up, and for many miles both sides of the road were bordered with this plant, which in its turn afforded temporary shelter for many shrubs and young trees, amongst which the totara was remarkably frequent. On the west coast of the South Island, much of the lowland forest when burnt off is temporarily replaced by a robust growth of a large native groundsel {Erechtites jirenanthoides , DC), which often attains the height of 5ft., most of it, however, disappearing before the close of the third year, when its place is taken by fern or, more rarely, by shrubs and trees. When the road from Nelson to the BuUer was formed through the Hope Valley, about 1870, the burnt area on each side of the road-line was thickly dotted with the rare pine, Podocarpiis actctifolitcs (T. Kirk), although very few specimens of the plant were to be seen in the immediate vicinity. It is, however, already overgrown by larger trees to a considerable extent, and affords an instance of a phenomenon often observed by foresters in Europe, where certain plants, as Pyrola minor (L.) and P. rotunclifolia (L.), make their appear- ance in forests which have recently been thinned, and, after increasing for three or four years, gradually die out, to reappear after the next periodical thinning. Much, however, has yet to be learned with regard to phenomena of this kind in New Zealand. Destbuction of Kaubi Foeests. It is now proposed to trace the principal lines along which injury has been done to the flora, and at the outset to glance at the agency of man. So far as the necessary results of clear- ing land for cultivation are concerned, thay are sufficiently obvious, and have already been mentioned. But they are greatly aggravated and intensified when attention is attracted to the economic value of certain timbers, and the forest is felled at the demand of commerce : the giant kauris, whose branches were waving high in the air long before the civilisa- tion of the "West was called into existence, are thrown down, and these grand trees, the growth of many centuries, are in a brief space made available for the thousand requirements of every-day life. But before this has been done rolling-roads have been formed, or tramways laid, involving the destruction of a vast amount of arboreal growth, of elegant flowering shrubs, of fragrant orchids, of delicate herbaceous plants, and of charming ferns, which never again can beautify that scene; for directly the last log has been removed the intelligent bush- man, with a recklessness which would be reprobated by a savage, applies a match to the dead branches, for the mere pleasure of seeing the blaze, and not only destroys thousands of promising young trees, but effectually prevents all possibility T. KiKK. — DisplacevLent of Species in Neio Zealand. 17 of renewal, since the surface-soil, being charged with resin, becomes so intensely heated that all fallen seeds are destroyed, and the site of the forest becomes a desolation, which, after a short interval, is partially covered with an unattractive weedy growth, the seeds of which have been introduced in the wool or hair of animals, or the wings of birds, or blown by aerial currents, after a time to be slightly relieved by patches of bush-lawyer {Buhus australis, Forst.) or other uninviting plants. There is probably no greater scene of desolation in the colony than the sites of the large kauri forests in the Kaipara district and on the Cape Colville peninsula. In cases like this the direct and intentional agency of man compresses into a brief space a far greater amount of destruction than would be effected by natural agencies during many centuries. In.jury caused by Cattle. Whenever cattle gain access to the forest they browse upon the young shoots, while they consolidate the soil, thus pre- venting the germination of seeds and consequent renewal; this renders the atmosphere dry, and eventually leads to the de- struction of the older trees, although no actual clearing may have been made by man. Next to man, however, the chief agents in this destructive work are the slieep and the rabbits. Some districts are eaten almost bare by these close feeders, little being left except the tough bases of the silver-tussock {Poa cczspitosa, Forst.) and the wiry, ligneous stems of Muhlenbeckia and similar plants ; even the woolly leaves of some species of Celmisia are often closely cropped, the result being that the more delicate plaiits are all but extirpated over large areas. In a few localities goats have been equally destructive. I have been informed that the tainui {Pomaderris apetala, VaVd.) has been com- pletely destroyed at Kawhia, where it was formerly abundant, and is now restricted to the south head of the Mokau Eiver and the Chatham Islands. Injury caused by Eats. Some plants formerly plentiful have been to a large extent destroyed by the pig and the rat [Mus rattus, L., and M. decumanus, L.), as the curious orchid [Gastrodiacunningliamii, Hook, f.), the tubers of which are highly nutritious. This plant has become very rare in districts where the black rat is plentiful. On one occasion, in 1874, I found three remarkably fine specimens, quite 2ft. in height, with tubers Gin. or 7in. in length, and placed them in what seemed a safe place in a hut at Omaha, but during the night they were carried off by the rodents. Both the pig and the grey rat feed upon the fleshy roots of the larger Umbelliferae. 18 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Injury caused by Insects. A small native beetle, which I have not been able to identify, has greatly reduced many species of Cclmisia and other tompositse by depositing its eggs on the disc florets, where they quickly enter the larval state, and destroy the carpel before it reaches maturity. The great increase of this insect during recent years is doubtless caused by the frequent burning of the surface vegetation, and consequent destruction of the lizards and predatory insects which kept the beetle in check. Several species of Diptera which are equally destructive doubtless owe their rapid increase of late years to the same cause. Displacement by Introduced Plants. In many instances a comparatively few species of natural- ised plants have taken possession of sea-beaches, completely displacing the original vegetation by their more vigorous growth and their vast numbers — simply crowding it out by depriving it of air and light, and to a large extent absorbing its nourishment. This may be seen, for instance, south of the Township of Kaikoura, where a broad stretch of land at the water-margin is wholly given up to such weedy plants as the common brome-grass (Brovms sterilis, L.), docks {Bunicx obtusifolius, L., B. crisjms, L., &c.), fleabane (Erigeron cana- densis, L.), catch-fly (Silcne anglica, L.), Yorkshire-fog {Holcus lanatiis, L.), and others, perchance intermixed with one or two native plants of similar habit. Here the displacement is almost complete, the original littoral vegetation having been driven to a few peculiarly favoured spots, where it maintains a somewhat precarious existence. The displacement of the New Zealand flax {Fhormium tenax, Forst.), the coarse sedge known as toe-toe- whatu- manu {Cyperns ustulatns, A. Rich.), and the common fern {Pteris esculenta, Forst.), by European grasses and clovers is so striking that it has arrested the attention of the na- tives ; and, indeed, it is calculated to attract the notice of even a casual observer, for the indigenous species mentioned are so robust that the mere idea of their being overcome in the struggle for existence by such plants as clovers and grasses seems almost absurd : but the fact remains. Seeds of rye- grass, meadow-grass, white or red clover, &c., germinate by the side of the coarse-growing toitoi, and gradually abstract the moisture which it has been enjoying undisturbed ; the growth of the sedge becomes less vigorous, while that of the interlopers is more robust. The result would not be in doubt were the plants now left undisturbed, but an overpowering force comes to the help of the invaders- — the rich grass attracts T. KiKK. — Displacement of Species in Neio Zealand. 19 cattle and horses to graze upon it ; this increases the vigour of the grass, while the native plants have to contend against the consolidation of the soil caused by the trampling of heavy stock; this further invigorates the interlopers, and enables them . to continually extend their area by giving off new shoots from the base, and occasionally by producing seed. x*\.s their growth increases the vigour of the toitoi perceptibly diminishes, and its ultimate extinction is certam, although the process may occupy several years. The occasional replacement of manuka {Leptospermuvi scoparium, Forst.) and other shrubs by grasses is still more striking. Sir George Grey drew my attention to this fact on my first visit to the Kawau, in 1864, where the naturalised Sporoholus indicus (E. Br.) was spreading amongst manuka from 5ft. to 8ft. in height, forming a sward which, notwithstanding the coarse character of the herbage, was closely cropped by stock, to the benefit of the grass and injury of the shrub. But even this is less surprising than an instance of a similar kind at the Bay of Islands, where a delicate and slender naturalised love -grass {Eragrostis brownii, Nees) is exerting the same influence on a large scale. Introduced grasses exhibit similar action upon many native grasses in all parts of the colony and at all elevations. In the Upper Waimakariri, Triodia exigua (T. Kirk) often forms a compact and extensive sward, which is usually able to resist aggression on the part of its indigenous allies, but if a single grain of rye-grass {Lolium pcrenne, L.) or meadow- gi-ass [Poa pratensis, L.) falls amongst it and germinates, the continuity of the sward is speedily interrupted and a process of disintegration sets in which ultimately destroys the whole, or reduces it to small tufts or patches. The same result is often exhibited at the expense of more robust plants. The gradual replacement of the Spaniard {Acipliijlla colensoi, Hook, f.) by self-sown pasturage-plants is most remarkable. It seems next to impossible that the large rigid bayonet-like leaf-segments which surround the base of the flower-stem in this strange plant should be injured by a growth of soft herbs, however compact : yet, so it is : dense masses of the Spaniard actually impenetrable to stock of any kind are de- stroyed by this simple agency. When once its vigour is reduced the ultimate destruction of the Spaniard is simply a matter of time. The common spear -grass {A. sqiiarrosa, Forst.) is often displaced in the same way. Amalgamation op Native and Introduced Plants. But there is another aspect to the case ; for, however remarkable it may seem after the statements that have just been made, certain slender native grasses, of great value on •.account of their nutritive qualities, are able to resist the 20 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. invaders, and ultimately become amalgamated with them, to the great benefit of the stock-grower. Microlcena sti])oides (E. Br.) and Dantlionia 'pilosa (E. Br.) are fair examples of this group. Eeplacement by Epacrids. One of the most interesting instances of replacement that has been observed up to this time is now in progress on the Te Karaka fiats, between Papatoitoi and Drury, in the Auck- land District. These fiats for many miles are clothed with a dense, but not always luxuriant, growth of manuka, manuka- raunui (Leptosperimlm ericoides, A. Eich., Dracoj^hylluvi ur- villeamim, A. Eich.), mingimingi iCyatliodes acerosa, E. Br.), &c., the manuka being the prevailing plant. Eather more than forty years ago the late Dr. Sinclair and General Bolton discovered the beautiful -2J2Jflms_2;«rjj«rasce7is (E. Br.), a native of New South Wales, in this locality, when it was rightly con- sidered by Sir Joseph Hooker to have been introduced."'' Fifteen years elapsed before it was seen by other botanists, when it was found in several places on the flats, presenting the aspect of a truly indigenous plant, and attaining the height of from 2ft. to 6ft. or more. From the great quantity in which it was found I was erroneously led to consider it indigenous, and this conclusion has been generally accepted. fMore recently it has been observed in localities fully twenty miles distant. In 1875 three plants of another species (E. micropliylia, E. Br.) were discovered by A. T. Urquhart, Esq., in the same district. This species is also a native of New South Wales, but has a wider range, extending to Queensland, Victoria, and Tas- mania. In three years the plant increased to such an extent that it formed " a dense mass 60 yards in circumference, the intermediate vegetation — Leptospermum, Pomaderris, and Pteris — being almost completely destroyed."] In 1887 I had the pleasure of visiting the habitat under the guidance of Mr. Urquhart, and found that not only had the area occupied by the plant been greatly extended, but that colonies had been formed at a greater or less distance from the original centre, and would in their turn form new centres of distribu- tion. Mr. Urquhart also pointed out a very old specimen of another species, E. pmlchella (Cav.), also a native of New South Wales : this was surrounded by numbers of young plants, which were producing perfect seed, and increasing at a rapid rate. My friend informed me that he had discovered a colony of this species at some distance from the parent plant, but, unfortu- * Fl. N.Z., vol. ii., pp. 321 and 334. t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. ii. (1869), p. 107. I Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xviii. (1881), p. 864. T. Kirk. — Displacement of Species in New Zealand. 21 nately, I had not time to visit it. These three species were ahke extending their area mainly in the direction of the pre- vaihug winds, and would, I am convinced, be able practically to replace the indigenous vegetation over the entire area if not interfered with by man. This instance of replacement is replete with interest, as it is almost the only case in which there is clear evidence of the seeds of phanerogamic plants having been carried by aerial currents over a distance of from 1,200 to 1,400 miles and becoming established in a new country. Displacement and Increase. The blue-gum (Eucalyptus globulus,'''- Lab.) in some locali- ties shows itself able to compete with the indigenous vegetation under special circumstances. Seedlings germinating amongst manuka 4ft. or 5ft. in height will speedily overtop it. In several localities self-sown plants are found by thousands, and, as a second generation of naturalised plants is already to be found, there can be no doubt that if not interfered with it would entirely alter the aspect of large portions of the colony. E. piperita (Sm.) and E. rostrate (Schl.) appear to have the same power of adapting themselves to new situatioiis, although perhaps not to an equal extent. The brush-wattle {Albizzia lophantJia, Benth.), a native of Western Australia, is able to destroy the strongest vegetation in open manuka country, as may be seen in numerous locali- ties ; while the tan-wattle {Acacia decnrrens, Willd.) and the silver- wattle {A. dealbata, Link.), although much slower, are equally effective in the northern districts. Another Australian plant, Hakea acicularis]- (Sm.), according to Mr. Cheeseman, " has established itself over several miles of open manuka country at the foot of the Waitakerei Ranges, and is increas- ing fast." Gobbet's locust-tree {Bobmia pseudacacia, L.) forms large groves in the Waikato and other localities ; its lofty stature and numerous suckers effectually prevent the growth of other vegetation. The well-known furze (Ulex europcBus, L.), by its dense habit, has killed tauhinu (Pomaderris phy- licifolia, Lodd.), manuka, kc, over large areas, and is continu- ally extending, while its near relative, the broom (Gytisus scoparias, Link.), is no less troublesome. The injury to pasturage caused by the sweetbriar (Rosa rubicjinosa, L.) is unhappily too well known to need special mention ; but few are equally famihar with its power of overcoming manuka and other shrubs of similar habit. The dog-rose {B. canina, L.) exerts the same influence to a less extent in several dis- tricts of the South Island ; while various forms of the European ' Ti-ans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xvi. (ISS^;, p. 383. t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xv. (1882), p. 291. 22 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. blackberry {Biihus fmticosus, L.), &c., by overgrowilig their unfortunate competitors, deprive them of light and air while absorbing their nourishment. The tutsan {Hy'pericum anclroscEnum, L.), although little more than a strong-growing herb, less robust than any of the plants previously mentioned, has become abundant in cer- tain districts, and is able to compete successfully with manuka, karamu, hange-hange, and other shrubs of stronger growth. Its seeds appear to be disseminated by birds. Two trees may be mentioned here, although they do not perhaps displace the indigenous vegetation to any great extent. They never perfect seeds or give off suckers, yet they have become self-diffused along the margins of rivers and in similar situations to such an extent as to impart a distinct character to the landscape in certain districts. They are the weeping- willow {Salix hahylonica), a native of Northern China, and the crack-willow (S. fragilis, L.), of Northern Europe. Twigs of these trees are easily detached, and are floated by the river to new situations, where they quickly take root and develope with rapidity, so that in certain situations navigation is impeded. Intkoduced Plants on Bkoken Soil. Introduced plants compete with indigenous species for the possession of any newly-loosened surface, and especially for waste land. The margins of newly-formed roads are speedily clothed with a dense growth of sheep's-cress, docks, thistles, Yorkshire-fog, and many others, mixed with the native piripiri {Accena sancjuisorbce, Vahl.), toad-grass {Juncus bufonius, L.), Danthonia semi-annnlaris (R. Br.), and when neglected form splendid nurseries for injurious insects and fungi. Crumbling places on hillsides in many localities are quickly covered with a strong and permanent growth of the blessed-thistle {Silyhum marianum, Goertn.), which distributes vast quanti- ties of seeds, and overcomes indigenous and introduced plants alike, forming continuous masses of variegated foliage in the early spring, but presenting a ragged and untidy appearance during the autumn and winter months. The common spear- thistle (Cnicus lanceolatus, L.) furnishes a striking example of the ability of a plant to seize upon situations suitable for its growth ; in many districts immediately after the bush is burnt off the entire area is overrun by this rapacious invader, which exhibits a dense luxuriant growth often 4ft. to 5ft. high, preventing the growth of grass, and forming an almost impenetrable mass. The growtli becomes less luxuriant dur- ing the second season, so that the grass is able to make head- way, and by the end of the fourth season only a few old thistles have retained sufficient vigour to reassert themselves. The so-called Californian thistle [G. arvensis, Curtis) is the T. KiKK. — Displacement of Sj^ecies in New Zealand. 23 only naturiilised species capable of injuring pasturage to any- serious extent, and, unhappily, it is often the cause of serious loss to the pastoralist and agriculturist. The Gundagai thistle, as it is called in New Zealand (Carddius pycnocepkahis, Jacq.), flourishes on newly-disturbed soil in many localities, but is comparatively rare on grass-laud. Whenever the finely-comminuted basaltic scoria of the Auckland isthmus is disturbed, a luxuriant crop, chiefly of naturalised plants, speedily makes its appearance, but amongst them one of the most abundant is the indigenous Ghenopodimn carinahmi (E. Br.), although not a specimen may have been seen in the vicinity until the surface was disturbed. After the second year the number of plants is greatly diminished, and during the fourth year only solitary specimens are to be found. A similar instance has been observed at Cape Whanbrow, near Oamaru. Whenever the fine silt which covers the sur- face is disturbed, LepuUuvi tenuicaiLle (T. Kirk) and the indi- genous form of Atriplex patula (L.) make their appearance in abundance, although usually both plants are only to be found in small quantity. Naturalised Aquatic Plants. The increase of the watercress [Nasturtium amiphibium, E. Br.) in streams and watery places is phenomerial, and attracts the attention of new arrivals on account of the excessive luxuriance and robust growth of the herb, which is not infrequently from 3ft. to oft. in height above the vvater- level, and often impedes the passage of boats. This luxuri- ance is chiefly due to the mildness of the climate, and has a singular parallel in one locality in England. At the VVyken Colliery the water pumped up from a great depth is of a high temperature, and flows into a stream which expands into a large, shallow pond. As the pond is never frozen, even in the severest weatlier, the watercress is almost as luxuriant as in New Zealand. The Canadian water-weed [Anacliaris ahinastruin, Bab.) simply chokes the Eiver Avon at Christchurch, and has been carried by aquatic birds to other streams in Canterbury and Otago, but is rare in the North Island, being restricted, so far as known to me, to a river near Mongonui, and another in the Bay of Plenty. It is of considerable interest, owing to its being the only submerged a:][uatic plant that has become naturalised in the colony. Naturalised Fungi. Several naturalised fungi are highly injurious to the indi- genous vegetation, as the ergot [Claviceps purpurea, Tub), which infests numerous native grasses ; the clematis cluster- 24 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. cup {(Ecidium clcmatidis, DC), frequently infests Clematis colensoi and other species almost to the point of destruction, the stem, petiole, and even parts of tlie flower becoming thickened and distorted under its attacks : but the limits of this address will not permit me to enter into detail. Bate of Increase. As the number of species more or less completely naturalised in the colony is upwards of five hundred, it becomes a question of some interest whether additions will be made to the cata- logue at the same rate during the next half -century as in the past; if so, the number of species of naturalised and indi- genous Phanerogams would be about equal, and many of the latter would be crowded out of the field. A satisfactory answer may, I think, be given. The first catalogue of naturalised plants was published in the original "Flora of New Zealand," vol. ii., p. 321 (1855). It comprises sixty-one species, seventeen of which must be excluded as erroneous, leaving forty-four naturalised species. The second list, published in the " Handbook of the New Zealand Flora," p. 757 (1867), contains 171, from which twenty-one species must be deducted as included on insuffi- cient grounds, leaving 150 species naturalised. A list prepared by the present writer was published in "Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," vol. ii., p. 131 (1869) ; it embodied all that was then known on the subject, and enumerated 292 species, a summary of wdiich, given at page 146, showed forty- one species en-oneously included, or of uncertain position, and 251 species truly naturalised. During the three following years I added fifty-three species to the list, making a total of 304 species known to me at the date of my ceasing to reside in Auckland. In 1882 Mr. Clieeseman published a list of the naturalised plants of the Auckland District, in which he raised the total to 382 ; but this does not include a few species seen by myself, and still unpublished. At the present time the number of species is certainly over five hundred, as already stated. Making all fair allowance for the imperfection of the records for 1855 and 1869, it will be seen that naturalised species have increased with great rapidity during the last fifty years. But it is not probable that this rate can be main- tained ; the number of encroaching species suitable for a given habitat, after all, must be limited, and it may well be that the limit for New Zealand, so far as introductions from European countries are concerned, is very nearly reached. As bearing upon this point, it may be remarked that, as many of the naturalised plants of different countries are migrants from a common centre, a large proportion must necessarily be iden- tical ; for instance, out of 243 species enumerated by Mr. C. T. Kirk. — Displacement of Species in Neio Zealand. 25 Moore, F.L.S., as naturalised in New South Wales, fully three-fourths are naturalised in New Zealand also ; the re- mainder, consistingchiefly of plants from warmer countries, are not capable of becoming naturalised here. Again, out of 103 species of plants recently introduced with ballast from Buenos Ayres, eighty-six were already naturalised here. The distribution of naturalised plants in the colony follows to a very great extent the same lines as those of the indigenous flora : the number of species decreases rapidly southward. Upwards of four hundred and twenty species are found in the Auckland District, but no other district in the colony contains so large a number ; less than three hundred species would be found in the Wellington District. It must, however, be remembered that the climate of Auckland is much more favourable to the naturalisation of plants from warm tem- perate climates than that of any other part of the colony. A singular illustration of this has been recently given. A large quantity of ballast taken on board at Buenos Ayres was dis- charged at Wellington from a vessel loading for Europe. Over a hundred species of plants made their appearance on the ballast before the close of the second summer, the great majority being plants already naturalised in the Auckland District; twenty-seven species, however, had not previously been observed in Wellington, and of these seventeen species had not previously been seen in any part of the colony. In all probability not more than two of these will become naturalised — most likely only one. But had the ballast been deposited on the light scoria soil of the Auckland isthmus instead of on the stiff Wellington clay ii is absolutely certain that in the absence of interference fully one-third would have become esta.blished — probably more. I will only add, as an additional reason for not expecting so large an increase in the number of introductions as formerly, that during the last fifteen years great improvements have been made in cleaning garden-seeds, agricultural seeds, and cereals, which will not only tend to re- duce the number of species likely to be introduced in the future, but to prevent the yearly importation of certain species which at present are but partially naturalised. Chiefly from this cause certain species, such as Fumaria officinalis (L.), Lepi- dium campestre (R. Br.), Papaver rliceas (L.), Githago scgetuin (Desf.), Scandix pecten-veneris (L.), are less plentiful in many districts than they were twenty years ago. Possible Extinction of Indigenous Species. It is scarcely to be feared that any large number of indigenous species will become exterminated unless under special conditions not yet realised. It has been shown that the aspect of vegetation over large areas may be changed by 26 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. displacement, but it does not follow that this would involve the absolute extinction of many, or even of any, indigenous species. Displacement rarely passes into absolute replace- ment ; after it has reached a certain stage the invaders lose a portion of their vigour, and become less encroaching ; a portion of the indigenous vegetation becomes gradually inured to light and air, the severity of the struggle becomes less intense, and a gradual amalgamation takes place between the invaders and the invaded, which of itself facilitates the pre- servation of many of the more delicate kinds, while those less fitted to hold their place in the contest become restricted to those habitats which are of a peculiarly favourable character. The danger of extinction is greatest for those endemic species which are so remarkably local ; for instance, Epilobiiim hrevvpes (Hook, f.), restricted to a solitary habitat on Mount Torlesse, and another in the Awatere, may at any time be destroyed by an uiiusually hungry rabbit or sheep, and one of the most interesting plants in the colony blotted out of existence. Clianthus puniceus (Banks and Sol.) is already restricted to one or two islets where sheep are unknown, and owes its preservation in a wild state to their absence. Logania clej^ressa (Hook, f.), Myrsinc montana. (Hook, f.), and Abrotanella imsilla (Hook, f.) are in exactly the same position as Einlobmm brevipes. The list might be increased, but it is needless to mention others. Protective Measures. In 1868 Professor Hutton and myself pointed out the desirability of having the Little Barrier Island proclaimed a reserve for the protection of the native birds, with which at that time it abounded. After the lapse of a quarter of a century this has been partially effected. The Little Barrier Island in the north, and Eesolution Island in the south, have been proclaimed ]-eserves for the protection of native birds and plants ; but the work of destruction is still being carried on. No serious attempt has been made to place on either island the birds or plants whose existence is most imperilled, although any of the endemic birds or plants of the North Island would find a suitable place of refuge on the Little Barrier, and those of the South on Eesolution Island, which is specially adapted to the growth of alpine plants and the endemic species of the Antarctic islands. Owing to the variations from the typical form exhibited by the birds of the Snares, the Auckland Islands, Campbell Island, Antipodes Island, &c., they have attained a high commercial value, and are therefore, at this time, peculiarly exposed to the rapacity of collectors. It is possible to pre- vent their extinction by the immediate removal of representa- PuKNELL. — On True Instincts of Animals. 27 tives of each species to Eesolution Island if the work is taken in hand at once, and the island placed under the care of a skilful curator. If it he postponed for any length of time, who can say what may occur ? It would require a very short time indeed to destroy every land-bird on Antipodes Island, or on the Snares ; and, now that attention has been drawn to their interest, their value, and to their linnted power of flight, the danger has become urgent. If this address should be instrumental in drawing atten- tion to the danger and accelerating the adoption of protec- tive measures it will not have been given in vain ; but I ven- ture to hope that it may be productive of still greater benefit in leading some of those present to investigate the phenomena of change and replacement which are now in progress, and in the results of which we are so deeply interested, before the opportunity has passed away for ever. Art. II. — True Instincts of Animals. By Charles W. Purnell. [Read before the Pliilosophical Institute of Canterbury, 1st Jfilay, i6'9J.] The definition of the term "instinct" has been greatly nar- rowed of late years by scientific thinkers. Formerly, every action of an animal betokening intelligence was attributed to instinct, but latterly the term has been restricted to actions like that of cell-making in the bee, the construction of dams and canals by the beaver, and so forth — actions which are per- formed in an apparently mechanical manner by one generation after another, and seem to be prompted by some other faculty than intelligence. It is now admitted that many acts done by the higher animals must owe their origin to a faculty akin to, if not identical with, human reason ; but the apparently unchanging and invariable nature of such actions as those just mentioned — as the construction of webs by spiders and nests by birds, and the migration of birds — seem to mark off these actions from the variable acts which are done upon the spur of the moment at the bidding of the animal's intelligence. I think we can restrict the definition still further. Writers upon this subject have not taken sufficiently into account how much the young animal may be taught by the old, and how much it can learn through imitation and from its own observa- tion. The migratory habits of certain birds, for example, are always set down to " instinct "; but birds usually migrate in 28 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. flocks, and, in any case, with the young bird it is " follow niy leader." The same remark may be made concerning the migratory habits of the Norwegian lemming, the salmon, and other animals. The periodical shifting of their places of abode by certain animals may be regarded as racial habits, in which the offspring are trained by their parents or seniors ; and it is no more necessary to assume the existence of a special faculty to account for the habit than it would be to assume the existence of a special faculty in mankind to account for the custom of some human families to shift periodically from the town to the country. The nest-building habits of birds may be similarly ex- plained, and even such extraordinary habits as that of the Australian Megapodidae, w4iich build up immense mounds of vegetable and other matter and deposit their eggs in the middle, leaving them to be hatched by the heat evolved from the fermentation of the decaying mass. One member of this family — the Leipoa ocellata — forms a pile as much as 45ft. in circumference and 4ft. in height of leaves thickly covered with sand. It is assumed that these birds construct the mounds without teaching or knowledge acquired by observa- tion ; but I see no warrant for such a belief. How the racial habit was originally acquired is a fair subject for research ; but, having once been acquired, and the propensity incorporated (so to speak) in the bird's mental system, it is easy to com- prehend how the young megapod may acquire the art of build- ing a mound, either from direct observation or from seeing other birds perform the work. The beaver's remarkable habits of constructing dams and water-canals, which, if constructed by human beings, would be deemed proofs of considerable engineering skill, illustrate my proposition. The beavers dwell together in families in artificial habitations called "lodges," which are tenanted by generation after generation. Some of the works con- structed by the beaver, too, are of great antiquity, and there is an instance upon record of a beaver-dam which appeared, upon investigation, to be about a thousand years old, and was still in use. The young beaver remains in the parental lodge until the summer of its third year, when it starts housekeep- ing for itself ; so that it has ample opportunity during its residence in the parental domicile for receiving instruction from its elders in the peculiar ways of beaverdom ; and when it does begin life upon its own account it still enjoys oppor- tunities of acquiring engineering skill by observing the labours of other beavers, and from its own experience. Probably its earlier works are less perfect than those whicli it executes when it grows older, just as the nests made by young birds are seldom as perfect as those made by older ones. PuRNELL. — On True Instincts of Animals. 29 Cats and dogs instruct and correct their young; so do monkeys. Tigers and wolves teach their young how to hunt and kill their prey ; and, speaking generally, the adult Car- nivora train their offspring for the battle of life. Some of the most remarkable so-called instincts displayed by animals can be accounted for in the same way, and when we come to analyse these instincts we find that they are nothing more nor less than tribal habits, passed on from gene- ration to generation, and acquired in a similar way to that in which the racial habits of mankind are acquired. Let us take for example a singular instinct of the huanaco, or guanaco, a small camel-like animal found in South America. In the southern part of Patagonia there are dying-places of the huanaco, to which all individuals inhabiting the surround- ing plains repair at the approach of death in order to yield up the ghost there. "The best known of these dying- or burial- places," says Hudson in " The Naturalist in La Plata," " are on the banks of the Santa Cruz and Gallegos Kivers, where the river-valleys are covered with dense primeval thickets of bushes and trees of stunted growth. There the ground is covered with the bones of countless dead generations." " The animals," says Darwin, "in most cases must have crawled befoi-e dying beneath and among the bushes." This peculiar habit of the huanaco seems to be of a local nature, restricted to South Patagonia. In Northern Patagonia, and on the Chilian and Peruvian Andes, where the huanaco is also found, no such instinct has been observed. Mr. Hudson endeavours to ac- count for the origin of this habit by assuming that, in far distant ages, the huanaco "had formed a habit of congre- catiug with its fellows at certain seasons at the same spot ; further, that there were seasons of suffering to the animal — the suffering, or discomfort, or danger, having in the first place given rise to the habit. Assuming, again, that the habit had existed so long as to become a fixed immutable instinct, a hereditary knowledge, so that the young huanaco, untaught by the adults, would go alone and unerringly to the meeting-place from any distance, it is but an easy step to the belief that, after the conditions had changed, and the refuges were no longer needed, this instinctive knowledge would still exist in them, and that they would take the old road when stimulated by the pain of a wound, or the miserable sensa- tions experienced in disease, or during the decay of the life- energy, when the senses grow dim, and the breath fails, and the blood is thin and cold." Mr. Hudson's theory is a not improbable explanation of the origin of the habit; but it seems to be an unwarranted assumption on his part that the young huanaco, about to die, proceeds to one of these dying-places without being taught by the adults to do so. The huanaco is 30 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. a gregarious animal, and usually goes about in suiall herds, each containing from half a dozen to thirty animals ; but Mr. Darwin states that he saw one herd which must have con- tained at least five hundred huanacos. Iilasmuch as the habit in question is only exercised once during the huanaco's life- time, and then just before death, and is not wanted as part of its daily round of occupations, it seems rather far-fetched to suppose that the habit is become so ingrained in the mental constitution of the animal that the memory of it invariably revives upon the approach of death, and leads the animal unerringly to a dying-place. Even if we assume that an irresistible desire to seek for a dying-place seizes the animal upon the approach of death, it is difficult to understand how the knowledge of the whereabouts of a dying-place could be inherited. It is a far more likely supposition that if a young huanaco is in extremis the older members of the herd expel it from their ranks, as other sick and wounded animals are usually expelled by their fellows, and indicate to it whither it should go. Traditional and tribal memories, perpetuated by com- munication from old to young, will account for such habits as the hive-making liabits of the bee and the domestic and military habits of the various species of ants, which are so commonly regarded as typical of the more wonderful develop- ment of instinct in the lower animals. Even Charles Darwin, calm philosopher as he is, writing about the intelhgence of ants, rapturously observes, "The brain of an ant is one of the most marvellous atoms of matter in the world, perhaps more so than the brain of a man." In point of fact, an ant does not possess a brain, although it does possess an assemblage of gangha which in the higher animals develope into a brain. The large number of ants and social bees which dwell together in communities, and the rigour of their social organization, make the education of the young ant or bee a matter of com- parative ease. It is born into the midst of an active com- munity, living day after day on a system of unchanging routine, and the young ant or bee naturally falls into step with its fellows. A child born and bred in a camp would naturally acquire military habits. The young ant, neverthe- less, seems to receive special instruction from its elders. Eomanes, summing up the results of the observations made upon this subject, says, "The young ant does not appear to come into the world with a full instinctive knowledge of all its duties as a member of a social community. It is led about the nest, and ' trained in a knowledge of domestic duties, especially in the case of the larva3.' Later on the young ants are taught to distinguish between friends and foes. When an ants' nest is attacked by foreign ants the young ants never join in the fight, but confine themselves to removing the PuRNELL. — Oil True Instincts of Animals. 31 pupae; and that the knowledge of hereditary enemies is not wholly instinctive in ants is proved by the following experi- ment, which we owe to Ford : He put young ants belonging to three different species into a glass case with pupae of six other species, all the species being naturally hostile to one another. The young ants did not quarrel, but worked to- gether to tend the pupiB. When the latter hatched out an artificial colony was formed of a number of naturally hostile species, all living together after the manner of the ' happy families' of the showman." Amongst the hive-bees, the younger ones are usually left at home with a small number of older bees to perform the in- ternal work of the hive w^hile the remainder of the older bees go out to collect honey and bee-bread. What deduction can be drawn from this fact save that the younger bees are gradu- ally trained to a knowledge of their duties as members of the community ? Even bees of mature age seem to teach one another. Huber saw a bee building upon the wax which had already been put together by her coun-ades. But she did not arrange it properly, or in a way to continue the design of her predecessors, so that her building made an undesirable corner with theirs. "Another bee," says Huber, "perceived it, pulled down the bad work before our eyes, and gave it to the first in the requisite order, so that it might exactly follow the original direction." Of course, the fact that many so-called instinctive acts are really the products of education and experience does not clash with the view that animals may be, and probably are, born into the world with a hereditary predisposition to certain tribal habits which render instruction in the performance of those habits easier and more effective than it would otherwise be, just as some human families are endowed with musical gifts, and the children in such families more readily acquire the technical skill necessary for the efficient exercise of the musical art than children of families destitute of such special gifts. The mental like the bodily structure of any single animal is the sum and outcome of all its progenitors' faculties ; and, just as its body is better fitted to perform certain acts than others, so its mental organization is better fitted for certain mental operations than it is for others. Body and mind are correlated, and work in unison. The web-building spiders secrete web-building material in their bodies, and possess highly-specialised organs enabling them to produce the material in such manner and abundance that it can be used in the construction of snares. And, as this specialised anatomical structure has gradually been evolved from simple beginnings, the mental facirlty required for the construction of snares has been evolved with it. The spider 32 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. may be said to be endowed with mental as well as physical spinnerets. Those oft-repeated acts wdiich are required for the preservation of the animal's life become so interwoven with its mental fabric as to be inseparable from it, and per- formed almost mechanically. Hence, the newly-born animal, inheriting a special bodily structure, and a mental endowment corresponding with it, is apt and ready to perform such acts even without special education. It may be taken for granted that any human being with his bodily organization intact would in process of time learn to walk of his own accord, even if placed in circumstances which had precluded him from seeing any other human creature walk, or from receiving any instruction in the art of walking. If we eliminate all such habits as may have been acquired without teaching or observation, we shall find left com_para- tively few lixed habits of animals w^hich, in the present state of our knowledge, cannot be accounted for by the individual having received instruction from its fellows or gained know- ledge from its own observation ; and it is to such habits that I propose to restrict the term "instinct." For the purposes of this paper I will call them " true instincts." These in- stincts are confined almost exclusively to insects. By way of illustration I will take the case of the caterpillar of a butterfly (Thekla) referred to in Darwin's " Posthumous Essay on In- stinct," printed as an appendix to Eomanes' " Mental Evolu- tion in Animals." This caterpillar feeds within the pome- granate ; but when full-fed gnaws its way out (thus making the exit of the butterfly possible before its wings are fully expanded), and then proceeds to attach with silk threads the point of the fruit to the branch of the tree, so that it may not fall before the metamorphosis of the insect is complete. Hence, the larva works on this occasion for the safety of the pupa and of the mature insect wdiich it will never see ; and there is apparently no means by which it can receive instruc- tion, since no visible intercourse takes place between the butterfly which laid the eggs from which the caterpillar is produced and the caterpillar. When considering this pro- blem we must firmly grasp the fact that, although the cater- pillar, the pupa, and the mature insect — the butterfly — are, to outward seeming, three distinct animals, in reality they are but varying phases of the same animal ; just as the infant, the boy, and the man are one and the same human being, but in different stages of existence. The difference in the outward aspect of the insect in the several phases of its existence is indeed the more striking, but the essential facts of the phe- nomenon are the same. The caterpillar, the pupa, and the imago form the various stages of the insect's hfe-cycle, just as the progress from early infancy to old age forms the life- PuENELL. — On True Instincts of Animals. 33 cycle of the human being. Therefore, if it be the case that the insect possesses the power of inheriting memories, we can understand how the memory of an inherited habit, useful and common to one phase of the animal's existence, may readily be transmitted from the perfect insect to its offspring through the various stages of that offspring's existence. The order in which these memories are transmitted will be the order in which they will manifest themselves in the new life- cycle. The question therefore is, Does the Thekla possess the power of transmitting the memory of that habit to which I have referred? Is it possible for a habit like this to become so ingrained in the mental constitution of the insect as to be capable of transmission from parent to offspring, in like manner to that in which the bodily structure is transmitted? It appears not unreasonable to suppose that such may be the case. The hfe of an insect is short and monotonous, and its range of locomotion hmited. Its world is a small world — a fragment of the larger world in which man lives and moves and has his being ; there is little scope for variation of habit, and the insect's habits of life must consequently tend to be- come stereotyped. Therein it differs from the higher animals, wdiose mental powers are kept active and mobile by being constantly exercised upon fresh subjects. As the mental nature of the animal grows more complex, instincts become more rare, because the animal exercises more choice in its actions. Even the minds of human beings, however, when kept within too narrow grooves, are apt to become largely mechanical in their actions, as is evidenced by certain Eastern nations, which follow tiie same habits and customs as were followed by their forefathers thousands of years ago. If, then, any particular habit became stereotyped upon the animal's mental system fof course, I use the term " stereo- typed " in a strictly metaphorical sense, and for the purpose of rendering my meaning clearer) it would be transmitted from generation to generation in the same manner as the other mental qualities of the race were transmitted ; for, whatever view we may take of the nature of mind, it cannot be denied that animals of the same race exhibit similar mental capacities ; and hence we must conchide that the offspring owes its mental constitution to its parents just as much as it owes its bodily constitution to them, although the environment of any individual may develope mental as well as bodily peculiarities in that individual. Nor would the fact that the Tliehla butterfly is the offspring of two parents affect the matter, because the habit or instinct above mentioned is common to both, and hence w'ould be transmitted by both. The fact that the nervous system of the Invertebrata is fundamentally different from that of the Vertebrata is full of 3 34 Trajisactions. — Miscellaneous. significance when we reflect that true instincts are ahnost con- fined to members of the former branch of the animal kingdom, seeing that it is through the nervous system that the mind of the animal finds expression. Amongst true instincts I should class such acts of protec- tive mimicry as those performed by the Phasmidse. Here is a description by Professor Drummond of one of these creatures found by him in tropical Africa : " Take two inches of dried yellow grass-stalk, such as one might pluck to run through the stem of a pipe ; then take six other pieces nearly as long and a quarter as thick ; bend each in the middle, at any angle you like ; stick them in three opposite pairs, and again at any angle you like, upon the first grass- stalk, and you have my Chirombo. When you catch him his limbs are twisted about at every angle, as if the whole were made of one long stalk of delicate grass, hinged in a dozen places, and then gently crushed up into a dishevelled heap. Having once assumed a position, by a wonderful instinct he never moves or varies one of his many angles by half a degree. The way this insect keeps up the delusion is indeed almost as wonderful as the mimicry itself ; you may turn him over and over and over, but he is mere dried grass, and nothing will induce him to acknowledge the animal king- dom by the faintest suspicion of spontaneous movement." "We know too little of the life-history of the Phasmidge to assert positively that their practice of shamming death (which is Drummond' s interpretation of their action, or rather inaction) is not taught the young by the adults, but it seems improbable. The insect has inherited its peculiar bodily structure from its ancestors, and this structure readily lends itself to the practice. The instinct seems to be brought into play not only in the presence of actual danger, but also as a precaution against possible danger ; and it may be that it is done unconsciously, like those reflex actions so common amongst the higher ani- mals, many of which seem to be relics of what were manifes- tations of active intelligence in the past, but are now become mechanical responses to outward stimuli. Moreover, we must not forget that some animals of low organization are of an extremely lethargic disposition, and will remain motionless for hours, or even longer periods — our New Zealand tuatara may be taken as an instance — and it is possible that the "mimicry" of Professor Drummond's "Chirombo" may be partly attributable to this cause. We may also class as indications of true instincts the fear which young animals, including children, usually manifest towards what is really dangerous to them. Young children, for example, usually show signs of fear on being plunged into the sea. The late Dr. Eomanes once turned loose a ferret into PuRNELL. — On True Instincts of Animals. 35 an outhouse which contained a doe rabbit with a very young family. The doe left the young ones, and the latter, as soon as they smelt the ferret, began to crawl about in so energetic a manner as to leave no doubt that the cause of the com- motion was fear, and not merely the discomfort arising from the temporary absence of the mother. This fear is not, how- ever, universal amongst young animals, as is proved by the result of some experiments recently made by Professor Lloyd Morgan, and related by him in Nature (11th October, 1891). He put some young pheasants, about a day old, which had been artificially hatched out of the egg by means of an incu- bator, in close proximity to a fox-terrier ; but, although the dog was keen to get at them, and trembling with excitement in every limb, the young birds exhibited no signs of fear. They also showed no fear of a large blindworm, but pecked at its forked tongue, its eye, and tail. Mr. Douglas Spalding made a number of interesting experiments upon the young of our domesticated animals, the result of which he published in Macmillwi s Magazine, which went to show that chickens, young ducks, and pigs, and other newly-born animals, are capable of performing many acts apparently betokening in- telligence without instruction. He found that very young chickens were able to pick up small specks of food and scrape in search of food ; that newly-born pigs sought the mother's teat almost immediately after birth; and that, on placing four ducklings a day old in the open ah- for the first time, one of them almost immediately snapped at and caught a fly on the wing : all of the experiments being conducted in such a manner as to preclude the possibility of the young animal having learned to do these things by imitation. In considering these experi- ments, however, it must be borne in mind, as I have pointed out in my treatise on " The Intelligence of Animals," that the young fowl, duck, or pig comes into the world with its in- telhgence pretty fully developed — although it afterwards gains wisdom from experience — and all such acts as those just men- tioned are intelligent acts, not acts performed in an unvarying fashion, but acts varying with the surrounding circumstances. There seems, indeed, nothing more remarkable in a chicken scraping up the ground in search of food than in its walkmg, and chickens do not require to be taught how to walk. What I have denominated true instincts suggest an analogy with reflex actions. Herbert Spencer, indeed, regards instinct as compound reflex action, by which I understand him to mean a sequence of reflex actions manifested in immediate succession to one another; while Dr. Eomanes regards such so- called instincts as the hive-making instinct of the honey-bee as being reflex actions into which is imported the element of consciousness. It seems to me, however, that singleness is of 36 ' Transactions. — Miscellaneous. the very essence of a reflex action : the action may be complex in its manifestation, but it is essentially one act; while "con- sciousness" and "reflex action" are contradictory terms. Ad action is styled "reflex" because it is performed without con- sciousness on the actor's part. Moreover, a reflex action is- unchanging in its manifestation. Let the stimulus be ap- plied and the appropriate and responsive movement follows automatically. Now, even such apparently fixed habits as the hive-making habit of the bee vary with circumstances, and in some countries the hive-bee abandons its usual practice of collecting honey altogether. In like manner, birds often change the structure of their nests to suit localities, while the migratory habit is sometimes lost. Beavers, suffering from man's persecution, have been found to cease building dams, and to become solitary in their mode of life. The supposed analogy between what are commonly called instincts and reflex actions therefore fails ; nor \\i\\ it hold as respects true instincts, since the latter generally involve a succession of acts directed towards a fixed end, and I see no ground for assiiming that these acts are not consciously performed by the animal. It may further be observed that, whereas true instincts are seldom met with outside the Insecta, reflex actions are exhibited by all classes of animals, including man himself. Akt. III. — The Ancient Tribe Te Panenehu. By Captain Gilbert Mair. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 12th October, 1895.] The following account of an ancient tribe called Te Panenehu, the descendants of a chief named Ngatorohaka, who came in the Nukutere canoe from Hawaiki, was given to me by an old man of the Whakatohea and Ngapotiki Tribes at the hearing of the Whitikau Block, Opotiki, 1880:— Nukutere was the canoe which sailed from Hawaiki about the same time as Matatua canoe, of which Toroa was captain. She landed at Waiaua, near Opotiki. The people who came in Nukutere were called Te Wakanui, and Ngatorohaka was their chief. These people multiplied and spread all over the Opotiki Valley and adjacent country, Te Kareke Tribe occupy- ing Ohiwa, the Ngatai and Te Whananapanui settling between Torere and Te Kaha ; but the three latter were a distinct people, their forbears having come in Matatua. Seven generations had passed, and Tutamure was the dominant chief. He had given his sister Taneroa in marriage Mair. — Oil the Ancient Tribe Te Panenehu. 37 with one of Kahungunu's people, who Hved in Kakaparaoa Pa^ on the Waikohu-Matawai Block, near Turauga. They had. nothing but fern-root to eat, and Taneroa constantly repined for the abundant food at her brother's place at Opotiki ; so her husband, Eougomainotai, one day said, " Well, if food is so plentiful there, let us go to Tutamure." Accordingly they went, but on arrival were only given some cold kumara to eat. Eongomtiinotai exclaimed, "If this is all we can get here, better to have lived on the fern-root at Kakaparaoa." He was rery angry, and returned to his own place, stealing on the way some seed-kumara belonging to Tutamure. By-and- by, when Taneroa heard that he had an abundance of food, she followed him ; but he, without speaking one w^ord to her, %vent off to Turanga. Thither she followed, so he moved on to Nukutaurua. She overtook him there, and he fled towards Wairoa, telling his people to kill Taneroa if she persisted in following after him, and tliey did so. When Tutamure heard of his sister's death he assembled a war party and killed a number of Kahungunu's people, even- tually attacking that chief in his pa, called Maungaakahia, at Nukutaurua. As the ope (war party) drew near, Kahungunu asked who was the leader, and Tutamure answered, " Tama i hongia te Whaharua ka rangaranga te viuri, ka tere tamure " (When the north-east wind blows, and the sea-breeze drives the waves into ridges, then is the tamure (snapper) seen). The opposing parties fought, and Tutamure's wooden spear (huata) and taiaha were both broken, so he armed himself with a patu paraoa (a w^hale-bone weapon), exclaiming, " Taua i te huata, taua i te ake, tangohia i te ika nui a tu kanapa napa ana te paraoa ki runga o Maungaakahia, ka ora taua nei ka nenehu" (Having fought in vain with spear and taiaha, then seizing weapons made from the whale, the great fish of the war god, the whale-bone flashes over Maungaakahia, I triumph over my foes, who disappear). This boast or speech of Tuta- mure's passed into a proverb, and his descendants hence- forward were known as Te Panenehu. After the fight Kahu- ngunu sued for peace, and, Tutamure consenting, Kahungunu offered him his sister, Tauhei, to wife. Now, Tutamure, though an exceedingly brave man, was an ill-favoured and insignificant-looking person ; and when he went to a spring <;lose by to adorn himself and saw his reflection in the clear water his heart failed him lest Tauhei should not return his affection ; so he said to his young brother Taipunoa, who was handsome, "Take you Kahungunu's sister Tauhei for your wife, so that peace may be established between us and them." Taipunoa did so, and Tauhei bore him a son, whose naine was Mahaki, who begat Ihu and AVhakara, from whom are de- scended all the Hitangua, Mahaki, and Ngapotiki Tribes. The 38 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. spring where Tutamure looked on his plain features is called to this day " Te Waiwhakaata a Tutamure " (Tutamure's looking- glass). Some time after this Ngaitai quarrelled with the Panenehu, defeating them at Waikura2:)a. The quarrel was about pigeon- preserves in Whitikau and Whakapaupakihi Blocks. Ngaitai again attacked them at Otaitahu and Waireporepo. Then the Panenehu gained a victory at Euruarama. Ngaitai retaliated by murdering two chiefs named Tukuaterangi and Eongo- maiaia. Again they defeated the Panenehu with great slaughter at Waikoni, driving the remnant to Turanga. Eventually they returned, defeating the Ngaitai at Aururangi and at Paripapoa. Ngaitai were obliged to flee to Hauraki, taking with them the body of a Panenehu man called Tara- hamama to eat by the way. They were subsequently ex- pelled from the Thames district for having bewitched the son of Tuterangianini. They were kindly received by the Pane- nehu, who had by this time adopted the name of Te Whaka- tohea. Having murdered a Whakatohea woman named Tohikirangi, they fled to Turanga, but had to leave on account of trouble with the wife of Toroa Apukai. The Whakatohea again gave them shelter, and gave them two women of rank in marriage — Hinepare and Waimarama. After this, and when Taraia was a young man, Tuterangianini, the great chief of Ngatimaru, came to seek payment for the death of his son. He fell upon the Whakatohea at Waiaua, killing many hund)-eds. The fight took place on the beach, and, as the incoming tide rolled the numerous slain about on the sands, the battle was called " Te Paengatoitoi " (the shoal of toitoi-fish cast ashore). The remnant of the Whaka- tohea escaped to Turanga, but, a number having been killed by Ngatikahungunu at Kakaparaoa and Waikohu, they returned to Opotiki to find that Ngaitai had occupied all their country. So they were made to suffer for the sin of Ngaitai m bewitching the son of Tuterangianini ; and then these people tried to take their lands. However, they gave battle to Ngaitai, killing many at Awahou, and at Ahitarakihi, where the Town of Opotiki now stands, and so regained possession of their ancestral lands. The Panenehu used to deposit their dead in a very large pukateatree called "Te Ahoroa," which stood on the left bank of the Otara Eiver. There was a hole in the top, 50ft. or 60ft. from the ground, and the dead were hoisted up and thrown in.* * In 1881 some settlers living up the Opotiki Valley reported having discovered a great quantity of human bones. I immediately visited the spot, and found it was the place described by Maiki Whenua as Te Ahoroa ("the long line "). An enormous pukatea tree, some 22ft;. in girth, had fallen against the hill-side, and, splitting open, disclosed cartloads of skeletons. I counted 397 perfect skulls, but an equal number, probably, had crumbled away, or been broken up by the trampling of cattle. Mair. — On the Ancient Tribe Te Paneneliu. 39 I will give my genealogy from Ngatorohaka Ngatorohaka. I Hitewhatu. Te Meremere. Te Whatu. 1 1 Tamatete. 1 1 Tunanui. 1 1 Hanenepounamu. 1 i Tutamure. 1 1 Taneroa. Taipunoa = Tauhei. 1 Manutauhere. 1 Mahaki. Rongoteaki. 1 Tauirarangi. Ihu. Whakara. Tauirakorero. 1 Kahukura te Abu. j 1 Tamawbakauka. 1 Te Aotahi. 1 1 Te Whena. 1 Te Owheru. 1 1 Whiripare. 1 Te Manawa. 1 Te Puritanga. Te Painga. I Rangihuatini. 1 1 Anoa. 1 1 Hineheni. 1 Mawe. Punahamoa. 1 Te Aporotanga.* Ngapata. 1 Te Awanui. Maiki Whenua. (Twenty-one generations.) (Twenty-one generations.) • In 1864 about eigbt hundred rebel natives from the East Cape, Tekaha, and Opotiki came up the coast with the object of forcing their way through the Arawa country to assist the King natives in Waikato. The loyal Arawa defeated them at Lake Rotoiti, and drove them back to the coast. They then attacked Maketu, but were again defeated and driven back towards Opotiki. The Arawa overtook them at Tekaokaoroa, near Matata, and killed between sixty and seventy, pursuing them to Te-Awa-a-te-Atua, and capturing their canoes. One of their principal chiefs, Te Aporotanga, was desperately wounded and taken prisoner. On the Arawa side, Tohi te Ururangi Wiuiata Pekamu, a man of high rank and a great warrior, was mortally wounded while directing the attack. About a dozen others were v;?ounded, including Apiata, a Ngatiwhakane 40 Trmisactions. — Miscellaneous. I will shortly furnish you with some notes on Maori musical instruments, and also give some particulars respecting two other bone flutes (hoauau) now in the Auckland Museum. chief, who had his eye carried away by a musket-ball. About midnight it was seen tliat Tohi te Uriirangi's end was approaching. Large fires were lighted near, and the chiefs, gathering round, wept over their dying leader, and addressed him with farewell speeches, making complimentary reference to his great deeds in many a past battle. His faithful old wife sat supporting his head, overwhelmed with grief. The other wounded men lay near in pain and anguish. It was a solemn and touching scene ; yet it had its comic aspect when, as the old warrior's spirit was about to depart, his wife (Mata), overcoming for the moment her grief, rose up and, addressing the chiefs, said, " You have bidden farewell to my lord accord- ing to our usual custom and in the language of our ancestors; but it would be more appropriate for me, who have been educated in a missionary family, to speak in English." Then, turning to her dying husband and affectio!iately clasping liis body, she exclaimed, " Kum pai mi poi. Hau aiu? Wer-eivere,taikiii, ha." (Good-bye, my boy. How are you? Very well, thank you, sir.) These few words comprised her whole stock of English, and were uttered witli feelings of apparent pride. In a few minutes all was over, then Mata was heard whispering to Apiata and asking how to load a gun. Those standing by did not interfere, as they thought she was about to shoot herself and accompany her lord to the spirit- land, as the widows were wont to do. Indeed, it would have been a gross breach of etiquette to have interfered. However, she had no such inten- tion, for, having loaded the musket, she shot Te Aporotanga dead, saying be was to wait upon her husband in the next world. A reference to the genealogical table shows that Te Aporotanga was twentieth in descent from Ngatorohaka. Old Tohi te Ururangi carried from a string round his neck Tutauekai's bone flute, " Te Marirangaranga," which is now in the Museum. A few minutes after his death, Pokai te Waiatua came to the body and tried to take away the flute unperceived, but old Mata managed to detach it from the string and thrust it into tl)e dead man's throat for concealment, whence it was removed next day on arrival at Maketu and given to Ngahuruhuru Pango (Tutanekai's lineal descendant), who gave it to me on the occasion of the defeat of Te Kooti at Ohinemutu on the 7tli February, 1870. Touching this same flute, I may state that it was made from the armbone of a tohunga named Te ilurirangaranga, who lived in the time of Whakane. Sliortly after Tutanekai's birth Whakane called upon tliis tohunga to perform the baptismal rights over liis son — fe told o Tu, or dedication to the war god. Having performed this sacred office, the priest became strictly tapu during the lunar month, according to Maori custom, during which time he could not touch food with his hands or feed himself. However, before his purification (horohoronga) had been accomplished he was seen one day at Paparata, on the edge of the forest behind Ohine- mutu, gathering and eating poroporo berries. This was equivalent to cursing Tutanekai, and a deadly insult tu Whakane, so he had the unfor- tunate tohunga put to death by drowning (it being unlucky to shed the blood of a priest), and had the right armbone made into a flute for Tutanekai. When Tutanekai grew u[) he became famous for his skill in playing this instrument, and his descendants the Ngatitutanekai still pride themselves upon their ability to emulate their ancestor in this respect. Smith. — On the History of Otakanmi Pa, Kaipara. 41 Art. IV. — The History of Otahanini Pa, Kaipara. By S. Percy Smith. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 5th August, 1895.1 The Maori documents sent by Hami Tawaewae to Mr. Fenton when be presented the tiki from Otakauini Pa to the Museum have been placed in my hands for translation. Knowing something of the old history of the Otakanini Pa, which 1 gathered from one of the principal chiefs of the Ngati-whatua Tribe in 1860, I have added a few explanatory notes to Hami's history. The Otakanini Pa is situated on a navigable creek, which joins the Kaipara waters about six miles south of x\otea Bluff. It was a strong pa in former days, having the deep, muddy creek on one side and swamps on all others. The hill on which it is built is about 100ft. high, and, as usual, is terraced and fortified on top. It is somewhat celebrated in Ngati-whatua history as having been besieged on more than one occasion. At the foot of the hill on which the pa is built a spring gushes forth, from which, in former times, the inhabitants obtained their drinking-water. Tradition says that it was in going to fetch water from this spring that Rona struck her foot against a stone, and therefore cursed the moon, which just at that moment had gone behind a cloud. The result was that Eona, as punishment for her impiety, was taken up to the moon, where she may be seen to this day, as any old Maori will tell you. This is a capital illustration of the locahsation of a world-wide myth, which the Polynesians brought with them from the far-west in their migrations, and which is known to probably all branches of that race. Even the Ainu people of Japan have the same story. With us it is "the man in the moon," not a woman. The first occasion on which we hear of Otakanini in Maori history was in the time of Maki, a great man who lived about ten generations ago, and who was the principal chief of the Nga-riki or Nga-iwi Tribe, that formerly owned the whole of the southern Kaipara district and the Isthmus of Auckland, as far as the Tamaki Eiver. It w^as these people who built the great pas around Auckland. For some reason not now known, Maki attacked and took the Otakanini Pa, and killed a great many of its inhabitants. It was about the time that Maki flourished that the Ngati- whatua Tribe first made its appearance in the Kaipara district, having conquered their way down from the North 42 Transactions. — 3Iiscellaiie07is . Cape and from Kaitaia. It was not, however, until the time of Kawharu, Hakiriri, and Te-Ati-a-km-a, about six or seven generations ago, that they advanced so far south as Kaipara proper. Their advance was due to some murders committed by the Wai-o-hua Tribe — a branch of Nga-riki — and who at that time occupied Otakanini and the adjacent country. Amongst others who were killed by the Wai-o-hua people was Hau-mai-wharangi, aiid it was to avenge his death particularly that the expedition, which finally con- quered Kaipara, left the Wairoa, where Ngati-whatua were then living. One part of this expedition was under the command of Pou-tapu-aka, Papa-karewa, and Ati-a-kura. They landed near Otakanini, and occupied the hill just above where Te Otene lived, at Papurona, in 1860. They found Otakanini Pa too strong to take by a rush, and so adopted a method of siege which was not at all uncommon in former days. It has been denied by a well-known authority on Maori matters that the Maoris ever used any projectile weapon : the following will prove the contrary. The de- scription of the Siege of Otakanini was given to me by Te Otene, the most learned man of Ngati-whatua alive in those days, and one well acquainted with the tribal history. As we sat on the same hill his ancestors occupied, as described above, he explained that Hakiriri and his men plied the pa^ with spears from that position, thrown by means of the kotaha or kopere, and, although the distance is some 150 yards, the besiegers made it so hot for those within the pa that they dare not come outside. Under cover of this shower of spears an advance was made, and the Pa of Otakanini finally taken, with very great slaughter. It was explained to me that the spears used were made of long, straight manuka poles, cut on the bank of the creek just below where we were sitting, and that, after having their ends sharpened by burning in the fire, they were thrown by aid of the kotaha. Many of us have seen this method of propulsion, no doubt, as used by the Maori boys in play. The spear is struck into the ground on a slant, inclined towards the direction in which it is intended to fly. A short stick, about 18in. long, with a string at one end, is used to propel the spear. The short stick is, in fact, just like a whip. The string or thong of the whip is twisted round the spear in a peculiar manner, so that it w^ill readily come undone. The operator, standing on one side, with a strong jerk, draws the spear out of the ground, and propels it to a long distance. Te Otene told me that a spear cast in this manner was capable of piercing two men at once, especially if thrown so as to descend at a high angle. This siege occurred about six generations ago. Hakiriri was Te Otene's great great grandfather. From estimating Smith. — On the History of Otakanini Pa, Kaijjara. 43 Te Otene's age at seventy in 1860, this would make the date about the year 1690 or 1700, if not before. It was not long after this that the Ngati-whatua conquered all the country from Kaipara to the Tamaki, and practically exterminated the whole of the Wai-o-hua Tribe, who were its then owners. We now come to Hami te Waewae's narrative: — whawliai katoa. whakataukitia : Aitanga-a-Tiki " " Te tanga o te This is the history of the Ota- kanini Pa, wliich is situated at Kaipara. Tauhia was the chief of this pa, and his tribe was Ngati-whatua. He was a grandson of Pokopoko- whiti-te-ra. The people of the pa were celebrated for their bravery. There are several " sayings " in re- ference thereto : " The pa of the descendants of Tiki"; of "Tetae- taea " ; " where stands tlie totara." These are all sayings applied to a high-born people. The other say- ings are in reference to the courage of the people in war. Ko nga korero tenei o teuei pa, o Otakanini, e tu nei i roto o Kai- para. Ko Tauhia te rangatira o tenei pa. Tonaiwi, ko Ngati-whatua. He moko-puna ia na Pokopoko-whiii- te-ra. He pa toa tenei i ana Ko te pa tenei i ' Ko te pa o te o " Tetaetaea " ; totara." Ko euei whakatauki, he whakatauki mo te iwi rangatira. " Ko te ringa heke tohu nui a Tangaroa"; " Ko te whare o te manuka " ; " Ko te poko- poko o Rotu " ; " Te autete awliea." Ko enei whakatauki, he whakatauki mo te toa ki te whawhai. The above are mottoes or sayings descriptive of the bravery of the people and the strength of the pa. Pokopoko-whiti-te-ra was a celebrated ancestor of the Ngati-whatua Tribe, who was a great peacemaker in his day ; hence, in making peace, if it were likely to be lasting, it was said to be like those of "Poko- poko-who-causes-the-sun-to-shine." He was also celebrated as a taniivha slayer, and many places in Kaipara are pointed out at this day as the former dwelhng-places of noted tani- ivhas that were killed by him. Rotu, mentioned in one of the " sayings," was the wife of Maki, already referred to. Another pa of Tauhia's was Rangi- te-pu. On one occasion Takurua came with a thousand men to as- sault that pa. Oti their arrival they found Tauhia iu the pa, with six comrades, he making seven, and his mother eight. His mother's name was Koieie, and she was a daughter of Pokopoko. Koieie told her son (Tauhia) to dress himself up in his garments of war. She proceeded to help him, and deco- rated his head with a plume made of the feathers of the kotuku (or white heron). He then seized his weapon, which was named " The- tides-fought-with- the- war- girdle." When the army of Takurua ap- proached, his companions called Ko tetelii o nga pa o Tauhia ko Pangi-te-pu. Kotahi mano te ope a Takurua i eke ki te whawhai ki taua pa. Rokohanga atu, ko Tau- hia i te pa, toko-ono nga hoa, ko ia ka toko-whitu ai ; ko tona whaea ka toko-waru. Te ingoa o tona whaea ko Koieie, he tamahine na Pokopoko. Ka mea atu a Koieie ki tana tamaiti — ki a Tauhia, kia kakahuria ana kakahu mo te wha- whai. Katahi ka whakakakahuria e Koieie, ka tiaina tona matenga ki te raukura — ara — ki te kotuku. Katahi ka mau ki tana patu ; te ingoa o te patu, ko "Nga-tai-i- turia-ki-te-maro whara " Heoi ; te taenga atu o te ope a Takurua, ka karanga atu nga hoa ki a Tauhia 44 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. (me te wiri ano o ratou), " E ! ka kapi te whenua i te nui o te ope !" Katahi a Tauhia ka karanga atu, *' Moku anake ano ena hoa-wha- whai ; kahore mo koutou." No reira, ka nui te hari o ana hoa, a, ka mutu te mataku. Katahi ka peke atu a Tauhia ki te patu i te ope a Takurua. Toko- rua ki te hinganga i tana patunga kotahi ; no konei ka whati te ope, a, patua haeretia e ratou ko ana hoa, a, hore rawa atu he tangata i era. Me te rangatira hoki, me Takurua, mate katoa. Katahi a Koieie ka piki ki runga ki tetehi puke, ki Puke-kowhiwhi, ka karauga, " Kei te whetu au e 1 kei te marama !" No reira i rongo mai ai tauaiwi — aNgati-whatua — i matau ai hoki, kua hinga te pare- kura a Tauhia. Na, ka whakahua te hari a Tauhia ratou ko on a hoa i muri i te hinganga o ta ratou parekura : — Aue ! uhi mai te waero ! A, ko roto ko taku puta ! A, he puta aha te puta ? A, he puta tohu te puta, A, e rua nei, ko te puta-e ! I muri i tenei, ka hoki mai a Tauhia ki tona pa, ki Otakanini, a, taea noatia tona matenga. out to Tauhia (at the same time tremhling for themselves), "Ah! the land is covered b}' the greatness of this army !" Tauhia replied to them, "Those enemies are coming for me alone, not for 30U." In consequence of this his companions were very glad, and they no longer feared. Tauhia then sprang forward to combat the army of Takurua. Two of them fell at the first blow ; hence the army fled, and they were fol- lowed up by Tauhia and his com- panions, who killed them as they ran, so that not one escaped. The chief Takurua was also killed with the rest. Then Koieie ascended a hill named Puke-kowhiwhi and shouted out, " I am as the stars, as the moon !" Hearing this, her tribe — Ngati-whatua — knew at once that Tauhia had won his battle. Tauhia and his companions then repeated their song of triumph after the battle : — [I do not attempt to translate this — the words have no sense, the meaning it originally had being lost. It is not by any means an uncommon hari or species of song used to accompany the war-dance.] After this, Tauhia returned to his pa at Otakanini, and dwelt there until his death. Tauhia, mentioned above, was the grandson of Pokopoko- whiti-te-ra, and son of his daughter Koieie, who married Whai-whata. Tauhia hved four generations ago ; many of his descendants hved at Te Kawau, Kaipara, in 1860. Te Waru was Tauhia's son by his second wife, Matangi. He toko m ah a nga uri o Tauhia, erangi, e rua anake nga mea i liaere ki te whawhai — ara — ko Te Waru, ko Te Waiia-a-riri. Ko ta Te Waru nei ope, i aim ki Ngapuhi, a, lioro katoa te pa o Nga- puhi. Te ingoa o te pa, ko Te Tu- huna. I muri i tera, ka horo ano tetahi atu pa ; te ingoa o te pa, ko Tai-a mai. No konei ka houhia te rongo, a, ka hoki mai a Te Waru me taua ope katoa ki Otakanini. Huaina ana te ingoa 0 tena pare- kura " Ko te patu turoro." Tauhia had many offspring, but only two of them ever engaged in war, namely, Te Waru and Te Wana-ariri. Te Waru's army went to the Nga- puhi country, where he took a pa belonging to that tribe, called Te Tuhuna. After this he took another pa, the name of which was Tai-a- mai. In consequence of this, peace was made, and Te Waru and his army returned to their pa at Otaka- nini. These battles were called " Te-patu-turoro." Smith. — On the History of Otakanini Pa, Kaipara. ,45 I muri i tenei, ka haere te ope a After this, the army of Te Waru's tona teina, a Te Wana-a-riri, ki younger brother, Te Wana-a-riri, Ngapuhi ano. Ka tutaki ki a Nga- went to Ngapuhi. They met the puhi ki Moremonui ; a, katahi ka latter tribe at Moremonui, and whawhai ; ka mate a Ngapuhi. there fought a battle in which Nga- Huaina ana te ingoa o tenei pare- puhi were defeated. This battle kura ko, " Te-kai-a-te-karoro." Ka was called " The-food-of-the-sea- houhia ki te rongo, a, ka ora nga gull." After that peace was made ; mea i ora, me Hongi Hika. Otira, those who were not killed escaped, ko te rangatira nui o te ope, ko amongst them Hongi Hika. But Pokaia, i mate. Heoi ka hoki mai the principal leader of the Ngapuhi a Te Wana-a-riri me taua ope katoa array, Pokaia, was killed. So after ki Otakanini. this Te Wana-a-riri and his army returned to Otakanini. Ko nga take enei i haere ai a It was on account of these defeats Hongi Hika ki Ingarangi, ki a that Hongi-Hika went to England Kingi Hori, ki te tiki pu, paura, me to King George to fetch guns, taua kakahu mata. powder, and his coat of mail. The expedition under Te Waru took place in the early years of this century, and the cause of it was as follows : Pokaia, a great cliief of Ngapuhi, ardently desired to marry Kararu, a sister of Hongi Hika ; but the lady was obdurate and would not consent. To escape Pokaia' s attentions she married an old man named Tahere, of Kaikohe. Pokaia, wild with rage, adopted a plan of giving vent to his feelings which is not at all uncommon in Maori history. He raised a war party and wantonly attacked Taoho, a chief of Kaihu, and slew many of his people. To obtam revenge for this, Ngati- whatua made the incursion into the Ngapuhi country, in which Te Waru joined as related above, and met with such success that Ngapuhi in honour bound could not do less than wipe out the disgrace that had fallen on their arms. Pokaia and Hongi raised a war party of five hundred strong, and advanced on Kaipara by way of the west coast. They were met at Moremonui, on the beach about ten miles south of Maunganui Bluff, and, after a very severe fight, Ngati-whatua gained the victory, killing Pokaia, Te Waikeri, Hou-awe, Tohi, Tu-karawa, and many other leading men of Ngapuhi. The bodies were left on the beach (such as were not consumed) in such numbers that they were eaten by the seagulls — hence the name of the battle, "Te-kai-a-te-karoro." This defeat was one of the main reasons why Hongi went to England with Mr. Kendall in 1820 to obtain arms with which to chastise Ngati- whatua and the Hauraki Tribes, who had both defeated Nga- puhi very seriously. The result was a series of slaughters — too numerous to mention here — which ended in the com- plete victory of Ngapuhi, and the devastation of the whole of Kaipara and the Auckland Isthmus for many years. I te hokinga mai o Hongi Hika On the return of Hongi Hika from i Ingarangi ka whawhaitia e ia nga England he made war on the tribes iwiorunga — ara — o Rotorua, o Nga- of the south — namely, Rotorua, 46 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. tiporou, 0 Ngati-maru, o Waikato. I muri i enei whawhai, katahi ka huri raai ki a Ngati-whatua. Ko te ingoa o te pare-kura ko " Te Ika- ranga-nui." Heoi, hingaana aNga- puhi, hiDga ana a Ngati-whatua, engari i riro te papa i a Ngapubi. No konei ka haere a Te Tinana ki Waikato ; tona taenga atu ki reira, ka puta te whakaaro o Ngati-teata ki te rangatira o Ngati-mania-poto, ki a Tu-koreliu, kia patua a Te Tinana, a, patua ana, mate ana. Ko te take tenet i haere ai ngaiwi e rua, a Ngapulii, a Ngati-whatua ki Waikato, ki te taki i te mate o Te Tinana. No reira i mate ai a Po- mare me Te Whare-o-riri, me etahi atu o nga rangatira o Ngati-whatua. Engari, ko te nuinga o nga ranga- tira i ora, a hoki mai ana ki Kai- para nei. Ka moe tetahi wahine o Ngati- whatua i tetehi tangata o Ngati-te- ata ; katahi ka tikina ano taua wahine e Ngati-whatua, ka tango- hia mai. No reira i puta ai te whakaaro o Ngati-te-ata, puta noa i Waikato, kia whawhaitia a Ngati- whatua. No taua takiwa i hangaa- poutia ai tenei pa, a Otakanini, i whakaarahia ai hoki tenei Tiki ; ko tona ingoa ko "Te Whare-o-riri." Ko te tangata nana i whakaara tenei Tiki, ko Mate, ko tetehi o nga rangatira o Ngapuhi. Otira, kahore i tae mai a Waikato. E torn nga tau i tu ai tenei Tiki ki Otakanini, ka whawhai nei a Hone Heke ki te pakeha, i Koro- rareka. He kupu poroporoaki enei naku, na Hami Tavvaewae, ki a " Te whare o riri " : — Ka toto nga kohn e — i roto o Kai- para, I te puna whakatoto riri, e, Na o tupuna, na o matua nga ki-e, He tahuri waka nui, E kore e ngaro e, He kopua nganangana i rangi. Me tuku atu koe ra, Ngati-porou, Ngati-maru, and Wai- kato. After tliis he turned towards Ngati-whatua. The name of this battle was Te Ika-ranga-nui. Here both Ngapuhi and Ngati-whatua fell, but the victory remained with the former. [This was in February, 182.5.] It was in consequence of this defeat that Te Tinana [of Ngati-whatua] went to Waikato ; on his arrival there the Ngatite-ata Tribe persuaded the chief of Ngati- mania-poto, named Tu-korehu, to kill Te Tinana, which was done. This death, again, was the cause that the two tribes of Ngapuhi and Ngati-whatua went to Waikato to seek revenge for Te Tinana's death. In consequence, Pomare, of Nga- puhi, and Te Whare-o-riri, of Ngati- whatua, were killed, besides others [at Te Rore, 182G] . At the same time most of the chiefs of Ngati- whatua escaped, and subsequently returned to Kaipara to dwell. Subsequently one of the Ngati- whatua women married a Ngati-te- ata man, when the former tribe took her away from her husband. Hence, the Ngati-te-ata Tribe, together with the Waikatos, proposed to make war on Ngati-whatua. It was at this time that the Pa of Otakanini was rebuilt, and the Tiki — which is called Te Whare-o-riri [after the chief of that name] — was erected. The Tiki was set up by Mate, one of the chiefs of Ngapuhi [who lived at Puatahi, Kaipara, in IBGO] . But the Waikato people never came after all. The Tiki had been erected about three years at Otakanini when the war between Hone Heke and the Pakehas commenced at Korovareka [1844]. These are my farewell words, of Hami Tawaewae, to " Te Whare o- riri " :— The misty clouds in Kaipara gather In the anger-propelling fountain; 'Twas thy ancestors, thy parents declared. 'Tis like the wreck of a great canoe, Which will never be forgotten — Like a deep-red cavity in heaven. Prom hence thou must depart Smith. — Volcanic Activity in Sunday Island in 1814. 47 Nga whare o Kuini, Ka tapua koe ra, Te hua o te waero, He taonga ruru tonn-e, I roto te wliare kino, Ka lie nga hau-e, I a tatou, e te iwi-e ! Haere e Kara ! e Te Whare-o-riri ! Haere atu i roto o Kaipara ! Haere atu ki roto ki nga whare nunui o to tana iwi, o te Pakeha ! Me mihi atu koe ki o tatou hoa Pakeba ina tae atu kia kite i a koe ! " Ko abau tenei, ko Te Whare-o-riri, e mihi atu nei ki a kouton." Tena koutou, me to tatou Kuini Wikitoria. Ma te Atua ia e tiaki, e hoatu lioki te kaha, kia kaha ai ia ki te -whakamarama i nga ture pai mo tatou, kia rite te kupu o te Waiata cxxxiii., 1 : " Na, ano te pai, ano te ahuarekao tenohoanga tahi- tanga o nga teina, o nga tuakana, i runga i te whakaaro tahi." Heoi ano aku mihi ki a koutou ; Tena koutou ! Tena koutou ! Tena koutou ! Na Hami Tawaewae. To stately mansions of the Queen, And there be sacred kept. With many dog-skin garments. Thou art a treasure closely prized In the depths of this gloomy heart. The winds seem gone astray With us, 0 people ! Go, oh sir ! Te Whare-o-riri ! Go hence, depart from Kaipara ! De- part to the mansions of our Euro- pean people ! Thou sbalt greet our friends the Pakebas when they come to visit thee, saying, " 'Tis I, Te Wbare-o- riri, that salutes you all." Salutations to you all, and to our Queen Victoria 1 Maj' God protect her, and give her power and strength to enlighten us with good laws, that the words of Psalm cxxxiii., ], may be fulfilled : " Behold ! how good and bow pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity." This is all my greetmg Salutations ! Salutations ! tions to you all ! From Hami Tawaewae to you. Saluta- Aet. V. — Volcanic Activity in Stmday Island in 1814. By S. Percy Smith. [Eead hefoi-e the Auckland Institute, 5th August, 1895.] I HAVE been favoured by my friend W. D. Campbell, Esq., F.G.S., with the following account, abstracted from the Sydney Gazette, 17th September, 1814, of the first known eruption on Sunday Island, of the Kermadec Group. In vol. XX. of the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," page 333, I furnished some notes on the geological formation of Sunday Island, and described an eruption in Denham Bay which took place about 1872 ; but that described in the Sydney Gazette is of much earlier date, though the place is the same. This first eruption appears to have taken place on the 8th March, 1814, and was of the same nature as the subsequent one, an island of loose volcanic matter having been formed in both cases. All signs of this island had disappeared on the occasion of our visit in the " Stella," in 1887. The following is the extract : — 48 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. " Sunday Island. " Ship News. — The following remarkable account of one of those convulsions of nature which the mind contemplates with surprise and awe we receive from Captain Barnes, of the ' Jefferson,' who witnessed the phenomenon. We have stated, in reporting the ' Jefferson's ' return to this port in the Gazette of the 3rd instant, that she had gone from hence in June, 1813. Much of the intervening time has been occu- pied about the coasts of New Zealand, on the north side of which is Sunday Island (one of Curtis's) [sic] , and the subject of the present account, lying in 29° 12' S. lat. and 178° W. long. " From the 24th to the 27th Captain Barnes was employed- in wooding there, and while the boats were on shore the vessel sailed to and fro within a spacious bay on the west side of this island, formed as a crescent, the heads of which were about six miles asunder. Actuated by a curiosity which must be always serviceable to navigation — that of discovering the surroundings of every part which vessels frequent — Captain Barnes employed himself attentively in the business of sound- ing between these heads, and in no part found less than 45 fathoms. Further in the depth gradually diminished, and, after penetrating till within a short distance of the inner shore, he there found 16 fathoms. Leaving the island on the 27th of February, it was afterwards frequently in sight till the 9th of March, when, at the distance of six or seven leagues, a thick cloud of a dark smoky appearance was ob- served above it the whole day, and shortly after midnight a flame burst forth, which rose to an excessive height, and filled the atmosphere with a strong, fetid, and an almost suffo- cating vapour, which was felt on board, though then at a dis- tance of about seven leagues. Captain Barnes returned to the island in two months, for the purpose of wooding, as before, and found the appearance of the place entirely altered, and that an island occupied the spot where so short a time before he had found 45 fathoms of water. It is about three miles in circuit, kidney-shaped, its outer edge nearly forming a line with the heads or opposite points of the entrance of the former bay, which lays north and south, has a small bay of its own fronting the ocean, and is covered with a coarse grit. On the near approach of the ship's boats the water became very warm, and at length intensely hot. It was still smoking, and was then evidently an unqueuched mass. Its position is not mid-channel, but extends considerably more towards the north shore than the south. A passage through the opening of the north side would be impracticable, owing to the numerous rocks which are scattered through it ; but Smith. — Volcanic Activity in Stcjiday Island in 1814. 49 that on the south seems rather inviting to vessels in want of temporary accommodation, with a safe anchorage. Cap- tain Barnes has subsequently fallen in with the ' King George' (Captain Jones, of this port), and, on relating the above circumstance, received information from him that the ' King George ' had been there shortly before the ' Jeffer- son,' and that he (Captain Jones) had himself also sounded between and within the heads, and could find no soundings at all with a common lead-line in those places where Captain Barnes had found a depth of only 40 fathoms. The idea that suggested itself, from comparing Captain Jones's information with Captain Barnes's own observation, is that this eruptive pile was probably in the act of growing out of the abyss when the latter was there and got soundings at 45 fathoms, the depth diminishing as he went nearer in. The visible extent of its surface, added to the vast height to which it must necessarily have arisen, must fill the mind with astonish- ment. That Vesuvius might have sprung originally from the like cause is not impossible. Its first eruption took place in the first century of the Christian era ; and we do not find any- thing more remarkable in what is recorded of those that have since taken place than the throwing-up a mountain in one night, in the year 1583, three miles in circumference and a quarter of a mile high ; while the island reported to have been thrown up in the bay of Sunday Island may be con- siderably larger, as its summit is three miles round, and it appears to have a gradual and not a steep ascent. — Sydney Gazette, 17th September, 1814. "In reference to the above account, it might be as well to mention that, until Lyell's researches into geology were made, no distinction was made between mountains of up- heaval and deposition. It was not understood that a volcano could be formed by ejecta, and built up with that material ; hence the comparison of Vesuvius with the Sunday Island incident, which seems to have been largely a local terrestrial upheaval, probably bursting into eruption when the crust of the earth was relieved of the superincumbent weight of water. — W. D. Campbell, F.G.S." 5 0 Tr ansae tions . — Misce I laneous . Art. VI. — Oil Dusky Sound. By EiCHARD Henky, Government Eesident in charge of Eesolution Island Reserve. Communicated by Sir James Hector. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th July, 1895.1 Eemembeeing the interest you take in such things, I venture to send you the following about Dusky Sound. I have been nearly all through it nov7, and its islands; also up x\cheron Passage, into Breaksea, and into Wet Jacket as far as the island. Boat-harbours are everywhere, and altogether it is a safe place for boating, when we have camping outfit on board. I have a young fellow with me, and intend to keep him as long as I can. We have been often on Resolution, in many places; all round it, except on Five Fingers ; and we have cut tracks upon two mountains on this side of it, which w^e have been up on six different occasions, but saw no signs of life above the bush except parrakeets and the tracks of rats. There is a good deal of tussock above the bush on Mount Phillips, and it is a grand mountain to climb, the peak is so sharp and lonely — 800ft. above the bush — whence can be seen nearly all the sound with its many islands, and the greater part of Resolu- tion. The latter appears to have high, rough mountains all round it, with lower and smoother land in the centre, the out- lets being Duck and Cormorant Creeks ; but there is nothing like a flat anywhere, and just one little lake south of Useless Harbour. Eoas and woodhens are plentiful in the bush, with nearly all the small birds, including crows and thrushes ; but there are no kakapos nor grey kiwis. The kakapos on the mainland are breeding this year, so I did not like to disturb their curious arrangements by removing them, especially when I found that there were plenty in favourite places ; but there are long stretches of coast without any. On the south side of Dusky, east of Cooper Island, there are two great landslips, some hundreds of acres, covered with green scrub, where we heard them drumming in dozens in January. And in February, under Mount Foster, at the mouth of Wet Jacket, I found three nests in about an hour ; also further up, at our cainp opposite the island, I found several nests, each with two little young ones. I never found a male near a nest, and I think they know nothing about it. The mother tramps away and carries home food so industriously that she is all draggled and worn, and near the end of her task she becomes Henky. — 0/i Dusky Sound. 51 so exceedingly poor that sometimes I thought she would die ; yet her young ones are just balls of fat until about the end of May, when many of them are as heavy as the largest old males. But soon after she ceases to feed them they rapidly become poor. The fruit that they have been fed on is nearly all done, and I think that many of them die before they learn to forage for themselves. All this time the old males are very fat, which shows that they did not exert themselves to feed the young — more likely they took the best of everything for themselves. Eesolution as a whole is not a good place for kakapos, because tutu and fuchsia are scarce ; but there are many places on it where colonies will do well, where fig-trees are plentiful. I noticed that there were no " gages " where the kakapos were ; in fact, I have seen none on the mainland, but plenty on all the islands, where there are no kakapos ; and if the birds eat them they will have plenty on Eesolution. I will have most trouble to get grey kiwa, for I have heard very few in all this place. When camped on Cooper Island w^e heard grey kiwi there — and it is a big island, perhaps eight square miles in extent ; and, though it comes near the mainland at its eastern end, there is mostly a swift tide running there that will disturb the calculations of a swimmer. In November, kakas, tuis, and mokos were here in great numbers feeding on the honey of the rata-blossoms, but no pigeons until lately, wdien they have come for the berries, and the kakas are nearly all away. There was a kaka's nest, with two young ones, near our house on Pigeon Island. When we came here, in July, there were colonies of crested penguins at nearly every easy landing, and sometimes in caves, all busy nesting. They all went away for a while with their young, but came back in January and February for their moulting, and then cleared out again, and I do not think there is one left in Dusky. But many of the little penguins seem to remain here, and are always out fishing in the daytime, coming ashore at night and sleeping in holes under rocks and trees. We never saw one per cent, of the crested penguins out either day or night, and I do not understand them at all. Woodhens are on all the islands, and attend closely on the penguins when the young are just hatched, so that may have something to do with the penguins staying at home so much. Grey ducks are numerous at the head of Dusky, where they have a splendid breeding- place among creeks and swampy islands in the mouth of a great valley coming in from the north, and there are no swamp-hawks. There is a fine river coming in from the east to Supper Cove. I went up it about three miles to a gorge, wdiere I was stopped by a dangerous but passable place. There are 52 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. three rapids, but the portages are easy, and I hitend to take a canoe up there next summer, for I could see a kindly-looking valley turning to the north-east, and I may be able to go a long way up it. Paradise-ducks are very scarce here, because there is no grass for them . Even at Goose Cove — which may have got its name from them — where there is some level land, there is no grass, as it is all grown over with scrub ; and there are neither ducks nor geese there now, only a few redbills and swans. Up in Wet Jacket it was quite pitiful to see a pair of paradise trying to rear a family on a few square yards of grass. If I had a few pairs of goats I think I could provide the ducks with grass-plots in suitable places at the ends of bays. It is not a heavy task to dispose of some of this scrub ; and surface- sown rye-grass grows here more quickly and richer than I ever saw, but there are hundreds of seedling forest-trees and shrubs growing up among it, so that some animal is required to keep them in check that the grass may continue. In old England, Darwin mentions how pines and other forest-trees sprang up when the animals were excluded, and so it may be in any country as it is here. The scrub follows down the a'lluvial land at the mouths of creeks, covering every foot, and even reaching out over the tide, so that nothing else has a chance under present circumstances. There are often little natural clearings at landslips and uprooted trees, which seem insignifi- cant, but great changes are often wrought by long-continued trifles. This mountain-bush, being of great extent and un- known resources, may contain room for another Switzerland, with its hardy mountaineers. But now, with its superfluity of damp and sandflies, it is about the most iniserable and use- less place that man ever set his foot in, and he cannot have the heart to start reclaiming it from its present state ; but the quadrupeds may be the pioneers, as they have been in nearly every other country, and then the men can take it up. We often see where the sealers have rolled aside the stones on the beach to land their boats, and perhaps a level place with a grove of young trees on the site of their old camp, but not a yard of open ground ; yet two of those parties lived here for about a year. And two vessels were built in Dusky Sound, but we have not yet found where their shipyards were, for perhaps not a trace remains. When we came into the little harbour on Pigeon Island the stones were rolled aside on the beach, but there was not room above high water to land our stores until we made a clearing. We thought that no one ever lived there before until we cleared and dug the ground, when- we found it neai'ly paved with Maori ovens. In Cascade Harbour there is the site of a hut with an iron chimney which may have been ten or twelve years deserted, yet the floor of Henky. — On Dusky Sound. 53 the hut and its surroundmgs were covered with a tall grove of koromikos, some of them 3in. thick. Now, I think that if a hardy race of goats existed here they would have altered all this for the better ; they would have kept many grassy open- ings, and made pathways in the bush, to the advantage of the explorer and prospector, and also to the advantage of the ground-birds — because those birds were plentiful at Te Anau for forty miles along the lake, but the best place for them was near grassy openings under Mount Luxmore. There on a quiet evening in 1880 there used to be a perfect din of their various calls, and the individuals were the best of their sort. However, the birds may only be temporary residents here on the mainland ; but one would think that it is the duty of this generation to liberate some suitable animals in this bush. Deer might do, but I think they are too wild and shy, and that a well-clad, hardy race of goats would be best, to pave the way for more useful stock, and, in the meantime, to provide food and sport for the future pioneers. We have often seen goat-skins used as hearth-rugs ; they would make good jackets for this climate, and would be valuable. Some people will object to goats or anything else, for fear of encouraging wild dogs ; but the native dog died out here (though it could have lived well on kakapos), because every cave and den is damp and mouldy, and it would require a special breed of dogs to live here in a wild state. We saw the king-fish up the sound. Three big fellows swam round our boat within arm's length, and I knew them. The same day we saw a great company of them right at the head of the sound : that was on the 5th February. The horse-mackerel and mullet were here all the summer in shoals ; also another little fish, which I could not find in either of the books on fishes. They are of some importance, because they have been very plentiful all the time we have been here, and are very good to eat. I call them " latris " for want of a name.* They will not take bait, but come into the shallow water at our door every evening, and just at the last of the light they are easily speared, so that I often get half a dozen in a few minutes ; but with a suitable net they could be caught in thousands. But we only see them round Pigeon Island. Moki are very plentiful, but we only get a few trumpeter now and then. Of course, the cod and groper are plentiful, also butter-fish and barracouta. We were in want of a name for the little prawns like shrimps, and called them "squid." All the fish are after them, and it is wonderful how they can stand it. Wlien we see the mackerel splashing along we know they are after squid ; the mullet, latris, and parrot-fish are * Mendesoma Uneata. S-i Transactions. — Miscellaneous. always after them, and even the moki and butter-fish join in the hunt. We saw the gulls pecking at something in calm water, also the terns and little white gulls, and found it was squid they were eating. I thought the barracouta only hunted little fish, but found them full of squid. Though they con- tinually hunt the shoals of fish they seem to catch very few, for we found none in those we caught for our dogs, so it seems likely that they only take the laggards and leave the main body flourishing. The squid are lively little fellows, and flit about so quickly that the smartest of their enemies have some trouble to catch them. On calm warm afternoons they are all at the surface, and then there are acres of water that seem alive with fish. Surely the squid that survives all this must be the best of his race, or, at least, the most artful and active. "We first saw them in Useless Harbour in September, when they were tiny creatures only a quarter of an inch long. At Christmas the main body were about an inch long; but since then small ones were numerous, so that I think there may be several crops in a season. In April they have almost dis- appeared. Aet. VII. — The Ceremony of Eahui. By Taylob White. [Read before the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, 12th August, 1895.] I HAVE made several attempts to gain information on this now obsolete custom of rahui — one time practised by the Poly- nesian peoples — both privately and also by a short article published some time back in the Magazine of the Polynesian Society, but have been unsuccessful in persuading any person to take the subject in hand. This being the case, I am left to work out a theory of my own, which is the subject of this paper. It is a thousand pities that no person having time and opportunity to investigate and work out the history of this remarkable custom should have inquired thereon some years ago, previous to the death of the witness Noa Huke, whose evidence is quoted herein : — Baliui. — In the case x^irini Donnelly t'. Broughton, published in the supplement of the Haivke's Bay Herald, Napier, 26th March, 1892, the witness Noa Huke says, "The whole of this block [of land] from Te Whanga to Puketitiri and Titiokura, at Mohaka, was affected. That land was given to Te Eangi- ka-mangungu and Tutura. They went and put up rahuis all White. — On the Ceremony of Eahui. 55 over it. At Puketitiri, Piko (a man) was the rahui; at Oingo (Hauhau) was Kauhourangi, another man. The whole of the land was thus made sacred, even the eel -weirs." In the evidence of another witness, referring to a different por- tion of the land, some chiefs " impaled a woman there." These points were specially dwelt on by Sir Eobert Stout in his summary of the evidence. But no explanation was given as to what this ceremony consisted of, neither was it shown in what manner the above-named men were ultiiised as rahui. Of myself, I see no reason to doubt that these unfortunate men were buried at the foot of posts erected at certain places, perhaps even when still alive, or were lashed to the posts by the sacred cord ; this being done to increase the tajou of those places, and to prevent by this tapu the removal of such posts at any future date. In Ti-egear's Maori-Polynesian Dictionary is given, "Bahui — To protect by a rahui — i.e., by a mark set up; to prohibit persons from taking birds, fruit, &c., or to prevent them from trespassing on lands, &c., made tapu." For good instances of tribal rahtii, see "Maori Customs and Traditions," by John White, bound up with "History and Traditions of the Maori," by T. W\ Gudgeon. We find the following definitions in a Paumotuan dictionary by E. Tregear : "Rahui — A defence, forbidden; Maori, rahui, to prohibit ; Hawaiian, lahui, to forbid." In " Traditions and Superstitions of the New-Zealanders," Dr. Shortland, at page 316, gives ivhaha-ihi, lie tapu, he rahui, as of the one meaning. At page 265 : " Having matured his plans, Heke came suddenly, cut down the obnoxious flagstaff without opposition, and then went home again. Afterwards, - when Governor Fitzroy set up a new one, Heke appealed to this act as a further argument in support of his cause. ' See,' said he, * the flagstaff does mean a taking-possession, or why else should they persist in re-erecting it ? ' This remark referred to a common practice in New Zealand — -namely, that of setting up a post on a spot of land which any one desires to claim as his own. V/hen two tribes contest the right to any place, one of them -will set up their post, their antagonists will soon after come and cut it down ; but, probably, either party will take care not to meet the other on the disputed ground till the post has been cut down and re-erected several times ; when, if neither party will yield, the dispute at last ends in a tight." Nothing is said here as to utilising a man as a rahui; and this remarkable evidence of Noa Huke remains unaccounted for. W^ill none of our members of the Hawke's Bay Institute search this matter out before those who might explain are alike " gathered to their fathers " ? 56 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Thei-e are four place-names in the district which may possibly owe their origin to the aforesaid setting-up of rahui on the land, two of which — Puketitiri and Titiokura — were mentioned by Noa Huke. The other two are Waititirau, the site on which stands Mr. J. H. Coleman's house, and Wakatu, or, as I suppose it to be rightly spelt, Whakatu, near To- moana. The name Puke-titi-ri has no reference to the bird titi, a large petrel, generally spoken of as the " mutton-bird." Different varieties of these petrels are often heard and dimly seen when passing overhead on a summer evening in the gloaming on the way from the sea to their nests in holes excavated in the light pumice soil of the mountain-ranges far inland — possibly a distance of forty miles or more. They mostly travel in pairs, somewhat apart, and must return again to the sea before daylight, yet I have never detected them on the return journey. These birds also nest in great numbers on the small islands near the Bluff, Southland, and also those near Stewart Island. The Southern Maoris visit the islands each season and collect the young birds from the nests, at which time they are extremely fat. They are partially cooked, and then packed away in the large bladder-like portions of a kelp or coarse sea- weed, and are, as it were, imbedded in their own fat, which aids in their preservation. This industry is a yearly harvest to the southern Maori. To return to my subject : We have Puke, " a hill "; titi, " of the setting-up " ; ri, " of the mark " which no person dare to pass over. Surely this must be one of the places where rahui w^as set up. Why are we unable to discover the exact spot where this special rahui was erected ? The second word mentioned by Noa Huke was Titiokura, which divides thus : Titi, "the setting-up"; o, "of"; kura. This word kura has a variety of meanings, as " red in colour," " a wreath or head-dress," &c. ; and the painting the posts supporting a house with red-ochre was a symbol indicating the tajnc or sacredness of such building. We find the w^ord Whare-kura used by the Polynesians to denote the sacred building where the young priest-chiefs (ariki) were taught mythology, history, agriculture, astronomy, &g. This house was very tajm : no women were allowed to come near it, food was cooked at a distance and brought by special messengers. I have no doubt kzira in this instance was an allusion to the chief supports of the building being painted red, as an indication of its sacred character. In support of this theory I quote the following from " Traditions of the New-Zealanders," by Dr. Shortland (page 112) : "In former days the huts used in travelling by sacred White. — On the Ceremony of Eahui. 57 persons were .always distinguished by their posts being daubed with red-ochre, to prevent the law of tapu being inadvertently broken ; and for the same reason sacred persons painted their bodies and clothes with the same red substance, that they might leave a mark behind them where they rested." I think we may safely conclude that the name Titiokura was given to that place at the setting-up of raliui there. Waititirau is rather a difficult word to decide upon. Some might take it thus: Wai, " the water " ; titi, " of the mutton- birds " ; ran, "in number a hundred." But, taking the evi- dence of the two place-names already deciphered, it seems that we may safely claim it as a site of a rahui, making it Wai, "the water" (near which); titi, " was set up " ; tiraic, "the peg": or, "the, water of the sticking-in of the peg." In this word T suppose that there should originally have been a third repetition of the syllable ti, as Wai-titi-tirau, and so including the terminal tirau, " a peg." My fourth name, Whakatu, would seem to be related to the remarkable word t2itututu, "to stand erect"'; and is a compound of whaka, which is called a prefixed causative, and mostly indicates "to cause," or "to make to do": therefore, Whakatu means, "to cause to stand"; or, more correctly, "to erect or set up; a place where something was erected or set up"; and in all probability indicates " the place where rahui was set or put up." It is not reasonable to make waka, "a canoe," tu, "standing erect," as the original meaning of the name. Dr. Shortland says, " The word tajJU is used in the same sense in the Sandwich Islands, in the Society Islands, and, as far as is known, in the other islands of Polynesia. It is probably derived from the word ta, 'to mark,' and_2JZi, an adverb of intensity. The compound word taj^u, therefore, means no more than ' marked thoroughly,' and only came to signify ' sacred ' or ' prohibited ' in a secondary sense, be- cause sacred things and places were commonly marked in a peculiar manner, in order that every one might know that they were sacred. The fundamental law on which all their superstitious restrictions depend is that if anything tajiio is permitted to come in contact with food, or with any ves- sel or place where food is ordinarily kept, such food must not afterwards be eaten by any one, and such vessel or place must no longer be devoted to its ordinary use, the food, vessel, or place becoming tajiu from the instant of its contact with an object already tapu." — ("Traditions and Superstitions of the New-Zealanders," page 101.) At first sight I was taken with the likeness of the place- name Motiti ("Flat Island" of Cook) to those mentioned above, and even thought that it might mean " the place of 58 Tr ansae tions . — Miscellaneous . the mutton-bird " (petrel) ; but on further consideration it became apparent that the word Motiti was an abbreviation for Motu-iti, " the small island." Such being the case, we have here a warrant to suppose that certain other place- names may also be clipped or shortened — notably, the name Wai-titi-rau, already spoken of as originally in its full signifi- cance being Wai-titi-tirau. At the same time, it may be that this name has been im- perfectly written and understood by the pakeha. Possibly it might be Wai-titiro, " the water of looking at " — i.e., a look- ing-glass to reflect the image of a person — or " the place of the distant view." As I am unacquainted with this spot, and its position or history, this question must be left open, and might be decided by some one consulting the Maoris in that district. A remarkable use of the woicdirahui, together with a tragical incident of early pakeha days, is given by Dr. Shortland in " Traditions and Superstitions of the New-Zealauders," page 234:— " In the more lawless and savage days of the New-Zea- landers a trading vessel came into the harbour of Tauranga to purchase a cargo of flax. . . . No cargo was at the time procurable, and the captain was persuaded by one of the chiefs of Ngapuhi Tribe to take his ship to Whakatane, about forty miles distant, being led to believe he would there obtain plenty of flax without any difficulty. The chief sent one of his men in the vessel, ostensibly as a guide, but he was really the bearer of a message as fatal as that contained in the letter given to Bellerophon, for it was a hint to the chief of Whaka- tane to seize the vessel and all the property in it. "The Ngapuhi chief knew that he could attempt nothing against this ship while at Tauranga, for it was there under the protection of the natives of the place, who carried on a profit- able trade with foreigners, which would have been ruined com- pletely by an act of violence. He therefore conceived the idea of making both ship and cargo a present to the less scrupulous natives of Whakatane, in order that he might claim a share of the spoil. The captain fell into the trap, and, attempting to defend his vessel, he and his crew were all killed, and the vessel was then plundered and destroyed. "A secret is seldom, if ever, well kept by the people of this country. With the news of the fate of the unfortunate ship, its cause, and the very words of the message, ' Tend ton ra/Ma_2Joa^-a,' were reported at Tauranga. . . . Nini, after expressing his resentment against the perpetrators of the deed, demanded of the chief of Ngapuhi, who was present, if it was true that he had sent the message to Whakatane which led to the catastrophe. The chief did not deny it. ' Then,' said PuRCHAS. — Place of the Baihvay in Social Economy. 59 Nini, ' you shall be payment for the •white men ' ; and with these words he shot him." This message Dr. Shortlaud translates, " Behold a herd of pigs made sacred for you." This is incorrect, as giving the double meanings of rahui, " a herd," and also " made sacred," which is impossible. The literal translation is. Tend, " here" ; ton, " thy " ; rahui, " herd " ; poaha, " of pigs " : or, the other sense would be, " Here thy pigs made sacred." Now, if they were under the protection of a rahui, would not ship and crew have been safe from harm ? Akt. YIII. — The Baihvay and its Place in Social Economy. By A. G. PuECHAs, M.E.C.S. Eng. [Read befcrre the Auckland Institute, 12th October, 1895.] My aim in the following paper is to direct attention to the place which the railway should occupy in our social economy, and to the principle by which we should be guided in dealing with it. Having been familiar with the early development of railways in England up to the year 1844, and having witnessed the beginning of our own railways in this country, I now ven- ture to state as clearly as I can certain conclusions to which I have come on this important subject. It is hardly necessary to remind you of the origin of tbe railway. The renowned George Stephenson, an English work- ing-man, whose first wages amounted to 2d. a day, was the inventor to w^hom the world is indebted for the locomotive engine and the construction of the first railway. On the 27th September, 1825, the Stockton and Darlington line was opened for traffic. Only seventy years have passed since that memo- rable day, but marvellous indeed have been the results of what was then begun. Not England only, but the whole world has felt the mighty change due to the development of the new mode of locomotion. In that first enterprise the funds were necessarily provided by private persons, who combined together to construct the line and carry on the traffic ; and they naturally and pro- perly required those who used the railway to pay such charges as would cover all working-expenses and leave a fair margin of profit on the capital employed. And the same method of providing funds for railway work has continued to be the usual method in Great Britain and elsewhere until comparatively recent times. A large number of companies were formed. €0 Transactio7is. — Miscellaneous. having the necessary powers conferred on them by Acts of Par- hament, and thus the railways of the country became private property, and the carrying business a large monopoly. It is true that the traffic is divided among many companies, but, so far as the people at large are concerned, the railway system is a real and irresistible monopoly, having enormous power, which has often been exercised to the serious injury of local interests. There is every reason to believe that this was, in the nature of things, at first quite unavoidable, and therefore is not to be regarded as a just occasion of blame to those courageous men by whose energy and ability, and at whose cost, the great ad- vantages of safe and rapid transit were provided. The idea ■of a railway was new to the w^orld. It could not be put to the test of practical experience without, a large expenditure. It was never for a moment supposed to be within the sphere of a political government to carry out ; there was therefore no alternative but to do it by private means. All that the governing power of the nation, represented by Parliament, appears to have thought it had to do was to exercise a sort of arbitrary control over what the engineers proposed. And in many instances this was so done as to cause an enormous and wholly unnecessary expenditure in parliamentary costs before a shilling could be expended in the actual making of the line. Thus it came to pass that the idea of private property in a railway was quite natural ; and the consequent idea that every railway was to be looked upon as a concern where- with to provide dividends for the owners was also per- fectly natural. Of course, when we came to these new lands as immigrants we brought these old ideas with us, and it is not to be wondered at that they have proved of sufficient force to keep us from seeing how en- tirely inapplicable they are to any country in wdiich rail- ways are, as they ought always to be, the property of the people. By slow degrees a truer view of the function of rail- ways has been perceived, and it is more and more recognised that, in this country at least, railways are and must ever be the chief highways of traffic, and therefore should be, like all other highways, free to all who require to use them. Free highways should ever be found in the country of a free people. What do the words "free highways" mean? They mean that the person who uses the highway should not have to pay toll every time he uses it ; that no one should be able to say to us, " Before you walk or ride or drive or carry your goods on this road you must pay toll." Now, all this is quite plain and easy to understand when applied to an ordinary road in the country, or to a street or lane in a town ; but how does it apply to a railway ? I think it is not difficult to make it plain. When any one uses an ordinary road, he either walks PuRCHAS. — Place of the Baihcat/ in Social Economy. 61 or provides himself with an animal or a carriage of some sort by which he may be conveyed to the place at which he wishes to arrive. It matters not whether he uses a conveyance of his own or hires one for the jcurney, the transit is effected at his own expense either of labour or money ; but the road along which he travels is free — it has been provided for him by the officers of the State, who are appointed and provided with public funds for that special purpose. It matters not whether they are Eoad Boards, Town or City or County Councils, or Commissioners, or officers of the General Govern- ment, their work is public work carried out with public funds, and for the use of every individual of the community. How, then, is it with a railway? The only difference is that which the nature of the railway traffic renders necessary. There is absolutely no difference in principle. The user must still pay for the cost of transit of himself and his goods, but the road must be free. Eailway transit, from its very nature, must always be carried on under a special system of management. The iron road cannot possibly be used in the same manner as the ordi- nary road. The propelling force, whether steam, electricity, or hydrocarbon, requires special engines and skilled di-ivers ; the carriages, whether for passengers or goods, must be specially constructed ; and everything connected with the traffic must be specially devised and directed in perfect order for the safety and convenience of those who use the road. For these reasons, no such private use of the road can be permitted as that which is the universal rule of the common road. It follows, therefore, that the cost of the rolling-stock and station-buildings, as well as the current expenditure of every kind necessarily incurred in carrying on the traffic, must be provided by the payments of those who use the road, and to this end such fares and rates of freight must be charged as will amply cover all such expenditure, but not more. To put it shortly, then, there should be a complete separa- tion in the railway accounts between the cost of forming and maintaining the line and that of the traffic over the line. The cost of the line or public highway should be paid by the owner — that is, the whole people, under the name of the State ; and the cost of the traffic by the user — that is, every one who travels or has goods carried upon the line. It seems to me that when the time comes that the true idea of the railroad as the chief highway of the nation shall be generally accepted, as I think it will, there ought not to be more difficulty in carrying it out than there is now with all other highways. It is not within the scope of this paper to discuss the question of management, but it seems to me obvious that it must necessarily be entirely independent of what is known as 62 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. political control — a species of private ownership of the worst kind — and must be intrusted to the very best and most com- petent experts obtainable. There is every reason to expect that the removal of the toll now exacted from every one in the high fares at present payable would result in a great increase of prosperity in the settled districts of the country, and that the opening-up and beneficial settlement of new districts by judicious railway extension would tend to lighten the burden of taxation by increasing the number of those who bear it. I have purposely avoided any attempt to estimate the pos- sible reduction in railw^ay charges if the principle of payment for carriage only were adopted, but there is no doubt that it would be considerable, and would tend lai'gely to increase the traffic, to the great benefit of the whole community. My desire is to concentrate attention upon, and to obtain a calm and reasonable consideration of, the principle I have now endeavoured to set forth, not only by those who are now present, but by all thoughtful people throughout the country. Aet. IX. — Antarctic Besearch. By Major-General Schaw, C.B., E.E. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 31st July, 1895.] In the year 1887 a proposal was made to the British Govern- ment by the Government of Victoria that an expedition should be undertaken to explore the antarctic regions, at an esti- mated cost of £10,000, of which sum the Victorian Govern- ment guaranteed to provide £5,000 if the British Government would provide the remaining £5,000. The proposal was not favourably entertained. The objects of the expedition, as defined by the Victorian Government, were — first, the pro- motion of trade ; and second, scientific inquiry. The Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty's Treasury stated in their re- ply, "The department best able to judge of the first does not think the interests involved sufficient to justify the proposed Imperial contribution ; and the general result of the com- munications regarding the second object received from scientific bodies is to show that an expedition on the scale contemplated could do very little in the way of scientific investigation, and would have to be regarded simply as a pioneer of future more complete and costly expeditions." For these reasons they felt they would not be warranted in asking Parliament to provide the proposed contribution ; and ScHAW. — Oti Antarctic Besearch. 63 they went on to say they "arrive at this conclusion, how- ever, with sincere regret, and would have been glad to have co-operated with the Australian Colonies in an enterprise having something more than a merely commercial purpose. Perhaps, however, my Lords may be allowed to regard the present proposal as an indication that if any like expedition be undertaken hereafter by the Imperial Government some of the British colonies more closely interested in it might not be unwilling to contribute to its cost." This proposed expedition, therefore, was abandoned, and the subject dropped out of notice, until it was revived by Dr. John Murray, one of the distinguished members of the late " Challenger " expedition, in a paper read by him before the Koval Geographical Society on the 27th November, 1893. In this most valuable and exhaustive paper he related the history of antarctic explorations. He showed that Captain Cook was the first to penetrate within the antarctic circle, having reached lat. 71° 10' S., at a point to the south-west of Patagonia, " when he probably saw the ice-barrier and the mountains beyond." This was in his second voyage, in 1774, after his circumnavigation of New Zealand in his first voyage. Since then two navigators have penetrated further south than Cook : " Weddell, in 1823, reached 74° S., but saw no land. Sir James Clark Eoss, in 1841 and 1842, reached the 78th parallel, and discovered Victoria Land, south of New Zealand. No other explorers have passed beyond the 70th parallel of south latitude." In the course of his paper Dr. Murray referred to the explorations carried out under Smith in 1819, who discovered the South Shetland Islands, and the consequent seal-fishery which sprang up, and resulted in the extermination of the seals. Bellingshausen discovered the island named Peter the Great, and Alexander the First Land; D'Urville discovered Adelie Land ; the United States Exploring Expedition dis- covered Wilkes Land; Powell discovered the South Orkneys; Briscoe discovered Enderby's Land; Balleny discovered the Balleny Islands and Sabine Land ; and Dallman, more re- rently, discovered Kaiser Wilhelrn Islands and Bismarck Strait, to the north of Graham's Land. Dr. Murray gave unstinted praise to the good work done by these and other explorers, who, with vessels unstrengthened to resist ice, and with imperfect means, have added so much to our know- ledge of antarctic regions ; but he pointed out that Eoss's expedition, which was better provided, and the vessels well strengthened, was, under its splendid commander, able to do more than any other ; and his observations on the geology, meteorology, and magnetic phenomena of those regions, as 64 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. well as his soundings and dredgings, and observations on cur- rents and sea-temperatures at different depths, threw a flood of new light on the physical and biological conditions within the antarctic circle ; but his ships were unprovided with steam-power, like those of all other antarctic explorers; and this is extremely disadvantageous, because the vessels are unable to make progress during the all-too-scanty periods of fine, calm weather ; contrary winds in ice-encumbered waters are very perplexing and dangerous, and to anchor near an ice- bound coast while exploring parties are sent ashore is too risky for sailing-vessels. The " Challenger " is the only steam-vessel that has crossed the antarctic circle, and, as she was not strengthened to bear the blows and pressure of ice, she could do little in the way of exploration through the pack, and was obliged to con- fine the observations to deep-sea soundings. Putting together all the various results of the observations that have been made, Dr. Murray has prepared various maps of the southern pole (partially reproduced), in which he has shown what parts of the coast-line of antarctic land have been fixed, and these he has connected by dotted lines indi- cating the probable shape of the great antarctic continent which, from all indications, he presumes to exist, surround- ing the south pole, about 3,500 miles long by 1,500 miles broad, and covered with perpetual snow and ice. He indi- cates also the approximate position assigned to the magnetic pole or poles, and the known and supposititious mean baro- metric pressures — the lowest (28 -Din.) being in February, off Victoria Land, near Mounts Erebus and Terror. From the observed preponderance of southerly winds he assumes that a region of high barometric pressure exists around the South Pole. The depths of the ocean, as far as they are known, are also figured, and in his paper he draws attention to the remarkable fact that the temperature at the bottom, even at the depth of over 2,000 fathoms, is not below 33° Fahr., while at the surface it may fall to 29°, and at an intermediate depth may be as high as 40°. The abundance of life now existing in these x\ntarctic-Ocean depths is very notable, and specimens of fossils, apparently of Tertiary age, obtained on Seymour Island by a Norwegian whaler indicate that at one period of the world's history a more genial climate must have prevailed in those regions. Dr. Murray's maps further give the oceanic deposits in the different areas of the south polar seas; the ice- limits and currents ; the mean temperatures or isotherms, and the isobars and winds, for February ; the annual mean rainfall ; and the magnetic phenomena (after Neumayer). ScHAW. — On Antarctic Research. 65 Owning to the snowcap which envelopes the great antarctic land mass, the nucleus of rock is only revealed in off-lying islands or on the faces of high and bold escarpments, or by the fragments of rock carried seavpards by icebergs, and either obtained directly from them or dredged from the sea-bottom where they have been dropped by the icebergs as they melted. Thus the geology of the country is mainly concealed from view ; but the outlmes and larger features of the mountain-ranges are not obliterated in the high lands near the coasts, for peak after peak with varied contours are seen to rise one behind another towards the interior. The snow winch accumulates on these mountain-ranges in Victoria Land forms a vast glacier, which moves continually outwards, and presents on the coast-line a solid perpendicular wall of ice, probably from 1,200ft. to 1,500ft. in thickness, of which 150ft. to 200ft. is above the surface of the water and 1,100ft. to 1,400ft. below. When the front of this great glacier reaches depths of 300 to 400 fathoms large stretches break off and float away, forming the perpendicular-faced, horizontally- stratified, table-topped icebergs of the Antarctic and Southern Oceans. Fragments broken from these great ice-islands by collisions, mixed with salt-water ice, and accumulations of snow, form what is known as the " pack," which at favour- able times and places can be penetrated by properly-protected vessels ; but the great ice- wall, along which Boss coasted for three hundred miles east and west, is an absolute barrier to ships, although there are places where a landing might be effected and a winter station be formed, and one such place was noted by Eoss, near Mount Erebus, and within a com- paratively short distance of the magnetic pole, or where we have reason for supposing that pole to be. Dr. Murray refers to the results of the deep-sea dredging carried out by the " Challenger " expedition, and states, " All over the floor of the Aiitarctic Ocean there is a most abundant fauna, apparently more abundant than in any other region of the ocean's bed. In one haul made by the "Chal- lenger," in a depth of two miles, in lat. 47° S., the trawl brought up (excluding Protozoa) over two hundred specimens belonging to eighty-nine species of animals, of which seventy- three were new to science, including representatives of twenty- eight new genera." He says, " It is most probable — indeed, almost certain — that the floor of the ocean as well as all pelagic waters have been peopled from the shallow waters surround- ing continental land, and here in the deep waters of the Antarctic we appear to have very clear indications of the existence of the descendants of animals that once inhabited the shallow waters along the shores of Antarctica, while in other regions of the ocean the descendants of the shallow- 66 Transactions . — Miscellaneous . water organisms of the northern continents prevail. This is a subject of great interest to all biologists, and can best be studied by a more efficient exploration of these southern latitudes." The objects for which a renewed effort to explore the unknown regions in the vicinity of the southern pole should now be undertaken were summarised by Dr. John Murray as follows : — " To determine the nature and extent of the Antarctic Continent ; to penetrate into the interioi' ; to ascertain the depth and nature of the ice-cap ; to observe the character of the underlying rocks and their fossils; to take magnetical and meteorological observations, both at sea and on latid ; to observe the temperature of the ocean at all depths and seasons of the year ; to take pendulum observations on land, and pos- sibly also to make gravity observations at great depths in the ocean ; to bore through the deposits on the floor of the ocean at certain points to ascertain the condition of the deeper layers'-'' ; to sound, trawl, and dredge, and study the character of marine organisms — all this would be the work of a modern antarctic expedition. For the more definite determination of the distribution of land and water on our planet ; for the solution of many problems concerning the Ice Age ; for the better determination of the internal constitution and super- ficial form of the earth ; for a more complete knowledge of the laws which govern the motions of the atmosphere and the hydrosphere ; for more trustworthy indications as to the origin of terrestrial and marine plants and animals — all these ob- servations are earnestly demanded by the science of our day." Dr. Murray's paper was fully discussed, and m a most favourable manner. All agreed that there was no probability of any commercial advantages resulting from antarctic ex- plorations in the way of seal-hunting or whaling ; but that the scientific knowledge to be gained would be of the very greatest value. The words of the President in summing up the discussion embody the feelings of the Council and mem- bers of the Royal Geographical Society. He said, — " I consider that Dr. Murray's paper, and the important discussion which has followed it, will form a new starting- point in the advocacy of a renevi'al of antarctic discovery. We must not forget the valuable work that was done by Admiral Sir Erasmus Ommaney and the committee of the British Association five years ago. Sir Erasmus enlisted the * " Dr. IMurray believes tliat gravity determinations might be made, as well as the deposits bored into by specially-constructed instruments let down to the bottom from the ships." ScHAw. — On Antarctic Research. 67 sympathies of the Eoyal Society, and even of the more en- lightened members of the late Government. We owe him our warmest thanks for his exertions. Nor must we forget the zealous labours of Baron von Mueller, Captain Pascoe, and our other friends in Australia. They have long worked for the good cause of antarctic discovery, and I am confident that they will continue to exert all their influence in its favour. Our illustrious gold-medallist, Baron Nordenskiold, the dis- coverer of the North-east Passage, has but now written me a cheery and encouraging letter, horn, which the following is an extract : ' We shall follow the proceedings of an English expedition to those regions with the utmost interest, and with our best wishes for its success. It seems to me that the most important geographical problem for the moment is a systematic exploration of the hydrographic, meteorological, geological, and biological conditions of the antarctic regions. The arctic regions are in this respect now tolerably well known ; but almost every scientific result gained from thence has given rise to new problems of the utmost importance for the better knowledge of our globe, which can only be satis- factorily answered by corresponding discoveries in the far south.' "These inspiriting words will cheer us on in our task — a task from which I for one will never swerve until it is com- pleted. I have pleasure in announcing to you that our Council has this day appointed a committee for the purpose of reporting on the best means of achieving the objects of antarctic ex- ploration. The whole question will be thoroughly examined and discussed, and it will be our business to convince the Press and the public of its importance. We are, of course, devoted to geographical research and to the interests of science, and we look upon these objects as a chief reason for despatching an expedition. But, as an EDglishman, I feel that the great result of all will be the encouragement of that spirit of maritime enterprise which has ever distinguished the people of this country, and the keeping - alive of our glorious naval traditions. We are well assured that as soon as the country is with us in the advisability of despatching an antarctic expedition the Government will concur. We may therefore work on full of coniideuce and hope. We shall look on this evening as our starting-point. Dr. Murray has given us the route — he has done so in a way we shall not soon forget ; and I speak the sentiments of every one present in this great assembly when I offer to him our most sincere and hearty thanks for his very able and important address." The Antarctic Committee above alluded to reported that " the importance of antarctic research, and the desirability of its renewal, are recognised by all scientific bodies at Home and 68 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. abroad"; that "one of the most important requirements is the taking of magnetic observations, as it is known that a con- siderable change has occurred in the magnetism of the earth during the last fifty years, and the exact position of the south magnetic pole is hardly even approximately ascertained." " Other objects of an antarctic expedition v^ould be deep-sea soundings, the temperature of the ocean at all depths, dredg- ings, the study of the character and distribution of marine organisms, meteorology, and pendulum observations, if con- sidered necessary ; to explore the land as far as possible ; to determine the limits of freezing in antarctic regions in the summer, and the direction of winds and currents, and the consequent formation and movements of the pack ice." They observed that our knowledge is still very incomplete of the antarctic winds and currents. South of 40° S. there is very low atmospheric pressure, with strong westerly winds and a large rainfall and snowfall, all round the globe. Such observations as we possess show that the winds in higher southern latitudes are, on the contrary, generally from the south and south-east, and the surface-currents are in the same-direction, so that in the summer the pack and the bergs are continually drifted northwards. They showed the immense advantages which steamers would have over sailing-vessels in these investigations, and gave their opinion that the operations should be carried out by the Eoyal Navy in two vessels as well strengthened as were the " Erebus " and " Terror," fitted with steam-power, and specially protected aft to guard the rudder and jDropeller. The Eoyal Society, to whom the subject was referred, also appointed a special Antarctic Committee, who reported strongly in favour of an exploring expedition. With regard to pendulum experiments, which were recom- mended (with reserve) by the Royal Geographical Society, but not directly alluded to by the Eoyal Society, it is to be observed that they were recommended by Dr. Murray ; and in an appendix to his paper appears a communicatioii from Dr. Neumayer, of the Hamburg Naval Observatory, who, after showing how exceedingly important are an examination and a survey of the magnetic properties of the antarctic region, goes on to note that the determination of the constant of gravity has never been carried out in that region, and but a very small number of determinations have been made even in the Southern Hemisphere south of lat. 33°. He gives a table containing all that is known with respect to this important question within the assigned region. To this table I have added the value of gravity corresponding with the lengths of the seconds-pendu- lum, as given in his table, and a few comparative values in the Northern Hemisphere : — ScHAw. — On Antarctic Eesearch. 69 1 1 A. land way. CO -S § ai coco CO cocococococtjcoco O o3 * * CO *3l3 O (M^CZ)(MaOTHCOOO d BO on . . .'* .^t-c-oot-asocn — i oo . . , rH ■'7''r^T'T'T''7'T''r' '^i cS [^ § CM CM CM CM 6l C>1 C-1 CM 6q (M > 03 CO COCOCOCOCOCOCOCO CO Oipt-cp -tHOCI t-=p ■^'fP '?' s 'gcqc»t-o-*ociDc-iTHib^i)TH cb ~ ^lOlOO-^ OCOCOCO^iO >o Sod * oCOCOCOCO^t-CJJOi-HrHTjHTTHijO CM a pCOCOCOCO?lCOTi1loiC»CiO>OiO o ^ai o .C300010CO.-(^CMOOOCOC»00 T-i -C-jS . tnOOCMt~iOOOCr5 0t~0'-H;j5 CO rJr^ O 1^ <0 2 lO lO CO to lO >0 uo '^ O -* CO O O CD '^ d ^COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO CO OCOG5COO^O-*lOO --H 1-2 s > 1^ ^CM(MCMlM(MCMCO^-*^^^Ttf lO o :72 ; ^55" d 6 ...... . ^^ . . . . . . . Q^ . . Valparaiso Paramatta Port Jackson Gape of Good Ho Montevideo Melbourne Kerguolen Island Auckland Island Falkland Islands Falkland Islands South Georgia Staaten Island Cape Horn South Shetlands Dr. Neumayer goes on to say that, "as far as present evidence goes, there is an accordance of facts between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres with regard to the gravity determinations ; biit we must not forget that from within the 70 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. south polar circle not a single determination has been con- sulted, because there are none." The accordance of gravity determinations obtained in the two hemispheres alluded to above has reference to the third column of the table, in which the length of the seconds-pendulum for each place, obtained by experiment, is used to calculate what should be the length of a seconds-pendulum in lat. 45° on the assumption that the earth is an ellipsoid of which the equatorial radius is 3962-802 miles and the polar radius is 3949-555 miles, and that the centre of gravity is at the centre of form. The values so obtained do not differ widely, and give a mean of 0-993577 metres — not far different from the computed length for 45°, nor from the ascertained length at Kerguelen, lat. 49° 8' 9". But it will be observed that there is a very notable difference in the values of G. at about the same latitudes in the two hemi- spheres, the force of gravity being greater in the Northern than in the Southern Hemisphere. A comparison of the values in the two Shetlands, North and South, however, is the last that is at present available towards the poles, and it therefore appears of great scientific interest that further pendulum experiments should be made within the antarctic circle to determine the law of diminution of the force of gravity in the Southern Hemisphere. The present state of our knowledge leads to the belief that the centre of gravity of the earth lies about three-tenths of a mile to the north of the equator. Such a condition of unsymmetrical balance of the earth, if it be established as a fact, may enable us to account for that slow gyration of the earth round an axis which is not the axis of the plane of the ecliptic, which has now been discovered to be the case ; and I earnestly hope that pendulum experiments may form an integral part of the duties of the next antarctic expedi- tion. The centre of gravity being north of the equator, the plumb-line will be deflected there about 15" from the true vertical, and astronomical observations by means of zenith distances will need correction. This additional means of measurement of the position of the centre of the earth's mass will, no doubt, be resorted to, so that astronomical obser- vations may check those made by the pendulum. The papers connected with the subject of a renewal of antarctic research have been forwarded by the President of the Eoyal Geographical Society to Sir James Hector for the consideration of the Council of the New Zealand Institute, with the expressed hope that they will use their influence with the New Zealand Government to give favourable consideration to the letters which have been addressed to their Agent- General by the Eoyal Geographical Society, and referring to ScHAW. — A Wellington Weather Prognostic. 71 the Treasury letter previously quoted, in which the co-opera- tion of the colonies interested was suggested. Such co-operation, in the form of a small grant from each of the Australasian Colonies, would, it is believed, have such weight with the Imperial Government as to induce them to u.ndertake the work at once ; while the cordial feeling between the Mother-country and the colonies would be strengthened. The trade-routes between them would also be rendered safer by the increased knowledge of magnetic variations to be obtained. The Council cordially welcomed the proposal, and I was requested to put before the members of the Wellington Philo- sophical Society a precis of the communications from the Royal Geographical Society, which I have endeavoured to do in this paper. Art. X. — A Welliiigton Weather Prognostic. By Major-General Schaw, C.B., R.E. [^Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society , 18th December, 1895.] The weather is a subject which interests us all, and any help towards guessing correctly what sort of weather we may expect within the next twelve hours or so is valuable. I say " gues- sing " because no weather forecasts are infallible, even when aided by all that science and long observation have enabled us as yet to attain to. Observations of the fluctuations of the barometer, and of the winds and weather experienced at a number of distant points, collected at a central office by means of the telegraph, do enable a competent person to predict with a great measure of certainty the character of weather to be expected in the immediate future ; but the chain of causes influencing weather is so complicated and so far-reaching that in the existing state of our knowledge certain prediction can- not be insured — only great probability ; we know how great the probability is by comparing the daily forecasts made by Captain Edwin with the actual weather which follows ; and I think we must all acknowledge that his forecasts are very generally right, although not always right. What I wish to bring before this meeting is a prognostic which every one can observe, and which, since I first observed the sign, about two years ago, has hardly ever failed to be followed very shortly by a northerly blow and rain. I mean a peculiar form of clouds. I call them " fish " clouds ; but probably " mushroom-shaped " or "lenticular" clouds would 72 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. be more correct, as, although these clouds, as seen generally rather low down in the eastern sky, seem like fishes with smooth hog backs, yet no doubt they w^ould present some- what the same appearance if viewed sideways from any other point. The peculiarity of these clouds is that they are very smooth and regular in their upper curved surfaces, and comparatively fiat below — quite diflerent from the bubbling surface of a cumulus cloud, or from the straightly-drawn-out forms of stratus clouds, and also widely differing from the delicate feathery forms of the high cirrus clouds. The fish clouds belong to the class cirrostratus generally, and I should estimate that their normal level is at least 10,000ft. above the sea. Generally, the barometer is high when they begin to appear. It then begins to fall, and a northerly blow follows, sometimes within sis hours, more generally after about twelve hours ; but occasionally it is delayed for twenty-four hours, or even more. The appearance of these fish clouds may be that of small, delicately-shaped, scattered fishes, in which case the follow- ing north wind is generally not strong, and there is little or no rain. If the fish-clouds be more massive, or if, as often happens, they are joined together so as to form undulating, eel-shaped clouds, with the characteristic smooth, hard, curved outline above, then probably the northerly blow will be strong, with rain. Sometimes the fish clouds are superim- posed one on another, so as to form, as it were, a pile or piles of fishes. This form is not so common, but I think it also is followed by bad weather. So far I have merely dealt with observed facts, which I hope others will also observe, if they have not done so al- ready ; and it will be specially valuable to have instances when northerly blows with rain have not been preceded by fish clouds, or when fish clouds have not been followed by the wind or rain. But, admitting that my observations are correct, and that this form of cloud usually is seen before a strong northerly wind, can we in any way account for it ? We know that the great system of circulation in our atmo- sphere, produced by the joint action of the sun's heat and the daily rotation of the earth, gives rise to vast eddies in the air, known as cyclones and anticyclones — the cyclones, or "lows," if viewed from above, being like great saucers, rotating in this hemisphere as the hands of a watch ; the anticyclones, or " highs," like inverted saucers, rotating the other way. But it is with the cyclones, or " lows," we are now concerned, as they give us our strong winds and storms. The motion of the air in a cyclone is very complicated : it is drawn inwards below, it is poured outwards above, it ascends in a spiral course. ScHAw. — A Wellington Weather Prognostic. 73 and the whole system, extending, it may be, over one thou- sand or even two thousand miles of the earth's surface every way, is moving rapidly to the eastward. The rate of east- ward progress averages about five hundred miles in the twenty- four hours. This causes the variations in the direction of the wind and in the height of the barometer. But the force of the wind varies with the rotary motion. The wind at the front of a cyclone approaching us from the west must be from the northward or north-westward if, as is almost always the case, the centre of the storm is not to the north of us. Very generally it is south of New Zealand altogether. Very rarely it is north of Wellmgton, and in these rare cases, when the storm would begin with a north-east wind, changing by east to south, probably the characteristic fish clouds would not appear. For I imagine that their history is somewhat like this : As the cyclone advances from the west, warm, moist air is drawn in below from the north on that side of the eddy ; it is whirled onward, upward, and southward until it reaches a cold level, where its water- vapour is condensed into clouds, and the dry air pouring over them smooths down their upper surfaces into the fish-back forms which we observe. This seems to me a probable explanation of the way in which these clouds are formed on the north-eastern edge of an advancing cyclone here, and of the reason why their appear- ance should be a usual precursor of a north-westerly blow with a falling barometer, to be succeeded by a southerly blow with a rising barometer, as usually happens. The cause I have assigned is, of course, conjectural, but it seems to me reasonable ; and, if it be true, the same weather prognostic ought, I think, to be true all up the west coast of this Island, and probably as far as ^Westport on the west coast of the South Island, or even farther south. On the east coast, or inland, probably this form of cloud would not be so usual or characteristic, as the advancing cyclone circulation is, as we know, much broken up by the great mountain barrier running nearlv north and south throuerh these Islands, and the indraught of air would be modified by the land-surface over which it must pass. The break in this barrier at Cook Strait and the direc- tion of our coast-line here are undoubtedly the causes of the prevailing northerly or southerly winds experienced here, the westerly winds being deflected north or south, and easterly winds very rarely occurring, because, as before observed, the centres of the cyclones usually are to the south of us. 74 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Akt. XI. — The Ultimate Problem of Pliilosophy. By William W. Caelile. [Bead before the Wellington Philosopliical Society, 21st Aug^ist, 1895.] With regard to all the great problems that in previous ages had occupied more than any others the intellect of mankind, we have become accustomed of late years in England to be told that what is golden is silence. Since the days of Berkley, for several generations speculation in regard to first principles was practically banned among us, as far as the systematic work of science and philosophy was concerned; and, looking^ back on that period, we are forced to inquire, Was the result from any point of view satisfactory ? The outcome was that what was best in English thouglit took flight from the uni- versities and found refuge in the poetry of Wordsworth, and subsequently in that of Tennyson, Browning, and Arnold; while speculation in regard to historical, political, and social questions was only saved from shallowness and triviality by the influence of German literature, reflected in the writings of Thomas Carlyle. Galileo is reported to have said that for one hour of his life that he had spent on mathematics he had spent seven on philosophy ; and it seems to be the case that, somehow or other, the world is so constructed that inquiries into matters that seem at first sight wide enough from im- mediate practical requirements — investigations into the na- ture of identity and causalicy, of the human soul, and of the genesis of the world — are capable of putting thought on the right track even with regard to subjects of scientific detail. How otherwise can we account for the fact that Leibnitz, deduced from first principles a doctrine that closely resembles the doctrine of the conservation of energy some two hundred years before its time, and the same great thinker, in his theory of the continuous gradation of created beings, arrived at con- clusions that approximate to the modern doctrine of evolu- tion ? A notable change, however, has taken place in the trend of English thought in reference to such matters during the last five-and-twenty years. Hegel, who, while the influence of his- philosophy was at its zenith in Germany, was apparently, for the most part, regarded as a more or less fantastical mystic among ourselves, then began to number among his_ disciples and expositors many of the most competent of English philo- sophers, including such men as the late Mr. Green ; Professor Edward Caird, the present master of Balliol ; Mr. F. H. Brad- ley; Professors Wallace, of Oxford; Jones, of Glasgow; Wat- Caelile. — On the Ultimate Problem of PJiilosophy . 75 son, of Canada ; and many others. So much so that, if any system of philosophy can be said to be dominant in England at present, it is the system of Hegel. Hegelianisra, however, is with us a general name for the philosophy which at the beginning of the century sprang up in Germany, contem- poraneously with the development of the poetic spirit that gave birth to Goethe and Schiller — and was, indeed, another aspect of the same movement ^rather than for the special characters which distinguish the philosophy of Hegel from that of his contemporaries Schellmg and Fichte. It has been remarked, indeed, with some truth, that Hegelianism, having lost its birthright in German)'-, is sojourning now in the tents of England and America. What is true and valuable in Hegelianism, however, still survives in Germany in the sys- tems of other thinkers, even of one so widely removed from his special standpoint as Lotze, and yet more notably in the sys- tem of Von Hartmau. It is not now my intention to-night to attempt to add to the number of his expositors, or to deal with any of the details of his system. What it seems to me is the imperish- able truth it contains lies in its emphatic repudiation of the right of Kant or any one else to set bounds in advance to the subjects of human inquiry, and the confident assertion of the adequacy of the grounds that we possess for the belief that behind the developments of nature and history are visible the operations of a guiding intelligence, of which our own is the offshoot and the image. For those who incline to the opinion that mind can be adequately accounted for as something that exists in the universe only as a product of cerebral organization, a class of phenomena which manifest themselves as the result of the operations of the collective and continuous thought of a race or a community are worthy of due consideration. Take such a phenomenon as the British Constitution : We have in it a well-defined, fully-organized system, capable of being adopted by other States besides the State which originally developed it, and, in essential matters, by no means easy to improve upon. The founders of the American Eepublic, sharing the fancy prevalent in those days that innovation could not be other than improvement, thought that they could alter it easily for the better by separating the legislative from the executive functions. How profound w^as their mistake has been very conclusively made out by Mr. Bagehot. We find according to that writer that European States which have since had to adopt Constitutions have adhered much more closely to the English model than the American Conventioii did. If we ask, however, to what English lawgiver, states- man, or philosopher the salient characteristics of the English 76 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Constitution are due we find at once that we might as well ask to which of the primeval men were due the first germs of the moral faculty. The separation of the legislative and executive functions, subsequently carried out with such mani- fold disastrous results in America, was the favourite project of reform in England at the period of the revolution of 1688, and only escaped being carried into effect owing to circumstances that present the appearance of being accidental. We see only the impulse towards freedom and self-government pervading many generations of Englishmen, and the apparently chance survival of expedients that fell in with the aim of this impulse. A phenomenon of the same sort is the growth of Gothic architecture. "No one," as Emerson says, "can walk in a road cut through the pine-woods without being struck with the architectural appearance of the grove, especially in winter, when the barrenness of all other trees show^s the low arch of the Saxons. . . . ISlor can any lover of nature enter the old piles of Oxford and the English cathedrals without feeling that the forest overpowered the mind of the builder." Yet, if we turn to the history of architecture, we find apparently no one architect who had the design consciously in view of reproducing in stone the image of the forest. We can trace, on the contrary, the various stages by which the basilica became transformed into the cathedral, and can only interpret the ideal that fully realised itself in the fourteenth century as one that more or less unconsciously dominated the mind of many generations. The collective continuous mind thus seems to have in it something that cannot be accounted for offhand as the mere sum of the conscious thoughts and wishes of various individual minds. If we glance at a widely-different department of life from the politics and art of man, other illustrations, perhaps even more interesting and more marvellous, present themselves. When Mr. Darwin writes of sexual selection there are plainly two very distinct principles before his mind. One is the sur- vival of the strongest or best-armed males in their struggle for the possession of the females : this involves no presupposi- tion essentially different from that involved in natural selec- tion. The other, that to which the continuous increase in the beauty of the bird-world is due, does involve a presupposition, the full purport of which Mr. Darwdn himself does not appear to have clearly idealised. He thinks it sufficient to assume that the hens appreciate beautiful forms and colours to account for the fact that the cocks of many species become from generation to generation more and more beautiful. This indefinite increase in some abstract characteristic called "beauty," however, does not at all adequately represent the facts in individual instances. The " more and more " that Caklile. — On the Ultimate Problem of Philosophy . 11 is spoken of can hardly be otherwise regarded than as an approximation towards something in the nature of an ideal existing in some mind that did not itself cease to exist with the passing- away of any single generation. How otherwise can we represent to om'selves the gradual evolution of the ocelli on the peacock's tail, or the still more wonderful ocelli which with such incredible accuracy reproduce the eifect of light shining on a convex surface on the wing-feathers of the argus-pheasant ? In the difference between the upper and lower ocellus in his illustration (" Descent of Man," p. 149, vol. ii.) we seem to see the very last finishing-touch being given to the picture. We need hardly, however, resort to isolated and remarkable instances like this to discover the operations of a general mind underlying the operations of individual minds in the lower world. It seems to gleam through every instance of the exercise of an untaught instinct. The mere fact of the discrimination by birds of the pitch of musical notes and the varieties of colour, though so obvious and familiar, if lightly considered, brings us vividly in view of the supernatural in nature. We know that the relations be- tween notes and between colours both rest on exact numerical relations between vibrations and undulations, and that when we discriminate notes and colours we may be said, in a fashion, to perceive these numerical relations ; we know that the dis- covery of them is, at any rate, implicit in our immediate perception, and waits only for reasoning thought to make it explicit. If the birds have, in this respect, the same percep- tions that we have, can we interpret the fact otherwise than by the hypothesis that we and they alike share in the opera- tions of a vaster mind ? We are accustomed to view all the organized and systema- tized products of human intelligence under the category of " things made," often with much inaccuracy. If a man builds a house or constructs a machine he has a plan, either on paper or in his mind, which he follows out in detail. The mental process as the result of which a poem is written is widely different. Burns tells us that he composed his songs often by humming an air to himself and waiting till the words came. If one could have viewed the process from the outside, with- out knowing anything of the mind behind it, it might have seemed to him as if there were a struggle for existence between the words, and the survival of those best fitted to meet the exigencies of the rhythm and at the same time to call up ideas that were interesting and inspiriting. The Herbartian psychology has familiarised us with the conception of a contest between ideas for a place in consciousness, and the survival of such only as fall in with the needs of a dominant apperceptive system. Survival of its constituent factors under the influence 78 Transac tions . — Miscellaneous . of an ideal is indeed applicable to the genesis of all that is organized or constructed by us, even to those things that we ordinarily look upon as being made offhand in accordance with a copy. It is only the last stage that is thus accom- plished. One can set himself nowadays to construct a triple- expansion engine, and need no other equipment for his task than care and patience and ordinary intelligence. But could any one have done it fifty years ago ? The steps in engine- construction between that day and this have been achieved by a mental process analogous to that by which poems are written and Constitutions are developed. We are becoming daily more and more fully conscious of this fact. We can perceive that though Brunei could not build a " Great Eastern " that would work, the progress of naval construction since his time renders it probable that our descendants will build vessels of vastly greater magnitude than it. We do not set ourselves now to make wings and, having made them, leap into space, but we are still further from laying it down as beyond question that aerial navigation is for ever impossible. Bather we set ourselves to estimate what progress has been made over a period of ten or twenty years past in diminishing the propor- tion which the weight of engines must bear to the motor- power that they can develope, and on this basis to calculate what progress the next ten or twenty years are likely to see made in the direction of the solution of our problem. Simi- larly, in matters political, we have travelled far since the days when Locke or Eousseau saw in the relation between king and people the result of some conscious bargain deliberately "made" at the dawn of history; or since the days when the sages of the Directory had religious in their pigeon-holes, ready to be made actual by an edict from head-quarters. Even socialism — at any rate Fabian socialism — recognises now that it must reckon more or less with nature and its gradual pro- cesses. We are beginning to find out that there are many things in the world that are organized and systematized yet which cannot be said to be " made." " Making " is a deduc- tive process only : it gives effect in the real world to an abstract rule. The process by wdiich the rule itself has been, obtained belongs also to thought, but to the province of induc- tion. It is induction that we find taking place whenever the evolution of anything is the result. A theory of the reason that would adequately define the separate provinces of induction and deduction is still a desi- deratum m logic. Mr. Mill's theory is by no means consist- ent with itself. In the body of his work he treats the two as co-ordinate processes, which achieve the same end by different means. In the chapter on "Deduction," on the contrary, we find hiin maintaining that every deduction has in it three stages Caklile. — On the Ultimate Problem of Pliilosopliy . 79 — au induction, a ratiocination, and a verification. That is the true account, I think, of every process of conscious reasoning. We can only draw a hue that will afford the basis for cousist- ■ent treatment between induction and deduction by regarding the former, substantially as Whewell does, as "the light that goes up " — the happy thought, the illuminating generalisation to which no methods are applicable ; and the latter as the process by which such generalisations are in the end either confirmed or rejected. The so-called inductive methods can be applicable only to ratiocination and the verification. This view corresponds with Mr. Mill's own description, in the earlier part of his work, of reasoning from particulars to generals as the process of mother- wit of the shrewd, untaught intelligence. It may be possible thus to see some truth in the striking thought of Emerson : " Generalisation is always a new influx of divinity into the mind — hence the thrill that attends." The deductive process of " making" could, then, very plainly be only the process of human minds, whose workings are based on abstraction ; and it seems, moreover, that it only corre- sponds to one aspect even of their processes, and that not a universal one. It may thus, I think, yet become possible for us to comprehend that, thougli we must give up the concep- tion of " making " as applicable to the genesis of the world, we may still hold to the belief thac it is the work of mind, and even of that description of mind of which our own is an imper- fect image. The philosophy of Hegel has familiarised us with the thought of pairs of complementary conceptions, one of which is and must be implicit in the other — though those who are loudest in affirming either of the two are often farthest from recognising that they at the same time affirm its comple- ment. " People have only to know what they say," as he observes, "in order to find the infinite in the finite." The category of complementai'y conceptions is applicable to many others besides those of the infinite and the finite. The con- ception, for example, of the possible illusoriness of vision, of which Hume made so much use, plainly postulated the pos- session by us of some trustworthy standard by comparison with which the information that vision gave us might be pro- nounced either illusory or valid ; yet with the recognition of this fact his theory of subjective idealism must necessarily have vanished. In the history of the world, indeed, as we find it, it often takes many generations for a thought that is there already as implicit to become explicit. Hence it is the rule rather than the exception with intellectual movements that they stop short at a stage that seems to us, on looking back at them, to be very obviously only an intermediate one. One wonders how, in the sixteenth century, the assertion of 80 Tr ansae Lions . — Miscellaneous . the right of private judgment stopped short at the precise point that it did ; and how, in the eighteenth, the Eclaircisse- ment, in the main hostile to Christianity, identified itself with what is, in truth, a Christian doctrine — the equal rights of all men. Applying this point of view to theories of the nature and genesis of the world, it seems, on reflection, sufficiently mani- fest that the conception of it as a mechanical system is a com- plementary one to the belief in the existence of a mechanician outside it. Yet the philosophies which most vehemently assert the necessary invalidity of the belief in a God w^ho made the world as a man makes a watch are those which, with equal assurance, assert the possibility of our remaining satisfied wath the conception of the world as a watch, but without any maker. Such a standpoint, however, can be only a transitional one. If there is no mechanician, then the world, it is plain, is something very different from a mechanical system. "The brain secretes thought," we are told, "as the Hver secretes bile." Let us suppose that it does: the question next arises. How does the liver secrete bile ? It plainly will not do to conceive of it as secreting it in anything like the same way or manner as that in which the steam- engine converts heat into motion. It must be conceived of rather as secreting it in the manner in which the engine, phis the man endowed with conscious will and intelligence who attends it, effects this end. If there be nothing to take the place of the man alongside the organisan, then the organism itself cannot be viewed except in one of two ways— either as something that has an independent life of its own, or as some- thing that shares the life of some wider existence. We speak freely of some things in the world as "living," and of others as "dead" and "inert"; but if w-e force our- selves to consider what it is we really say when we use such expressions we will find that we can never combine the predicates of "deadness" and "inertia" with the predicates of motion and change as applicable to any subject without having in the background of our minds the thought of some cause outside such a subject that moves and changes it. Once convince us fully that no such cause exists, and its motion becomes at once for us sufficient evidence of its life. If there were nothing in the universe, we are told, but two drops of water, and they were millions of miles apart, they would not rest where they are, but would at once begin to move in a straight line towards each other. We can conceive of such a fact under the category of mechanism only, because in the semiconscious background of our minds there is the tra- ditional thought of a God who moves them. Blot out that thought completely and the drops of water become at once Caelile. — On the Ultimate Problem of Philosophy . 81 things endowed not only with some sort of Hfe, but also with some sort of unconscious knowledge of each other's existence and position. We have been accustomed in the past to make use of the categories of the material world to express, as best we can, the facts of mind. A tendency, however, is noticeable in recent science to reverse tbe process. We speak naturally now of the refracted light -ray as seeking the least circuitous route to its goal that is in the circumstances possible to it. It comes naturally, too, to Mr. Darwin to ask, with reference to a reversion like the occasional appearance of the double uterus, how could it "know," as it were, what course it had to follow, unless we assume its connection by descent with some form in which it was normal. Hence, even if we are old-fashioned enough to be desirous of finding adequate reasons for believing intelligence to be the guiding principle of the universe, we can look on with equa- nimity at the Kantian criticism engaged in demolishing the ontological, cosmological, and physico-theological arguments for the being of a God. The very statement of such argu- ments involves the conception of two subjects — nature and God — the existence of the latter of which has to be proved from qualities perceivable in the former. Let us conceive the work to be thoroughly done, and the God of the old natural theology to be extinguished. We are left alone then with nature — with the totality of things, incltiding ourselves, as the percipients of them all. This is, then, the one subject in the universe ; and we are driven at once to ask. What are its pre- dicates ? That one of them is life is a self-evident conclusion ; and that others are organic unity, and in some sense the manifestation of intelligence, are further conclusions which every fresh discovery in science emphasizes. By the time we have assimilated them , however, we find that the very fact of getting rid of the God of the old natural theology has brought us back many steps in the direction of a conception which, after all, closely approximates to the conception of God in the natural mind. So far, Hume would be' with us. With the common- sense of English thought, which does not let its theories run away with it, he allows his doctrine of causation to go by the board, and does not hesitate to say that there can never be any doubt as to the being of a God — the only questions that can arise are questions in reference to his nature. It is here, indeed, that the true difficulty begins. If we can go no fm-ther in assigning predicates to the one great subject than to affirm of it life, unity, and some sort of in- telligence, there is much truth in Hume's contention that our belief can never be the ground ' ' either of any action or of any forbearance." It is plain that we can find these predicates in no other manner than by casting our glance on the world 6 82 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. about us, and back over its history. In doing so it will be all in vain for us to attempt to shut our eyes to the manifold miseries and bitternesses of human life. Nor does it assist us to tell us, as Hegel does, that all this exists merely that the Absolute Spirit may become conscious of himself. Eather, the heart rebels at the suggestion that human misery should have been devised for the attainment of an end that cannot be represented as either noble or unselfish. There is nothing in self-consciousness that is, in itself, admirable or attractive : as Goethe profoundly remarks, humility, the sweetest of womanly virtues, can never know anything of its own exist- ence, it is idle, too, to tell us, in any phraseology, that evil is negation — that it is something that does not really exist. He who uses such phraseology does not alter the facts, he merely confuses for himself the connotation of such words as "reality," "existence," and "evil." Shutting our eyes to nothing, we may, however, still ask ourselves the question, Does it not, in spite of everything, seem clear that "the real tendency of things is good"? This much, at any rate, was the intense conviction of one who was even more alive than most of us are to the darker side of human things. Without prejudging the question whether it is a conclusion capable of being scientifically established, it may be said that, if it can, we cannot, I think, escape from the further conclusion that there is an ideal which the Universal Mind is endeavouring to realise in the world — that this ideal is nothing else but the amelioration of its condition. The question, at aiiy rate, of any belief in God which is more than a formal and unmeaning one appears to be bound up with that other question whether or not the real tendency of things is good — that is to say, whether or not there is, in spite of all fluctuations, a progress, steady on the whole, towards a higher and better state of things per- ceptible in mundane affairs, and whether such tendency is not the necessary outcome of the laws of life and develop- ment. Though Hegel, in his abstract formalisation of his doctrine, places the goal of existence in the realisation of itself in con- sciousness by the Absolute Spirit — a conception which, what- ever aspect of the truth it may present, does not in any way commend itself to human love and admiration — when he comes to show us his principle at work on the stage of the world's history, vv'e find that what it seems to mean is that there is some intelligent principle behind human affairs, or innnanent in them, which converts the fall of empires, the de- cadence of civilisations, the inroads of barbarism — everything, in short, that seems at first merely evil and disastrous — into the starting-point for the development of new eras, charac- Caelile. — On the Ultimate Problem of Philosophy . 83 terized by greater happiness and greater liberty than those which preceded them. He treads with firm and certain step —here and there, perhaps, riding his theory of triphcities to death, as when he divides even the continents and their physical features into triads — but, on the whole, arriving at a conception of historical development which largely anticipates the con- clusions that the progress of science and research has since made inevitable. Schlegel's conception of a primitive univer- sal civilisation, from which barbarism is a retrogression, is, for example, dismissed as hardly worth considering; yet its validity was maintained by very competent thinkers until quite recently in England. Altogether, his conclusions present a remarkable parallelism with those which Mr. Bagehot, in his " Physics and PoHtics," bases on the established doctrine of evolution. If speculation in regard to first principles is, from a practical point of view, so valueless as many would have us believe, it is strange that metaphysics anticipated science by at least half a century with reference to a matter so fertile in practical bearings as national development. What is least formal and abstract in Hegel's line of thought is probably what will be found in the long-run to be of most permanent value. His doctrine that conceptions, as soon as they become explicit, go over into their opposites, appears to be transfixed by Lotze's criticism that conceptions never alter, though the things of the finite world pass from the sphere of one conception into that of another. If the process, too, had the absolute universality which he asserts for it, it is hard to understand how rational freedom itself could be an exception. If the alleged principle were universally valid, should we not be forced to conclude that, as soon as rational freedom itself became explicit in the world, it must pass over into irrational bondage ? It is hard to see also how from the absolute equivalence of the elementary opposites — from the theory that " being " and " nothing " are the same — anything but a see-saw between these opposites could result. If the negative element is to be con- quered in the end, must we not conclude that it was never from the beginning the full equivalent of the affirmative ? The Eleatic doctrine, adopted by Spinoza, that evil is negation, though, if taken as it stands, it is little better than a barren paradox, is yet much nearer the truth than the doctrine of the identity or full equivalence of opposites. It is, indeed, an approximate statement of a truth that has played a great rule in philosophy, and is destined, perhaps, yet to play a still greater one. If evil is not literally non-existent, it at any rate, as Spinoza very clearly recognised, carries within it a self-destructive element. If reason, as he says, even per- suaded us to lie for our own advantage, or even in order to save ourselves from imminent danger, it would persuade all 84: . Transactions. — Miscellaneous. men always to do the same, and then social existence would become impossible ; and thus the principle of lying, if carried to its full length, destroys itself. Hence reason, he concludes, can never persuade us to lie. We have in this the germ and more than the germ of the Kantian doctrine, " Let the maxim of your conduct be that which can be made into law universal." A further consequence naturally flows from it — viz., that, in as far as any nation, any theory, or any institu- tion contains elements of moral baseness, in so far also does it contain elements of weakness ; that whatever survives in the world survives in virtue of that in it which is true and valuable. This is the kernel of the doctrine that has been preached in our day with much energy of conviction by Thomas Carlyle, and has vividly impressed the English-speak- ing world. Eeferring to the rise of Mahometanism, for example, he says, " I will allow a thing to struggle for itself in this world, with any sword or tongue or implement it has, or can lay hold of. We will let it preach, and pamphleteer, and fight, and to the uttermost bestir itself, and do, beak and claws, whatsoever is in it, very sure that it will, in the long- run, conquer nothing which does not deserve to be conquered." If the real tendency of things were not good this could not be so. As it is, "All that is right," he contends, "includes itself in this, of co-operating with the real tendency of the world." If,, however, we can recognise the truth that this view of life contains, we must also recognise that the intelligence which guides the universe is working out by degrees the realisation of an ideal that is also our own. Carlyle's doctrine is plainly a doctrine of the survival of the fittest among theories, religions, and institutions ; and here again we find speculation on first principles anticipating the conclusions of science. It differs from Mr. Darwin's survival of the fittest, however, in this : that in it the " fittest " has the definite meaning of the best and the worthiest. With reference to Mr. Darwin's formula, it has frequently been pointed out that the survival of the fittest can mean only the survival of what is best adapted to survive. Like the Hegelian theory, however, it appears to more advantage in action than its formulas. When we see how it is applied we can perceive in it another meaning. Mr. Darwin himself finds in it a principle which must necessarily lead to the development of the social instincts, the unselfish side of our nature. It seems clear to him, too, both that the struggle for existence cannot fail to develope intellect in the race, and also that the develop- ment of intellect must secure the development of morality pari passu with it. We arrive thus by another a priori road at the same conclusion — that the real tendency of things can- not be otherwise than good. Caklile. — On the Ultimate Problem of Philosophy. 85 Perhaps the greatest difficulty that presents itself to the acceptance of this conclusion is that which flows from the doctrine of the equivalence of opposites. It needs little reflec- tion to discover that the biblical conception of the knowledge of good as having entered the world together with the know- ledge of evil shadows forth a truth of wide-spreading signifi- cance. It is plain enough that the hero and the martyr could never have appeared in the world without the tyrant and the bigot. The delights of success for one man must, it always seems, bear a tolerably exact proportion to the agony of possible disappointmeiat for himself, and of real disappointment for others similarly situated. If by wdiat we fancy as the fiat of Omnipotence pain were at once completely done away with, we might find that the principle of consciousness, perhaps of vitality itself, had perished. We are thus sometimes driven to question the very possi- bility, in the nature of things, of any fuller realisation of happiness in the world than we find there now. It must be conceded, I think, that the negative principle must al- ways be manifested there in some shape. Without the pos- sibility of disappointment there could be no such thing as the serious pursuit of any purpose, and the possibility of disappointment itself involves pain, and pain often of the acutest sort. It may be that we are dreaming altogether idly in dreaming of a painless golden age ahead of us. This much, however, is observable : that the negative principle can assume very different forms in different stages of the world's develop- ment. In nature, the only remedy for failure or imperfection is the prompt destruction of the forms that manifest defects. When consciousness dawns, the place of destruction can be taken by the instinctive association of pain with what is in- jurious. With the civilised man, again, the mental represen- tation of pain — say of starvation — some time in the future can take the place of the actual pangs of hunger in the present. A further stage sees the approval of our fellows largely substi- tuted for every other motive of action. The worst of all pains for us, then, is to be found in the fact of being shunned and despised by our neighbours ; and, at a still further stage, we can feel that even this is endurable so long as we are not forced to agree with our neighbours in detesting and despising ourselves, that being the one pain at all hazards to be avoided. If thus even we are forced to hold that pain can never be got rid of, there is ample room for the ameliora- tion of the world in the substitution of the more refined for the grosser forms of it. Out of such reflections on the nature of pain there dawns dimly on us the suspicion that we may be in error in the fancy that Omnipotence could make all men happy and 86 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. virtuous by its fiat if it pleased. Happiness and virtue may be things that are not " makeable." If " making " is a cate- gory applicable only to a very limited aspect of the opera- tions of the human mind it may not be applicable at all to the operations of the Universal Mind. "What if, in the nature of things, nothing better is achievable than that which has been achieved and is being achieved? "We have wars still : possibly without them civilisation might fall into rottenness and decadence. They are not followed, however, nowadays by the enslavement and slaughter of unarmed populations. As, moreover, the customary law in each na- tion, when it gained sufficient strength, in the end created a tribunal to enforce it, so it seems possible that inter- national law, which now exists in the shape of custom only, may also similarly develope itself. "We have thus, perhaps, in the very fact of the existence of international law, a pro- phecy of a federation of the nations strong enough to make public war as impossible between civilised States as private war is now within them . Not many years ago we were in despair at the anticipation that the trend of our industrial civilisation was in the direc- tion, no doubt, of making the rich richer, but at the same time of making the lot of the poor harder than ever it had been. Eecent developments appear to indicate that this was only a transitional stage. It is coming to be widely believed now that the unfailing tendency of every new invention is to shorten the hours and to increase the remuneration of labour, as well as to increase the purchasing-power of its earnings. It seems on all grounds well within the bounds of possibility that the next century will see an enormous diminution in the physical miseries of the w^orld, and it seems open to us, at any rate, to hail every achievement of science as something that is without fail hastening on that consummation. Im- partial, unbiassed reasoning alone appears to be all that is requisite to warrant our faith in the beneficence of the Mind that is guiding our destinies. CoLENSO. — Mcmorahilia of certain xinimal Prodigies. 87 Aet. XII. — Memorabilia of certain Animal Prodigies, Native and Foreign, Ancient and Modern. By W. OoLENSO, F.E.S., F.L.S. (Lond.), &c. [Read before the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, 12th November, 1894.] St. George, that swinged the dragon, and e'er since Sits on his horseback at mine hostess' door, 'Teach us some fence ! ... And make a monster of j"ou. Shaksp., " K. John," Act IE., Sc. I. I go alone. Like to a lonely dragon, that his fen Makes fear'd, and talk'd of more than seen. Shaksp., " Coriol.," Act IV., Sc. I. Early in the month of May, when the shooting season begins, I was residing, as usual in the autumn, at Dannevirke, in the Forty-mile Bush, and I heard the friendly warning given to "Lookout!" or "Beware!" at a certain notorious lagoon, pool, or deep-water swamp, frequented by ducks, lying about three miles from Dannevirke, and not far from the bridge over the Eiver Manawatu. Curiosity being aroused, I made inquiry, and I found that during the shooting season of the last year (1893) a young man of Dannevirke named George Slade, out shooting, had there seen a tanitcha (unknown watery monster), and had fired at it and wounded it. Through the kindness of the resident clergyman (Eev. E. Eobertshawe) I had an interview nest day with the young man, who related the whole matter very clearly, temperately, and coherently ; and, briefly, it was as follows : He was out shooting, and, having fired at a duck there swimming, and killed it, his dog went into the water after it ; but before the dog got up to the duck a large animal (unknown) emerged from the thickly-growing raupo (bulrushes) adjacent, and, swimming, made direct for the dog ; on this the dog retreated howling, sans duck. Seeing this, Slade, on the high land above, fired at the strange animal, and struck its head, beyond the eye, and near the angle of its mouth. On receiving the shot the creature turned and swam back into the tall raupo, and was not again seen. Slade further said, its head was raised, as if on a neck, a little above the water, and appeared about 18in. long, with greyish hair or fur. He had related the occurrence at the time on his return to the township, so that it was well known and talked of. This fresh and strange relation by him brought four others to the fore, who stated that, when out riding lately in that neighbourhood, they too had seen a creature, apparently 88 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. swimming, in the water there, that looked in the distance like a young colt"'' with its head and neck above the surface. The place itself is isolated, surrounded by high, broken, cliffy banks that are deeply wooded, and rather dilficult of access, the water having a narrow outlet into the Eiver Mana- watu. This newly-repeated narration of that strange event of 1893, together with the simple, honest, unpretending manner in which it was told, and the knowledge the residents had of the character of the relator, made such an impression on the minds of some of my friends who heard it, that three of them (strong and determined, and used to heavy bush-travelling) arranged to visit that out-of-the-way spot the next day, the w^eather, too, being fine at the time. They did so, and, after much and heavy exertion, descended the cliffs, and explored pretty much of the shores and surroundings of the lagoon, but saw nothing of any strange animal, and, after extricating themselves with some difficulty, they returned late at night to Dannevirke. While we were conversing with Mr. Slade, I expressed my opinion that the animal seen by him in the water might be one of the seals of the New Zealand seas, which I had seen in former years on our sea-shores, and whose hair was also of that colour described by him ; but how a marine mammal should have found its way so far inland, and pai-ticularly through and against the current of the rough and rapid waters of the notorious Manawatu Gorge (the only way of access), seemed an insurmountable obstacle. However, I offered him a good round sum for the animal, or for any pretty large portion of it. Mr. Eobertshawe, also present, related the capture of one of those seals far up in the Eiver Waikato several years ago. In writing to Sir James Hector shortly afterwards (on other matters) I mentioned this phenomenon, and, in reply, Sir James says, " Your tanuvha is no doubt Stenorhynchus leptonyx. Several years ago I heard the same tale from the same district, and on inquiry found it to be so. Ten years ago a taniwha was captured in a lagoon near Hamilton on the Waikato, and exhibited in a butcher's shop, and it proved to be a Stenorhynchus." An instance of the capture of one of these marine animals I may mention, as it came under my own observation, and the circumstances attending its seizure were strange, if not unique. It happened early in the forties. I was then resid- ing at Waitangi, on the immediate southern shore of Hawke's * Lest this should seem strange, I menlion in a note that Maori horses, half wild, are very numerous in tliose parts. CoLENSO. — Memorabilia of certain Anivial Prodigies. 89 Bay, and close by the Maori pa (village) Awapuni. One morning there was a great outcry, and a big movenieut of a bodv of natives from the village on to the beach. I went thither to see what was the matter, and I found they had captured a large greyish-blue hairy seal, and this in a peculiar way. Some children were playing on the beach, and they saw at a little distance what they supposed to be a woman asleep on the warm and dry shingle, a short distance above high-water mark. By-and-by they went towards her, when they soon found out their mistake, and immediately raised a cry, not knowing what it was. The chief, Karaitiana,'" who happened to be walking on the beach not far off, ran up and saw the big seal ; and now the creature, alarmed, was scuttling away fast towards the sea. Karaitiana had nothing in his hands with which to bar its progress, while the animal, turn- ing its head from side to side, snapped its jaws fiercely ; so he threw himself down flat on the beach" and grasped the seal with his two hands just above the tail and held on firmly, and, being a tall and stout man, the seal could not draw him along the beach, but in its exertions threw up stones and gravel with its flippers, and knocked Karaitiana about pretty considerably. In a little while, however, other Maoris came running up to the spot armed with axes, hatchets, and clubs, and soon put an end to the struggle, carrying oS the seal in triumph to their village ; and some time after, while the earth- ovens were being prepared for cooking the animal, I was astonished at seeing its jaws open and snap loudly several times, although its skull had been broken into with axes and brains protruding, the head not yet being severed from the body. I was also struck with the appearance of its large and formidable 3-cuspidate molar teeth in both jaws, which also regularly locked into each other. I obtained the head as my perquisite, and buried it in my garden pro tern, as a step towards preserving the bones ; but long after, when I fre- quently sought it, after submerging floods, I never could find it. On several occasions I have had the dried skins of these animals (taken on the outer coast, as at Waimarama, near Cape Kidnappers, and further south) brought to me for sale, but, not having any use for them, I only purchased one. They were all nearly alike in general appearance as to size, hairi- ness, and colour of their hair, quite dry and hard, having been carefully flayed from the animal, and stretched out and dried on a hollow frame of sticks, according to the ancient Maori manner of drying their dog and other skins. Of course, they were all captured by the Maoris when on shore. * Karaitiana, in after years, became an elected Maori member of the House of Representatives. 90 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. As seals are known by us to be of gregarious habits, a peculiar proverbial saying of the ancient Maoris respecting these animals may be fitly adduced here as showing their also having had some knowledge of that kind: " Na to tamahine kapai i takina viai ai tend kekeno ki konei "=" It was thy ex- ceedingly pretty and willing daughter which drew this seal to land here." "This speaks for itself, and would be doubly suit- able for such a chief to say coming by sea — along the coast : in the olden times nearly all peaceful visits w^ere made by water." " N.B. — The verb taki (pass, takina), here used, means to forcibly draw a captured fish to land out of the water."''' To return to the taniwha, or ngaraya (water-monster), or crocodile and dragon : During my long residence in this country (now considerably more than half a century) I have repeatedly heard from old Maoris of somewhat similar, though much more marvellous, occurrences ; I have also been shown the lairs and "bones" (calcitc), and the remains and signs of the wonderful doings of such monstrous creatures = nga- taniivha (in the big slips of earth from the hill- and moun- tain-sides, caused by their sudden throes and emergence from beneath or within the solid earth) ; but of the creatures them- selves I have found nothing, not even the slightest remains. And here, I think, I may properly call your attention to those transcendent Maori stories and legends of the olden time, in which the taking and destroying of several huge and hideous animals of tbe reptilian class and of the saurian (or crocodile) order by some of their valorous and skilful ancestors is graphically and clearly related. To them I would refer you, my audience, this night ; I have faithfully translated them, and you will find them recorded in the Transactions of our Institute f ; and I assure you they are well worthy your perusal, and in reading them it should ever be borne in mind that the Maoris firmly believed in their truth ; hence, too, it was that they did not care to venture into strange, unfrequented places, from fear of those immense ngarara infesting them : this is nicely shown by Dieffenbach, in his quaint relation of the opposition made by the Maoris against his ascendmg Mount Egmont, lest he should be destroyed by the ngararas.\ But, while those ancient Maori stories partake so very largely of the marvellous, and are also mere relations, orally handed down from generation to generation — Till their own tales at length deceive 'em, And oft repeating they believe 'em§ * Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xii, p. 144. : " Maori Proverbs," No. 207. t Vol. xi., pp. 82-100. X Dieffenbach's "New Zealand," vol. i., p. 140. § Prior. CoLENSO. — Memorabitia of certain Animal Prodigies. 91 — obscured in the night or twihght of the dim past there are similar and well- authenticated European narrations contained in written history. Some of them, being but little known, I purpose bringing to your notice this evening. My first is from ancient Roman history, originally recorded by the able Latin historian Livy (though that portion of his works containing it has long been lost), and is thus related by Valerius Maximus from Livy, by whom it is said to have been recorded at greater length. It is the account of that enormous reptile which spread dismay even through a power- ful and disciplined Roman army. Valerius says, — "We may here mention the serpent so eloquently and accurately recorded by Livy, who says that near the River Bagrada, in Africa, a snake was seen of so enormous a mag- nitude as to prevent the army of x\ttilius Regulus from the use of the river ; and, after snatching up several soldiers with its enormous mouth and devouring them, and killing several more by striking and squeezing them by the spine of its tail, was at length destroyed by assailing it with all the force of military engines and showers of stones, after it had withstood the attack of their spears and darts ; that it was regarded by the whole army as a more formidable enemy than even Carthage itself ; and that, the whole adjacent region being tainted with the pestilential effluvia proceeding from its remains, and the waters with its blood, the Roman army was obliged to move its station. He also adds that the skin of the monster, measuring 120ft. in length, was sent to Rome as a trophy." Pliny also relates this story, saying, " It is a well-known fact that during the Punic war, at the River Bagrada, a serpent 120ft. in length was taken by the Roman army under Regulus, being besieged, like a fortress, by means of balistse and other engines of war. Its skin and jaws were preserved in a temple at Rome down to the time of the Numantine war."* That wonderful encounter took place B.C. 256. My second narration is a much more modern one, though happening five hundred years ago. It is well and fully authenticated, and, I think, very interesting, particularly as several of its prominent features are curiously in close accord with the Maori tales ; and, as I have only met with it in a valuable and scarce old folio of the last century, I have made a copious extract of it, deeming it worthy to be brought before you. * Pliny, " Nat. Hist.," lib. viii., c. 14. This astonishing event is also referred to by many ancient writers ; among others, by Floras (lib. ii., c. 2) ; Aulus Geilius (lib. vi., c. 3); and Val. Maximus [supra), (lib. i., c. 8). ■92 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. In the " History of the Knights of Malta," by the Abbe Vertot, is the following relation : " In 1340 a.d. the Grand Master of the Order, Helion de Villeneuve, from charity and prudential motives, forbade all the knights, on pain of degra- dation, to offer to fight a serpent or crocodile. This crocodile was of monstrous size, did a vast deal of mischief in the Island of Ehodes, and had even devoured some of the in- habitants. For the better understanding so extraordinary an incident, we shall barely relate what history says on the subject. '* The haunt of this furious animal was in a cavern on the edge of a marsh at the foot of Mount St. Stephen, two miles from the city. He went often out to seek his prey. He ate sheep, cows, and sometimes horses w-hen they came near the water and. edge of the marsh; the inhabitants complained, like- ■wise, that he had devoured some young shepherds that were keeping their flocks. Several of the bravest knights of the convent, at different times, and unknown to each other, went singly out of the city to endeavour to kill him, but none of them ever came back. As the use of firearms was not then invented, and the skin of this kind of monster was covered with scales that were proof against the keenest arrows and darts, the arms, if we may so say, were not equal, and the serpent soon despatched them. This was the motive wdiich engaged the Grand Master to forbid the knights attempting any more an enterprise that seemed above human strength. "They all obeyed him except one knight, of the language of Provence, named Dieu-donne de Gozon, who, in breach of this prohibition, and without being daunted at the fate of his brother companions, formed secretly the design of fighting this voracious beast, resolving to perish in it or deliver the Isle of Ehodes. This resolution is generally ascribed to the intrepid courage of the knight, though others pretend that he was likewise pushed on to it by the stinging invectives with which his courage had been insulted at Ehodes, because, having gone several times out of the city to fight the serpent, he had contented himself with taking a view of it at a dis- tance, and had thereby employed his prudence more than his valour. " Whatever were the motives that determined the knight to try this adventure, he, to begin the execution of his project, went into France and retired to the castle of Gozon, which is still standing, in the Province of Languedoc. Having observed that the serpent had no scales under the belly, he formed the plan of his enterprise upon that observation. " He caused a figure of this monstrous beast to be made in wood or pasteboard, according to the idea he had preserved of it, and took particular care to imitate the colour of it. He CoLENSO. — Memorabilia of certain Animal Prodigies. 93 afterwards taught two ycung bulldogs to run when he cried out and throw themselves under the belly of that terrible crea- ture, ^Yhilst he himself, mounted on horseback, clad in armour,, with his lance in his hand, pretended at the same time to strike at it in several places. The knight spent several months using this exercise every day, and as soon as he found his dogs per- fect in this way of fighting he returned to Ehodes. He was scarce arrived in the island when, without communicating his design to anybody whatsoever, he made his arms be carried privately near a church situated on the top of the mountain of St. Stephen, where he came attended by only two servants, whom he had brought from France. He went into the church, and, after recommending himself to God, took his arms, mounted on horseback, and ordered his servants, if he perished in the combat, to return to France, but to come up to him if they perceived he had either killed the serpent or was wounded himself. He then went down the mountain with his two dogs, advanced straight to the marsh and the haunt of the serpent, who, at the noise that he made, ran with open mouth and eyes darting fire to devour him. Gozon gave it a stroke with his lance, which the thickness and hardness of its scales made of no effect. He was preparing to redouble his stroke, but his horse, frightened with the hissing and smell of the serpent, refuses to advance, retires back, and leaps aside, and would have been the occasion of his master's destruction if he, with great presence of mind, had not thrown himself off; and then, taking his sword in hand, and attended by his two faithful dogs, he immediately comes up to the horrible beast, and gives him several strokes in different places, but the hardness of the scales hindered them from enter- ing. The furious animal, with a stroke of his tail, threw him on the ground, and would infallibly have devoured him if his two dogs, according as they had been taught, had not seized the serpent by the belly, which they tore and mangled with their teeth, without his being able, though he struggled with all his strength, to force them to quit their hold. The knight, by the help of this succour, gets up, and, joining his two dogs, thrust his sword up to the hilt in a place that was not defended by scales ; he there made a large wound, from whence a deluge of blood flowed out. The monster, wounded to death, falls upon the knight and beats him down a second time, and would have stifled him by the prodigious weight and bulk of its body if the tW'O servants, who had been spectators of the combat, had not, seeing the serpent dead, run in to the rehef of their master. They found him in a swoon and thought him dead, but when they had with great difficulty drawn him from under the serpent to give him room to breathe, in case he was alive, they took off 94 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. his helmet, and, after throwing a Httle water upon his face, he at last opened his eyes. The first spectacle, and the most agreeable one that could offer itself to his sight, was that of seeing his enemy slain, which was attended with the satisfac- tion of having succeeded in so difficult an enterprise, in which many of his brother con:ipanions had lost their lives. "No sooner was the fame of his victory and the serpent's death proclaimed in the city but a crowd of inhabitants thronged out to meet him. The knights conducted him in triumph to the Grand Master's palace ; but in the midst ■of their acclamations the conqueror was infinitely surprised when the Grand Master, looking on him with indignation, de- manded of him if he did not know the orders he had given against attacking that dangerous beast, and if he thought they might be violated with impunity. Immediately this strict observer of discipline, without vouchsafing to hear him, or being moved in the least by the intercession of the knights, sent him directly to prison. He next convened the Council, where he represented that the Order could by no means dis- pense with inflicting a rigorous punishment on so notorious a disobedience, that was more prejudicial to discipline than the life of several serpents would have been to the cattle and inhabitants of that quarter of the island ; and, like another Manlius, he declared his opinion was that that victory should be made fatal to the conqueror. But the Council prevailed that he should be only deprived of the habit of the Order : in short, the unfortunate knight was ignominiously degraded, and there was but a short interval between his victory and this kind of punishment, which he found more cruel and severe than death itself. " But the Grand Master, after having by this chastisement performed the obligations due to the preservation of discipline, returned to his natural temper, which was full of sweetness and good-nature. He was pleased to be pacified, and managed things in such a manner as to make them entreat him to grant a pardon, which he would have solicited himself if he had not been at the head of the Order. At the pressing instances made him by the principal commanders, he restored him to the habit and his favour, and loaded him with kind- nesses. All this was ?iot to be compared to the unfeigned praises of the people, who dispose absolutely of glory, whilst princes, how potent soever they may be, can only have the ■disposal of the honours and dignities of the State. " They set up the head of this serpent or crocodile over one of the gates of the city, as a monument of Gozon's victory. Thevenot, in the relation of his travels, says that it was there in his time — or, at least, the effigies of it ; that he himself had seen it there ; that it was much bigger and CoLENSO. — Mcmorahilia of certain Anhnal Prodigies. 95 larger than that of a horse, its mouth reaching from ear to ear ; big teeth, large eyes, the holes of the nostrils round, and the skin of a whitish-grey — occasioned perhaps by the dust which it gathered in course of time." Vertot goes on to remark, " We shall be less surprised at so extraordinary an incident if we reflect that the Isle of Ehodes was anciently called Ophiusa, from the Greek word o<^t?, which signifies a serpent, from the great number of those reptiles that infested that island. Hyginus, a Greek historian, relates, upon the testimony of Polyzehis, a Ehodian, that a Thessalian, son of Triopas, or of Lapithas according to Diodorus Siculus, having been thrown by a storm on the coast of Ehodes, happily exterminated those mischievous animals ; that Phorbas, among the rest, killed one of them of a pro- digious bigness, which devoured the inhabitants. The learned Bochart pretends that the Phoenicians called the island by the name of Gesirath-Eod— i.e., " the isle of serpents" — Gesirath, according to that author, being a term common to the Phoe- nicians, Syrians, Arabians, and Chaldeans for signifying an island, and Eod, in the Phoenician tongue, signifying a serpent ; so that, joining these two words together, they formed that of Gesirath-Eod, whence the Greeks afterwards made that of Ehodes, which the isle has preserved to this day." Then Vertot goes on to relate " a like event which happened in Africa, while Attilius Eegulus commanded the Eoman army there " (given more briefly by me above); and then he remarks, "I do not maintain that there has been no exaggeration in the length of the iVfrican serpent, nor assert everything that is told of the monstrous bulk of the crocodile of Ehodes ; but what appears certain from the historians of that time, from tradition, and even from inscriptions and from authentic monuments, is that Gozon killed a terrible animal, and by that means acquired a great reputation, espe'cially with the people of Ehodes, who looked upon him as their deliverer. "The Grand Master, to make him some amends for the mortification he had given him., conferred rich commandries upon him. He took him afterwards to be near his person, and, finding a prudence in him equal to his bravery, he made him at last his lieutenant-general in the government of the island." About the year 1346 the Grand Master Helion de Villeneuve died, and the knights met in solemn conclave to elect his successor; and our author states, "The Commander de Gozon was one of the electors. When it came to his turn to give his voice he said, ' When I entered this conclave I made a solemn oath that I would i:iot propose any one but such a knight as I should judge most deserving of this great dignity, 96 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. and to have the best intentions for the general good of the whole Order; and, after having seriously considered the mat- ter, ... I declare that I find nobody better qualified for the government of our Order than myself.' He then made a fine harangue upon his own virtues ; the fight against the serpent vpas not forgotten, but he insisted chiefly on his con- duct from the time that the Grand Master Villeneuve had made him his lieutenant " ; and in the end he was elected to that high dignity, and, the historian adds, "he was solemnly acknowledged as Great Master to the satisfaction of the convent, and especially of the citizens of the Town of Ehodes and the inhabitants of the island, who, since his victory over the serpent, looked upon him as the hero of the Order." There are several pages in this work showing how well he presided and wrought. He died suddenly in December, 1353 ; on which Vertot says, " If that term ' sudden ' may be allowed with regard to so good a man, who had always been more watchful over his own conduct than over that of the knights under his care. His funeral was celebrated with the just eulogiums of his brother knights, and the tears of all the inhabitants of the isle, and of the poor especially, to whom he was indeed a father. All the inscription put on his tomb was this : ' Here lies the Vanquisher of the Dragon.' " {L.c, vol. i., pp. 249-263.) While engaged in writing this paper I have thought that, on hearing this clearly-written and plain statement concern- ing the knight Gozon and the dragon, tw^o main thoughts or ideas were likely to arise within your minds — one, the great similarity in several circumstances between this narration and those ancient Maori stories concerning the slaying of mon- strous dragons or crocodiles ; and the other, the likeness and suitability of much of the relation to illustrate the old English story of "St. George and the Dragon." This tale of the IDatron saint of England is, perhaps, just as truthful as those Maori recitals ; for it has baffled all antiquarian research — I mean with reference to his terrible fight with the monster, with which (it is just barely possible) Gozon's combat with the dragon may have had something to do by way of embellish- ment, as the date of the fight was during the time of the Crusades, in which, of course, the knights of Malta were largely occupied. Moreover, we are told in history how St. George came to be the patron saint of England ; which I may also briefly state, as it is a kind of evidence in support of my notion just mentioned : — " When Eobert, Duke of Normandy, son to William the Conqueror, was prosecuting his victories against the Turks, and laying siege to the famous City of Antioch, which was like to be relieved by a mighty army of the Saracens, St. Bates. — On Democracy . 97 Geoi'ge appeared with an innumerable army coming down from the hills all in white, with a red cross in his banner, to reinforce the Christians, which occasioned the infidel army to fly, and the Christians to possess themselves of the town. This story made St. George extraordinarily famous in those times, and to be esteemed a patron, not only of the English, but of Christianity itself."''' Be that as it may, we of to-day are better acquainted with the well-executed effigies of St. George and the Dragon which adorn our modern British coins of crowns and sovereigns, which realities are tangible, valu- able, and desirable, whatever the origin of the marvellous fight may be. [Note. — The peculiar spelling, &c., are due to the age of the work whence quotations made — the middle of the eighteenth century.] Akt. XIII. — Dernocracy. By Eev. J. Bates. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 21st October, 1895.] " Man is born to be a citizen." We are being daily taught that laiv reigns everywhere, and the conviction is freeing us from many idle beliefs, and giving us " confidence in the universe." If, then, the presence of law is universal we look for it not alone in the material world, but in the sphere of man's intelligent action. Here, too, nothing happens by accident, and chance does not exist. It must be admitted, of course, that where the human will and passions are directly concerned our knowledge and theories lack the degree of precision and universality which characterizes the physical and mathematical sciences. But accurate know- ledge of a kind is attainable, and some general laws can be deduced. It is claimed, therefore, that there is a science of pohtics. The term does not denote a body of infallible rules which the statesman may use for his guidance in cases of practical difficulty, but rather principles of social relations and duties. It is in virtue of this science that men are able to test and reject mischievous theories in politics. Man is a citizen — a member always of some social order. As * Wheatly "On the Common Prayer," p. 61; who also says, "St. George, the famous patron of the English nation, was born in Cappa- docia, and suffered for the sake of his rehgion, a.d. 290, under the Emperor Diocletian (in whose army he had before been a colonel), being supposed to have been the person that pulled down the edict against the Christians which Diocletian had caused to be afHxed upon the church- doors. Subsequently he had a church dedicated to him by Justinian the Emperor." 7 98 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. such he will inevitably be led to " reflect on the nature of the State, the functions of government, the nature and authority of civil obligation." Nor will he stop there. He will proceed to apply the most searching and exact methods of investiga- tion, and draw conclusions. Thus slowly but surely a science of XDohtics is growing up, based on ever-widening knowledge, and marked by logical exactness. It is well to remember that the science of politics is not entirely or even mainly a creation of our day. Aristotle was its real founder, and his special service was to separate politics from ethics. Since his time many of the world's fore- most thinkers and teachers have laboured in the same field, amongst them being, in our own country, Hobbes, Locke, Burke, Bentham, the Mills, Herbert Spencer, and several others. Each of these has contributed something definite of his ow^n to the elucidation of the subject, or has helped to correct mistaken notions. Wild speculation there has been, and hasty generalisations ; but these have in many cases been refuted or rectified. The materials for sound political theory are accumulating. It only needs that intelligent use shall be made of these by the statesman and legislator. We may reasonably hope that the diffusion of general knowledge, and acquaintance with the methods and results of science, will gradually dispose men to make political changes with caution, and only on sufficient ground. In politics, whether theoretical or practical, problems of the most perplexing nature present themselves, and the dis- cussion of these reveals irreconcilable differences of opinion, and gives rise often to some bitterness of feeling. This is to be expected. Uncertainty as to the goal towards which human society is moving, and doubt as to the right road to take, would alone, even under otherwise favourable circum- stances, raise questions of great difficulty. But the difficulty is vastly increased by the conflicting social ideals and aspira- tions of men and their defective morality. Accordingly, the history of human society is a checquered one. Man has hitherto advanced by blundering. Dearly-bought experience has taught him his errors in the sphere of politics as else- where. We cannot hope that the path of social progress will ever be easy to find or free of difficulties. Politics, therefore, can never be child's play. Again, as accounting for the estrangement between citi- zens in regard to matters of State policy, it is to be recog- nised that the effects of political action are very grave and far-reaching, and profoundly concern the community, both col- lectively and individually. It is the duty of every man, there- fore, to be on the alert, aiad to guard that which is essential to his welfare. All legislative proposals should be subjected Bates. — On Democracy. 99 to the closest scrutiny, and discussed as fully and openly as possible. Only in this way can citizens preserve their liberty and advance socially. Now, it must happen that when men's interests are menaced, or supposed to be menaced, sides will be taken, and every effort made to defeat what are thought to be obnoxious measures. Even political theories, wild and impracticable though they may seem to be, cannot safely be ignored. They are not got rid of by simply calling them " fads." Theory has a strong tendency to translate itself into fact, and politics afford a favourable arena for the ex- periment. The existence through long centuries of organized parties in the State, and the rise of new ones in more recent times, witness to wide and persistent divergence of opinion, method, and ideals in the sphere of politics. Eival policies, embodied in party organizations, are thought to be justified on the ground that they serve to correct one another by material criticism, and thus to assure progress. But the mere mention of the party names — Conservative, Liberal, Eadical, Socialist, Anarchist, and the like — indicates how complicated poli- tical questions have grown, and how greatly the decision of them is embarrassed. It is difficult for any statesman or party nowadays to hold on a steady course in politics. The ■older political parties are failing to satisfy the demands of electors, and the old political creeds have been variously modified, and are loosely held. The rearrangement of parties and sections of parties by mutual compromise is a familiar spectacle. These and the like changes show what mighty transforming forces are at work in the body politic. Man, it would seem, must ever be a framer of polities, impelled thereto by necessity of nature and social exigencies. The State is, in germ, involved in the very constitution of man. Endowed with social instincts, man must have fellowship with his kind. He cannot live in solitude : he must therefore enter into relations with his fellows. Man, as far as we know him, has always lived in society, and hence his actions must be brought under some regulation. In the case of civilised man, his thought is ever growing wider and clearer, his sympa- thies more comprehensive, his life more complex. Added to this, man has shown in all stages of his history a capacity for conceiving ideals — artistic, religious, moral, social, political — and his destiny is to devote his energies, even to lay down his life, to realise his ideals. He has not been uniformly successful in his efforts for this realisation. At best, his steps have been slow and painful ; but often he has failed, missed the way altogether, or come back to his starting-point. He has learned to do right by blundering. A r i r 100 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. On the whole, however, he has made progress. He has undoubtedly made progress in knowledge, industrial arts, and military discipline. He has improved his surroundings — made them more favourable to his self-development. The easier, ruder forms of social life must have preceded the more com- plex and polished forms. Modern political communities of the advanced type have been evolved out of much simpler associations of human beings. But the progress has always been partial. There has never been, nor is there now, an advance— certainly not an equal advance — of the whole race of man. As a matter of fact, we find the more advanced por- tions of mankind grouped in well-defined entities, called States. What does this term "State" denote? Unfortunately, the word is used somewhat loosely. It signifies sometimes the government — that is, the governing authorities, in contra- distinction to the governed. Sometimes it denotes the go- verned as opposed to the government. A common usage makes the word stand for the secular authorities as dis- tinguished from the ecclesiastical. Yet another usage makes the word denote the nation as a subject of government. This variable usage is the more to be regretted because the term stands for an essential conception of political science. The State may be defined as a large group of men, occupying a con- siderable area of the earth's surface, speaking for the most part the same language, and united under a single government. Professor Amos, in his book on the " Science of Politics," says, "The State, in the modern acceptation of the term, carries with it the ideas of territorial limitation, of population, past, present, and to come, and of organization for the purposes of govern- ment." In Canada and the United States of America we see a very extensive territory, inhabited by men of the same race and speaking the same language, who yet do not form a State because they lack political unity. Altogether different from our conception was the Greek conception of a State. "There was in the Greek mind," says Professor Freeman, " a distinct idea of a Greek nation, united by common origin, speech, religion,, and civilisation. But that the whole Greek nation, or so much of it as formed a continuous or nearly continuous territory, could be united into one political community never came into the mind of any Greek statesman or Greek philosopher. The indepen- dence of each city was the one cardinal principle from which all Greek political life started. The State, the commonwealth, was in Greek eyes a city, an organized society of men dwelling in a walled town as the hearth and home of the political society, and with a surrounding territory not too large to allow all its free inhabitants habitually to assemble within its walls to discharge the duties of citizens." Bates. — On Democracy. 101 It must not be inferred that this system of city-states existed in Greece from the beginning. It is certain that there, as elsewhere, ruder types of political organization pre- ceded that which was so characteristic of Greek civilisation at its best. Wandering tribes do not build towns. The hill-fort and the unwalled village came before Athens in order of time, and left some faint traces of themselves in historic times. Closely connected with our ideas of the State is our con- ception of government. We have seen that the State, in the modern sense of the term, implies the existence of a governing body. Even in barbarous communities we find some kind of rule established, and deference and obedience paid to some authority raised above the mass of the people. Immemorial nobility is to be met with in all branches of the human race ; but how the distinction of rank arose in the first instance seems to be a matter of mere conjecture. It is possible, of course, to have distinctions of rank without such distinc- tions conferring any right of government. But, in practice, those who enjoy special honours usually secure posts of authority. As States advance in civilisation the organiza- tion of government becomes greatly developed, owing to the social needs of each community. But from whom is the authority to govern ultimately derived ? Can the claim to rule or occupy official positions be based in the last resort upon inheritance, rank, caste, or divine right ? Some answers given to these questions have in the past disturbed the peace of nations, and given rise to numerous changes in the constitu- tions of States. They have, however, now been answered virtually in one way, for the general conviction seems to be that no government ever existed which did not derive its power really from the consent of the governed. "Govern- ment," says Huxley, "is the corporate reason of the com- munity." Where the sovereign is a compound body, as is the case now in every civilised government, the practical sovereignty rests with the people. In the British Consti- tution the three Estates of the Realm must agree before any measure can become law. A complicated but effective system of checks has been devised regulating the exercise of power by the monarch. But with whom does supre- macy rest? Bagehot has shown that the British Consti- tution has given the sovereignty to the majority of the House of Commons. This seems to agree with the political genius of the Teutonic race in all times. Speaking of the Teutonic Assemblies, Professor Freeman says, " So in our laud our ancient Witenagemots not only made laws, not only chose and deposed kings, ealdormen, and bishops, but sat in judgment on State offenders, and pronounced sentences of outlawry and confiscation. . . We must 102 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. remember that, carefully as we now distinguish the func- tions of legislator, judge, juror, and witness, it was only by slow degrees that they were distinguished. All grew out of the various attributes of an Assembly which, as being itself the people, exercised every branch of that power which the people has, at sundry times and in divers manners, intrusted to the various bodies which directly or indirectly draw their authority from that one sovereign source. In all times and in all places power can have no lawful origin but the grant of the people. The difference between a well- and an ill-ordered commonwealth lies in this : Have the people wisdom and self-control enough to see that in reverencing and obeying the powers of the State in their lawful exercise they are in truth doing homage to themselves, and giving the fullest proof of their fitness to discharge the highest right of men and citizens? " The State is a natural institution. It takes form accord- ing to the special wants and circumstances, the innate quali- ties and spiritual aims of this or that people. We cannot forbear asking. What higher purpose, if any, does the State serve? Can the State be a factor in individual and social development ? The State is concerned with human con- duct, and its action is distinctly moral in character, and enforces morality. Although it is quite true that we " can- not make men good in the best sense of the word by x\ct of Parliament," yet for all that the State does exercise a great in- fluence in maintaining and improving morality. It lays down a minimum of duty in many matters, and punishes when there is any wilful neglect of its regulations. For example, the State asserts that it is the duty of parents not only to support but to educate their children, and requires parents to act accordingly. But all this only confirms the account given long ago of the function of the State by the greatest of states- men. Pericles, in his famous funeral oration, describes what Athens aims at doing for her sons, and what claims she has upon their devotion. It is a city-state of which he speaks : " We have a form of government which, from its not being administered for the benefit of the few but of the many, is called a democracy. . . We cultivate taste without extravagance, and study philosophy without effeminacy ; wealth is with us a thing not for display but for reason- able use ; the acknowledgment of poverty we do not consider disgraceful, but only the want of effort to escape from it." (Thuc, ii., 37-40.) All through the speech, says Pollock, runs the idea of the city-state being much more than a source of protection. It exists for the culture of men ; it is the sphere of the citizen's higher activity. The glory of Athens is that she aims at producing, by means of a free Bates. — On Democracy . 103 and generous education, the highest type of man. Aristotle also says, " The State was founded to protect life : it con- tinues to improve it." In the words of Herbert Spencer, " complete life in the associated state " is the end of the social organism which we call " the State." The account given not long ago of what the Glasgow City Council had done and intended to do for the benefit of the citizens of that important town shows that the spirit of the old Greek democracy still lives in the Aryan race. Indeed, what we see done in our midst for the improvement of civic life — the recreation - grounds, parks, library, art gallery, museum, and the like set tipart for public use — the splendid benefactions of public-spirited citizens — are all an acknowledg- ment that the city is more than a mere dwelling-place, that we are all under an obligation to do what we can for the culture of men. There are signs, however, not a few that men intend to use increasingly the larger powers of the State for tlie same end. It is considered by multitudes part of the proper busi- ness of the State to abolish abuses and grievances, and to promote the greatest happiness of the greatest number by direct legislation. That was the doctrine of Bentham, and it has taken hold of the minds of millions. It has become an article of belief that "the State has no excuse for being back- ward in w-ell-doing." We come now to that form of government which, after ages of struggle, has established itself in all the leading States of the world. Democracy is in possession of the field. The fact has been heralded in some such fashion as this : "The rule of the many seems now to be regarded as the final and inevitable form of government for all the civilised commu- nities of men : that is held for a fact which may either be eagerly embraced or sullenly accepted. The few misgoverned because it was their interest to do so ; the many will govern well because it will be their obvious gain." Whether these high hopes and confident predictions will be fulfilled the future will show. It will most probably be in the future as in the past, that the course of human progress will not be without lets and hindrances, disappointments and failures. It is easy and pleasant to cherish rosy imaginations, but an "un- reined" democracy will unquestionably have its own peculiar difficulties. The word " democracy " comes to us from the Greeks, and was used by Greek political writers with great exactness. But in the modern usage of the word a vulgarism has crept in which is wholly inexcusable. It is used sometimes to express a class of society with some connotation of opprobi'ium. In strict propriety it denotes a form of government in which all the 104: Transactions. — Miscellaneous. citizens who enjoy civil rights also enjoy political rights. Two great Greek thinkers, Plato and Aristotle, have left us lists of forms of government, classified as "normal" and " corrupt," and in each case democracy takes rank as a corrupt form. In Aristotle's view, democracy is the rule of the poor for their own advantage — an anticipation, by the way, of a rather widely-held modern opinion. Later writers, however, have given it a more favourable position. Eeference has already been made to Greek democracy as exemplified at Athens. It must be carefully remembered that the Greek political communities were small, and possessed a large slave population. The inhabitants of a single town con- stituted a State. Foreigners and slaves were not counted as citizens, and therefore could take no part in legislation or in the administration of justice. In Greece, then, democracy was exhibited on a limited scale, and under conditions totally unlike those of a modern democratic State. Modern state- craft has set itself a problem of formidable complexity. "Whether it succeeds or fails the aim is undoubtedly high. What does history teach as to the merits of a purely democratic government ? It is sometimes charged against democracy that it is necessarily fatal to individual develop- ment, to robustness and originality of thought, to spontaneity of action. Its tendency, we are told, is to level down. Such ,was not the case at Athens. Professor Freeman says on this point, " Pure democracy — the government of a whole people and not of a part only — is a form of government which works up the faculties of man to a higher pitch than any other ; it is the form of government which gives the freest scope to the inborn genius of the whole community and of every member of it. . . The democracy of Athens raised a greater number of human beings to a higher level than any government before or since ; it gave freer play than any government before or since to the personal gifts of the fore- most of mankind." This is high praise. There is but one drawback to it : it is that democracy at Athens appears to have been too forcmg, and therefore lacked the quality of durability. But, however this may be, there is little room for doubting that a strong admixture of the democratic spirit in a government is necessary if a people is to achieve the highest results. If we turn from Greece to Italy, tliere too we find the independent city the leading political idea, but Eome, by means of concessions to allies and subjects, was nearer be- coming a nation in the modern sense than Greece. The history of the long struggle at Eome between the aristocracy and democracy is highly instructive from every point of view, chiefly from the close parallel it presents to what has taken Bates. — On Democracy. 105 place in England since the Eevolution. One thing is proved by it — namely, that the just demands of the people cannot in the long-run be resisted. A special good which resulted from the victory of the plebeians was that out of the patrician and plebeian elements of the body social was formed an assembly — the Eoman Senate — which has been described as "the first political corporation of the world." In our day the more advanced stages of democracy are represented mainly by the Eepublics of France, Switzerland, and the United States, and by the Australasian Colonies. Each of these types is well worthy of the closest study, but probably the one that will teach the most important lessons and have the greatest interest for mankind will be that of the United States. Here we have the sturdy, self-reliant Anglo- Saxon, long trained in the difficult art of self-government, applying on a vast scale the principles of democracy. This great social experiment, if such it must be regarded, is entitled to the most kindly and hopeful sympathy of all lovers of their species. We are hardly justified in predicting the failure of democracy in the modern world, and as exhibited in the Teutonic race, because of the breakdown of the two ancient republics. Teutonic democracy has been developed on differ- ent lines. Unlike the Greeks and Romans, the Teutonic did not pass through the urban commonwealth to the stage of national existence. " The nations of the Teutonic race," says Freeman, " alike in Germany, in Britain, and in Scandinavia, grew from tribes into nations without ever going through the Greek stage of a system of isolated cities." Where the pro- cess of development has been so diverse, the resulting type of democracy, if less brilliant, may prove more permanent. It is certainly less concentrated and stimulating than that of Greece, and on this ground alone might be expected to be more lasting. A widely - scattered population, with most diverse interests, must exercise much coolness and considera- tion in order to carry on government with any degree of success. It is in just such circumstances and under such conditions that modern democracy lives and acts. The innate tendency of the Aryan race to self-government has already been touched upon, but in the Teutonic branch the system of representation has enabled the people at large, when unable to be present in person at the law-making body, to have a voice in the government of themselves. Ancient democracies had no representative system. This happy device is distinctive of Teutonic democracy, more especially in recent times; but science has aided and abetted the genius of the race, and rendered the modern development of democracy possible and inevitable. By the telegraph and other means of rapid communication contagious thought is enabled to travel 106 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. from the centre to the most distant extremities of the body pontic. PoHtical changes in England may be known in New Zealand in a few hom-s. The Press, too, exerts its mighty force in fostering and stimulating the democratic spn-it. Through it the people can make their thoughts and wishes known, and so influence and guide their representatives. In this way the community at large becomes a kind of parliament. Political topics and measures are discussed and criticized from a hundred points of view. The spread of education and con- sequent enlightenment of the people, tending as it does to equalise social conditions, is also a contributory force in the same direction. Acted on by all these agencies, the civilised world itself seems to be in process of unification. In some such way as this modern democracy is to be accounted for, and under conditions of this kind it is opera- tive. But there is one other cause, very powerful and per- sistent in its action, which has also, in my opinion, helped to produce the social development going on in our civilisation — I mean the Christian ethic. There can be no question at all as to the existence and potency of this force. Has it also played an important part in the evolution of our demo- cracy ? Contradictory answers will probably be given to this question. But, without making the Christian ethic re- sponsible for all the doings of democracy, or for what may be called the accidents of the movement, the uphfting of the people may be said to be essentially its work. The opinion of the author of " Social Evolution " is, I think, sound in the main: "All anticipations and forebodings as to the future of the incoming democracy founded upon the comparisons with the past are unreliable or worthless. For the world has never before witnessed a democracy of the kind that is now slowly assuming supreme power amongst the western peoples. To compare it with democracies which held power under the ancient empires is to altogether misunderstand both the nature of our civilisation and the character of the forces that have produced it. Neither in form nor in spirit have we anything in common with the democracies of the past. . . The gradual emancipation of the people and their rise to supreme power has been in our case the product of a slow ethical development, in which character has been profoundly influenced, and in which conceptions of equality and of re- sponsibility to each other have obtained a hold on the general mind hitherto unparalleled. The fact of our time which over- shadows all others is the arrival of democracy. But the perception of the fact is of relatively httle importance if we do not also realise that it is a new democracy." The advance of democracy, whether we approve or deplore it, is an undeniable fact. The unmistakable signs or proofs Bates, — On Democracy. 107 of the sovereignty of the people are — (1) The extension of the parhamentary franchise so as to include all citizens except children, criminals, and the insane ; (2) the ehgibility of citi- zens of all ranks for nearly all offices of State ; (3) the su- premacy of legislation. "What are some of the principles of the new democracy ? Amongst these we must enumerate " equality of rights" — a somewhat vague phrase, but which I take to mean that all men are equal before the law or in respect to prohibition and restriction, and that every man has a right to be heard in all matters that affect him. Another principle is that majorities must rule — or, in other words, that the majority for the time being represents the will of the people. A third principle is an increased and increasing use of the machinery of the State in the interests of the masses of mankind. This is done chiefly in the way of compulsory, permissive, or other kinds of legislation. As regards the intervention or limits of the State the greatest diversity of opinion prevails. There are those who would limit the function of the State to the pro- tection of life and property, and there are those who would fly to Government on any and every occasion. Between these two extremes there are many varieties of opinion. The truth seems to be that no hard-and-fast rules can be laid down on the subject. " As to the question in its general bearing," says Sir Frederick Pollock, "I do not think it can be fully dealt with except by going back to the older question, What does the State exist for ? And, although I cannot justify myself here at length, I will bear witness that for my own part I think this is a point at which we may well say, ' Back to Aristotle.' The minimisers tell us that the State exists only for protection. Aristotle tells us that it was founded on the need for protection, but exists for more than protection — yLvoixevi] /^ev ovv rov ^tJv eveKci', ovcra 81 rov €V t^rfv. Not Orly material security, but the perfection of human and social life, is what we aim at in that organized co-operation of many men's lives and works which is called the State. I fail to see good warrant of either reason or experience for limiting the cor- porate activity of a ntttion by hard-and-fast rules." It seems to me that the doctrine of pure individualism is as much opposed to what may be called municipal socialism as to State interference. Be this, however, as it may, in this country the State has established an insurance department, and has undertaken the construction and management of railways — and yet the world goes round. As regards the programmes of democratic legislation, we find economical and social questions mixed up with those which are purely political. Land-nationalisation, co-opera- tion, profit-sharing, limitation of the hours of labour, loans of 108 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. public money to settlers, and the like, frequently appear as matters for special legislation. The fact that large numbers of people have come to think that questions of this kind should be dealt with in the way proposed shows how the beliefs of men as to the powers and duties of the State have been revolutionised. The new democracy is not quite satisfied with the Consti- tution as it stands, but it shrinks, very wisely I think, from making any sweeping and sudden changes. The existence of a second Chamber not directly responsible to the people is sometimes felt to be a grievance, more especially when the offending Chamber is in opposition to the popular will. Loud cries are heard from time to time for its reform or abolition, but in cooler moments extreme measures find no supporters. In all democratic communities the greatest interest is taken in education. It is curious to note that in this respect the modern democratic State is but following in the steps of Aristotle. About one-eighth of his treatise on pohtics is occu- piedwith the theory of education. One of the marvels of the age is the sacrifice made by the State to provide education for its citizens. Young and small communities, equally with the old and strong, are impressed with the importance of education. In England, France, America, Australia, and New Zealand, primary and higher education takes almost the first place in the consideration of the State. It is a true and healthy in- stinct that prompts this care for education; and no greater service can be rendered to the community than that of helping to improve and develope the system and methods of education. The theory or ideal of education as held by the State is still very imperfect, and the results of such education as is given are not all that could be desired. Our great men differ on the subject, so it is no wonder if lesser folk are perplexed and make mistakes. Froude relates somewhere that Lord Brougham once said he hoped a time would come when every man in England would read Bacon, but that William Cobbett said he would be contented if a time came when every man would eat bacon. The proper combination of the literary and practical elements in education is still a matter of uncertainty and " hopeful blundering." What does the democratic form of government require from the citizens? The political machine is not self-acting. If it is worked by selfish, unprincipled people the results are sure to be disastrous. The well-balanced intelligence, superior to passion and prejudice, such as is required for the best government is very rare. We may safely say that unless the people as a whole are intelligent, thrifty, enterprising, in- dustrious, and above all moral, their efforts at self-govern- ment will utterly fail. Mr. Bryce has well said in his reflec- Bates. — On Democracy. 109 tions on American democracy, "It is an old saying that monarchies live by honour and republics by virtue. The more democratic republics become, the more the masses grow conscious of their own power, the more do they need to live not only by patriotism, but by reverence and self-control, and the more essential to their well-being are those sources whence reverence and self-control flow\" It would be fatal to ignore the fact that democracies are liable to special difficulties and dangers. The objection sometimes urged against popular government, that the people at large lack the requisite training and ability, may be met by saying that " it is not necessary they should be competent, the essential thing is that they should be interested." True as this may be, there are, notwithstanding, grave abuses to which democracy as such is peculiarly subject. Experience proves this beyond dispute. To take but one point, the administration of the law : It is of vital importance to a democratic community that when laws are made they should be strictly and impartially enforced. The stability of the community rests upon this. Any disposition and effort on the part of an orderly people to shield offenders from the due reward of their deeds are wholly mischievous, and tend to- wards anarchy. It cannot be too often repeated that the firm and just administration of the law is of the first moment to any State. Does not a danger also lurk in the change that is coming over the "representative"? He is turning into the paid delegate, a sort of salaried official. We all know the reason given for the payment of m.embers of Parliament. The reason is probably sound, but the danger remains. The candidate for parliamentary honours would now be laughed at who should venture to say, as Burke did to the electors of Bristol, " It ought to be the happiness and glory of a representative to live in the strictest union, the closest correspondence, with his constituents. Their wishes ought to have great weight with him ; their opinions high respect ; their business un- remitted attention. It is his duty to sacrifice his repose, his pleasure, his satisfaction to theirs; and, above all, ever and in all cases to prefer their interest to his own. But his unbiassed opinion, his mature judgment, his enlightened con- science he ought not to sacrifice to you, to any man, or to any set of men living. . . x\uthoritative instructions, man- dates issued which the member is bound blindly and im- plicitly to obey, to vote, and to argue for, though contrary to the clearest convictions of his judgment and conscience, these are things utterly unknown to the laws of this land, and which arise from a fundamental mistake of the whole order and tenour of our Constitution." Any candidate ven- 110 Tra nsactions. — 3IisceIlaneous. turing to assert himself thus nowadays, and to speak in this strain to the electors, would probably hear the word " Fudge ! " But, if democracy has its peculiar risks, it has some safe- guards in modern life. Whether these will prove completely effective remains to be seen. The first of these is freedom of discussion — the fullest freedom, within reasonable limits, to express opinions. " Experience and discussion may be trusted to make error find its level." Another safeguard is the de- centralisation of power by means of local government. There are many things which local bodies, acting under the dele- gated authority of the State, can do better than the central Government. Mismanagement on the part of such bodies is more easily discovered and rectified than when the central Government is at fault. Considerations of party and struggle for political power and place do not embarrass the actions of local bodies as they do those of the central Government. Suppose the success of democracy assured, what benefits may we hope to derive therefrom ? Is democracy itself the final form of government, or is there a beyond ? The late Dr. Pearson, in his book on " National Life and Character," main- tains that democracy will find its consummation in State socialism, that the leading nations of the world are tending towards a condition of stationary civilisation, and that the increased importance of the State will prove disastrous to the energy and independence of thought of the individual. " It is now more than probable," he says, " that our science, our civilisation, our great and real advance in the practice of government, are only bringing us nearer to the day when the lower races will predominate in the world ; when the higher races will lose their noblest elements ; when we shall ask nothing from the day but to live, nor from the future but that we may not deteriorate." This is a sufficiently dismal vision of the future. After the fierce struggles and stern discipline of the ages, what more pitiful issue than hopeless, irresistible decay of character? In this connection it is a little pathetic to remember that here in New Zealand there is no one left to whom we may give a vote, and that we are thought to have gone a long way in the direction of State socialism. It is proverbially hard to confute a prophecy, and most people prefer to speak after the event. But Dr. Pearson's anticipation' is not shared by all who venture to forecast the future of man upon earth. A greater teacher than he cherished a very different belief. Tennyson, while he wisely bids us not " deal in watchwords overmuch," never loses hope in the progress of mankind towards a better and happier condition upon earth : — We are far from the noon of man : there Is time for the race to grow. Bates. — 0?i the Training of Teachers. Ill This is a loftier and truer teaching. The instinct of progress has not been implanted in us merely to be balHed and disap- pointed. We know that the future, whatever it be, will emerge from the present as the present has emerged from the past. But the Muse of history, if we are to put any faith in her teachings, seems to bid us look with confidence to the future where lies the golden age. " History is the best tonic for drooping spirits." Even if completely successful, democracy will not fulfil the expectations of those who are loudest in its praise. It cannot turn life into a playtime. Strenuous effort, labour — patient, steady, intelligent — will be as necessary as ever. All the virtues which have marked man's advance hitherto will still be indispensable. In all that makes life noble and really useful the prize will be to him only w^ho strives. Competition may conceivably be lessened, but that should be only to set free our energies for employment in other directions. Let us interest ourselves in politics if we will : it is, indeed, our duty to do so. But let patriotism govern our political ideals and actions. Above all, we should remember that national strength and greatness can never be attained, nor can they endure, if our lives are divorced from morality. Art. XIV. — The Training of Teachers for Primary Schools. By the Eev. J. Bates. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 5th August, 1895.] In this colony, as in other democratic communities, the State has assumed the responsibility of providing schools for ele- mentary education. It would seem as if the democratic movement was under some necessity to ally with itself popular education. At any rate, the two go together. In England, Germany, France, Switzerland, the United States, and in the colonies of Australasia it has been the special care of the several Legislatures to devise and establish systems of primary instruction. Large sums of money are freely voted and expended annually on education, and the demands on the public purse under this head keep ever growing. Some of the best intellects are busily employed in adapting the various systems of education to the requirements of the people, and, as fresh educational wants make themselves felt, strenuous efforts are made to satisfy them. In view of these facts, 112 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. democracy, in its many phases, may claim to be realising the dream and wish of the poet : — 0 for the coming of that glorious time Wheu, prizing knowledge as her noblest wealth And best protection, this imperial realm, While she exacts allegiance, shall admit An obligation, on her part, to teach Them who are born to serve her and obey. The foremost countries of the world at the present day are those in which the common school has most widely and deeply rooted itself. Backward and stationary civilisations, if they wish to fall into line and keep step with progressive societies, have to adopt some system of universal and compulsory edu- cation. "Education in Japan is plentiful, good, and cheap," says Sir E. Arnold. A Turkish statesman and patriot, on his death-bed, recently urged his royal master to establish schools throughout Turkey, and thus introduce one of the most potent factors of Western greatness. Few will question that the State, in thus charging itself with the work of elementary education, is acting well within its rights. The instinct of self-preservation would alone impel the modern democratic State to educate. To avoid relapse into barbarism, to prevent the growth of "a savage horde among the civilised," the State must make due provision for the enlightenment and moral culture of its citizens. And, as the State has the right, so it is under the obligation to provide universal education in the interests of healthy and intelligent citizenship. This function and duty cannot be relegated by it to any other organization, or to private enter- prise, for the simple reason that the State alone possesses the coercive power required to make a system of popular educa- tion effective. While the co-operation of all organizations and individuals is desired and encouraged in the work of national culture, the general conviction is that the control of elemen- tary education must be reserved exclusively for the State. The education thus provided is not a charity. All have a right to it, because all help to pay for it. Hence it is that education, like religion, is now everybody's concern. Now, the training of teachers for their work is the most essential part of any proper scheme of education. The day has gone by when any one was thought good enough to teach an elementary school. Men who had failed in other occu- pations had always teaching to fall back upon. "When a man's the sport of heaven, to keep a school the wretch is driven." People in reduced circumstances thought it right to apologize for earning their living by teaching. All this has been changed. Teaching is now commonly regarded as a serious and honourable occupation or profession — an occupa- Bates. — On the Training of Teachers. 113 tiou demanding knowledge, skill, enthusiasm, and good moral character. The day is at hand, perhaps, when moral worth will be regarded as of even greater value than knowledge and technical attainments. The careful training of the teacher should, 1 think, occupy the first place in the national programme of education. With- out duly-qualified and self-devoted teachers, fine buildings and costly appliances will be of little worth. Apart from the service which the able and zealous teacher renders to the intellectual and moral life of the nation, his training is of importance as a kind of national investment. From every point of view it is necessary to have capable men in charge of our schools ; and the more capable they are the better. As regards the preparation of teachers for their work, two points are to be distinguished — namely {a) their general know- ledge ; and {b) their professional training. If their general knowledge is sound and ample they are more able to profit by their technical instruction, and have more time for practice. Let us see what provision has been made for the training of teachers in one of the old countries of the world. Ger- many has led the way in the work of popular education, and there from the time of the Eeformation the training of the elementary-school master has been steadily kept in view. There we find the training-school and the training-college for teachers in the highest state of efficiency. The whole course of training, usually extending over six years, is divided into two periods — two or three years being spent in the training- school, and the remainder in the training-college. The object of the training-school is thus set forth: "To provide that kind of general training which is calculated to afford a sure foundation for the technical training of the elementary-school teacher." In other words, the training-school provides such instruction and training as are supplementary to the elemen- tary school and preparatory to the training-college. With respect to the latter institution, " the object of the instruction given there is to confirm the knowledge acquired in the pre- paratory course and to give it progressive development, to insure familiarity with the principles of the theory of educa- tion and instruction, and to give theoretical and practical directions as to the correct treatment of the separate subjects of an elementary school." The theoretical training comprises four principal subjects : {a) Pedagogy ; {h) theory of instruc- tion ;_ (c) psychology ; \d) special method. The practical training consists chiefly of lessons given in the practising- school under the supervision of a master of method. These lessons are afterwards criticized both by the master and by fellow-students. 114 Transactions.- -Miscellaneous. But, good as the German training institutions are, they do not fully satisfy the aspirations of the teachers themselves. It should be noted in passing that all the more important educational reforms in Germany have originated with the teachers. Their suggestions have seldom been at first ac- ceptable to the Government, but, in the end, reasonable changes have been made, and the substantial justice of their demands acknowledged. The report of the United States Bureau of Education pub- lished last year contains a historical review of the German and other systems of training for teachers. In the sixth sec- tion of the review a summary is given of the opinions of lead- ing educators on training institutions. The German Teachers' Union, a body sixty thousand strong, had submitted certain inquiries to forty-two of the ablest directors of normal schools. Seventeen of those addressed answered all the questions put to them. The rest declined to answer, chiefly to avoid what appeared to them criticism of the Government. The first question was as follows : " Is it advisable to or- ganize the normal schools in such a way that they can offer professional — that is, pedagogical — -training exclusively, or should they also offer academic instruction and general educa- tion, wdiich must be the basis of professional work?" Thir- teen of the seventeen replies were in favour of the separation of general education from purely professional training. Among the reasons given were the following : ' ' The purpose of a teachers' training-school is to prepare its students for their profession; the art it has to teach is the art of teaching; the school can accomplish this task satisfactorily only if the gene- ral education of its students has to a certain extent been com- pleted before they are admitted; the mixture of general pre- paration and professional training now existing is the chief obstacle to progress in the training of teachers, l)ecause it necessitates a low degree of requirements for the general education — lower than is desirable in the interest of jDopular education." The second question was, " In what manner, in case the first question be answered in the aflirmative, shall the gene- ral ^preparatory education be obtained? Is it desirable to (a) establish special preparatory schools for teachers, or {h) should the existing normal schools be extended downwards by establishing preparatory courses, or (c) is attendance at secondary schools to be commended ? If so, which one — the classical (gymnasium), or the modern (real gymnasium), or the citizens' high school (without Latin)? " Six replies were in favour of the existing high schools, and all recommended the citizens' high school as the most suitable. These are the only questions that concern us in New Bates. — On the Training of Teachers. 115 Zealand. The section concludes thus: "These opinions, ren- dered as they are by the foremost normal-school educators of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, have zxiade a profound sensation among teachers and Government authorities. The educational Press has reproduced them and commented upon them. Even the political Press in Germany has considered them the most authoritative and important contribution to the question of teachers' training of late years, and expressed the hope that the provincial as well as the central Govern- ment will base future reforms on the advice of these gentlemen. " The further fact that this symposium was called for and published by the National Union of Teachers — a union that has nearly sixty thousand members — is most significant, and proves that the teachers themselves are not satisfied with the professional education the State offers them." It will seem like an instance of anticlimax when we turn from these high themes to the arrangements made for the training of teachers in New Zealand. We have adopted, pro- bably from motives of convenience and economy, the pupil- teacher system from the Mother-country. This system, which is really formed on the model of apprenticeship in trade, was long ago tried in Germany and abandoned. Even in England it seems to be showing signs of weakness, and is undergoing modification. Her Majesty's Senior Chief Inspector of Schools in the Metropolitan Division, in his report last year, thus wrote : " The training of teachers in the science of teaching still lags far behind the training of teachers in Germany or France. In England we are still dependent for our supply of teachers in elementary schools almost exclusively upon the pupil-teacher system, and it seems that the sources of supply as regards men -teachers are failing . . . People interested in elementary education look upon this difficulty as one which will at no distant day have to be faced, and the recruit- ing of elementary teachers from scholars who have enjoyed the advantages of a good secondary education, as in foreign countries, is a matter well worthy of consideration." So much as regards failure. That the system is being modified will be obvious from the following extract from an article on our voluntary schools which appeared in the Contemporary of February, 1895. The writer (x\rchdeacon Wilson), himself a highly distinguished schoolmaster, says, " A School Board can not only provide special instruction for its pupil-teachers, but can afford to duplicate its staff of such teachers, and thus give them full leisure for private study." And in a note the Archdeacon says, " If the Education Department would recog- nise two pupil-teachers, each working half-time in school and half-time in central classes, as equivalent to one pupil, the 116 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. difficulty of properly educating puj)il-teachers in voluntary schools would be diminished." What, then, is done by the Education Department of New Zealand, and the educational authorities of Auckland in parti- cular, for the training of teachers? The department holds two examinations annually for Classes E and D, and grants certificates of competency to successful candidates ; it recog- nises the University degree by creating for it the three higher grades — C, B, A ; it also recognises the matriculation exami- nation and the Junior and Senior Civil Service examinations, and makes certain concessions in favour of those wdio have passed these tests ; it has framed certain regulations concern- ing the employment and training of pupil-teachers ; lastly, it lias made regulations respecting normal schools. Subject to the general provisions of the Education Act and to the regu- lations of the department, the Education Boards have done what they could to keep up the supply of qualified teachers. A number of young people are taken on year by year ; after a brief period of probation and on the favourable report of a head teacher they are indentured as pupil-teachers, appointed to some school, and generally put in charge of standards. They are required to work five hours daily in school, and are entitled to receive, out of school-hours, five hours' instruction per week from head teachers or their deputies. They are examined annually, and are expected to present themselves as soon as possible for examination in Class E or D. This, I think, is all that is done to aid them by the educational powers that be. The fact that their qualifications, as shown by examina- tion and Inspectors' marks, are rising, only proves capacity and desire for improvement on the part of the teachers them- selves. To get through the different grades they must have- recourse to outside help. The objections to a scheme of this kind are obvious and weighty. Young people, from fifteen to seventeen years of age, whose training is avowedly nil or very incomplete, whose stock of knowledge is very meagre, are put to teach — the very work for which they are least fitted. As our schools are staffed and organized it is impossible for head teachers to exercise any adequate and effective supervision over the teach- ing of their junior subordinates. The system, if such it can be called, is unfair alike to the young teacher and to the scholar. It is indefensible except on the ground of want of means. It has been tried elsewhere under favourable circum- stances and deliberately rejected. This being so, it would be surely well for us to take advantage of the experience of others and avoid repeating educational blunders. With respect to the general education of the teacher, the HocKB^.— Abel Tasman and his Journal. 117 best agencies are, in my opinion, the secondary school and the university. It will be greatly to the advantage of teachers to share in general culture with the members of other professions. In advocating the fullest possible use of the university and the secondary school in the preparation of our teachers I am but complying with the spirit of the Education Act and of the regulations of the Education De- partment. In other countries, too, as we have seen, the secondary schools are likely to be more closely linked to the primary schools in the great work of helping to train the teachers of the latter. In addition to adequate general knowledge, the student who aspires to be a teacher must also have practical training under the direction of some highly-qualified man. To effect this there must be estabhshed, as suggested in the regulations of the department, a practising-school, through which all our young teachers should be required to pass. Under present conditions we cannot hope for the best results, and our educational system, notwithstanding its many excellencies, is maimed and halting. Some reform is needed ; but reform to be real and lasting must be preceded by thorough knowledge of the weaknesses and deficiencies of existing arrangements, of what is needed, and of what is aimed at in other countries which are far ahead of us iu educational evolution. Art. XV. — Abel Tasman and his Journal. By Dr. T. M. Hocken, E.L.S. {Read before the Otago Institute, 10th September, 1895.] Plate I. Ix fulfilment of a promise made during the last session of this Institute, I have now the pleasure of laying before you a translation, made by myself and my wife, from the original Dutch of that portion '^of Tasman's Journal relating to the discovery of New Zealand. It is the first time that this has been fully translated.- I shall also give * Translated from " Joumaal van de Eeis naar liet onbekende Zuidland, in den Jare 16i2, door Abel Jansz. Tasman, met de Schepen Heemskerck en de Zeehaen. Medegedeeld en met eenige Aanteekeningen voorzien, door Jacob Swart," &c., &c. " Met eene Kaart. Te Amster- dam, bij de Wed. G. Hulst van Keulen, 1860." Tasman's Journal was lost for over two hundred years. When it was found Swart published it m its entirety, as above, in ISGO. A copy of this I possess, and from it my translation has been made. 118 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. an account of the Journal generally, of the circumstances under which it was written, and of Tasnian himself. During the latter jsart of the sixteenth and the earlier part of the seventeenth century the Dutch were pre-eminently the rulers of the sea. They had superseded the Spanish and the Portuguese, who so long had been in the van of maritime discovery and adventure. Their ships were better built, found, and commanded than had ever been the case before. Their navigation, laws, and rules were for the time of quite an ad- vanced kind ; and, with that quiet perseverance and sturdy courage which, under the name of Dutch phlegm, have always been characteristic of the nation, their merchants had secured and held the trade of tlie world. England's day was then but in high dawn ; and, though now she is, and for long has been, the mistress of the seas, at that time she held but a second if not a third place. Early in the seventeenth century Holland penetrated into the Indian Archipelago, and amidst its num- berless fertile islands developed amazingly the wealth of her trade. In 1610 she founded the capital of Batavia on the Island of Java, and, though surrounded by hostile native princes or chiefs, she maintained her position and security in this centre. The affairs of this Dutch East India Company w'ere managed by a Governor-General and Council, who, by persistent courage and enterprise, maintained in those parts of the world that renown which their countrymen had won elsewhere. At no j^eriod in its history was the company so prosperous and flourishing as between the years 1630 and 1680. That half-century closed, it became involved in the quarrels and politics of the native Javanese States, and then commenced its commercial ruin. In 1636 Antony van Diemen was appointed Governor-General, retaining office for nearly ten years ; and no Governor equalled him in energy and sagacity. It was during his rule that Tasman's voyage, of which we are now to speak, was undertaken. Tasman was born in 1602 or 1603, at Hoorn, in the north of Holland, a town on the borders of the Zuyder Zee, where so many bold sailors were bred, and where, it has been stated, descendants of his family still remain. But, indeed, we know- little of Tasman's personal history beyond that contained in his Journal. In this he has truly bequeathed us his monu- ment, though underneath it lies little more than a shadow.. An old engraving of him is to be seen in the Christchurch Museum ; and it would seem that some personal description is given by M. Dozy in "Bijdragen de Taal Land en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie " (" Contributions to the Language, Country, and People of Dutch India '"), 5th series, vol. ii., j). 308 ; but of this I know nothing. He died at Batavia in 1659. By direction of Van Diemen he was despatched in 1639, HocKB's.— Abel Tasman and Jiis Journal. 119 and soon after his arrival in the settlement, under the com- mand of Captain Matthys Kwast, who was instructed to proceed through the Western Pacific to the Philippines, and there to make search for the fabled Gold and Silver Islands. These are now known as the Bonin Islands, east of Japan. This was most probably Tasrnan's first voyage under the aus- pices of the company ; at its close he sailed in the Indian seas until 1612, and then commenced his great voyage of dis- covery. Here it will be interesting to contrast the mode of present- day sailing with that whereby those who went down to the sea in ships in Tasman's time made their truly perilous voyages. Now navigation has been reduced to a fine art, as well as to a precise science — so fine and so precise that it may be generally affirmed that disaster at sea is the result of care- lessness, often of gross carelessness. Those floating palaces which now cross the waste of waters in every direction are timed to reach their destination with the punctuality and almost the speed of a railway-train. A few days, or weeks at most, of safe and pleasant travel now represent the weary months of discomfort, dangers real and imaginary, and the scourges of scurvy and dysentery which w^ere too often the lot of those who led the way. All this was first rendered possible by the invention of those instruments, the sextant and chronometer, which now daily tell the sailor his exact position on the track- less ocean. Add to these his accurate chart and nautical tables, and what evil can befall him, unless through great neglect or rare misfortune ? When undertaking early voyages of discovery it was usual that two, three, or more vessels should form the fleet. This was a precaution in all ways wise, contributing as it did to mutual courage, safety, and companionship. The commanders and officers formed a com- mittee, or council as they termed it, and whenever any diffi- culty or dilemma arose the members of this council were summoned by signal aboard the principal vessel of the expe- dition, and there decided what course was best to follow. These occasions seem to have been frequent, as we can well fancy. The vessels, with their high poop, high forecastle, and round bows must have looked picturesque enough. They were greatly foreshortened, too, for it was considered that a vessel whose length much exceeded its breadth was absolutely unsafe and not unlikely to capsize. Four or five knots an hour was good average sailing ; much more frequently the distance traversed in a day did not exceed fifty or sixty miles. The tonnage of those early vessels varied much : some mea- sured 300 or even 100 tons; but the perils of many a long voyage were encountered in little vessels of no more than 10, 60, or 120 tons burthen. The dietary scale in Tasman's 120 Transactions . — JMiscellaneous. time was something as follows : To each man — one good cheese for the whole voyage ; three pounds of biscuit, a quartern of vinegar, and half a pound of butter per week ; on Sunday, three-quarters of a pound of meat ; on Monday and Wednesday, 6oz. of salted cod ; on Tuesday and Saturday, a quarter of a pound of stock-fish ; on Thursday and Friday, three-quarters of a pound of bacon with grey peas ; and at all times as much oatmeal as could be eaten. Those were not the days of coffee, tea, or teetotalism, but of strong rum and arrack, which were regularly distributed; and who- ever was so lucky as first to descry land from the mast- head had his ration doubled. The instruments and methods used for determining the position at sea— the latitude and longitude — were of the most primitive and, one might say, ineffective kind. Cartography was in its infancy, and the few charts that were placed in the sailor's hands were projected on principles so regardless of the proportions of the sphere as to be absolutely misleading and dangerous. The simple de- vice of the log for measuring the rate of sailing through the water was introduced but twenty years prior to Tasman's time. Before that it was usual to estimate the amount by guess. The sun's altitude, and the relative position of the heavenly bodies, which are now calculated with such accu- racy by means of the sextant, and which, with the chrono- meter, give the true position, were then ascertained by very crude instruments — -the astrolabe, and, later, the cross-staff ; specimens of which I exhibit. The astrolabe w'as made of a circular piece of metal. Tin. in diameter, divided into quad- rants, one of which was divided into degrees, and suspended freely, as one nnght suspend a watch by its ring. A broad pointer or index, l^in. wide, traversed the face of the instru- ment, and was divided through the exact middle of its length by a line termed "the line of confidence." Close to each extremity of the index, and perpendicular to it, a small j)late w^as fixed, with two small holes, one larger than the other, but both being exactly over the line of confidence. These were sights, and when the object viewed was seen m exact line through them — the sun or moon, or a star — the angle was read off. The cross-staff, which was probably used by Tasman, was a squared rod of wood, 3ft. in length, upon which were denoted angles or degrees, and having a sigiit at the eye-end. Upon this, by means of a slot, slid at right angles a second rod of wood, about 2ft. in length, having a sight at each terminal, and through these sights the object was viewed, the object-rod, if we may so call it, being adjusted upon the other, which was pointed plane to the horizon, and the angle read off. In this rough way was the sun's altitude taken, and probably a rough attempt was often made to take what HocKEN. — Abel Tasman and his Journal. 121 sailors call a lunar distance. An improvement was made on this cross-staff by adding one or two shorter transoms for read- ing smaller angles. On some of those odd frontispieces which embellish ancient atlases or geographies may be seen a sweet little cherub holding aloft an emblem of the cross apparently, but really this cross- staff. A hundred years after the in- troduction of the cross-staff came Dr. Hadley's quadrant (about 1731), which has developed into the perfect sextant of to-dav. But with his tables of declinations, which were even then calculated, and this simple instrument, Tasman and his brethren succeeded in taking their latitudes with remarkable accuracy, as is evident by inspecting the coast-line of his Staten Land, which I have placed side by side with that of our New Zealand. But how he succeeded with his longitudes is quite a different matter. As we well know, longitudes can only be calculated perfectly by knowing the difference of time at two meridians, and this must be gained by the aid of accu- rate timekeepers. In Tasman's day, the very few clocks and watches in existence were but of little use in keeping the time. The problem of longitudes at sea was always con- sidered of the utmost importance amongst maritime nations. Even at the begmning of this century it was thought that it would never be solved, owing to the difficulty or impos- sibility of ever constructing watches that would keep per- fect time. As indicating this sentiment, the so-called Board of Longitude advertised, at the beginning of last century, in Queen Anne's reign, that they would give rewards of £10,000, £20,000, and £30,000 respectively to him who should discover a means of taking longitudes at sea to within sixty, forty, and thirty geographical miles. Precision within these limits was not thought of or expected. This liberal offer stimulated in- vention, and Dr. John Harrison, an ingenious mechanician, who for years devoted himself to making improvements in clocks and watches, succeeded in 1764 in gaining the prize of £20,000 with a watch — or chronometer, as we should now call it — which was twice carried on a voyage to the West Indies. The time kept was admirable, and insured an accuracy of longitude to within ten or twelve miles. One of Harrison's watches, which, by-the-by, cost from £80 to £100 apiece, was carried by Captain Cook on his first great voyage of discovery. Messrs. Wales and Bayly, who accompanied Cook's second expedition, state, in their astronomical obser- vations of the voyage, published in 1777, that the longitude could then be computed to within the fifth or sixth of a degree — that is, to ten or twelve geographical miles. The earliest account I can discover of the use of timekeepers at sea is in 1663, when two watches were used together on the same vessel. The result was not satisfactory, as may be 122 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. learned from the manuscript in the Sloane collection of the British Museum. It is but within the last few years, com- paratively speaking, that chronometers have been in universal use. The last antiquated marine instrument to which I shall refer as used in Tasman's tnne is the sand-glass. These were constructed of different sizes, so as to measure periods of four hours, one hour, and half an hour The survival of them at sea is to be seen in the 28-second log-glass, used when the log is taken ; and on the kitchen mantelpiece, for boiling eggs. Hour-glasses were used in the last century in churches, placed on the pulpit-ledge in view of the con- gregation, where they regulated the length of the sermon. Much improvement has been effected in this direction during the last few years, the regulation length of sermons now being about twenty minutes. The time at sea was roughly kept by the half-hour glass, which was always in sight of the steers- man. When the last grains of sand had run out he reversed the glass, striking a bell at the same time as a mark of the time. This was repeated until the glass had been turned eight times, and the bell struck eight times. Thus four hours had elapsed, the watch was completed, and the new watch took charge of the ship. And so Tasman, in denot- ing time, speaks of so many glasses in such-and-such a watch : thus, three glasses in the morning watch would be three half-hours past 4 a.m. — that is, 5.30. These sand- glasses were made with the greatest care and accuracy. The upper and lower sections were separated by a thin metallic plate, perforated with a fine pin-hole, through which the sand ran. The sand was carefully selected and dried — iron-sand, I think, being preferred, as being a rounder, more regular grain, and therefore affording the least friction. When the running of this sand through the pin-hole had been ad- justed and timed the whole was hermetically closed by lash- ing, and was further protected by a wooden framework. Now, it is quite possible, and not unlikely, that, conjointl}' with dead- reckoning, Tasman took his longitude by the help of a four- hour glass of this description, set agoing at noon when about to leave port. Of course, there would be some error, due to the expansion or contraction of the glass, or to failure in turning at the exact moment when the last grains of sand had disap- peared. Still, with all faults, this was the only method of securing any reasonable approach to a fixed meridional time. If Tasman did not adopt it, then his only other way of esti- mating his daily longitude was by means of dead-reckoning — that is, by reckoning the number of miles sailed over an east or west course in twenty-four hours. This rough method has been used by sailors for centuries, and is used at the present HocKEN. — Abel Tasman and Ms Journal. 123 time whenever a clouded sky interferes witia a due observation of the sun. It is untrustworthy at the best, from causes which are very evident. A vessel may make much lee or lost way from some ocean current, which insensibly drifts her out of her course; and there are other sources of error. Hence we shall not be surprised to find that, whilst Tasman's latitudes are very correct, his longitudes are often considerably at fault, even so much as three or four degrees. As will be observed in this map of New Zealand, upon which I have projected his daily course, he is wrong on the average about 3° W. — that is, about 170 miles from the coast. This vast discrepancy will exhibit very clearly the imperfection of nautical methods two hundred and fifty years ago, and that Queen Anne's Board of Longitude might well be content with any means where- by the position at sea might be known within thirty or forty miles of the true one. Before the discovery of America — the so-called New World — the westernmost point of the then known world was the Island of Ferro, one of the Canaries, and it was therefore selected by old geographers as the prime meridian from which all other meridians were calculated. Afterwards, and somewhat before Tasman's time, the Peak of Teneriffe, also in the Canaries, was selected, probably because of its conspicuous height. It is from this meridian, then, that Tasman gives his longitudes. In the present day all nations agree as a matter of great convenience to calculate from Greenwich, with the exception of the French, who, whilst notating their parallels from Paris, nevertheless add the Green- wich equivalent. Whilst Tasman gives, in both his chart and Journal, his positions as deduced from the Peak of Teneriffe, they must really be computed from the Island of Mauritius, which, as we shall presently see, was his final point of de- parture after leaving Batavia. So that, to reduce his longi- tudes to those of Greenwich, we must subtract, say, 21° 2' from them — made up of, say, 16^° for Teneriffe and 44-° error for Mauritius. We then have remaining what may be called "personal errors," caused by inability to calculate his posi- tion exactly, and which, as has been seen, often amount to three or four degrees. Another explanation should here be made. The distances sailed are in Dutch miles, fifteen of which are equal to one degree. A Dutch mile is equal to about four English, so that if Tasman gives as his day's work twenty miles we should reckon that he had sailed eighty. In making this translation I have preferred to give Tasman's own unaltered details ; those who desire to make the corrections can do so from the data I have given. In a paper read before this Institute last year I gave some account of Tasman's Journal, and showed that it had never 124 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. been edited and published in its entirety until so recently as the year 1860, when Heer Jacob Swart, of Amsterdam, gave it to the world in the original old Dutch, which not only differs greatly from modern Dutch but is apparently a dialect. From this edition this translation has been made, and I think it may be truly said that it is the first full translation hitherto made. It was with great pleasure I learnt a few weeks ago that the firm of Heiurich Mliller, of Amsterdam, is now preparing to publish a limited number of copies of the full text m English. This will be as valuable as interesting. Then, as good things sometimes come together, I saw recently a few sheets of what apparently is to be the future New Zealand Eeader for use in our primary schools. These sheets contained some parts of Tasman's Journal, evidently translated from the Swart edition. The portion relating to New Zealand ended, unfortunately, with the massacre in Murderers' Bay. I do not know who the translator is, but his work has been done in the most com- petent and accomplished way, and it is to be hoped that he will complete it. The translation is sometimes not quite literal, and that in parts which would not be obscured by a literal rendering. Nor do I understand the principle adopted in giving the longitudes : these are not Tasman's, even with the data for corrections above given, nor are they the true longitudes. The distances run are given in English miles. So, then, all the previous renderings of Tasman's Journal prior to that of Jacob Swart in 1860 have been incorrect in various particulars, the chief one being that of excessive abridgment. As regards the bibliography of these, I cannot do better than refer to my paper in the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute" for 1894, pages 619, 620. In his edition Jacob Swart prefixes to the Journal a pub- lication of all the documents relating to it. These are of considerable value and interest, and were discovered in the old foliants and letter-books of the company, presumably at the same time that the long-lost Journal was found and forwarded from Batavia to x\msterdam. They consist — first, of a letter from Governor Van Diemen and his Council to the Council of Seventeen at Amsterdam, apprising them of Tasman's departure on his important expedition ; second, of a Letter of Instruc- tions to Tasman and his chief officers ; and, third, of other letters and papers giving an account of previous discoveries and directions, which it was no doubt thought important that Tas- man should have with him. The Instructions are far too lengthy to lay before yon here, but they testify most favourably to the wisdom and foresight of Governor Van Diemen and his Council in all matters relating to the geographical knowledge of the time, in fitting out the ships, in suggesting suitable measures in case of accident or failure, and generally in their HocKEN. — Abel Tasviaii aud Jiis Journal. 125 fullness of sagacious advice and command. Even to-day tliey would well serve as models to copy. The vessels of the expedi- tion were two — the ship or yacht Heemskerck, aud a smaller vessel, the flyboat Zeehaen, the former having a crew of sixty, the latter of fifty men. They were victualled for twelve months. Towards the better understanding of the Journal, I would here explain that Tasman begins and ends his day at mid- night— that is, it is the same as our civil day. He reckons his course and the distance run from noon to noon, at which time he took his latitude and longitude. His watches were — the day or morning watch, from 4 to 8 ; the forenoon or noon watch, from 8 to 12 noon ; the afternoon watch, from 12 to 4 ; the flatfoot, or, as we call them, the dog watches, from 4 to 6 and 6 to 8 ; the first watch, 8 to 12 midnight ; and the second or hound watch, 12 midnight to 4 in the morning. It is curious that of all Teutonic-speaking sailors the English alone use the term " dog-watch " as signifying the hours between 4 and 8 p.m. Other Teutons use the equivalent hund-, hunde-, or honde-ivacht, as signifying the second watch — that between midnight and 4 a.m. ; and to express their dog-watches, between 4 and 8 p.m., they use plattfuss, jjlattfoden, oxplatvoet, meaning " flatfoot." The neo- Latin or Italic speaking sailors had no such words as "dog- watch" or "flat-foot," but spoke of the second watch, or of the watch from 4 to 6 or 6 to 8 in the evening. I do not know the underlying meaning of these words, but can fancy they contain the idea of the most restful part of a ship's day, when a dog would be sufficient guard, and when any work on deck would be done without running— all heel and toe, as the pedestrians have it — a flat foot. The vessels sailed from Batavia on the 14th August, 1642, with instructions to make in the first instance for the island Mauritius, where they were to take in fresh provisions and otherwise refit. At this time Mauritius belonged to the Dutch, and w^as a convenient recruiting-place for their vessels as they sailed to and fro between Holland and the Batavian settle- ment. Tasman commences thus : "Journal or description by me, Abel Jansz. Tasman, of a voyage made froui the City of Batavia, in the East Indies, for making discoveries of the unknown South Land, in the year 1642, the 14th August. May God Almighty be pleased to give hereto His blessing. Amen." Mauritius, a distance of about 3,000 miles, was reached, after a splendid run for those days, on the 5th September. This would give an average of about 120 miles a day sailed. Here a month's stay was made, during which the vessels were thoroughly refitted, and pigs, goats, wild-fowl, firewood, and fresh water were brought on 126 Transactions. — Mlscellansous. board. Thus fortified at all points, they left Mauritius on the 8th October, '-for which," says Tasman, "the Lord be praised and thanked." The course was now south and south- east. On the 27th a considerable quantity of weed was seen, which indicated proximity to land. A council was held, and it was determined to keep a man constantly at the topmast-head on the look-out, and whoever first discovered land, rocks, or shoals should be rewarded with three reals and an extra pot of arrack or rum. Nothing further, however, was seen for nearly a month, and until the 24th November, when Tasman made his first discovery, that of Van Die- men's Land, so called by him after his patron the Batavian Governor. The distance thus run from Slauritius was nearly 6,000 miles, the average daily run being about 140 miles. He named many of the bays and headlaiids — names retained to this day, such as Frederick Henry and Storm Bay, Maria Island, &c. He explored here until the 4th Decem- ber, and saw at a distance some of the inhabitants, smoke rising in the woods, steps cut into the trees with flint axes, whereby the natives climbed up them to search for birds' nests; specimens of gum, and so on. Before leaving Van Diemen's Land, on the 5th December, a fort was erected in Frederick Henry Bay, with a flag flying on it. The vessels were again at sea on the 5th December. A council was called, when it was agreed that the course held should still be one due east, and that it should be kept for twenty-six degrees of further longitude ; if no further land was fallen in with, a northerly course should be shaped for home. Bight days later, on the 13th December, Staten Land, or New Zealand, was discovered. As the distance run from Van Diemen's Land was about 1,000 miles, it is evident that the average sailing-rate of 125 miles a day had been still main- tained. It will save interruption in Tasman' s narrative, and render it more intelligible, if at this point I preface a few further words of ej^^lanation. The laud — "the great high land," as Tasman calls it — he would first see between Hoki- tika and Okarito ; and it is not too fanciful to say that that great mountain which two hundred and fifty years later was called by his name was one of the first sights he saw on the wild west coast. Somewhat further north he describes that low point known to us as Captain Cook's Cape Foul- wind, with its outlying steep rocks or cliffs, the Steeples. Westport is not far from this j)oint. " North of this," as Tasman says, "the land makes a great bight": this is the Karamea Bight. Then came the " furthermost point, which stood out so boldly that we had no doubt it was the extreme point.' This is now Captain Cook's Cape Farewell, with HocKEN. — Abel Tasmaii and ]iis Journal. 127 the long spit of sand running from it, upon wliich is a lighthouse. Next in order is that bay of tragic interest called by Tasman "Murderers','' but now known as Golden Bay, in W'hich is the Township of CoUingwood. The scene of tragedy lies close to Parapara, where at this moment a new and far different interest has arisen in the fact that a great and peaceful trade is expected to spring up in connection with the masses of hifimatite wdiich lie around the shore. Thankfully escaping from this dreadful spot, Tas- man tacked about in w^hat he called " Zeehaen's Bay," but which in truth w'as the north-w-est portion of Cook Strait. As we shall presently see, Tasman himself suspected that there was a passage through. Proceeding north, Cape Egmont was seen, and was named Cabo Pieter Boreels, after one of the Dutch East Indian Council. No reference is made to the mountain. The high mountain seen on the 27th in lat. 38°, and taken at first for an island, would probably be Mount Karioi, bounded as it is to the north by Whaingaroa Harbour, and south by Kawdiia and Aotea Harbours. The Three Evings Islands were Tasman's point of departure from New Zealand. This name was given from the fact that the vessels anchored there on the 5th January, the eve of the Epiphany. You may remember the incidents connected with this religious festival which commemorated the meeting of the three Magi or Wise Men of the East wuth the infant Christ. Their names w^ei'e Kaspar, Melchior, and Balthasar. The fable says that their bones were removed to the cathedral at Cologne, where they still rest, and where, as in Tasman's time, they are still vene- rated by all faithful observers of old Christian legends. I may here remark that in all probability the interesting process of name-giving did not take place until after Tasman's return to Batavia. The best description of the Three Kings known to me is that given by Mr. Cheeseman, the curator of the Auckland Museum, in the volumes for 1887 and 1890 of the New Zealand Transactions. Mr. Cheeseman made many additions to our natural-history knowledge of these islands, and he also recognised that part of the Great King upon which Tasman's crew attempted to land when searching for water and vegetables. It is much to be regretted that Swart does not reproduce Tasman's sketches. In a provoking way he says that these are to be found in "Valentiju." Valen- tijn's abridged copy of the Journal was published in 1726, and to this rare work the reader is referred. It is to be hoped that this omission will be rectified in Miiller's forthcoming edition. Tasman's intercourse w-ith the natives was but of a few hours' duration ; yet it was sufficiently long to enable him to give a good personal description. It is, therefore, curious to find that he makes no reference to the adornment of the tattoo. 128 Transactions. — Miscellaneotis. Does this indicate its non-existence two hundred and fiftv years ago? It is advisable to repeat here that Tasman's miles, which are Dutch, must be multiplied by iouv to reduce them to English measurement. Other explanatory comments will be found in the previous half of this paper. The Journal. December 12th [1642] . — Good weather, and the wind south-south-west and south-west, with a sharp breeze. At noon found the latitude 42° 38', and longitude 185° 17'. Course held east, and sailed thirty-eight miles. The swell of the sea continued from the south-west, so that here no great land is to be expected to the south. Var. 7° north-easterly. 13th.— Found latitude 42° 10', longitude 188° 28'. Course held east by north, and sailed thirty-six miles. The wind south-south-west, with a topsails' breeze. Towards noon we saw a great, high, bold land, and had it south-east from us about fifteen miles ; we gave our course south-east, straight for it. x\bout noon we fired a shot and hung out the white flag, whereupon the officers of the Zeehaen came aboard us, when it was resolved, all agreeing, to make for the said land as soon as possible, as the resolutions of this date further show. In the evening we thought it advisable to order our steersmen, as long as it remained calm, to hold the south-east course, but with increase of the breeze should go due east, so as to keep from going ashore, and to prevent any accident as far as possible. In our judgment, we should not attempt to land on this side, because of the great open sea which here with great rough billows and surf comes rolling in, unless there were some sheltered bays on this side. In the first watch, four glasses having run out [10 a.m.] , we stood our course due east. Var., 7° 30' north- easterly. 14th. ^ — At noon found our latitude 42° 10', and longitude 189° 3' ; course held east, and sailed twelve miles. We were about two miles from the land. It was a very high, double land, but from the thick clouds we could not see the tops of the mountains. We shaped our course northerly, and so close that we could see the surf breaking on shore. In the afternoon, about two miles from shore, we sounded in 55 fathoms, sticky, sandy ground. It was calm. Towards evening we saw a low point, about three miles from us north- east by north. We drifted quietly towards it. In the middle of the afternoon we sounded in 25 fathoms, sticky, sandy ground. We sailed along quietly the whole night, the current setting in from the west-north-west. We neared the land till within 28 fathoms, good anchor-ground ; it still being HocKEN. — Abel Tasmaii mul ]iis Journal. 129 calm, and not to go nearer the land we anchored in the dog-watch [4 to vS a.m.] with a stream-anchor, and waited for the land-wind. 15th. — In the morning, a light laud-breeze. We weighed anchor, and did our best to get off the land a little to sea. Course north-west by north. We then had the northerly low point of the day before north-north-east and north-east by north from us. This land consists of high, double moun- tains, not lower than Formoza Island. At noon found latitude 41° 40' and longitude 189'" 49'. Course held north-north- east, and sailed eight miles. The point of the previous day lay south-east from us. Two and a half miles from this point stretches north a large reef. Here, above water, on this reef some high, steep cliffs, like steeples or sails. Past this point, moreover, a mile to west, there w^as no bot- tom. From here also we saw the high land stretch north- north-east from us. We set our course due north, with fine, dry weather and slack water. From this aforesaid low point, with the cliffs, to the north-east the land makes a great bight, and stretches first due east and then again due northerly. This aforenamed point lies under the southern latitude of 41° 50'. The wind west. Here it was easy to see that in this country to the water it seemed a barren land. Besides, we saw no men nor any smoke in the least, and we also saw that they could have no boats there, as we could see no signs of them. In the evening, var. 8° north- easterly. 16th. — Six glasses before the day [2.30 a.m.] we sounded at 60 fathoms, good anchor-ground. At that time the northerly point in sight lay north-east by east from us three miles, and the nearest land from us lay south-east a rnile and a half. We drifted in the calm, with good weather and still water. At noon got latitude 40° 58', and longitude 189° 54' ; course held north-north-east, and sailed eleven miles. Drifted through the calm all afternoon. In the evening, at sunset, var. 9° 23' north-easterly. Got the wind south-west, with increasing breeze. We took the bearing of the furthermost point from us we could see, wdiich was east by north from us. It stood out so boldly that we had no doubt it was the extreme point. We called our council, v/ith the second mates, where- upon we resolved to go north-east and east-north-east to the end of the first Avatch [8 to 12 p.m.] , and then, weather and wind not changing, to sail near the wind, as is further to be seen by the resolution of this date. At night, at the sixth glass [11 p.m. (?)] , the weather became calm, so that we remained by the east-north-east course, although in the fifth glass of the dog-watch [second watch, 2.30 a.m.] the point of the previous evening lay south-east of us. From the sharpness 9 130 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. of the wind we could sail no higher thau east-north-east a trifle east. In the first watch [8-12 p.m.] we had one, and in the dog-watch [second watch, 12-4 a.m.] another, sounding in 60 fathoms : fine grey sand. In the second glass of the morning w^atch [4-8 a.m., say 5 o'clock] we got a breeze from the south-east, and we then tacked again for the shore. 17th. — In the morning at sunrise we were about a mile from the land. We saw in different places smoke rising where fire had been made by the inhabitants. The wind, south from the land, went round to the eastward. i\t noon we worked out the latitude 40° 32', longitude 190° 47'. We held a course north-east by east, and sailed twelve miles. In the afternoon, wind west, course east by south along a low sand-hill shore, with fine, dry weather. Soundings, 30 fathoms, black sand ; so that by night we might easily sound along the ground to this shore. So we ran towards this sand- point up to 17 fathoms, where, because of- the calm, we anchored at sundown. We then had the northernmost of the dry sand point west by north from us, also high laud stretch- ing east by south, and the point of the reef south-east from us. Within this narrow point of sand we saw a large, open bay, quite four to three miles wide. East of this narrow sand- point there is a sand-bank which stretches quite a mile east- south-east, 6ft., 7ft., and 8ft. to 9ft. deep. In the evening, 9° north-easterly [variation] . 18th. — In the morning weighed anchor, with calm weather. At noon, latitude worked out 40° 49', longitude 191° 41'. Course held east-south-east, and sailed eleven miles. In the morning, before weighing anchor, vv'e had resolved with the officers of the Zeehaen that we should endeavour to land and find a convenient harbour, and when near shore should send the shallop in advance, as is further amplified in the resolution of this date. In the afternoon our shipmaster, Ide Tiercxsz, and pilot-major, Francoys Jacobsz, with the shallop, besides the Zeehaen's boat with the supercargo Gilsemans and one of their second mates, went on before to seek for an anchorage and watering-place. At sunset, it being calm, we anchored in 15 fathoms, good holding-ground. In the evening, about an hour after sundown, we saw several lights on the land, and four boats along the shore, of which two came to- wards us, and the other two — our own — returned on board. They reported that they had found not less than 13 fathoms water, and that tliey had been about half a mile from the shore at the setting of tiie sun (which sank behind the high land). About one glass after they had returned on board the people in the two prows began to call to us, and that with a coarse, rough voice, but . we could not understand in the HocKEN. — Abel Tasman and his Journal. 131 least what they said. However, we called to them again in answer, wliereupou they cried again several times, but came no nearer than a stoneshot. They also repeatedly blew on an instrument which was like a Moorish trumpet. We let one of our sailors (the one who could play on the trumjoet) play some pieces in answer. Those on the Zeehaeu made their second mate do the same. (He had formerly been a trumpeter on shore, and had been made at Mauritius a second mate by the Council of the Port and Shipping). After this had been repeated on both sides several times, and as the evening shade was falling more and more, those in the boats finally cleared and went away. We ordered our people (for security, and to be well on guard) to keep entire quarterly watch (as is usual at sea), and that the munitions of war, such as muskets, pikes, and cutlasses, should be got ready. We let off some pieces on the top deck and reloaded, so that all accidents might be forestalled and we might defend our- selves in case these people might attempt anything. Var., 9° north-easterly. 19th. — This morning early a boat of these people, having thirteen men, came about a cast away from our ship. They called out several times, which we could not understand, the :speech having no resemblance to the vocabulary given to us by their Highnesses the Governor-General and Council of India. But this is not to be wondered at, as it was the language of the Salomon Island. These people were (so far as we could see) of ordinary height, but coarse of voice and strong, their colour between brown and yellow. They had black hair, fast bound right up on the crown of their heads, in manner and fashion of the Japanese on their heads, but with a long, thick tuft of hair in wdiich was stuck a large, thick w^iite feather. Their boats were two long narrow prows fastened together, over which were placed some boards or other seats, so that those above can see through the water under the canoes ; their paddles were a full fathom long, and sharp at the end. With these boats they could obtain great speed. Their clothing (so it appeared) was some of mats, others of cotton, whilst most were naked to the waist. We pointed out to them many times that they should come on board, showing white linen and some knives from those given us in our cargo. But in- stead of coming nearer they returned at last to shore. Mean- while the officers of the Zeehaen came on board us (by order of the previous evening), and a council was held, when it was resolved to go as near shore as we could, as there was good anchorage, and these people (as it seemed) sought our friendship. Soon after taking this resolution we saw anothcir seven boats come from the shore, whereof one (high in front, and pointed), manned with seventeen men, pulled behind the 132 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Zeehaen, and a second (wherein were thirteen stout men) caine up not half a cast from our ship, who called to each other several times. We showed them (as before) white linen, &c., yet they remained still. The master of the Zeehaen sent his quartermaster with his boat and six sailors back to the ship, to direct the mate, in case these people should come alongside, not to allow too many on board, but to be prudent, and well on his guard. Just as the Zeehaen's boat put off, the natives in the near- est prow to us called out and signalled with their paddles to those who were behind the Zeehaen, but what their m.eaning was we could not understand. Just as the Zee- haen's boat pushed off again, that one lying between the two ships began to pull furiously towards it, and when about half-way from us struck the Zeehaen's boat furiously with their stems, making it lurch greatly at the same time; where- upon the foremost man in this villainous prow thrust the quartermaster, Cornells Joppen, several times fiercely in the neck with a long, blunt pike, so that he fell overboard. Where- upon the others of them attacked the boat's crew with short, thick pieces of wood (which we at first took to be blunt parangs) [a kind of choppiug-knife used by the Malays for cutting wood, &c.] and with their paddles, and overcame ihe boat, in which fray three of the Zeehaen's people were killed and a fourth mortally wounded through hard blows. The quarter- master and two sailors swam towards our ship, and we sent our shallop to them and picked them up alive. After this outrageous and detestable affair the murderers let the boat drift. They had one of the dead dragged into their prow, and another drowned. We, and those on the Zeehaen, seeing this, shot briskly with muskets and cannon, but, however, probably did not hit any, as both returned to shore out of shot. We fired many shots from our fore-upper-deck and bow guns near and amongst their boats, but did not strike. Our master, Ide Tercxsen Holman, rowed with our shallop, well manned and armed, to bring back the Zeehaen's boat (which, luckily, these cursed men had let drift), and presently returned on board with it, finding in it one of the dead and one mortally wounded. We weighed anchor and got under sail, as w-e judged we could not establish any friend- ship with this people, nor could get water or refreshments. Our anchors weighed, and being under sail, we saw twenty- two prows alongshore, whereof eleven, swarming with men, came off to us. We kept quiet until some of the first were within shot, when with our pieces we fired one or two shots from the gunners' room, but without effect. The Zeehaen fired too, and hit, in the largest prow, one who stood with a white flag in his hand, so that he fell down. We also heard the grape- HocKEN. — Abel Tasman and his Journal. 133 shot strike in and against the prow, but what further happened is unknown to us, as after getting this shot they returned speedily to laud, two of them setting up sails fashioned like tinganghs [a Malay boat : our " dingy " is derived from this] . They remained quiet alongshore without visiting us again. About noon the master, Gerrit Jansz, and Sr. Gilsemans again came on board us. We sent also for their chief mate, when we called the council, and resolved as follows : That the de- testable deed of these natives that morning on four of the Zeehaen's men should teach us to hold the inhabitants of this land as enemies ; that we shall therefore keep easterly along the shore, following the coast-line, to see if we can find a convenient spot to obtain water and refreshments, as is further mentioned in the resolutions. At this place of murderers (to which, moreover, w-e have given the name of Murderers' Bay) we lay anchored in south latitude 40° 50', longitude 191° 30'. We steered our course from here east-north-east. At noon reckoned latitude 40° 57', longitude 191° 41'. Held a southerly course, and sailed two miles. ,In the afternoon the wind was from west-north-west. We then steered, on the advice of our steersmen, and our approbation, north-east by north. At night we went on, as the weather was fine ; but about an hour after midnight we had soundings in 25 to 26 fathoms ; hard, sandy ground. Soon after the wind was north-west. Had soundings in 15 fathoms. We imme- diately steered our course west, in the contrary direction from that by which we had entered, awaiting the day. Var., 9° 30' north-easterly. This is the second land sailed about and dis- covered by us. We have given it the name of Statenlandt, in honour of their High Mightinesses the States-General. Thus it is possible that this land is part of the great Statelandt, but it is uncertain. This same land seems to be a very fine coun- try, and we trust that it is part of the great coast of the un- known Zuytlandt (South Land). We have given this course the name of Abel Tasman course, because he is the first to navigate it. [In this place, in Tasman's Journal, are found the drawings of the plates which Valentijn has given us on pp. 49, &c., under No. 6F, No. 5E, No. 5Eb, and No. 7G. The plate No. 6F is not so complete as that of the manuscript journal. The reader, of course, knows that the name of Staten-land has since been changed to that of New Zealand, and it con- sists of two large islands, which are separated by a strait or passage now named Cook Strait. It was in the opening to the westerly entrance of this strait that Tasman lay anchored with his two ships when the New-Zealanders, without the slightest warning, fell upon his shallops, wherefore in the account he named that part Murderers' Bay. That portion 134 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. of the sea found between the islands of Van Diemen's Land and New Zealand was named by him Tasman's Track, a name which remains to this day, and serves to remind us all of that brave man who was the first to sail round New Holland, and to accomplish the voyage between New Holland and New Zealand. — Jacob Swart.] 20th. — This morning we saw land lying all around us, so that we have sailed perhaps thirty miles into a bay. We had at first thought that the land where we anchored was an island, not doubting that we should find a passage into the great South Sea. But to our great disappointment it proved otherwise. The wind being westerly, we endeavoured to get back through the same passage by which we had before sailed in. At noon found ourselves in south latitude 40° 51', and longitude 192° 55'. We held our course east-half -north and sailed fourteen miles. In the afternoon it was calm ; the sea ran strong into the bay, so that we could not advance, but drifted back with the tide. At noon we turned northwards and saw a round, high island"'' about eight miles from us west by north, which we had sailed by the previous day. This little island lies about six miles east of the place where we were anchored. In the same latitude in this bay, into which we had sailed so far by mistake, the land seemed everywhere fine and good : on the sea-coast low, barren land ; moderately high inland. Sailing along the coast there is anchorage from 60 to 50 fathoms to 15 fathoms, becoming dry about a mile and a half to two miles from the shore. At 3 in the afternoon got light breezes from the south-east, but, as the sea ran very rough, we made but little or no progress. In the night we drifted along calmly ; in the second watch [12-4 a.m.] the wind was west, going round to the northwards. 21st. — At night in the dog-watch [12-4] had a westerly wind with a strong breeze. Steered to the north, in the hope that the land, which the day before was north-west from us, should there fall away to the north, but it extended to the north-west. After the cook had dished we tacked and turned again from the land. It began to blow stronger, so we ran south-west over towards the south shore. At noon found lati- tude 40° 31' and longitude 192° 55'. Held a northerly course, and sailed five miles. It was foggy, so that we could see no land. Late in the afternoon again saw the south coast, and had the island, which the day before was about six miles west from us, about four miles south-west by south. We sailed towards it, bringing it to bear north-north-west from us, and anchored by some cliffs in 33 fathoms, sandy ground, mixed with shells. Here it is full of islands and rocks. We struck our sail-yards, * Stephen Island. 'H.OCKEN .— -Abel Tasman and his Joxirnal. 135 for a storm threatened from the north-west and west-north- west. 22nd. — Wind north-west by north, and blowing so hard that there was no appearance of going on under sail, and it was difficult enough for the anchor to hold. We made our ship snug. We here lay in south latitude 40'' 50' and longi- tude 192° 37'. Course held south-west by south, and sailed six miles. At night we got the wind so hard from the north- west that we struck the topmasts and let go another anchor. The Zeeha.en did the same. 23rd. — Still dark, foggy, drizzling weather, the wind north- west to west-north-west, and that with such a storm that to our great regret we could not advance. 24th. — Still hard, unsteady weather ; the wind still north- west, and stormy. In the morning had a calm interval. Hoisted a white flag and got the officers of the Zeehaen on board us, and it was proposed that, as the flood came from the south-east, there might probably be a passage through, and whether it would not be best, wind and weather per- mitting, to search for this, and to see if we could not get fresh water there : as may further be seen by the resolutions drawn up thereupon. 25th. — In the morning we reset our topmast and yards, but it still looked so gloomy that we dare not lift anchor. Towards the evening it became calmer, so that a portion of our cable was shortened. 26th.— In the morning, two hours before day, we got the wind east-north-east, a light breeze. We weighed anchor, got under sail, and steered towards the north, intending to sail northward by this land. With the day it began to rain, and the wind went round to the south-east, and then south to south-west with a stifi' breeze. Had soundings in 60 fathoms. We set our course by the wind to the west. At noon, latitude 40° 13', longitude 192° 7'. Held a north-north- west course, and sailed ten miles. Var., 8° 40'. At night lay-to with easy sail. 27th. — In the morning made sail at daybreak, and steered north ; the wind south-west, with a strong breeze. At noon found latitude 38° 38', and longitude 190° 15'. Course held north-west, and sailed twenty-six miles. Set our course at noon north-east. At night lay-to, with little sail. Var., 8° 20'. 28th. — In the morning made sail at daybreak ; set our course to the east, so as to get sight of the land which we had previously seen in 40° ; it stretched still further to the north, and then to the east. At noon we saw, east by north from us, a high mountain. We took it at first to be an island, but afterwards saw it was part of the mainland. We were 136 Transactions .- — Miscellaneous. about five miles from shore. We threw the lead in 50 fathoms, fine sand mixed with clay. This higli mountain [Mount Karioi ?] lies in south latitude 38°. . This coast stretches, so far as I could see, south and north. It became calm, with a light air f;:om north-north-east ; we tacked to the north-west. At noon anchored, latitude 38° 2' and longitude 192° 23'. Course held north-east by east, and sailed sixteen miles. To- wards evening the wind came north-east and north-east by east, and began to blow harder and harder, so that at the end of the first watch [8-12 p.m.] we had to take in our topsails. Var., 8° 30'. 29th. — In the morning, at daybreak, we took ofi' our bonnet-sails [small sails beneath the foresail] , so that we had to take in our foretopsails. At noon we cx)mputed the latitude to be 37° 17' and longitude 191°, and we ran over to the westward. Course held north-west, and sailed sixteen miles. 30th. — In the morning the weather was something more moderate. We set our topsails, rigged our bonnet-sails. Had the Zeehaen to lee of us, Wind west-north-west, with a top- sails breeze. At nocn found the latitude 37° and longitude 191° 55'. Course held north-east, and sailed seven miles. Towards evening again saw the land north-east and north- north-east from us. We therefore ran north and north-east. Var., 8° 40' north-easterly. [Tasman here gives two sketches of the Staten-land (New Zealand) — first, as it appeared in 38° 30' south latitude, and second, in 36° south latitude. — Jacob Swart.] 31st.- — At noon we tacked about to the north, and the wind west-north-west, a slack breeze. Noon, found latitude 36° 45', and longitude 191° 46'. Course held north-west, and sailed seven miles. In the evening we were about three miles from the shore. Four glasses of the first watch [10 p m.] , again tacked to the north. In the night sounded in 80 fathoms. This coast here stretches south-east and north-west. The land is in some places high, and in others sandhills. Var., 8°. January 1st [1643] . — In the morning drifted in the calm along this coast, which here stretches north-west and south- east. It is an even coast, without shoals or sandbanks. At noon had latitude 36° 12', and longitude 191° 7'. Course held north-west, and sailed ten miles. About noon the wind came south-south-east and south-east. We steered our course west- north-west to be further off shore, and here a heavy surf was running. Var., 8° 30' north-easterly. 2nd. — Calm weather. In the middle of the afternoon a breeze came from the east. We steered north-north-west at the end of the first watch [12 p.m.] , course north-west, so as not to come too near shore, and to avoid any accident, as in HocjKEN. — Abel Tasman and his Journal. 137 the evening we had the land noi'th-north-west from us. x\t noon, latitude 35° 65', and longitude 190° 47'. Course held north-west to west, and sailed seven miles. Var., 9°. 3rd. — In the morning saw the land about six miles from us east by north, and were astonished to find ourselves so far from s'hore. At noon found latitude 35° 20', longitude 190° 17'. Course held north-west to north, and sailed eleven miles. At noon got the wind south-south-east, and steered our course east-north-east, so as to run again towards the shore. In the evening we had the land north and east-south- east from us. 4th. — In the morning we were near a cape, and had an island north-west by north from us, whereupon we hoisted the white flag for the officers of the Zeehaen to come aboard us, and resolved with each other to stand for the said island and see if we could not get there fresh water, vege- tables, &c. At noon found latitude 34° 35', longitude 191° 9'. Course held north-east, and sailed fifteen miles ; the wind south-east. Towards noon we sailed calmly. We found our- selves here in a very strong current, setting us to the west. There was also a heavy sea drawing from the north-east, which gave us not a little hope that there might be a passage here. We had this point east-north-east from us lying in south latitude 34° 30'. The land here fell away to the east. In the evening the pilot-major, with the secretary of the Zeehaen, went close by the island, and could not observe that what we wanted was to be had there. Agreed with the officers of the Zeehaen that if we got a good wind in the night it would be best to go on. Var., 8° 40' north-easterly, [Here is found in the manuscript the chart and representa- tion of No. 811 and No. 9J, but without the ships, which Valentijn added here to give a little adornment. — Jacob Swart.] 5th. — This morning still drifted in the calm, but about 9 o'clock had a light breeze from the south-east. We agreed with our friends of the Zeehaen to steer for the island. About noon we sent our shallop with the pilot-major, and the Zeehaen's boat with Gilsemans, the supercargo, to inspect the island, and see if water was to be had there. In the evening they returned on boaixi and reported that they had gone close to land, being always on the watch that none of the natives should fall upon them, and had entered a small, safe bay, where fine fresh water was found, which fell from steep hills in great abundance ; but, from the surf on the shore, it was dangerous and troublesome to water there; so they rowed further round the island, seeking if they could find any other convenient place. On this land in various places, and on the highest hills, were about thirty to thirty-five 138 Tr ansae tio ns. — Mis cellaneous. persons, men of tall stature, so far as they could see, with staves or clubs, who called to them in gruff, loud voices which they could not understand. In walking they took great steps and strides. In rowing round they saw a few more people on the hills, whereupon they resolved (as may well be believed) to be well on their guard, and to hold their boats and small weapons in readiness. On this island they reckoned there would not be more people than had shown themselves, for on rowing round our people saw no dwellings, nor cultivated land except that near the fresh water. Here, on both sides of the waterfall, there were everywhere square enclosures after the manner of our country, green and pleasant. But what kind of vegetables they could not tell from the distance. It was quite possible their dwelling-places were round here on account of the fresh water. In this aforesaid bay there were two prows lying, hauled upon shore — one navigable, the other broken. They saw no other boats anywhere. Our people then returned. We immediately endeavoured to get under the land, and about evening anchored a short pedereroe [apiece for firing stones and gravel] shot from shore in good ground. We at once made preparations for taking in water next day. The island lies in south latitude 34° 25', and longitude 190° 40 . 6th. — At early morning we sent both boats — to wit, ours and the Zeehaen's — to the watering-place with casks to get water. Each one mounted with two pedereroes, six mus- keteers. The rowers had pikes and side - weapons. With one shallop were Pilot -major Francoys Jacobs^, and the master, Gerrit Jansz. As they rowed towards the land they saw, standing in different places on the heights, big men, each with a long stick like a pike, who seemed to be watching us, and, as our people passed by, called loudly to them. But when tliey had got about half-way to the watering-place, between a safe point and another great high crag or little islet, the cur- rent ran so strongly against the wind that the boats could scarcely stem it ; whereupon the pilot-major and Gerrit Jansz, master of the Zeehaen, with the other officers, held counsel, resolving not to imperil the boats and men, as they had a long voyage before them, and the ships could not afford then- loss ; and so they returned on board, the more so as a heavy surf was rolling on the land near where the watering-place was, and, the breeze beginning to increase, they would have found it difficult to reach land. We signalled from our ship by hoist- the flag and firing a cannon that they should come back ; but they were then near us, and seen to approach. The pilot- major, with our boats, came on board, reporting that, from the wind and the innumerable hard rocks all around, without any sandy ground, it was too dangerous, and they would be sub- ject to the peril of being attacked by the natives, and of having HocKEN. — Abel Tasman and his Journal. 139 the water-casks injured and broken to pieces. We immedi- ately ordered the officers of the Zeehaen and the second mates to come aboard us, when we summoned the council, and resolved to lift the anchors, and with an easterly course to run to latitude 22°. Following the foregoing resolution, that we should keep due north to south latitude 17°, and then should steer a due-west course, and run straight in right on the Coques [Cocos] and Hoorense [Home] Islands, and there obtain water and refreshnieuts ; or, if we should earlier come upon any other island, that we should endeavour to do the same there: as is specified in the resolution of this date, lately referred to. Near noon we got under sail, having the island at noon about three miles from us due south. In the evening, at sunset, it was six to seven miles south-south-west from us, the rocks and the island lying south-west and north-east from each other. At night, pretty calm, wind east-south-east. Held our course by the wind north-north-east, the sea run- ning from the north-east. Such, then, is the entire and literal translation of that part of Tasman's Journal which relates to his discovery of New Zealand. Time forbids that I should give more than the briefest account of his continued voyage, which is full of interest. Steering north-east, he discovered in succession Pylstaart, now Tropic-bird Island, where are found those birds {Phaethon rubricauda), which occasionally make for the very north of New Zealand, and whose tail-feathers are so highly prized by the Maoris as an ornament for the hair; then three islands of the Tongan Group — Tongatabu, Ana- moka, and Eoa — which he called Amsterdam, Eotterdam, and Middelburg. The stay in this group was lengthy and grate- ful, and made some amends for the inhospitable reception in New Zealand. Here fruit, water, and provisions were pro- cured in abundance from the friendly natives. On the 6th of February Prince Willem's Islands — the Fijis — were dis- covered. The general course then maintained was west- north-west. Several islands were passed, and the coast of New Guinea reached on the 14th April. For more than a month he sailed along the northern coast, and gives an ex- ceedingly interestmg description of the country and natives. Well-recognised points and islands were then fallen in with, and on the loth June, 1643, the vessels dropped anchor at Batavia, after an absence of two years save two months. " God be praised and thanked for a safe voyage. Amen ! " is Tasman's last entry. His Journal is written in a plain, quaint, intelligible style, and abundantly shows that the writer was a bold and accomplished seaman as well as a fortunate discoverer. 1 40 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. In 1644 he was again despatched to examine the north coast of New Holland, and to explore what is known to-day as Torres Straits. The papers connected with this important exploration have never, so far, been discovered. But the pains- taking research made of late years into various departments of long-forgotten history may yet succeed in giving us another and Tasman's last Journal. Proud of the discoveries of their countrymen, which were enriched so specially by those of Tasman, the Dutch sought to perpetuate them in imperishable marble. In 1648 they erected at x\msterdam their magnifi- cent Stadhuis or Town Hall. Part of the embellishments consisted of a map of the world, projected as a planisphere and deeply cut into the stone floor. Each of the hemispheres was 22ft. in diameter, and they contained all that had been discovered of New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, and New Zealand. But the traffic of thousands of feet finally effaced this curious map, and when, in 1773, Sir Joseph Banks visited Amsterdam no trace of it remained, nor had the oldest inhabit- ant any personal knowledge of it. Fortunately, M. Thevenot copied the most material portion, and this appears i\\ his "Divers Voyages Curieuses," Paris, 1663. It is also found in an old British Museum map, and in outline in Jansseu's " x\tlas," 1650. The labour of preparing this account of Tasman and his work is amply rewarded in laying it before an audience which on so many previous occasions has granted me a patient hearing. If it should reach the hands of those whose business it is to traverse our west coast, I hope they may be interested in comparing the details of their own log with those of an old seaman of two hundred and fifty years ago. [Since this paper was written I have corresponded with Messrs. Frederik Miiller and Co., of Amsterdam, who are preparing for publication the edition cle Uixc of Tasman's Journal above referred to. They say, "The papers of the Dutch East India Company are now in the Hague State archives. A journal of the 1644 voyage was never found, only the binding wherein it had been bound once was found by the old Mr. Frederik Miiller in the State archives some twenty-five or thirty years ago." — T. M. H.] Hamilton. — On a Massacre at Otogo Heads in 1817. 141 Art. XVI. — On an Account of a Massacre at the Entrance of Dunedin Harbour in tJie Year 1817. By A. Hamilton. [Read before the Otago Institute, 11th -June, 1e longitude of Dicoearchus, which passed through Rhodes. To this he added three others, passing respectively through Alexandria, Syene, and Meroe. He also traced at right angles to these a meridian line passing through Rhodes and Alexandria southwards to S}'ene via Meroe. Eratosthenes reformed the principles of geography, and gave it a more systematic form. He adopted the view of Aristotle and Euclid regarding the figure and jjosition of the earth, looking upon it as a sphere placed in the centre of the uni- verse, around which the celestial bodies moved every twenty- four hours, the sun and moon having independent motions of their own. For all practical purposes, his views differed only from those of modern geographers in having a geocentric instead of an heliocentric standpoint. When the Romans had extended their dominions to Egypt they were able to acquire the geographical knowledge pos- sessed by the school of Alexandria ; but the genius of the con- quering people was not directed towards scientific research, nor did they encourage navigation and commerce with the same ardour as their predecessors. The science of ocean- ography was not advanced among them as among the Greeks by the speculations of philosophers, or by the study of natural phenomena for their own sakes. It was only the luxury of imperial Rome, which gave rise to the demand for the varied products of all the countries of the known world, that led to active trade by land and sea. It seems natural to expect that the Romans, who carried their victorious armies throughout nearly all the world known to the ancients, should have left son:ie important documents relating to the physical aspects of nature in the regions over which they extended their conquests. Although the Roman rule extended over a great extent of coast bordering on the Atlantic, they never organized any voyages of discovery into the outer sea, after the manner Hamilton. — On our Knoivledge of the Oceanic Areas. 169 of the Carthaginians and Greeks. They were essentially a warlike and practical people, with politicians, jurists, eucyclo- ptedists, and historians, but few philosophers who occupied themselves with the operations of nature. Horace's system of winds, several passages of Virgil on meteorology, the statements concerning geological phenomena in Ovid, and notices of diluvial action on the surface of the globe in Vitruvius, all show a spirit of observation and in- quiry ; but, generally speaking, if we deduct what the Romans had received from the Greeks, there is little relating to ocean- ography that can be regarded as original among the writings of Latin authors. The military operations each occasioned a new survey and a new itinerary, though it was not till the reign of Caracalla that these itineraries were elaborated into accurate topographical documents. As Vivien de St. Martin remarks, never was there such an opportunity for a great work on descriptive geography as during the re'gn of Augustus. The Roman rule then, spread as it was over more than, half of the then known world, and attached to the remainder by pohtical and commercial rela- tions, created most propitious conditions for an undertaking of this kind by furnishing to the geographer a ready means of investigation., A man appeared to carry out the work for which the time was ripe, but the man was a Greek — Strabo, of Amaseia — who, in his seventeen books, has given us the most important geographical work of antiquity. In the first century of our era was written the earliest work or treatise devoted exclusively to geography. It was written by Pomponius Mela," a native of Spain. In this work we find the first notice of the opinion, so prevalent in aftertimes, as to an impassable zone intervening between our world and the alter orbis of the Antichthones in the temper- ate zone of the Southern Hemisphere. Passing on to the last great geographer of antiquity — Ptolemy — we find him devoting two of his numerous works to geography, and improving the ars delineandi and the tabidas geographicis ; and he is the first to use the words "latitude " and "longitude " as purely technical terms. From this point the progi'ess of geographical know- ledge is carried on on two separate lines. The great outburst of Mohammedan conquest was followed by an Arabian civilisa- tion, which had its centres at Baghdad and Cordova. The Arabs brought astronomy and mathematics to bear on its problems, and established observatories. They measured an arc of a great circle of the earth ; they studied Ptolemy ; they applied themselves to define with accuracy the discoveries of travellers ; and thus geography became in their hands a * De Situ Orbis. 170 Transactions .—Miscellaneous . living science. Abulfeda quotes no less than sixty geo- graphical authors, many of whom lived in the thirteenth century. In European countries the knowledge of geographical facts was limited to a few who were held fast in the chains of theology ; and for centuries after the fall of Constantinople the darkness of the "dark ages" engendered strange and erroneous conceptions, which were only dissipated when, with the inven- tion of printing, science once more lifted her head in Europe. The early Fathers of the Church — the autocrats of learning in those days — imagined that they had detected certain discre- pancies between the discoveries of science and the words of holy writ. The particular point on which their suspicion fastened was the existence of the Antipodes. It was as- sumed that no communication was possible, or ever had been possible, between the Northern Hemisphere and any southern part of the globe. Even if other continents existed, they were supposed to be cut oft' from the European or Asian lands by an ocean lying under the tropical zone, of insupport- able heat, and therefore impassable. On this assumption it was impossible that a population could have been derived from the stock of x\dam, and consequently the whole theory of its existence was opposed to the language of holy writ, which througliout assumes that God hath made of one blood all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth (Acts, xvii., 26). Lactantius, in the fourth century, was so carried away by his zeal for what he believed to be the truth that he im- pugned the theory of the sphericity of the earth, and denied it as a physical impossibility.'' St. Augustine, while equally determined in his rejection of the Antipodes, is more cautious in the statement of his reasons. He argues that, even if the world is spherical, it does not follow that there should be land on the opposite side of it ; and, even if there be land, it does not follow that it should be inhabited — nay, inasmuch as none could cross from this side to that, it must needs be uninhabited. t Geography was henceforth forced into a mould of a pseu- do-orthodoxy, and both map-makers and writers were dis- couraged and fell into a narrow groove until they were forced out of it by the gloiious discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The tenacity with which the Patristic doctrines were maintained was exhibited in the treatment which Columbus received. His proposal to cir- cumnavigate the world was referred to a council of divines in Salamanca, who pronounced it to be not only chimerical, * Instit., iii., 24. t De Civ. Dei., xvi., 9. Hamilton. — On our Knoudedge of tJie Oceanic Areas. 171 but even profane, as being contrary to Scripture and the opinions of the Fathers. Yet at that time a breach had already been made in the mediaBval theory by the progress of maritime discovery : navigators had penetrated into the torrid zone, and had reported it to be not impassable ; and thus the very groundwork of the difficulty which the Fathers had experienced had been removed. It may be a matter of surprise that the Arabian system should have coexisted side by side with the Latin and yet have exercised so little in- fluence over it. The inhabitants of Western Europe came into contact with the Arabs in Spain, in the Holy Land during the period of the crusades, and more particularly in Sicily, where one of the most illustrious of their geographers, Edrisi, lived and worked, under the patronage of Eoger, Count of Sicily, in the middle of the twelfth century. We do, indeed, meet with occasional notices which show that the Arab sys- tem was not wholly unknown. Roger Bacon, in his Opus Majus,''- completed in 1267, speaks of Arym, the most im- portant point in the construction of an Arab map, and he shows himself acquainted with its position on the earth's surface, and its use in the study of geography. He was also familiar with the lines of latitude and longitude, and parti- cularly notes that the Latins had not yet adopted the system. The geographical work of Ptolemy had not yet been rendered accessible to the general bodv of students bv being translated into Latm. The European system was incom- patible with scientific principles : nothing less than a revolu- tion was required, and that revolution was effected, partly by the revival of the study of Ptolemy — whose geographical writings were translated mto Latin in 1405 — and partly by the progress of maritime discovery. It may be of interest to take a passing glance at a peculiar feature of mediaeval carto- graphy, in which Jerusalem is represented as occupying the central part of the habitable world. Whether the tenet w'as originally based on the language of Scripture, or whether the language of Scripture was applied in confirmation of a pre- conceived opinion, I know not. At all events, it is not the only instance in which men have conferred honour on their holy places by regarding them as occupying the central boss or umbilic of the habitable world. It was thus that the Greeks regarded their Delphi — o/x<^aAos x^f" o's — t the Hindoos their Merou, and the Persians then- Kangdiz. It was not unnatural, tlierefore, that the Jews, and still more the Chris- tians, should attribute the same property to Jerusalem, which * Jebbs, edition Venice, 1750, p. 134. t Piiid.,Pytli., vi., 3; cf. Soph., CEd. Tyr., 480; aud .'Escb,, Choepli., 10.34. 172 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. for centuries had been the focus of their aspirations, their anxieties, and their most earnest hopes and devoted exertions. Scripture seemed to sanction this feehng. We find the following passages quoted for the purpose: "This is Jerusa- lem; I have set it in the midst of the nations round about her" (Ezek. v., 5). The 12th verse of the 74th Psalm in the Vulgate runs thus: '' Opcratus est salutem in medio terra"; and again, in the 12th verse of the 38th chapter of Ezekiel, the Vulgate has "umbilicus terrae" for the Hebrew word "tabicr" — the midst of the land. A fourteenth-century writer describes Jerusalem as " ■pjinc- tus circumfer entice," and exaggerates the historical claims to centrality by representing Judea as having been the seat of each branch of the human race, and the favoured scene of God's manifestation in the works of creation and redemption in the past, and of final judgment in the future. Mediaeval cartographers gave effect to these views by placing Jerusalem as nearly as possible in the centre of the map, and this re- mained the custom till the middle of the fifteenth century. Assuming that Jerusalem occupied the central portion of the habitable world, and taking into consideration its position on the verge of Asia and in the line of the Mediterranean, it follows that Asia held one-half of the world, and Europe and Africa, being divided by the Mediterranean, must almost equally divide the remaining half ; and accordingly, in the Alexandrian romance popular in Europe in about the thir- teenth century, we find — At Asyghe al so muchul is So Europe and Affryh I wis.* Also in the Cursor Mundi — For Asie is withouten hope As myche as Aufrik and Europe. t The world was thus divided symmetrically into three parts, and is so represented in many of the small maps in the illumi- nated manuscripts of the period. The preponderating size of Asia was attributed to its being the inheritance of Shem, the first-born. :|: Although many geographers wished to consider Europe and Africa as one, thus making two halves only, the above-mentioned writer brings Scripture to bear on the point, and settles it in favour of the three divisions, on the ground that Ham and Japhet had their separate domains. The habitable world was limited within a circle drawn from Jerusalem as a centre, and with a radius equalling the distance thence to the Strait of Gibraltar. Here was— * Lines 65 and 56, Weber's Metrical Romances, vol. i. t Cursor Mundi, 1. 2097, MS. R., 3, 8, Trin. Coll., Camb, \ (lervaise of Tilbury, Ot. Imp., ii., 2. Hamilton. — On our Knoivledge of the Oceanic Areas. 173 The strait pass where Hercules ordain'd The boundaries not to be overstepped by man ;* beyond which lay the "deep inimitable main," "the un- peopled world," of which the learned as yet knew nothing. Eastward the limit was fixed at the mouth of the Ganges. In this direction, therefore, mediaeval geography, as it stood towards the close of the thirteenth century, had not only not advanced beyond the point at which Ptolemy left it, but had actually receded. Although the usual form of the habitable world as depicted in the Middle Ages was circular, a quadrangular shape was sometimes adopted, based upon too literal an acceptation of the passage of the Scripture which speaks of the " four corners of the earth." There is yet another form in which a map was constructed, and which was perhaps more correct. On the Matthew Paris maps we are told that the world in its truest form resembles an extended military cloak {chlamys extensa). The chlamys consisted of a central square with wings added to it, wider at the bottom than at the top, the whole shape being a greatly truncated triangle. This idea was probably derived from Macrobius,! who in his turn bor- rowed it from Strabo (ii., p. 113). Another point of interest is the orientation of the maps. Our predecessors, with few exceptions, placed the east in that position at the top of the map. Biblical considerations again decided this. The primeval abode of man was in the east, the terrestrial Paradise still remained there. On this subject of the location of the terrestrial Paradise there is a large mass of mediaeval literature ; but in the whole of it there is no doubt of its being an existing contemporaneous fact. Mandeville (cap. XXX.) says that he had not visited it himself on ac- count of his unworthiness, but he describes it at length on the information of trustworthy persons. The four rivers of Paradise were usually identified with the Euphrates, Nile, Ganges, and Tigris, and the difficulty as to the widely remote sources of these rivers was solved by assuming that the rivers on leaving Paradise were submerged, and reappeared at these points. The traces of this belief are to be seen even in the person of Columbus, for we learn in Irving' s " Life of Columbus," book iv., chapter 4, that when the great navigator encountered the flood of the River Orinoco, in the Gulf of Paria, he thought it could be none other than the fount of Paradise. Of the renaissance of enterprise and the desire for know- * Dante, " Inferno," xxvi. t De Somn. Scip., ii., 9, vvtere Macrobius is commenting ou Cicero's description, "Augusta verticibiis, lateribus latior" (De Republica, vi., 20). 174 Tr ansae tio ns . — Miscellaneo us . leclge in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and of the part which science took in giving confidence to the sailor to stretch out to seek for lands afar, I may not at this time say much. As an illustration, however, of what were considered diffi- culties, it may be noted that all the expeditions sent out at various times from Portugal to round Cape Bojador, up till the year 1433, returned unsuccessful because of a reef which extended six miles seaward and barred the passage. With the discoveries of Columbus the whole fabric of geographical conceptions was shattered, and amid the growing light of scientific knowledge in Europe the fragments were recon- structed into a more adequate representation of the true forms of the continents and oceans. To us under the Southern Cross the 25th of September, 1573, is a day of note, for on that day the fearless Spaniard, Vasco Nunez de Balbao, beheld from the summit of the Sierra Quarequa a boundless ocean extending towards the setting sun — an ocean first ploughed by the keels of the ships of Magellan many years after, and sub- sequently named by Pigafetta "the Pacific." "For three months and twenty days we sailed," he says, " about four thousand leagues on that sea, which we call the Pacific, be- cause during all the time of our navigation we did not expe- rience a single storm. The voyage of Magellan, from a geographical point of view, was the greatest event in the most remarkable period of the world's history, and far surpassed all others in its effect on oceanographical conceptions. The memorable discoveries in the thirty years from 1492 to 1522 doubled at a single bound the knowledge of the sur- face of the earth, and added a hemisphere to the chart of the world. The fiery zone of the ancients had been crossed, a death-blow was dealt to Ptolemy's view that the Indian Ocean was an enclosed sea ; the southern temperate zone of Aris- totle and Mela had been reached. The sphericity of the earth and the existence of the Antipodes were no longer theories, but demonstrated facts. The impression produced by these great events can be traced in men's minds in all the great intellectual and moral changes which characterized the transitional period known as the Renaissance, and relit the torch of learning in Europe. The geographical work of the sixteenth century wtis con- tinued, but with less ardour, during the seventeenth century. The Dutch made discoveries in the " Great Ocean " of the western half of Australia. Tasman, in 1642, showed that Austrtilia and Tasmania were surrounded by the ocean to the south ; but the west coast of New Zealand, whicli he visited, was believed to be a part of the great southern continent. The desire for more detailed geographical knowledge seems Hamilton. — On our Knowledge of the Oceanic Areas. 175 to have slumbered again till the latter half of the eighteenth century, when the first of the memorable scientific voyages was initiated in the time of James Cook. We must, however, not forget the expedition of Edward Halley, in 1699, to improve our knowledge concerning longi- tude and the variation of the compass : this was a purely scientific voyage. Of the geographical discoveries made since that time in these seas we have been favoured with several papers by Dr. idocken, and it will therefore be permissible for me to pass on to the Victorian era, and the rapid increase in the scientific knowledge of the bed of the great ocean — a branch of oceanography bttt newly born. It may here be not out of place to remind you that the very bulk of the ocean as compared with the visible land gives it an importance which is possessed by no other feature on the surface of. our planet. Dr. John Murray has lately, after a laborious calcula- tion from the most recent data, shown that the cubical con- tents of the ocean is probably about fourteen times that of the dry land. This statement appeals strongly to the imagina- tion, and forms perhaps the most powerful argument in favour of the view — steadily gaining ground — that the great oceans have, in the main, existed in their present form since the continents settled down into their present form. When it is considered that the whole of the dry land would only fill up one-third of the Atlantic Ocean, the enormous disproportion of the two great divisions of sea and land become very appa- rent. The deepest parts of- the ocean at present known are in all cases near lau;!: at 110 miles outside the Kurile Islands the deepest sounding has been made, of 27,930ft.''' The sea ■ with the greatest mean depth appears to be our vast Pacific, which covers 67 millions of the 188 millions of square miles comprising the earth's surface. Of the 188 millions, 137 millions are sea, so that the Pacific comprises just one-half of the water of the globe, and more than one-third of its whole area. W^e cannot regard the soundings which have been taken by the various scientific expeditions, and which are still being taken as opportunities offer, as anything but the units of what is required. In the Central Pacific there is an area of 10|^ million square miles in which there are only seven soundings ; while in a long strip crossing the whole North Pacific, which has an area of nearly 3 million square miles, there is no sounding at all. The immensity of the mass of waters in the Pacific, both in bulk and area, is difiictilt to realise, but it may assist us when we learn that the whole of *0nthel4tli December, 1895, H.M.S. "Penguin" reports a sound- ing of 29,400ft., at which depth the sounding- wire snapped. 176 Transactions . — Miscellaneous . the land of the glohe ahove the water-level, if shovelled into the Pacific, would only fill one-seventh of it. English science has recognised that of all the worlds she has to conquer the secrets of the ocean are of great importance to her welfare, irot only for the safety of her navy and mercantile marine, but for the future extension of the magic girdle of modern times which has embodied in itself the shoes of swiftness and the cap of invisibility of the fairy tale, and which has practically annihilated time and distance in commercial transactions. From almost every branch of physical science come ques- tions which can only be solved by researches into the con- ditions which obtain in the ocean. If the charts of the present day be compared with those in existence before Cook's time, the perfection now attained will be easily noted. This important branch of oceanography has been very greatly developed through the extension of geographi- cal and geodetical knowledge under the impulse of commerce, colonisation, and interoceanic relations. Nearly all the regions of the ocean are accurately represented in our charts, even the polar regions so far as explored. The bathymetrical charts of Maury and Delesse and the wind and current charts of the Hydrographic Office all show great advances in those branches of knowledge. The latest cartographical elements introduced into our charts are those relating to the depth and nature of the bottom, which were specially investigated during the voy- age of the " Challenger." The study of deep-sea deposits has been brought about by the requirements of navigation and the more modern applications of electricity, and now con- stitutes an important branch of oceanography. The very important scientific voyage of the " Challenger " took place in the years 1872-76 ; and the scheme proposed " for the investigation of the biological, chemical, and physical conditions of the great oceans of the world " was successfully carried out. As soon as possible, the collections made and the facts observed were placed in the hands of the most eminent men in each department of science ; and after more than twenty years of labour the final volumes have been issued. The unanimous testimony of the scientific world to-day is that the work taken in hand has been M^ell and truly done. Never, says the leading zoologist in England, never did an expedition cost so little and produce such momentous results for human knowledge. The expenditure on the preparation and publication of the reports has been relatively greater, but the authorities of the Treasury may rest assured that the whole of the scientific world sets the very highest value on these volumes ; and that, had it suited the dignity of an Imperial Government to treat the work on a commercial basis, instead Hamilton. — On our Knoidedge of tJie Oceanic Areas. Ill of liberally presenting copies of it to scientific institutions throughout the world, the publications could have been made to pay their own expenses by sales. Practically, the whole of the work of arranging for the proper (iescription of the great mass of zoological material brought home has fallen to Mr., now Dr., John Murray, and he has brought to a successful conclusion the issue of the fifty quarto volumes in which specialists in all parts of the world have described the trea- sures brought home. In zoology particularly the researches of the " Challenger " have enabled a new division to be made of the fauna of the ocean into three groups : a group that drifts, a group that swims, and a group that is anchored. The first group, or the Plankton, embraces all those pelagic forms that float about at the mercy of the winds and tidal currents, drifting with the tide on the " shifting currents of the restless main." The second group are the Nekton, also pelagic in their habits, but able to swim against the currents or migrate from place to place. The third group, the Benthos, are animals and plants that are fixed to the bottom, or that live within circumscribed limits on the bottom, and are unable to migrate at will, nor can they be carried about by the sweep of a current or tide. With regard to the Plankton, Professor Haeckel says, " With the exception of the deep-sea Keratosa, my own con- tributions to the ' Challenger ' work concern the Plankton, and have proved that it is just the smallest pelagic animals which possess the greatest importance for oceanic" life. As I wandered for ten years though this wonderful new empire, populated by more than four thousand species of Eadiolaria, for the most part previously unknown, and as I daily admired the incredible variety and elegance of their delicate forms, I had the happy and proud sensations of the explorer who is the first to travel through a new continent peopled by thou- sands of new and curious forms of animals and plants." The abysmal deeps again contain a new world inhabited by Ben- thos, strangely-formed genera, and species who have slowly migrated through various environments to the ocean-depths. In geology the information obtained regarding the deposits now^ forming on the ocean-floor has been of great importance, but those who hoped that the dredge would drag from the ocean caves " the monsters vast of ages past," and that the hauls would yield many living forms of Tertiary types, have been disappointed. The botanical work has been mainly in the direction of extending our knowledge of the flora of the oceanic areas at a distance from land-masses; and in some cases additional information has been recorded on the floras of the more remote islands. The results of the expedition 12 178 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. from a naval point of view are numerous and important, and more especially with regard to the delineation of the contour- curves of the great ocean-basins, and the series of memoirs on the oceanic circulation. The brilliant success of the " Chal- lenger " expedition and its report gives us good ground for hoping that one of Her Majesty's ships might be employed in filling up some of the gaps which naturally occurred in the explorations, and that, above all, some assistance should be given to follow out the important lines of inquiry opened up by the results of the soundings taken in the southern seas in the neighbourhood of the Antarctic. As I have said on another occasion, important magnetic and meteorological problems demand investigation in the Antarctic, and I for one would desire to see British sailors set out from this British colony to once more force the icy gates of the South and beard the ice-king in his solitary realms. Art. XIX. — A Comparison of the Magnetic Screening yro- dticed by Different Metals. By J. A. Erskine, M.A. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th November, 1895.] When a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field the currents induced in it tend to keep the field constant. If the field varies slowly the effect is slight ; but in fields produced by rapidly-alternating currents the " screening" is very marked. In these experiments the fields were produced by leyden- jar discharges. Magnetized steel needles were used as "detectors" (Eutherford, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1894, p. 488). Magnetized steel needles are much more suitable for this pur- pose than unmagnetized, for a field too weak to magnetize a needle to any appreciable extent is capable of producing con- siderable demagnetization. The discharge passed through a coil of several turns, inside which a magnetized steel needle was placed, and in whichever direction the needle lay it was partially demag- netized ; but the demagnetization was greater when the needle was placed in that direction in which the field, due to the first semi-oscillation of the discharge, demagnetized it. Hereafter this direction will be referred to as " direction a" ; the direction in which the field due to first semi-oscillation tended to magnetize the needle as " direction b." Erskinb. — On Magnetic Screening. 179 If a metallic screen was placed inside the coil, so as to -surround the needle, the demagnetization produced by the discharge was less. The screening depends on the thickness and on the con- ductivity of the screen, and on the frequency of the discharge. The condenser, which consisted of ordinary 40oz. leyden- jars, was charged by a Voss influence machine, and connected in series with several coils wound on glass tube of 21mm. diameter. In the circuit was a spark-gap, of length 3-7mm., and the diameter of the knobs was 2-8cm. ; hence the potential at discharge was about 43-5 electrostatic units, or 13,000 volts. (J. J. Thomson, " Eeceut Eesearches," p. 77.) It was found that the effect of the discharge varied less with this length of spark than with a shorter spark. The needles used were of glass-hard pianoforte-steel wire. They were magnetized to saturation by placing them in a coil (of 191 turns, and of length 9-9cm.) through which passed a current of from six to ten amperes, produced by a Grove's battery or by an accumulator. The needles, for convenience in handling, were sealed in fine glass tubes. The needle, after being magnetized, was placed at a dis- tance of 102-5cm. from the needle of a magnetometer. The magnetometer readings were taken by the ordinary lamp-and- ■scale method. The needle was then placed in one of the coils in the leyden-jar circuit and a discharge was passed. The needle was again tested by the magnetometer and the new reading noted. Great care had to be taken in replacing the needle, and in order to avoid error the magnetometer was kept in a fixed position throughout the experiments, while the needle was placed in a groove cut in a bar attached to a stand, which was itself screwed down to the table on which the instrument stood. The screens were metal cyhnders, which could be placed inside the coils. They were formed by winding thin sheets of metals on glass tubes. Great care had to be taken to make the contact at the junction good ; if there is merely touching contact the screen- ing is much reduced. The screening produced by different metals was com- pared as follows: Tubes were wound with different num- bers of layers of tinfoil. The reductions in the deflection produced on the magnetized needle when surrounded by these and placed in a certain coil (of 2-04 turns per centimetre) were observed. Similar experiments were made with cyhn- ders of other metals, and the numbers of layers of tinfoil pro- ducing the same effect w^ere calculated by interpolation. The diameter of the tubes on wnich the metals were wound was 14-4mm., and the length of metal 16cm. The 180 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. tinfoil was pasted on to the tubes. In the case of the other metals used — lead, zinc, silver, and copper — the junction was made by soldering. The only other metal that could be obtained in thin sheets was aluminium, and the difficulty in making a junction precluded its use. Unfortunately, only one thickness of each of the metals could be obtained, and that was so gi'eat that only one layer could be used The thickness of the metals somewhat restricted the scope of these experiments, and rendered the method less sensitive than it would otherwise have been ; while, in order to get sufficient reduction of deflection with the needle placed in direction h, it was necessary to use as a condenser four leyden- jars arranged in parallel. The thicknesses of the metals used were — Copper... ... ... 0-0134 millimetres. Silver ... .. ... 0-0108 Zinc ... ... ... 0-0430 Lead ... ... ... 0-0957 Tinfoil ... ... ... 0-0116 In the first set of experiments the condenser consisted of two ley den- jars arranged in parallel. The length of the needle used was 60-4mm., and it was placed in direction a; for with the needle placed in direction h the copper, zinc, and silver were thick enough to screen off all effect, while in the case of the lead the screening was at least 95 per cent. The observations made are here tabulated : — Number of Layers of Tinfoil. Original Deflection. Reduced Deflection. Eeduction. 0 201 102 f y fj-hc. O •ri 1 msxv cuireitf fl 11 £i ch />o, I ef.'iti 0000 9S tttands 1' II // n to tS 30 V r/M£ The close agreement between the two curves shows that the time-apparatus may be relied on to give very accurate EuTHERFOBD. — On Magnetic Viscosity. 189 results. It also shows that the time-intervals theoretically calculated are the true intervals, and that successive turns of the screNY correspond very accurately to equal intervals of time. Table for Curves 1. (Dotted curve is the theoretical curve, and the other the experimental curve.) Turns of Screw. Observed Values. Theoretical Values. 2 8-8 6-1 1 12-8 11-45 6 17-3 16-15 8 20-7 20-3 12 26-8 27-1 16 329 33-3 20 37-6 36-4 26 40-5 40-8 34 44-1 44-5 40 45-5 46-3 In the experiments on magnetic viscosity rings of soft iron and steel were taken, and the times of rise of the magnetizing current determined as explained previously. Particulars of Soft-iron Ring. Composed of iron wire O'OOSin. in diameter, wound into a ring and thoroughly insulated from eddy currents by shellac varnish. Mean diameter of ring, 8cm. Sectional area of ring, 0-079 sq. cm. Wound with three sets of coils of 511 turns altogether. The magnetizing force corresponding to one ampere of cur- rent round the ring was 25-5 C.G.S. units. Partictdars of Steel Ring. Composed of fine steel wire Q-Olin. in diameter, insulated with shellac varnish. Mean diameter, 8'3cm. Sectional area of ring, 0-14 sq. cm. Wound with two sets of coils ; total, 365 turns. The static hysteresis curve for the soft iron and steel was very accurately determined. A special method was used, vi^hich allowed each individual point in the curve to be deter- mined several times in succession. From experiments with the time-apparatus it will be seen that the current i-ose to a maximum in the ring in about ■j^o of ^ second ; so that the secondary current must have 190 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. all passed through the ballistic galvanometer long before there could have been any appreciable movement of the needle. The hysteresis curve for the very rapid cycle v?as deter- mined for the same maximum values of induction as the static curves, and under exactly the same conditions. dt 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 Curve 2 (A A) represents the relation between the values of and t (time) for the soft-iron ring. Since "^ '■'■'• may be called the back E.M.F. in the circuit at any instant, when t = o, -^ = E, the total E.M.F. of the battery. The value of the current flowing in the circuit at any instant is therefore known when -rr is known. It will be observed that the value of -^ changes rapidly at the beginning, and then very slowly when the steep part of the hysteresis curve is reached. The value of -j- changes again very rapidly at the point where the hysteresis curve bends over, and gradu- ally falls to zero as the iron reaches its saturation-value for the maximum magnetizing force. Curve 2 (B B) is deduced from the curve A A. If we take any point in the curve A, the magnetizing force is known, and the value of the total induction through the iron corresponding , . , dw dn. * In figures of curves erroneously printed as — or -^ EuTHERFORD. — Oil Magnetic Viscosity. 191 to that magnetizing force is proportional to the area of the curve inckided between the axes, the curve X A, and the abscissa drawn through the point. The values of B and H for any point may thus be deter- mined. The ordinates of the curve B B are drawn proportional to the induction, and the abscissas to the magnetizing force. From the curve 2 (BB) curve 5 is plotted, showing the relation between B and H for the rapid cycle. The static ballistic curve is drawn alongside for comparison. 192 Tranaactions. — Miscellaneous. Curve 3 shows the corresponding relations for the steel- wire ring as curve 2 for the soft iron. Curve 6 shows the hysteresis curves for the slow and rapid cycles for soft steel. Curves 4 and 7 show the I'elations for a soft-iron ring when the maximum magnetizing forces is much lower than for the first two sets of curves. The value of H in this case was just sufficient to carry the magnetism of the iron up the steep part of the hysteresis curve. I30DO ^^^ o =2 — c I2.C00 f a (rye 5 sooo J fH B e.ooo ^ ^M\ k 3000 ^ H -3.000 5 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 -6.000 -9000 -12000 Table for Cueve 5. Static Ballistic Curve. Eapid-cycle Curve. Magnetizing Force Total Induction Magnetizing Force Total Induction = H. = B. = H. = B. 0 - 12936 0 - 12936 2-35 - 9834 2-5 - 10709 2-75 - 8316 8-46 - 8060 3-76 - 264 3-85 - 4930 4-3 -f 5808 4-43 - 115 6-21 -f 10032 5-39 -f 4467 8-1 -f 12010 6-74 -f 8013 10'53 + 13464 905 -f 11806 16-62 -f 15492 20-21 + 15117 21-05 -f 15840 30-61 + 16080 29-14 -f 16304 36-38 -f 16682 44-4 -f 17163 42-54 + 17103 43-7 -f 17132 44-4 -f 17162 KuTHERFOKD. — Oil Magnetic Viscosity. 193 Several more curves for soft iron and steel, with different maximum magnetizing forces and different periods, were also obtained, but, as thev showed the same effect as the curves 5, 6, 7, they are not given here. 14000 12000 Table for Curve G. Static Ballistic Curve. Rapid-cycle Curve. Magnetizing Force Total Induction Magnetizing Force Total Induction = H. = B. = H. = B. 0 - 11076 0 - 11076 7'8 - 10127 9-54 - 10326 10G3 - 9638 15-91 - 8826 12-45 - 8946 201 - 7474 14-94 - 7881 23-22 - 4076 16-6 - 6890 24-34 - 976 18-26 - 3817 25-4 + 2174 20-75 + 5603 27-52 + 5274 24-07 ^ 10543 28-5 + 8374 29-05 + 11608 30-73 + 10224 36-52 + 12.567 54-1 + 12374 48-8 + 13019 647 + 12724 96-3 + 139.52 75 + 13174 83-5 + 1.3524 885 . + 13774 13 194 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. [5.000 The general results of these experiments conclusively show that soft iron and steel exhibit quite appreciable magnetic viscosity in rapidly-changing fields. The effect is far more marked in the case of steel than in soft iron. The greatest departure of the slow- cycle from the rapid-cycle curve is shown at the " knee" of the magnetizing curve. When finely-divided iron or steel is subjected to rapidly-alternating currents the loss of energy due to magnetic hys- teresis is greater than for slow cycles. In the case of steel the loss of energy would be quite 10 per cent, more than for slow cycles, and in soft iron not so much. In later experimeiits it was shown that the effect observed was in no way due to any screening of the interior mass of metal from induction. The iron wire of which the ring was composed was of too small diameter to exhibit any appre- ciable screening effect, due to induced currents, for the period investigated. Table for Curve 7. 12.000 / / 9.000 / B &000 t & 3.000 :i .,1 1 H -3.000 1 ? 1 0 IS -SJWO Cur's 7 -aooo // -I2J0OO / - static Ballistic Curve. Rapid- cycle Curve. ^To^'cl'''^ Total Induction Magnetizing Force Total Induction = H. ! = B. 1 = H. = B. 0 - 11952 0 - 11952 2-1 - 9992 2-61 - 9845 3-21 - 5680 3-71 - 8546 3-68 - 692 4-01 - 4G02 4-35 -f 5492 4-33 - 1204 5-29 -f 7844 4-65 + 1794 6-7 4- 10045 5-2 + 4805 9-25 -F 12548 6-7 -f 7810 14-44 + 14704 8-08 + 10186 10-31 + 12050 14-44 + 14704 In my paper published last year (Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxvii., art. li'x.) it was shown that iron could be magnetized and demagnetized when the magnetism was reversed more than 100,000,000 times j)er second. Soft iron and steel exhibit the effect of magnetic viscosity quite strongly for a frequency of 1,000 ; but whether the loss of energy due to hysteresis increases EuTHERFOED. — Ou Miiguetic Viscosity. 195 with the period is not yet known. The molecule of iron can swing completely round in less than a hundred-millionth part of a second ; but it is quite probable that the magnetizing force required to produce any given induction is considerably greater for a frequency of 100,000,000 than for a frequency of 1,000. For very rapid frequencies the screening effects are so great that only a very thin skin of the iron is magnetized, and the effect of successive oscillations makes the interpreta- tion of the results very dithcult. Various Uses of the Time-apparatus. Not only was the time-apparatus a very simple means of determining the times of rise of currents in circuits when a steady E.M.F. was applied, but with different connections the duration of secondary induced currents at make and break of the primary could be examined under any conditions required. Very interesting information in regard to the screening effects of solid iron in rapidly-changing fields was deduced, and the subject of the gradual decay of magnetic force in magnetic and non-magnetic conductors, when the magnetizing force was removed, was experimentally verified. The behaviour of the magnetic metals when subjected to rapidly-changing fields is of great practical importance, and the need of very fine lami- nation of the iron for high rates of alternation is clearly shown in all the experiments. The principle of the time-apparatus can also be used to determine the velocity of projectiles at various points of their path. If two conductors, actmg as shunts to the battery and galvanometer circuits respectively, be placed in the path of the projectile at a convenient distance apart, the time taken to traverse the distance between the two could be readily determined by observation of the amount of rise of the current during the interval. In a circuit of known inductance and resistance, the observed deflection of the galvanometer would be proportional to , ~ j " ^ ; *^iifl. since ^r is a constant for the circuit, t could readily be determined, and thus the velocity known. This method is purely electrical, and is capable of great accuracy. The determination of the constants of the circuit is a simple matter, and there are no sources of 'error introduced. Time of Kise of Currents in Various Circuits. In the experiments on magnetic viscosity the times of rise of currents in circuits containing iron were determined. It was observed that the nature of the curve of rise varied greatly 196 Transactions. — Miscellaneous . ■with the maximum current, and also depended on whether the iron in the circuit was soHd or finely divided. To illustrate the difference between the curves of rise for different maximum currents curve 8 is appended. In curve 8 (A) the maximum magnetizing force is' 132-6 C.G.S. units. After the steep part of the magnetizing curve is passed the current rises extremely rapidly, as is evident from the almost vertical line. Time of rise = O'OOlTSsec. Curve 8 (B) : Maximum magnetizing- force, 38-7 units. None of the changes are so sudden as in the first curve. Time of rise = 0-00192sec. Curve 8 (C) : Magnetizing force, 15 units, which is just sufficient to ascend the steep part of the hysteresis curve. The current rises very gradually, and there are no sudden changes in the curve. The times taken by the currents to rise in the three, cases are nearly equal, notwithstanding the fact that the resistance in one case is nearly nine times that of the others. In the above curves the iron was finely laminated, but when the iron is solid the current rises very rapidly for the first few ten-thousandths of a second, and then increases very slowly to its final value. This is due to the fact that only the surface- layers of the iron are magnetized at first, and the induction penetrates but slowly into the mass of the metal, due to the screening effect of induced currents. With large solid electro -magnets the current takes in many cases over a second to rise to its maximum, and after Rutherford. — On Magnetic Viscosity. 197 the first 50^00 of a second the curve of rise is nearly a straight hne. The curve of rise in the case of short cyhndrical iron rods like the cores of induction-coils resembles very closely curve 1, for the inductance is sensibly constant. If a closed secondary is wound over the primary the cur- rent rises much more rapidly than when the secondary is open, as we should expect from theory. Duration of Induced Currents at Make and Break. The time-apparatus could not only be used for determina- tion of times of rise of currents in various circuits, but also for determining the duration of the current in the secondary at make and break. '8o,n "yiBilhihc £t:'f 0 Fig 4 The method is a very simple oiie, and the duration of the secondary current may be determined under what- ever conditions we please, since the resistance and in- ductance of the galvanometer does not affect the duration of the current in the circuit w'hich is being experimented on. One terminal of the battery is connected to F, and when the lever A B is in position the current passes along the lever B A, through the primary P, and through a resistance-box back to the other electrode of the battery. The secondary circuit is connected through a resistance- box R and the shunt-lever C D. The ballistic galvanometer is a shunt oli" the lever E D. The resistance in the secondary Q E D R may be adjusted to any required value. When the falling weight is released, on reaching the lever AB it breaks the primary. The induced current at break commences to circulate in the secondary round the circuit QEDR. No appreciable part of the current flows through the galvanometer, as the resistance of the lever C D is extremely low. 198 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. When the weight reaches the lever C D it breaks the secondary circuit Q E D R, and the remainder of the quantity of electricity induced at break flows through the ballistic galvanometer. By varying the turns of the screw— i.e., the interval be- tween the break of the primary and secondary — the quantity of electricity which has passed through the secondary during the different intervals is easily determined. It must be noted that the galvanometer does not influence the curve so obtained, as the deflection of the galvanometer is proportional to the quantity of electricity which has passed before the galvanometer is placed in the circuit. The duration of the induced current in the secondary is dependent on the self-induction and resistance : the greater the resistance the shorter the duration, and the greater the inductance the more prolonged the duration. Let L and N be the self-inductance of the primary and secondary circuits respectively, and M the coefficient of mutual induction ; let R and S be resistances of primary and secondary ; let X and y be the currents in primary and secondary : If E be the E M F of the battery, the equation of rise in the primary is given by and the equation of rise in the secondary N (]y , T\/r f^'^- dt + M-^--f S/y = 0. From these two equations x and y may be found when L, M, and N are constants. When iron, solid or finely divided, is in the circuit, the values of L, M, and N are variable, and the values of x and y cannot be determined. The duration of the current in the secondary was deter- mined under varying conditions of lamination of the iron, and a few of the more important results are given. The duration of the induced current at break, when there was no iron in the circuit, was first examined. Two solenoids were wound over one another, and the secondary was of sufficient number of turns to give a convenient de- flection in the ballistic galvanometer when the current was broken. Curve 9 (A) shows the quantity of electricity that has passed in the secondary for different mtervals of time. Curve 9 (B) is the current-curve, and is deduced from 9 (A) ; for the current flowing in the circuit at any instant is given by C = — ~, w^here Q is the quantity of electricity that circulates in the secondary. EuTHERFOKD. — Oil Magnetic Viscobitij. 199 40 Ci rye 9 30 /« <:h ho m-d vp =000024 set -— > y ^ A / y^ 5> 5> / 'N / in 7 / \ •> <> / / B <^ :^ »-= ^me. '1 inoL ictioi r 30 \ \ \ •'Ch hi 'Hz d //? = 00 00 48 SI c. n V > N %^ 10 «. ^ ''-Kr- ^ '-^ ^ ^: ^ - TI ^E 20 30 4D Copper Cylinder. Curve 11 shows the rate of decay of the total induction through a copper cyhnder 1 -875cm. in diameter. The close agreement between the theoretical and experimental curves is a confirmation of the mathematical theory, for the difference between the two is quite within the limits of experimental error. The induction falls rapidly at first, and then very slowly, so that a long interval elapses before the induction the induction has fallen to half its original has fully fallen. In 0-00074sec. value. Soft-iron Cylinders. Curve 12 shows the rate of decay of induction in soft-iron cylinders of diameter 0-676cm. and 0-573cm. respectively. The rate of decay is much slower than in the case of copper, on account of the high permeability of the iron, although the diameter and conductivity are less for the iron than the copper. Rutherford. — On Magnetic Viscosity. 203 The greater the radius of the cylinder the longer the induction takes to decay. In this case the induction falls extremely rapidly, and in about loioo o^ ^ second has fallen to half its original value. The subsidence of the remainder is much more gradual. 40 30 [ C \irve /J \ £aci ' 6or z. dm = DL 003t sec. ?fl y ^^ ^^ £22 Jron \ ■ in ^ ^^ if ££/_^ -^ r//i r£ 20 30 40 Soft-iron and Steel Bings. Curve 13 shows the fall of induction for soft-iron and steel rings of sectional diameter 0-93cm. It will be observed that the rate of decay of the induction is much slower when the magnetic circuit is complete, as in the iron and steel rings, than in short cylinders of metal. Summary of Results. 1. For finely-laminated iron, the lines of force pass out into the secondary circuit very rapidly after the magnetizing current is broken. It was experimentally shown that the 204 Tr ansae tions . — Miscellaneous . iron did not take more than xoioo ^^ ^ second for the rearrangement of the molecules into their final position ; so that there is no appreciable time-elfect in the demagnetization of finely-laminated iron. 2. In solid iron cores the induction decays very slowly compared with non-magnetic metals. 3. In iron and steel the decay is very rapid at first, and then very gradual. 4. The rate of decay of induction is more rapid in a short cylinder of iron than in a ring of the same dimensions, and is more rapid for steel than for soft iron of the same diameter. 5. The decay of induction in iron is purely due to the reaction-effect of induced currents in the mass of the metal, and is in no way due to any true time-effect in molecular re- arrangement. II.— ZOOLOGY. Akt. XXI. — Ncir Zealand Sponges : Third Paper. By H. B. KiEK, M.A. IRead before, the Wellington I'hilosoijhical Society, 8th December, 1895.] Plates III. and IV. It is proposed to deal in the present paper with the New Zea- land Eeticulate Aseous, so far as they are yet known to the writer. It is not necessary to review here the various schemes that have been proposed for the classification of these sponges. I simply state, therefore, that I follow the plan proposed by Bowerbank, and followed by Polejaeff and others, of regarding the ascons as constituting a single genus, and adopt Dendy's subdivision into simple, reticulate, and radiate, and, with the modifications that I am about to mention, his further sub- division of the Eeticulata. In Dr. Dendy's classification''' the ingrowths of mesoderm, covered or not by collared cells, con- stitute an important feature. In the New Zealand ascons, at all events, this feature is too variable to be a reliable element in classification, and it is probable that the same variableness in this respect exists in the ascons of other countries. The mesodermal ingrowths may not be found at all in one speci- men, and in another, undoubtedly of the same species, they may be found to be very well marked mdeed. I think I am right in saying that Dr. Dendy does not now attach to this feature the weight that he attached to it when the Monograph was begun. Abandoning this feature as an element in classification, Dr. Dendy's scheme, as applied to the New Zealand sponges, takes this form : — Order Homoccela. Genus Leucosolenia. Section II. Reticulata. Division I. — Pseudoderms not present. Leucosolenia clatJirus. Division II. — Pseudoderms present. * See " Monograph of the Victorian Sponges," Trans. Roy. Soc. of Vict., vol. iii., p. 1. 206 Tranaactions. — Zoology. Subdivision 1. — "The exhalent openings through which the water leaves the sponge are true oscula — i.e., they lead directly into a space lined by collared cells, and formed by the union of a number of ascon-tubes." Leucosolejiia challengeri. LeiLCOsolenia intermedia. „ cerebrum. „ laxa. „ proxivia. „ deinessa. Subdivision 2. — "The exhalent openings through which the water leaves the sponge are pseudoscula — i.e., they lead at first into a space not lined by collared cells, but, presumably, by ectoderm. This space is a liseudogaster. It really lies outside the colony, and is formed, probably, by the upgrowth of the colony around it. The ascon-tubes open into the pseudo- gaster." Leucosolenia rosea. I hope to have an opportunity, in a future paper, of making some remarks on the histology of the New Zealand reticulate ascons. Leucosolenia clathrus, Schmidt. ("Supplement der Spou- gien des Adriatisclien Meeres," p. 24.) As Mr. Carter has pointed out,''' Schmidt's sponge is not the one afterwards described and figured by Haeckel.t In Haeckel's sponge the ends of the spicules are obtusely rounded, or even knobbed, and the rays are often wavy. I see no reason for regarding as different from L. clathrus a white ascon of considerable size that occurs freely along the shores of Cook Strait, in the neighbourhood of Wellington. Its spicules are more sharply pointed than the one figured by Schmidt ; but they are almost exactly like those of a speci- men, sent me by Dr. Dendy, of a sponge collected at Budleigli Salterton by Mr. Carter, and identified by him as Schmidt's L. clathrus. Moreover, the specimen referred to shows meso- dermal ingrowths exactly like those of Wellington specimens — Dendy 's type E. The sponge shov.'s at death the colour- changes described by Carter. I also place under L. clathriLS, for the present at all events, the large white ascon that occurs so freely in Paterson's Inlet, Stewart Island. In this handsome sponge the spicules are often blunt, and approach those of L. coriacea, and the mesodermal ingrowths are less pronounced than in the Wel- lington sponge. Moreover, it differs from the Wellington sponge in the fact that its oscules are conspicuous, and borne at the apex of pronounced papillae. * A.M.N.H., 5, xiv., p. 17. i "Kalkschwjimme," ii., p. 30. H. B. Kirk. — On New Zealand Sponges. 207 Leucosolenia challengeri, Pol. (" Eeport on the Calcarea of the ' Challengei' ' Expedition," p. 38.) This sponge occurs in Cook Strait, in the neighbourhood of Welhngton. The " Challenger " specimen is from Cape York. Aly specimens are all of the Auloplegma form. I have not yet seen the Soleniscus form, which is that of the "Challenger" specimen. Length of the sponge, as found near Wellington, ahout 20mm. Half the length is made up by the slender, solid peduncle. Of two specimens that I have sectioned, one has no mesodermal ingrowths, and the other has ingrowths of Dendy's type F. Leucosolenia cerebrum (Ascaltis cerebrum), Haeckel. ("Kalkschwamme," ii., 54.) A sponge with the apical rays of the 4-radiate spicules beautifully spined in their distal portion occurs— not very freely— in Cook Strait. These apical rays echinate the inner surface of the ascon-tubes in the usuaf manner. I have no hesitation in referring it to Haeckel's Ascaltis cerebrum. A pseudoderm is always present, so far as I have been able to observe, but I have not noticed the irregularity in the pseu- dodermal spicules referred to by Haeckel. I have found these spicules regular and massive, with the tips of the rays in- curved in the regular tripod fashion. Size, 0-08mm. x 0-002mm. They closely resemble those of L. intermedia (Plate IV., fig. 2). Well-marked ingrowths of the mesoderm, of Dendy's typeE, occur. Haeckel's locality for this sponge is Lesina, m the Adriatic. Leucosolenia proxima, Dendy. If my identification of this sponge is right, it forms in New Zealand handsome yellow- or orange-coloured colonies from 10mm. to 25mm. in diameter, and with numerous os- cules. The spicules of the pseudoderm have the rays slightly incurved, so that the centre is raised a little from the plane in which the points of the rays lie ; the rays themselves taper rather less regularly than in the type, and they are a little more sharply pointed. It is quite possible that this is a different sponge from L. proxima, but at present I do not regard the differences as specific. The canal system shows ingrowths of type E and also of type F. The sponge forms colonies of tw^o external characters : light-yellow^ in colour and loose in texture, and orange in colour and compact in texture. Slight differences in spicula- tion occur, but not constant and pronounced enough to justify, 208 Transactions. — Zoologij. according to my present view, the separation of the two forms, much as they appear at first sight to differ. Locality : Cook Strait. Leucosolenia intermedia, n. sp. (Plate lY., fig. 2.) Sponge compact ; yellow or yellowish-white when alive. Oscules numerous, each one at the apex of a small conical papilla: they often become obscured at death. There is a well-marked pseudoderm, characterized by stout tripod spicules. The spicules are all triradiates. Sjoiculcs : — The rays of the stout, pseudodermal spicules are strongly incurved, and are of about the same length as those of the deep spicules ; they are blunt. The spicule forms a massive tripod, stouter than that of L. tripodifera, and with the rays a little more widely spread. Viewed from below, in certain positions the efl'ect of perspective is to give a sagittal appearance that is illusive (figs. 2r/-2/). A few stout 3-radiates are regular, and have straight rays (fig. 2a). Size, 0-18mm. X 004 mm. The spicules of the deep parts of the sponge are regu- larly-tapering 3-radiates, with fairh- sharp points. Size, 0-09mn]. x O'Olmni. The canal system is of Dendy's type E. In spiculation this sponge occupies a position intermediate between L. jndcherrina and L. "proxima. From the former it is broadly distinguished by the fact that its pseudodermal spicules are larger instead of smaller than its deep ones, and from the latter by the marked tripod character of the pseudo- dermal spicules. This last characteristic seems also to dis- tinguish it fiom L. stipitata. Locality : Cook Streit. Leucosolenia laxa, n. sp. (Plate IV., fig. 1.) Texture loose ; colour white. A pseudoderm, characterized by oxeote spicules, is present, but is not well developed except at the sides of the sponge. Mesodermal ingrowths occur sparingly, aiid they may or may not be covered by collared cells. Skeleton consisting of 3-radiate, 4-radiate, and oxeote spicules, the two former occurring throughout the sponge, and the last being confined to the pseudoderm, and echinating feebly the surface of the sponge. Spicules :— Triradiates : Eegular ; rays tapering evenly to a sharp point; 0-17mm. x 0015nmi. Quadriradiates : Basal rays sometimes slightly curved, ta- pering evenly to a sharp pomt, 015mm. x O'OlSmm. ; apical ray straight, O'lmm. x 0"013mm. H. B. Kirk. — On New Zealand Sponges. 209 Oxea : Clavate, generally obtuse at both ends, uneven ; 0-37mm. x 0025nim. This sponge is closely allied to Haeckel's Ascandra reticu- lum, from which, however, it may easily be distinguished by the character of its oxea. In A. reticulum these are fusiform, even in outline, and pointed at both ends. In L. laxa they are clavate, wavy in outhne, and obtuse at the broader end, generally at both. Dr. Dendy's L. dubia is very like this sponge, but its quadriradiates are occasional and not constant. The external appearance of this sponge is that of L. clatJi- rus. Leucosolenia depressa, Dendy. (Monograph.) Occurs in the neighbourhood of Wellington. Leucosolenia rosea, n. sp. (Plate III.) This sponge forms spreading masses, which may attain a diameter of 75mm. The surface is for the most part remark- ably even, but it rises into rounded lobes and ridges, along which the pseudoscula are placed. The pseudoscula are gene- rally oval in shape, and are from 0-6mm. to 8mm. long. Around the margin of each is a pseudoscular membrane, slightly developed, and not rising above the general sur- face of the sponge. The pseudopores are evenly distributed over the whole surface. The pseudoscula open into pseudo- gasters. A colony often contains a large number of these spaces. The canal system is of Dendy's type D. When alive the sponge is of a pale-pink or salmon colour, and the colour remains for a long time in dried specimens. Sjncules : — Triradiates : The pseudoderm consists mainly of enormous 3-rayed spicules, which show an approach to the tripod condi- tion. Their outline is often wavy, and the broadest part of the ray is often at about a third of the distance from the base to the point. The points of the rays are blunt. Length of ray, 0-3mm. ; greatest breadth, 007mm. Deep triradiates : The 3-radiates of the inner part of the sponge are regular and sharp-pointed ; the rays tapering evenly. 0-2mm. x 0-018mm. The triradiates of the wall of the pseudogaster, and espe- cially those around the pseudosculum, often become sagittal, the oral rays being curved, either towards or away from each other, and the basal ray being shortened. In these regions of the sponge occurs a curious 2-rayed spicule, the third ray having failed to appear, or, having appeared, to develope. Fig. h shows a spicule in which the third ray is incipient. Quadriradiates : These are generally rather smaller than the 3-radiates, and the main rays are a little less sharp. The 14 210 Transactions. — Zoology. apical ray, however, is very slender, and sharply pointed : it is slightly curved. Basal ravs, 0-14:mm. x O'Olmm. ; apical ray, 0-rimni.x0 008mni. EXPLANATION OF PLATES IIL AND IV. Plate III. Leucosolenia rosea. a-c, spicules of pseudoderm. d, e, regular 3-radiates of parenchyma. « /, g, sagittal 3-radiates. h-k, arrested or abnormal spicules. l-n, 4-radiates (a.}". = apical ray). Plate IV. Leucosolenia laxa. la-lc, oxea of pseudoderm. Id-lf, 3-radiales. Ig-li, 4-radiates (a.r. = apical ray). Leucosolenia intermedia. 2a, large regular radiate of pseudoderm. 26-2/, pseudodermal " tripod " spicules viewed at different angles. 2g-2h, „ „ „ in profile. 2i-2j, 3-radiates of parenchyma. Art. XXII. — Notes on New Zealand Land Planarians : Part II:'-- By Arthur Dendy, D.Sc, F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the Canterbury College, University of New Zealand. [Eead before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 3rd July, 1S95.] The present contribution to our knowledge of the land plan- arians of New Zealand deals exclusively with a number of specimens collected during a month's stay at Springburn, at the foot of Mount Somers, in November and the early part of December of last year (1894). In the immediate vicinity of the thick bush-scrub of the Alford Forest the locality ap- peared a good hunting-ground for cryptozoic animals, and experience showed that this was indeed the case. The very luxuriance of the vegetation, however, with its unlimited hiding-places for cryptozoic animals, made the task of collec- tion more difficult than it would have been in a clearer neigh- bourhood, where the animals are concentrated, as it were, in a comparatively few spots. * For Part I. see Trans. N.Z, Inst., vol. xxvii., art. xvii. Dendy. — On Neiv Zealand Land Planarians. 211 The majority of the species collected have already been described in the first part of these notes, but even concerning these a certain amount of additional information was ob- tained. Geoplana triangulata, var. australis, Dendy. This large, handsome variety was met with in abundance, being perhaps the commonest form in the locality. The colour of the dorsal surface was usually dark-purplish-brown in its median portion, while the margins and ventral surface ranged from pale-yellow to orange. Some specimens were found associated with dead beech-leaves, which, in their two prevailing shades of orange and dark-brown, almost exactly matched the colours of the planarians. Possibly we have here a case of protective resemblance. It is interesting to note that all the specimens found were without the dark speckliiig on the margins and ventral surface. Thus they agree with the Dunedin form. In Christchurch, on the other hand, none but the speckled form has yet been found, though the species is very common. Geoplana latissima, n. sp. When at rest, very broad and short, flattened, not triangu- lar in section ; when crawling, long and narrow, strongly con- vex above, flat beneath. Length of a specimen when crawling, 62mm. ; breadth of another at rest, 11mm. Eyes small and rather few, arranged in almost single series around the ante- rior extremity. Dorsal surface orange, shading into pinkish anterior tip, and with narrow yellow margins. A very narrow deeper- orange stripe may be visible in the mid-dorsal liiie in the posterior part of the body. Ventral surface very pale yellow, nearly white, without markings. In spirit the shape of the body is very characteristic — very short and broad, and with the two ends curled in ventrally. The anterior end is bluntly pointed, hollowed underneath and convex above. The posterior end is much more bluntly rounded off, and has a slight median notch in the margin (present in four out of five specimens, the other being injured posteriorly). The very narrow lateral margins are thin and prominent, and slightly upturned. Both apertures are situate far back, the peripharyngeal at about the junction of the middle and posterior thirds, and the genital perhaps slightly nearer to it than to the posterior extremity. .\t first sight this species resembles Geoplana triangulata, var. australis, but in life the orange colour is really very characteristic, while in spirit the shape of tiie body is still more so. It is the broadest land planarian in proportion to 212 Transactions. — Zoology. its length which I have seen, the length in spirit being scarcely more than twice the breadth. Geoplana alfordensis, n. sp. When crawling, long and narrow, convex above and flat- tened below. One specimen measured, when crawling, about 33mm. in length by 2mm. in breadth. The ground-colour of the dorsal surface is very pale yellow, with a pair of rather broad dark-reddish or chestnut-brown stripes. The width of the median band of ground-colour varies a good deal in the three specimens. Anterior tip pink. Ventral surface very pale yellow, without markings. Eyes as usual, but compara- tively few and inconspicuous. In spirit the body is of approximately uniforni width, except where it tapers just at the anterior and posterior extre- mities. It is oval in transverse section, convex dorsally and ventrally, and with rather prominent lateral margins. The peripharyngeal aperture is well behind the middle of the body. The position of the genital was not very satisfactorily determined. Geoplana purpurea, Dendy. I identify four specimens as a slight colour variety of this species. The colour in life was very dark brown, nearly black, on the dorsal surface, with narrow dirty-white median stripe. The ventral surface was lighter brown, and the anterior tip pale-brownish. Geoplana quinquelineata, Fletcher and Hamilton. I identify with this common Australian species two small specimens. The largest was only about 30mm. long when crawling. At rest, flattened on both surfaces, but not markedly quadrangular. Ground-colour very pale yellow all over, with five dark-grey stripes on the dorsal surface, the median one narrowest. Anterior tip pink. Geoplana graffii, Dendy. Three fairly typical, although rather small, examples of this species were met with. Geoplana graffii, var. somersii, nov. This variety, represented by three specimens, differs from the typical form in the suppression of the pale longitudinal bands on both surfaces. The body in spirit also appears to be narrower in proportion to its length, and hence less leaf- like. The colour is greyish-brown all over, with minute white specks ; paler on the ventral surface, but also speckled. The white specks or dashes are more strongly developed in the mid-dorsal line than elsewhere, perhaps indicating the lost Dendy. — On Neio Zealand Land Planarians. 213 median stripe. The peripharyngeal aperture in spirit is some- what behind the middle, and the genital rather nearer to it than the posterior extremity. Geoplana iris, n. sp. _ Closely resembling G. graffii, to which it is evidently nearly alHed, in size and shape and in the general markings of the dorsal surface, but differing strikingly in the details of pattern. In the mid-dorsal line is a rather narrow pale band of brownish- yellow or orange, sometimes edged with iridescent green. On each side of this is a broad band of dark chocolate-brown, in all specimens edged on the outside with iridescent blue, and -about twice the width of the median band. This is followed again by a narrow marginal band of orange, which may also have greenish iridescence on its outer edge. The ventral sur- face is pale, dull orange, without markings. The anterior tip is dull-orange or dark pinkish-browa. The peripharyngeal aperture is decidedly behind the middle, and the genital about half-way between it and the posterior end. Geoplana inaequalistriata, Dendy. This species was originally described from a single speci- men found crawling on an asphalt path near Christchurch, and it therefore gives me peculiar satisfaction to be able to record the discovery of a fine specimen in its native haunts, beneath a rotten log near the edge of the Afford Forest. When at rest it was broad and flattened; when crawling, long but fairly broad, broader behind than in front, strongly convex above, flattened or concave below, measuring about 80mm. by 5mm. Dorsal surface brownish-grey with white stripe and dashes arranged exactly as in the type. Ventral surface white, with abundant small brownish-grey specks, which are absent from the prominent narrow margins, and almost absent from a narrow median band. Anterior tip pink. Eyes as usual. In spirit the body contracts but little. The ventral surface is slightly concave, with very prominent margins, the dorsal surface convex. The peripharyngeal aperture is situate de- cidedly behind the middle, but well in the middle third, and the genital aperture is at about one-third of the distance from it to the posterior end. The white markings became, in parts, distinctly yellow in spirit. [Since the above was written I have found, on 30th June, another specimen of G. inaqualistriata in my garden at St. Albans, where the type specimen was obtained. The last- found specimen was lying under a large stone. I placed it in a tin collecting-box with some parsley leaves and left it on the verandah, intending to preserve it in spirit next day. There 214 Transactions. — Zoology. tvas, however, a severe frost in the night, and the animal was dead and hquefying the next mormng.] Geoplana subquadrangulata, Dendy. This common species is represented in the Springburn dis- trict by two varieties : — (a.) Has the three dark stripes on the dorsal surface as usual, with abundant dark speckles between the median and paired stripes. The lateral surfaces also have numerous dark speckles, concentrated so as to form a discontinuous lateral stripe. The ventral surface is without speckles. (b.) Is remarkable for the great breadth of the paired dorsal stripes, which extend inwards until they are separated from the median narrow stripe by only a very narrow band of ground-colour. The ground-colour is very pale yellow, the stripes dark-grey or olive-brown. The lateral surfaces are slightly speckled with grey ; the ventral surface is not speckled. Several specimens of each variety were met with. Geoplana rnariae, Dendy. This species, which was originally described from a single specimen from near the Otira Gorge, was not uncommon at Springburn. Its most striking characceristic is the shape of the body in spirit — very thick, strongly convex on both surfaces, and very blunt at both ends. Most, if not all, of the Springburn specimens exhibit a paler band at the junction of the dorsal and ventral surfaces. In my first description I compared the shape of the body to that of G. flctchcri, but this is a mistake, as it is really very chfferent, especially in spirit. In the markedly posterior position of the apertures, however, there is a real resemblance between the two. Akt. XXIII. — Note on tJie Discovery of Living Specimens of Geonemertes novae-z-ealandi®. By Aethur Dendy, D.Sc, F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the Canterbury College, University of New Zealand. [Read before the Philosophical Instihite of Canterbury, 3rd July, 1895.] In the last volume of the "Transactions of the New Zealand Institute"''' I described, under the name Geonemertes novce- zealandi(z, the first specimens of a land nemertine ever re- * Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxvii., p. 192. Dendy. — On Geonemertes novaj-zealandite. 215 corded from these islands. Two specimens were described, both of which were found amongst spirit-preserved collections of land planarians, for which they had evidently been mistaken. No record has hitherto been made of the appearance of the living animal — indeed, it had never been recognised in the living state until I had the good fortune, in November last, to meet with two specimens m their native haunts. The animal was found under fallen and decaying timber, near the edge of the Alford Foxiest, at the foot of Mount Somers, and near the Township of Springburn (South Island), associated with land planarians and other cryptozoic animals. It is a curious fact that, even after minutely examining and describing the spirit specimens, I at first mistook the living animal for a planarian. So close is the general resemblance in habits, shape, and markings that I did not discover its true nature until I came to examine it more carefully at home. The following descrip- tion of the living worm will perhaps help to prevent such mistakes in the future: — The body, both when at rest and when crawling, is long and slender. The larger of the two specimens when at rest measured about 37mm. in length and 3mm. in breadth, and when crawHng 53mm. ii; length and 2mm. in breadth. The head is rounded, not constricted off from the body, but dis- tinguished by its colour. It bears a nai-row vertical slit in front, which is the common opening of the mouth and proboscis-sheath. It also bears four eyes, which are easily recognisable in the living animal, and of which the two upper and inner are smaller and less distinct than the two lower and outer. The ground-colour of the dorsal surface is pale-yellow, with four longitudinal stripes of dark purplish-brow^^.' The dark stripes of the mner pair are broad, and separated from one another by a narrow median band of yellow ; those of the outer pair are very narrow, and separated from the inner each by a very narrow yellow line. The narrow dark stripes lie very near the margins of the dorsal surface. The stripes all cease abruptly a short way behind the eyes, and the head is pale brownish-yellow, quite a distinct tint from the dorsal ground-colour. The ventral surface of the body is nearly white. The animal crawls very slowly, and leaves behind it a slimy track. As it progresses the head is moved from side to side. 216 Transactions. — Zoology. Art. XXIV. — Neio Zealand Diptera : No. 1. By P. Marshall, M.A., B.Sc, F.G.S., Lecturer on Natural Science, Lincoln College. {Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 5th June, 1895.] Plates V.-VII. When one considei's the great geographical isolation of New Zealand, and the discoveries that have been made of remark- able types among the higher classes of animal life as repre- sented here, it seems peculiar that such little attention has been paid to the collection and classification of the lower classes of animal life. i\lthough one cannot hope to paral- lel the discoveries of the moa and SphenodoJi among the lower and more humble representatives of the animal king- dom, yet it is only to be expected that some of the lower animals will show great and remarkable variation from those types that have been collected and described in Europe and America. Entomology seems to have suffered from neglect even more than the other branches of zoology ; for, though we have — thanks to the labours of Captain Broun and Mr. Fereday — fairly complete descriptions and classifications of the Coleoptera and Lepidoptera, none but spasmodic attempts have been made to collect and describe any other of the large orders of insects. The Diptera especially have been neglected, probably ov/ing to the inconspicuous nature, and the usually out-of-the-way habitats, of most of the species belonging to this order. In 1881 Captain Hutton collected all the descrip- tions that had been written of the insects captured in New Zealand during the voyages of the " Astrolabe " and other ships and expeditions in these waters. To these descriptions he added a few of his own, and published the whole collection as a catalogue of the Diptera of New Zealand, together with similar catalogues of the Orthoptera and Hymenoptera. Since that time a few dipterous insects have been described by dif- ferent authors in the " Transactions of the New Zealand In- stitute," but the total number now described does not amount to more than a hundred and twenty-five species, of which only twenty belong to the Nemocera. In 1892 Mr. Hudson, of Wellington, published a " Manual of New Zealand Ento- mology," in which figures and observations on the life-history of several species were given. Amongst these were some new species ; but no descriptions were given of them. Two years ago I commenced to make a collection of our native species of flies, intending at the time to send them to England to Marshall. — On Neio Zealand Diptera. 217 have them named. On mentioning this to Captain Hutton he pointed out the disadvantages of having them named in Europe, and advised me to work them up myself. Tliis task I have found even more difficult than I anticipated, and my comparative inexperience in the distinguishing and description of specific characters is the only apology for the inaccuracies and blunders that I must necessarily make in the following classification and description of those Diptera that I have been able to obtain. I intend to publish from time to time papers on the various families of Diptera. These I hope to supplement every year by species that have been discovered during the preceding year ; so that, ultimately, these papers may perhaps attain to the completeness of monographs on the different families of Diptera. The classification I have adopted is that used by Mr. F, A. A. Skuse in his papers on the Australian Diptera. These papers have in every case been the model to which I have en- deavoured to attain, and I must here express my keen appreciation of the work he has done in collating and system- atizing the writings and classifications of other dipterologists in Europe and elsewhere. He has certainly very greatly lightened the task of all subsequent workers at the Diptera in the Australasian Colonies. He has kindly assisted me in all cases where there seemed to me a doubtful issue, and has offered to afford me every assistance in his power. Many pages of these papers, more especially those that deal with the descriptions and classifications of the families and genera, have been taken almost directly from his papers, and he has generously acquiesced in this wholesale cribbing. As far as possible, every genus will have a type-species illustrated by a diagram, giving a general idea of the appear- ance of the insect, and displaying those characteristics that are made use of in the classification of the particular group to which the insect belongs. In general these diagrams have been drawn from dried specimens, and do not, therefore, give with any exactitude the form of the abdomen and other soft parts that are liable to shrinkage during the progress of dry- ing. For specific characters the diagrams, though drawn with considerable care, cannot always be trusted. It would, per- haps, have been better to have omitted drawing the body of the insect, and to have given diagrams illustrating the neura- tion of the wings alone, as done by Mr. Skuse ; but my work has already shown how useful such diagrams may be if made use of with proper caution. I very deeply regret that I am at present unacquainted with the life-history of any but a very few of the species that I shall describe. I shall be able, however, to give diagrams illustrating the life-history of what are, I hope, fairly typical 218 Transactions. — Zoology. species of each of the famihes. These diagrams have in every case been drawn from living specimens. All the material that I at present possess has been collected by myself, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Lincoln College; but during the summer vacation many specimens have been collected in various widely- separated parts of the colony. I have not thought it advisable to arrange keys for reference until so many specimens have been collected that they may be considered to form a fair per- centage of the total number of species in the colony. In regard to collecting specimens, I have, like Mr. Skuse, found that glass tubes are the most suitable apparatus. Some bruised laurel-leaves should be placed in the bottom of the tube, and over these a layer of blotting-paper. This will absorb the moisture given off by the laurel-leaves, and there- fore protect the insects from the injury that always results to them from contact with fluid. Most of the smaller and many of the larger species can be collected by placing the tubes over them with care whilst they are settled on some object. They will usually not rise until the tube completely covers them, and after a little fluttering about they will die. Specimens cap- tured in this way should be fixed as soon as possible with gum on thin white cardboard. Gum of tragacanth, with a trace of corrosive sublimate, is the most suitable substance, as it does not cause any glaze on the surface of the cardboard. Only a very small spot of gum is necessary, and the legs and wings should be spread out as nmch as possible, but not at the risk of mutilating the specimen. The larger and more active in- sects can be easily caught with a gauze or muslin net of the ordinary make, but the net should not have a ring of too large diameter, otherwise it will be found exceedingly cumbrous in bush districts, where most of the Diptera Nemocera are found. I have collected large numbers of specimens from windows looking out on to shady and moist gardens. If the top is left slightly open it will be found that many insects enter and flutter about on the glass-panes, where they are very easily captured. I shall be very happy to supply glass tubes and other requisites to any one who will be good enough to catch a few of these insects for me. The only literature I have been able to obtain on the Diptera are Walker's " Insecta Diptera Biitannica," Theo- bald's "Account of British Flies," Hutton's "Catalogue of New Zealand Diptera," some of Osten-Sacken and Loew's " Monographs of the Diptera of North America," and Mr. Skuse's admirable " Monographs of the Australian Diptera." These last so ably summarise the work of the best-known American and European authors on the Diptera that I shall in every case adopt the classification employed in them, and thus render the New Zealand Diptera very easily comparable Marshall. — On Neiv Zealand Diptera. 219 with the Austrahan Diptera. Although I shall always regret not being able to obtain more works of reference, the papers that Mr. Skuse has written contain so much reliable informa- tion on the classification and arrangement of the genera that I feel I shall avoid most of the errors that would have been unavoidable without some firm basis and summary of other methods of classification. The following table will show the classification adopted by Mr. Skuse, which is the one that I shall adhere to in my papers on the New Zealand Diptera : — Order DIPTERA. Section I. ORTHOEHAPHA. Division I. Nematoceea. Subdivision 1. Oligoneura. Families. — Cecidomyidae, Sciaridae, Mycetophilidae, Simu- lidae, Bibionidae. Subdivision 2. Polyneura. Families. — Blepharoceridse, Cuhcidae, ChironomiduB, Orph- nephilidae, Psychodidae, Tipulidae, Dixidae, Rhyphid®. Division II. Erachycera. Subdivision 1. Cyclocera. Families. — Xylophagidae, Ccenamyidae, Stratiomyidae, Acanthomeridae, Tabanidae. Subdivision 2. OrtJiocera. Families. — Leptidae, Asilidae, Midasidae, Nemestrinidai, Bombylidae, Therevidae, Scenopinidae, Cyrtidae, Empidas, Doli- chopodidae, Lonchopteridse. Section II. CYCLORHAPHA. Division I. Proboscidea. i^am/^zes.— Syrphidae, Myopidae, Conopidae, Pipunculidai, Platyperzidae, CEstridae, Tachmidae, Dexidas, Sarcophagidas, Muscidae, Anthomyzidge, Cordyluridae, Helomyzidae, Seiomyzi- dae, Psilidffi, Micropezidae, Ortalidae, Trypetidae, Lonchaeida?, Sapromyzidae, Phycodromidae, Heteroneuridae, Opomyzidae, Sepsidae, Diopsidae, Piophilidae, Ephydridae, Geomyzidae, Drosophilidae, Oscinidae, Agromyzidae, Phytomyzida?,, Asteida3, Borboridae, Phoridae. Division II. Eproboscidea. Families. — Hippoboscidae, Nyeteribidae. 220 Transactions. — Zoology. Older DIPTERA. Wings two, mesothoracic, membranous, with radiate veins ; posterior wings wanting, represented by a pair of small clavate filaments called halteres ; mouth suctorial ; meta- morphosis perfect ; larva apodal ; pupa inactive. Section I. OETHOEHAPHA. The pupa-case opening longitudinall}'. Division I. Nematoceea. The flies belonging to this division are characterized by the possession of long thread-like antennae, consisting of several joints, in many instances oramented with whorls of long, delicate hairs, especially in the males. Nearly all are to be recognised without much difficulty by their long and slender body and limbs, small rounded head, and elevated thorax. As typical examples may be mentioned the mosquitoes {Culicidce) , daddy-long-legs (Tipidi'dcB), and midges {Chirono midce). They are usually to be met with in all damp and shady situations, though they display considerable variety in habitat, appearance, and characters, as will be shown when the families are considered in detail. As these conditions in regard to habitat are thoroughly satisfied in many parts of New Zealand, it is only to be expected that we should possess an abundance of species and genera. The proper collection of the species would probably occupy many years, and the fol- lowing papers will deal with what is probably quite a small percentage of the total number of species in the colony : — Family 1. Cecldomyidcs (Gall Midges). — Small, delicate species. Antennae generally long and necklace-like. Often no ocelli. Legs very long and slender ; coxa3 short ; tibiae slender, without spurs. Wings well haired, with very few veins. The larvae are generally parasites on plants, but in a few cases live on dead vegetable matter beneath the bark of decaying trees. The irritation produced by the larvae is frequently the cause of galls and other monstrous growths on plants. The perfect insects are found abundantly in shady places in forests, and are also frequent on window-panes facing shady or overgrown gardens. Family 2. SciaridcB (Shade Midges). — Generally small. Antennae moderately long, curved, with cylindrical bead-like joints. Ocelli, three. Legs moderately long, slender; tibiae with or without spurs. Wings often dark, usually without hairs, their neuration approaching that of the last family. The larvae and pupa are found in decaying vegetable matter, especially in rotten potatoes. Perfect insect very abundant during the whole summer, especially in damp, shady localities. Marshall. — On Neiv Zealand Diptera. 221 Much more active than the insects of the last family. The larvae of some species have got tlie name of " army- worm " in Europe, from their habit of travelling together in large numbers. Represented by a large number of species in New Zealand. Family 3. MyceiopJiilida (Fungus Gnats). — Size, small to moderate ; usually rather robust. Ocelli, three or two. Antennas short. Proboscis short. Legs rather long ; coxae elongated; tibige spurred. \Yiugs often shaded, and some- times pubescent ; without discoidal cell, but neuration more elaborate than in the two preceding families. The majority of the larvae live upon fungi or decaying vegetable matter. Some form a web of slimy material, and are occasionally phosphorescent. Perfect insect very active, and often capable of leaping. Found abundantly in damp and shady situations. Represented by several genera and numerous species in New Zealand. Family 4. Si/?i7fZz(r7(« (Sandflies). — Size small. Body black, thick, and short. Antennae cylindrical, short. Ocelli, none. All parts of the body fully developed. Legs short ; hind tibijE and first joint of the tarsus broad ; tibiae without spurs. Wings broad, abundantly but rather obscurely veined. The larvae live in clear water, becoming fixed to plants when about to transform into pupae. Perfect insect capable of inflicting severe wound. Found abundantly in all regions where there is clear or running water. The family contains only one genus, which is well represented in New Zealand. Family 5. (Sz6io;izd(s).— Moderate or small size. More robust than the preceding families. Antennae short. Ocelli, three. Prothorax large. Wings large, but rather obscurely veined. Larvae found on the ground or in dung. Perfect insects with a sluggish flight. Common on flowers. Very probably an archaic type. Family 6. Blepharoceridce. — Small. Antennge long and slender. Eyes alike in both sexes. Ocelli, three. Legs long; coxae short ; posterior tibiae generally with strong spurs. Wings broad and long, in neuration approaching the Myceto- philidcB. Skuse says very little is known of these species. I have not yet captured any specimens. Family 7. Culicidce (Alosquitoes).— Very slender; mode- rately sized. Antennae moderately long. Mouth-parts of female containing all the organs found in the Diptera. Ocelh, none. Thorax stout. Legs long and slender. Wings slender, usually with scales; veins more than six in number. The larvae are abundant in all stagnant water, in which they move with a peculiar jerking motion. The perfect insects are abundant in low-lying bush districts. The males feed on vegetable matter, especially honey. The females are capable 222 Transactions. — Zoology. of inflicting a severe bite. Eepresented by a moderate number of species in New Zealand. Family 8. Chironoviidce (Midges). — Small. Antennae slen- der, beautifully adorned with hairs in the male. Proboscis fleshy and short. Ocelli, none. Abdomen and legs long and slender. Wmgs slender, veins as in CulicidcB, but no scales, though hairs are often present. Larvae and pupae generally aquatic, but some feed on dung and decaying vegetable matter. Perfect insect common in the neighbourhood of water. Some specimens capable of biting. Family 9. OiyhnejMlida. — Small. Antennae short. Ocelli absent. Proboscis little projecting. Thorax elevated. Legs rather short. Wings long and narrow ; veins uniformly dis- tinct. Little appears to be known of this family. I have no species belonging to it. Family 10. Psydiodidce (Moth Midges). — Very small flies. Antennae long, whorled with hairs. Ocelli, none. Body clothed with coarse hair. Legs rather long ; tibiae without spurs. Wings broad and hairy, with many longitudinal veins. Larvae living in fungi and rotten wood. Perfect insect fre- quently found on walls and windows. Represented by a few species in New Zealand, one at least of which is very com- mon. Family 11. TipztlidcB (Daddy-long-legs). — The largest flies in this division, and in linear dimensions, if not in bulk, the largest flies of the order. Antennae long and thread-like, often furnished with long hairs, or pectinated. Almost all without ocelli. Proboscis fleshy, rather prominent, and some- times long. Thorax with a V-shaped transverse suture. Legs extremely long and fragile ; tibiae often spurred at the tip. Wings long, with a very complete neuration ; discoidal cell present in most cases ; basal cells very long. Larvae and pupae found in the ground, in rotten wood, in water, or in the leaves and stems of plants. Species extremely abundant in New Zealand, being found in numbers in all damp and shady situations. Family 12. Dlxidce. — Medium-sized gnats. Antennae long. Ocelli wanting. Proboscis rather promment. Body slender. Legs long and slender. Wings somewhat large, occasionally spotted ; six longitudinal veins ; discoidal cell wanting. Larvae aquatic. I have only found three specimens in New Zealand, all of which were taken on windows. According to Skuse they are common in Australia. Family 13. BJiyphidce. — Moderate -sized flies. Antennae moderately long. Ocelli, three. Legs rather long and slender. Wings rather long and broad, with a discoidal cell. This family contains a single genus. The larvae feed on vegetable matter, cow-dung, &c. Perfect insects found in outhouses and Marshall. — On Neio Zealand Diplera. 223 sheds, in damp, dark places in bush, also in caves, and in similar localities. KEY TO THE FAMILIES OP NEMOCERA. A. Thorax without any transverse suture. a. Tibite not spurred. * Wings haired. Longitudinal veins few. Cecidomyidce, 1. Longitudinal veins numerous. Psychodidce, 10. ** Wings naked. § No ocelli. 1. Legs liairy ; antennae with not more than 12 joints. Costal vein continued round the margin of the wing. Culicidc^, 7. Costal vein terminating near the apex of tlie wing. Chironoviidce, 8. '2. Legs rather short ; antenna short. Costal vein continued roiind the posterior border. Orphnephilidcs, 9. 3. Legs short; antennae with not less than 12 joints. Siniulidce, 4. §§ Ocelli present. No discoidal cell. BibionidcB, 5. A discoidal cell. Bhyphidcn, 1-3, b. Tibiae spurred. § No ocelli. / All tibiae spurred. Dixidce, 12. ^° §§ Ocelli present. Anterior tibite spurred. Blepharoceridcs, 6. Ail tibiae spurred. Mi/cetophilidcE, 3. With or without spurs. Sciaridce, 2. B. Thorax with a V-shaped transverse suture. Tipiilidce, 11. TEEMINOLOGY. As regards the technical terms employed, I feel I cannot do better than transcribe the following pages from Skuse's paper. The terms described are those made use of by Osten- Sacken and Loew in their monographs of the Diptera of North America. 1. The Head. The back of the head opposite the thorax is the occiput, and is prominently perceptible in both Diptera and Hymenop- tera carrying their heads free. That portion of it lying over the attachment of the head is the nape (cervix). The front forehead or brow (frons) is that part of the head stretching from the antennae as far as the occiput, and is limited laterally by the compound eyes. The crown (vertex) is that part of the head on which there are usually the simple eyes (ocelli), generally three in number. The limit between the occiput and front is styled the vertical margin (margo verticalis). Most of those Diptera undergoing their metamorphosis within 224 Transactions. — Zoology. the lower skin possess, immediately above the antennae, an arcuated impression-line, which seems to separate from the front a small, usually crescent-shaped piece termed the frontal crescent {lunula frontalis) . When the eyes meet on the front so as to divide it into two triangles the superior one is called the vertical triangle (triangulum vcrticale), the inferior the frontal triangle (trianguluvi frontale). The anterior portion of the head, reaching from the antennae to the border of the mouth or oral margin (^pcristomium) , is the face (fades). The aiitennae are separated into two series of joints, the first con- sisting of the two basal joints, called the joints of the scapus, and the following those of the ftagellicm. Beneath the antennae there are sometimes found longitudinal grooves {fovea antcn- nalis) for their reception. The sides of the head from the eyes downwards are called the cheeks {gence). A somewhat swollen ring sometimes surrounds or partly encompasses the swollen eyes, and is termed the orbit {orbita), the successive parts of which are the anterior {orbita anterior sive facialis), inferior {inferior s. genalis), posterior {posterior s. occiioitalis) , superior {s^iperior s. verticalis), and frontal {frontalis) orbits. Where no such ring is visible a distinct colour or some peculiar structure marking the nearest surroundings of the eyes is described on the orbit. The parts of the mouth {os) employed for sucking are called the sucker or proboscis ; when attached to a long and generally cylindrical projection of the head it is called a snout {rostrum), and must be distinguished from a true proboscis. They may project from a wdde aperture occupying a great part of the under-surface of the head, called the mouth- hole {cavitas oris). The common fleshy root of the oral parts is connected by a membrane with the border of the mouth. This membrane has a shield sometimes almost carneous ; it is then termed the clypeus, or shield {clypjcus prcelabrum). It is either entirely connected by the anterior border of the mouth, aTid is then movable, or it projects over it as a ridge, and it is then generally immovable. Generally the largest of the mouth-parts is the fleshy underlip {labium or hypostoma), made up of the stem {stipes) and the knob {capituluin labii), formed of two suctorial flaps {labella). Close by are to be seen the palpi, which are important to notice, being frequently very characteristic. The tongue {lingua), upper jaws {^mandibula) , lower jaws {maxillcB), and upper lip {labrum) are not only in- conspicuous, but generally difflcult to recognise, and are rarely of value in distinguishing species. According to Meinert, the pharynx is separate from the first metamere, on which the labium and labrum are situated ; on the second metamere the maxillae and their palpi are placed ; while on the third are situated the mandibles. Marshall. — On New Zealand Diptcra. 225 2. The Thorax. The mesothorax is very largely developed in this Order, being so much larger than the prothorax and metathorax that it forms the greater part of this division of the insect's body. On account of this it is designated the thorax, different names being given to characteristic parts of the prothorax and metathorax. The former frequently forms a neck-like prolongation that bears the head, and is then called the neck icollum). In some cases the four corners of the meso- thorax, or the shoulders [humeri), are covered by a lobe of the prothorax {lohus protlioracis hmneralis) , distinctly separated from the mesothorax. If this lobe be so soldered to the mesothorax that it is impossible to detect a distinct line between them, except in their general colour or luxir, it is styled the shoulder callosity {callus kumeralis). When the prothorax applies closely to the anterior border of the meso- thorax it has then the name of collar (collare). An im- portant character in its presence or absence is a transverse furrow {suhira transversalis) frequently found crossing the middle of the upper side of the mesothorax, and terminating on each side just before the bass of the wing. On each side of the breast, beneath the shoulder, there is a spiracle {stigma protJioracis). The plate on the side of the breast is called the pleura. The scutcheon {scutellwm) is separated from the back of the mesothorax by a furrow^ and is situated between the wings. , A part of the metathorax is to be found beneath the scutellum ; it is called the metanotum. It generally descends obliquely, is often convex, and has on each side a more- or-less inflated space, called the lateral callosity of the metanotum. The poisers, or halteres, have their origin be- neath this callosity, and in front of each of them we find the spiracle of the metathorax. The membranous covers some- times found above this spiracle have the name of covering- scales {squama or tegulce). 3. Tlie Abdomen. The upper side is generally so called, the name of belly {venter) being given to the lower side. The terminal joint is furnished in the male with appendages destined to take hold of the female in copula, and if they take hold in the form of pincers and these are not bent under the body they are called forceps ; in the female, with the organ for laying eggs {ovi- piositor), which may be either called the bearer {tcnehra) or the style {stylus), according to its shape. 4. The Wings. These organs need more close and special study than any others in the distinction of species. The diagram (Plate VII., 15 226 Transactions. — Zoology. fig. 4) illustrating the veins and cells of the dipterous wing is ■wholly ideal, and combines all the characters that are found in the different families of the Order. The parts to which the numbers refer are named in the explanation of the plate. Some observations as to the relative value of the different veins and cells in describing characters of genera and species are given in Skuse's paper on the Australian Gcciclomyidce. (vol. iii., Trans. Lin. Soc. N.S.W.). Family CECIDOMYID^. 1. Ovum. Longer than broad, ends rounded, orange-red, yellow, or whitish. The eggs are laid on the surface of leaves, in the flowers of grasses, or beneath the bark of trees. The larva usually escapes in a few days. In some species there is a single annual generation, but in others eggs are laid at two or more distinct times of the year. I have never been fortunate enough to observe the eggs on any plants, but some of my specimens deposited eggs after capture. 2. Larva. The larva is rather a slender maggot, generally white in colour, but often orange or red. The body consists of fourteen segments, most of which are provided with stigmata. Head is small and retractile, provided with soft and rudimentary mouth-organs. A slender, corneous organ usually projects from the first thoracic segment. This is called the anchor process, or breast-bone. The function of this orgaii is not yet certainly determined. Baron Osten-Sacken remarks that its homology is unknown, and suggests that it is used for loco- motion. He points out that it may represent the mentum, and is therefore homologous with the boring mentum of the larvffi of some Tipulidcs. Miss Ormerod suggests that the organ is used to injure plant-tissues, in order that the nutri- tive juices may be obtained more readily and in greater abun- dance. The terminal segment of the body is frequently pro- vided with stiff hairs, that aid apparently in locomotion. Some of the species undergo their metamorphosis from larva to pupa in cocoons ; others bury themselves in the ground ; while others have no special covering, and undergo the change in the same place in which they have completed their larval growth. Many years ago parthenogenesis was described in ceci- domyid larvae. It appears to be of much the same nature as that so well known in the various species of Aphis flies. The ovaries of the larvae develope fully, and produce six or more buds. These also grow and again produce buds, from Marshall. — On New Zealand Diptera. 227 which a new generation developes. Sometimes as many as five generations can be distinguished beneath the transparent skin of a larva. 3. Pupa. In the pupa nearly all the organs of the imago can be distinguished — eyes, antennae, wings, legs, all being easily dis- cernible. The insects appear to remain a very short time in the pupa stage. 4. Perfect Insect. Skuse states that, so far as his observations go, the insect lives but a short time in the perfect state. With that con- clusion the observations I have made on our New Zealand species lead me to concur unreservedly. The insects are particularly abundant in early spring, especially in the morn- ings and evenings. They can be found in numbers in all dark and shady places, many of them entering open windows that face shrubberies and being easily caught on the glass panes. Some species, however, can be found throughout the summer, but the number of species commonly found in summer is very much less than the numbers to be found in the spring. Their flight is usually feeble, and is never in a direct line, the insect darting hither and thither all the time it is on the wing. They do not seem to fly any distance, but the wind is probably a very important factor in their distribution. Mr. Skuse de- scribes the extraordinary habits these insects have in New South Wales of hanging in cobwebs and vibrating in such a manner as to become more inconspicuous. Owing probably to hasty observation, I have never found them in such situa- tions. I deeply regret that I have hitherto been unable to spare the time to investigate the life-history of any of the native species of Cecidomi/idce. The larvae, as is well known, are usually parasites on the foliage of flowering-plants. x-Vs a result of the irritation produced by the larvae on the tissues of the plant, monstrous growths, or galls, are produced. As regards the geographical distribution of these flies, it may be said that species occur in every region of the globe where the Diptera have been investigated. In Australia Mr. Skuse has described ninety-five species, which he says repre- sent in all probability but a very small proportion of the total number of species present in that country. Up to the present time no species have been described from New Zea- land, but the present paper contains descriptions of twenty- three species. As these have all been collected within twelve months, the total number of species in the colony would pro- bably be considerably over a hundred. These insects offer many difliculties to the collector, for, in the first place, their size is so minute that it is frequently a matter of no small 228 Transaciiv)is. — Zoology. difficulty to see tliem witli the nalced eye. On account of their fragile nature they are extremely hard to set, and if left in a glass tube where there is any trace of moisture they quickly become dismembex'ed, and their wings are injured. It is advisable to carry the materials for setting the insects whilst collecting, as one can then be sure of setting good specimens still uninjured. If in my excursions last summ.er I had been provident enough to carry the materials for setting with me I should probably have double the present number of species to describe. During the forthcoming spring and summer, however, I hope to profit largely by my experience of last year. Structure of Imago. The head is small, broader than long ; round when viewed from the front. Eyes generally lunate or reniform, more or less contiguous on the front. Ocelli wanting in the sub- family Cecidomyina, but extant in the Lestremina. Pro- boscis short, thick, fleshy, directed towards the pectus. Palpi prominent, four-jointed, the first joint short, the last usually the longest. Antennae long, moniliform or cylindrical, generally verticillate-pilose, seldom without verticils, ten- to thirty-six- jointed, of which the basal joints are more or less cupuliform ; flagellar joints sometimes pedicelled in the male and sessile in the female, sometimes of the same structure in both sexes. The thorax rounded, in some species gibbose, sometimes ex- tending over the head in the form of a hood ; without a transverse suture. Halteres never completely bare, often considerably haired or scaled ; the pedicel long and slender, the club large. Legs generally very long and slender ; cox® short, femora not thickened, tibiae without spurs, tarsi five- jointed, the metatarsal joint much shortened in the first sub- family ; claws weakly developed, with apparently only one cushion. Wings incumbent, proportionately long and broad, rounded at the apex, cuneiformly narrow^ed at the base ; as a rule hyaline, though sometimes pellucid, with a pale bluish or brownish tint ; generally beautifully iridescent ; sometimes marmorated ; more or less covered with irregularly-arranged hairs ; occasionally scaly ; all the anterior margin scalous ; deeply ciliated at the apex and posterior margin. The number of longitudinal veins amounts to at least two, or at most five — never less than four in the second sub-family, or more than four in the first sub-family. In both sub-families the last two longitudinal veins coalesce for more than half their length, forming beyond a more or less distinct part. The additional longitudinal vein of the Lestremina is inserted between the second and third veins of the first sub-family, and is furcate in all genera but Gampylomyza. A longitudinal Marshall. — On New Zealand Diptera. 229 wing-fold generally has its position just in front of the third longitudinal vein, and often partially encloses the latter, or, less frequently, obscures it entirely from view. No species has more than one transverse or cross vein, which lies be- tween the first and second longitudinal vein ; but it is fre- quently most indistinct, or sometimes altogether wanting. Abdomen elongate, composed of nine segments ; in the male cylindrical, provided with large holding-forceps ; in the female acuminate, with a proti'uding or non-protruding ovipositor, rarely without two small lamellae. The whole body with a covering of fine, delicate hairs, or less frequently scales or scaly hairs, the latter occurring more often on the under-sur- face of the abdomen and legs. The prevailing body-colours seem to be shades of yellow iind red, darkening into brown proportionately as the integu- ment becomes more horny. The expanse of the largest species exceeds four lines, while that of the smallest is less than a line. Regarding the relative numbers of the two sexes, the females seem to be far more abundant than the males. Classification. Skuse gives an excellent summary of the systems of classi- fication of this family that have been adopted by previous authors, and for information on these I must refer to his paper. The following is the classification he adopts, and the one that will be adopted in this paper : — Sub-family I. Gecidoviyina. Wings with not more than four longitudinal veins, the two last frequently combining in the beginning of their course, forming a more or less distinct fork. No ocelli. First tarsal joint much shortened. Genus 1. Heterapeza. Antennae moniliform or sessile, 2 + 8 or 9 jointed. Legs short ; third joint of tarsus very long. Wings with two longitudinal veins. Genus 2. Miastor. Antennee 2 + 11 jointed, verticillate in the male. Legs slender in male, but more robust in female. Wings almost bare, with three longitudinal veins. Genus 3. Cccidomyia. AntenuaB long generally, verticillate, 2 -f 9 to 2 -f 36 jointed. Wings with three or four longitudinal veins. Section I. Wings with three longitudinal veins, the third either forming a fork or becoming more or less obsolete towards the tip. 230 Transactions . — Zoology . Sub-section A. Cross-vein, if present, placed be- tween the root and tip of the first longitudinal vein . Sub-genus 1. Gonioclcma (Skuse). Antennae of female 2-f 11 jointed, verticillate, pilose. Second longitudinal reaching margin at the apex of the wing ; cross-vein distinct ; third longitudinal not branched. Sub-genus 2. Cecidomyia (Loew). Second longitudinal vein reaches the margin of the wing a little before its tip. Generally the same number of joints in male and female, the joints being pedicelled or sessile. Sub-genus 3. Diplosis (Loew). Second longitudinal vein reaches the margin of the wing at or beyond its tip. Antennae of male 2 -f 24 jointed; joints pedicelled; single joints alternating with double ones, or all joints simple. Antennae of female 2 -f 12 jointed ; joints cylindrical, pedicelled. Sub-genus 4. AsjjJioiidylia (Loew). Second logitudinal vein reaches the margin of the wing a little beyond its tip. Antennae of both sexes with the same number of joints ; the latter cylindrical, sessile, with a short pubescence and without verticils. Sub-genus 5. Homiomyia (Loew). Second longitudinal vein reaches the mar- gin of the wing either at or beyond the tip. Thorax more or less gibbose, frequently ex- tending over the head in the form of a hood. Joints of male antennae pedicelled, those of female pedicelled or sessile. Sub-genus 6. Necroplilchia (Skuse). Second longitudinal vein reaching margin of wing beyoiid its tip ; third longitudinal vein without anterior branch. Antennae in female 2-1-12 jointed ; joints pedicelled, with two verticils. Sub-genus 7. Chastomera (Skuse). First longitudinal vein very wide of costa ; second longitudinal reaching margin beyond apex of wing ; no trace of anterior branch of fourth longitudinal. Antennae in female pedi- celled, verticillate. Marshall. — On Neiv Zealand Diptcra. 231 Sub-genus 8. Golpodia (Winn). Second longitudinal vein forms a curve before the cross-vein, and joins the margin a little beyond the tip of the wing ; cross-vein rather long, oblique. Sub-section B. Cross-vein very oblique, originating at the root of the first longitudinal vein. Sub-genus 9. Dirhiza (Loew). Second longitudinal vein hardly undulating before the cross-vein. Joints of antennae sessile, or almost sessile, in botli sexes. Sub-genus 10. Epidosis (Loew). Second longitudinal vein sinuous before the cross-vein. Joints of antennae pedicelled in both sexes ; number variable. Section II. Wings with four longitudinal veins. Sub-genus 11. Asynapta (Loew). Cross-vein sometimes like that in Section A, then the second longitudinal is not sinuated ; sometimes as in Section B, second longitudinal is then sinuated. Genus 4. Spanioccra (Winn). Antennae filiform, 2+11 jointed ; joints cylindrical, with- out verticils. Second longitudinal vein reaching the margin considerably before the apex. Genus 5. Lasioptera (Meig). Antennae 2 + 14 to 2 + 32 jointed ; joints sessile, with short verticils. Three longitudinal veins, the first and second so near the costa as to be hardly discernible. Sub-genus Clinorhyncha (Loew). Mouth prolonged into rostrum. Sub-family II. Lestreviina. Wings with at least four longitudinal veins and at most five, sometimes with a rudimentary vein behind the fifth ; the additional vein is situated between the second and third of the last sub-family. Ocelli nearly always present. First tarsal joint not shortened. Genus 1. Cavipylomyza (Meig). Fourth longitudinal vein forked. AntennaB 11 — 20 jointed ; joints pedicelled in both sexes in some species — in some male pedicelled, female sessile, in others both sessile. Genus 2. Tritozyga (Loew). The upper branch of the fork forms a curve almost in the shape of an S. 232 Transactions. — Zoology. Genus 3. Gatocha (Hoi.). Tlie upper branch of the fork foriiis a single smooth curve. Male aotennaj 16-jointed, verticillate, joints pedicelled ; female antennae 10-jointed, pilose. Genus 4. Lestreniia. Second longitudinal vein joining the margin much before the apex of the wing ; third longitudinal with a very long fork. Genus 5. Gecidogona. Antennae 2 + 9 jointed ; joints verticillate, with very short pedicels. Second longitudinal reaching margin close to apex ; branches of third longitudinal very long, almost par- allel to one another. The number of genera and sub-genera at present repre- sented by specimens in my collection is comparatively small, but I have no doubt that many vacant spaces will before long be filled^ up. Tlie entire classification of species at present known is given above, so that little difficulty will be expe- rienced in classifying species that may be discovered sub- sequently. In the descriptions given below I have only mentioned those various divisions that are represented by species in my collection. I have not yet discovered any species of Gecidomjjia. Gampylomijza, on the other hand, is represented by several species. Sub-family I. CECIDOMYINA. Wings with not more than four longitudinal veins, the two last frequently combining in the middle of their course, forming a more or less distinct fork. No ocelli. First tarsal joint much shortened. Genus 2. Miastoe, Meinert. Eyes separated in both sexes by a broad forehead. Antennse 2 + 11 jointed; the basal joints cupuliform ; the flagellar joints in the male ovate, with short pedicels and long ver- ticillate hairs; in the female moniliform, subsessile, with short verticils. Prothorax arched. Legs slender in the male, shorter in the female ; the tarsal joints of unequal length. Wings almost bare, appearing granulate under a high power. Three longitudinal veins ; cross-vein some- times present. Miastor agncolcB. Plate V., fig. 1. Antennae, 0-026 ; expanse of wing, 0-033 x 0-013 ; length of body, 0030in. Antennae nearly black, nearly as long as the body, oval, becoming nearly globose towai'ds the tip ; last joint elliptical ; verticils moderately long. Thorax nearly black, Marshall. — On Neio Zealand Diptera. 23iJ with a few long black hairs, becoming fuscous towards the abdomen. Scutellum pink. Halteres whitish, thinly clothed with black hairs ; club moderate. Abdomen dull-red, moderately haired. Legs dusky-yellow ; first, third, and fifth joints about equal length, slightly longer than the fourth, second nearly twice as long as the first ; clothed with moderate black hairs. Wings hyaline, with a few scattered black hairs on the surface. First longitudinal vein one-third the length of the wing, dark- brown ; second longitudinal apparently arises some distance below first longitudinal, at about one-third of its length ; third longitudinal close to margin, very indistinct before joining with it. I am rather doubtful as to whether this species is classified coriectly. I hope to obtain other specimens during the en- suing summer, and make another more detailed examination. Miastor difficiiis, n. sp. Antennae, 0-027; expanse of wing, 0-045 x 0016; body, 0"027 X 0-005. Antennae light-grey, as long as the body; joints near tlie base elongate, elliptical, about twice the length of the pedicels, becoming nearly globose towards the tip ; verticils about twice the length of the joints, spreading. Thorax dark- brown, a few long hairs, without any apparent arrangement, arising from it. Scutellum brown in the centre, bordered with grey. Halteres white, with long pedicels ; club large, elon- gate, pyriform in sliape. Abdomen with first two segments nearly black, remainder orange-red, sparingly clothed with dark hairs. Legs pale-yellow, with nmnerous short black hairs ; first joint of tarsus very short, others indistinguishable from one another. Wings hyaline, slightly hairy. First longitu- dinal vein indistinct, close to costa, about one-third the length of the wing; second longitudinal vein arising from about a third of length of first longitudinal, some distance below it ; third longitudinal close to margin, bends sharply downwards before ending in the margin. I have only a single specimen of this insect. I am not quite satisfied as to its position. (Lincoln, January.) Genus 3. Cecidomyia, Meig. Antenna long, moniliform or cylindrical, generally verticillate, rarely without verticils, from 2 + 9 to 2 -f- 36 jointed. Wings with three or four longitudinal veins, generally a longitudinal fold between the second and third longitudinal veins. Section I. Wings with three longitudinal veins, tlie third either forming a fork or becoming more or less obsolete towards the tip. 234 Transactions. — Zoology. Subsection A. Cross-vein, if present, placed between the root and tip of the first longitudinal vein. Sub-genus 2. Cecidomyia, Loevv. — Antennae 2-f9 to 2 + 22 jointed ; generally the same number of joints in the male and female ; joints pedicelled or sessile alike in both sexes, or pedicelled in the male and sessile in the female. Cecidomyia destructor, Say. (Plate V., fig. 2.) — Length, 3min. Eyes brownish-black. Front of head black, and clothed with long black hairs. Palpi yellowish, of four joints, partly covered by minute black scales, entirely covering the terminal joint. Antennge yellowish-brown to almost black, composed of seventeen joints, with short black verticillate hairs ; the first two joints very thick, first cup-shaped, second glo- bular, third smooth, cylindrical, and elongated, gradually becoming smaller and ending in a long tapering point longer than any of the preceding. Proboscis minute, and rose- coloured. Thorax black, with grey tints in certain lights ; white hairs on the sides, and also scattered on the ventral region. Scutellum black, hairy. Halteres yellowish -pink, with occasional black scales. A light-red line running from the neck to the base of the wing, along the side of the thorax. Abdomen pinkish, consisting of eight segments ; the first segment is nearly black, the remaining segments are mxrked by a large square black spot on each side — these nearly unite on the seventh and eighth segments ; the last two segments have a curious V-shaped marking, with two small lines, one on each side of it, and placed on a somewhat darker area than the general colour of the seg- ments. Oviduct pale-reddish, yellow-brownish at the tip, composed of three joints ; the last is pointed, and with- out lamelhe. Legs pink to light-red, clothed with black hairs. Second longitudinal nearly straight, then bends down and reaches margin before apex. This insect has occurred in the colony within recent years. It is undoubtedly mtroduced. I have seen no specimens. Sub-genus 3. Diplosis. — Second longitudinal vein reaching the margin of the wing either at or beyond the apex. Antennae of the male 2 + 24 jointed ; joints pedicelled ; simple joints alternating with the double ones, or all the joints quite simple — in the latter case the joints only have one hair- whorl ; joints sometimes with the hair-whorls equally long on the upper and under sides ; often decorated with long stiff hairs on the upper side. Antennae of the female 2 + 12 jointed ; joints subsessile, or having very Marshall. — On Neiv Zealand Diptera. 235 short pedicels, cylindrical. Wings either unspotted or variegated. A. Second Longitudinal Vein reaching tlie ]\Iargiii of the Wing at or before the Apex. 1. Flagellar joints of the antennae alternately singly and doubly jointed. a. Wings unspotted. Diplosis duhia, n. sp. (Plate V., fig. 3.) . Female. An- tennae, 0033 ; expanse of Nsing, 0-060 x 0-024 ; body, 0-036 X 0-010. Antennae dark -brown, the two basal joints of the flagellum being longer than the others; all the joints cylindrical, the pedicels being half the length of the joints ; verticils small. Front part of thorax black, becoming ferru- ginous-brown posteriorly. Scutellum ferruginous. Halteres white ; pedicels long, with rather small pyriform clubs, clothed, like the pedicels, with scattered black hairs. Ab- domen ferruginous -brown, with a few hairs giving silvery reflections. Legs long, clothed with black hairs giving silvery refiections ; femora longer than the tibiae ; first joint of tarsus very short, second joint four or five times the length of the first, third about one-third the length of the second, fourth and fifth slightly shorter than the third. Wings with yellowish tinge, very small hairs. Veins yellowish ; first longitudinal one- third length of the wing, close to costa ; second longitudinal joining margin just before the apex ; transverse vein joins first longitudinal at two-thirds of its length from the base. I have only one specimen, taken at Lincoln, October. Diplosis difficilis, n. sp. Male. Length of antennae, 0064 ; expanse of wings, 0-055 x 0019 ; body, 0031 x 0-005. Antennae brownish, with modei'ately-long black verticils; double joints about the same length as their pedicels, but single joints considerably shorter ; last joint ending in an appendage about as long as its pedicel. Head black, smooth. Thorax yellowish-brown, darker anteriorly ; a patch of black curved hairs on each shoulder, but otherwise surface of thorax smooth. Scutellum light yellowish-brown, smooth. Halteres with long pedicels ending in a comparatively small club ; dirty-white in colour, clothed sparingly with black hairs. Abdomen yellowish-brown ; posterior part of the segments darker, clothed with black hairs, giving silver reflections. Legs about three times the length of the body, slender, light- yellow, but appearing nearly black from the large number of black hairs situated on them ; tibiae slightly swollen at the tip. Wings hyaline, with slight yellowish tinge. Veins brownish ; first longitudinal ending a little before half the distance along the costa ; second longitudinal reaching the 236 Transactions. — Zoology. margin of the wing at the apex ; branch of third longitudinal very indistinct. Surface oi wings clothed with long black hairs ; fringe long. I have only one specimen, of a male insect. (Lincoln, February.) Diplosis melana, n. sp. — Antennae, 0-035 ; expanse of wing, 0077 X 0029 ; body, 0-033 x 0 020. Antennee dark-brown ; joints of flagellum cylindrical, more than twice the length of their pedicels, ornamented with a few short verticillate hairs ; terminal joints slightly shorter than the others, and conical in shape. Head black, with short hairs rising from its posterior border. Thorax black, and hairless except for a few tufts arising from the shoulders. Scutellum dark-grey. Ab- domen black, ferruginous on the flanks ; a few hairs on the sides of the segments with silvery reflections. Halteres with short pedicels clothed all over with black and grey hairs ; club pyriform, small. Legs moderately long, dark-brown, covered rather thinly with black hairs ; femora rather stout ; tarsi lighter in colour than the proximal joints. Wings with a grey tinge, a few short hairs scattered over their sur- face. Veins yellowish-brown except the second longitudinal, which is black ; first longitudinal joining the costa about half-way from the base of the wing, the transverse vein, which is almost colourless, joining it at about two-thirds of its length ; second longitudinal reaching the margin at the apex of the wing; apex of fo)-ks of thii'd longitudinal below end of second longitudinal. I have only one female specimen. (Lincoln, November.) Diplosis viinida, n. sp. Female. Antennae, 0-026 ; expanse of wings, 0050 x 0-018 ; body, 0-030 x 0-011. Antenna? black; joints of flagellum with short pedicels, about one-third the length of the joints; cylindrical, ornamented with short black verticils. Anterior portion of thorax black, becoming red towards the extremity ; a few white scattered hairs on its surface. Scutellum red. Halteres with slender pedicels ; club small, pyriform, covered like the pedicels with scattered black hairs. Abdomen with the anterior segments dark- brown, but becoming red towards the posterior end ; a few scattered hairs with silvery reflections situated on its surface. Legs rather short, dull-yellow in colour, covered with hairs black in colour but giving silvery reflections ; tibise slightly shorter than the femora ; first and fifth joints of the tarsus about the same length, second joint about twice the length of the third, which is longer than the fourth. Wings hyaline, with yellow reflections. Costa and second longitudinal dark- brown in colour, the others light - grey ; first longitudinal ending at about one-third along the costa ; second longitu- dinal ending at the apex ; branch of third longitudinal forms Makshall. — On A^c'c Zealand Diptcra. 237 very acute angle with the trunk. Wings covered with shght pubescence. Separated from D. dubia by shorter legs and smaller size ; from D. difficilis by character of hairs on wings. (Lincoln, November.) B. Second Longitudinal Vein reaching the Margin of tlie Wing beyond the Apex. Diplosisfragilis,n.sp. (Plate VII., fij. 3.) Male. Antennae, 0-049 ; wings, 0066 x 0-027 ; body, 0033 x 0006. Antennae with the joints longer than their pedicels, double joints nearly the same length as their pedicels ; sub-globose ; double joints cylindrical, with transverse suture, smoky-grey in colour ; verticils not numerous, moderately long, black. Thorax fer- ruginous, dark in front but becoming lighter posteriorly. Scu- tellum semicircular, opaque, wdiite. Halteres with long slender white pedicels; club pyriform, with small conspicuous thick black hairs. Abdomen w^ith first segment ferruginous, the two succeeding segments much darker ; the usual scattered hairs are present arranged on the posterior borders of the segments. Legs long and slender, light-yellow ; femur and tibia about equal in length ; first joint of the tarsus very short, second slightly shorter than the tibia, other joints much shorter, the fifth being the shortest. Wings perfectly hyaline, a few short black hairs being scattered over the surface. First longi- tudinal about one-third the length of the wing, marginal cross- veins situated half-way along it ; second longitudinal at first straight, but afterwards strongly arcuated, ending a little beyond the apex ; apex of feet of third longitudinal situated exactly below the end of the first longitudinal. I have several specimens, collected at Lincoln during November and December. Diplosis hirta, n. sp. Female. Antennae, 0-033 ; wings, 0071 X 0-027 ; body, 0-038 x 0-011. Antennae dark-brown ; joints of scapus fuscous ; flagellar joints about twice the length of their pedicels, with one circle of long black verticils attached to the base ; joints cylindrical, but constricted in the middle ; terminal joint with distinct projection from its end. Thorax dark-brown, with two tufts of long black hairs arising on each lateral margin. Scutellum opaque, white. Halteres with long pedicels bearing a club thickly covered with black hairs. Abdomen dark-brown, with its segments much more hairy than in the other species. Legs dark-brown or black, covered with short black hairs — these are longer on the femora than elsewhere ; joints of the legs as in D. frag His. Wings smoky, their surface very densely covered with a brown pubescence ; long, stiff, black hairs project from the costa, and there is a deep fringe extending right round the 238 Transactions. — Zoology. posterior border of the wing. First longitudinal less than one-half the length of the wing; second longitudinal arcuated at the tip, ends slightly beyond the apex ; anterior branch of third longitudinal very indistinct ; transverse vein situated less than half-way along the first longitudinal. I have two specimens, taken at Lincoln during November. Diplosis scoparia,i\.s^. Female. Antennae, 0-036 ; wings, 0-088 X 0-038 ; body, 0-059 x 0-012. xVntennse dark-brown ; joints about twice the length of their pedicels, cylindrical in shape, but slightly constricted in the middle ; verticils short and scattered ; terminal joint of the antennse bears a pointed projection at its end. Palpi pink. Thorax dark- brown, with two narrow pink stripes, widely separated at the anterior end, but converging considerably towards the scu- tellum ; a few hairs on the lateral margins and on the pink stripes. Scutellum pink, with a row of hairs on its semicircu- lar posterior margin. Halteres with long slender red pedi- cels, bearing a pyriform club clothed rather thickly with black hairs. Abdomen bright-pink, the posterior margins of the seg- ments, as usual, bearing a few long hairs. Legs dark-brown ; femora and tibiae about equal in length ; joints of the tarsus as in D. fragilis. Wings smoky, rather thickly covered with a brown pubescence. First longitudinal rather less than half the length of the wing ; second longitudinal at first straight, but afterwards strongly arcuated, ending considerably beyond the apex ; fork of third longitudinal slightly beyond the end of first longitudinal ; cross-vein situated less than half-way along first longitudinal. I have two female specimens of this insect, which were taken at Lincoln in November. Diplosis wanganuicnsis, n. sp. (Plate VII., fig. 2.) Female. Antenna, 0049 ; wings, 0-096 x 0035 ; body, 0071 x 0-014. Antennae dark-brown ; joints of the scapus dull-yellow, nearly orbicular ; basal joints of the flagellum more than double the length of those near the apex ; basal joints much more, and apical joints slightly more, than double the length of their pedicels ; terminal joint with a small projection ; verticils small and scattered. Palpi the same colour as the joints of the scapus, as long as the antenna? up to the first joint of the scapus. Thorax ferruginous, with two converging light lines ; perfectly glabrous. Scutellum ferruginous, without hairs. Hal- teres with long slender white pedicels, the clubs being darker owing to the presence of black hairs. Abdomen pink, with long slender ovipositor ; very few hairs on the segments. Legs light -brown, long and slender, very slightly hairy. Wings pellucid, glabrous, or slightly hairy. Costa and second longitudinal light-red ; first longitudinal a little more than Marshall. — On Neiv Zealand Diptera. 239 one-third the length of the wing; second longitudinal strongly arcuated, joining the margin some distance beyond the apex; third longitudinal very slightly bent upwards at the fork. I obtained two specimens of this insect in a swamp at Wanganui. Diplosis flava, n. sp. Male. Antennae, 0-092 ; wings, 0-115 X 0-037; body, 0-059 x 0-013. Joints of the scapus sub- globose, bright-yellow; flagellum cinereous; double joints rather shorter than their pedicels, single joint about a quarter the length of their pedicels ; length of double joints near the base about three times their breadth, near the apex the length is about double the breadth ; terminal joint longer than the three or four double joints immediately preceding it, becoming at its apex a colourless projection closely resembling a broken- off piece of pedicel. Palpi long and slender, light-yellow. Thorax yellow, perfectly glabrous, rather darker on the lateral margins. Halteres with very long and slender pedicels, bear- ing a small pyriform yellow club. Scutellum white, perfectly glabrous. Abdomen pink, with several bristly yellow hairs on the margins of the segments. Legs long and slender, yellow, but rather thickly clothed with small black hairs. Wings almost glabrous, hyaline. Veins colourless, except the basal portion of the costa, which is yellow ; first longitudinal less than half the length of the wing ; second longitudinal strongly arcuated, joining the margin some distance beyond the apex of the wing ; transverse vein half-way along the first longitudinal ; fork of third longitudinal beyond the end of the first longitudinal. I obtained a single specimen of this insect in a swamp at Wanganui. Subsection B. Cross-vein very oblique, originating at the root of the first longitudinal vein. Sub-genus Epidosis. — Second longitudinal vein sinuous before the cross-vein. Joints of the autennee pedicelled in both sexes, their number variable. Epidosis magna, n. sp. (Plate V., fig. 4.) Male. Length of antennae, 0-138 ; expanse of wings, 0-153 x 0-055; length of body, 0-068. Antennae 2 -f 22 jointed, longer than body, pale- brown ; long pedicels ; joints about half the length of the pedicels, sub-globose ; verticils long, arranged in two whorls on the joints ; scapus joints near base of the flagellum almost cylindrical ; joints longest in centre, decreasing in size towards apex. Palpi moderately long. Basal three joints of the flagel- lum covered with scattered black hairs. Thorax deep-brown, with two tufts of long black hairs, one tuft at each side ; collare glistening-white; centre of thorax marked by a cuneiform stripe 240 Transactions. — Zoology. of fuscous brown, down the middle of which there is a narrow black line ; sides of the fuscous-brown stripe marked by a single row of long black hairs. Scutellum glistening- white, with long black hairs on posterior poition. Halteres long, densely haired ; club moderate. Abdomen light yellowish- red, densely covered with long grey or black hairs. Legs long and slender, everywhere covered with short black hairs, which are more numerous on the fore femora and less nume- rous on the tarsal joints than elsewhere. Wings pellucid, densely pubescent ; violet, red, and blue reflections. Costal veins testaceous, but becoming red towards the apex of the wing; cross-veins pale, nearly straight, diverging from first longitudinal about four times the length of cross-vein from end of first longitudinal ; second longitudinal thin, with a deep bow before cross-veins, reaches wing-margin beyond the apex ; both branches of the third longitudinal indis- tinct. Female. Size of body, 0-121 ; ovipositor, 0-044 ; antennae, 0-146; wings, 0-153. Joints of antennse, 2 -f 25 ; pedicels short ; joints cylindrical near base, but becoming orbicular at the apex ; last joint two and a half times length of previous joint, subcorneal. Thorax darker than in the male, cunei- form stripe separated into two narrow linear fuscous-brown stripes approaching one another, and becoming lost opposite the base of the wings. Abdomen darker than in male, but otherwise similar. Ovipositor long, needle-shaped, same colour as abdomen. Verticils not so long as in male. o Ejndosis agricola, n. sp. Female. Antennae, 0-052; body, 0-090 X 0-011; wings, 0-119 x 0011. Antennae longer than the head and thorax, 2 + 11 joints ; joints nearly cylindrical, with short pedicels; pedicels of lower joints shortest, those of central joints largest; joints gradually decreasing in size from below upwards ; verticils few and scattered. Palpi bright-red, with a few scattered black hairs. Collare testaceous. Tborax a uniform pink colour, with two shallow and narrow grooves extending from the collare, where they are widely separated, to the base of the wings, where they are close together ; a few scattered black hairs on the grooves and sides of the thorax. Scutellum rather brighter in colour than the thorax, with a few hairs on the posterior border. Halteres long, with white glabrous pedicels ; club white and glabrous. Abdomen of a lighter pink than the thorax, with a few scattered hairs on the segments. Legs long and slender, covered rather thickly with short black hairs. Wings pellucid, thinly covered with black hairs. Second longitudinal vein bent in a short arcua- tion before junction with cross -vein, afterwards strongly bowed, and terminating beyond the apex of the wing ; both Marshall. — On New Zealand Diptera. 241 branches of third longitudinal vein indistinct ; costal and second longitudinal veins red ; transverse vein short, joining first longitudinal three times its own length from end of first longitudinal. Lincoln, November. Epidosis ordinaria, u. sp. Male. Antennae, 0046 ; body, 0049 X 0-008 ; wings, 0-109 x 0-036. Antennae 2+11 joints; joints of scapus nearly white ; lowest joints of flagellum nearly cylindrical, shortly pedicelled ; pedicels of middle joints longer, and joints shorter and oval ; terminal joints small and oval ; verticils few but long. Palpi moderately long, testaceous. Thorax dark-brown, becoming lighter pos- teriorly, with a few scattered black hairs. Scutellum opaque, white, with one or two black hairs, sometimes bordered with red. Hal teres fuscous, pedicel densely covered with short black hairs ; club moderate, covered with short black hairs. Abdomen pink, with scattered grey hairs. Legs long and slender, clothed with black hairs. Wings pellucid, densely covered with brown hairs, which are especially long in the fringe on the inner margin. Veins testaceous to red ; second longitudinal slightly arcuated before junction with transverse veins, afterwards broadly arcuated, and ending slightly be- yond apex of the wing ; transverse vein short, about a quarter length of first longitudinal from rising-point of transverse to costa. Most noticeable points : Colour of the scutellum and halteres, and veins of the wing. Common, October to March. Lincoln. Ep)idosis aurea, n. sp. (Plate VI., fig. 3.) Antennae broken ; wings, 0-110 X 0-048 ; body, 0051 x 0-024. Antenna unfortu- nately broken in my single specimen ; joints of scapus red in colour, with a few black hairs ; flagellar joints all oval, with pedicels about half as long as themselves ; joints cinereous in colour, with few but long verticils of a black colour. Palpi tes- taceous. There are eight flagellar joints remaining on one an- tenna, all of which are similar in size and shape. Anterior portion sides and posterior portion of the thorax orange-yellow in colour, a central dark-brown mark extending from the coUare to a little anterior to the point of insertion of the wings, its length being about three times its breadth ; on each side one black mark about the same size as the central brown mark, but situated more posteriorly ; between the central and lateral marks orange-yellow stripes with a few golden hairs. Scutel- lum golden-yellow, with a few golden hairs. Halteres light- orange ; pedicels long, and, like the club, clothed sparingly with black hairs. Abdomen dark-red, with a few grey hairs scattered over the segments. Legs long and slender, fuscous, 16 242 Transactions. — Zoology. covered with short grey and black hairs. Wings covered all over Vi'ith short black hairs. Veins brown, distinct ; second longitudinal vein nearly straight before junction with cross- vein, afterwards arcuated ; transverse cross-vein about one- sixth length of fii'st longitudinal from point of origin of trans- verse vein to junction with costa. I have at present only a single specimen of this distinct species, which was captured at the foot of Mount Torlesse early in March. Section II. Wings with four longitudinal vems. Sub-family II. LESTEEMINA. Wings with at least four longitudinal veins, or at' most five ; sometimes a rudimentary vein behind the fifth. The addi- tional vein is placed between the two veins corresponding to the second and third of the first sub-family, and is generally furcate. Ocelli nearly always present. First tarsal joint not shortened. I. Ocelli extant. A. Wings with four longitudinal veins ; the third not furcate ; the fourth furcate, representing the fourth and fifth longi- tudinal veins of other genera coalescent for the first half of their course. Genus I. Campylomyza, Meigen. (Plate VII., fig. 1.) Antennae 2 + 6 to 2-|-23 jointed, moniliform, verticillate; joints ovate, lentiform, or cylindrical, with long pedicels in the male and sessile in the female, or sessile in both sexes. Wings large, considerably rounded at the apex ; in some cases the base of the wing is cuneiform, in other cases the posterior angle is prominently rounded ; hairs often scaly ; long cross-vein. A. Wings cuneiformly narroioed at the base. Campylomyza tenuis, n. sp. Bodv, 0-038 x 0-013 ; antennae, 0-027; wings, 0-049 x 0025." Antennae grey, 2 + 9 joints ; basal joints of flagellum rather large, globose, not quite so long as their pedicels ; gradually decreasing in size towards the apex ; ornamented with long verticils directed forward and just reaching a little beyond the base of the succeeding joint. Thorax short and broad, black or dark-brown, but paler on the lateral margins ; a few long black hairs arise from its surface. Scutellum large, semicircular, grey. Halteres white, with very elongated pyriform clubs, on which some black hairs are situated. Ab- domen pale, testaceous, with black hairs scattered over its Makshall. — Oil Neiv Zealand Diptcra. 243 surface. Genital appendages elongated. Legs slightly paler than the abdomen ; femur rather stout, shorter than tibia ; very few hairs on any of the joints. Wings slightly smoky. First longitudinal rather distant from the costa, about half as long as the wing ; second longitudinal ends slightly beyond the apex of the wing ; basal portion more than five times tlie length of the transverse vein ; third longitudinal very pale, issuing from the basal portion of second longitudinal at a little beyond half its length, disappearing before the margin ; fourth longitudinal with a long anterior branch, nearly straight, posterior branch distinct, and strongly arcuated. Surface of wing covered with black hairs. Lincoln, November. Gavipijloimjza Uncolniensis. Male. Antennae, 0048 ; wings, 0-044 X 0-025 ; body, 0027 x 0006. Antennae brown; joints of scapus slightly compressed; joints of flagellum thirteen in number, large, globose, de- creasing in size from below upwards ; pedicels nearly twice as long as the joints ; verticils black, long, pointing forwards, just reaching the base of the succeeding joint; terminal joint much smaller than the rest, oval, rather longer than its pedicel, its verticils slender. Thorax about as broad as long, black, but ornamented with a few golden-yellow hairs. Scutellum semicircular, black. Halteres with slender pedicels and a circular white club. Abdomen black, slightly haired. Legs light-brown, rather short and robust, not hairy. Femora rather longer than the tibiae. Wings pellucid. First longi- tudinal joins the costa at about half its length, part beyond the transverse vein about twice its length ; second longitudinal bent at junction of third longitudinal and of transverse vein, afterwards strongly arcuated, joining margin beyond the apex ; basal part about five times the length of transverse vein ; third longitudinal arising at about two- thirds of its length ; third longitudinal very faint, disappearing before reaching the margin; fourth longitudinal faint, anterior branch nearly straight. Surface of wings covered sparingly with black hairs. Lincoln, November. Only two specimens. CampDlomyza niimUa, n. sp. Female. Autenme, O'OU ; wings, 0-035 x 0-014 ; body, 0028 x 0005. Antennae dark-brown, 2 -f • 7 jointed ; joints of flagellum with very short pedicels, broader than long, ornamented rather sparingly with long radiating verticils; terminal joint oval, rather longer than the others, and ornamented in the same manner. Thorax dark-brown, with lateral margins much hghter. Halteres with slender white pedicels and a small white club. Abdomen smoky-brown, darker at the posteiior 244 Transactions. — Zoology. border of the segments. Legs short, the same colour as the abdomen, rather hairy. Wings hyahne. First longitudinal about half as long as the wing, part beyond the transverse vein about as long as the transverse vein ; second longitudinal vein distinct, only slightly bent, joining the margin distinctly before the apex of the wing ; third longitudinal very indis- tinct, disappearing long before the margin is reached ; fourth longitudinal indistinct, anterior branch long and nearly straight. Surface of the wings covered with a few scattered black hairs. I have only one specimen, taken at Lincoln in February. Ca^npylomzya nitida, n. sp. Female. Antennae, 0028 ; wings^ 0-038 X 0018; body ,"0-033 x 0008. Antennae dark-brown ; joints of flagellum thirteen in num- ber, oval, about twice the length of their pedicels, ornamented with a few straight radiating verticils ; terminal joint smaller than the others, without any projection. Thorax black and shining, without any hairs. Scutellum light-brown, oval. Halteres with a moderate pedicel and a small white club. Abdomen cinereous, narrowing considerably posteriorly, sur- face with a few scattered hairs. Legs light-brown ; femora and tibiae robust, with a few scattered black hairs ; first joint of tarsus double the length of the second ; the others are always slightly shorter than the preceding joint, except the last, which is longer than the fourth. Wings slightly smoky. First longitudinal less than half the length of the costa ; transverse vein long, but slightly shorter than that part of the first longitudinal beyond the point of junction ; second longitudinal very distinct, distant from first longitudinal, joining margin at the apex ; third longitudinal very indis- tinct, disappearing long before the margin ; fourth longi- tudinal fairly distinct, but both branches disappear before they reach the margin. Surface of the wing with scattered black hairs. Lincoln, February. Gampylomyza hirta, n. sp. Wings, 0-044 x 0-019 ; body, 0-038 X 0006. Antennse apparently 2 + 11 joints ; joints of flagellum dark-brown, almost sessile, ornamented with a few short verticils ; terminal joint equal to the others in size. Thorax dark-brown, almost smooth. Scutellum dark-brown. Hal- teres with a large club, almost black from the clothing of short hairs. Abdomen nearly cylindrical, but bulging out at the segments ; dark-brown, but lighter than the thorax and scutellum. Legs short, dull light-yellow, ornamented with rather long black hairs ; all the joints are rather stout. Wings hyaline, surface covered with long black hairs. First Marshall. — On Netv Zealand Diptera. 245 longitudinal vein about half the length of the costa, part beyond junction with transverse vein slightly longer than transverse vein ; basal portion of the second longitudinal about four times as long as the transverse vein, only slightly arcuated, joining the margin before the apex of the wing ; third longitudinal very indistinct, proceeding from the second longitudinal about two-thirds of the length of second longi- tudinal ; fourth longitudinal very indistinct, anterior branch rather long and only slightly bent. I have only one specimen, and its antennae are so con- torted as to render it almost impossible to count the joints or measure their length. Lincoln, February. Camj^ylomyza squamata, n. sp. Female. AntenuEe, 0-037 ; wings, b-057 x 0025; body, 0-042 x 0-011. Antennae light-brown, 2 + 10 jointed ; joints of scapus lentiform, not hairy ; joints of flagellum nearly globose, about half as long as their pedicels, last two joints much smaller than the rest, and with much shorter pedicels ; terminal joint oval ; all flagellar joints ornamented with long verticils directed forward and reaching to about the middle of the succeeding joint. Thorax black, almost destitute of hairs. Scutellum dark-brown. Halteres with short pedicels and small club. Abdomen black, covered with black hairs ; geni- talia orange. Legs light dull-yellow, the posterior pair being- much longer than the two anterior pairs ; femora and tibiae robust, covered with short black scaly hairs, very loosely attached. Wings pellucid. Veins light-brown, rather incon- spicuous owing to the thick covering of scaly black hairs spread over the surface of the membrane ; first longitudinal slightly more than half the length of the wing ; transverse veia situated rather more than its own length from the end of the first longitudinal; second longitudinal ending at the apex ; third longitudinal arising about two-thirds of the length of the basal portion of second longitudinal, disappears long before reaching the margin ; anterior branch of fourth longitudinal distinct, arcuated, reaching the margin ; posterior branch only slightly bent, does not reach the margin. I have only one specimen, taken at Lincoln in September. B. Wings rounded at the base. Ca7npylomyzaviagna,n. sp. Female. Antennae, 0-017 ; wings, 0088 X 0039 ; body, 0-083 x 0016. Antennae dark-brown, 2 + 10 jointed, nearly cylindrical; joints of scapus only slightly hairy ; flagellar joints sessile, •covered with a short pubescence ; terminal joint the smallest. Palpi short and stout, brown. Thorax black, a central wedge- shaped portion shining, but the rest dull. Halteres with a 246 Transactions. — Zoology. short brown pedicel, but a large cinereous club. Abdomen cylindrical, terminating in a short ovipositor. Abdomen clothed with short black hairs. Legs short and rather robust, dark-brown ; first joint of the tarsus about half as long as the tibia and about double the length of the second joint ; very few hairs on any of the joints. Wings smoky. Second longitudinal and costa dark-brown, the others lighter ; distinct indication of auxiliary vein, but it does not join the costa; first longitudinal rather more than half the length of the wing, bending down at the junction of the transverse vein,. which is only one-fifth of the length of remaining portion of first longitudinal ; basal portion of second longitudinal about one-third of the length of vein, only slightly bent, joins margin before the apex of the wing ; third longitudinal very indistinct, arising from second longitudinal at a little beyond a third of length of basal portion, cannot be followed more than a third of the distance to the margin ; fourth longitudinal distinct, anterior branch only slightly bent, posterior branch almost at right angles, disappears before reaching the posterior margin of the wing. Posterior angle of the wing pronounced. Surface covered with a minute brown pubescence. I have only one specimen of this lai'ge distinct species^ taken at Lincoln in December, 1893. Camioylomyza robusta, n. sp. Male. Antennae, 0-024 ; wings,. 0070 X 0031 ; body, 0-055 x 0-011. Antennae black, 2 -f 11 jointed ; flagellar joints almost globose ; pedicels about a quarter the length of the joints ; all the joints are covered with hairs, but there are no verticils ; subterminal joint oval, and longer than the others, which are slightly compressed longitudinally ; terminal joint much smaller than the others, apparently without a pedicel. Thorax black, clothed sparingly with light-coloured hairs. Scutellum black. Halteres with short thick brown pedicels, ending in rather a large oval cinereous club. Abdomen very dark brown, covered with scattered black hairs. Legs light- brown ; femora about the same length as the tibiae, thick, clothed sparingly with light-coloured hairs. Wings with a distinct anal angle, rather smoky, covered with black hairs. First longitudinal less than half the length of the W'ing, part beyond point of origin of transverse vein about four times tlie length of transverse vein ; second longitudinal slightly bent, ending a very little before apex of the wing, very distinct ; third longitudinal very indistinct, arising a little beyond middle point of basal portion of second longitudinal ; both branches of fourth longitudinal distinct, but the posterior branch does not reach the margin. Lincoln, February. Marshall. — On Nexv Zealand Diptcra. 247 Ciunpijloinyza ordinaria, u. sp. (Plate V., tig. 5.) Male and female.' Antennae, 0012 ; wings, 0-063 x 0-029 ; body, 0-052 X 0-007. AntenniB light-brown, 2 + 10 joints ; first joint of scapus large, globose, second much smaller ; lowest joint of flagel- lum lighter than the rest, oval, others subglobose, with pedi- cels about half their length ; ornamented with numerous verticils about twice as long as the diameter of the joints ; terminal joint oval, much smaller than the rest. Thorax dark-brown, with a few hairs. Scutellum semicircular, brown. Halteres with a short pedicel bearing an elongated pyriform club, light-brown in colour, and pubescent. Abdomen dark- brown, ornamented with numerous brown hairs. Legs more elongated than usual ; femora and tibiye robust ; very light brown or pale-yellow, thinly clothed with rather long light- coloured hairs. Wings mther smoky, clothed with rather a thick covering of light-brown hairs. Slight rudnnent of auxiliary vein; first longitudinal less than half the lengtli of the wing, part beyond point of origin of transverse vein about twice the length of the transverse vein ; second longi- tudinal slightly curved, ending at the apex of the wing. Third longitudinal indistinct, disappearing a little distance from the margin ; fourth longitudinal mdistinct, anterior branch nearly straight, reaching the margin, posterior branch nearly at right angles to it, and disappearing close to the margin. Two specimens, one male and one female. Lincoln, Feb- ruary. Genus Lestremia, Macquart. Antennte moniliform, verticillate, in the male 2 + 14, in the female 2 + 9 to 2 + 10 jointed ; the joints in the male almost ovate, pedicelled ; in the female more cylindrical, with short pedicel?. Wings large, moderately broad, with prominent posterior angle. First longitudinal vein very short : secoiid longitudinal short, running rather close to costa, joining the border much before the apex of the wmg ; third longitudinal vein with a very long fork ; cross-vein small beyond the middle of the first longitudinal vein . Skuse records no species from Australia, but says the genus is represented by a few /American and European species. There seems to be some doubt as to whether ocelli are pre- sent in the European species. As shown in Plate VI., fig. 4, three ocelli are always present in the New Zealand species. Lestremia nooce-zealandice, n. sp. (Plate VI., fig. 1.) Female. Antennae, 0-033 (largest), 0-014 (smallest) ; wing, 0-126 x 0-050 (largest), 0071 x 0-028 (smallest) ; body, 0-122 x 0-022 (largest), 0-060 x 0-014 (smallest). 248 Transactions. — Zoology. Anteiinai dark-brown ; joints cylindrical, with very short pedicels ; terminal about half as long again as the penultimate joint ; a circlet of short verticils arises from the basal portion of each joint. Lower portion of frons black. Three ocelli, situated in a triangle just above point of insertion of the antennae. Compound eyes far apart, emarginate, the antennae being situated in the bend in the outline. The antennas are nearly surrounded by a single row of facets, bead-like in ap- pearance. Palpi light-yellow. Thorax dark-brown, hood- shaped ; two stripes of lighter colour inclined to one another like the sides of a wedge, the point directed posteriorly ; on these stripes long hairs are situated. Scutellum dark-brown, with a rovv of hairs along posterior margin. Halteres with short pedicels ending in elongate pyriform clubs ; light - brown in colour, with scattered black hairs. Abdomen dark- brown, anterior portion of third and succeeding segments light-brown. Surface of all the segments with slender light- coloured hairs. Legs not much longer than the abdomen ; light-brown femora, rather shorter than tibiae ; latter light- pink at the tip ; *first joint of tarsus more than double the length of the second, others all shorter than the one pre- ceding them. Wings pellucid, covered with scattered short black hairs. Costal and second longitudinal pink ; rudiment of auxiliary vein present ; first longitudinal more than one- third the length of the wing, cross-vein near its tip very oblique ; second longitudinal ending long before the tip of the wing; third longitudinal branching out of second just be- fore junction with cross-vein, fork long, both branches wavy, anterior branch ends at the tip of the wing ; fourth longitu- dinal commencing nearer base of wing than third longitudinal, nearly straight, almost disappears before reaching the margin ; fifth longitudinal distinct, strongly arcuated ; sixth longitu- dinal short, lying close alongside fifth longitudinal. Posterior angle of the wing very distinct. Lincoln. Fairly common, especially in very early spring, but is found all tbe year round. Male. Antennas, 0-055 (largest), 0-035 (smallest) ; wing, 0077 X 0-030 (largest), 0-060 x 0-024 (smallest) ; body, 0052X 0-011 (largest), 0-046 xOOll (smallest). (Plate VI., fig. 2.) Antennae light-brown, 2 -f 14 joints; joints cylindrical, with pedicels twice their length ; all the joints appear double ; ornamented with rather long verticils arising from the con- striction in the middle of the joint ; terminal joint oval, larger than those innnediately preceding. At first I thought that there were three distinct species, which, on examination, proved to differ only in size. This, Makshall. — Oa New Zealand Diptera. 249 however, is very marked, though not constant enough to constitute distuict species. In all other particulars but size all my specimens are exactly identical ; the antennce, veins of the wings, and other organs show no variation. I have not been able to examine the palpi in any but a very few speci- mens, but, so far as I have been able to ascertain, the structure is constant. AH measurements given above are in inches. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate V. Fig. 1. Miastor agricolcc, female. Fig. 2. Cecidomyia destructor, male. The only object of this diagram is to illustrate the difference between this genus and Diplosis. Fig. 3. Diplobis dubia, female. Fig. 4. Epidosis magna, male. Fig. 5. Campylomyza ordinaria, female. These figures were all drawn from dried specimens. Their chief object is to illustrate the difference between the various genera to which they belong. They should not be relied on for specific characters. Plate VI. Fig. 1. Lestremia nova-zealatidice, female. Fig. 2. „ „ male. Fig. 3. Side view of Epidosis aurca (antennae broken). Fig. 4. Head of Lestremia nov a; -zealandice: o, occiput ; e, compound eye; /, frons ; g, ocelli ; a, antennee ; p, palpi. Plate VII. Fig. 1. Portion of antenna of Campylomyza. Fig. 2. Portion of antenna of male of Diplosis ivanganuiensis. Fig. 3. ^I-aXq ol Diplosis fragilis. Fig. 4. Diagram of ideal dipterous wing. Cells. A. First costal cell. B. Second costal cell. C. Third costal cell. D. Marginal cell. E. Submarginal cell. F. First posterior cell. G. Second posterior cell. H. Third posterior cell. I. Discal cell. K. First or large basal cell. L. Second basal cell, or anterior of the small basal cells. M. Third basal cell, or posterior of the small basal cells. N. Anal or axillary corner of the wing. 0. Alar appendage (alula). Veins. a. Transverse shoulder-vein. 6. Auxiliary vein. e. First longitudinal vein. 250 Transactions. — Zoology. d. Second longitudinal vein. e. Third longitudinal vein. /. Fourth longitudinal vein. g. Fifth longitudinal vein. h. Sixth longitudinal vein. i. Small or middle transverse vein. k. Hinder transverse vein. I, m, n, 0. Costal veins. p. Anterior basal transverse vein. q. Posterior basal transverse vein. r. Rudiment of a fourth trunk. s. Axillary incision. t. Anterior branch of third longitudinal. 71. Anterior intercalary vein. V. Posterior intercalary vein. Akt. XXV. — New Zealand Dq^tera : No. 2. — Myceto- philidae. By P. Marshall, M.A., B.Sc, F.G.S., Lecturer on Natural Science, Lincoln College. . [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Ganterburii, 5th June, 1S95.^, Plates VIII.-XIII. In common with the other families of smaller flies, the Mycetopliilidce have suffered sadly from neglect at the hands of New Zealand entomologists. The only species hitherto recorded as existing in this colony were described by Captain Hutton ni the " Catalogue of the New Zealand Diptera." He there gives descriptions of two species, one of w'hich he places in the genus My cetophila, and the other in the genus Platyura. The specimens from which Captain Hutton drew his descrip- tions are fortunately still extant in the museum of Lincoln Agricultural College, so I have lieen able to examine them ; but I am unable to agree with Captain Hutton as to the place he assigns them in the classitication of the Mycetopliilidce. For reasons that will be given later on, I have deemed it necessary to establish new genera for both these flies, as they possess characters that certainly will not allow them to be placed in any previously-described genera. So far as my observations on the New Zealand representatives of this family have gone, I have been struck with the great diversity of type and structure that is exhibited by our species, for out of seven sub-sections into which the family is divided six are MAUSHALh.— On Neiv Zealand Dlptera. 251 abundantly represented in this colony. This is the more re- markable when one considers that all the Australian forms hitherto described are included in four of these sub-sections. In the majority of these divisions there are insects that differ radically from any previously-established genera, and for these new genera have been established, though with considerable reluctance in one or two cases. The insects of this family can easily be distinguished from all others by their strongly- curved thorax, and legs armed with strong spurs, as well as by the arrangement of the veins of the wings. They can be taken very commonly on windows facing shady gardens at almost any tune throughout the year. They are abundant in the early sprmg, and at Lincoln a few stragglers will be found as late as the middle of June. At Wanganui no less than ten distinct species could be found as late as the middle of July, and would doubtless be as numerous right through the winter! In their native haunts they can be taken abundantly by sweeping the undergrowth and ferns in all damp bush through- out the summer and the greater part of winter. Though usually small insects, one of our native sjDecies is more than an inch in expanse of wings, and to a casual observer would appear to belong to the Tipulida rather than to the Myce- tophilida-. In the present paper I give descriptions of thirty-five species, of which the majority belong to old-estabfished genera. They are distributed as follows : Macrocera, 4 species ; Bolitophila, 1 ; Gcroplatus, 3 ; Platyura, 4 ; s'cio- phila, 1 ■ Tetragoneiira, 1 ; Brachydicrania, 1 ; "Aphelomera, 1 ; Mycetophila, 6. Of these genera, species of Macrocera, Gero- platus, Platyura, Sciophila, and Mycetophila have been de- scribed from Australia and the Old World. Species of Boli- tophila and Tetragoneiira have been descrilied from the Old World, but not from Australia; while the genera Heteropiterna and Brachydicrania have been established for insects recently described from Australia. Of the new genera established in this paper, the first three belong to the sub-section Mi/ceto- bmce, m which there were but three previously-existing genera, containing but few species, all of which have been described from the Old World, Australia, so far, not havin" been shown to possess any. Two of the new genera are in some respects highly peculiar, and without doubt form a very interesting feature of the New Zealand Diptera. The other new genera belong to well-represented sub-sections, and have many characteristics in conunon with previously-described genera, but, owing to the rigid manner in which the genera of this family are described, and the slight variations that are considered sufficient to justify their separation, they cannot be placed m any of the old genera. Some of the genera here 262 Transactions. — Zoology. (lesciibed may very possibly be discarded subsequently, when our insects have been further investigated. Many that are here described as species may afterv^'ards be reduced to varieties, while some of my varieties may very probably be raised to the rank of species. But, though blunders have been made, none of the genera and species described in this paper have been separated from others without considerable thought and care where the issue seemed in any way doubtful. Classification. Winnertz, the great authority on this family of flies, divided it into a large number of genera, separated from one another by what at first sight appear to be comparatively in- significant characteristics. His classification has been adopted by all subsequent workers at the family, and has always been found thoroughly satisfactory. Although it may seem in some ways unnecessary to establish so many genera, yet if some were eliminated the remainder would contain such an enormous number of species that it would be necessary to establish sub- genera and other minor divisions in order to provide for their thorough, systematic classification. The family is divided by Winnertz into three sections, according to the characters of the alar venation. All of these sections are numerously repre- sented in New Zealand. The last sub-section of all, Myceto- philina, is divided into three classes, according to the number and position of the ocelli. It is this division that seems to me somewhat unsatisfactory so far as some of our New Zealand species are concerned. In one genus, for instance, which I have called Anomala, there are two species evidently closely allied, but differing in size, coloration, and other specific characters ; in addition to merely specific distinction, how- ever, the larger species has only two ocelli, and the other un- doubtedly has three, and on account of this difference would, if "Wi^lnertz' classification were strictly adhered to, have to be placed not only in distinct genera, but even in different classes. As the two species are evidently so closely allied I have included them both in the same genus, and hope subse- quently to come across other species showing a transition, and therefore justifying my classification. The first section is divided into five sub-sections, of which all but the first have New Zealand representatives. The second sub-section, Myce- tohiiKB, as far as I can ascertain, embraces but a few species, which are placed in three genera. I already possess four distinct and in some respects peculiar species belonging to this sub-section, and have found it necessary to establish three new genera for their reception. From the comparatively limited area over which I have searched compared to the vast extent of forest-land in this country, I feel confident that Marshall.— 0;/ Neic Zealand Diptera. 253 many more species, and probably genera, will yet be dis- covered belongnig to the sub-section Mycetobince. Generally the Mycefophilida are excessively abundant in the colony* owmg probably to the great extent of damp bush-covered country, and wherever search is made new species are dis- covered m comparative plenty. The following is a restcme^ taken from Skuse's " Monocrraph of An^tv'a.h^n MycetophilidcB,'' of Winnertz' classification of tne lamily. Only those genera are described that have so far been shown to possess representatives in this colony. Where genera of my own are mentioned their probable relation to other genera is indicated. Section I.— Second longitudinal vein arising from the fourth longitudinal vein, at the middle of it, or more or less before the middle of it. Marginal cross- vein elongated, very obliquely situated. Inner marginal cell dilated. Anterior branch of the second longitudinal vein seldom missin^ [m Biadocidia only). Anterior branch of the fourth lonaj! tudmal vein issuing from the base of the second longi- tudinal vein. Fifth longitudinal vein generally perfect Ocelh on the front. " Section II.— Second longitudinal vein arising from the fourth longitudinal vein near the root of the wing. Marginal cross-vem not elongated. Inner marginal cell not dilated Anterior branch of the second longitudinal vein always present, very small, situated very near the marginal cross- vein ; consequently the marginal cell is very short An- terior branch of the fourth longitudinal vein issuincr from the fourth longitudinal vein bej'ond, at, or before the middle of it. Fifth longitudinal vein incomplete Three ocelli on the front. Section III.— Second longitudinal vein, marginal cross-vein hfth longitudinal vein, and inner marginal cell as in' the last section. Anterior branch of second lon^ritudinal vein always missing; therefore only two submargiual cells Anterior branch of the fourth longitudinal vein arisin-' from the fourth longitudinal vein beyond, at, or before the middle of It, rarely missing, more rarely still the anterior branch of the third longitudinal vein missin' dilated. Surface of the wing microscopically pubescent. Genus Ceroplatus. Antennae broadly flattened. Palpi not incurved. Le^s long and slender. Auxiliary vein reaching the costa before the origin of the third longitudinal vein. This genus is represented by several species in New Zea- land. In the present paper I describe three. Genus Platyura. Antenna? not broadly flattened, somewhat compressed, 2 -f 14 jointed. Palpi incurved. Auxihary vein usually united to the first longitudinal by the subcostal cross-vein Anterior branch of the second longitudinal vein short, ending either in the first longitudinal or in the .costal vein. Third submarginal cell with a very short petiole. 256 Transactions. — Zoology. SECTION II. Sub-section VI. Sciophilin^. Genus Scio'phila. Tip of the costal vein uniting with the tip of the second longitudinal vein at the apex of the wing. Base of the second posterior cell nearer to the root of the wing than the base of the third submarginal cell. Auxiliary sometimes complete and terminating in the costa above the marginal cell, and sometimes incomplete. Surface of the wing microscopically pubescent. Intermediate coxae of the male sometimes with an upward-bent spine. I have only one species belonging to this genus, and of that I have grave doubts, but I place it here until I can obtain better specimens. Genus Parvicellula, nov. gen. Costal vein extending considerably beyond the apex of the second longitudinal vein, but not reaching the apex of the wing. Auxiliary vein rather stout, almost one-third the length of the wing. Subcostal cross-vein situated near the apex of the inner marginal cell. Petiole of second longitudinal vein very short. Fourth longitudinal vein unbranched. I have only one species of this genus. It is rather common at Lincoln towards the end of the summer. Genus Tetragoneura, Winn. Costal vein extending far beyond the tip of the second longitudinal vein, but not as far as the apex of the wing. Auxiliary vein small, bent posteriorly, ending in the first longitudinal vein far before the marginal cell, or shortened to a tooth. The marginal cell far beyond the middle of the first longitudinal vein. Inner marginal cell much lengthened. Fork of the third longitudinal vein with a moderately long petiole. Base of the second posterior cell lying before the base of the third submarginal cell. Surface of the wing microscopically pubescent. I have only one species of this genus. SECTION III. Sub-section VII. Mycetophilin^. A. Three ocelli on the front. Genus Aneura, gen. nov. Costal vein reaching the apex of the wing. Auxiliary vein more than one-third the length of the wing. Subcostal cross- vein absent. Second longitudinal vein ending in the costa some distance before its apex. Fourth longitudinal vein forked. Makshall. — Oil Neiv Zealand Diptera. 257 I have only one species of this genus. It is distinguished from nearly all the other genera of this suh-seetion by the absence of the subcostal cross-vein. Genus Euryceras, nov. gen. Costal vein extending beyond the tip of the second longi- tudinal vein, but not reaching the apex of the wing. Auxiliary vein ending in the costa at about one-third the length of the wing ; subcostal cross-vein situated about half-way along it. Basal portion of the second longitudinal vein and the marginal cross-vein equally long. Inner marginal cell short. Third longitudinal complete. Surface of the wing distinctly hairy. Antennae compressed. I have only one species of this genus. Genus Anomala, nov. gen. Second longitudinal joining costa not far before the apex of the wing. Costa nearly reaching apex of wing. Subcostal cross-vein missing. Inner marginal cell somewhat lengthened, but its apex lies some distance before base of second sub- marginal cell. Fork of third longitudinal vein short, its petiole rather long. Base of the second posterior cell situated before the origin of third longitudinal vein. This genus includes tv;o species, both of which are com- mon. It is closely allied to Lcia, Atelcia, and Coelosia. Genus Aphelomera, Sk. Costal vein extending far beyond the tip of the second longitudinal vein, but stopping before the apex of the wing. Auxiliary vein joining the costa a short distance before the marginal cross-vein ; no subcostal cross-vein. Marginal cross- vein situated very much before the middle of the first longi- tudinal vein. Third longitudinal vein detached from the second longitudinal, starting in the wing-disk beyond the marginal cross-vein ; no anterior branch. Anterior branch of the fourth longitudinal Vein quite detached, appearing as a short piece of a vein joining the margin. Fifth longitudinal vein very rudimentary. Wing microscopically pubescent. Abdomen with six segments. I have only one species belonging to this Australian genus. Genus Cycloncura, nov. gen. Auxiliary vein represented by a rudiment. First longi- tudinal vein ending at about half the distance along the wing. Second longitudinal vein detached at the base, ending some distance before the apex of the wing, and before the end of the costa. Third longitudinal vein detached at the base, end- ing a little beyond the apex of the wing; posterior branch missing. Fourth longitudinal vein detached at the base. 17 258 Transactions. — Zoology. Fifth longitudinal vein complete, joined beyond half its length by a vein probably corresponding to the posterior branch of the fourth longitudinal vein. I have only one species of this genus. Genus Paradoxa, nov. gen. Auxiliary vein represented by a rudiment. Costa ending some distance before apex of the wing. First longitudinal vein ending in the costa about half-way along the wing. Second longitudinal ending in the costa some distance before its end. Third longitudinal vein with rather short petiole and long fork ; posterior branch slightly detached at its base. Fourth longitudinal not forked. Fifth longitudinal as in Cijcloneura. I have only one species of this genus. B. Three ocelli, one on the inner border of each of the compound eyes, the third one situated in the middle of the anterior border of the front. Subcostal cross-vein missing. Surface of the wing micro- scopically pubescent. Abdomen of the male with six segments. Genus Zygomyia, "Winn. Tips of the costal and second longitudinal veins uniting far before the apex of the wing. Auxiliary vein incomplete, bent anteriorly, gradually disappearing or only forming a tooth. Apex of the inner marginal cell not situated beyond the base of the second submarginal cell. Petiole of the fork of the third longitudinal very short. Anterior branch of the fourth longitudinal vein wanting. Fifth longitudinal vein incomplete. Sixth longitudinal vein in most cases longer. I have two species belonging to this genus. C. Two ocelli, one on the inner border of each of the compound eyes. Surface of the wing microscopically pubescent. Costal vein not extending beyond the tip of the second longitudinal vein. Subcostal cross-vein missing. Genus Mycetophila, Meig. Auxiliary vein incomplete, bent anteriorly. Apex of the inner marginal cell lying over the base of the second sub- marginal cell. Branches of the fourth longitudinal fork inclined towards one another at their tips. Fork of the third longitudinal vein with a very short petiole, or almost sessile. Base of the second posterior cell before, under, or a little beyond the base of the second submarginal cell. Fifth longi- tudinal vein incomplete, broken off before the base of the second posterior cell, or disappearing. Abdomen of the male with six segments. Marshall. — On Neio Zealand Diptera. 259 Genus Brachydicrania, Sk. Auxiliary veiu iucomplete, very short, bent posteriorly. Apex of the inner marginal cell lying over the base of the second submarginal cell Fork of the third longitudinal vein with a very short petiole. Second posterior cell small, its base situated far beyond the base of the second submarginal cell. Branches of the fourth longitudinal fork divergent. Fifth longitudinal incomplete, long, ending just before the base of the second posterior cell. Sixth longitudinal vein longer. Abdomen of the male with six segments. Genus Brevicormo, nov. gen. This genus is separated from Mycetophila by the character of the antennaB. CHAEACTERS OF THE FAMILY. The larvae of the IMiicetophilidce. are generally cylindrical, iittenuated towards both extremiti.es, soft, fleshy, smooth or a little wrinkled, moist, often viscous, more or less translu- cent, with twelve more or less clearl}^ determinable segments in addition to the head. Stigmata placed — one pair on the first segment of the thoracic region, and one pair on each of the abdominal segments from the first to the seventh inclusive. Head horny. Short mandibles and palpi occasionally present, and also rudimentary antennae. The larvte dilier very much in appearance and form, not only in the different genera, but also in different species of the same genera. The only observations that have hitherto been published are some notes by Mr. G. V. Hudson on the larva of Bolitopliila luminosa (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxiii., p. 47). Tiiis larva is abundant in all damp and dark bush-gullies in many parts of the colony. It lives suspended in a glutinous web, formed of material which is probably secreted by the salivary glands, though it seems to cover the whole surface of the body. It is wdiitish and transparent, about fin. in length, with short rudimentary antennae. It emits a brilliant phosphorescent light, and hence has obtained the popular name of the " New Zealand glow^-w'orm." I have not been able to ascertain what the larva feeds on, but probably on small mould and other fungi that abound in the localities where the larvas are found. The only other species whose larvae are known to me is Ceroplahis dendyi. Professor Dendy found numerous speci- mens under logs in beech-forest on Mount Alford. One of the larvae that he gave me pupated in due time, and the imago escaped from the pupa- skin in February ; one other pupated, but did not hatch. The larvae are about lin. or 1-^in. in length ; in general shape like those of Bolitopliila luminosa, but more cylindrical, and marked with rings of ferruginous brown. 260 Transactions. — Zoology. I have seen similar larvae in other localities, but have been unable to keep them. Like B. luvdnosa, the Ccroplatus larva forms a glutinous web in crannies of the log under which it lives, and in this web it habitually lives. It seems unable to crawl on any hard surface, but remains suspended in its web, and wheii it moves it enlarges the web first. These larvae are not luminous, in this respect differing from the larvae of C. mastersi, Sk. The exact function of the glutinous web I can do no more than guess at. It may, as mentioned above, assist in locomotion ; it may enable the suspended larva to keep out of the reach of enemies such as planarian worms or preda- ceous insects. A diagram of the digestive organs of a Myceto- philid in Theobald's " British Flies " shows extremely large salivary glands, and he remarks that these glands usually extend the whole length of the body ; the glutinous material is probably secreted by them. The pupa of both B. luviinosa and C. dendyi is suspended in the web formed by the larva. About eight hundred species of Myceto'philidcB are at present known. Many of the genera appear to be almost cosmopolitan. All the largest genera of Europe are repre- sented in New Zealand. Judging from the very varied types 1 have already collected, I should think that New Zealand will prove to be far richer in species than Australia, for, though the number of species described by Skuse in all probability represent but a small proportion of the total number, those described are confined to comparatively few of the sub- sections. IMAGO. External Structure. The head is narrower than the thorax, round or oblong or flattened hemispherical on the fore part, situated deep in the thorax. Front of both sexes broad. Eyes round or oval, frequently emarginate on the inner side or renifoi'm, set with short hair. Ocelli three, or only two : in the former case they are either disposed in a triangle, in a bent or sometimes a straight line on the front, or two are situated one on the border of each of the compound eyes, and the third placed in the middle of the anterior border of the front ; in the other case, always at the inner border of each of the compound eyes. Proboscis short, retired, rarely elongate or beak- shaped. Palpi three- or foiu'-jointed, prominent, generally incurved, the first joint always very small. Antennae gene- rally arcuated, straight, or diverging sideways, 2+10 to 2 + 15 jointed ; the joints of the scapus distinctly set off ; flagellar joints pubescent, sometimes verticillate - setose. Thorax ovate, more or less arched. Prothorax with close short pubescence, sometimes with longer hair, perhaps mixed Marshall. — On New Zealand Diptera. 261 with setiferous hair. Metathorax highly arched or perpen- dicular. Scutellmn generally small, semicircular, sometimes lai'ge, rounded, triangular, generally setiferous ; no transverse suture. Abdomen six- or seven -segmented, rarely eight- segmented, cylindrical or compressed at the sides, narrower at the base. Male with a large or small anal joint hold- ing forceps ; female with an ovipositor with two terminal lamellae ; the hair, except in a few cases, short and lying close. Legs sometimes long and slender, sometimes short and robust. Coxae very strong and elongated. Femora broadly flattened, usually strong. Tibise spurred, and with lateral spines, rarely without the latter ; fore ones with a spur and a very short spine, two hind ones with two spurs and one to four ranges of lateral spines on the outside, and generally with one range on the inner side ; rarely all the tibiae un- armed. Tarsi long and slender, or short and strong; meta- tarsus frequently prickly. Wings ovate, longer or shorter than the abdomen, with a broad, rounded, more or less cunei- form base. Five or six longitudinal veins, the fifth generally, the sixth always, rudimentary ; three cross-veins, of which the humeral and subniarginal are always present. Third and fourth longitudinal veins almost always, and the second longi- tudinal sometimes, forked. No discoidal cell. The first and fourth longitudinal veins are always complete, and form the most important veins issuing from the root of the wing. The <;ostal vein either extends quite to the apex of the wing or stops rather short. The auxiliary vein is often incomplete. Second longitudinal vein issues from the fourth longitudinal vein near its middle or close to its base — in the former case it is broken in an angle, in the latter case it arises obliquely ; it joins the costa at or before the apex of the wing. The anterior branch of the fourth longitudinal vein issues rarely near the root of the second longitudinal vein. When the second longitudinal vein issues from the middle of the fourth longitudinal vein it is at the base coalescent with the anterior branch of the fourth longitudinal vein, and the third longi- tudinal vein has its origin a little below or above the marginal cross-vein, and its fork lies higher up in the wing-disc. In this arrangement the second longitudinal vein is rarely simple, but usually sends out an anterior branch, which runs into the costa or into the first longitudinal vein ; this branch may be short or long. When the second longitudinal vein issues from the base of the first longitudinal vein the third longitudinal vein issues from the angle before the marginal cross-vein. Earely the anterior branch of the fourth longi- tudinal vein is missing, still more rarely the anterior branch of the thiri longitudinal vein ; infrequently one of these branches is or both are detached at the base. Fifth longi- 262 Transactions. — Zoology. tudinal generally only rudimentary. Between the fourth and fifth longitudinals there is generally a longitudinal fold ap- pearing like a vein under and close to the fourth longitudinal vein. Sixth longitudinal vein rudimentary or entirely miss- When the marginal cell is divided by an anterior branch of the second longitudinal vein the cell thus formed is re- garded as the first submarginal cell ; otherwise the cell be- tween the second and third longitudinals is the first sub- marginal cell. In some genera the cells are reduced to one submarginal and one posterior cell. SQMMAEY OF GENEEA DESCEIBED IN THIS PAPEE. Sub-section Mycetobinjs. Cyrtoneura, gen. nov. Nervijuncta, gen. nov. Htdtonia, gen. nov. Sub-section BoLiTOPHiLiNJi. Bolitophila, Europe and America. Sub-section Macrocerin^.. Macrocera, Europe, America, and Australia. Sub-section Ceroplatin^. Ceroplafus, Europe, America, and Australia. Platynra, Europe, America, and Australia. Sub-section Sciophilin^. Sciopliila, Europe, America, and Australia. Parvicellula, gen. nov. Tetragoneura, Europe and America. Sub-section Mycetophilinji;. Aneiira, gen. nov. Euryccras, gen. nov. Anoviala, gen. nov. Paradoxa, gen. nov. Cycloneura, gen. nov. Aj^helomera, Australia. Zygomyia, Europe. Brackydicrania, Australia. Mycetophila, Australia, Europe, and America. Brevicornu, gen. nov. Cyrtoneura, gen. nov. Head oblong, broader than long, front not flattened. Eyes large, oval, emarginate, meeting above the antennae. Ocelli three, large, the central one being situated in front of the Marshall.- — On Neiv Zealand Diptcra. 263 others. Epistoiue setose. Proboscis prominent, rather longer than the palpi. Palpi four-jointed; first joint short, about as broad as it is long; second joint long and greatly swollen, broadest in tlie middle ; third joint rather shorter, cylindrical, much narrower than the first two joints; fourth joint slender, cylindrical, longer than any of the others. Anteimae shorter than the thorax, 2 + 15 jointed ; first joint of scapus cu- puliform, twice as long and twice as broad as the second, wliich is also cupuliforna ; joints of flagellum cylindrical, length about three times the breadth, covered with a dense pubescence, central portion of each joint with stout seta^ Thorax strongly arched, its surface covered with a thin pu- bescence ; lateral margins, with stout setaB. Scutellum small, fringed with long setae. Metathorax acclivous. Abdomen rather slender, broadened rather posteriorly, slightly pu- bescent, seven-segmented. Forceps of male large, almost flabelliform, not chelate, covered with setae. Legs long and slender ; coxae stouter than the femora, setiferous at the tip and on the outer surface ; femora very slender, slightly pubes- cent ; tibiae long and slender, in fore-leg shorter than tarsus, in intermediate leg about as long as tarsus, and in posterior leg nearly twice the leneth of tarsus, fore and intermediate tibiae with practically no spines, but posterior tibiae with two ranges ; spurs rather short ; tarsi pubescent, with a few small prickles. Wings about as long as abdomen, rather scaly near posterior margin, and hairy near the apex, remark- ably rounded at the apical end, and cuneiformly narrowed at the base. Auxiliary vein rather more than one-third the length of the wing, disappearing just before reaching the margin ; first longitudinal more than two-thirds the length of the wing ; inner marginal cell one-third the length of the wing ; petiole of second longitudinal less than the length from apex of inner marginal cell to the commencement of the third longitudinal ; anterior branch of second longitudinal long, arcuated, running very gradually into costa; posterior branch very strongly arcuated, joining costa almost at the apex ; costa slightly extended beyond point of junction; fork of third longitudinal slightly beyond fork of second ; fourth longitu- dinal only slightly arcuated ; fifth longitudinal more strongly arcuated, reaching margin some distance beyond apex of inner marginal cell ; sixth longitudinal slender, long, but incomplete. I have at present only received a specimen of one species belonging to this genus. Cyrtoiieura hurhoni, sp. nov. Plate X., fig. 4; Plate XIII., figs. 1, 2. Length of antennae, 0-179 ; size of body, 0-874 x 0-062 ; ex- panse of wing, 0-752 x 0-172. 264 Transactions. — Zoology. Antennae 2 + 15 jointed ; first joint of scapus yellow, slightly longer than broad, cyathiforni ; second joint orange, short, cylindrical, length about equal to its diameter; both joints of scapus almost naked ; all joints of flagellum black, but the first has a ring of light-yellow at its lowest end ; length and diameter of joints decreasing slightly from below upwards ; all the joints are covered with a black pubescence, and have a few stiff black hairs near the middle. Proboscis moderately long, grey above but black below. Palpi four- jointed ; first joint grey, narrow, and short ; second joint orange, long, and greatly swollen, clothed with yellow and black hairs; third moderately short and narrow, dark-brown, with a black pubescence ; fourth about twice the length of the third, covered with black pubescence. Eyes eniarginate, separated by a very narrow line just above the antennae. Ocelli three, two lateral large, central one moderate ; situated almost in a line. Vertex narrow. Thorax dark-brown, with a narrow yellow line down the centre, and two broad lateral lines meeting in a semicircle in front, and tapering towards one another posteriorly ; another longitudinal lateral stripe just above the wing; the yellow is bordered with dark-brown, which becomes lighter away from the yellow stripes ; surface covered with small black hairs, and a row of strong hairs is situated on each lateral margin. Scuteilum and metathorax dark-brown. Epimera mottled dark-brown and light-yellow. Halteres with a slender pedicel, terminating m an orange- coloured club, dark at the base, and covered with a short pubescence. Abdomen of seven segments, dark-brown on the median line, but light-yellow on each side. Forceps of the male orange in colour. Legs long and slender ; coxae stout, light-yellow in colour, but shaded with dark-brown ; femora dai'k-yellow, the two posterior pairs being dark in the centre ; tibiae brown, long and slender, clothed with short black hairs ; the anterior tibiae have a single spine, the posterior have two short spines each ; short stiff hairs at intervals ; tarsi dark- brown, clothed with black hairs of two sizes. Wings very broad at apex, but cuneiformly narrowed at the base, clothed with scattered scales, especially near the inner margin, and with hairs near the apex. Auxiliary vein rudimentary ; first longitudinal ending in costa at about five-sixths the length of the wing ; second and third longitudinals with a common petiole ; anterior branch of second longitudinal very long, bending slightly downwards at the tip ; posterior branch strongly bent, ending just before the end of the costa, near the apex of the wing; fork of the third longitudinal nearer the apex of the wing than that of the second ; both branches feebly developed, and ending close behind the apex of the wing ; both branches of fourth longitudinal well developed ; Marshall.— 0?i Neio Zealand Diptcra. 265 fifth longitudinal rudimentary. Large patch of brown at the apex, and another'patch nearer the base. This very tine and remarkable species has, so far, only been taken near Wellington. Mr. Hudson has kindly lent me a specmien for drawing up this description. I have no hesi- tation m creating a new genus for its reception. Nervijuncta, gen. nov. Head nearly round, front not flattened. Eyes large, emar- ginate, almost meeting just in front of the ocelli. Ocelli three, large, situated almost in a line on the front. Palpi four-jointed, short — first joint small ; second longer and con- siderably swollen, the broadest part being in the middle ; third joint rather shorter than the second, cylindrical, and rather narrow ; fourth joint longest, very slender. Antennae shorter than the thorax ; first joint of scapus short and broad, cupuliform ; second joint twice the length of the first and not so broad, almost cylindrical ; flagellum slender, cylindrical, 2 -f 15 jointed, length of joints about three times theu' breadth, joints decieasing in diameter towards the apex of the antenna, pubescent, several stout setae situated near the centre of each joint. Thorax highly arched, pubescent, with strong setae on the lateral margins. Scutellum slim, circular, bordered with setae on posterior margin. Metathorax accli- vous. Abdomen rather flattened, seven-jointed, slender in front but becoming broad posteriorly. J^'orceps of male two- jointed, first joint almost spherical, crateriform at the apex, densely hairy ; second joint double the length of the first, cylindrical, hairy. Legs slender; coxa3 much stouter than the femora, almost naked ; femora about twice the length of the coxae, pubescent ; tibite slender, in fore-leg rather more than half the length of the tarsus, in intermediate leg very sliglitly longer than tarsus, in posterior leg rather longer than tarsus and with two rows of few but rather long and slender spines ; spurs very distinct ; metatarsus long, that of inter- mediate and posterior legs with a few minute prickles. Wings larger than the abdomen, rounded at the apex and cuneiformly narrowed at the base, pubescent on the surface. Auxiliary vein a short tooth not joining the costa nor the first longi- tudinal ; first longitudinal joining the margin at about two- thirds the length of the wing ; inner marginal cell about one- third of the length of the v*'ing ; third longitudinal arising from the second beyond the apex of inner marginal cell ; anterior branch of second longitudinal slightly arcuated, joining margin some distance in front of first longitudinal ; posterior branch of second longitudinal joining the tip of costa almost at the apex of the wing; fork of third longitudinal situated just beyond the fork of the second, branches not 266 Transactions. — Zoology. divergent ; fourth longitudinal almost straight ; fifth longi- tudinal arcuated ; sixtli incomplete, not reaching to apex of inner marginal cell, situated some distance from fifth longi- tudinal. This genus is evidently closely allied to Ditomyia, but differs from it in the point of origin of the third longitudinal vein. Nervijttncta nigrescens, sp. nov. Plate VIII., fig. 1. Length of antennae, 0-055; dimensions of body, 0-170 x 0-030; expanse of wing, 0-155 x 0-057. Antenme 2 + 15 jonited ; first joint of scapus short, cyathiform, fuscous ; second more than twice the length of tlie first, fuscous, but with a broad cinereous boi'der on the upper end ; all joints of flagellum black, slightly de- creasing in length and diameter from the base upward ; each joint with several small scattered hairs, and a zone of stiff hairs about the middle point. Palpi four-jointed — first joint small, nearly round ; second joint long and rather broad, black, with long black hairs at its anterior end ; third joint black, more slender, nearly naked ; last joint cylindrical, brown, with a fevv stout black hairs at its anterior end. Eyes large, emarginate. Ocelli three, middle smaller than the two lateral, situated nearly in a row. Eyes almost contiguous, behind the antennae. Vertex dark-brown, densely pubescent. Anterior portion and sides of thorax bright-golden, covered with golden hairs; central portion of thorax and scutellum dark-brown, the former ornamented with a few long stiff black hairs. Metathorax brown, but lighter than the mesothorax. Lower portioias of ephnera almost black. Abdomen very narrow anteriorly, biit broadening posteriorly, consisting of seven segments; an- terior portion of each segment dark-brown ; posterior margin has a narrow band, smoky-grey in colour ; all segments covered with moderately-long black hairs. Legs rather long and thin ; anterior coxae light-yellow, posterior coxae becoming brown at the tips ; femora dark-brown, long and narrow, covered with short stout black hairs ; anterior tibia slightly longer than the femur, bearing one short spine at its end; posterior tibia much longer, ornamented with two spines, and bearing scattered short stiff bristles ; all tibiae and tarsi nearly black ; first joint of tarsus very long, othei-s decreasing gradually in size, thickly clothed with very short black hairs. Wings nearly entirely brown, surface clothed with scattered black slender hairs. Auxiliary vein rudimentary ; first longitudinal nearly three-quarters the length of the wing; second and third longitudinals with a common but very short petiole arising from the apex of the inner marginal cell ; petiole of second Marshall. — On New Zealand Diptera. 267 longitudinal about the same length as its anterior branch ; posterior branch ends ia the termination of the costa just before the apex of the wing ; third longitudinal very slender, apex of its fork slightly nearer the apex of the wing than apex of fork of second longitudinal ; inner marginal cell apparently open between second and fourth longitudinals; both branches of fourth longitudinal strong, ending in the margin; fifth longitudinal not complete, and very thin. For- ceps of male dark at base, but yellow towards their apex. Genital appendages of female dark-orange. HuTTONiA, gen. nov. Head oval, almost round. Eyes emarginate, with a narrow line of division betv/een them above the bases of the antennae. Palpi moderately long, four-jointed ; first joint very short, almost orbicular ; second rather long and swollen, length about twice the bi'eadth ; third joint about as long as the second, narrow and cylindrical ; third joint slender, rather longer than the others. Front short. Ocelli three, nearly in a straight line, the central one rather smaller than the others. Antennae about as long as the thorax, 2 + 16 jointed ; joints of scapus cupuli- form, about as long as broad, slightly setose ; flagellum rather long, joints about twice as long as broad, pubescent, a few setae situated near the middle point of each joint, terminal joint very small and nipple - like. Thorax highly arched, pubescent, with setae on the lateral margins. Scutellum small, semicircular, with setae on the hind margin. Metathorax acclivous. Abdomen slightly flattened, seven - segmented, narrow in front but becoming broadened posteriorly Forceps of the male large, almost fiabelliform, pubescent. Legs long and slender ; coxae stout, setose on the outer edge and on the apex ; femora about twice as long as the coxae, slightly com- pressed, pubescent ; tibiae long and slender, longer than the tarsi in the intermediate and posterior legs, and covered wath two ranges of short and rather slender spines; spurs unequal, long; tarsi with small prickles on the under-surface. Wings rather narrow, cuneiform at the base and gracefully rounded at the apex, surface pubescent. Auxiliary vein entirely ab- sent ; first longitudinal short, running into the costa about half-way along the wing ; inner marginal cell about one-tliird the length of the wing; anterior branch of second longitudinal running into the costa about two-thirds along the wing, pos- terior branch strongly arcuated, joining the tip of tlie costa at the apex ; anterior branch of third longitudinal a mere rudi- ment extending a very little distance into the disc of the wing, posterior branch commencing in the disc a little beyond the fork of the second longitudinal ; fourth longitudinal not quite joining the margin, disappears just before reaching the inner 268 Transactions. — Zoology. marginal cell ; fifth longitudinal strong, slightly arcuated ; sixth longitudinal rudimentary, represented by a straight line of black hairs. This genus is in some degree a connecting-link between the foregoing genera. I have not got sufficient material to ascer- tain its exact position. Huttonia tridens. Plate VIII., fig. 2. Platyura tridens, Hutton (Cat. N.Z. Diptera). Length of antenna, 0-078 ; size of body, 0-0245 x 0-038 ; expanse of wing, 0-225 x 0071. Antennae 2 + 16 jointed ; joints of scapus thick and cyathiform, light-yellow, fringed with black hairs ; joints of flagellum compressed, oval in outline, the first nine joints yellow at the base, the centre is coloured brown, and the apical portion again is yellow ; there is uo sharp line of demarcation between the yellow and brown bands. Palpi yellow ; first joint dark - yellow, long and thick, covered with short black hairs ; second rather shorter than the first and slender, with very few black hairs ; third and fourth same thickness as the second but much shorter, the latter being rather pointed ; a few black hairs on third and fourth joints. Eyes emarginate, almost meeting above the bases of the antennae. Front black round the ocelli, shading to black posteriorly. Collare light-yellow. Anterior portion of the thorax light-yellow, but bordered with a narrow streak of brown ; three longitudinal bands blending together anteriorly behind the yellow band ; central longitudinal band much shorter than the lateral ones, not extending more than half-way down the thorax ; whole thorax covered with short black hairs. Epimera light-yellow above, but black just above insertion of the coxa. x\ very few long stout black hairs on the lateral and posterior margins of the mesothorax. Scutel- lum smoky-brown, fringed with six very long black hairs. Metathorax and pleurae dark-brown. Halteres with rather a slender pedicel, bearing a densely cmereous club. Abdomen dark-brown, the posterior half of each segment yellow ; • a thin covering of black hairs on all the segments. Forceps of male light-yellow, ending in a black claw, and covered with short black hairs. Legs rather long ; coxae yellow, v^^ith a few black hairs on the outer side ; femora darker, about twice the length of the coxae ; tibiae darker, with short black hairs and longer spines ; spurs moderately long, black ; tarsi rather short, covered witli short black hairs and a few spines ; ground-colour dark-yellow. Wings slightly longer than the abdomen, with a slight dusky tinge, covered rather sparingly with black hairs. Veins dark-brown. A dark patch on the anterior branch of second longitudinal, extending to posterior Makshall. — On Neio Zealand Diptera. 269 branch and to costa ; another fainter patch about half-way between this and the apex, reaching from second longitudinal to costa ; other fainter patches on the two branches of the third longitudinal. I have only one specimen of this fine insect. It is the same specimen as that from which Captain Hutton's descrip- tion of Platyura tridens was drawn. It was taken at Wel- lington. The very exceptional features in its neuration compel the creation of a new genus for its reception. Genus Mackocera, Meig. Head broad, oval, flattened on the fore part. Eyes oval, a little emarginate on the upper side above. Ocelli three, of unequal size, in a triangle on the front, the foremost one smaller. Palpi four-jointed, cylindrical ; the first joint small, the following ones of equal length, or the fourth somewhat lengthened. Antennae 2 + 14 jointed, very long, frequently much longer than the body, projecting forward, arcuated ; the first joint of the scapus spheroidal, the second more cupuli- form ; the first flagellar joint cylindrical, the upper ones seti- form, pubescent, a little seciferous on the under side, the last two joints densely covered with hair and setse. Thorax oval, highly arched. Scutellum small, almost semicircular. Meta- thorax highly arched. Abdomen flattened, almost cylindrical in the female, broadest in the middle, with seven segments in both sexes. Legs slender, long, the fore ones short ; tibige spuried, the spurs small, lateral spines wanting. Wings hairy, or only microscopically pubescent, large, broad, with a very broad base ; usually rather longer than the abdomen, half open in repose. Auxiliary vein complete, terminating in the costa, and united to the first longitudinal vein by the sub- costal cross-vein ; costal vein extending far beyond the tip of the second longitudinal vein, and almost reaching the apex of the wing ; second longitudinal vein very much arched, forming a long-stalked fork, the anterior branch, always very short, lying in a very oblique position, terminating in the costa; fifth longitudinal vein more or less undulated. This genus is evidently well represented in New Zealand, as I already possess specimens of four distinct species. One species, M. antennatis, is very fine, possessing antennse three times as long as its body. Another species, M. scoparia, which, so far as I have been able to judge, is extremely com- mon throughout the colony, is remarkable owing to the fact that the anterior fork of the second longitudinal vein is entirelv wanting. This peculiarity, Mr. Skuse writes me, is not un- known in the Macrocera, but is apparently rare. I am unable to quote any other species showing the same peculiarity. 270 Transactions. — Zoology. A. Wings microscopically haired. a. Wings unspotted. Macrocera montana, sp. nov. Plate VIII., fig. 3. Length of antennae, 0-247; size of body, 0-215 x 0-038; expanse of wing, 0-161x0-084. Antennae considerably longer than the body ; joints of scapus short, dark-brown ; lower joints of flagellum dark- yellow with black tips, clothed with scattered black hairs ; last six or seven joints dark-brown to black, clothed with much longer hairs. Front brown. Thorax bright - yellow, slightly darker on tlie median line ; on each side of it there is a line of stiff black hairs which taper towards one another, but do not coalesce ; lateral margins of thorax bordered with long stifl' black hairs. Pleura black. Scutellum fringed with a border of long stiff black han-s. Metathorax black with yellow sides. Abdomen very slender, compressed ; each segment with anterior portion yellowish -brown, becoming dark - brown posteriorly, clothed with long scattered black hairs. Coxge dull-yellow, black towards the tips ; femora light-yellow, covered with short black hairs ; tarsi and tibiae brown, covered with dense black hairs. Wings shorter than the body, dull-yellow, with a microscopic pubescence. Veins umber-brown, with a row of black hairs on each ; auxiliary vein joining the costa beyond the origin of the cross-vein ; tip of first longitudinal vein not dilated ; costal vein reaching the apex of the wing; inner marginal cell w^ith a very pointed apex. I have only one specimen of this insect, which was taken in a shady, damp gully on the Eimutaka Mountains, at an elevation of about 2,000ft. It is rather closely allied to M. delicata, Skuse, of New South Wales. Macrocera howletti, sp. nov. Length of antenme, 0-242; size of body, 0-219 x 0-028; expanse of wing, 0-165 x 0074. Antennae longer than the body ; joints of the scapus yellowy very short ; basal joint of flagellum dark - brown, densely clothed with short black hairs ; all other joints much lighter in colour, central joints lightest ; last five joints covered with moderately-long bristly hairs. Ocelli situated in a triangular black spot, but all the rest of the head is light- or orange-yellow. Thorax variously marked with yellowish- brown and golden-yellow marks ; a very faint indication of the longitudinal lines of black hairs noticeable in the last species ; lateral margins bordered with long black hairs. Scutellum light - yellow, bordered with long black hairs. Pleurae and metathorax orange-yellow. Halteres with pedicel Makshall. — On Neiv ZeLiland Diptcra. 271 almost white at the base, becoming cinereous towards the top ; chib much compressed, cinereous, thinly clothed with black hairs. Abdomen narrow, anterior part of each segment light- yellow, darkening to brown iu the posterior portion ; scat- tered stitf black hairs on all the segments. Coxae light-yellow, with scattered black hairs ; femora slender, with short black hairs ; Libia? and tarsi straw-coloured, densely clothed with stout but short black hairs. Wings smoky. Auxiliary vein not complete ; transverse veins bounding inner marginal cell vei'y slender; apex of first longitudinal not dilated. Apex of wing rounded. All veins straw-colour, with a single row of black hairs. I have only one specimen, taken in the Ruahine Mountams, in January. This is very closely allied to the last species, but is separated from it by the colour of the antennae and thorax, rounded tip to the wing, and very feeble development of the basal portions of the veins, and the incomplete auxiliary vein. If intermediate forms are subsequently discovered this may have to be linked with the last species. B. Wings distinctly haired. a. Wings unspotted. h. Wings spotted. Macrocera antennatis, sp. nov. Length of antenniB, 0'660; size of body, 0-218 x 0041 ; expanse of wing, 0-260 x 0088. Antennge three times the length of the body ; joints of scapus orange -coloured, very short and thick; joints of llagelhuu all dark -brown, thickly clothed with short black hairs ; joints becoming darker towards the apex of the antenna, and the hairs longer and more numerous. Ocelli situated very close together on a small raised black triangular area. Crown cinereous, becoming orange posteriorly. Thorax dark-orange, marked variously with light-yellow ; one median and two lateral lines of short black hairs ; black hairs spar- ingly scattered over the thorax. Scutellum, metathorax, and pleurae all dark-orange. Halteres with stout pedicel bearing oval-shaped cinereous club, clothed with black hairs. Al)- domen depressed; first segment light-yellow; anterior portion of subsequent segments black, posterior portion yellow ; last two segments black. Forceps of male orange. Abdomen sparingly clothed with long black hairs. Legs long and slender; coxtfi short and stout, with a few stout black hairs; femora long and slender, clothed, like the tibiae and tarsi, with numerous black hairs. Wings with faint tawny tinge ; one small black patch at the apex, another at the junction of the second and third longitudmal veins, proceeding upwards 272 Transactions. — Zoology. and towai-ds the apex ; apical half of wing thinly clothed with short hlack hairs. Auxiliary vein reaching the margin of the wing above the apex of the inner marginal cell ; apex of first longitudinal considerably dilated ; anterior branch of second longitudinal very short ; fifth longitudinal complete, reaching the margin close to the fourth longitudinal. I have only one male specimen of this very fine and dis- tinct species. Tt was taken on the Euahine Mountains, in January. Macrocera scoparia, sp. nov. Plate IX., fig. 1. Length of antennae, 0-220; size of body, 0-121 x 0-032; expanse of wing, 0-165 x 0066. Antennae about twice the length of the body ; joints of scapus light -orange, very short and robiist ; flagellar joints long and slender; basal joints light-brown, but apical joints nearly black, all clothed with stout black hairs. Palpi short, black. Vertex black. Thorax golden-yellow; abroad brown stripe commences just behind the coUare and extends down the centre of the thorax nearly to the scutellum ; a lateral dark-brown stripe on each side, but not extending far beyond the point of insertion of the wings. Scutellum dark-brown. Metathorax dark-brown with yellow sides. Pleurae dark- brown. Halteres smoky - white ; club elongated, oval in shape, covered with short black hairs ; first and third and sometimes other segments light- or dark-yellow^ ; other seg- ments black. Forceps of male yellow. Abdomen clothed with rather long black hairs. Legs pale -yellowy becoming darker towards the tarsus, covered all over with short black hairs ; spurs of tibiae short, dark-yellow ; first joint of tar- sus long, others very short. Wings longer than the body, almost hyaline, but shaded at the apex and at the petiole of the second longitudinal ; covered all over with short black hairs. Auxiliary vein ending just before apex of inner mar- ginal cell ; apex of first longitudinal slightly dilated ; second longitudinal without anterior branch ; posterior branch end- ing some distance before the apex ; costal vein ending a little before the apex. This species is extremely common apparently throughout the colony. It may very commonly be taken on windows during all the summer months. It is easily distinguished from all other Macrocera with which I am acquainted by the fact that the second longitudinal has no anterior branch. 'O* Genus Bolitophila, Hoffm. Head small, roundish, fore part flattened. Eyes broadly oval, a little emarginate on the upper side above. Ocelli three, arranged on a somewhat bent line on the front. Palpi Marshall. — On Neiu Zealand Di])tera. 273 prominent, incurved, cylindrical, four- jointed ; first joint very small, the following of about equal length ; the fourth the longest. Anteunoe setaceous, pubescent, in the male as long as, in the female shorter than, the body; 2 + 15 jointed ; the joints of the scapus cyathiform; the flagellar joints cylindrical, the terminal one very small, almost gemmiform. Thorax small, oval, highly arched. Scutellum small, roundish. Metathorax acclivous. Halteres large. x'\bdomen very long and slender ; in the male linear, subcylindrical, eight-segmented without the anal joint ; in the female nine-segmented, the last segment small. Legs long and slender ; tibise with very short weak spurs, the fore tibiae with a single range of spines on the inner side, and the hind pair with one range on the inner and two ranges of shorter and vpeaker spines on the outer side. Wings large, microscopically pubescent, as long as or somewhat longer than the abdomen, with obtusely cuneiformly narrowed base ; incumbent in repose. Costal vein uniting with the tip of the third longitudinal at or somewhat beyond the apex of the wing; ausiliary vein complete, joining the costa, united to the first longitudinal by the subcostal cross-vein; third longi- tudinal vein with an anterior branch (which is sometimes wanting), the branch short, almost vertical, ending in the tip of the first longitudinal vein or in the costa ; small cross-vein, short, situated almost midway between the origin of the third longitudinal vein and the inner end of the second posterior cell ; fourth longitudinal vein starting from the base of the fifth longitudinal vein ; fork of the fifth longitudinal vein united at its base to the fourth longitudinal vein by a small cross-vein ; sixth longitudinal vein perfect. The only New Zealand species of this genus that I have seen is B. luminosa (Sk.). The only specimens of this tiy, so far as I know, were reared from larvae by Mr. G. V. Hudson, of Wellington. The larvae are abundant throughout the colony in dark, damp gullies, but whether they all belong to the same species is not so far determined. Though the larvae are abundant the fly seems scarce, as I have never taken any ; but this may be because the insect is a night-flier. The larva and metamorphosis of the insect are fully described by Mr. G. V. Hudson (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxiii., pp. 43-i9, pi. vhi.). Bolitopliila hcviinosa, Skuse (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxiii., p. 47). Plate IX., fig. 2 ; Plate XIII. , fig. 4. Length of antennae, 0-090 ; size of body, 0-3S0 x 0-040 ; expanse of wing, 0-250 x 0-070. Antennae very slender, as long as the head and thorax combined; joints of scapus yellow, tinged with brownish ; flagellar joints elongated, progressively diminishing in thick- 18 274 Transactions. — Zoology. ness, brown. Hypostoma brown. Palpi yellow. Front and vertex black. Thorax black or very deep brown, levi- gate, with a median yellow line ; the humeri and lateral borders pale - yellow or whitish ; two convergent rows of short black han-s from humeri to scutellum ; some black bristly hairs above the origin of the wings. Pleurte deep- brown tinged with pale-yellow. Halteres pallid, the club black. Abdomen slender, subcylindrical, five times the length of the thorax, dusky-brown ; the segments distinctly, especially the hindermost ones, tinged with yellowish an- teriorly, densely clothed with very short black or brown hairs. Extremity and lamella of ovipositor yellow. Legs long and very slender; coxae pale-yellow or whitish, the fore and intermediate pairs with the extreme apex and the hind pair with almost the apical half dusky-brown, trochanters dusky-brown ; femora pale-yellow or whitish, the hind pair black at the apex ; tibige and tarsi black, tibial spurs black ; in the fore-legs the tibiae and metatarsi of about equal length, the tarsi twice the length of the tibige. Wings shorter than the abdomen, pellucid, with a delicate yellowish tint, and almost the apical half infur- cated with grey. Costal vein uniting with the tip of the third longitudinal vein somewhat beyond the apex of the wing; auxiliary vein terminating in the costa opposite or somewhat beyond the inner end of the second posterior cell, the subcostal cross-vein situated near its base; first longitudinal vein running straight into the costa, near a point before the tip of the posterior branch of the fourth longitudinal vein ; third longitudinal vein greatly arcuated near its base, strongly arcuated near its tip ; posterior branch of fifth longitudinal vein abruptly reaching the margin. Though well acquainted with the larva, I have never taken the mature foi-m of this insect. Mr. G. V. Hudson, of Wellington, has hatched out some of the larvae, from one of which this description was drawn by Mr. Skuse. Genus Ceroplatus, Bosc. Head small, broadly oval, flattened on the fore part. Eyes oval, sometimes a little emargiuate on the inner side above. Ocelli three, on a curved line on the front. Palpi short, not incurved, with three or four joints ; first joint small, the others large. Antennae projecting forwards, shorter than the head and thorax together, very flat and broad, broadest in the middle, 2 + 14 jointed ; joints of the scapus cotilliform, in some species the first joint prolonged in front ; flagellar joints almost annular, the last joint conical or gemmifonn. Thorax oval, highly arched. Scutellum almost semicircular. Meta- thorax arched. Abdomen cylindrical, or a little flattened, Marshall. — On New Zealand Diptera. 275 Avith seven segments in both sexes. Legs long ; tibiae spurred, the spurs of unequal length ; lateral spines missing or exceed- ingly small, one range on the inner side of the fore tibiae, one on the inner side and two on the outer of the hind tibiae. Wings microscopically pubescent, shorter than the abdomen, base broad and rounded off, incumbent in repose. Costal vein extending beyond the tip of the second longitudinal vein, ending before the apex of the wing ; auxiliary vein complete, terminating in the costa before the origin of the third longitudinal vein ; subcostal cross-vein missing ; second longitudinal vein forming a long-stalked fork with a short anterior branch, the latter running into the costa, some- times into the first longitudinal vein ; petiole of the third submargiual cell always short ; fifth longitudinal vein com- plete. I have specimens of three species of this genus, all of which are of small size. Geroplatus dendiji, sp. nov. Plate IX., fig. 3. Length of antennae, 0-046 ; size of body, 0-198 x 0-038 ; expanse of wing, 0-160 x 0066. Antennae dark ; scapus with lowest joint moderately long and very thick, second joint about as long as broad, black, with a faint tawny tinge ; joints of flagellum considerably dilated and flattened, broadest at the base, and gradually decreasing in width towards the apex ; surface pubescent, with stiffer hairs on the margins, all joints of flagellum black. Ocelli in a triangle, central, much smaller than the two lateral. Crown dark-brown or black, pubescent. Thorax dark-brown, with two lighter patches over the point of insertion of the wings, and two broad indistinct lighter lines commencing near the collare and coalescing some distance in front of the scutellum. Thorax densely covered with black hairs. Scu- tellum black, its posterior broader, fringed with black hairs. Metathorax brown. Pleurae dark-brown. Halteres with almost white pedicels; club brown for basal three-quarters, apical quarter white. Abdomen black, with brown patches on the middle segments. Forceps of male cinereous. Abdo- men and forceps covered thinly with black hairs. Legs moderate ; coxae straw-coloured, with black hairs, darker at the tips ; femora, tibiae, and tarsi straw-coloured, but covered with black hairs that become more numerous to- wards the distal extremities ; one spur on each anterior tibia, and two, the inner larger than the outer, on each pos- terior tibia ; all black. Wings smoky, with a large dark patch at the apex, and another smaller one proceeding transversely from the costa to the petiole of the third longitudinal. Auxiliary vein joining the costa just before 276 Transactions. — Zoology. the origin of the third longitudinal vein ; anterior branch of second longitudinal short, joining the costa a little be- yond the apex of the first longitudinal ; costal vein extending some distance beyond the apex of second longitudinal, but not quite reaching the apex of the wing ; posterior brtinch of third longitudinal and subsequent veins do not quite reach the margin ; sixth longitudinal terminating some distance be- fore the margin. Surface of wing microscopically haired. I have only two specimens of this insect, one of which was reared by Dr. Dendy from larvae, and the other by myself. The larvae are found beneath logs, and apparently live on the small mould fungi that grow in such localities. The insect is closely allied to Ceroplatios mastersi (Skuse) of New South Wales. The larvae from which my specimens were bred were found by Dr. Dendy in Alford Forest. Unlike the larvae of C. mastersi, those of the present species are certainly not lumi- nous. The form of the larvse is totally different from that of the diagram given in Theobald's " British Flies," vol. i., page 96. Geroplatus hudsoni, sp. nov. Length of antennae, 0-056; size of body, 0-168x0 022; expanse of wing, 0-143x0-049. Antennae about as long as head, and thorax very similar to those of C. dendyi. Thorax, scutellum, and pleurae black, the two former covered with stiff black hairs. Halteres with a stout pedicel bearing a black pubescent knob. Abdomen black, the posterior portion of each segment being dark-grey ; abdomen covered with stiff black hairs. Legs rather long ; coxae black, hairy towards the extremity ; femora with the two extremities black but light-yellow in the central portion, covered all over with short black hairs ; tibiae and tarsi straw-coloured, clothed with short stiff black hairs. Wing slightly smoky ; an indistinct patch of dark colour near the apex, which disappears at the anterior branch of the third longitudinal, and does not extend further from the apex than the fork of the second longitudinal ; another patch extending from the junction between second and third longitudinals nearly to the former patch ; botli patches much lighter than in G. dendyi. First longitudinal very close to margin of the wing ; veins brown, not black as in G. dendyi. I have only one specimen of this insect, taken by Mr. G. V. Hudson in the neighbourhood of Wellington. It closely resembles G. dendyi, but can be distinguished by its smaller size, darker colour, narrower and lighter wings, and the colour of the coxae. Cero2)lattcs leiicoceras, sp. nov. Plate XIII. , fig. 3. Length of antennae, 0044; size of body, 0-170 X 0-022; expanse of wing, 0-110 x 0-044. Makshall. — On New Zealand Dlptera. 277 Joints of scapus dark-brown, short and robust, upper edge of each joint fringed with brown hairs ; flagellum greatly flattened, first six joints Hght-yellow, bordered at the edge with short black hairs ; next six joints black, fringed with black hairs ; last two joints light-yellow, the terminal one bearing a nipple-like projection ; first and thirteenth joints considerably darker than any of the others ; broadest part of antenn£e about the fourth and fifth joints of flagellum. Head black, covered with black pubescence. Thorax black, lighter in front, with very indistinct dark-brown markings covered with moderate black hairs. Scutellum black, bor- dered with black hairs. Metathorax dark-brown. Pleurte <;inereous. Halteres with stout pedicels ; knob oval, cinereous at the base but white at the tip. Abdomen rather elongated, black, third fourth and fifth segments with the anterior portion dusky-white ; everywhere covered with black hairs. Forceps of male dark, cinereous, densely pubescent. Legs rather short ; coxae cinereous at the base, almost black at the tip ; femora black above, but dusky below ; tibiae and tarsi •dusky ; all joints of the leg covered with black hairs ; all spurs black, moderately long. Wings slightly smoky ; large patch of dark shading at the apex, extending as far as the fork of the second longitudinal vein, becoming lighter towards the inner margin ; another patch extending from the junction between the second and third longitudinal to a little beyond the fork of the third lonjjitudinal, reaching very little below the third longitudinal but extending to the margin ; a small patch, comparatively light, near the end of the posterior branch of the fourth longitudinal. Auxiliary, first, second, and posterior branch of fourth longitudinal vein very distinct and prominent; anterior branch of second longitudinal reaching the margin about one and a half times its own length from the apex of the first longitudinal ; costa extending a little beyond apex of second longitudinal, not reaching apex of the wing. Sur- face of the wing microscopically haired. I have only one specimen of this very distinct and beauti- ful little species. It was obtained in native scrub close to Wanganui in January. Genus Platyuka, Meig. Head small, broadly oval, tlie fore part flattened. Eyes oval, a little emarginate on the inner side above. Ocelli three, of unequal size, near together in a triangle on the broad front, the middle one smaller. Palpi prominent, incurved, four- jointed ; the first joint small, the second shortened-oval, as long as or somewhat shorter than the third, the third and fourth joints cylindrical, the fourth longest. Antennae as long as the head and thorax taken together or even longer, rarely 278 Transactions. — Zoology. shorter ; arcuated, projecting forwards, somewhat eoinpressed at the sides, or cyhndrical, gradually diminishing towards the tip, 2 + 14 jointed; joints of the scapus distinctly set off, the first cyathiform, the second one more cupuliform ; the flagellar joints compact. Thorax oval, highly arched. Scutellum small, almost semicircular. Metathorax arched. Abdomen slender, with seven segments in both sexes, flattened, clavi- form, in the male somewhat cylindrical at the base, rarely entirely cylindrical, always terminating in a forceps. Legs long; femora somewhat thickened, shorter than the tibiae; tibiaB spurred ; very small lateral spines, one inner and two outer ranges on the fore tibiae without spines, and the hind pair with two ranges of lateral spines which are so small as to be only perceptible with a lens. Wings somewhat broad, base rounded off, as long as the abdomen or a little longer, incumbent in repose, niicroscoj)ically pubescent. Costal vein extending beyond the tip of the second longitudinal vein, terminating some distance from the apex of the wing ; auxiliary vein ending in the costa, rarely broken off, usually united to the first longitudinal vein by the subcostal cross- vein ; anterior branch of the second longitudinal vein very short, ending either in the first longitudinal vein or in the costa ; third submarginal cell always with a very small petiole ; fifth longitudinal vein complete or incomplete. This genus is well represented in New Zealand. In those species of which I have been able to make a thorough ex- amination the males and females differ considerably in ap- pearance. Several kinds can be found on window-panes. B. Antebior Branch of the Second Longitudinal RUNNING INTO THE CoSTA. a. Fifth longitudinal vein reaching the posterior margin. Platyura magna, sp. nov. Plate XIII. , figs. 5-7. Male. Length of antennae, 0-095 ; size of body, 0-374 x 0040 ; expanse of wing, 0-258 x 0079. Antennae rather shorter than head and thorax together ; joints of scapus short, cinereous, cyathiform ; joints of flagellum very slightly dilated, black, naked, terminal joint longer than the others, rounded anteriorly ; fourth and fifth jomts mark the broadest part of the flagellum. Palpi dark-orange, with a few scattered short black hairs. Head black, shining. Thorax with a broad central black stripe extending from the collare almost to the scutellum ; two broad lateral stripes commencing some distance behind the collare and coalescing about opposite the insertion of the wings -with the central stripe ; rest of the thorax dark- orange, with a silvery sheen ; the whole surface covered with black hairs. Scutellum black, bordered with a fringe of stout Marshall. — On New Zealand Diptera. 279 black hairs. Metathorax and pleurae yellow, but with a bright- silvery sheen, due to the presence of a minute silvery pubes- cence. Halteres with a stout otange pedicel, terminating in a moderate knob, orange at the base but darker at the apex, covered with a black pubescence, first two segments of abdomen slender, black ; third segment dark-orange, with a dense covering of black hairs ; fourth segment bright-orange, with few black hairs ; fifth segment dark-orange ; the last two segments black, and covered thickly with black hairs. Base of forceps dark-orange, becoming black at the apex, and ending in two horny chelae. Legs moderately long ; cox£e orange, with a few black hairs at the tip; femora dark- orange, covered with short black hairs ; tibiae and tarsi dark- orange, but the close covering of hairs on the tarsi makes them appear almost black ; spurs stout, black. Wings with a fulvous tinge, especially near the costal margin ; a black patch extending from the fork of the second longitudinal to tlie apex, very dark near the costal margin, but shading away towards the inner margin; another feebly-shaded spot near the end of the fifth longitudinal, extending a little beyond the fourth longitudinal, but not extending any distance towards the anterior margin. Veins yellow at the base, but shading into black at the apex of the inner marginal cell; costal vein terminates where the second longitudinal joins it ; two branches of the third longitudinal terminate close together, and the apices of the fourth and fifth longitudinals close together. Wings microscopically haired. Female. Length of antennse, 0079 ; size of body, 0"385 x 0-071 ; expanse of wing, 0-242 x 0-094. Joints of scapus bright-orange, covered with short black hairs ; joints of flagellum as in the male. Head black, but thorax orange, with silver sheen marked with dark-orange in much the same way as the male is marked with black. Scu* tellum dark-orange, fringed with black hairs. Metathorax and plurae with a beautiful silvery sheen. All segments of abdomen dark-orange mottled with black, and covered with black hairs. Legs rather darker all over than in male. "Wings with more pronounced fulvous shade, and less con- spicuously shaded than in male. Sides of abdomen covered with a less-evident silvery tomentum than the pleuras. I have only one male and one female specimen of this fine and remarkable insect ; they were taken together, at an eleva- tion of about 1,000ft., on the Ruahine Mountains, in the month of January. Platyura agricolce, sp. nov. Male. Length of antennae, 0-064 ; size of body, 0-203 X 0033 ; expanse of wing, 0157 x 0055. 280 Transactions. — Zoology. AntenntE 2 + 14 jointed ; joints of scapus about as long as broad, black, fringed with black hairs ; joints of flagelluni moderately stout, base of lowest joint fuscous, all the rest black, slightly pubescent. Second joint of palpus black, third and fourth joints about equal in length, light-yellow covered with minute yellowish pubescence arid a few scattered black hairs. Epistome black, covered with black hairs. Vertex smoky-grey with moderately long black hairs, and covered with minute silvery pubescence. Thorax covered with minute silvery pubescence, except a median and tw'o lateral black stripes whose surface is shining ; one median line of strong black hairs, which are also scattered all over the surface except on the black stripes. Scutellum black, but covered with minute silvery pubescence and fringed with strong black hairs. Metathorax and pleurae black, but with pu- bescence. Halteres with stout pedicel bearing large oval fulvous clubs apparently naked. Abdomen black, but often with dull - orange patches on the posterior portions of the third, fourth, and tifth segments ; all segments with nume- rous black hairs. Forceps of male large, dull-orange at the base, but darkening upwards, becoming black at the tips. Legs rather long; coxte straw-coloured, darker on the outer surface; femora straw-coloured, covered with short black hairs ; tibiae and tarsi darker and more thicklv covered with black hairs ; sevei'al rows of spines on the tibicE ; spurs rather long, black. Wings with yellowish tinge, surface covered with minute black pubescence. All veins strong, black but lighter near the base ; costal vein extending be- yond junction with second longitudinal, but ending abruptly before the apex ; anterior branch of second longitudinal about eqtial in lengtli to petiole of third longitudinal. Female. Length of antennae, 0050; size of body, 0-108 X 0044; expanse of wing, 0-176 x 0073. Antennae more slender than those of the male ; joints of scapus light-brown ; basal and terminal joint of the flagellum much longer than any others; basal joint dark-brown, others black. Thorax tawny, the black marks bemg represented by dark-brown stripes which unite in a broad patch in front of the scutellum. Scutellum tawny, with a fringe of black hairs. Metathorax and pleurae dark-brown. Halteres as in the male. Abdomen much broader and of a lighter colour than in the male, all the segments being bordered posteriorly with tawny- red. Legs and wings as in the male, but apex of tlie wing much rounder. I have assumed that these are male and female forms of the same insect, for, though both forms are extremely com- mon about Lincoln, I have never captured a female of the one or a male of the other. They can be taken all through Marshall. — On Neio Zealand Diptera. 281 the summer at Lincoln, but I have not taken them else- where. Platyura flava, sp. nov. Length of antennae. 0038; size of body, 0-137 x 0-016; expanse of wing, 0-115 x 0-042. Antennas 2 + 11: jointed ; joints of scapus yellowish-grey, first joint rather broader than long, second about as long as broad, both covered with a silvery pubescence ; joints of flagellum black, with a pubescence giving silvery reflections. Head black, with a very short, rather inconspicuous, silvery pubescence. Thorax light-yellow anteriorly, darkening to dark-yellow posteriorly, shaded with black, but without any distinct or definite markings ; whole surface covered with moderately stiff black hairs. Scutellum dark-brown, fringed with black hairs. Metathorax and pleurae dark - tawny. Halteres with a stout pedicel bearing a club, yellow at base but almost white at the top. Abdomen dark- tawny on the back but ligliter on the sides, and the posterior margin of each segment almost black ; thinly covered with black hairs. Coxae bright-yellow, with a few black hairs on the outer side near the tip ; femora darker, covered with short black hairs ; tibiae and tarsi with light ground-colour, but rather thickly clad with black hairs, the former with a few scattered spines in addition : spurs black. Wings almost hyaline. Auxiliary vein rather faint ; first longitudinal joining costa about two- thirds of its length ; anterior branch of second longitudinal about as long as part of costa between its apex and that of first longitudinal ; costal vein extending some distance beyond the apex of second longitudinal, but not reaching apex of the wing ; all the veins dark-brown or black. I have only one rather imperfect specimen of this insect, taken at Lincoln in August. x\ specimen taken at Wanganui differs but slightly from this insect, and is perhaps a repre- sentative variety of the North Island. Genus Sciophila, Meig. Head small, flattened on the fore part, sitting deep in the thorax, of rounded oval shape owing to its high vertex. Eyes remote in both sexes, oval, a little emarginate on the upper side above. Ocelli three, arranged near one another in a triangle on the broad front, the anterior one very small. Proboscis very short, not prominent. Hypostoma more or less broad. Palpi prominent, incurved, four-jointed, the first joint very small, the second shorter than the third, the fourth as long as or longer than all three together, seldom shorter than them. Antennae projecting forward, arcuated, those of the male always longer than those of the female, in the latter often 282 Transactiona . — Zoology. only as long as the head and thorax together, somewhat com- pressed, 2+14 jointed ; joints of the scapus distinct, cyathi- form, setose at the apex; flagellar joints cylindrical, with downy puhescence. Thorax highly arched, oval. Scutellum small, semicircular. Metathorax acclivous. Halteres with an oblong club. Abdomen slender, with seven segments, narrowed at the base, generally claviform, especially in the male, somewhat flattened posteriorly; in the male terminating in a short forceps, in the female in a short non-projecting ovipositor with two terminal lamellae. Legs long ; femora with a fringe of hair on the lower side ; tibiae spurred, the fore pair with two, the hind pair with three ranges of lateral spines, of which those on the inner side are particularly short and delicate ; coxae elongated, the fore pair hairy on the front, the intermediate pair only at their apex, the hind pair with a row of setaceous hairs on their outer sides. In the male of some species the coxae of the intermediate legs have on the inner side a long arcuated spine ; these spines terminate in a double hook-shaped curved point, usually of a dark colour. Wings microscopically pubescent, longish-oval, with rounded- off base, a little longer than the abdomen. Tip of the costal vein uniting with the tip of the second longitudinal vein at the apex of the wing, rarely before it ; auxiliary vein termi- nating in the costa not beyond the anterior branch of the second longitudinal vein ; base of the second posterior cell l\ing either before, under, or beyond the origin of the third longitudinal vein, but alwavs before the base of the third sub- marginal cell, and never so far forward as to come under the anterior branch of the second longitudinal vein ; fifth longi- tudinal vein incomplete, usually broken off opposite the middle of the second posterior cell, sometimes disappearing before the base of the second posterior cell. Sciophila fagi, sp. nov. Plate X., fig. 1. Size of body, 0-174 x 0 032; expanse of wing, 0-132 x 0-074. Joints of scapus short, not more than half their length, light-yellow, with a few black hairs; first joint of flagellum yellow but clouded, subsequent joints black, length about four tunes their breadth, covered with very fine glistening black hairs. Palpi long and slender, clouded straw-colour; first joint short, slightly hairy ; second joint about twice the length of first, scattered black hairs on its surface ; third joint more slender and twice the length of the second ; fourth joint still more slender and darker in colour, about half as long again as the third. Vertex almost black. Thorax yellow, marked with tawny ; two lateriil rows of black hairs inclined to one another and meeting before the scutellum, also a median Marshall. — Oa Nciv Zealand Diptera. 283 row, but much shorter, not half the length of the thorax ; sides of thorax with scattered black hairs. Scutellum tes- taceous, with two long black hairs on its posterior margin. Metathorax almost black posteriorly ; pleurae brown. Hal- teres with stout pedicels bearing black hairs ; clubs almost white, with short stout black hairs. xVbdonien of. seven seg- ments, the posterior portion of each segment being dark- yellow. Forceps of male black, covered with black hairs. Legs long and slender; coxae very light yellow, with black hairs ; fen)ora, tibiae, and tarsi darker, more densely covered with hairs ; a few short black spines on the tibiae, and shorter ones on the tarsi ; spurs black, but rather short. Wings smoky, covered with black hairs. Auxiliary vein rather famt, rather more than one-third the length of the wing ; first longitudinal ending rather near the apex of the wing ; second longitudinal ending in costa slightly before apex of wing ; costa continued to apex ; subcostal cross-vem below apex of auxiliary ; anterior branch of third longitudinal disappears about half-way from the fork to the margin of the wing ; pos- terior branch very faint ; anterior branch of first longitudinal almost straight, posterior rather wavy ; fifth longitudinal straight, but not nearly reaching the margin. I have only one specimen of this insect, and, unfortunately, the antennae are not entire. The peculiarities of its neuration perhaps entitle it to be the type-species of a new genus. Sciophila (!) hirta, n. sp. Plate IX., fig. 5. Size of body, 0-132 x 0-030 ; expanse of wing, 0-165 x 0-069. Antennae not perfect ; joints of scapus dark-brown, nearly cylindrical, breadth nearly as great as their length ; flagellum nearly cylindrical, no appreciable gap separating the joints, covered all over with a soft light-yellow pubescence. Palpi very slender but not long, light-yellow. Vertex black and shining. Thorax black and shining, a dark-yellow humeral patch on each anterior corner, behind which there is a patch of long black hairs. Abdomen black and shining, and covered with a close coating of stiff black hairs. Legs leather slender; coxae pale-yellow at the base but darker at the tip, covered with black hairs; femora dark-yellow, clothed with black hairs; tibiae dark -brown, considerably dilated at the ex- tremity, marked with longitudinal rows of black hairs, with spines at intervals ; spurs very light yellow ; tarsi much darker and more densely clothed with black hairs than the tibiae. Wings light-browm, becoming much darker at the first longitudinal vein ; surface covered with scattered black hairs. Auxiliary vein ending blindly, not extending as far as the transverse vein ; first longitudinal extending about four-fifths 284 Transactions. — Zoology. of the distance along the wing ; second longitudinal joining the tip of the costa almost at the apex of the wing ; anterior branch comparatively long, situated some distance from the transverse vein ; vein connecting second and third longitudi- nals very faint ; apex of fork of third longitudinal situated some distance beyond end of marginal cell ; anterior branch of third longitudinal disconnected at a point rather nearer the base than the middle of the marginal cell ; fifth longitudinal almost parallel to and close beside posterior branch of fourth longitudinal, but not reaching the margin. I have only one, and that rather an imperfect specimen, of this insect, taken in Fagus bush, at the base of Mount Torlesse, in March. It shows more affinities with Sciophila than with any other genus described in Mr. Skuse's Mono- graph, and I have therefore placed it in that genus. It differs from it in the position of the anterior branch of the second longitudinal, and in the disconnection of the anterior branch of the fourth longitudinal ; while the rudimentary condition of the auxiliary vem is extremely exceptional in Sciophila. I hesitate to establish a new genus on such a poor specimen, but feel confident that the insect will not long be left in this genus. Genus Parvicellula, gen. nov. Head oval. Eyes large, emarginate, nearly meeting below the antennae. Proboscis short. Palpi short, first joint very short, the others about equal in length, except the fourth, which is rather longer. Front almost triangular. Three ocelli, the middle one much smaller than the others, arranged in a sligiitly-curved line. Antennae about as long as the thorax, 2 + 14 jointed ; first joint of scapus very short, much broader than long, second joint about as long as broad, setose on the upper surface ; flagellum stout, joints rather longer than broad, densely pubescent. Thorax very highly arched, pubescent, setaceous on anterior and lateral margins. Scutel- lum small, nearly circular, bordered posteriorly with setae. Metathorax steep. Abdomen rather flattened, seven-jointed, hirsute. Legs rather slender ; coxae stout, slightly hairy on the outer side ; femora half as long again as the coxae, rather slender, compressed, hairy ; tibiae rather stout, in fore and intermediate legs shorter than the tarsi, in the posterior legs about the same length as the tarsi, a few scattered spines on the fore tibiae, two ranges of few spines on intermediate tibiae, and two ranges of well-developed spines on the posterior legs ; spurs stout ; intermediate and hind tarsi with small prickles on the inner side. Wings about as long as the abdomen, rounded at the kpex, with fairly pronounced anal angle, sur- face thickly covered with hairs. Auxiliary vein rather stout, Marshall — On Neic Zealand Dvptera. 285 less than one-third the length of the wing, subcostal cross- vein situated near its apex ; first longitudinal vein ending at about two-thirds the length of the wing; marginal cross-vein situated just beyond subcostal ; petiole of second longitu- dinal very short, so subraarguial cell is almost triangular; second longitudinal running into the costa some distance be- fore the apex ; costa prolonged beyond its tip, but not reach- ing the apex ; third longitudinal rather indistinct, the apex of its fork situated some distance beyond apex of inner mar- ginal cell, branches slightly divergent ; fourth longitudinal unbrauched ; fifth and sixth longitudinals absent. I have specimens of but one species of this genus, but the neuration is so distmct that I think I am justified in establish- ing a new genus for it. Parvicellula triangula. Plate X., fig. 2 ; Plate XIII., figs. 8, 9. Length of antennae, 0-038; size of body, 0-132 x 0-033; expanse of wing, 0115 x 0-057. x\ntenn8e 2-1-14 jointed ; first joint of scapus very short, pale- yellow, second joint pale-yellow, cyathiform, the margm of the upper side ornamented with a few stiff black hairs about as long as the joint ; first two joints of flagellurn yellow, but antennae gradually darkening towards the tip ; all joints much the same length, centre ones bulging in the middle, terminal joints more cylindrical ; all joints covered with soft pubescence giving silvery reflections ; all joints rather longer than broad. Palpi incurved, cinereous; first joint short, second rather longer and thicker, clothed with black hairs ; third and fourth slender and short, with a few short black hairs. Proboscis slightly protruding, hairy. Ocelli three, one situated close to the inner margin of each eye, the third almost in a line between them. Vertex black and shining, with a few black hairs, Thorax dark-tawny, with indistinct central and lateral black bands, covered with a minute pubescence and long golden hairs. Scutellum tawny, with golden hairs. Metathorax black, with golden hairs on its posterior margin. Pleurae and epimera black. Abdomen of seven segments, black, but thickly covered with long golden hairs, slightly depressed, broadest in centre. Lamellae of female white, covered with light-coloured hairs. Halteres very light yellow, covered with a minute pubescence. Legs of moderate length ; coxae smoky at the base, light-yellow in the middle, and black at the apex, the apical portion clothed with long golden hairs ; femora dark at the tip ; tibiae about half as long again as the femora, rather stout, with many short black spines and a dense covering of black hairs ; tarsi slender, straw-coloured, with a dense covering of short black hairs and spines on the posterior 286 Transactions. — Zoology. surface. Wings with a yellowish tinge, especially near the costal margin and close to the veins ; surface rather thickly covered with black hairs. Veins brown, with a central row of black hairs ; auxiliary vein ending in costa at about one- quarter the length of the wing ; first longitudinal joining costa at about two-thirds length of the wing ; second longi- tudinal joining costa some distance before apex ; costa con- tinued beyond this point, but not nearly reaching the apex; subcostal vein situated just before marginal cell, latter very short, almost triangular ; petiole of third longitudinal not long; fourth longitudinal not forked. I have three specimens of this insect, two of which were taken at Lincoln in February, and the other in Christchurch in June. x\ male specimen has almost identical measurement with the female, but it has black forceps. The legs are very much lighter in colour than those of the female, more especially the tarsi and tibise ; the spurs are light-yellow. The veins of the wing are light straw-colour instead of brown. Genus Tetragoneura, Winn. Costal vein extending far beyond the tip of the second longitudinal vein, but not reaching the apex of the wing ; auxiliary vein small, bent posteriorly, ending in the first longitudinal vein far beyond the n:iarginal cell, or shortened to a tootli ; the marginal cell far beyond the middle of the first longitudinal vein ; inner marginal cell much lengthened ; fork of the third longitudinal vein with a moderately-long petiole ; base of the second posterior cell lying before the base of the third submarginal cell. Surface of the wing microscopically pubescent. The above short diagnosis is the only reliable one to which I have access at present. I hesitate to add other characters, fearing that my species is not sufficiently typical. Tetragoneura nigra, n. sp. Plate XIII., figs. 10, 11. Length of antennae, 0'044 ; size of body, 0-077 X 0-014 ; expanse of wing, 0-077 x 0-083. Antennae about as long as the body ; joints of scapus pale -yellow, cyathiform ; joints of flagellum barrel - shaped, but situated on pedicels ; length slightly greater than their diameter, the first three pale-yellow, those nearer the end of the antennae ; all the joints covered with soft hairs with silvery reflections. Vertex black, with a few black hairs. Thorax dull-black, a median and two V-shaped lateral marks rather more intense in shade ; surface covered with short black hairs, and the margins with strong thick black hairs incurving over the thorax. Scutellum black, with two long black hairs Marshall. — Gn Neto Zealand Dlptera. 287 near the posterior margin. Metathorax and pleurae black. Halteres light-yellow ; the club oval in shape, with an almost imperceptible black pubescence on its edges. Abdomen black, with a shining granulated surface on which there is a thin covering of black hairs. Legs rather stout ; cox£e light- yellow, with a few dark hairs on its darkened tip ; base of femora rather dark as well as the distal portion, central portion light-yellow but covered all over with black hairs ; femora considerably dilated ; tibige rather short, slightly dilated at the end, ground-colour yellow but thickly covered with short black hairs, the posterior tibiae with two ranges of black spines, intermediate tibiae also with black spines but not so conspicuous ; tarsi rather short, with much shorter spines, but otherwise much the same as the tibiae ; all spurs black. Wings with a slight brownish tinge. Costal vein extending a long distance beyond tip of second longitudinal, but not extending to apex of wing; apex of second posterior cell nearer the base of the wing than the apex of the third submarginal cell ; fifth longitudinal reaching to apex of second posterior cell. Surface of wing covered with black hairs. I only possess one specimen of this insect, which was ob- tained at Lincoln College in the month of December. Genus Aneura, gen. nov. Head rather small, oval, deeply imbedded in the thorax. Eyes oval, not emarginate. Proboscis short. Palpi long and slender; first joint about as long as broad; second longer than broad, but stout; third long, cylindrical, and slender; fourth longer than all the others put together, very slender. Ocelli three, the central one much the smallest. Antennae 2 + 14 jointed ; the joints of the scapus very short, cupuliform, slightly setose ; joints of flagellum four times as long as broad, gradually decreasing in diameter towards the apex, terminal joint very narrow, densely pubescent. Thorax highly arched, smooth but for three longitudinal rows of hairs converging to a point in front of the scutellum ; lateral mar- gins slightly setiferous. Scutellum small, semicircular, seti- ferous on the posterior margin. Metathorax steep. Abdomen slightly compressed from the side. Legs long and slender ; coxae rather short, not more than half the length of the femora, slightly setose ; femora slender, those of the posterior legs compressed, hairy; tibiae of fore-legs about the same length as the metatarsus, of the intermediate leg about the length of the wdiole tarsus, and those of the posterior legs longer than the tarsus ; posterior tibiae with two rows of scarce, short, and feeble spines; spurs small and feeble; tarsi long and slender, with a few very small prickles on the under- 288 Transactions. — Zoology. side. Wings oval, rounded at the apex, and anal angle not prominent, shorter than the abdomen, surface hairy. Auxi- liary vein more than one-third the length of the wing, but not half its length ; no subcostal cross-vein ; first longitudinal slightly arcuated, ending near the apex of the wing ; second longitudinal arcuated, joniing costa just before the apex ; costa prolonged beyond the tip of the second longitudinal and reaching the apex ; basal portion of second longitudinal about one and a half times the length of the submarginal cross-vein, which is situated some distance before the apex of the auxiliary vein ; petiole of the third longitudinal about the same length as the anterior branch, branches divergent ; apex of the second posterior cell situated before the apex of the second submarginal cell ; branches of fork of fourth longitudinal very divergent ; fifth longitudinal incomplete. This geniis differs from most of the others in the sub- section in the absence of the subcostal cross-vein. It is closely allied to Boletina. Aneura boletinoides, sp. nov. Plate X., fig. 5; Plate XIII., figs. 12, 13. Length of antennae, 0093; size of body, 0-154 x 0-016; expanse of wing, 0-132 x 004:9. Antennae 2 + 14 jointed, longer than head and thorax together ; joints of scapus short, nearly globular, very light yellow ; first joint of flagellum light - yellow at base, but upper portion and all succeeding joints dark-brown ; length of joints about three times their diameter, all rather thickly clotted with black hairs ; terminal joint slender but rounded. Palpi very dark brown ; first joint rather slender, second long and slightly swollen, third shorter and more slender, fourth longest and more slender than any others. Thorax bordered all round with light-yellow, central portion light- brown ; one central row of short black hairs ; two lateral rows, the outer one consisting of long hairs ; central row short, but two inside lateral rows meet in front of scutellum. Scutellum light-yellow, bordered with long black hairs. Meta- thorax and pleurae brown. Pedicel long and slender, support- ing rather a large club, both pedicel and club being covered with a short black pubescence. Abdomen light-yellow, the posterior margin of each segment especially on the sides being brown ; surface with scattered long slender black hairs. Lamellae of female dark-brown, and forceps of male rather large, black. Abdomen of male with broader brown borders on posterior portion of abdomen than in female. Legs long and slender ; coxae rather short, very light yellow ; femora rather long, light-yellow, but covered with black hairs ; tibiae and tarsi light-coloured, but covered with black hairs, and Marshall. — On Neiv Zealand Dij^tera. 289 bearing a few black spines ; spurs black. Wings with a slight brown tint, surface covered with black hairs. First and second longitudinal veins black, others very light brown ; auxiliary vein about one-third the length pf the wing ; no sub- costal cross-vein ; first and second longitudinal veins curved near the end ; petiole of third longitudinal long ; fifth longi- tudinal not reaching fork of fourth. I have four specimens of this insect, all of which were taken at the foot of Mount Torlesse, in Fagus bush, in March and November. Genus Cycloneuea, gen. nov. Head longer than broad. Eyes large, but well separated on the front. Antennae and palpi not seen. Thorax almost globular. Abdomen of seven segments in the male. Wings rather narrow. Auxiliary vein rudimentary ; first longitu- dinal ending about half-way along the anterior border ; second longitudinal vein ending some distance before the apex ; cos- tal vein continued beyond the end of the second longi- tudinal, but not reaching the apex of the wing; anterior branch of third longitudinal ending at a point a little beyond the apex of the wing ; posterior branch wanting ; anterior branch of fourth longitudinal ending at about one-third of length of inner margin of the wing ; fifth longitudinal vein complete, joined at about half its length by a vein perhaps corresponding to the posterior branch of the fourth longi- tudinal ; second, third, and fourth longitudinals detached at their bases. Legs stout ; femora greatly compressed ; tibige with long spines ; spurs long, pubescent ; first two joints of tarsus of hind-legs with prickles on the under-surface. I have only one species of this genus. It was taken in scrubby bush on the Port Hills in December. Cycloneura flava, sp. nov. Plate XI., fig. 5. Length of antennae, ? ; size of body, 0-088 x 0-016 ; expanse of wing, 0096 x 0-033. Antennae and palpi not seen. Front dark, but rather densely covered with grey hairs. Thorax dark-yellow, thinly clothed with short black and longer orange hairs situated on the lateral margins. Scutellum semicircular, ferruginous, with a few long setae on the posterior margin. Pleurae and metathorax dark-brown. Halteres with light-coloured stipes, and rather large black club. Abdomen depressed, broadest in the middle, dark-ferruginous, irregular patches being of a darker colour than the rest of the abdomen. Coxae bright- yellow, with a row of hairs on the exterior margin ; femora greatly compressed, bright-yellow, with yellow hairs ; tibiae longer than the coxae, darker, with rows of short black hairs 19 290 Transactions. — Zoology. and two ranges of spines, dark-ferruginous ; spurs long, yellow ; tarsi rather shorter than the tibiae, yellow, with rows of short black hairs. Wings longer than the abdomen, yellow, but smoky at the tips, the darkest patch situated at the end of the second longitudinal vein. Neuration of the wings as described under the genus. I have only one specimen of this species, which was taken on the Port Hills in December. Genus Paradoxa, nov. gen. Head nearly round. Byes large. x^ntennee 2 + 14 jointed ; joints shaped almost as in Tetragoncura. Palpi short, four-jointed ; first and second joints very short, third longer and stouter, fourth the same length as third but much more slender. Thorax rather elongated. Abdomen com- pressed vertically, as broad as the thorax. Femora greatly compressed ; tibiae about as long as the femora, with a few slender black spines ; spurs large, pubescent ; first joint of tarsus the longest, others gradually decreasing in length. Wings longer than the abdomen. Auxiliary vein represented by a short rudiment ; first longitudinal ending some dis- tance beyond the middle of the anterior margin, joined to second longitudinal by marginal cross-vein situated near its apex ; second longitudinal vein ending some distance before the apex of the wing ; costa prolonged considerably beyond the tip of the second longitudinal vein, but not reaching the apex of the wing ; third longitudinal vein with a long fork, slightly disconnected at its base ; posterior branch also slightly disconnected at its base ; anterior branch of fourth longitudinal reaching the margin, but disappearing before reaching the base of the wing ; fifth longitudinal vein com- plete, reaching the margin, joined at a point about three- quarters of its length from the base by a strong vein as in Cyclonciira, which probably represents the posterior branch of the fourth longitudinal vein. I ha,ve only one species belonging to this distinct genus. Paradoxa fusca, sp. nov. Plate XII., fig. 5. Length of antennae, 0-016; size of body, 0-096 x 0-010 ; expanse of wing, 0-092 x 0-016. Antennae 2 -f 14 jointed ; first joint of scapus short, nearly black ; second joint cyathiform, ornamented with a few bristles ; flagellum dark - brown, densely ciliated ; joints broader than long, placed on very short pedicels tapering gradually to the apex ; last joint has length more than twice its breadth and an obtuse apex. Palpi short, light- yellow; two basal joints short, third and fourth about equal in length, rather longer than the first and second put together. Makshall. — On New Zealand Diptera. 291 Fi'ont black. Thoi'ax strongly curved, black or dark-brown, rather sparsely covered with short black hairs, which are longer on the margins. Scutellum black, with a row of hairs on its posterior margin. Pleurae and metathorax black. Abdomen black, but third and fourth segments dark-brown, sparsely covered with short black hairs. Legs rather short; coxae smoky ; femora compressed, yellow in the centre, but bordered with dark-brown ; tibise rather longer than the fe- mora, not slender, the two posterior pairs with a few mode- rately - long black spines, anterior tibiae without spines ; spurs rather stout, straw-coloured, and covered with a light pubescence. Wings brown, darker near the costa and in the central portion of the first submarginal cell. Inner marginal cell long, its apex being nearly directly above the apex of fork of third longitudinal vein ; cross-vein situated near the end of first longitudinal vein ; costal vein ending before the tip of the wing ; second longitudinal vein joining it some distance before its tip. Surface of the wing microscopically pubescent. I have only one specimen, taken at Lincoln College, in September. Genus Eurycekas, gen. nov. Head oval, not very deeply imbedded in the thorax. Eyes large, round, slightly emarginate on the inner side above. Palpi incurved, rather short ; first and second joints about equal, short ; third joint about double their length, cylindrical ; fourth joint still longer, slightly clavate. Ocelli three, large, placed almost in a straight line on the broad front. x\ntenn£e 2 + 14 jointed, about as long as the head and thorax together ; joints of scapus much broader than long, cupuliform, setiferous above ; fiagellum compressed, broadest part in the middle, joints generally broader than long except at the apex, densely pubescent. Thorax highly arched, pubescent, without strong setae on the lateral margins. Scutellum rather small, semicircular, hardly setiferous. Me- tathorax steep. Abdomen rather flattened, seven-segmented, narrow in front but broader posteriorly. Forceps of the male rather small, chelate. Legs rather slender ; coxae short but stout, hairy ; femora slender, but posterior pair compressed, pubescent ; fore tibiae larger than the metatarsus but less than half the length of the whole tarsus, intermediate tibige rather shorter and posterior tibiae longer than the tarsus, three ranges of small spines on fore and intermediate tibiae and two ranges of longer spines on posterior tibiae ; spurs rather short ; first not much longer than second joint of tarsus, a few small prickles on the under-side of tarsus. Wings rather pointed at the apex, and anal angle rather prominent ; surface of wings distinctly hairy. Auxiliary vein 292 TransactioJis. — Zoology. complete but short, subcostal cross-vein situated about half- way aloiig it ; first longitudinal joining costa more than two- thirds the length of the wing ; second longitudinal joining the costa before the apex ; costa slightly extended beyond the point of junction, but not reaching the apex of the wing ; submarginal cross-vein about equal to basal portion of second longitudinal ; petiole of third longitudinal rather short ; apex of fork of fourth longitudinal just below origin of third longi- tudinal, branches divergent ; fifth longitudinal strong but in- complete. This genus is closely related to Anaclinia, Winn. Euryceras anaclinoides, s|). nov. Plate XI.. fig. 1 ; Plate XIII., figs. 14, 15. Length of antennte, 0-068; size of body, 0-132 x 0-034; expanse of wing, 0-154 x 0-060. Antennae 2 + 14 jointed ; joints of scapus short, yellow, cyathiform, covered with short yellow cilia ; joints of flagel- lum black, but densely covered with a yellow pubescence ; fifth and sixth joints broadest, their breadth being half as much again as their length ; terminal joint the longest, its length being about three times its breadth ; succeeding joints gradually decreasing in length but increasing in breadth. Palpi very light yellow, incurved ; first joint short ; second joint rather long and broad, densely ciliated with light-yellow hairs ; third and fourth joints much more slender, about equal in length, densely ciliated. Vertex black, rather hairy. Ocelli situated nearly in a straight line. Byes emarginate, but not nearly meeting. Thorax light-yellow anteriorly but much darker posteriorly, becoming almost black in front of the scutellum ; surface covered with short black hairs, the sides with a margin of long golden hairs. Scutellum dark- brown, with a fringe of black hairs. Metathorax almost black, the posterior portion with a few long yellow hairs. PleuraB brown, with a few long hairs. Halteres with stout pedicels bearing an elongated pyriform club, light-yellow in colour, and covered with a fine pubescence. Abdomen black, first segment yellow except in centre of dorsal surface, where it is brown covered witli long yellow hairs ; abdomen broadening considerably posteriorly, the posterior portion of each segment brown, last segment with a yellow border covered all over with rather black hairs. Legs rather long ; coxae yellow, the outer surface of posterior coxa brown, a few stiff yellow hairs on each coxa ; intermediate and pos- terior femora brown on the anterior side of the upper portion, and at the distal extremity, which is covered with black hairs, other parts of coxa yellow, covered with short yellow hairs ; tibiae of anterior and intermediate legs rather short, yellow, AIakshall. — Oil Neiv Zealand Diptera. 293 Tout covered with black hairs and a few black spines ; pos- terior tibitfi rather long and stout, with more numerous and longer spines ; all tarsi black, owing to thick covering of black hairs ; spurs yellow at the base, shading to brown at the tip. Wings slightly shaded with brown, and covered with black hairs. Costa and first and second longitudinal veins black, others light-brown ; fifth longitudinal extending some distance beyond fork of fourth, but not reaching the 'o margm. I have only one specimen of this insect. It was taken in Fagus bush, at the base of Mount Torlesse, in March. Genus Anomala, nov. gen. Head moderate, nearly round, but slightly prolonged pos- teriorly, situated rather deep in the thorax. Eyes ovate, entire. Ocelli two, or three : if only two present, one is situated in the margin of each of the compound eyes ; if three, the third in the middle of the front. Palpi short, incurved, four-jointed ; first joint short, moderately robust ; second much longer ; third and fourth more slender and about •equally long. Antennae cylindrical, tapering towards the apex, projecting forwards, arcuated, 2 + 14 jointed ; first joint of scapus nearly cylindrical, second cupuliform, both joints setiferous on the sides and upper edge ; flagellar joints cylindrical, with a short downy pubescence. Thorax highly arched. Scutellum semicircular. Abdomen rather flattened, broadest in the middle. Legs rather short ; tibiae spurred, and provided with lateral spines which are short on the anterior tibiae, and long ones arranged in three ranges on the intermediate and two ranges on the posterior tibiae. Wings with rounded apex and anal angle. Auxiliary vein joining the ■costa just before the origin of the third longitudinal vein ; costal vein extending some distance beyond the tip of the second longitudinal vein; first longitudinal joins the costa before the branch of the third longitudinal vein ; marginal cross-vein situated a little before the tip of the first longitu- dinal, which bends down and closely approaches the second longitudinal ; anterior branch of third longitudinal reaching the margin just before the apex of the wing ; apex of fork of fourth longitudinal situated just before the apex of fork of third longitudinal ; anterior branch straight, posterior branch undulated ; fifth longitudinal indistinct ; subcostal cross-vein absent. This genus is closely allied to Leia, Ateleia, Acrodicrania, and Ccelosia, but can be easily distinguished by the absence of the subcostal cross-vein, and by the fact that the third and fourth longitudinal veins are complete. 294 Transactions. — Zoology. Anoynala guttata. Plate XI., fig. 3 ; Plate XIII., figs. 16,- 17. Mycetophila gtUtata, Hutt. Length of antennae, 0-079; size of body, 0-174 x 0 044; expanse of wing, 0-165 x 0-066. Antennae 2 + 14 jointed ; joints of seapus yellow, first much longer than the second, which is cyathiform, surface of both with a few stout short black hairs which are much longer on the edge of the second joint ; first five or six joints of flagellum yellow, terminal joints nearly black, length usually about twice the breadth, all joints densely covered with short hairs having bright silvery reflections. Palpi prominent, rather large and thick, light-yellow, with a few short hairs. A black shining patch round each ocellus, but an orange area between them. Vertex dark-brown, with long black hairs on the margin. Thorax dark-yellow, surface with a few scattered hairs, which are long on the anterior and lateral margins ; four longitudinal brown stripes, two short ones extending from the collare to the insertion of the wings, one on each side of the median line, but never confluent ; the other two near the lateral margin, connnencing farther back, and extending nearly to the scutellum, never confluent. Scutelluni dark - brown anteriorly, light - yellow posteriorly, fringed with long black hairs. Metathorax and pleurse dark- brown. Halteres with light-coloured rather slender pedicels bearing an oval club, light - yellow in colour. Abdomen broadest in the middle, covered with hairs giving golden reflection ; anterior portion of each segment yellow, posterior and longer portions dark-brown. Legs rather short ; coxae light-yellow, with black hairs on anterior surface ; femora brown at both ends but yellow in the centre ; tibiae rather stout, those of posterior and intermediate legs darkened at both extremities and covered with short hairs and bearing several spines of two sizes ; anterior tibiae only with shorter spines ; tarsi light - yellow, but thickly clothed wdth dai'k hairs ; spurs brown. Wings with brownish tinge, microscopi- cally pubescent ; one brown patch between apex of first longi- tudinal and costa ; another patch at fork of second and third longitudinals, and a third on the inner side of posterior branch of fourth longitudinal ; a more indistinct patch between ante- rior branch of fourth longitudinal and posterior branch of second longitudinal — i.e., near the margin of first posterior cell. Second longitudinal joining costa not far before apex of wing ; costa almost reaching the apex ; apex of fork of third longitudinal much nearer the apex of wing than trans- verse vein, the latter situated half-way along the M'ing ; fork of fourth longitudinal nearer base of wing than junction Marshall. — On New Zealand Diptera. 295 between second and third longitudinals ; branches reaching margin far apart. Size of brown patclies varies considerably. This is an excessively conuaion insect throughout the colony. It may be taken throughout the year, but is more frequent in the spring months. Anomala minor, sp. nov. Length of antennae, 0066 ; size of body, 0-120 x 0-027 ; expanse of wing, 0-140 x 0016. Antennge 2 + 14 jointed ; joints of scapus dark-yellow, covered on the upper surface wdth stiff black hairs, one of which, situated on the anterior rim of the second joint, is larger than the two joints together. Palpi light - yellow. Vertex black, but covered rather thickly with long yellow hairs. Thorax dark -tawny to black; in the former case marks are present closely resembling those on the thorax of the last species ; surface covered thickly with long yellow hairs. Scutellum black, with very short hairs on its posterior margin. Metathorax and pleurae black. Halteres white ; club pyriform, rather elongated. Abdomen black, covered with minute golden pubescence and thinly -scattered long golden hairs. Legs rather short ; coxee almost white, but darker at the distal extremity ; femora dark -brown at both ends but very light in the nnddle, covered ^Yith long golden hairs ; tibiae rather stout, yellow, but darker at both ex- tremities, covered with short black hairs and with two rows of long black spines; spurs light -yellow', with short black hairs ; tarsi yellow, but densely covered with short black hairs. V/ings wdth slight brownish tinge, microscopically pu- bescent ; brown patches in same position but lighter, except the one situated in the first submarginal cell ; all the apical portions of the wing shaded light -brown. Veins at the base light-yellow, but almost black at the extremity ; first and second longitudinal veins do not approach so closely as in the last species ; second longitudinal short ; costa not nearly extending to tip of wing ; apex of fork of third longitudinal situated almost below transverse vein ; transverse vein nearer apex of wing than half-way; fork of fourth longitudinal almost directly below point of junction between second and third longitudinals; branches of fourth longitudmal not reach- ing margin, far apart. Not so abundant as the preceding, but common at Christ- church and Wanganui. ■o" Genus Aphelomera, Skuse. Head small, round, the fore part flattened, situated deep in the thorax. Ocelli three, of almost equal size, arranged in a curved line high on the front. Eyes ovate, a little emargi- 296 Transactions. — Zoology. nate above on the inner side. Palpi prominent, incurved, four-jointed ; first and second joints somewhat robust, first joint small, second twice the length of the first, third rather longer than the first and second taken together and consider- ably more slender, fourth joint very slender, about equal in length to all the others taken together. Antennae arcuated, projecting forward, longer than the head and thorax combined, very slender, 2 -f 14 jointed ; joints of the scapus of about equal size, cupuliform, both setiferous at the apex ; flagellar joints cylindrical, with a short dense pubescence. Thorax oval, highly arched. Scutellum small, almost semicircular. Metathorax high, acclivous. Abdomen slender, cylindrical, six-segmented, with an anal joint almost as large as the sixth abdominal segment, and small forceps. Legs long, slender ; femora not so robust as the coxae, compressed ; tibiae spurred, and the intermediate and hind pairs each with two rows of lateral spines. Wings oblong-ovate, longer than the abdomen, rounded off at the base, microscopically pubescent. Costal vein extending far beyond the tip of the second longitudinal vein, stopping a little before the apex of the wing ; auxiliary vein joining the costa a little before the marginal cross-vein ; the humeral cross-vein very oblique ; no subcostal cross-vein ; first longitudinal vein joining the costa at a point three-fourths of the distance from the root of the wing to the tip of the costa ; the marginal cross-vein situated very much before the middle of the first longitudinal vein, at a point about one-third the length of the latter ; third longitudinal vein detached from the second longitudinal vein, starting in the wing-disc con- siderably beyond the marginal cross-vein, reaching the margin much below the apex of the wing, without any trace of an anterior branch ; fourth longitudinal vein joining the margin before the tip of the first longitudinal vein joins the costa, the only trace of an anterior branch being an indistinct short piece of a vein quite detached from the fourth longitudinal vein, and joining the posterior margin a short distance in front of it ; fifth longitudinal vein only rudimentary. The only species of this genus hitherto described is from Sydney, so the genus would appear to be confined to Austral- asia. Aphelomera skusei, n. sp. Plate XL, fig. 4. Length of antennae, 0-055 ; size of body, 0-073 x 0-013 ; expanse of wing, 0066 x 0030. Joints of scapus orange, with a few black hairs ; flagellum black, joints froni three to five times longer than broad, covered all over with a fine pubescence. Palpi light- brown, darker at the tip. Thorax dark-brown or black, covered with short yellowish hairs and longer black hairs, Marshall. — On Neio Zealand Dvptera. 297 curved inwards. Scutellum black, bordered with long black hairs. Metathorax and pleurae black, smooth. Hal teres with stout yellow pedicel bearing an elongated black club densely covered with a black pubescence. Abdomen slender, black, densely clothed with black hairs. Coxae rather stout, light- yellow"; femora darker, more compressed, and thickly clothed with short yellow hairs ; tibiaB hght, but thickly covered with short black hairs ; tibiae of fore-legs half as long as tarsi, in posterior legs tibite nearly as long as tarsi ; long spines on tibiae and short ones on tarsi, black ; spurs greyish-browa]. Wings with a pale-brownish tint, veins brown ; surface microscopically pubescent. A few long black hairs on first and second longitudinals ; auxiliary distinct ; fifth longitudinal rudimentaiy. I have taken four specimens of this insect. It appears to be rather widely distributed. It is closely allied to A. sydney- ensis, of Australia. Genus Zygomyia, Winn. Tips of the costal and second longitudinal vems uniting far before the apex of the wing ; auxiliary vein incomplete, bent anteriorly, gradually disappearing or only forming a tooth ; apex of the inner marginal cell not situated beyond the base of the second submarginal cell ; petiole of the fork of the third longitudinal vein very short ; anterior branch of the fourth longitudinal vein wanting ; fifth longitudinal vein incomplete ; sixth longitudinal vein in most cases large. I have placed the following species in this genus, though in some respects their alar venation varies from that described above : in particular, the fork of the third longitudinal vein has a moderately-long petiole, and the sixth longitudinal vein is wanting. Zygomyia flavicoxa, sp. nov. Plate XI., fig. 6. Length of antennae, 0041 ; size of body, 0-093 x 0-024 ; expanse of wing, 0088 x 0-035. Antennae a little longer than head and thorax together ; joints of scapus about equal in size, cyathiform, about as long as broad, light-brown large sette on the anterior margm of second joint ; flagellum dark-brown, rather compressed, the joints rather broader than long, densely covered with pubes- cence giving silvery reflections. Palpi hght-yellow. Two lateral ocelli fairly large, central one small, situated in a marked depression. Front broad, black, with a few hairs giving yellowish reflections. Thorax with all the central portion "black, humeral patches yellow, and lateral portions light-brown ; everywhere covered with numerous hairs giving yellowish reflections. Metathorax and pleurae black. Scutel- 298 Transactions. — Zoology. lum black, with a few long hairs on the posterior margin. Abdomen black, narrow in front but broadening considerably posteriorly, hairs few and scattered. Forceps of male light- yellow. Halteres with a light-yellow pedicel ; club large, pyriform, black. Legs not long ; coxae yellow, darkening to- wards the apex, where there are a few light-coloured setae ; trochanters light-yellow ; femora rather compressed, yellow, but dark-brown or black at the apex, covered all over with black hairs, which are lengthened considertibly near the end of the lateral margins ; tarsi straw-coloured, with two ranges of long black spines ; posterior spurs half the length of metatarsus, straw-coloured, but densely covered with short black hairs ; tarsi with spines on the inner surface. Wings with a pale -yellow tinge; veins dark -brown, but lighter where they cross the white areas ; costal margin of wing brown, the shading extending downwards at the marginal cross-vein ; all the apical half of the wing shaded with brovvn, which is darker near the costal margin ; a roundish white patch half in the second and half in the first submargmal cell. Tips of costal and second longitudinal veins uniting before the apex of the wing ; fourth longitudinal strong ; fifth longitudinal parallel to the third, ending about half-way down it ; sixth longitudinal strong. Common at Wanganui and Lincoln early in the spring. Zygomyia fiisca, sp. nov. Length of antennse, 0-049; size of body, 0-115 x 0-033; expanse of wing, 0-125 x 004:9. Joints of scapus rather long, light-yellow, cyathiform, the first half as long again as the second ; joints of flagellum rather compressed, dark-brown, those at the base about as long as broad, the apical ones with the length more than four times the breadth, thickly clothed with a pubescence giving silvery reflections. Palpi yellow. The central ocellus small, situated in rather a deep depression. Thorax dark-brown, bordered with orange anteriorly, and covered with black hairs. Scutellum dark-brown, with long hairs on the posterior margin. Metathorax and pleurae dark-brown on upper por- tion, but black below. Halteres white ; club oval, with a few black hairs. Abdomen black, with very few hairs except on the posterior margins of the segments ; a cinereous band on the hind margin of every segment. Forceps of male dark- brown, and densely covered with black hairs. Legs moderate ; coxae almost white, but a small patch of brown and black hairs at the tip ; trochanters dark ; femora light straw-colour, with short black hairs which become setae on the margins near the apex, rather dark at the base, compressed ; tibiae stout and, like the tarsi, closely resemble those of Z. flavicoxa. Marshall. — On New Zealand Diptera. 299 Wings hyaline, with shaded patches similar to those on the wings of Z. Jiavicoxa, but much smaller ; the white sub- apical patch longer, and extending almost from the costa to the posterior margin. Auxiliary vein bent slightly posteriorly ; ■fifth longitudinal ending below the apex of the second sub- marginal cell ; veins much stouter than in the last species. Though the veining of the wings is almost identical with that in the last species, I have no doubt of the specific dis- tinctness of the two types. The size of this species is much greater than that of the last. The halteres are white instead of black, the femora are not dark at the apex and are lighter in colour, the abdomen is ringed with cinereous ; the wings have the dark patches smaller and much more closely defined. Genus Brack ydicrania, Skuse. Head roundish, compressed in the fore part, situated deep in the thorax ; front broad, the anterior border prolonged as a small triangle, which reaches to the basal joints of the an- tennae. Eyes longish-round. Ocelli two, large. Palpi pro- minent, incurved, foui'-jointed ; first joint small, second longer, very robust ; third joint subclavate, about one-third longer than the second ; fourth joint very slender, about equal to all the others united. Anteunee projecting forward, somewhat arcuated, 2 + 14 jointed ; first joint of scapus cyathiform, second much shorter than the first, cupuliform, both setiferous at the apex ; flagellar joints cylindrical, somewliat compressed from the sides, with dense minute downy pubescence. Thorax ovate, highly arched, with a short pubescence, setiferous on the lateral and hind margins. Scutellum semicircular, seti- ferous. Metathorax steep. Abdomen slender, in the male with six, in the female with seven, segments, narrowed at the base, cylindrical, or a little compressed from the sides ; anal joint of the male moderately large ; female ovipositor very short, with two small lamellae. Legs long, slender; inter- mediate and hind femora rather broadly compressed ; tibiae spurred, and having lateral spines, fore pair with one distinct range of very small size on the inner side and a few very small spines on the outer side, intermediate pair with a range of small spines on each side, hind pair with two ranges of longer spines on the outer side ; metatarsus of the hind tarsi with some very minute . prickles. Wings longer than the abdomen, oblong-oval, with moderately-rounded base, micro- scopically haired. x\uxiliary vein very small, incomplete, directed towards the first longitudinal vein ; costal vein not extending beyond the tip of the second longitudinal vein ; mai'ginal cross-vein situated about the middle of the first longitudinal vein and over the base of the second submarginal cell, the latter with a shorter petiole ; tips of the third longi- 300 Transactions. — Zoology. tudinal fork somewhat divergent ; second posterior cell short, its base situated much beyond the base of the second sub- marginal cell ; the branches of the fourth longitudinal fork divergent ; fiftli longitudinal vein long, incomplete ; sixth longitudinal vein long. This genus was established by Skuse for some Australian species. None have hitherto been described from any other country. Bracliydicrania hiemalis. Plate XI., fig. 2; Plate XIII., figs. 18, 19. Length of antennae, 0-055; size of body, 0-154 x 0-022; expanse of wing, 0143 x 0-049. Antennte about as long as head and thoi'ax ; joints of scapus dark-yellow, setiferous ; joints of flagellum rather longer than broad, difficult to distinguish near the base, but separated near the apex, dark-brown, but covered with a short dense pubescence giving a silvery reflection. Palpi long and slender; first, second, and third joints light-yellow; basal half of fourth joint light-yellow, apical half dark-brown. Front dark-brown, covered with rather short hairs. Thorax dark-brown, humeri and lateral margins dark-yellow, short yellow hairs and longer black ones covering its surface. Scu- tellum dark-brown, bordered with a few very long black hairs. Metathorax and pleurae brown, smooth. Halteres with white pedicel ; club smoky. Abdomen rather slender, covered sparmgly with black hairs ; first and second segments brown with yellow sides, and sometimes yellow on posterior margin ; third segment dark-yellow, brown on centre of dorsal surface; remaining segments black. Legs long and slender ; coxae almost white, smoky towards the tip ; femora very light yellow ; tibiae pale straw-colour, but covered with black hairs arranged in longitudinal lines, and two rows of long slender spines on intermediate and posterior tibiae ; tarsi nearly black from dense clothing of black hairs ; those of anterior legs very long, shorter in intermediate, and about as long as tibiae in posterior legs; spurs very long and slender, pale-brown. Wings microscopically pubescent, the pubescence being arranged in longitudinal lines ; pellucid, with a very pale tint. Auxiliary very short ; first longitudinal nearly parallel with costa ; second longitudinal and anterior branch of third longitudinal slightly sinuate; marginal cross - vein situated beyond apex of second submarginal cell, about lialf-way along first longitudinal vein ; neither branch of fourth longitudinal reaching the margin. This insect was extremely common on window-panes and in low-lying bush in Wanganui in June and July. Closely allied to B. jmllicanda, of Australia, but, I think, distinct. Marshall. — On Nac Zealand Diptera. 301 Genus Mycetophila, Meig. Head somewhat longish, round, compressed in the fore part, situated deep in the thorax ; front broad, the anterior border elongated triangularly, which extends to the basal part of the antennae. Eyes oval. Ocelli two, large. Palpi prominent, incurved, four - jointed ; first joint small, the others equally so, or the last the longest. Antennae pro- jecting forward, arcuated, 2 + 14 jointed ; the joints of the scapus cyathiform, setiferous at the apex ; flagellar joints cylindrical, compressed from the side, with short downy pubescence. Thorax ovate, highly arched, with short pubes- cence, longer hair on the lateral margins, setiferous on the hind border. Scutellum semicircular, or a shortened triangle, setiferous on the border. Metathorax highly arched. Abdomen of the male with six segments, of the female with, seven segments, more or less compressed from the sides, narrowing at the base ; anal joint of the male generally small; ovipositor of the female with two lamellae. Legs robust ; femora com- pressed ; tibiae spurred, the fore pair with small spines on the outer side, the intermediate pair with two ranges of strong spines on the outer side and one range of stronger or weaker ones on the inner side ; the hind tibiae with two or three ranges of short spines on the outer side ; metatarsi of the hind tarsi with fine prickles. Wings a little longer than the abdomen, longish-oval, the base rounded off or more or less obtusely- cuneiformly narrowed, microscopically pubescent. Auxiliary vein incomplete, bent antei'iorly ; costal vein not extending beyond the tip of the second longitudinal vein and not reach- ing the apex of the wing ; marginal cross-vein situated at or somewhat beyond the middle of the first longitudinal vein, and over the base of the second submarginal cell, the latter with a short petiole or sessile ; base of the somewhat-extended posterior cell situated before, under, or a little beyond the base of the second submarginal cell ; the branches of the fourth longitudinal inclined towards one another at their tips ; fifth longitudinal vein incomplete ; rudimentary sixth longi- tudinal vein stout. This is a large genus, includmg species that have been described from nearly every known country. Mycetojihila sylvatica, n. sp. Length of antennae, 0-104; size of body, 0-286 x 0-055; expanse of wing, 0-225 x 0094. Joints of scapus yellowish-brown, setose on the upper surface, first joint more than twice as long as the second ; joints of flagellum light-brown ; length four or five times the breadth, covered all over with a close pubescence giving grey 302 Transactions. — Zoology. reflections. Palpi long, incurved ; first joint nearly black, second joint long, light -brown, third joint similar to the second but more slender and shorter, fourth joint longest, orange -coloured. Front greyish -brown, setose, the hairs being black. Tliorax dark-brown, thickly covered with short black hairs, with long curved black hairs on the margins. Scutellum black, with long black hairs on the margin. Meta- thorax and pleurae black, the latter with long slender black hairs. Halteres with stout pedicels, very light yellow, but covered with short black hairs. Abdomen slender, dark- brown irregularly mottled with fulvous, covered everywhere with rather short black hairs. Legs ratlier long and slender ; cox£e yellow at both ends, but the central portion is dark- brown, tip setose ; femora dark-yellow, the tip and central portion shaded with brown, surface covered with short black hairs; tibiae slender, straw-coloured, with longitudinal rows of black hairs, and spotted with brown spots, from which long spiiies arise ; spurs dark-brown ; tarsi long and slender, with horizontal rows of black hairs, but no spines. Wings with distinct brown tinge, but extreme tip yellow ; a dark- brown patch at marginal cross-vein and apex of inner marginal cell ; a very irregular band extending from the end of the first longitudinal to near the end of the second posterior cell ; a shaded patch between these two marks and a shaded sub- apical area. Veins brown. Surface of wing microscopically pubescent, the hairs being arranged in oblique lines. Auxiliary not very short, slightly bent posteriorly and gradually disap- pearing ; tip of costa and second longitudinal very near apex of the wing ; fifth longitudinal extending to fork of fourth longitudinal; sixth longitudinal long, nearly reaching margin ; inner marginal cell just lying over base of second submarginal cell, whose petiole is very short. I found abundant specimens of this insect in one spot in a very damp gully on the bush-covered side of the Eimu- taka Mountains, near the Summit Station. Mycetophila Jioivletti, sp. nov. Length of antenna}, 0-132; size of body, 0-300 x 0-065; •expanse of wing, 0-264 x 0-120. Basal joint of scapus more than twice the length of the second, setae black ; length of joints of flagellum two or three times their breadth, the basal five or six joints with an orange band at both ends, but the central portion is dark -brown. Palpi dark - orange ; first joint short, second stout, third more slender, bristly like the second, fourth strongly curved, broadening considerably at the apex, slightly bristly. Front yellowish-grey, covered with black hairs. Thorax reddish- yellow, but black on lateral margins above the wings, densely Mabshall. — On Neio Zealand Dijjtera. 303 •covered with black hairs. Scutelkim dark-brown, with strong hairs on its posterior margins. Metathorax yellow. Pleurae dark -brown, covered with slender black hairs. Abdomen almost black, mottled with very dark brown ; margins of some of the segments lighter. Legs robust ; coxae light- yellow, but brown on the posterior margin ; femora rather ■expanded, greyish-yellowy with two black spots on the pos- terior side and a conspicuous black tip on the posterior legs ; tibiae dull-yellow, with a black tip covered with longitudinal rows of black hairs and spines of two sizes, the longer ones being orange -red ; spurs long, orange -red in colour ; tarsi darker than the tibiae, several rows of line spines on the inner side. Wings very broad, microscopically pubescent, with a deep-yellow tint, but the larger part coloured almost black ; a dark patch surrounding marginal cross-vein, which extends downward and spreads out widely, covering all the posterior portion of the wing, but becoming lighter as the margin is approached; this becomes darker nearer the apex and spreads up again to the second longitudinal vein, but has an irregular outline, becoming very much narrower at second longitudinal and reaching costa at the end of first longitudinal, the apex being yellow\ First and second longitudinals brown ; the others very strong and black ; petiole of second submarginal cell very short, the apex of the inner marginal cell lying over the base of the second posterior. I have only one specimen of this fine insect. It was taken in bush on the Euahine Mountains, in January. Mycetophila fagi, n. sp. Length of antennae, 0-055 ; size of body, 0-148 x 0-034 ; expanse of wing, 0-127 X 0-055. Antennae slender ; joints of scapus long, long black setae on anterior portion of last joint ; flagellum nearly cylindrical, brown, the basal portion of each joint being lighter than the apical portion, covered all over with short pubescence. Palpi light-yellow. Head yellow, dark near the two ocelli. Thorax yellow, without any markings, but orna- mented with a few long and many short black hairs. Scutel- lum yellow-, with long black bristles on the posterior margin. Metathorax and pleurge dark -yellow. Pedicel of halteres nearly white ; club light-yellow, pubescent. Abdomen dark- brown, the posterior portion of each segment light -yellow. Forceps of male brown, with black setae. Legs rather short ; coxae pale -yellow, with a few black setae; femora straw- coloured, with black hairs ; tibiae straw-coloured, with long black spines but no smaller ones, and a fringe at the distal end; spurs long, straw-coloured, but densely covered with black pubescence; tarsi rather stout, with short black spines 304 Transactions. — Zoology. on the lower surface. Wings with yellow tinge. Veins all about equally distinct ; costal vein ending at tip of second longitudinal just before apex of wing ; apex of inner mar- ginal cell and of fork of third and fourth longitudinal almost in same transverse line ; fifth longitudinal not reaching fork of fourth. This is a doubtful species, but I believe it to be dis- tinct. I have four specimens, taken in Fagus bush, in March. Mycetophila variabilis, sp. nov. Plate XII., fig. 3. Length of antennae, 0-090; size of body, 0 187 x 0-033; expanse of wing, 0-198 x 0-071. Antennge rather slender ; first joint of scapus light- yellow with setae on lower surface, second joint with setae all round anterior border ; length of each joint of flagellum more than twice the breadth, basal half of each joint yellow, apical half brown, last seven joints entirely brown, covered with short pubescence giving grey reflections. Palpi yellow, covered with black hairs. Front dark-yellow, with short black hairs and a row of long black bristles along the anterior and lateral margins. Thorax dark-yellow, with short and long hairs scattered over its surface ; sometimes the thorax is marked with more or less distinct broad d-ark-brown or black longitudinal stripes, which in extreme forms cover the greater part of its surface. Scutellura varies from yellow to brown, and has four long black bristles situated on its posterior border. Metathorax and pleurae brown, the latter rather hairy. Abdomen varies from brown to yellow, the posterior margin of each segment being usually far lighter in colour than the anterior portion. Halteres with short stout pedicels bearing rather large clubs, brown in colour, covered with a close short pubescence. Legs stout ; coxae hght-yellow, with one or two small spots of brown on the sides ; femora light- yellow, in the darker specimens they are conspicuously tipped with black ; tibiae straw-colour, often darker at the tips, with longitudinal rows of black hairs and spines of two sizes, the longer being long and stout ; the longer spur almost as long as the metatarsus ; joints of tarsus light-yellow, with nume- rous rows of black hairs and spines on the under-surface. Wings with distinct yellow^ tinge. Veins dull -yellow, all equally distinct ; auxiliary vein short, but not terminating abruptly ; second longitudinal uniting with costa some dis- tance before the tip of the wing ; often a small black patch at the end of each branch of the longitudinal veins ; usually a distinct black patch around marginal cross-veins, also a small one at apex of second posterior cell ; fifth longitu- dinal ending at or a little before apex of second posterior Makshall. — On Neio Zealand Diptera. 305 cell, its distance from the fourth longitudinal differs consider- ably in different specimens. This is an extremely common and variable insect. Several varieties seem to be well marked, and subsequent investigation may show that they belong to different species. For the pre- sent I have united them, as I am not yet satisfied that some of them belong to different species. The insect may be taken throughout the year, but is especially abundant during the summer months. I have obtained specimens at Wanganui and Lincoln, as well as at several intermediate localities. Mycctophila robusta, sp. nov. Length of antennae, 0-121 ; size of body, 0-198 x 0-054 ; expanse of wing, 0-204 x 0090. Antennae slender ; joints of scapus not very stout, reddish- yellow, the basal joint setiferous on the lower surface, the upper joint all over the upper margin ; flagellum with basal joint in length about four trnies its breadth, reddish-yellow, others with length about three times their breadth, reddish- yellow on the lower portion, dark-brown above, the yellow portion smaller and the brown portion larger in each succeed- ing joint as the apex is approached ; all joints covered with short pubescence. Palpi reddish-yellow ; second and third joints stout, covered with short black hairs ; fourth joint very slender and rather longer, and not so densely covered with black hairs. Front reddish-yellow, the anterior margin and lateral margins fringed with stout black hairs. Thorax, scu- tellum, metathorax, and pleurae reddish-yellow; thorax with rather short black hairs. Scutellum with four long black spines on posterior portion. Halteres short, reddish-yellow; clubs pyriform, with black pubescence. Abdomen reddish- yellow, darker on the upper surface, covered all over with rather short black hairs. Legs stout ; cox» bright-yellow, setiferous at the end ; femora rather dilated, yellow, covered with short black hairs ; tibiae with longitudinal rows of short black hairs, two rows of very long spines and a few shorter ones ; tarsi yellow, with longitudinal rows of black hairs and numerous black spines on the under-surface ; spurs very long and stout. Wings with pronounced yellow tinge. Veins yellow ; tip of costal uniting with tip of second longitudinal almost at the apex of the wing ; fifth longitudinal not nearly reaching apex of second posterior cell ; sixth longitudinal longer. Black spots on the wing absent or less pronounced than in the last species. The three last species are very closely aUied, and would perhaps be more properly classed as varieties of a single species. The chief distinction between them is their size, but this cannot be considered a specific character if specimens 20 306 Transactions. — Zoology. intermediate between the extremes are found. I have in- cluded a large number of specimens, differing considerably in size as well as in markings on the wings and bodies, under M. variabilis, but intermediate specimens are very numerous, and undoubtedly link the extremes together sufficiently to justify their inclusion in the same species. Of the present species I have four specimens, taken in forest country on the flanks of the Euahine Mountains, closely allied to M. lineola, Meig., of England. Mycetophila maculata, sp. nov. Plate XII., fig. 2. Length of antennae, 0-04:9 ; size of body, 0-103 x 0-024 ; expanse of wing, 0-110 x 0-055. Antennae dark-brown, moderately slender ; joints of sea- pus dark-yellow, first much longer than the second, setae small ; flagellum nearly cylindrical, joints at base much longer than broad, those near the apex about as long as broad, covered with dense pubescence, light near the base but darker near the apex. Palpi dark-yellow. Front dark- brown, with black hair. Thorax dark-brown, lighter on the front and lateral margins, one long spine on each side of the posterior margin. Scutellum dark-brown, with four long black spines on the posterior margin. Metathorax and pleurae black. Halteres white ; club moderate, covered with very fine white pubescence. Abdomen black, with a narrow white stripe on the posterior border of the second, third, fourth, and fifth segments ; abdomen greatly compressed, and covered with black hairs. Legs rather slender ; coxas stout, dark-brown on the outer surface and on the tip ; fe- mora broad, greatly compressed, basal portion yellow, apical portion black, covered with short black hairs ; tibiae rather stout, with several longitudinal rows of black hairs, and two rows of long black spines ; spurs long ; tibige rather light- coloured, with rows of hairs and with spines on under-surface. Wings with yellowish tinge ; brown spot extending from apex of second submarginal cell and origin of third longitudinal to costa ; a brown band extending from apex of first longitudinal to the posterior margin, becoming gradually lighter as the posterior margin is approached ; apex slightly shaded with brown, also a small area situated beneath the apex of second posterior cell. This insect is abundant all through the summer. It is closely allied to M. kmata, Meig., of England. Bkevicornu, nov. gen. Head rather longer than broad. Eyes small, separated by a broad front. Antennae very short; flagellum not three times as long as the scapus, ending in a sharp point. Ocelli Marshall. — On Neto Zealand Diptera. 307 small. Thorax strongly curved. Abdomen compressed later- ally, with six segments in the female. Legs moderately long, rather slender ; femora compressed ; tibias of anterior legs without spines, posterior and intermediate tibiaB with a few very weak spines ; spurs rather long and slender ; tarsi slender, first joint more than twice as long as any of the succeeding joints. Wings rather shorter than the abdomen, microscopically pubescent. Auxiliary vein short, ending in the costa ; first longitudinal ending in the costa at a point more than two-thirds of the length of the wing ; second longi- tudinal vein joining the tip of the costa before the apex of the wing ; inner marginal cell rather lengthened, but its apex lies before the apex of the fork of the third longitudinal vein ; inner marginal cell not quite closed, as marginal cross-vein is not perfect ; petiole of third longitudinal vein not very short ; fourth longitudinal vein with very acute fork, the apex of the second posterior cell lying some distance before the apex of the second submarginal cell ; fifth longitudinal vein incom- plete, ending just beyond the apex of the fork of the second posterior cell. The character of the autennge and of the tibiae I think justify me in establishing a new genus for this species. I have, so far, specimens of but one species. Brevicornu flava, sp. nov. Plate XII., fig. 4 ; Plate XIII., fig. 20. Length of antenuse, 0-020; size of body, 0-100 x 0-021 ; expanse of wing, 0-088 x 0-033. Antennae short ; joints of scapus bright-yellow with black hairs, about equal in length ; joints of flagellum dark-brown, covered everywhere with a short dense pubescence giving silvery reflections ; joints of about equal length, but the basal joints have a breadth about three times their length, while those near the apex are nearly as long as they are broad ; terminal joint longer than broad, subconical. A small black patch round both ocelli. Front dark-brown, almost black. Vertex brownish-orange, with scattered hairs about the same colour. Palpi pale-yellow. Thorax dark-yellow, covered with long dark-brown hairs and shorter yellow hairs. Scutellum dark-yellow, fringed with long black hairs. Metathorax and pleurae dark-yellow\ Halteres yellow, small, covered with short pubescence. Abdomen greatly compressed, yellow, but darker on the posterior portion of each segment ; terminal segment nearly black ; all segments covered sparingly with short black hairs. Legs moderately long, rather slender ; coxae pale-yellow, with a few setag near the end ; femora yellow, rather robust, covered with short black hairs ; tibia straw-colour, with longitudinal rows of short black 308 Transactions. — Zoology. hairs and a few slender short spines ; spurs nearly black, being covered with dense black pubescence ; tarsi nearly black, with dense covering of short black hairs. Wings rather shorter than abdomen, pellucid, microscopically pubescent. Veins pale straw-colour ; costa and first two longitudinals darker, owing to presence of row of black hairs ; slight in- terruption in second longitudinal, just before marginal cross- vein ; fork of third longitudinal long, branches nearly parallel for the greater part of their course ; fork of fourth longi- tudinal long, apex situated just before origin of third longi- tudinal ; posterior branch of third longitudinal disappears before reaching margin ; posterior branch of fourth longi- tudinal slightly wavy, not quite reaching the margin ; fifth longitudinal just reaching apex of fork of fourth ; sixth longi- tudinal very rudimentary. Forceps of the male rather long and slender, bright-yellow in colour, and densely covered with rather stout short hairs. Abdomen darker than in the female. Lamellae of the female slender, light at the base but dark- brown at the tip, covered with short soft hairs. I have only two specimens of this insect, one male and one female, taken in Fagtis bush at the foot of Mount Torlesse in March. Brevicornu fragilis, sp. nov. Plate XII., fig. I. Length of antennae, 0-014 ; size of body, O'llO x 0-006 ; expanse of wing, 0-086 x 0033. Antennae longer than in the last species ; scapus yellow, both joints cyathiform, the first longer than the second, both with a fringe of black hairs ; flagellum dark-brown, slender, about four tmies the length of the scapus, covered with a fine pubescence. Front black, covered with a greyish pubescence. Thorax greatly curved, black, but covered with greyish hairs; a few long black hairs on the lateral and posterior margins. Scutellum rather long, with a long black hair on each side of the posterior margin. Metathorax dark-brown. Pleurae black. Halteres with a slender yellow pedicel ending in a white club. Abdomen greatly compressed, laterally black, and covered with hairs; the posterior margins of each segment dark- brown. Legs rather slender; coxae yellow; femora rather com- pressed, yellow, with short black hairs ; tibiee rather long, with short spines on the intermediate and posterior pairs; spurs long, nearly black ; tarsi long and slender. Wings yellowish. Basal portion of second longitudinal vein con- tinuous; marginal cross -vein short; sixth longitudinal vein longer, but not reaching the margin. I have several specimens, taken at Lincoln throughout the summer. The figure is rather incorrectly drawn. Marshall. — On New Zealand Diptera. 309 EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Plate VIII. Fig. 1. Nervijuncta nigresceiis: a, palpus; b, antenna; c, end of ab- domen. Fig. 2. Hiittonia tridens : a, palpus ; b, end of abdomen ; c, base of antenna. Fig. .3. Macrocera montana. Plate IX. Fig. 1. Macrocera scoparia. Fig. 2. Bolitophila luviinosa. Fig. 3. Ceroplatus dendyi. Fig. 4. Platijiira orditiaria. Fig. 5. Sciophila hirta. Plate X. Fig. 1. Sciophila fagi. Fig. 2. Parvicellula triangula. Fig. 3. Tctragoiieura novcB zealandice. Fig. 4. Cyrtoneura hudsoni. Fig. 5. Aneura boletinoides. Plate XI, Fig. 1. Euryceras anaclinoicles. Fig. 2. Brachydicrania hiemalis. Fig. 3. Anomala guttata. Fig. 4. Aphelomcra skusei. Fig. 5. Gycloneura flava. Pig. 6. Zygomyia flavicoxa. Plate XII. Fig. 1. Brevicornu fragilis. Fig. 2. Mycetophila maculata. Fig. 3. Mycetophila variabilis. Fig. 4. Brevicornu flava. Fig. 5. Paradoxa fusca. Plate XIII. Fig. 1. Proboscis and palpi of Cyrtoneura hudsoni. Fig. 2. Base of antenna of Cyrtoneura hudsoni. Fig. 3. Antenna of Ceroplatus leucoceras. Fig. 4. Scapus and basal joint of flagellum of antenna of Bolitophila Imninosa. Fig. 5. Scapus and basal joints of flagellum of Platyura magna. Fig. 6. Palpus of Platyura magna. Fig. 7. Forceps of male of Platyura magna. Fig. 8. Palpus of Parvicellula triangula. Fig. 9. Scapus and basal joints of flagellum of Parvicellula triangula. Fig. 10. Palpus of Tetragoneura nigra. Fig. 11. Scapus and basal joints of flagellum of Tetragoneura nigra. Fig. 12. Palpus of Aneura boletinoides. Fig. 13. Scapus and basal joints of flagellum of Anerora boletinoides. Fig. 14. Palpus of Euryceras anaclinoides. Fig. 15. Scapus and basal joints of flagellum of Euryceras anaclinoides. Fig. 10. Palpus of Anomala guttata. Fig. 17. Scapus and basal joints of flagellum of Anomala guttata. Fig. 18. Palpus of Brachydicrania hiemalis. Fig. 19. Scapus and basal joints of flagellum of Brachydicrania hiemalis. Fig. 20. Scapus and basal joints of flagellum of Brevicornu flava. 310 Transactions. — Zoology. Art. XXVI. — Neiv Zealand Di^Jtera : No. 3. — Simulidae. By P. Marshall, M.A. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th November, 1895.] Plate XIV. Family SIMULID^. This is quite a small family of flies, but has an extremely wide geographical distribution, being found in nearly all tem- perate countries north and south of the equator. The popular name for the insects belonging to this family is "sandflies" or " black-flies," and wherever they occur they are regarded as one of the worst insect-pests, on account of the great local irritation produced by the bite of the female. Three insects are recorded by Walker common in England, while many other species have been described from the European Con- tinent and North America. Mr. Skuse has described two species in his Australian Diptera, but he considers them rather uncommon insects, and says that the majority of the insects known by the name of " sandfly " m Australia belong to the genus Ceratopogon of the family GhironomidcB. In New Zealand, so far as I am aware, no insects belonging to the ChironomidcB molest the peace of man or any other animals. The " sandfly " that is so common throughout the colony is a species belonging to the Slmulidce. The family contains but a single genus, but its characters are so peculiar and so con- stant that there can be no doubt that this genus is rightly excluded from all the larger families. It is undoubtedly more closely related to the BihionidcB tlian to any of the other families. A New Zealand species was described by Schiner in 1868 under the name of Simulia australiensis . Though the description is somewhat meagre, I have no hesitation in assigning all the species that I have collected from three different localities to this species. I have no doubt that future research will reveal the presence of other species, but, as all my specimens show no variation except in size, I think they all belong to this species, which must have a very wide range in the colony. Mr. Hudson, in his "Handbook of New Zealand Ento- mology," gives figures illustrating the three stages in the metamorphosis of this insect, and adds some valuable notes on its habits. As in other species, the larvae are aquatic. They are rather broad maggots, with suckers at both extremi- ties of the body, by means of which they crawl about like a leech or a grameter caterpillar on the plants growing in the Makshall. — 0)1 New ZealaJid Diptera. 811 clear running streams that they always inhabit. It appears to be carnivorous in the larval state, living on various small crustaceans and rotifers that abound -in these streams. Be- fore pupating the larva fixes itself by glutinous threads to the underside of a leaf. From the anterior part of the body two long-branched filaments project, which are stated by Hudson to have a respiratory function. A cocoon is formed before pupation of membranous or gelatinous material, which is afterwards eaten almost entirely. The pupa hatches into the imago beneath the surface of the water. Genus Simulium, Latreille. Body small, gibbose, with a tomentum. Head small. Palpi four-jointed ; first joint small, second and third longer, fourth long and composed of numerous small annuli, longer in the female than in the male. Antennae eleven-jointed, narrowed to the tip, a little longer than the head; first and second joints remotely connected, remainder closely connected, transverse, end joint conical. Wings large ; first, second, and third dark, remainder of the veins pale. Legs stout, compressed, un- armed ; hind metatarsus incrassate in the male, lengthened, in the female hardly incrassate ; male's generally black, female's cinereous. Eyes contiguous in the male, remote in the female. Labrum in female lanceolate ; labium linear, bidentate at tip. Lingua very long, divided, apical part hairy on the outer sur- face. Also the antennas are more remote than in the male. The above is the fullest diagnosis in any of the works at my disposal. As the genus is such an old-established one I hesitate to add any characters from my own specimens. As in S. furiosiim (Skuse), from Australia, our species has antennae with 2 + 8 joints. Simulium. australiense (Schiner, " Reise der Novara," Dipt. ii., p. 15). Blackish-brown, thorax dusted lighter; yellow round the corners of the shoulders ; base of femora, tibiye, and tarsi yellowish. Wings hyaline ; costal vein intense black, not nearly reaching the apex of the wing, the other veins brownish; discoidal vein thick as far as the cross-vein, then very faint, the forks with a short petiole ; postical and anal veins faint. In the above description the discoidal vein is the third longitudinal, postical and anal veins are the fourth and fifth longitudinal veins. This species is abundant on the banks of streams and lakes throughout the colony from sea-level to 3,000ft. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV. Pig. 1. Simulium australiense. Female. Fig. 2. Larva. Fig. 3. Pupa. 312 Transactions. — Zoology. Aet. XXYII. — On Dodonidia helmsi, Fereday. By P. Makshall, M.A. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 1st May, 1895.] Plate XV. This species was added to the list of New Zealand butterflies by Mr. R. W. Fereday in 1882, in which year a description of the butterfly was written by him, drawn from a single speci- men captured by Mr. Helms, of Westport, at an altitude of 1,500ft. It has been my good fortune during the past summer to obtain eight good specimens of the insect ; they were all obtained in the North Island, within a few miles of Wanganui. Seeing the great rarity of the butterfly, a few remarks on its habits may be worth recording. All the specimens were cap- tured in small bush-gullies, the sides of which are partially cleared of the light bush that formerly covered them. In the upper parts of these gullies the stream at the bottom has formed a small gorge, and, as there is a steep fall, it rushes over small boulders and waterfalls. x\bout half a mile from the head of the gully the fall becomes much less steep, and the bottom is broad and flat, the floor consisting of material brought down by the stream from the upper part of its course. Owing to the very small incline in this part of the gully the water flows sluggishly and spreads well over the flat bottom, forming a well-defined swamp, in which ordinary swamp- plants are found, such as Typlia angustifolia, Garex virgata, Cyjjerus ustulatus, Arundo conspicua, and now and then a bush of Veronica salicifolia. It was in this part of the gully that the insects were found flapping lazily over the swamp- plants, and now and then alighting on leaves of shrubby trees that everywhere fringe the valley-bottom. It was particularly noticeable that the insects nearly always settled on the under- side of the leaves of Bracliyglottis rcpanda or Fuchsia excorti- cata, where the bright silver streaks on the under-surface of their secondaries so harmonized with the white surface of the underside of the leaf as to afford them abundant protection. The insects fed upon the honey in the flowers of the Veronica shrubs on which some of our specimens were captured. In three valleys of the nature above described these insects were found. One of these was close to Wanganui, and the other two at Kai-iwi, about eight miles in a direct line from the other locality. Though I have frequently visited these gullies Marshall. — 0?i Dodonidia helmsi. 313 in previous summers whilst making botanical and entomo- logical collections, I have never previously seen any specimens of this butterfly. Mr. Drew, curator, Wanganui Museum, assures me that, though he has often shot over these gullies, he has never seen any specimens of the buttei-fly. We were, unfortunately, unable to find any larvae or pupae of the insect, but from the way the imago hovers over Brachy- glottis repanda and Fuchsia excorticata it would seem pro- bable that the larvae feed on the foliage of one of these trees. The occurrence of this butterfly suddenly, and in consider- able numbers, seems to me a good instance of the sudden sporadic increase of butterflies about which so much specula- tion has been indulged in and so little is really known. In 1894 the usually rare Danais archiypus became abundant in Wanganui, breeding in hundreds on plants of a species of Gomphocarpus ; but, though the same plants have been kept in the same place in gardens, and numerous others have been sown, the insect did not appear last summer. The only cause one can imagine to have effect in this peculiar circumstance is the variation in climate and temperature from year to year. It is possible that some peculiar and unusual conditions of temperature or other meteorological variations are necessary for its full development in any summer. Four of the specimens caught have been kept by my brother and myself in private collections ; two have been placed in the Wanganui Museum, and two in the Canterbury Museum. The type-specimen described by Mr. Fereday is also in the Canterbury Museum. For a full description of the imago I refer to Mr. Fereday's article, " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," vol. xv., p. 193. In his description of the butterfly Mr. Fereday places a note of interrogation after the genus, subsequently remarking that, as he could not obtain the necessary books of reference, he was unable to determine the genus. The specimen was afterwards sent to England, and placed in the genus Dodo- nidia ; but I have been unable to find the characters of this genus in any of the reference works at my disposal. It appears to be closely allied to the genus Dodona, which con- tains a few Indian species. In that case it would belong to the family ErycinnidcE, and not to the ISymphalidcB. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV. Pig. 1. Dodonidia helmsi, upper side. Fig. 2. Dodonidia helmsi, under side. Fig. 3. Venation of primary. Pig. 4. Venation of secondary. 314 Transactions. — Zoology. Art. XXVIII. — Notes on some Neiv Zealand Fishes, with Description of a Neiv Species. By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S., Curator of the Canter- bury Museum. \_Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 5th November, 1895.'] Plectropoma huntii, Hector. A specimen of this fish has been sent to the Canterbury Museum by Mr. Joshua Kutland, who obtained it from Queen Charlotte Sound. He says it is very rare, and that it lives in holes among rocks, feeding on shrimps. Sometimes it comes to the surface of the water and lies on its side for a considerable time. The fin formula differs slightly from that given by Sir James Hector of the specimen from the Chatham Islands. It is as follows : — B. 7; D. i§; A. f ; L. lat. 46. Total length, 8|-in. There are villiform teeth on the jaws, palatines, and vomer, but none on the tongue. Chironemus spectabilis, Hutton (Ghilodactylus). This species has teeth on the vomer, and should therefore be placed in Chironemus. Agriopus peruvianus, Cuv. and Val. Distinguished by having a small spine before each orbit. There are two specimens in the Museum collection, from Banks Peninsula. Trachyichthys trailli, Hutton. This species is figured in " Challenger " Reports, vol. xxii., pi. 55, fig. A. Seriolella punctata, Forster; Descript. Anim., p. 140 {Gas- terosteus); Seriolella bilineata, H.\itton. I have no doubt but that this is the long-lost fish of Forster. The mistake is due to the peculiar genus into which Forster put his fish, and from the absence in the colony of any copy of his drawing. Evistius huttonii, Gilnther {Platystethus). The new generic name is given by Dr. Theodore Gill for Platystethus, which is preoccupied. HuTTON. — On some New Zealand Fishes. 315 Cubiceps gracilis, Lowe ; Giintlier, " ' Challenger ' Pelagic Fishes," pi. ii., fig. a. A specimen in the Museum was obtained in the Christ - church market in June, 1893. Cybium guttatum, Bloch (?) ; Day's "Fishes of India," pi. Ivi., fig. 4. A damaged specimen of a Cybium, probably C. guttatum, was obtained at the Chatham Islands by Major Gascoyne, and presented to the Museum in April, 1894. Echeneis remora, Linne. There is a specimen in the Museum collection labelled " Wellington Harbour." Kathetostoma giganteum, Haast. In my list of New Zealand fishes (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxii., p. 279) this is by accident given as a synonym of Anema vionopterygium (Bloch), whereas it should have been placed with the next species on the list — K. lave (Bloch). Haast's type, however, has no humeral spines, and may pos- sibly be distinct. Kathetostoma fluviatile, Hutton. There are specimens in the Museum from the Eangitata Eiver, forty miles from its mouth, and also from Dunedin ; so that it inhabits the sea as well as the rivers. It has the same mesial occipital bony plate as K. mac2ilatus (Forster), to which it is closely allied ; but it has no scales on the sides of the tail ; the humeral spines are short and obtuse, and the granu- lations on the opercular and cranial bones are not quite so coarse. The colouration is also slightly different ; but the two species are so much alike that they are always considered to be the same by fishermen. Parapercis gilliesii, Hutton. A specimen which was obtained in the Chi'istchurch market on the- 27th June, 1893, is in the collection. It agrees closely with the description of the type. The name Parapercis has been given by Dr. Theodore Gill, as Percis is preoccupied. Eleotris radiata, Quoy and Gaimard. I have received specimens from the Chatham Islands, collected by Major Gascoyne. Eleotris gobioides, Cuvier and Val. I have received specimens from the Chatham Islands, collected by Major Gascoyne. 316 Transactions. — Zoology, Tripterygium dorsale, Clarke. There is a specimen in the Museum, from Sumner. Tripterygium robustum, Clarke. There is a specimen in the Museum, locality unknown. Acanthoclinus taumaka, Clarke. There is a specimen in the Museum, from Banks Penin- sula. Crepidogaster simus, sp. nov. D. 7 ; A. 7. Snout depressed, rounded, not produced, its length not quite twice the diameter of the eye, or about equal to the width of the interorbital space. Distance from the end of the dorsal, or anal, to the caudal very short, about one- fifth of the length of the caudal, or one-third of the least depth of the tail. Ventrals united to the pectorals by a membrane. Ventral sucker broader than long. Colouration uniform. Lyttelton Harbour and Chatham Islands. Differs from C. hectoris in having the dorsal and anal fins close to the caudal. The type -specimen was presented by Mr. F. W. Tregear, on the 27th December, 1892. Labrichthys roseipunctata, Hutton ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xii., p. 455. I omitted this species from my list of New Zealand fishes, 1889. Labrichthys cincta, Hutton. There is a specimen in the Museum collection, obtained in the Christchurch market. Physiculus bacchus, Foster. Lotella bacchus and L. rhaciuus both belong to Physiculus, distinguished by the flat ventral fins. Motella novae-zealandiae, Hector. Specimens are in the Museum, from Sumner. Anchenoceros punctatus, Hutton. A specimen obtained in the Christchurch market, 22nd May, 1895, is in the collection. Hyplolycodes haastii, Hector. I think that this genus should be placed in the OphidiidcB, on account of its wide gill -openings. The ventrals are jugular, consist of six rays, and reach to the vent when laid back. HuTTON. — On some Neiv Zealand Fishes. 317 Genus Galaxias, Cuvier. I divide the New Zealand species as follows : — A. — Tail truncated or slightly rounded. 1. Pectorals more than half the distance to the ventrals. Ventrals much more than half the distance to the anal. G. alcpidotus, Forster. Length (without caudal) about four and a half times the height ; least depth of the tail more than the distance between the dorsal and caudal fins. Black- ish-brown, with scattered pale spots or streaks. Arthur Eiver, Milford Sound; Chatham Islands. Var. brocchus, Eichardson. The pale streaks forming rings. Arthur Eiver, Milford Sound ; Heathcote Eiver, Christchurch. G.fasciatus, Gray = G. reticulatus, Eich. Length (without caudal) five times the height ; least depth of the tail equal to the distance between dorsal and caudal tins. Brown, with light-coloured transverse bands. North Island of New Zealand and Chatham Islands. 2. Pectorals less than half the distance to the ventrals. Ventrals about half the distance to the anal. G. hrevipinnis, Giinther. Length (without caudal) about seven and a half times the height. Brownish-olive, with dark-brown re- ticulating bands. Otira Eiver ; Lake Coleridge. Var. grandis, Haast. Dark-brown above, either uniform or with pale spots and streaks. Elvers of the Canterbury Plains. B. — Caudal einarginate, pectorals less thaii half the distance to the ventrals. G. lynx, nomen novus. G. olid us, Hutton, not of Giinther. Ventrals more than half the distance to the anal. Length of the body about six and a half times the height. Yellowish- or brownish-grey, with scattered small round black spots. Lake Coleridge ; Lake Wakatipu. G. attenuatus, Jennings. Ventrals less than half the distance to the anal. Length of the body more than eight times the 318 Transactions. — Zoology. heiglit. Greenish-yellow, more or less spotted with brown, each spot being composed of minute dots. Both Islands of New Zealand, and Chatham Islands. Retropinna richardsoni, Gill. Specimens are in the Museum, from the Chatham Islands. Photichthys argenteus^ Hutton. This species has been figured by Dr. Giinther in the Eeport on the Deep-sea Fishes of the "Challenger," pi. xlv., fig. A. Argentina elongata, Hutton. This species is considered distinct by Dr. Giinther, and is figured by him in the Report on the Deep-sea Fishes of the " Challenger," pi. Iv., fig. b. Clupea sagax, Jenyns. A specimen of this fish was procured in the Christchurch market on the 22nd May, 1895. The fishmonger said he had never seen one before. Anguilla aucklandii, Richardson. Specimens have been sent me from the Chatham Islands. I now think that what I called^, latirostris is only the young of A. aucklandii. Anguilla australis, Richardson. Specimens have been sent me by Major Gascoyne from the Chatham Islands. Ophichthys novse-zealandise, Hector. This species differs from 0. serpens in having only one row of teeth on the maxillary and intermaxillary bones. Centrina bruniensis, Ogilby. This is not C. salviana, as I supposed. The differences have been pointed out by Mr. Ogilby in the " Records of the Austrahan Museum," No. 11, p. 62 (1893). Trygon brevicaudatus, Hutton. This may be the same as T. margarita, Giinther ; but that species comes from West Africa, and in the description no mention is made of any ossification on the tail. SuTER. — Contributions to Nerv Zealand Molltisca. 319 Art. XXIX. — Further Contributions to the Molluscan Fauna of New Zealafid. By Henry Suter. Communicated by Captain Hutton, F.R.S. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 5th November, 1895.] In volumes xxiv. and xxv. of these Transactions I published lists of the land and fresh -water shells found at various places in this colony. More material having accumulated in my col- lection, I now^ wish to publish some additional lists, thus help- ing to enlarge the knowledge of the geographical distribution of some of our Mollusca, which is still very far from satisfac- tory. Most of our land-shells being minute or small, and living concealed in the bush under logs, stones, dead leaves, bark, &c., during day-time, it is not astonishing that much remains to be done in the way of collecting, and that new forms are still turning up when a careful search for shells is made. I. — Mount Wellington Lava-fields, Auckland. In volume xxiv. of the Transactions, pp. 277, 278, a list of shells from this locality was given, collected by Mr. C. Musson. Last summer I had a couple of hours collect- ing on these lava-f:elds, and found the following additional species : — Flammulina (s. str.) pilsbrtji, Suter. „ {Therasia) cclindc. Gray. „ „ taniora, Hutton. Endodonta (Thaumatodon) timandra, Hutton.* „ {Ptychodon) liunuaends, Suter. „ {Charopa) buccinella, Eeeve.f „ „ angicicuhis, Eeeve. „ „ corniculuvi, Eve., var. maculata, Sut. „ „ „ „ f. albina. Laoina {Phrixgnathus) im-niila, Hutton. „ „ ariel, Hutton. „ „ allochroido, Suter, var. lateumbili- cata, Suter. „ „ moellendorffi, sp. nov. * Eirorieously " varicosa, Pfr." in former list, f =" sijlvta, Hutton," in former list. 320 Transactions. — Zoology. II. — Nikau Bush, Titirangi, near Auckland. About one hour of collecting produced the following shells : — Lagochilus hedleyi, Suter. Bealia egea, Gray. „ carinella, Pfr. Flammulina (Therasia) celinde, Gray. „ (Garthaa) kivi, Gray. „ (Phcnacohelix) pilula, Eeeve. „ (Allodiscus) diviorpha, Pfr. „ „ i^lanulata, Hutton. Endodonta [Thaumatodon) timandra, Hutton. „ (Ptychodon) humiaensis, Suter. „ (Charopa) coma, Gray. „ „ infecta. Reeve. „ „ hianca, Hutton. „ „ titirangiensis, sp. nov. Laoma (s. str ) poecilosticta, Pfr. „ {Phnxgriatlius) glabriuscula, Pfr. „ „ ariel, Hutton. III. — Tarukenga, near Botorua. The following shells were collected and kindly given to me by Captain T. Broun : — Bealia carinella, Pfr. Flammulina (s. str.) zebra, Le Guillou. „ „ crehriflaynmis . Pfr. „ „ pilshryi, Suter. „ (Therasia) tamora, Hutton. „ [Phenacohelix) pilula. Reeve. „ {Thalassohelix) ziczac, Gould. Endodonta {Ptychodon) piseudoleioda, Suter. „ {Charopa) caput- spinulcB, Reeve. „ „ roseveari, sp. nov. Laoma (s. str.) leimonias. Gray. „ marina, Hutton. {Phrixgnathus) marice. Gray. „ conella, Pfr. „ phrynia, Hutton. „ allochroidus, Suter, var. lateumhili- cata, Suter. Bhe7iea coresia, Gray. IV. — Heretaunga, Haivkcs Bay. I am indebted to Mr. A. Brooks for the following shells : — SuTER. — Contrihtitions to Neiv Zealand Mollusca. 321 Flammulina {>i. sir.) compressivoluta, Eeeve. „ {Phenacohelix) inkda, Eeeve. „ (Suterin) icle, Gray. Endodonta {Ptijchodon) yseudoleioda, Suter. „ (Charopa) coma, Gray. „ „ infecta, Eeeve. „ „ biconcava, Pfr. „ „ bianca, Hutton. „ „ tavirina, Hutton. „ „ colensoi, Suter. Laoma {Phrixgnathus) mar ice, Gray. „ „ conella, Pfr. V. — Dannevirhe, Waipaioa . The same collector : — AthoracojyJwrus bitentaculatus, Q. and G. {=maculalus, Collinge). Flamvndina {Thalassohelix) propinqua, Hutton. „ {Phacussa) hypopolia, Pfr. „ {Allodiscus) dimorpha, Pfr. „ „ adriana, Hutton. „ „ planulata, Hutton. Endodonta (PtycJiodon) humiaensis, Suter. „ {Charopa) coma, Gray. „ „ „ „ var. globosa, Suter. „ „ corniculum, Eeeve. .„ lucetta, Hutton. „ „ ang2ticithis,'Rve.,YeiV.mo7itivaga,Svit. „ „ tajnrina, Hutton. „ „ bianca, Hutton. „ (PheJiacharopa) novoseelandica, Pfr. Laoma {Phrixgnathus) ariel, Hutton. VI. — Environs of Pelorus Sound. Mr. Joseph McMahon, a most enthusiastic collector, kindly sent me a large number of shells, consisting of, — Melanopsis tnfasciata, Gray. Potamopyrgus cumingiana, Fischer. „ corolla, Gould. Lagochilus lignarimn, Pfr. Hydrocena purchasi, Pfr. Bullinus variabilis, Gray. Atlioracophorus (Konophora) marmoreits, Hutton. „ {Pseuduneitea) jKipillatus, Hutton. ^ „ „ „ var. nigricans. „ „ var. fasciata. 21 322 Transactions. — Zoology. Flammulina (s. str.) zebra, Le Guillou. „ crebriflanwiis, Pfr. „ jjcjc/iia, Hutton. (PhacHssa) liypopoLia, Pfr. {Therasia) traversi, Smith. (PyrrJia) cressida, Hutton. (Pheiiacohelix) pilula, Reeve. {AUodiscus) t'ullia, Gray. „ planulata, Hutton. {SiUeria) Ide, Gray. (Thalassohelix) zelandm, Gray, var. antipoda, H. and J. Endodonta (Thaumatodon) Jessica, Hutton. „ „ tiniandra, Hutton. „ {Ptychodon) hectori, Suter. „ ,, pseudoleioda, Suter. „ „ microundulata, Suter, „ „ umirarapa, Suter. „ „ hunuaensis, Suter. „ (Charopa) coma. Gray. „ „ huccinella, Reeve. „ „ angziiculus, Reeve. „ „ infecta. Reeve. „ „ „ „ var. irregularis, Sut. „ „ hianca, Hutton. „ „ „ „ var. montana, Suter. „ „ tapirina, Hutton. f. alhina. „ „ lucetta, Hutton. „ „ caput- spinula. Reeve. „ „ S7ibantialba, Suter. Laonia (s. str.) inarina, Hutton. „ iPhrixgnathus) celia, Hutton. „ „ glabriuscula, Pfr. „ „ rcgularis, Pfr. „ „ spiralis, sp. nov. Otoconcha dimidiata, Pfr. Bhytida vieesoni, Suter. Unio menziesii, Gray. Pisidium novcB-zelandicB, Prime. VII. — Springbnru, Mount Somers. Professor A. Dendy collected the following species : — Athoracopkorus {Pseudaneitea) dendyi, sp. nov. Flammulina {Therasia) tliaisa, Hutton. „ (AUodiscus) 'planulata, Hutton. „ „ adriana, Hutton. „ {Thalassohelix) igniflua, Reeve. BuLLER. — On a New Species of Deinacrida. 323 Endodonta (Charopa) coma, Gray. „ „ anguiculus, Eve., var. montivaga, Sut. „ „ sterkiana, Suter. „ {^schrodomus) barbatula, Eeeve. VIII. — Toitoi, Fortrose, Southland. To Miss J. G. Eich I am indebted for the following Mollusca : — Flammulina (Phacussa) hypopoUa, Pfr. „ {Phenacohelix) chordata, Pfr. „ {Allodiscus) jHamdata, Hutton. Endodonta (Charopa) tapirina, Hutton. „ „ anguiculus, Eve., var. montivaga, Sut. „ „ sterkiana, Suter, f. major. „ „ moussoni, Suter. „ (^schrodomus) stijmlata, Eeeve. Laoma {Phrixgnathus) celia, Hutton. Additions to the List of Introduced Mollusca. Limncea auricularia, L. Wauganui (E. Murdoch). Aneitea graeffei, Humbert. Port Chalmers (Dr. Chilton) ; Collingwood (J. Dall). Cionella luhrica, Miiller. Auckland (Wright; H. S.). Vallonia excentrica, Sterki. Auckland. This shell was mentioned in my former list as V. pulchella, Miiller. Since then Dr. Sterki has pub- lished a study on the genus Vallonia, and described the n. sp. excentrica, with which our shell perfectly agrees. It has very likely been introduced from England. Hyalinia alliaria, Miller, I found in a paddock at Hender- son, near Auckland. Art. XXX. — On a New Spiecies of Deinacrida or Forest-cricket from Nelson. By Sir Walter L. Buller, K.C.M.G., D.Sc, F.E.S. [Read before the Wellington Philosopliical Society, 16th October, 1895.] I HAVE the pleasure of exhibiting this evening a perfectly new species of that interesting group of orthopterous insects known as Wetas or Tree-crickets. For this very distinct form I am indebted to Mr. J. Brough, of Nelson, who met with it on the high wooded lands of the interior. As will be seen at a 324 Transactions. — Zoology. glance, it is intermediate in size between the giant form, Deinacrida JietcracantJia, and D. megacej^hala, described and figm-ed by me in vol. iii. of our Transactions. I exhibit specimens of both these forms for comparison with the new one, which I propose to name— Deinacrida broughi, sp. nov. Female. — Body long and rounded, the entire surface, both upper and lower, being polished or shining. General colour pale reddish-brown, darker on the vertex, paler on the antennae and on the joints of the limbs, and changing to blackish-brown on the face, edges of the thoracic shield, sides of abdomen, hind tibiae, and ovipositor. Head large, with a prominent or rounded vertex, altogether free from punctures ; eyes large, round, and perfectly black ; thoracic shield patchy-looking, but also free from punctures. Of the ten dorsal segments behind it, the two first are broad and squarish, the rest much narrower, even, and with clean - cut edges. Limbs more slender in proportion to the size of the body than in Deina- crida heteracantha. Labrum prominent; labial and maxillary palpi clavate at the tips. The cerci, which are yellowish in colour, slightly curved outwards. The four anterior femora free from spines ; tibiae quadrangular, and having both of their inner edges armed with sharp spurs at short intervals,, the second pair of femora having a single hind spur, about half-way down, as well as a terminal one ; hind femora simi- larly armed with very minute barbs on their inner edges ; hind tibiae not broader behind than on the sides, with the posterior spines arranged in alternate series, sharp, slightly bent, and, proportionately to size, longer than in Deinacrida heteracantha. Length of the body, without appendages, 2-25in. ; ovipositor, 0-75; hind femora, 1-5; hind tibiae, 1-5; antennae, 5. The following account is given by Mr. Brough of the dis- covery :^ "Far up in the gloomy alpine woods which clothe the Karamea Saddle, and in the very heart of a red-birch forest,- I came across this fine Weta for the first time. I should state, however, that I met with a still bigger one, which unfortu- nately I quite destroyed ; and I will explain how this came about. While I was camped in the Saddle, at an eleva- tion of 3,308ft., I noticed several holes near to the bot- tom of several of the old red-birch trees. The mouth of these holes seemed to me to be the entrance to a drive or home of some insect. I chopped into two or three of them with the axe, following up the tunnel, but I could not find any living insect or beetle inside. In one case I followed up the tunnel for some yards, to the BuLLEB.— Ou a New Species of Deinacrida. 325 very extremity of the tunnel, which ended in a circular cavity large enough to hold a good-sized saucer ; and at several places along the course of the tunnel there were enlargements or, so to speak, chambers. All the drives I examined had an upward course ; I never found one com- mencing at the top of the tree. It was evident to me that the insect had planned its tunnel in such a way as to insure a dry house at all times. I noticed that in some places the insect had eaten its way through hard knots in the wood, nothing being allowed to interfere with the true course of the tunnel ; but I looked in vain for the workman whose skill I had been admiring. I had given up the search as hopeless when one day I noticed, at a place some 600fi;. below the Saddle, a very large lichen hanging over the entrance to one of these holes, which are generally a good inch in diameter. This, like all the others I had examined, was in a living tree ; and, as it looked quite fresh, I determined to explore it. I first of- all felled the tree with the axe, and then I followed up the tunnel for about 8ft., when I unfortunately sent the axe clean through a very large Weta— a much larger insect than the one forwarded, but of the same species. He seemed to be engaged in forming one of the chambers I have described. Not far from this place I found, on another tree, the same kind of lichen overhanging a hole, and this time I was more careful in using the axe. Here I found the insect which I send to Wellington. The alti- tude of this spot is something like 2,708ft. above the sea- level. Speaking generally, I should say that this species of Weta frequents dense forests, and lives by eating the heart of red-birch trees ; for I observed that it always attacked growing timber. The red-birch trees are very hard, but their exterior is covered with mosses of various kinds, and the vegetation all round is very dense, much of it being composed of the forest cabbage-tree. From ob- serving the habits of my Weta in captivity I am con- vinced that it is nocturnal in its habits. I had an excellent opportunity of noting his ways and doings, for I kept him in a glass pickle-jar, and he was the only camp-mate I had for some time. He seldom moved by day, unless I disturbed him ; but he became quite lively by night, and a,t times emitted a chattering kind of sound. I had fre- quently heard this sound at night in the woods, but was never able to tell what produced it till I got this captive. I tried one day to measure him round the girth, but he re- sented this liberty, and went through some extraordinary antics, and I had to give it up. I found that he could bite fiercely, and when excited could hiss like an adder. I 326 Transactions. — Zoology. may here mention that I saw a young man some time ago that had been bitten by one of the common Wetas inhabiting the lowlands. He was bitten in the wrist, and he had an awful arm ; indeed, the pain nearly drove him mad. My captive Weta would eat nuts, and occasionally a little bark ; but I could never induce him to eat by day. Although nocturnal in his habits, he could apparently see perfectly well in the daylight. He generally remained in a fiat position, quite motionless, and looking gravely out of his. glass house at the ways and doings of man." Art. XXXI. — Notes on. New Zealand Ormthology, with an Exhibition of Specimens. By Sir Walter L. Buller, K.C.M.G., D.Sc, F.K.S. \_Read before the Wellington PJiilosophical Society, 21st August, 1895.] On the last occasion that I had the pleasure of bringing before you a budget of ornithological notes I took the opportunity in the course of my introductory remarks to refer to the wise action of the Government in setting apart two islands — the Little Barrier at the North and Eesolution Island in the South — as permanent reserves for the conservation of the indigenous fauna and flora, and I mentioned that this prac- tical step on the part of our rulers in furtherance of natural science had been the subject of comment and praise all over the world. It will, I am sure, be as gratifying to you as it was to myself to learn that the Minister of Lands has decided on acquiring, for a similar purpose, the freehold of the Island of Kapiti, in Cook Strait. This island, containing an area of about 5,000 acres, is in every respect most suitable ; so much so that, many years ago, Sir George Grey, before he purchased the Island of Kawau, made inquiries as to the possibility of acquiring Kapiti as an island sanctum for himself, where he could carry on without interruption the work of acclimatisa- tion upon which he had set his heart. Much of the bush on the island is of exquisite beauty, and the surface is sufficiently diversified to insure the successful cultivation of all our native trees and shrubs. Three species of birds — the Wood-robin, the Korimako, and the Whitehead — which are now practically extinct on the mainland, still have their refuge on Kapiti ; and Captain Eoss, who has hitherto been occupying the greater portion of the open land as a sheep-run, has been BuLLER. — On New Zealand Ornithology. 327 most careful to prevent dogs and cats — those great destroyers of native bii"ds — from becommg feral on the island. It is at a convenient distance from the maniland, and seems specially designed by nature for what it will now, we may hope, soon become — the central colonial depot, so to speak, for our birds and plants. I only wish I could report that steps were being taken to give effect to Lord Onslow's original proposal, to collect rare birds in various parts of the country and turn them loose on the island preserves — such birds, for example, as Kakapo, Kiwi, Huia, and the native Crow. But that, I trust, will be the next forward step. I regard with extreme satisfaction this gradual awakening to the fact that we have animal and vegetable forms of life indigenous to the country which ought to be protected and cherished; that we have bush scenery of matchless beauty that ought to be preserved ; and that, new as our record is, we have sites of pas and other places of historic interest that ought, at any cost, to be handed down unimpaired to those who will come after us. That this growing feelmg is becoming part of our national life must surely delight every true lover of New Zealand. The various Commissioners of Crown Lands all over the colony have received instructions to withhold from sale spots of exceptional beauty and all places of historic interest — such, for example, as the site of the Orakau Pa, with its tradition of " Ake, ake, ake!" (which, by the way, was within a few hours of being sold when the Government stepped in to save it) ; and the site of Rangiriri, where the Waikato tribes made their first heroic resistance before surrendering to an overwhelming force, and where so many of our own brave men lie buried. Forest reserves, like the beautiful belt of bush along the boundary of the State farm at Horowhenua, are being defined and proclaimed ; and the law is being invoked for the protection, one after another, of our rarer species of birds. The only danger to be apprehended now is that by continuing the insane policy of introducmg predatory animals, such as stoats, ferrets, and weasels, in the vain hope of suppressing the rabbit nuisance, the good that is being accomplished may be to a great extent counterbalanced. To my mind it is im- possible to exaggerate this evil : it is so easy to introduce these bloodthirsty little animals, and so difficult to extirpate them when once fairly established and the mischief of their presence has become manifest. I have so often referred to this matter in my addresses to this society that it is not neces- sary for me to give reasons for the strong opinion I hold. It seems to me that we ought to benefit by the experience of other countries where these predaceous pests abound, and where large sums have been expended in the attempts to exterminate them. 328 Transactions. — Zoology. No one has opposed this fatal step on the part of the New Zealand Government more strongly or consistently than Professor Newton, of Cambridge. In a letter to myself, as far back as the 23rd of July, 1876, the learned professor says,— " In Land and Water for 8th July, Frank Buckland wrote that he had been applied to by Messrs. Macowie and Cuth- bertson, of Invercargill, to send out weasels to New Zealand (five pairs at £5 each) to be let loose to check the super- abundance of rabbits. Buckland said he could not get weasels, but proposed sending ' polecat-ferrets ' — thirty or forty pairs ! I at once wrote to remonstrate with him, urging him to do nothing till he had communicated with New Zealand ; and this he has promised to do, but does not give up the notion. Harting, Eowley, and some one else have also protested in terms like my own, as you will see by Land and Water for 15th and 22nd July. I suspect Buckland will eventually drop the matter, but meanwhile it seems quite possible that some sheep-farmer or other (for with them began the complaint) may on his own responsibility act on this mischievous hint without waiting for Buckland, and then good-bye at once and for ever to your brevipennate birds, as well as to many other of your native species — which of course have no instincts whereby they may escape from such bloodthirsty enemies— to say nothing of pheasants and the like, which you have been introducing at so great a cost, and your poultry. Here, as I dare say you know, the polecat (and the ferret is only a tame polecat) is the most detested beast we have, and in conse- quence has nearly been extirpated. In New Zealand it will undoubtedly become master of the situation. " So strongly do I feel on this subject that I am writing to Hector (both at Wellington and Philadelphia, to make sure of catching him) urging him to use all his influence to prevent such a disastrous importation ; even, if need be, to getting an Act of your Parliament prohibiting the introduction of any predaceous animals. Should Hector not have returned, I pray you to do what seems best under the circumstances ; but be sure there is no time to be lost. I am writing to Hutton to the same effect, and I trust that among you all you will be able to keep off the threatened scourge. Colonists in general have not been slow to hinder unacceptable importations from the mother-country — as witness the historic tea-chests at Boston, U.S.A., and Australian convicts. I have always understood the latter were selected for the mild nature of their crimes : but even this was not allowed. There can't be a doubt of how you should behave when you have a shipload of known marauders to be let loose on your peace- ful shores, and I conceive my duty as an honorary member of BuLiLEK — Oil New Zealand Ornithology . 329 your Institute compels me to give you this timely notice. It is too annoying to think that the fate of your fauna should depend on the rash act of the greatest fool that was ever called a naturalist." Mr. J. Brough informs me that, owing principally to the introduction of stoats, the Grey Kiwi has now entirely vanished from wooded districts near Nelson, where formerly it was so abundant that he has collected a score in a single locality. From all parts of the country I continue to receive reports of the ravages of stoats and weasels. From Nelson Mr. R. I. Kingsley writes to me, " I hear there is a likelihood of stoats and weasels being turned out by the Government at West Wanganui. It will be a great shame if they are, as it will mean destruction to the Big Kiwi ; and the rabbits at West Wanganui are only found on a small strip of sandy beach. They have been there for many years and never spread; therefore they could easily be destroyed by other means. Could you not speak a word to avert the danger ? " It seems to me that the only chance of arresting this deplorable evil is by directing public opinion against it. Un- fortunately, most people are indifferent about it, and the Government yields to the clamour of a few faddists whose one idea is to exterminate the rabbits at any cost to the country. We have no guarantee, however, that these animals will suppress the rabbit nuisance, whilst we have the most positive evidence that, as in every other country they inhabit, they are themselves proving a curse in New Zealand. Mr. William Townson, of Westport, wrote me some time ago, saying, " I am told by bushmen and diggers living back in the ranges that it is becoming quite common now to see Grey Kiwis lying dead about the bush. The weasels are blamed for this, as they are now fully establishevd on the coast as far south as Ross and Okarita. Indeed, several have been seen in this district. I fear that all the ground-game and native birds will fall victims to these little bloodsuckers. In this part of the country we have no rabbits to engage their atten- tion." It may be said, in reply to this, that there is no direct evidence that the dead Kiwis were the victims of these marauders ; but, as a matter of fact, birds do not die about the woods of their own accord, and their partial mutilation generally tells its own tale. It is very remark- able, indeed, how seldom one finds the bodies of birds or mannnals that have apparently died a natural death. In New Zealand, casting my mmd back over a period of five-and-thirty years, I can count on the fingers of one hand the cases in which I have found the bodies of birds dead from natural causes. Of course, I do not refer to 330 Tra nsac t ion s . — Zoology . the cases, of not infrequent occurrence, when the sea-beach is found strewn with the dead bodies of Prion turtur and other oceanic species, because it is well known that this is the result of a sudden gale towards the land, or some other wide- spread cause, the deaths in this case being violent rather than natural ones. So at the Auckland Islands, and in similar localities, the ground is sometimes found covered with hun- dreds of dead Penguins ; but this is apparently due to some fatal epidemic, causing widespread mortality. On the main- land you may wander for months in the woods withovit ever seeing the body of a bird "'dead from natural causes." Nowadays, unfortunately, nothing is more common than to find a Kiwi or a Woodhen lying on the bush-path torn and mutilated by stoats and weasels ; but this, again, is the result of violence. I remember years ago picking up a dead Eiroriro [Gerygone flaviventris) under a huge kauri-tree. This was after very severe weather, to which the little warbler had apparently succumbed. On another occasion, when seeking refuge from a violent storm on the Island of Motu-taiko, in the Taupo Lake, on making an exploration in the vicinity of our camp I found on a rocky ledge the perfect skeleton of a large River- shag, which had evidently died a natural death there and escaped tlie vigilant eyes of the ubiquitous Harrier {Circus gouldi). Once I found a Kaka by the roadside in a dying condition, and occasionally I have met with dead bodies of the Tui and Korimako. But the occurrence is confessedly a rare one. The same observation has been made by naturalists all over the world. That careful observer, Nordenskiold, says, "During my nine expeditions in the arctic regions, where animal life during sunnner is so exceedingly abundant, the case just mentioned" — that of finding a number of self- dead fish on the sea-bottom near one of the islands in the Arctic Sea — " has been one of the few in which I have found remains of recent vertebrate animals which could be proved to have died a natural death. Near hunting-grounds there are to be seen often enough the remains of reindeer, seals, foxes, or birds that have died from gunshot wounds, but no self-dead polar bear, seal, walrus, white whale, fox, goose, auk, lemming, or other vertebrate. The polar bear and the reindeer are found there in hundreds, the seal, walrus, and white whale in thousands, and birds in milHons. These animals must die a ' natural ' death in untold numbers. What becomes of their bodies? Of this we have for the present no idea, and yet we have here a problem of immense importance for the answering of a large number of questions concerning the formation of fossiliferous strata." Eeferring to this, Mr. H. H. Howarth says, "This is true not only of Siberia; it is universally true, and notably of the great pachyderms. Travellers who BuLLER. — On New Zealand Ornithology . 331 have visited their ordinary haunts have remarked on the extraordinary scarcity of their bones and other remains. When old and worn out tliey apparently seek out the recesses of the forest and retire there to die." He quotes an interest- ing passage from Sir Emerson Tennent's work on Ceylon, as follows: "Frequenters of the forest with whom I have con- versed, vfhether Europeans or Singhalese, are consistent in their assurances that they have never found the remains of an elephant which had died a natural death. ... A European gentleman, who for thirty-six years without inter- mission has been living in the jungle, ascending to tne summit of mountains in the prosecution of the trigonometrical sur- vey, and penetrating valleys in tracing roads and opening means of communication — one, too, who has made the habits of the wild elephant a subject of constant observation and study— has often expressed to me his astonishment that, after seeing many thousands of living elephants in all possible situa- tions, he had never yet found a single skeleton of a dead one, except those which had fallen by the rifle." The following touching account is given by Thomas Edward, the Scotch naturalist, of the finding of a dead wild duck, on crossing the Clashmauch : " As I imagined she was skulking with a view to avoid observation, I touched her with my stick in order that she might rise ; but she rose not. I was surprised, and, on a nearer inspection, I found that she was dead. She lay raised a little on one side, her neck stretched out, her mouth open and full of snow, her wings somewhat extended, and with one of her legs appearing a little behind her. Near to it there were two eggs. On my discovering this I lifted up the bird, and underneath her was a nest con- taining eleven eggs ; these, with the other two, made thirteen in all : a few of them were broken. I examined the whole of them and found them, without exception, to contain young birds. This was an undoubted proof that the poor mother had sat upon them from two to three w^eeks. With her dead body in my hand I sat down to investigate the matter, and to ascertain, if I could, the cause of her death. I examined her minutely all over, and could find neither wound nor any mark whatever of violence. She had every appearance of having died of suffocation. Although I had only circumstantial evidence, I had no hesitation in arriving at the conclusion that she had come by her death in a desperate but faithful struggle to pro- tect her eggs from the fatal effects of the recent snow-storm. I could not help thinking, as I looked at her, how deep and striking an example she afforded of maternal affection. The ruthless blast had swept, with all its fury, along the lonesome and unsheltered hill. The snow had risen higher, and the smothering drift came fiercer as the night drew on ; yet still 332 Transactions. — Zoolo(jy. that poor bird, in defiance of the warring elements, continued to protect her home and the treasure which it contained, until she could do so no longer, and yielded up her life. That life she could easily have saved had she been willing to abandon the offspring which Nature had taught her so fervently to cherish, and in endeavouring to preserve which she volun- tarily remained and died. Occupied with such feelings and reflections as these, I know not how long I might have sat had I not been roused from my reverie by the barking of a shepherd's dog. The sun had already set, the grey twilight had begun to hide the distant mountains from my sight, and, not caring to be benighted on such a spot, I wrapped a piece of paper, as a winding-sheet, round the faithful and devoted bird, and, forming a hole sufficiently large for the purpose, I laid into it the mother and the eggs. I covered them with earth and moss, and over all placed a solid piece of turf ; and, having done so, and being more affected than I should perhaps be willing to acknowledge, I left them to moulder into their original dust, and went on my way." But to resume my subject : The effect of these foreign introductions is to accelerate the threatened wiping-out of an avifauna admitted to be one of the most interesting in the world. Many of the species have already disappeared ; a still larger number are, so to speak, on the border-land and will ere long be extinct, whilst even the commonest species exhibit year by year a steady diminution in numbers. What the result will be in, say, twenty years from the present time it is not difficult to predict. x\nd the consideration of these facts brings me at once to the urgent necessity that exists for completing our collections of these forms before it is too late. Foreign museums are being enriched whilst our local museums are practically at a standstill. By last mail I received a letter from Canon Tristram, of Durham, informing me that at a recent meeting of the Zoological Society, iu London, the Hon. Walter Eothschild had exhibited a series of no less than forty skins of our hitherto-rare Apteryx haasti, of which, so far as I am aware, only eight specimens exist in all our New Zealand nmseums. He adds that Mr. Eothschild has obtained " enormous series " of other New Zealand birds. For example, there are fifty-four specimens of the Chatham Island Snipe, of which our local museums contain very few examples ; and very large series of the beautiful Chatham Island Shag (Phalacwcorax featJterstoni) , of which, so far as I know, the Colonial Museum possesses the only example in the colony ; and the still moi-e striking P. onsloivi, of which there is no representative in any of our museums. Dr. Hartert, the excellent curator of Mr. Rothschild's museum, in a letter to myself states that the collection contains eighty spechnens of BuLLER. — On New Zealand Ornithology. 333 the Flightless Duck of the Auckland Islands {Nesonctta anck- landica) ; and this bird is now so rare that, on the last visit of the " Hinemoa" to those islands with His Excellency the Governor, Sir James Hector, who accompanied the expedi- tion and was most anxious to procure some for the Cam- bridge University Museum, found the utmost difficulty in collecting three specimens, although the whole ship's crew were on the look-out for them ; and so with several other comparatively rare species. Of course, it is a good thing that these extensive collections have found their way into Mr. Eothschild's possession, because he makes excellent use of them, being himself one of the most active of our working ornithologists ; besides which he is a liberal donor to other pubHc museums. His own zoological museum at Tring Park is one of the most perfect of its kind in the world. It con- tains priceless treasures, and its great merit in the eyes of a practical ornithologist is that it possesses huge series of speci- mens, whenever that is possible, thus minimising the ever- present danger of generalising on insufficient data. But, whilst lully recognising all this, one cannot but acknowledge and deplore the fact that in our own museums nearly all the native species are imperfectly, or, at any rate, insufficiently, represented. Canon Tristram himself has a beautiful collection of New Zealand birds, comprising all the rarer forms, but he is con- tent with a small series of each species, such as male, female, young, and seasonal states. It is to be hoped that his splendid collection of birds from all parts of the world — the accumula- tion of a lifetime — may ere long find a resting-place in one of the provincial museums, instead of being dispersed, as too often happens, at the owner's death. That was the fate of the celebrated Jardine collection, when some very choice and rare New Zealand specimens found their way into other hands. This collection contained many skins procured in New Zealand by Mr. Percy Earl, and purchased by Sir William Jardine as far back as 1842 — such forms, for example, as Coturnix nov cb- zeal audi cb and Pogonornis cincta. Whilst the Eothschild Museum boasts the possession of seventy or more Stitch-birds (Pogonornis cincta) of both sexes, the Colonial Museum and the Auckland Museum are the only ones that can exhibit sexual pairs of this species, which now exists on the Little Barrier Island and nowhere else. To say nothing of so rare a form as Notornis mantelli — of which there are only three known specimens, two in the British Museum and one at Dresden — there are many of our indigenous birds wholly absent from our local museums, whilst others have only a single representative. For example, the Colonial Museum possesses one Auckland Island Merganser and one 334 Transactions. — Zoology. North Island Thrush, and the other museums in tlie colony are entirely without them. This being so, it is surely high time that an effort was made to collect for each of our museums, before it is too late, a complete series of our existing native birds — at any rate, for the Colonial Museum, which is maintained by the Government and is supposed to take the lead. This might be easily accomplished now, but ere long it will be impossible. It is to such a museum as this that the student of the future will naturall)^ look for his working material when the forms of which I have been speaking have passed away for ever from the sphere of living things. It will be a sad reproach to us, livmg as we do in this boasted nine- teenth century, if in this respect we fail in our manifest duty. An excellent collection of the interesting insular forms could be made by sending such a taxidermist as Mr. Yuill (of whose neat work there are some illustrations now on the table) on two or three round cruises of the " Hinemoa." An enthusiast such as he is, with the necessary facilities at his command, would soon accumulate a collection for the colony of very great value. And this brings me to the question of the proper display of such collections in our museums, so as to make them sub- servient to the requirements of modern science. At the present time we have in the Colonial Museum up- wards of three hundred mounted specimens of indigenous birds, a large proportion of them being highly creditable exhibits of the taxidermists' skill ; but how are they arranged ? Not systematically, according to their natural affinities, because of the want of the necessary room for their proper classification and display. The only grouping that is natural is such as is now to be seen in the admirably-arranged galleries of the Natural History Museum at South Kensington, where, in separate plate-glass show-cases, birds of one species, repre- senting the sexes, the adult, young, and adolescent states, and the various phases of seasonal plumage, are exhibited, together with the natural accessories of wood and rock and vegetation, to illustrate the life-history of the bird. Such a mode of exhibition is not only attractive in the highest degree, but most instructive. Of course, we cannot attempt any- thmg so ambitious here, on account of the great expense ; but there is no reason why the birds should not be ar- ranged systematically for the benefit of the natural-history student. This has been done in the Canterbury and Otago Museums, and I think also in Auckland. It seems little short of a scandal that, owing to the lack of proper departmental aid, scientific classification should be neglected in the leading museum of the colony, which is admittedly under the control of a director of exceptional ability and culture. Then, again, BuLLEB. — On New Zealand Ornithology. 335 if I may be allowed to speak plainly, the nomenclature adopted is not up to date, some of the names attached to specimens having been obsolete these twenty years, whilst fully half of those exhibited are not named at all. If the Museum is to be regarded as an educational institution, as it clearly should be, an antiquated nomenclature is not only confusing but misleading. And li£re I may say, parenthetically, that there is one in- novation in the matter of scientific nomenclature, now be- coming very popular, which will, I hope, be resisted in this country, and that is the use of trinomials. In Eidgway's " List of North American Birds" trinomial designations are adopted in no less than 160 cases. The author candidly acknowledges that the use of them has caused perhaps the greatest difficulty encountered in the compilation of the cata- logue, " it being in many cases very difficult to decide whether a given form should be treated as having passed the varietal stage and therefore to be designated by a binomial, or whether it is as yet incompletely differentiated and to be subordinated in rank by a trinomial appellation." His contention, however, is that every form whose characteristics bear unmistakably the impress of climatic or local influences, generally less marked towards the habitat of another form with which it thus intergrades, and all forms which certainly intergrade, no matter how widely distinct the opposite forms may appear, together with intergrading forms whose peculiarities are not explained by any known law of variation, should be reduced to subspecific rank. Commenting on this, the editor of the Ibis writes, " We cannot deny the advantages of the use of trinomials when strictly limited to such cases as these, and have little doubt that they will ultimately come into general use. But they can only be advantageously employed in countries such as North America and Europe, where large series can be obtained from different localities. In other parts of the world their use would at present be attended by much inconvenience, it being impossible to ascertain in very many cases, from lack of specimens, whether these intergradations exist or not. We may also remark that other authors use trinomials on quite different principles — e.g., Dr. Sharpe, who in his Catalogue of Birds (British Museum) has applied them in some instances even to insular forms (which certainly cannot intergrade) where the slight differences are, in his opinion, not strictly sufficient for specific distinction." I submit that what I have now called attention to as defects in the Colonial Museum might be easily remedied ; and that the value of the Museum as an instrument of public instruction would be vastly increased if the Director could 336 Transactions. — Zoology. get authority to prepare a descriptive catalogue for the use of visitors and students. This would involve a little expense, but it must be borne in mind that the Museum, as a whole, con- tains collections of considerable value, and that in the absence of a catalogue the general public has no conception of what the colony possesses in this respect. I do not know what the estimated value is in money, but I should say certainly not less than £30,000 ; and all this accumulated through the ex- ertions of Sir James Hector, who had nothing but the small miscellaneous collection of the New Zealand Society to start with. The truth is that the Colonial Museum is not large enough for the exhibition of the treasures it contains. When it was built, some thirty years ago, the various collections were in their infancy, and very few additions have since been made to the building. Now that an effort is being made to recover, for educational purposes, tlie beautiful site on which the Central Criminal Gaol stands, it might be well to con- sider whether the site of the present Museum should not be sold at a good price, and the proceeds applied to the erection of a really suitable building on a portion of the fourteen acres comprised in this Mount Cook reserve. Before passing on to my notes on the species selected for par- ticular mention this evening, I should like to say that the Legis- lature is to be congratulated on having by special enactment extended a very necessary protection to our splendid Wood- pigeon, by making the whole of the year 1896 a close season. It is to be hoped that the Government will not make too free a use of its discretion under the Act as to relaxing the restriction in native districts. I may mention, too, that Sir James Hector has performed an important service to science by obtaining legal protection for that unique representative of an ancient fauna, the Tuatara Lizard. To take or kill one of these animals is now punishable with a heavy fine. This course was ren- dered necessary by the wholesale way in which Tuataras were being collected for trade with Europe and America. This may seem a digression from the subject-matter of my paper ; but the Tuatara is the foster-brother, so to speak, of several species of Petrel, inhabiting the same burrows and breeding in adjoining chambers ; and, although it belongs to a lower order in the animal kingdom, it is known to possess the most bird- like skeleton of all existing reptiles. These introductory remarks will prepare yoii for the ever -recurrent record of increasing rarity of many of the species treated of in the following notes. Their ultimate extinction within measurable time is a matter of certainty, except in so far as a renmant may be preserved through the protective action of the Government to which I have referred. BuLLER. — 0?i Neio Zealand OrnitJiology. 337 Creadion cinereus, Buller. (Jack-bird.) lu forwarding the specimen now exhibited my correspondent writes, " During the whole four months I was camped in the woods on the Karamea Saddle I only heard one Saddleback. I managed to secure it, and may remark that it is the largest- boned bird of the kind I ever shot. The colours are plain, but the bird is in perfect plumage. I cannot say whether it is a male or female, for before I had time to make a dissection, after skinning it, the Woodhens ran away with the carcase." Miro oclirotarsus, Forster, Desr. Anim., p. 82 (1844). After a careful investigation of the subject and a compari- son of a large number of specimens, I have come to the con- elusion that there are in reality three forms of Wood-robin in New Zealand, all of course descendants from a common stock, but now sufficiently differentiated to bear distinctive specific names. The North Island bird was the first to be recorded. This is Miro australis, formerly the commonest species in our woods, and now almost if not entirely extinct on the mainland, but to be met with on the Little Barrier Island at the north, on the Island of Kapiti in Cook Strait, and probably on other outlying islands near our coasts. The two other forms belong to the South Island, and have hitherto been confounded under the general name of Miro albifrons. Mr. G. R. Gray, in the " Voyage of the ' Erebus ' and 'Terror'" (part "Birds"), thus describes Miro albifrons: ' ' Upper surface and forepart of neck sooty-black ; under surface pale-rufescent ; front with a small spot of white. Length Tin." This is the Turdus albifrons of Gmelin's Svst. Nat., p. 822. Now, that description exactly fits the two examples (male and female) from Pelorus Sound which I have the pleasure of exhibiting this evening. But Mr. Gray's description does not accord with the coloured figure which he gives of the bird. Referring to this figure, in my account of the species (" Birds of New Zealand," p. 36) I said, "The figure of this species in the ' Voyage of the " Erebus " and " Terror " ' is incorrect, on account of the exaggerated extent of white on the under- parts ; but the attitude is a very characteristic one." It seems pretty clear, therefore, that the description and the figure represent different birds. After diagnosing Miro albifrons, as quoted above, Mr. Gray says, " The original of this description is contained among the drawings of Forster, and it is very like Petroica longipes, Garn. (= Miro australis). The figure of Forster differs, bow- ever, from the bn*d referred to by the white extending from the forepart of the breast to the base of the tail, leaving the throat of the same colour as the back. I have subjoined a 22 338 Transactions. — Zoology. figure, for the purpose of making known the original draw- ing from which Latham took his description, that it may assist in elucidating the species should it hereafter be dis- covered." Now as to the other form, of which I exhibit this evening six specimens, obtained in the high wooded country known as the Karamea Saddle. This bird can be distinguished at a glance from Miro australis, and Gray's figure suits it fairly well. It is appreciably larger than the last-named species,, and, instead of having the abdonaen white as in that bird, or the under-parts rufescent as in Miro alhifrons, it has almost the entire under-surface of a pale lemon-yellow. The frontal spot, too, instead of being very small, as described by Mr. Gray, is even more conspicuous than in the North Island bird. Writing of Miro alhifrons Mr. Gray says, " It may eventu- ally prove to be the same species as M. longipcs { = M. austra- lis) ; and in my own account of this form {op. cit., p. 36) I remarked, " My collection contains a specimen from Christ- church in which the whole plumage is suffused with brown, and the under-parts are smoky-grey instead of being white." I have since received an example from Otago which is scarcely distinguishable from ordinary specimens of Miro australis. On a review of all the facts I am disposed to define the group thus : — Miro australis, Sparrm. North Island form ; with under- parts, within very narrow abdominal limits, pure white. Miro alhifrons, Gmelin. South Island form ; with under- parts rufescent, and over a wider surface. Miro ochrotarsus, Forster. Another South Island form ; with almost the entire under-surface pale lemon-yellow. Con- spicuous spot of white on forehead. Female. — Similar to the male, but a trifle smaller, and paler in plumage. Whilst thus recognising a third form I have no wish to invent a new name. As there is some doubt as to which bird was intended to be distinguished as Miro alhifrons, and as that name is retained for the other South Island form, I think we cannot do better than fall back upon Forster' s proposed name, Turdus ochrotarsus, simply shifting the species into the genus to which it now belongs. Forster's original account is as follows: "Habitat in australi insula Novas Zeelandise, victitat insectis et minutis cancellis ad littora maris, suaviter cantillat ; homines non formidat, sed ubique ob insecta in ambulando inter fructices excussa et circumvolitantia sequitur, saepius manu captus vel pileo." BuLLEK. — On Neio Zealand Ornithology. 339 Miro albifrons, Ginelin. (South Island Eobiu.) A correspondent, writing over the initials " S.D.B.," sends the following to the LyttcUon Times of the 24th of April : " A very interesting case, showing the usefulness of a purely insectivorous bird, came under my notice the other day, and is, I think, worthy of record. A friend was showing me his vinery, and I was astonished to see in it a tame Robin {Pe- troica albifrons) following him about in its characteristic fear- less manner. The bird was in as perfect plumage as if in its native bush, although now quite domiciled in the greenhouse, which it keeps free from insect-life without injuring the vines or grapes. I was informed that the Robin occasionally gets out into the garden, but is then easily induced to return to the vinery, which is, of course, kept locked when the owner is away. I asked if it did not want a mate, but was told that these birds are very pugnacious, and would fight like game- cocks if shut up together. Certainly this fellow seemed quite happy by himself." Myiomoira toitoi, Garnot. (North Island Tomtit.) It seems probable that the male of this species aids in the task of mcubation, for an adult bird of this sex, shot in November, had the under-parts much denuded of feathers. Sphenoeacus rufescens, Buller. (Chatham Island Fern-bird.) Mr. W. Hawkins, the well-known Chatham Island col- lector, writes to me, "The Fern-bird is extinct. I spent a fortnight on the island where they used to be, but never saw any sign whatever of them." Anthus novse-zealandise, Gray. (New Zealand Pipit.) It is very clear that these birds congregate in autumn. During a ride to and from Owhaoko (22nd to 29th April) I met with numerous flocks, numbering from twenty to fifty at a time. I hardly saw a single bird detached from the flocks. I have already noticed the inquisitive disposition of this Pipit, and mentioned the circumstance of a flock keeping pace with a train for some miles. There is another evidence of it : as you ride along the road they keep before you, almost allowing your horse to tread on them, then rising with a shrill " cheep," flying a few yards further, and so on again till their curiosity is satisfied, when they wheel upwards and fall to the rear. Anthornis melanocephala, Gray. (Chatham Island Bell- bird.) Of this species Mr. Hawkins writes, "This bird, too, is very nearly extinct. I have no difficulty in selling the skins 340 Transactions. — Zoology. for £1 apiece; so I have sought dihgently for tliem, but it is very difficult to get any of them now." Xenicus insularis, Buller. (Island Wren.) There is probably nothing so refreshing to the soul of a naturalist as the discovery of a new species. Quite apart from the satisfaction of being able to impose a specific name which, according to the accepted rules of zoological nomenclature, must be respected for all time, there is an indescribable charm in the mere fact of discovery. It is common to all naturalists in every branch of research, and operates as a spur to the most tedious and difficult investigations. With some specialists the ruling passioli is to append the coveted rniJu to the new species ; but in the case of most naturalists this consideration is, I really think, subservient to a loftier feeling — that love of discovery which is so characteristic of the true man of science. In a country where the fauna and flora have been pretty thoroughly worked, such as New Zealand, the delight ex- perienced at finding an undoubted new species is, of course, proportioned to the rarity of such occurrences. You will readily understand, therefore, how pleased I was at receiving, through the kind offices of Mr. Bethune, the skin of a bird from Stephen Island which was eritirely distinct from any- thing hitherto known. I saw at a glance that it belonged to the small group of New Zealand birds which I have placed in a family by themselves under the name of Xeni- cidcB. Possessing characters in common with Xenicus longipes and X. gilviventris, which inhabit the mainland, it is a very distinct species, apparently restricted in its habitat to Stephen Island, where several specimens have been pro- cured. Being anxious that a coloured figure of so rare and interesting a form should be published in the Ibis, I lost no time in forwarding the specimen to the editor of that maga- zine, together with the following description and diagnosis of the species : — " On a Netv Species of Xenicus frovi a Small Wooded Island ojf the Neiu Zealand Coast. " Projecting into Cook Strait as a bold and salient point from the eastern shore of Blind Bay, and rising to a height of 2,180ft., is D'Urville Island, presenting a broken and jDarti- allv-wooded surface. With a width of from five to six miles, it stretches away seventeen miles to the northward, whilst to the south it is separated from the mainland by a very narrow channel known as the French Pass. Lying two miles to the north-eastward of the northern extremity of D'Urville Island, and rising abruptly from the sea to the height of a thousand feet, is Stephen Island, only about a square mile BuLLER. — Oji Neiv Zealand Ornithology. 341 in extent, and more or less wooded on its sides. From this i>land I have lately received a single specimen of a species of Xcnicus entirely distinct from the two forms {X. loiigipes and X. gilviventris) inhabiting the mainland. " I have described and named this new bird, which may fittingly be called the Island-wren, as distinguished from our Bush-wren and Rock-wren ; and as these island-forms pre- sent features of special interest to the student of geographic zoology, I am forwarding the specimen in the hope that it may be figured. " My correspondent on the island informs me that the bird is semi-nocturnal in its habits, and that he has seen three examples, all of which were brought in at different times by the cat. " I hope shortly to receive further specimens of this interesting form. In the meantime I regret that I am unable to give the sex of the bird here described. In plumage it differs conspicuously from the other two species, and it has a decidedly more robust bill, whilst the claw on the hind-toe is not larger than in Xeniciis longvpes. " Xenicus insularis, sp. nov. " Upper surface generally dark-olive with brown margins to the feathers, presenting an obscurely-spotted or mottled appearance ; a minute whitish spot in front of and another underneath the eye ; a narrow superciliary streak, and the whole of the throat, fore-neck, and breast, as well as the wings at their flexure, olivaceous-yellow with darker margins ; wings and tail, sides of the body, abdomen, croup, and under tail-coverts olivaceous-brown. Plumage underneath plum- beous. Upper mandible dark-brown with horn-coloured tip ; under mandible, legs and feet, pale-brown. Length, 4in. ; wing from flexure, 2in. ; tail, 0-75in. ; bill, along the ridge 0-75in., along tlie edge of lower mandible 0-75in. ; tarsus, ■0-75in. ; middle toe and claw lin., hind toe and claw 0-7in. " Hab. Stephen Island, Cook Strait, N.Z."- I have since had an opportunity of examining a female specimen. It is somewhat smaller than the male, and has duller plumage, the mottled appearance on the upper surface being less conspicuous, and there being more vinous-brown on the sides and abdomen. Referring to this interesting discovery, an article, presura- * Some weeks after my specimen had reached the editor of the Ibis, and whilst Jlr. Keulemans was preparing a drawing of it, Mr. Henry Travers sent specimens from the same locality to the Hon. Walter Rothschild, who, without knowing what I liad done, characterized the species in the " Bulletin " of the British Ornithologists' Union under the uame of Traversia lyalli. 342 Transactions. — Zoology. ably from the pen of a well-known New Zealand scientist^ appeared lately in the Canterbury Press, under the head of "Found and Exterminated," from which I take the following extract : " At a recent meeting of the Ornithologists' Club in London, the Hon. W. Eothschild, the well-known collector, described this veritable rara avis, specimens of which he had obtained from Mr. Henry Travers, of Wellington, w4io, we understand, got them from the lighthouse-keeper at Stephen Island, W'ho in his turn is reported to have been indebted ta his cat for this remarkable ornithological 'find.' As to how many specimens Mr. Travers, the lighthouse-keeper, and the cat managed to secure between them we have no information,, but there is very good reason to believe that the bird is no longer to be found on the island, and, as it is not known to exist anywhere else, it has apparently become quite extinct. This is probably a record performance in the way of exter- mination. The English scientific world will hear almost simultaneously of the bird's discovery and of its disappearance before anything is known of its life-history or its habits. It was only a little creature, about four inches in length, allied to the little Eock-wren, which lives in the mountains, and is occasionally found dead on our glaciers. It was not a flight- less bird, but from its structure was evidently very weak- winged, and thus fell an easy prey to the lighthouse-keeper's cat. . . . Not only scientists, but all New-Zealanders who take an interest in the preservation of whatever is specially characteristic of the colony, will deplore the exter- mination of such an interesting creature. It is, indeed, sad- dening to reflect how, one by one, the rare and wonderful birds which have made New^ Zealand an object of supreme interest among scientists all over the world are gradually be- coming extinct. . . . And we certainly think it would be as well if the Marine Department, in sending lighthouse- keepers to isolated islands where interesting specimens of native fauna are known or believed to exist, were to see that they are not allowed to take any cats with them, even if mouse-traps have to be furnished at the cost of the State." Mr. W. W. Smith, of Ashburton, in a letter to the same journal, writes, " The setting-apart of the Little Barrier and Resolution Islands as sanctuaries for vanishing native birds is- a lasting honour to the originator of the scheme — the Earl of Onslow — and the present Government who adopted and put it in force. But, as Mr. Purnell observes, ' It is one thing to maintain preserves of native birds in two secluded spots, inac- cessible to the vast majority of the inhabitants of New Zea- land, and quite another to have those birds fluttering daily about us.' It is for the rare species still lingering in the forests and other favoured spots on the mainland we appeal; BuLLER. — On New Zealand Ornithology. 343 and if the Government would, act as promptly in stopping marauders, commonly called natural-history collectors, from visiting the outlying islands of New Zealand and carrying off the Tuataras and rarer birds by hundreds as it did the seal- poachers in the southern islands last year, it would gain the gratitude of science and coming generations." With the views thus forcibly expressed it is impossible not to agree ; and I believe measures for the better conservation of these island faunas are now under the consideration of the Government. But the collection of skins for trade purposes is, of course, a very different thing to the formation of a com- plete type-collection for the Colonial Museum, as advocated in the introduction to this paper. Xenicus longipes, Gmelin. (Bush-wren.) A correspondent has sent me for examination some beau- tiful specimens of the Bush- wren, accompanied by the follow- ing notes : — "Far up in a gloomy, wet mountain gully, nearly 4,000ft. above the level of the sea, I came across a few families of this little silent bird. In the gully which they were inhabiting grew a dense mass of a flax-like plant — a species of Aste- lia. These birds seem to display more of the golden colour at the bend of the wing than any I have seen before, and they do not appear to be so lai-ge as those I sent you from the Big Bush some years ago. All my specimens of this bird were obtained by using a small net. "I have not met with any Eock-wrens up in this district. From where I was camped, half an hour's climb took me into the open country — a bare mountain-side, in fact. I had a long ramble over the rugged ridges and across the mountain-slopes, or ' mountain meadows ' as they are called. I went to the summit of Mount Nugget, •4,995ft., and then I went in another direction to the summit of Mount Luna, 5,261ft., but I never saw or heard a Rock- wren. It is clear that the species does not exist in this part of the country. " I have been much impressed by the stillness and the almost entire absence of animal life in these red-birch forests, so entirely different from my experience in the Pelorus woods. There, as I lay in my tent at sunrise, the woods fairly rang with the chorus of songsters, the introduced Finches, Thrushes, and Starlings joining in with the native birds. They seem to me to be sun- worshippers. I have timed them with my watch, and find that the concert lasts just an hour. Here, on the contrary, there is no sun-worship. I have often listened in my tent at break of day, waiting for the song to commence, but there has been nothing but a chirp or two, or the note of a Kaka passing overhead. And here I may remark 344 Transactions. — Zoologi/. that the note of the Kaka in these woods is very different to anything I have heard elsewhere — a fact also noticed by Mr. Saxon, the surveyor. It is something like this : ' Motuaka^ hurry up,' followed by a shrill whistle — like a shepherd call- ing his dog. I shot one or two. but I could observe nothing different from other Kakas ; only at this season (April) they were nothing but bones and feathers," Eiirystomus pacificus, Latham. (Australian Eoller.) Stray examples of this well-known Australian species still continue to be heard of in New Zealand. Mr. Walling Hand- ley, w'riting to me from Blenheim on the 22nd December, says, "During the month of November a specimen of the Australian Eoller, in perfect plumage, was shot at the Weld's Hill Station, Awatere, by a station-hand. The bird was first noticed flying with a peculiar uncertain flapping flight over the tussock grasses in quest of moths in one of the paddocks adjacent to the station. Its handsome appearance, as seen by the waning light of eventide, and the striking contrast it presented to the sombre brown of the surrounding vegetation, excited attention, and this led to its pursuit and capture. The plumage, &c., corresponds in every particular with the technical description of the species as given in your ' Manual of Nev/ Zealand Birds.' " Halcyon vagans, Lesson. (Kingfisher.) The following paragraph appeared in the Rancjitikei Ad- vocate : "A Paraekaretu farmer, who had unaccountably lost several hives of bees, at length discovered that the losses were due to a Kingfisher, which, on being killed, was found to have its ci-op full of bees." Platycercus novae-zealandiae, Sparrm. (Eed-fronted Parra- keet.) Mr. Alexander MacDonald, of the Awahuri, mentioned to me a curious incident which had come under his own obser- vation. His young people had obtained a nest of young Parra- keets, and succeeded in rearing them. When adult, two of the birds mated and became quite inseparable, always occupy- ing the same perch, and cuddling up to each other in the most affectionate manner. One day the male bird made his escape from the cage, and in being recaptured had his tail pulled out. Thus dismantled, the fugitive went back to his cage in a very sorry plight. The female bird immediately discarded her disfigured mate, rejected all his advances, and before long paired with one of the other birds, whose caudal appendage was the very pink of perfection. But the curious part of the story has yet to come. In course of time the divorced lover BuLLEK. — Oil Neiu Zealand Ornithology. 345 had renewed his tail, and then the inconstant lady forsook her second mate and restored to favo.ur her " first love " in all the glory of his long, new tail. Not a bad proof, I think, that even birds are not insensible to the charms of personal appear- ance. It may be added that the last-deserted mate forthwith moped, refused to eat food, and died of a broken heart. It would appear that this species breeds twice in the year. A young bushman at Hawera found, in the montli of May, a nest containing eight young ones, which he took and sold for 10s. each, the village setilers being very partial to these docile and imitative pets. I have examined a caged Parrakeet brought by Mr. Ernest Bell from Curtis Island, situated a few miles from Sunday Island, in the Kermadec Group, where also this Parrakeet was abundant till the introduction of the domestic cat, which soon killed them off. I can detect no difference from the New Zealand bird. It is of decidedly small size (probably a female), and there is a blue tinge on the tail- feathers; but I take these to be merely individual peculiarities. Macaulay Island, where a distinct species closely allied to P. novcB-zealandicB is said to exist, lies about a degree distant from Sunday Island. Platycercus erythrotis, Wagl. (Island Parrakeet.) This species has a peculiar cry — a short, shrill note — which further distinguishes it from Platycercus novce-zealan- dice. A caged bird, from Antipodes Island, having died in my possession, I am enabled to furnish measurements from a specimen in the flesh : Extreme length, 17in. ; extent of wings, 12in.; wing from flexure^ 5"75in.; tail, 6in. ; bill, along the ridge 0-90in., along the edge of lower mandible O'oOin.; tarsus, OQOin.; longer fore-toe and claw, l-25in.; longer hind- toe and claw, i -20111. Nestor meridionalis, Gmelin. (Kaka.) As I have fully explained in the " Birds of New Zealand," there are many well-defined varieties of this characteristic species. I have enumerated and described (at pages 151-157) no less than twelve of such varieties. One of these is the large Kaka of the South Island {Nestor montanus, Haast). The late Sir Julius von Haast, in sending me specimens, wrote., " Even judging from its habits alone, it is quite dis- tinct from the common Kaka. It is never found in the Fagiis forest, whilst the other species never goes above it into the subalpine vegetation." And Sir James Hector, writing to me of the same bird, said, "^I never met with it in the forests of the lowlands. It is more active in its habits and more hawk- 346 Transactions. — -Zoology. like in its flight than the common Nestor. It often sweeps suddenly to the ground ; and its cry differs from that of the common Kaka in being more shrill and wild." Reviewing these opinions, I said {op. cit., p. 153), " No doubt some naturalists will be disposed to regard this larger race as a distinct bird, and for a considerable time my own inchnations were in that direction ; but, looking to the extreme tendency to variation in this species, and to the difficulty of drawing a clear line between the larger and smaller races in consequence of the occasional intermediate or connecting forms, I feel that I am taking a safe course, concurrently with Dr. Finsch, in refusing, for the present at least, to separate these birds." That is how the matter rests now ; but I am always open to conviction, and would welcome any further information on the subject. I have already a piece of evidence which, so far as it goes, seems rather to strengthen the view of the species being distinct. It is this : The nestling of the North Island Kaka as described by myself (op. cit., p. 151) is " covered with soft white down, thinly distributed, and very short on the nnder-parts ; abdomen entirely bare ; bill whitish-grey, the upper mandible armed near the tip with a white horny point ; cere pale-yellow ; legs dull-cinereous." A nestling brought from the West Coast Sounds, and submitted to me as a skin, was covered all over with short slaty-grey down ; bill greyish- horn colour; feet brown. These nestlings, therefore, vi^ere very different, and they belonged to the two varieties. Professor Newton writes,* " Considering the abundance of Parrots, both as species and individuals, and their wide extent over the globe, it is surprising how little is known of their habits in a wild state. Even the species with which Englishmen and their descendants have been more in contact than any other has an almost unwritten history compared with that of many other birds ; and, seemg how many are oppressed by and yielding to man's occupation of their ancient haunts, the extirpation of some is certain, and will probably be accomplished before several interesting and some disputed points in their economy have been decided. The experience of small islands only foreshadows what will happen in tracts of greater extent, though there more time is required to pro- duce the same result ; but, the result being inevitable, those who are favourably placed for observations should neglect no opportunities of making them ere it be too late." And, re- ferring to our bird, he says, " The position of the genus Nestor in the order Psittaci must be regarded as uncertain. Garrod removed it altogether from the neighbourhood of the Lories, to which, indeed, the structure of its tongue, as pre- * "Dictionary of Birds," p. 691. BuLLER. — On Nezv Zealand Ornithology. 347 viously shown by him, indicates only a superficial resem- blance. Like so many other ISiew Zealand forms, Nestor seems to be isolated, and may fairly be deemed to represent a separate family — Nestorida; — a view adopted by Count T. Salvador! (Cat. B., Brit. Mus., xx., Introd., p. viii.), and fully justified by a cursory examination of its osteology, though this has hitherto been only imperfectly described and figured." It will be remembered that at a former meeting I exhibited a specimen of the Yellow-belted Kaka named by Mr. Gould Nestor esslingii, in honour of the Prince D'Essling. I have now to exhibit another example of this peculiarly-coloured form, from the same locality. Seeing that no less than five have been obtained at different times, it may seem unreason- able not to accord the bird full recognition as a distinct species. But the tendency to albinism in some of the claws in the beautiful specimen now exhibited makes me still suspicious, and, for the present at any rate, it will, I think, be safer to rank it as a well-marked variety. I may mention, however, that in this bird the bill seems finer than in ordinary examples of Nestor vieridionalis, coming nearer in this respect, as well as in the yellow colour of the under-mandible, to the very distinct Nestor notahilis. Stringops habroptilus, Gray. (Ground-parrot ) Major Mair informs me that the Kakapo, according to the Maoris, is still to be found in the Upper Wanganui. Formerly it was very abundant there, as also in the Kaimanawa Eanges, in the direction of Taupo. Major Mair adds, "The natives caught the Kakapo by the aid of trained dogs. The birds, when going out to feed, always placed one on sentry. The object with the kakapo-hunter was to bag this one first, then the whole family would be secured ; but if the sentinel gave the alarni the others all slipped over the side of the ridge. The dogs used to wear a rattle, called by the Whanganui tatara, and by the Ngatimaniapoto rore. The purpose of this rattle was that the masters of the dogs should know where they were." Carpophaga novae-zealandiae, Gmelin. (Wood-pigeon.) To the many instances of albinism reported from time to time I have now to add two more. One of these is a pure albino, from the Wanganui district. The entire plumage in this bird is pure white, with just the faintest tinge of buff on the shoulders and upper wing-coverts. The other specimen is from Collingwood, and being only partially an albino presents a very peculiar appearance. The entire plumage is pure white with the following exceptions : From the lower mandible, on each side, a broad patch of purplish-black, with metallic re- 348 Transactions.— Zoologij . flections, passes under tlie eye, spreads over the ear-coverts, and extends downwards almost to the shoulder. On the inner flexure of each wing there is a patch of coppery-brown ; some of the wing-coverts are brownish-grey, and the secondaries are almost wholly of that colour, the innermost ones more or less washed with coppery-brown. One of the tail-feathers is of the normal colour, freckled towards the base with white, as are several of the upper tail-coverts ; bill, eyelids, and feet bright arterial red. Carpophaga chathamiensis, Eothschild. (Chatham Island Wood-pigeon, j Mr. Hawkins writes, " The Pigeon on the Chatham Islands is nearly extinct. I have been out every day for two weeks and only got four, and one of those was spoilt in the shoot- ing." Larus dominicanus, Licht. (Black-backed Gull.) As a contribution to the history of this well-known species, the following note, furnished by Mr. Drew quite recently to the Wanganui Chronicle, is worth preserving: "It is not at all uncommon to see both kinds of our 8eagulls as pets on lawns and gardens, but I think it very uncommon to find them nesting and producing eggs in captivity. This singularly rare ornithological occurrence has come under mv notice lately. Mrs. Martm, of Wilson Street, has one of these pets; it is the large Black-backed Gull (Larus dominicanus), or the Karoro of the Maoris. The bird is quite tame — comes when called, &c. — but during the w4iole nineteen years of its captivity has never started egg-laying ; in fact, was always thought to be a male bird. But this year, to the surprise of her mistress, she has constructed a nicely-built nest, and in it lias laid three beautiful spotted eggs. ' Maori ' — for so she is called — is fruit- lessly sitting on her unfertile eggs — or, I should say, on two of her own and one lien's egg, for the third egg "has been taken from her and is now in the Museum. I wonder if she has noticed the difference ! " Sterna vittata, Gm. (S. Nat., i., p. 609.) Mr. Bethune, of the " Hinemoa," has shown me a skin of the Tern obtained by him at the Bounty Islands, for which Mr. Henry Travers had proposed the name of Sterna hethunei. It is a lovely bird, presenting a general resemblance to Sterna mitarctica, but with a snow-white tail, and legs of arterial red. But the bird is not new, having been first described and named as far back as 1788 [op. cit.). Mr. Bethune states that it occurs at the Snares and on Campbell Island as well as on the Bounties. There were four specimens of this bird in BuLLEB. — On Neio Zealand Ornithology. 349 the collection made by the "Challenger" Expedition, from Betsy Cove and Christmas Harbour, in Kerguelen Island. A^nother species of Tern obtained by Mr. Bethune at the Auckland Islands may, however, prove to be new. It is similar in plumage to Sterna frontalis, but is appreciably larger, with a longer and more robust bill. Like the last- named species it is gregarious, hunting in flocks, whereas Sterna viitata flies in pairs. The specimen shown to me gave the following measurements : — ''■' Extreme length, 17-75in. ; extent of wings, 28-5in. ; wing from flexure, llin. ; tail, 7iu. ; bill, along the ridge 2in., along the edge of lower mandible 2-5in.; tarsus, lin. ; middle toe and claw, l-25in. If new, it may be thus diag- nosed : — Ad. ytil. cestiv. similis S. frontali sed paullo major : rostro et pedibus conspicue majoribus. I cannot, however, venture to bestow a specific name, because, before the bird was submitted to me, a specimen was given by Mr. Bethune to Dr. Collins, who, I am informed, took it with him to England. If still wdthout an appellation it might appropriately be named Sterna bethunei. Platalea regia, Gould. (Eoyal Spoonbill.) In vol. ix. of our Transactions, pages 337-338, I gave an account of the occurrence of this fine Australian bird at Manawatu. The specimen, for wdiich I was indebted to the kind assistance of Mr. C. Hulke, is now in the mounted col- lection of the Colonial Museum. I am informed by Mr. W. Townson, of Westport, that another specimen was shot on the Buller Eiver about January, 1892, and is still preserved in Dr. Gaze's collection. Phalacrocorax colensoi, Buller. (Auckland Island Shag.) Since writing the notes on the Auckland Island Shag which appeared in the last volume of our Transactions, I have had an opportunity of examining two more specimens (male and female). The male bird of these is without a crest, but has a broad irregular white dorsal patch, and the white alar bar long, narrow, and distinct. The female is also crestless, and exhibits only an indication of a dorsal spot in a few white feathers. The alar bar is very irregular, being represented in the left wing by only a few scattered white feathers. In both birds the white streak on the fore-neck commences within the angle formed by the crura of the lower mandible, and in- * One of the measurements — the extent of wings — was furnished to me by the collector, having heen taken when the bird was fresh ; the other measurements are from the dried skm. 350 Transactions. — Zoology. creases rapidly in widih downvvards towards the breast. These specimens, therefore, go to confirm the conclusions to which I had arrived from an examination of the collection made by Mr. Henry Travers. Diomedea regia, Buller. (Koyal Albatros.) At the time of the last visit of the " Hinemoa " to Camp- bell Island the eggs of Diomedea regia were just on the point of being hatched, the embryo being well developed. This was at the end of February. The breeding season of Dio- medea cxulans on Auckland Islands is somewhat later, for on the same cruise the crew and passengers brought on board some four or five hundred eggs, all of which were fresh enough to be blown. ^&' Diomedea exulans, Linn. (Wandering Albatros.) The following cutting is from the Sydney Morning Herald : " With reference to a paragraph which appeared in a recent issue respecting the rescue of a seaman who fell overboard from the ship ' Gladstone ' while on her voyage from London to this port, we have been supplied with the following interest- ing additional particulars by Captain Jackson himself : On the 24th October, at noon, whilst the ship was in latitude 42° and longitude 90° E., and going at the rate of about ten knots an hour, the cry of ' A man overboard ' was raised. Captain Jackson and his chief officer, Mr. John Eugg, who were seated at dinner at the time, immediately rushed cut of the cabin and rounded the ship to. A boat, manned by four hands, was then lowered, and left the ship in charge of Mr. Eugg five minutes after the ala.rm was raised. The man was then out of sight, but the rescuing party pulled towards the spot where it was supposed he had fallen, and after some little time found him clinging to an Albatros, which he was using as a lifebuoy. As soon as the boat got within a few yards of him he let the bird go and swam to the boat, being apparently none the worse for his unexpected immersion. He returned on board smiling, and stated that just after he fell an Alba- tros swooped down upon him and made a peck at him, but he seized it by the neck and kept its head under water until he had drowned it, and then used it to preserve his own life in the manner already described. The boat was away about one hour. The sea was very rough at the time, and the wind was from the north-west. The most remarkable thing about this remarkable story is that the man, who could only swim a little, had heavy sea-boots on at the time of the accident, besides being encumbered with oilskins. The names of the crew of the boat were Messrs. W. Gilchrist, L. Mann, Eichard Simpson, and John Murphy, the first two of whom are Sydney BuLLEK. — On New Zealand Ornithology. 351 men. The Albatros was the first that had been seen for a month." Diomedea salvini, Eothschild. (Salvin's Albatros.) On a recent visit to Wanganui I was invited by Mr. Drew, the curator of the museum, to examine and identify a live Albatros which had just come in. The bird proved to be an adult specimen (apparently a female) of Dioviedea salvini. Mr. Drew gave me the particulars of its capture, which would seem to indicate that this bird is nocturnal in its h'abits. A party of fishermen in their boat, at 2 o'clock the previous morning — the night being starlight but without any moon — were waiting for the dawn, in order to fish for schnapper. They saw the Albatros hovering about them, and threw out a piece of bait on a line. The bird at once descended to the water, took the hook in its bill, and was towed on board. In this specimen the bill is grey with a yellowish unguis ; the black pencilled lines and the yellow cartilage are very con- spicuous. CEstrelata neglecta, Schl. (Schlegel's Petrel.) I find that in quoting Mr. Bethune in relation to this species (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxvii., p. 133), I rather over- stated what he had said. He informs me that, although he saw many of these birds mated in the breeding season, as a matter of fact he "collected" only one pair — the speci- mens which I had the pleasure of exhibiting at the meeting of our society on the 5th September last. But, as far as he could observe, the two phases of plumage were always associated ; so that my general argument is not affected in any way. But, as Mr. Bethune is a very careful observer, I am anxious that he should be reported with strict accuracy. On another point also I appear to have misunderstood him. This species, he assures me, does not deposit its eggs in a burrow, like so many of the other Petrels, but places them in an open depression on the surface of the ground. CEstrelata affinis, Buller. (Mottled Petrel.) The bird of the first year differs from the adult in being generally darker in plumage. The wdiole of the upper sur- face, the sides of the breast, the sides of the body, flanks and abdomen, dark slaty-grey, the feathers very minutely margined with paler. Chin pure white ; lores, lower sides of face, fore-neck, breast, and under tail-coverts white varied with slaty-grey ; on the breast in freckled wavy lines. All the median wing-coverts are stained with brown ; the inner webs of all the wing-feathers pure white, as also are the larger under wing-coverts. Bill black ; legs and feet yellowish-brown (in dried specimen). / \ BRA 352 Transactions. — Zoology. PufRnus buUeri, Salvin. (Buller's Shearwater.) A specimen brought from the Mokohiiiou Islands by Cap- tain Fairchikl in September last (in spirits), and presented by him to the Colonial Museum, has enabled me to describe the soft parts : Sides of the bill greenish, the ridge and hook brownish-black ; feet yellow, the outer side of the tarsi and outer toes and a line along the base of the middle toe on its outer side blackish-brown. The bird proved to be a male, and the greenish colour of the bill is probably a sexual charac- ter, because there was no such appearance with my specimen (a female), although it was picked up fresh on the Waikanae sands. Mr. Sandager, in his description of Ptiffinus zealandi- cus (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxii., p. 291), which I have identified with this species, says that " the lower part of both mandibles is bluish, reniainder black." I may here correct a common error among local ornitholo- gists— that of confounding Puffiuus with Puffin, the two birds having no relation whatever to each other. The principal offender in this respect is Mr. Eeischek, who has contributed some interesting notes on the various species of Puffinus to the pages of our Transactions, and persistently calls them " Puffins." Professor Newton, in his admirable "Dictionary of Birds"* — a book which should be on every ornithologist's shelves — gives the following explanation of this popular mistake: " The name ' Puffin ' has been given in books to one of the Shearwaters, and its latinised form Pvffinus is still used in that sense in scientific nomenclature. This fact seems to have arisen from a mistake of Ray's, who, seeing in Tradescant's museum and that of the Royal Society some young Shearwaters from the Isle of Man, prepared in like manner to young Puffins, thought they were the birds mentioned by Gesner (Hist. Avium), as the remarks inserted in Willoughby's " Ornithologia " (p. 251) prove ; for the specimens described by Ray were as clearly Shearwaters as Gesner's were Puffins." Puffinus chlororhynchus, Lesson ( = Puffinus sylienurus, Gould). (Wedge-tailed Shearwater.) I do not think I have yet put on record the following letter, received some time ago from Mr. W. M. Crowfoot, of Beccles, Suffolk : — " My friend Mr. Dalgleish, of Edinburgh, draws my atten- tion to the fact that, in the last edition of your ujost valuable book on the birds of New Zealand, in the article on Puffinus griseus, you state that my remarks on Puffinus sphentirus in iNorfolk Island probably refer to Puffinus griseus. I think this is a mistake, as a skin of the Norfolk Island species * Adam and Charles Black, London, 1894. BuLLER. — On Neiv Zealand Ornithology . 353 (which 1 at first thought was P. griseus) was sent to ine by my correspondent, Mr. Metcalfe, and I forwarded it to Mr. 0. Salvin for his inspection. He returned it to me as Puf- finus sphenurus of Gould. I have since received the eggs of Puffimis griseus from New Zealand, and find that they are much larger than those of P. sphenurus, and of a different colour. My specimens of the egg of P. griseus measure 3in. by 2in. and 3^in. by 2in. respectively, and are of a yellowish- white colour, whereas the eggs of P. sphenurus measure 2fin. by If in. and 2-|in. by l^\n. respectively, and are of a pure- white colour, just like those of Puffinus anglorum and P. kuhli." Puffinus gavia, Forst. (Forster's Shearwater.) We have at length discovered the breeding-place of this species. I find that these birds resort in large numbers to Stephen Island, in Cook Strait, for the purpose of reproduc- tion ; and through the kind offices of Mr. Lyall, the light- house-keeper there, I have recently obtained six eggs. They are of a rather narrow ovoido-conical shape, perfectly white, ■' and differing appeciably in size, the largest of the series measuring 2-45in. in length by l-45in. in breadth, and the smallest measuring 2-20in. bv l-45in. ^G Majaqueus parkinsoni. A specimen in the flesh (adult female) sent to me from Manawatu measured 18in. in length, and 4:7'25in. in extent of wings. ^o^ Casarca variegata, Gmelin. (Paradise-duck.) Those of you present who have visited the Masterton fish- ponds cannot fail to have noticed a tame Paradise-duck, which has been an inhabitant of the place for several years. I have been assured by the curator that this bird is as useful as any watch-dog could be, for it sets up an unceasing clamour on the appearance of a stranger. Its affection for the keeper is most remarkable, for it will follow him everywhere and nestle about his feet in the most demonstrative manner, squatting on the ground with its neck outstretched and utter- ing all the time a sort of purring note of satisfaction. It has now a mate, and they have brought up a large brood of young; but previously to this it every season laid a number of un- fertilised eggs, and then took to hatching-out a nest of do- mestic duck's eggs. The handsomely-striking plumage of this bird, coupled with its docility and readiness to breed in con- finement, marks it out as being specially suitable for private ponds and ornamental waters. A tame Duck of this species which I have at the Papai- 23 354 Transactions. — Zoology. tonga Lake has attached itself in the same marked way to one of the domestics, but is shy and distant with every one else. I have remarked elsewhere''' on the devotion of this species to its young, and the devices to which it resorts to draw intruders away from the vicinity of its nest. I have lately met with the following in the columns of a newspaper, and the record is worth preserving : — " The following is a touching instance of the affection of birds for their young : Mr. Shalders informs the North Otago Times that, having been requested to obtain some young Para- dise-ducks for the purpose of exchangiug with the Accli- matisation Society of Victoria, he, while travelling with another up-country with a waggon and team, saw on a stream two parent birds and eight or nine young ones. On his essaying to capture some of these, the parent birds, like the Home lap- wings, endeavoured, by feigning lameness, to decoy him from their young ; but he captured three of them, and placed them in a small box on the waggon. They proceeded a distance of six miles and camped for the night, and on risiug early in the morning Mr. Shalders' s first care was to look after the young birds. On leaving the tent, however, he saw not far from the waggon a Paradise duck and drake, and remarked to his mate that he believed the birds had followed them. To ascertain if this were so, he took the little ducklings out and placed them on the ground some short distance from the waggon, and watched. They were almost immediately taken charge of by the drake, who made off with them through the mate-kauri in the direction of the river, rising every few yards in order, apparently, to let his companion see the course he was taking. The informant says he had not the heart to endeavjour to recapture his prize, and he let them go as a tribute to the faithful care of the parent birds." Hymenolaemus malacorhynchus, Gmelin. (Blue Duck.) I received from Waikanae on Saturday, the 12th Decem- ber, an adult pair of the Mountain-duck, with a bird of the first year, and a fledgeling from another brood. The last- mentioned accidentally hung itself in the wire-netting of its enclosure. The others were very shy at first, but soon adapted themselves to their new life, and took readily to their new diet of cooked potato and rice. When alarmed they uttered a loud whistling cry — especially the young bird ; at other times their note was a low rasping one, like the sound pro- duced by drawing an object quickly against the teeth of a large comb. • " Birds of New Zealand," vol. ii., p. 266. BuLLER. — On New Zealand Ornithology. 355 Eudyptes chrysocome, Forster. (Tufted Penguin.) I am able now to add to my account of this species a description of the nesthng from a specimen obtained at Dusky Sound. Head, throat, hind-neck, and upper parts — that is to say, the surface that is coloured in the adult — covered with short sooty-black down, and the under-parts with short white down; bill whitish-horn colour ; feet pale-brown. In a more advanced chick — which is double the size of that already described — the down is even shorter, as if rubbed off, and the root-points of future feathers are disclosed, cover- ing the surface in regular lines or series. The young of this species differs from the adult in being appreciably smaller in size, and in having a whitish-grey throat ; the long crests are absent, being represented by a tuft of feathers little more than iin. in length, commencing imme- diately above the eyes and extending back l^in. towards the occiput ; pale lemon-yellow, with blue tips. Bill black, with reddish-brown tips. Eudjrptes sclateri, BuUer. (Sclater's Penguin.) On the 25th February the " Hine^noa " brought from Antipodes Island four living examples of this species and ten of EudyjHes chrysocome. I am assured by the second engineer (who is a collector of birds) that the former always lays one egg and the latter two. EudyiJtes chrysocome { = E. filholi, Hutton) is readily distinguishable from the other Pen- guins by its full crest of lengthened yellow feathers and its red eyes. Its home is Antipodes Island. But all those brought on this trip were birds of the first } ear, in which the crest was not yet developed. The examples of Eiidyptes sclateri inter- ested me very much, because they too were young birds, but somewhat more advanced, and just undergoing the first seasonal moult — throwing off the adolescent plumage and assuming that of the adult state. The young of this species has the plumage of the upper parts much duller, being mixed with brown, and the throat, instead of being black, is greyish-white, darker in some specimens than others. In one of the two which I secured the chin is white, and, this portion of the plumage not having moulted off, the bird presents a singular appearance, the white chin being very conspicuous. In the young bird the superciliary streak, which is broad and well defined, is white, instead of being golden-yellow, as in the adult. This species is found both on Antipodes Island and -on Campbell Island. It has never, I believe, been found on the Auckland Islands. The species inhabiting that group is Eudyptes antipodum. The "Hinemoa" brought up one live 356 Transactions.- — Zoology. example of the last-named species for His Excellency the Governor. It has peculiar flat, button-like eyes. A bird undergoing the first moult (February) presents the following features : Yellow facial streak broad and distinct, in a line with the nostrils, but at present extending only lin. beyond the head ; throat black, with well-defined lower mar- gin, the old white plumage still adhering to the chin for the space of lin. from the angle of the crura of the lower mandible, and giving a very peculiar appearance to the head. The old dark plumage is still clinging to the forehead, and the featliers are peeling off the flippers ; but all the body-plumage has been completely renewed. Young of first year differs from the adult in having the plumage duller, and the throat dark-grey, shading into the dark plumage on the sides of the head ; broad superciliary streak of white springing not far from the angles of the mouth. At the first moult the white streak is replaced by a golden crest, the feathers of which project beyond the head. Bill dark-brown, and less robust than in the adult. Aptenodytes longirostris, Scop. (King Penguin.) On looking over a book of cuttings, I find that I omitted to notice in my "Birds of New Zealand" an interesting notice of this species wdrich appeared in a southern paper in August, 1878 : " A very handsome King Penguin was exhibited [at the Otago Institute] last evening. Professor Hutton said it was caught at Moeraki a short time ago, and that its exist- ence proved that the King Penguin was really an inhabitant of NeviT Zealand." Eudyptes atratus, Hutton. (Black Penguin.) A local ornithological event of some interest is the dis- covery of another example of the Black Penguin, described and named by Professor Hutton in 1875, from a specimen ob- tained at the Macquarie Islands, a group of sea-girt rocks lying about six hundred miles to the south-west of Stewart Island. For many years this was the only known example. It belonged to the fine collection of birds in the Otago Museum, and was lent to me by Professor Parker for the pur- pose of being figured in the second edition of my "Birds of New Zealand." A beautiful drawing of it was made by Mr. Keulemans, in association with Eudyptes antipodum, for the plate which faces page 294 in vol. ii. Unfortunately, the specimen itself was lost, with many other treasures, in the wreck of the " Assaye " on her return voyage to New Zealand. The present example, which also comes from the Macquarie Islands, is a somewhat larger bird, and is apparently quite mature ; but apparently it had only recently moulted, as the BuLLER. — Oil Neiu Zealand Ornithology. 357 sulphur-coloured crests, which formed so striking a feature in the other, are only partially developed. Apart from its black plumage, this species may be dis- tingaished by its powerful bill, its very small hind-toe, and its long and rigid tail-feathers. The true home of the Black Penguin has yet to be dis- covered. It no doubt lies to the south of the Macquaries, which seems curious, seeing that as we approach nearer to the South Pole the universal tendency in the birds is to assume whiter plumage. It cau only be a straggler at the Macquarie Islands, because ever since the discovery of the type, in 1875, Captain Fairchild has made diligent search for it there during the periodical visits of the " Hinemoa " without ever seeing one. The Black Penguin is the only uniform-coloured form in the whole group of these very interesting birds, and its pre- sent rarity adds very much to the value of the specimen. The distribution of the various species of Crested Penguin is very curious. On the Snares Eudyptes pachyrhynchus is the only species to be found ; on the Auckland Islands Eudyptes antipodmn, which occurs also on Campbell Island ; on the Bounty Islands Eudyptes sclateri ; and on i\.ntipodes Island both the last-named species and Eudyptes chrysocome. The habitat originally assigned to Eudyptes sclateri (the Auck- land Islands), on the authority of a live one sent to tlie Zoo- logical Society, was evidently a mistake. Going still further south, we find on the Macquarie Islands the magnificent King Penguin {Aptenodytes longirostris), the Eoyal Penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus), the Eockhopper (Pygoscelis tcenia- tus), and the Black Penguin {Eudyptes atratus), of which, as already remarked, only two examples have been recorded. On the New Zealand coasts both Eudyptes pachyrhynchus and E. sclateri are occasionally met with. Apteryx oweni, Gould. (Grey Kiwi.) One of my correspondents, writing from the Karamea Saddle on the "6th April, says, " I expected to find Kiwis very plentiful here, but I have not yet obtained one, although I have been camped in these woods three months. The forest is nearly all of red -birch, and, owing to the dampness of the woods, the ground is spongey and mossy, with an abundance of worms, which constitute the favourite food of this bird. The District Surveyor, who has an excellent retriever, has caught only two during the last four months. Woodhens, too, are very scarce. I have collected a few of the brown-legged species. I have preserved them, and will send them to you on my return to Nelson. On 1st x\pril I came across a family of the red-legged species — male, female, and two young. I cap- 358 Transactions. — Zoology. tured the two old birds and one young one, all of which I have preserved. The legs of the old birds were quite as red as those of our Wood-pigeon. The most plentiful bird in these woods is the little Rifleman. I have seen only one Saddle- back, which I managed to secure. I am camped at an altitude of 3,300ft., and have not as yet seen any Tuis or Pigeons. I cannot say that I have actually seen any stoats or weasels here, but they are known to be on the Dart Eiver and on the Rolling River, about fourteen miles from here." Once in the district there is no withstanding their spread, and with it the absolute extinction of these vanishing species. Nothing can save them. Apteryx haasti, Potts. (Haast's Kiwi.) Since my last paper on this subject I have had the oppor- tunity of examining another egg of this rare species, taken from a Kiwi's underground nest in the Heaphy Ranges. It is- broadly elliptical in shape, measuring 4-75in. in length by 2-75in. in breadth, and is of a pale greenish-white hue. It was obtained in the early part of December, 1894, and was perfectly fresh. I am also in a position now to give the description of the young : The whole plumage blackish-brown, paler and in- clining to grey on the under-surface, and having a distinctly spotted character. This is produced by each feather having a single transverse band of pale chestnut-brown on its apical portion, with the minutest tip of the same colour. These spotted markings are entirely absent on the head and upper part of the neck, which parts are uniform greyish-brown, paler on the sides of the head. Tarsi and toes blackish-brown; claws black. Apteryx occidentalis, Rothschild. (Larger Grey Kiwi.) I have also had an opportunity of examining two eggs of the large Grey Kiwi, from the same locality, the male bird having been taken from the nest sitting on the eggs. These also are broadly ellipitical and pale greenish- white. The larger of the two measures 4-6in. in length by 2-5in. in breadth. The other egg is about one-sixteenth of an inch shorter, and is much soiled by contact with the bird's feet. BuLLER. — On the Nankeen Kestrel of Australia. 359 Art. XXXII. — On the Occurrence of the Nankeen Kestrel of Australia (Cerchneis cenchroides) in Neiv Zealand. By Sir Walter L. Buller, K.C.M.G., F.E.S. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 21st August, 1895.] In November last I received a note from Professor Hutton informing me that a specimen of the Nankeen Kestrel had been shot in New Zealand, and advising me to write to Mr. Cuthbert Studholme for particulars. I accordingly did so, and promptly received the following letter in reply : — "The Waimate, Canterbury, 13th November, 1894. " Dear Sir,— " On behalf of my brother I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter about the Australian Kestrel. I shot the bird about five years ago close to the house ; it was amusing itself by chasing the common hawks away from the carcase of a dead sheep. My two youngest brothers had seen the bird flying about here for fully a week before it was shot. . . . " Yours sincerely, "E. C. Studholme. " Sir Walter Buller, Wellington." I have not yet seen this bird, although Mr. Studholme has kindly promised to give me an opportunity of examining it. Professor Hutton informs me that it is a female. More recently a specimen has been shot on Portland Island. It was sent on the 16th April by Mr. J. E. Dickson, the lighthouse-keeper, to the Colonial Museum, and was handed to me by Sir James Hector for identification. Mr. Dickson, in forwarding the specimen, says : " The body of the bird was very fat ; its crop contained crickets and grasshoppers. The iris of the eye was very dark brown ; pupil black. It was very shy when perched, but not so on the wing. Its flight was much like that of the Quail-hawk. It was shot on the 6th April, 1895." This bird, too, was a female, and, judging by the blueness of the upper tail-coverts, an old one. 360 Transactions. — Zoology. Art. XXXIII. — Notes on some Species of Neiv Zealand Birds. By J. Walling Handly. Communicated by Sir Walter Buller. [Read before the Wellington Pliilosopliical Society, 21st August, 1895.'] Harrier {Circus cjouldi, Bonap.). Tlie harrier is the most plentiful and generally-distributed species of rapacious bird in this district, appeai-ing to be as equally at home on the settler's clearing as when coursing over the wide tussocky uplands on the back-stations. Of late years it has sensibly din:iinished, partly owing to the depredations of rabbiters, who seem to make a general practice of extermi- nating all birds that may unwarily frequent their preserves, in order to protect their own particular quarry. An instance illustrative of the acute olfactory sense of this species came under my notice about two years ago. A gentleman of my acquaintance, who was experimenting with a new process of rabbit-trapping on a station near Blenheim, placed a dozen rabbits in the station woolshed, intending to forward them to the rabbit-factory the succeeding morning. Illness, however, prevented him from visiting the locality for a few days, when he perceived the roof of the shed, over the part where the rabbits were hanging, crowded with harriers, vulture-like, silently waiting for their prey. Sparrow-hawk (Hieracidea nova- zeal andia, Lath.) ; Bush- hawk {H.ferox, Peale). Both tolerably numerous. Morepork (Spiloglaux novce-zealandice, Gml.). Common ; an occasional specimen may often be heard quite close to town. Some time ago one was caught while attempting to capture a caged goldfinch hanging under a verandah here. Dollar-bird {Eurystomus pacifictis, Lath.). An occasional straggler from Australia. Kingfisher {Halcyon vagans, Lesson). This splendidly-coloured bird may be regarded as one of our commonest birds, being generally found in all suitable localities throughout the province. During the autumn and winter months they congregate in considerable numbers ; Handly.— Ou some Specks of Neiv Zealand Birds. 361 twenty or thirty specimens may often be noticed %Yithin quite a small radius. Parson-bird {Prostheniadera novce-zealandice, Gml.). A rapidly-diminishing species. Bell-bird [Anthontis inelaiiura, Sparrm.). The bell-bird, familiarly called the "mocker," still holds its own, and is to be met with in most unlikely places, frequenting alike the scant open scrub and Pliormium along the sea-shore, and blind gullies winding amid arid hills, as well a,s the virgin bush. Along the bridle-track leading from Picton to the Grove, during the Easter of 1894, it was particularly abundant — the bush seemed to swarm with them ; but upon reaching the Mahakipawa goldfields, but a few miles distant, the following da)', none were observed. A nest now in my possession was found built in and over that of a song-thrush (T. viusiais). Blight-bird {Zosterops lateralis, Lath.). Very common. Bush-wren {Xenicus longipes, Gml.) ; Rock-wren {X. gil- vivcntris, Pelz). Both species are now principally restricted to the back- ranges, the former predominating. Rifieman {Achanthidositta cJdoris, Sparrm.). Numerous in the Sounds district. Yellow-head Canary {Orthonyx ochrocephala) . Common, though never associated together in large flocks. Fern-bird {Sphenceacus fulvus, Gray). Seldom obtained. Grey Warbler {Gerycjone fiaviventris, Gray). Very common ; frequenting the gardens and hedgerows during the wmter months. Brown Creeper {Certhipariis novce-zealandice, Gml.). Common. Yellow-breasted Tit (Petroica macrocephala, Gml.) ; South Island Wood-robin (P. albifrons, Gml.). Both very common. Ground-lark {Anthxis novce-zealandice, Gml.). The introduction of ground-vermin and the laying of poi- soned grain for small birds are the factors largely responsible 362 Transactions. —Zoology. for the rapid diminution of this bird during recent years. It is, however, to be met with in considerable numbers in many localities — -more especially in the Awatere district ; and I have noticed in Picton several small flocks running along the grass- covered streets of that prettily-situated seaport town. Pied Fantail {Bhijndura flabellifera, Gml.); Black Fantail (B. fuliginosa, Sparrm.). Common ; the former species occurs in the ratio of six to one of the latter. I have seen an albino, having a wing pure white, the reinaining plumage being of the ordinary colouring. Orange-wattled Crow (Glaucojns cinerea, Gml.). Occurs in the neighbourhood of Mount Eiley. Saddleback {Creadion caruncidatus, Gml.). The range of the saddleback is yearly becoming more cir- cumscribed, and it is now confined to a few out-of-way locali- ties, such as Tophouse, on the road to Nelson, and the Sounds district, where it is rare and widely distributed. Red-fronted Parrakeet {Platycercus nova-zealandia, Sparrm.); Yellow-fronted Parrakeet (P. auriceps, Kuhl) ; Orange- fronted Parrakeet (P. alpinus, Buller) ; Lesser Red- fronted Parrakeet (P. rowleyi, Buller). The red-fronted bird is the most plentiful, being generally to be met with in all suitable localities. During the year 1888, the year of the unprecedented invasion of native rats, hundreds of parrakeets, particularly the first two species^ haunted the neighbourhood of the villages adjacent to the bush and made themselves obnoxious to orchardists, in many instances entirely stripping the trees of their fruit. In caged specimens of P. aljjinus the articulation is very indistinct. Brown Parrot [Nestor meridionalis, Gml.). The kaka was at one time very abundant. A spot was lately pointed out to me along the road to Picton where in former days the natives camped for weeks in order to snare them for winter consumption, where now, alas ! not one is to be found within many miles. Long-tailed Cuckoo (Eudynaviis taitensis, Sparrm.); Shining Cuckoo (Chrysococcyx lucid^is, Gml.). The first visitants herald their arrival about the third week in October ; and during the latter part of November and December, when the main body appears, they are very plenti- ful, numbers frequenting the plantations near town, depending principally for their means of subsistence upon their persistent Handly. — On some Species of New Zealand Birds. 363 robbery of the nests containing eggs and young of several species of acclimatised birds. The latest record of their occur- rence is 26th March. Owing to its general resemblance at a distance to the greenfinch (C. chloris) the shining cuckoo is, I believe, in numberless instances mistaken for that species. Compara- tively few people here seem to be acquainted with it, though very common. Wood-pigeon (Carpojjhaga nova-zealandice, Gml.). Irregularly distributed ; albinoes are often shot. South Island Kiwi {Apteryx australis, Shaw) ; Grey Kiwi (A. oweni, Gould). Both species have now become very rare. Individuals of the latter species are now confined to the high precipitous hills bordering Cook Strait, notably Port Underwood, from where a few are occasionally procured. The back ranges of the Wairau Valley, the Wakamarma, Mahakipawa, and Wai- kakaho Goldfields, as well as portions of forest-country within the confines of the Queen Charlotte, Pelorus, and Kenepuru Sounds, are the haunts of the main remnant. Eastern Golden Plover {Gharadrius fulvus, Gml.). A specimen was shot at the Wairau bar early in January. I heard the particulars of its capture some days after it was shot, and endeavoured to secure it, but the shooter had in the meantime eaten the body, no doubt with satisfaction to him- self, but giving me cause for regret, as I do not possess a specimen. Dottrel (Gharadrius bicinctus, Jard.). The dottrel is very numerous along the sandy shores of the southern portions of the province, but rare in the Sounds. Throughout the year considerable numbers habitually fre- quent the river-beds and stony pastures far inland. While crossing the Taylor Eiver-bed on horseback one evening I noticed a dottrel flying along, as if wounded, a few yards in advance of a retriever ; the dog entered into the chase with spirit, coursing up and down the river-bed until it seemed perfectly tired, and was returning to the road again when the dottrel, observing the direction it was taking, flew again in front of it and repeated its antics, until, having, no doubt, betrayed it past the spot where its eggs or young were con- cealed, it mounted high in the air and wheeled back again. Crook-bill Plover {Anarhynchus frontalis, Quoy et Gaim.). Eesorts to the mud-flats at the Wairau bar, and I have also met with it on the Awatere and Spring Creek river-beds. 364 Transactions. — Zoology. Pied Oyster-catcher {Hcematopus longirostris, Vieill.) ; Black Oyster-catcher (it. unicolor, Forst.). Both frequent the extensive mud-flats in various parts of the Sounds, marshy situations far inland as well as round the coasts ; they are very plentiful at Port Underwood. White Heron (Ardca alba, L.) ; White-fronted Heron (^4. nova-liollandia}, Lath.) ; Blue Heron {A. sacra, Gml.). The white heron, or crane as it is generally called locally, is, owing to its conspicuous appearance, the most generally heard-of species. Of late several specimens have been ob- tained ; the last one — a remarkably fine bird — I saw mounted in a window here was obtained at the Wairau Pa by a native. Individuals oftentimes haunt for a considerable time the mud-flats at the junction of the Opawa and Wairau Eivers and their adjacent lagoons, and generally manage to elude capture. My father observed a beautiful specimen some years ago perched on the topmost bough of a weeping- willow overhanging the Wairau Eiver, near the Wairau Pa. The natives all turned out to observe the stranger, one old man indicating a spot some distance up the river where in former days they resorted in numbers. Bittern {Ardca po'dloptila, Lath.). Numerous. Sandpiper (Limnocinclus aciiuiinatus, Horsf.) ; Godwit {Liniosa baueri, Naum.). The godwit, known by the local trivial appellation of snipe, and shot and eaten as such, is plentifully distributed along the coast and estuaries of our rivers during its summer sojourn. Pied Stilt {Himantopus leucocephakis, Gould) ; Black Stilt {H. novcB-zealaiidue, Gould). Both species occur sparingly, and in localities far apart. Knot (Trhuja canutus, L.). Pelorus Sound. Southern Woodhen {Ocydronuis australis, Sparrm.). A pure-white albmo was captured by a party near the Top- house, on the road to Nelson, and kept alive by its owner as a curiosity for a considerable tune, until it began to assume the ordinary brown colouring, when the owner had it killed and mounted. Striped Rail (Ballus jjhilijjpensis, Linn.). Now rare and widely distributed. While at Kenepuru at Christmas a young one was captured, and several others were reported from several localities in the same sound. Handly. — On some Species of New Zealand Birds. 365 Swamp-crake (Orfygometra affinis). Very rare. Swamp-hen [Porphyrio vielanotus, Linn.). A rapidly-diminishing species. Albinoes are frequently reported. Paradise-duck [Casarca variegata, Gml.) ; Little Teal {Qner- quedula gibberifrons, Miiller) ; Brown Duck {Anas chlorotis, Gray) ; Grey Duck (A. superciliosa, Gml.) ; Shoveller Duck {Blujnchaspis variegata, Gould) ; Blue Mountain-duck [Hi/nienolcemus malacorhynciiiis, Gould) ; Black Teal {Fuligida novcz-zealandice, Gml.). The paradise-duck was formerly more numerous in this province than, owing to the progress of drainage and the con- sequent extension of agriculture, it is at present, though still by far the most abundant species. Lake Grassmere, though little more than a lagoon, about three miles in diameter, situated along the coast between the Awatere Eiver and Cape Campbell, and Lake Rae, situated in the open country between the Awatere and Clarence, and generally known as the Salt Lakes, are now its chief haunts. In the early days very heavy bags were obtained. The Wairau lagoons, which cover an area of country equal to eight square miles, was in the early days alive with them during the shooting season, and " shootists " from all parts were there to be found congregated, with punts, swivel-guns, and every other gun guaranteed to kill. The result was that the birds were slaughtered by thousands to supply the Wellington market. This went on for years, till the local acclimatisation society prayed the Governor to proclaim it a protected area. This was granted, and now large flocks maybe seen disporting themselves on the placid waters. Of the remaining species none require any particular notice. The shoveller, or spoonbill, as known locally, is most generally found frequenting the two chief lagoons before men- tioned. I recently examined a stuffed albino shot in the Awatera the general colouring of which resembled that of a silver-grey Hamburg fowl, the wings and neck being of a beautiful mottled silvery-grey. The bill was abnormally large and deeply coloured. The range of the blue mountain-duck is restricted to the foamy mountain-torrents amid the lonely fastnesses of the Clarence, and the Kaikouras, although a few frequent the Awatere. The little teal and black teal are the rarest species ; and of the remaining species the grey duck is the commonest. 366 Transactions. — Zoology. Crested Grebe {Podiceps cristatus, L.). Very rare ; I have heard of but few occurrences. Black-backed Gull {Lams dominicanus, Licht.). Everywhere plentiful. A large breeding - colony exists at the mouth of the Awatere Eiver, from whence I recently obtained sixteen beautifully-marked eggs. Mackerel Gull {Larus scojmliims, Forst.). Not so numerous as the previous species. Caspian Tern {Sterna caspia, Pallas); Sea -swallow {S. frontalis, Gray) ; Common Tern ( width about -gV^- Pellicles terminal, small, yellow. Puparium of male white, elongated, cylindrical, carinated ; length about ^^yin. Adult female pale-yellow ; form normal of the genus. Abdomen ending in four very small lobes, of Nvhich the two median are the largest ; the two others are almost obsolete. The median lobes are roundly triangular, divergent ; the outer pair are denticulate. The margin is broken by small serra- tions, and bears a few spiny hairs, of which two on each side are close to the median lobes. There are five groups of spin- nerets : upper group with 10 orifices ; upper laterals 20-24 ; lower laterals 16-20. Many large oval pores. The larva is small, elliptical, active ; length about xto'"- The general characters are normal, but the last joint of the antenna is rather thicker and more clavate than usual amongst the DiaspidbKi. Adult male unknown. Hab. In Natal, on grass. My specimens were sent by Mr. A. M. Cooper, from Richmond, Natal. This insect is very close to C. spartime, and I think the chief difference is in the numbers of tlie spinneret-orifices, which are fewer in var. natalensis than in the type. Com- Maskell. — On Coccidae. 391 stock's species was found on "salt-marsh grass" much ex- posed to sea-spray. Mr. Cooper merely says "on grass," but does not mention the species. Genus Poliaspis. Poliaspis exocarpi, Maskell. This species appears to be by no means uncommon in Aus- tralia. I have had specimens dui'ing the year from various parts of New South Wales, on Dilhcynia ericifoUa and other plants. There is one feature of this insect which is noticeable. I find that in all my mounted slides it is very difficult to detect the spinneret-groups. As a rule these are as clear (or nearly so) in all Diaspids when finally mounted in dammar or bal- sam as when examined in alcohol or water; but, of the four slides of P. exocarpi in my collection, there is only one which shows with any clearness at all the double sets of groups, and that by no means as clearly as could be wished. Speci- mens which, in alcohol, show the groups with perfect distinct- ness are almost useless for identification after the mount is completed. Genus Fiorinia. Fiorinia expansa, Maskell. I have received many specimens of this handsome species from Mr. C. T. Musson, of Hawkesbury, New South Wales, on Melaleuca linariifolia. These are much larger than the original type, the puparia reaching j-ViJi-> but in other respects agree completely. Section LECANIN^. Genus Lecanium. Lecanium scrobiculatum, Maskell. N.Z. Trans., vol. xxv., 1892, p. 221. ; vol. xxvii., 1894, p. 58. I find that this is a somewhat variable species, which is apparently not uncommon in New South Wales, principally on Acacia. Having received, since my paper of 189-4 was printed, some specimens of the larvae, I am enabled now to say that they do not differ from those of the form which in that paper I named L. inngiie. Further, having had also another supply of L. pinguc, I find that the feet are not really absent from that form, but are nearly atrophied, very small and somewhat swollen. Still further, Mr. Froggatt has sent me several specimens of an insect so closely resembling, in its anatomical characters, both of the above forms, although differing slightly in colour and in having no dorsal tubercles, that I am obliged to consider it as another variety. 392 Transactions. — Zoology. For the foregoing reasons I have to abandon L. jnngne as a distinct form and to classify the species anew as follows, regarding its general features : — L. scrohiculatum, type. — Adult female convex, colour brownish-yellow or reddish-brown; epidermis bearing very nuinerous pits ; feet not abnormally short ; dorsum with four to six circular tubercles. L. scrohicnlattivi, var. jnngite. — Adult female convex, colour reddish-brown ; epidermis bearing very nume- rous pits ; feet atrophied ; dorsum with four to six ciixular tubercles. ^ L. scrohiculatum, var. Icve, var. nov. — Adult female convex, colour usually dull-yellow or brownish-yellow, with dull-red patches ; epidermis bearing many pits (but less numerous than in the type) ; feet atrophied ; dor- sum without any circular tubercles. The second stage of the female, the larva, and the test of the male pupa do not seem to vary sufficiently in these forms to require separate description. The first and third are de- scribed in my paper of 1892, and the larva in my paper of 1894 under L. jjingice. My specimens of var. leve were sent by Mr. Froggatt on Acacia longifolia, from Manly, near Sydney. Lecanium mori, Signoret. I have to report this species as plentiful on gorse {Ulex eJiropcBus) and broom {SjMrtium or Genista) at Fairlie, South Canterbury, New Zealand. My specimens were sent by Mr. T. Kirk. 1 mentioned L. ^nori first in 1884 as occurring in New Zea- land on Alsophila ; and in 1893 here also on Aspleniiim and other ferns. The gorse and broom on which I now record it are, of course. European, and, if my recollection serves iiie correctly, there is not nmch, if any, native forest near Fairlie. The anatomical characters of the insects, as I observed in 1893, correspond most exactly with those of Signoret's species. The question arises as to the original country of L. mori. Signoret's specimens were found upon mulberry (presumably) in the south of France. That author does not himself mention the plant, and it is within possibility that "mori" is not meant to indicate the mulberry ; but, however that may be, I have not found the species mentioned by any other writer as occurring in Europe or elsewhere. Neither Mr. Douglas nor Mr. Newstead reports it in England, although both have paid much attention to the genus Lecanium. Possibly, however, the species named L. assimile, Newst. (Ent. Mo. Mag., May, 1892, p. 141), may be the same or a variety. L. genista, Maskell.— Ou Coccidas. 393 Sign., and L. sarothavDii, Newst., differ sufficiently from it. The ferns on which L. mori occurs in New Zealand are indigenous species, and, in the case of Alsophila and Nephro- Icpis, are also of indigenous genera; and it is of course pos- sible that some New Zealand ferns imported into the south of France and the Eiviera may have taken their Lecanmm with them. Genus Pulvinaria. Pulvinaria thompsoni, sp. nov. Plate XX., figs. 1-8. Adult feniale at first yellowish-brown, darkening with age to red -brown or brown; frequently massed together on a twig, the cotton confused and heaped up, but on a leaf usually separate, with a posterior cylindrical white ovisac. The insect shrivels considerably at gestation, but in the early state reaches about ^in. The form is Lecanid, elliptical, flattish. Antenna of eight joints, of which the third is twice as long as any other, the second and first next and subequal, the rest much shorter iind about equal to each other ; the eighth joint is irregularly tapering, and bears several hairs. Feet moderately large ; the tarsal digitules are fine hairs, the digitules of the claw very large and widely dilated. Epidermis bearing a few cir- cular spinnerets and also a few scattered short fine hairs ; and on the margin is a row of similar tine hairs set rather •closely together. Each of the marginal depressions bears three, or sometimes four, strong club-shaped spines. Abdo- minal cleft, lobes, and anal ring normal. Female of the second stage yellowish or light -brown, •elliptical, flattish ; length about xV^^- Test of male pupa w-hite, glassy and transparent, angular- -elliptical, with sloping sides and the top formed of a flat plate ; length about -^.^in. Larva dull-red, flattish, elliptical ; length about ^Qin. Antennae of six jomts. Abdominal setse moderate. Hab. In Tasmania, on Dodo7Jcea viscosa. My specimens were sent by the Eev. Mr. Thompson, of Hobart. This species differs from P. dodoncece. Mask., 1892, in the eight-jointed antennae, in the larger digitules of the claw, in the very small number of dermal spinnerets, in the spines of the marginal depressions, in size, and in colour. Pulvinaria tecta, Maskell. Specimens of this have been sent by Mr. C. T. Musson, from Richmond, New South Wales ; they are of the white, •or New South Wales, variety, the Victorian specimens having yellowish cotton. These specimens are on Daviesia ulicina. 394 Transactions. — Zoology. Section HEMICOCCIN^. Plate XX., figs. 9-17. In 1883 I proposed (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xvi., pp. 125- 128) a classification of the Lecanid and partly Lecanid genera of the Coccid family, which seemed to me to possess at least the merits of clearness and simplicity. I followed tliis classifi- cation in my " Scale Insects of New Zealand," 1887, and I have since seen no reason for departing from it. According to this system I separated from the Lecanids proper, without for that reason attaching them to the Coccids proper, certain genera in which the larvae present distinct and conspicuous anal tubercles, while the later female stages have the abdomen cleft and tw^o dorsal lobes not reaching the margin. I pro- posed to attach all such species as were naked to a subsection " Kermitidce," and all such as were covered with wax to a subsection " Crypto'kcrmitidcB ." During the past year I have received from Mr. Froggatt some specimens of a species which appears to belong to the Cryptokerviitida, having a conspicuous test of waxy secretion. Unfortunately, I have only larvae and females of the second stage, and therefore I am unable to name the species, or even to decide upon the genus in which it should be placed. But the characters of the two stages which I possess are so clear that I shall probably not err in at least attaching them to the Cryptokermitids ; the larvae have anal tubercles, and the second stage has the abdomen cleft, so that in all probability the adult will be cleft also. The female of the second stage is orange-coloured, flat beneath and convex above, elliptical ; length about x\iu. The dorsum is raised in the middle in a longitudinal ridge of irregular tubercles or humps, and is covered with a test of white or yellowish wax, which is not homogeneous but broken up into irregular granultir masses. At the margin (especially on the abdomen) this test is produced in spiny projections, and frequently also the dorsum has waxy spines. After treat- ment with potash the form is elliptical with a slightly wavy outline. Antennae of seven short joints, subequal except the third, which is rather the longest ; the last bears some hairs, of which one is rather long. Feet short and rather thick; the tibia and tarsus are about equal ; digitules fine hairs. The dorsum bears many very small circular spinnerets. The margin has a row of short conical spines set rather closely together, and the four which are opposite the thoracic spiracles are very long and slender. The abdomen is dis- tinctly cleft, and has the normal lobes of Lccanidce ; the anal ring has six long strong hairs, and after pressure frequently protrudes beyond the abdominal margin. Maskell. — On Coccidas. 395 Larva orange-yellow, elliptical, slightly convex ; length about eV^^- Dorsum sparsely covered with similar wax to that of the second stage. Antennae of six rather confused short joints, of which the last bears some hairs. Feet moderate ; the tarsus is almost, or quite, as long as the tibia. The margin of the body has the row of conical spines, and the four longer ones, as in the second stage. The abdomen ends in two conspicuous and prominent anal tubercles, each of which bears a few fine spines and is terminated by a long seta. Hah. In Australia, on Banksia serrata. My specimens were sent by Mr. Froggatt from Manly, near Sydney. 1 have asked him to procure, if possible, some adults, in the absence of which I can decide neither the genus nor the species, though there seems every probability that it will be a Kermes. Group COCCIN^. Genus Pkosopophora. Prosopophora atherospermse, sp. nov. Plate XXI., figs. 1-8. Adult female covered by a rather thick waxy test, whicli is of a nearly brick-red colour, slightly elliptical and convex ; length about jjjin. There is a median longitudinal raised ridge of small tubercular swellings, each corresponding to a segment of the insect ; on each side of this are two other similar but smaller longitudinal ridges ; and, the shallow de- pressions in all the ridges being continuous, the test has the appearance of being transversely, and somewhat conspicuously, corrugated and barred. The apex of each small tubercle is lighter-coloured than the rest. Sometimes, however, the whole test is almost or quite white : this may possibly be due to incipient parasitism, although I can find no difference in the enclosed females. The ventral surface of the test is a flat plate of wax, with a perforation for the insect's rostrum. At the posterior extremity, dorsally, there is a small orifice, with somewhat protruded and raised edges. There is no marginal fringe'; but in some specimens a small quantity of white cotton may be seen beneath the edge of the test. Test of male pupa waxy, darkish-yellow, cylindrical ; length about ^^qIu. Dorsally it has rows of small tubercles like those of the female, but these are proportionately smaller in comparison with the depressions, so that the test is more conspicuously corrugated transversely, with the exception of the posterior region, which is a flat sloping plate, hinged for egress of the male. Adult female dark-red; filling the test, but shrivelling at gestation. Form shghtly elliptical, convex dorsally. An- 396 Transactions. — Zoology. teunjB of eight subequal joints ; the third is sometimes rather longer than the others; on the last joint are several hairs, and there is one on the seventh. Feet entirely absent. Eostrum moderate ; mentum monomerous. Abdomen ending with two divergent, rather large, anal tubercles, eacli bearing a shortish seta but no spines ; close alongside each tubercle is a longer seta ; each tubercle has its dorsal surface striated with a reti- cular pattern. The margin of the body has two small depres- sions at each side opposite the thoracic spiracles, and in each depression are two club-shaped spines, one of which is twice as long as the other. Epidermis bearing great numbers of dorsal tubular spinnerets, the bases of which spring from very minute figure-of-eight orifices. Anal ring with several (pro- bably ten) hairs, and anterior to it are two rows of large circular multilocular glands (perforated discs). Second stage of female not observed with certainty. Larva dark-brown, but externally appearing greyish, being covered with whitish granular wax. Form elliptical, tapering posteriorly to two prominent but rather small tubercles. Length at first about -^-^hi., but later attaining /oin. An- tennae apparently of six subequal joints. Feet moderately strong. The anal tubercles are striated as in the adult, and bear moderate setae. Male pupa and adult male unknown. Hab. In Australia, on Athcrosjjerma moscliata (sassafras). My specimens were sent by Mr. French, from Black Spur, Fernshaw, Victoria. He says, " covers the bark of the tree for yards up, but does not seem to have done any damage." This species is much nearer to P. dendrohii, Douglas, than either of the other two Austrahan species, P. eucalypti and P. acacice ; snid, indeed, I am strong"ly tempted to consider it as a variety only. It differs from Douglas's insect, which is on orchids in Demerara, in the colour of the test, in the absence of spines and the reticulation of the anal tubercles, and in the absence of any " perforated discs " on the cephalic region. It is a pretty insect, and for the present I shall leave it as distinct. Genus Planchonia. Planchonia quercicola, Bouche. Asterolecanitcm quercicola, Bouche, Ent. Zeit, Stettin, 1851 ; Asterolecanium quercicola, Signoret, Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de France, 1868, p. 279. In February, 1895, I received from Mr. E. I. Kingsley, of Nelson, some twigs of oak from that plac3 thickly covered with many thousands of Coccids, clearly belonging to the genus Planchonia; and on examination they were found to be entirely identical with specimens of P. quercicola sent to me in 1881 by Dr. Signoret, from France. I do not propose Maskell. — On Coccidae. 397 to reopen now the discussion of the generic name, as to which I have somewhat fuhy expressed opinions previously ; but I shall merely refer to my remarks on the subject in these Transactions, and in the " x\nnals and Magazine of Natural History," August, 1895, p. 134. It is somewhat curious that the occurrence of this pest on the Nelson oak-trees has never before been made known. The twigs which were sent to me were so thickly covered with the little greenish-yellow tests as to be in places invisible. In Mr. Kingsley's letters he informs me that " the owner first noticed the blight about fourteen years ago." It would appear from Signoret (Iqc. cit.) that P. quercicola was first observed as an injurious pest about 1836, near Paris, and that certain oaks in the Bois de Boulogne were then practically destroyed by it. I have not found any particular mention of it, either in France or elsewhere, since Signoret wrote, as being especially common or injurious, although it has been reported several times in Europe and in America. It is diffi- cult to look at the Nelson oak-twigs without fancying that the countless thousands of insects on them must greatly damage the trees ; and yet all that Mr. Kingsley tells me is that " the upper branches of the trees look somewhat unhealthy." This is after fourteen years' uninterrupted existence. Pro- bably, in Europe there is some parasitic enemy (not generally known) which has kept it in check, and some accidental disappearance of the parasite may account for the prevalence of the PlancJionia in 1836. In New Zealand, apparently, either there is no parasite, in which case the PlancJionia will be able to increase indefinitely, or whatever parasite there may be has for a while disappeared, with the consequent out- break of the Coccids. Coccids, like other insects, are subject to sudden and injurious increase at irregular intervals. Just in the same way as in England a few years ago there was an extra- ordinary swarm of the butterfly Colias edusa, so in New Zea- land at one time Lecanium hesperidum was for a few years excessively numerous. In Mauritius and other tropical places Aspidiotus destructor broke out at one time with unusual vigour ; and we can remember here how in the summer of 1894-95 occurred an alarming increase of Dactylojnus adoni- dwn in the Hutt Valley, an increase which may perhaps be observed again during the present season. If, therefore, Planchonia quercicola, after being fairly quiescent for several years, has of late suddenly started into abnormal activity, we may expect that after a while the checks (whatever they may be) to its increase will again act on it, and it will return to comparative harmlessness. There remains, of course, the chance that the insect is not 398 Transactions. — Zoology. particularly injurious, although, as remarked just now, it is difiicult to think this in view of its immense numbers. In a later letter Mr. Kingsley says, " It does not appear to be increasing. . . . The owner has cut off and burnt from time to tin:ie the most-infected branches. . . . One tree at Bishopdale is getting very bad. . , . In the city two trees are infected, but do not yet show signs of decay. Most of the oaks do not appear to be much the worse for it. ... I do not know of any spraying operations." In a still later letter (February, 1896) Mr. Kingsley tells me that the trees are beginning to show signs of much damage by this insect, and that it is feared in Nelson that a large proportion of the fine oaks in that district will be most seriously injured. Genus Eriococcus. Eriococcus spiniger, sp. nov. Plate XXL, figs. 9-11. Sac of female white, or with a very faint yellowish tinge ; cylindrical ;. texture very closely felted. Length about ^in. Sac of male similar to but smaller than that of the female ; the texture is perhaps somewhat looser. Adult female brown or yellowish-brown, filling the sac but shrivelling at gestation. Abdomen ending in two conspicuous but narrow cylindrical anal tubercles, each bearing several short spines and terminated by long set®. Antennae of six joints, of which the third and the sixth are the longest. Feet rather slender ; tibia a little shorter than the tarsus ; all the four digitules are line hairs. The epidermis bears great num- bers of circular spinnerets of two sizes, and also very short fine spiny hairs. On the margin there is a row of strong spines with tubercular bases and blunted ends ; these spines are not in a continuous row, being separated according to the seg- ments of the body ; each cephalic and thoracic segment bears on each side fourteen to sixteen spines, and each abdominal segment five on each side. From these spines springs a fringe of white tubes, which may be seen within the sac before gesta- tion. The anogenital ring has eight hairs. Second stage of the female not observed. Larva yellowish-brown, Hattish, elliptical, active ; length about g'oin. i\ntenn8e and feet normal. The margin bears a row of strong spines as in the adult, but a little more slender, and more acute at the tips. Adult male unknown. Hab. In Australia, on Eucalyptus sp. Mr. Froggatt sent me specimens from Oatley, near Sydney. The arrangement and size of the marginal spines dis- tinguish this species. Maskell. — On Coccidse. 399 Eriococcus buxi, Fonsc, var australis, Maskell. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol xxvii., p. 65. I have received from Mr. Froggatt some specimens which I shall attach to this species, the principal difference from the type being apparently only the size. The female sac is only about ^V^- long, and the male sac still smaller. There seem to be no other distinguishing characters. Hah. In Australia, on Trachyviene hillardieri. Specimens from Sydney. Eriococcus paradoxus, Maskell. Trans. Eov. Sec. South Australia, 1887-88, p. lOi. Specimens received from Mr. G. Quinn, of Adelaide, on Piitosporum bicolor, belong to this species. Mr. Quinn says, " This is most destructive on this genus, and the gardener at Government House has burnt a number of the shrubs in con- sequence, and cut out large quantities of branches of the others." My original specimens were on Pittosjjorum undu- latum. Genus Dactylopius. - Dactylopius adonidum, Linn. In the " Annals and Magazine of Natural History," August, 1895, I published some remarks on the genus Dactylopius, and mentioned an outbreak of D. adonidum in the Hatt Valley, near Wellington. I have received specimens from Mr. Froggatt, of Sydney, New South Wales, on Acacia linifolia, which I also attach to this species, although in colour they are browner, or redder, than usual. Probably there is no character which serves for differentiating D. adonidum from others of the genus better than the sequence of the antennal joints. The insect is apparently omnivorous and cosmo- politan. Dactylopius longifilis, Comstock. Eep. Entom. U.S. Dept. Agric, 1880, p. 344. This insect occurs on Croton, at Calcutta, and in all pro- bability elsewhere in India. Specimens were sent to me by Dr. Alcock, of the Indian Museum. Genus Lachnodius, gen. nov. As the study of Coccids progresses forms are constantly being found which in some character or characters depart from the generic types hitherto known. Sometimes the variations ai'e but slight and unimportant, and in such cases it has been my rule to leave the species in a known genus without proposing or suggesting its future removal therefrom. Sometimes the abnormal characters have seemed to me funda- mental, and I have established new genera on single species; 400 Transactions. — Zoology. in these cases, e.g., Poliaspis, Inglisia, Sphcerococcus, other species have soon been discovered, which proved the correct- ness of my view. Sometimes, again, I have reported certain variations and remarked that, if at a future time new insects exhibiting them should be reported, it would probably be necessary to erect a new genus for them. Such a case as the last occurred in 1891 with the form which I named Dactylopius eucalypti. Certain features in this departed from the type of Dactylojnus, but I preferred to wait for the discovery of some others with similar characters before removing D. eucalypti from that genus. Two such forms have now come under review, and I therefore propose to set them apart under the name Lachnodius, which will indi- cate one of the principal characters — the excessive pubescence of the anogenital ring. Lachnodius, gen. nov. Female insects active or stationary; naked, or covered with cottony or mealy or waxy secretion. Body segmented. Antennae of seven or eight joints, of which the last is not longer than the others. Mentum monomerous. Aival tu- bercles small or obsolete. Anogenital ring with more than eight hairs. Male insects normal of Dactylopince. The seven-jointed antenna would not in itself be a dis- tinctive character, but the shortness of the last joint, the monomerous mentum, and the hairs of the anal ring are quite sufficient. Lachnodius eucalypti. Dactylopius eucalyp)ti, Maskell, 1891, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxiv., p. 35. The original description of this insect need not be here re- peated. Further notes regarding it will be found in vols, xxv., xxvi., xxvii. of the Transactions. I am satisfied now that the mentum is monomerous. Lachnodius lectularius, sp. nov. Plate XXL, figs. 12-19. Adult female dark -red or reddish -brown, elliptical, very convex, distinctly segmented; length averaging about ^in., but some specimens seen reach almost 4in. The twig be- neath the insect is usually somewhat swollen and widened, and also hollowed out, forming a bed for the insect. The margin is generally somewhat flattened, but this is not noticeable in all specimens. The ventral surface is convex, filling the hollow in the twig, but at gestation the insect be- comes itself hollow, and the under-surface then appears as if honeycombed, from the numerous wrinkles formed by the shrinking of the ventral epidermis. Antennae of seven joints, Maskell. — On CoccidaB. 401 of which the third is much the longest, the fourth the next, then the second and first which are subequal, the fifth, sixth, and seventh the shortest and subequal, the seventh probably the shortest of all. Each joint bears some short fine hairs ; the first has also one and the second two much longer and thicker. Feet rather strong ; the coxa, trochanter, and femur rather thick ; the tibia about twice as long as the tarsus ; both tibia and tarsus are much wrinkled, and the tarsus is curved; claw moderate; all the four digitules are fine hairs. There are several short spiny hairs on each joint of the foot, and on the trochanter are two very long and thick. Eostrum small ; mentum monomerous, subcircular ; setae very short. The abdomen terminates in a curve without any appearance of anal tubercles, nor are there any special terminal hairs. Anal ring large, compound, bearing from twenty to twenty- four long strong hairs. The margin of the body has a series of long and strong spines set closely together ; each spine springs from a projecting tubular base, which is ringed. Epi- dermis bearing many short fine hairs, and near the cephahc and abdominal extremities are tvi^o curved series of stronger spiny hairs, about sixty in each. On the abdominal segments there are great numbers of very minute subcircular marks which seem hke the orifices of spinnerets, but of the twenty- five specimens observed none exhibited either cotton or wax. In some specimens there are two strong short conical spines set close together between the antennae, but these are appa- rently not constant. Female of the second stage yellow or yellowish - brown, elliptical, convex, segmented; length about -Jin. Antennae of six joints, which are proportionately thicker than in the adult ; of these the third is much the longest. Feet, mar- ginal spines, and anal ring as in the adult ; but instead of one pair of strong conical spines there are many such pairs — apparently twenty-four in all. Larva yellow, subcircular or broadly elliptical, slightly tapering posteriorly ; length about g^in. Antennae short, thick, with six subequal joints. Margni bearing a series of strong conical spines set closely together ; these are propor- tionately shorter than those of the adult, but their points are produced into very long fine threads forming a delicate fringe. Hah. In Austraha, on Eucalyptus rostrata. Mr. French has sent me a number of specimens, and says, " It does great damage to young trees at Mooroopna, Goulburn Eiver, Victoria." L. lectularius may be distinguished from both the preced- ing and the following species by the much longer marginal spines both in the adult and the larval stages. From L. 2C> 402 Transactions. — -Zoology. hirtus it likewise differs in its very much slighter dorsal pubescence. I am not prepared to say that in its natural state it may not produce some cotton, although none of my specimens has any. I find I have omitted to say that the adult male and the male pupa are unknown. Lachnodius hirtus, sp. nov. Plate XXII., figs. 1-9. Adult female dark-purple, but covered with a quantity of very short white filaments rising from the dorsal hairs, so that the general appearance is grey ; form subglobular ; diameter about lin. or ^in. before gestation. Dorsum covered with great numbers of short but rather strong brown hairs, which give it a woolly appearance. Antennae of seven joints, of which the third is the longest, then the fourth and second, next the first, and the last three are the shortest and equal ; the last joint is not elongated. All the joints bear a few hairs, the last having several. Feet long and strong ; coxa, trochanter, and femur large and thick ; tibia cylindrical, three times as long as the tarsus, and bearing on the inner edge several strong spines and at the tip two spurs ; tarsus short and thick, with two slender spines on the inner edge ; claw short and broad. There are no digitules either on the tarsus or on the claw. The anogenital ring has about twenty hairs. The mentum is large and monomerous. The abdominal ex- tremity is rather truncate, and there are no anal tubercles ; but two of the hairs on the extreme margin are a little longer than the rest. Second stage of the female not observed. Larva reddish- or yellowish -brown, active, elongated, tapering posteriorly ; length about ^^gin. Abdomen ending in two very minute anal tubercles, each bearing a long seta. Antennae of six rather thick joints, of which the third and the sixth are the longest ; on the last joint are several hairs, of which one is much longer than the rest. Feet long and rather slender ; tibia rather more than half as long as the tarsus ; claw very small and slender. There are four digi- tules, all of which are fine hairs. The dorsum is covered with many fine hairs, and on the margin there is a row of strong spines, of which the two which are between the anal tubercles are double. The male pupa is covered by a white cylindrical sac of white cotton, about ^in. long. The enclosed insect has not been observed. Adult male unknown. Hab. In Australia, on Acacia sp. My specimens are from Mr. Froggatt ; I beheve the locality to be Thornley, near Sydney. As, however, the adult female is quite apt for Maskell. — On Coccidae. 403 Avandering there will probably be many plants and places where it may be found. The excessive pubescence and the strongly spined and spurred tibia will distinguish this species. Genus Sph^rococcus. Sphserococcus inflatipes, Maskell, var. simplicior, var. nov. Adult female occupying a small depression in the bark, and covered by a flattish subcircular test, which is scarcely raised above the bark, and, being of the same substance and colour, is very inconspicuous, seeming as if only a small blister. Adult female of the general form of the type, subcircular, slightly depressed dorsally and slightly convex ventrally ; diameter about ^^in. dorsally. The antennae are much more atrophied than in the type, the joints being quite confused, and the whole organ appearing more tubercular. The two anterior pairs of feet are also much smaller than in the type, being, indeed, in some cases scarcely to be made out ; the large and long posterior pair, on the other hand, are perhaps a little more exaggerated than those of the type, and the claw is much more distinct. The dorsal region bears, as in the type, very great numbers of small oval markings and very short fine hairs, but instead of a ring of strong spines en- circling the whole there are only about six at the posterior extremity, with three or four much smaller ones at each side of them. The ventral hairs and orifices are as in the type. This variety is distinguished by the very inconspicuous test, by the smaller antennge and anterior feet, aiid by the differ- ence in the dorsal spines. Hab. In Australia, on Eucalyptus vlminalis. Specimens sent by Mr. French from Melbourne. These specimens were accompanied by numbers of Asjjidiotus eucalypti, var. comatus (of this paper) ; and in examining a twig it is necessary to carefully distinguish the puparia of the Aspidiotus from the tests of the Sphcsrococcus. SphserocoGcus obscuratus, sp. nov. Plate XXII., figs 10-17. Adult female covered by a swelling of the bark of the tree, which is frequently much coated with black fungus, and is very inconspicuous. On lifting off the bark the insect is seen lying on the wood in the cavity ; sometimes it is partially or almost wholly enclosed in the exuviae of the second stage, sometimes the upper portion of the exuviae is lifted away with the bark and the lower half forms a cushion on which the insect rests. 404 Transactions. — Zoology. Adult female dull-red or yellowish-red or brownish, globular or subellipticai ; diameter about ^V^^^- Abdomen distinctly segmented. Antennas variable; in some species they are almost if not quite wanting, being reduced to a mere tubercle ; in others they are short and swollen, with very con- fused joints (three? or six?) difficult to separate. Feet en- tirely absent. Mentum distinctly biarticulate, rather large,, and bifid at the tip. There are four large thoracic spiracles,, each surrounded by a ring of circular glands. The epidermis bears many small simple circular spinneret-orifices ; and on the last three abdominal segments are some larger orifices. Ano- genital ring small, simple, hairless. The whole body is much wrinkled ; and on the dorsal abdomen there are four very strong transverse chitinous bands, broad in the middle and tapering to points at the ends ; the outer margin of each band is smooth, the inner bearing on each side from four to eight conspicuous crenulations. On the cephalic and thoracic mar- gins are some short spines. The female of the second stage is circular, flattish dorsally and ventrally, or subglobular ; diameter about -oV'^-' t)eing thus rather larger than the adult. The colour is a dull- yellow or grey. The rostrum and mentum are large ; the antennae nearly completely atrophied. Feet absent. The abdominal region has not been accurately observed, but I see no trace of chitinous bands. Larva subellipticai, flattish, active ; length about -j/gin. Abdomen ending in two conspicuous protruding anal tubercles bearing spines and setae. Antennae of six rather thick and somewhat confused joints, of which the fourth and fifth are the shortest. Feet also rather thick ; all the four digitules are fine hairs. In its later state the larva becomes more elongated. Male pupa enclosed in a felted, yellowish, cylindrical sac which has a small orifice at the posterior end ; length of the sac about -^V^- -'■ h^-ve not observed the pupa itself. Adult male unknown. A minute scarlet Gamasid mite, about i^o^^- ^^^ length, is very active in the burrows of this Coccid. I do not know how far it may be occupied in feeding on the SphcBrococcus , but possibly the difficulty which I have found in getting any quite complete specimen of the second stage may be due to the action of this mite. I have not observed any eggshells in the cavities examined, though the insect is not, as far as I can make out, viviparous ; and this again may be due to the appetite of the Gamasid. Hab. In Australia, on Acacia longlfolia and on Eucalyptus ohtusiflora. Specimens on both plants have been sent by Mr. Froggatt from Hornsby, near Sydney. Maskell. — On Coccidae. 405^ This species, in the wrinkled abdomen and the transverse markings, approaches both to S. hamhusce, Mask., 1892 (Sand- wich Islands), and to S. melaleucce, Mask., 1893 (Austraha) ; but it is very clearly distinct from both. The broad and con- spicuous chitinous bands are a quite distinctive character. Genus Iceeya. Icerya nudata, sp. nov. Plate XXIII., figs. 1-6. Adult female yellowish-red in the anterior regions and brick-red on the abdomen ; covered with thin white meal, but not forming any ovisac. Body very thick, with a convex •dorsum and swollen ventral region ; the dorsal and ventral portions are separated by a lateral ridge. Antennse of ten joints, of which the last, the first, and the third are the longest, then the second and fourth, the rest shorter and equal ; a few hairs on all the joints, and on the tenth are four much longer than the others. Feet black and rather strong; all the joints, coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia, and tarsus bear ■on the inner side numerous rather strong spines ; the tarsal and, as a rule, never afterwards moves from its position. In * Signoret thinks that perhaps there may be two or three " invisible " veins in the forewing. t Westwood (Introd. to Mod. Class, of Ins., vol. ii., p. 442) says, " promuscis 2-jointed " ; but it seems clear that he did not distinguish the mentum. See his figure 118, 4. I Westwood (loc. cit.) says, " Abdomen neither tubercled nor corni- culate"; surely an error. He likewise says of the feet — "ungues two," but in his figure he shows three. Maskell. — On Aleurodidae. 417 this stage the differentiation of species can be fairly com- menced. In general form and outHne there is httle distinc- tion, the larvae being (as far as is at present known) always elliptical and flatfish ; but in the colours, in the character of the secretions and fringes, in the arrangement, or the absence of hairs, spines, pustules, or other features, it is possible to note clearly enough the specific differences, as will be seen from the descriptions and figures given in this paper. Gene- rally, in the ea.rliest form of the larva, it is simply a thin, flattish, elliptical, motionless object in which no trace of organs is visible with the exception of an orifice near one extremity, which in this paper I term the " vasiform orifice," and of which I shall speak more particularly presently. As the larva grows, indications of the rostrum appear, and still later rudiments of feet and antennae may be faintly traced. According to the two authors mentioned above, the larva remains in this state only for about a fortnight, and then, without change of position or discarding of its envelope, passes into the pupa stage. This is the view adopted by most writers on the family, and it seems to be, as a general rule, correct ; so that there is extreme difficulty in recognis- ing, except perhaps by size, the difference between a late larva and a pupa, and most authors seem to speak indiscriminately of both, under the names of "early larva," "adult larva," "nymph," &c., these stages being apparently usually dis- tinguished by the more or less definite outlines of the rudi- mentary feet and antennae. In 1889 (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxii.) I pointed out that in Alenrodcs asplenii, otherwise sufficiently normal as regards tlie question here referred to, it is possible to differentiate the larva from the pupa by reference to the secreted waxy fringes. Still, as a rule, it may, perhaps, be admitted that in this family the typical larva passes nearly imperceptibly into the pupa stage. But I am able in this paper to report some species {e g., A. floccosa, A. piperis, &c.) in which the larva is clearly distinct from the pupa, and in its metamorphosis discards its envelope, the exuviae remaining attached to the pupa-case. In these species I am unable to detect any rudimentary organs in the larva. It is possible that at a future time it may be thought necessary to create a new genus, or perhaps a sub-genus, for the species which thus depart from the usual rule. I report in this paper only four of these ; but others may hereafter be found. However, at present I shall not separate them. In only one of the four {A. j^ij^Gris) have I yet seen the adult form, and that does not seem to present any remarkable features. The pupa-case, as remarked above, in the normal state 27 418 Transactions. — Zoology. may be distinguished from the "late larva" principally by its size. But it happens not unfrequently that there are other characters which may be employed. Colour may be to some extent considered, and in many cases the pupae can be recog- nised by their darker tinge. As a rule, also, the rudimentary feet and antennae are in this stage much more distinctly visible, although sometimes (e.g., A. barodensis, A. limhata, &c.) the very dark colour prevents this. Again, sometimes the fringes or hairs of the larva are absent from the pupa {e.g., A. asplenii, A. cotcsii), or the arrangement of the hairs or w-ax may differ {e.g., A. hirsuta). On the whole, it is not difficult to decide whether a specimen is a larva or a pupa, though there are exceptions; of course, there can be no doubt in those cases where the larval exuviae are seen on the dorsum of the pupa. I may here remark, in passing, that, as far as my experience goes, the Aleurodidce differ from other Homoptera in being always on the under-surface of leaves. Coccidcs and PsijllidcB are found indiscriminately on leaves or twigs, and often on both upper and lower surfaces of a leaf; but I have never seen an Aleurodes except on a leaf, on the lower side — -I mean, of course, a larva or a pupa. It remains to speak of an organ which is quite charac- teristic of this family, and which, more or less modified, is visible in every stage of growth after the egg. Viewing an Aleurodid larva or pupa with the naked eye, or with a lens of low magnifying-power, it is scarcely possible to distinguish it from a Coccid, especially of the section Lccanince, especially if, as sometimes happens {e.g., A. dccipiens), there is a cleft in the abdominal extremity. But on applying a greater magnifying- power it is observed that, whereas in a Lecanid there are two minute subconical lobes visible on the abdominal dorsum, tliere is seen in an Aleurodid a minute orifice, more or less elliptical or subconical posteriorly, and more or less depressed, or even slightly convex, anteriorly. This orifice is partially closed by a plate which is hinged on the anterior edge of the orifice, but does not extend altogether to the posterior edge. No author known to me has entered into any details regarding this organ ; and yet, as it is persistent in one form or another from the earliest larval stage to the latest adult state, and is entirely characteristic of the family, it may be well to eluci- date it as far as possible. Signoret merely remarks that in the adult there is on the last abdominal segment "a kind of elongated tubercle of varying shape, apparently allied to the cornicles of ^^/ws " ; but he does not say anything about its presence in the earlier stages. I have not found any other author who pays particular attention to this organ except Mr. E. T. Lewis (Journ. of Quekett Micr. Club, 1895), who Maskell. — On Aleurodidffi. 419 mentions it, and gives figures of it on the adult only ; and Mr. J. W. Douglas, wlio, in the Entomologists Monthly Magazine, 1891, figures the organ on the pupa of A. ruhicola. I have in this paper noted carefully what seem to be specific variations in this organ, believing it to be quite a valid differentiating character. It consists of three parts. First, an orifice in the dorsal surface of the abdominal region, to which I have given the name of the " vasiform orifice," from its general outline. Secondly, a plate hinged upon the anterior edge of the orifice, which I call the " operculuiai," and which does not entirely cover the orifice. Thirdly, a more or less slender, subcylindrical, tongue-like tube, which I call the "lingula," and of which the length varies consider- ably, being sometimes shorter than the operculum {A.fodiens), sometimes very much longer {A. decipiens). In the adult stage the lingula, as a rule, does not project when at rest, the w^hole organ then appearing as a simple open tubercle on the abdominal dorsum; but in some species {e.g., A. asparagi, and in all probability A. decipiens) it protrudes as a con- spicuous cylindrical tongue. The lingula also very frequently bears some fine hairs or setse, varvins from extremelv minute to considerably long ones. I strongly incline to the belief that this organ is con- cerned with the secretion of "houeydew." The AleurodidcB do not seem to produce this substance in such quantities as the Coccidce and the Aphididce, and the leaves which they attack are therefore usually less subject to be covered with black fungus than is the case with those families ; but they do produce some. For example, Messrs. Kiley and Howard, in Insect Life, 1893, p. 316, observe of A. cocois, "The upper surface (of a leaf) is frequently attacked by a smut-fungus which is developed on the honeydew thrown down from the under-sides of the leaves above. The honeydew attracts numerous ants." In my paper " On the Honeydew of Coccida and the Fungus accompanying these Insects" (Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1886, p. 41), I drew special attention to this secretion and to the blackening of the leaves by it, and I described and figured an organ which I had actually seen employed in the production of honeydew in the species Gtenochiton elceocarpi. That species belongs to the Coccid section Lecanince, and in that section, on the abdoininal dorsum, there are always pre- sent two subtriangular projecting lobes, from between and beneath which the tubular organ just mentioned was pro- truded whilst I was watching the specimen. I am convinced that the "lingula" of Aleurodes is homologous with the honeydew organ of Gtenochiton, and that its function is the production of honeydew. In a letter to me respecting A. asparagi Mr. Lewis tells 420 Transactions. — Zoology. me that he is mformed that " something analogous [to the hngula] is found in certain Coleoptera adjacent to the genera- tive organs, and that they are regarded as of the nature of palpi." But I think that the explanation which has just been given will be nearer the truth. As regards the waxy secretions of the Aleurodidce, I may say that, in my experience, they never take the form of solid homogeneous plates, as in some Coccida. Often, when an Ale^irodes pupa is lifted from a leaf, a ring of wax is left behind, and to the naked eye appears rather solid ; but on close examination it is seen to be composed of adjacent tubes. The marginal fringes and dorsal wax of larvse and pupae are also not solid. On the other hand, I think they scarcely reach the same degree of fineness and " fluffiness " as the secretion, say, of some DactylojJtdce or Acanthococcidce, which seems really like soft cotton. In chemical composition, doubtless, the secretion of an Aleurodid will not differ from that of a Coccid. Amongst the species described in this paper, A. croceata has the most solid-looking marginal wax ; but even in that close observation will detect a tubular structure. This fact arises from the character of the margin in the larva and pupa. The figures which I give show that the margin is never quite entire, but presents a " crenulated " appearance, more or less conspicuous. The " crenulations " are merely the extremities of cylindrical tubes closely adjacent, eacli of which has the function of secreting wax, and this wax, there- fore, necessarily preserves the form impressed upon it at its origin. It does not necessarily follow that a crenulated margin always carries a fringe; for example, A. hirsuta has deep crenulations but no fringe. A curious illustration of my remark just now, that the Aleurodida affect only the under surfaces of leaves, and never (or scarcely ever) the upper surfaces, and therein differ from other Homoptera, has been furnished to me since this paper was vrritten. Mr. C. Musson sent me, from the Kurrajong Hills, in New South Wales, some leaves of Syncarpia lauri- folia which were covered with numbers of very deep pits on the upper surfaces, the other sides being pressed out into con- spicuous elevations. Examining these with a lens, I found in each pit what seemed to be an Aleurodid pupa, looking dor- sally very much like that of A. melicyti. When, however, I extracted one of these, I found that the rudimentary feet and antennae were not enclosed in the pupa-case, but were very dis- tinctly free and active (the ventral surface of the insect being exceedingly convex) ; and on examination, under the micro- scope, no trace appeared of any vasiform orifice. Further, the extremity of each foot was furnished with a fan-shaped pad beneath the two claws. It was clear, therefore, that I Maskell. — On Aleurodidas. 421 had to do \Yith a Psyllid, and not with an Aleurodid, a fact of which I had originally some suspicion when I saw the insects on the upper instead of the under surface of the leaf. But the very great dorsal similarity, at first sight, to an Aleurodid showed the necessity of much care before arriving at a decision. A paper on AleurodidcB would be incomplete without some notice of the means available for destroying these injurious insects, or at least minimising then- effects. They are very closely allied to the Coccidce, and derive their nourishment from plants in the same way — through their rostral tubes ; and a similar mode of combatting them will be available for both families. The most successful plan will therefore be, as for CoccidcB, applications of kerosene emulsion in the form of spray. I see no reason why the formula used against Coccids should not be e;ood asrainst Aleurodids. That formula is as follows : Take of common soap, |^lb. ; kerosene, 2 gallons ; soft water, 1 gallon. First dissolve the soap in the water, heated to boiling, then add the kerosene, and churn the mixture until a creamy fluid results, which thickens on cool- ing. Dilute with nine or ten (or, for tender plants, twelve to fourteen) times the quantity of water. Apply in the form of the finest possible spray by using one of the different kinds of "cyclone " nozzle, in dry, and preferably cloudy, weather, re- peating the dose after about ten days. The foregoing formula was recommended by me several years ago in my " Scale-Insects of New Zealand," and I have not seen any reason since to change it. The process just mentioned is intended for the larval and pupal states of AleurodidcB, and will undoubtedly require some care on account of the habit (already noted) of these insects to attach themselves almost, if not quite, exclusively to the under-sides of leaves, where it is, of course, difficult to get at them. In the case of such trees as orange, or tall plants like sugar-cane, the trouble is less than with low-growing plants such as tomato, cabbage, or tobacco. Still, the spray may be made to reach even these satisfactorily. When the Aleurodids are in their adult stage they may be treated like Aphides on roses or other plants, and tobacco- water, or soapsuds, or the well-known " Gishurst compound " may be used. If not over too large an area, advantage may be taken of their habit of rising on the wing in numbers when the plant is disturbed, and then after a few minutes settling again. While in the air they may be easily caught, some- times in hundreds, in an ordinary entomological net, and destroyed. 422 Transactions. — Zoology. Genus Aleukodes, Latreille. Insects attacking plants, oviparous ; metamorphosis incom- plete ; fixed in the earlier stages to leaves, free and active in the adult stage, when they usually have a habit of rising in a cloud when disturbed and settling again after a short time. Adults of both sexes having four wings, which are usually floury, and may be immaculate or spotted or patched. Antennae of seven joints. Eyes reniform (or more seldom divided), the anterior segment the smallest; two small simple ocelli be- tween the eyes. Mouth-parts consisting of a conical or sub- conical protruding rostrum, at the end of which are three tubular suctorial setae, and beneath the rostrum is an elongated subcylindrical free mentum ; the mouth and digestive organs are present m both adult sexes. First two joints of the an- tennge small and simple ; remaining joints long, slender, and numerously ringed ; the last joint terminates in two minute spines. Feet long and slender, none of the joints being much thickened; tibia usually about twice as long as the tarsus; tarsus two-jointed, ending with three claws, of which the me- dian is small and spiny. Abdomen in both sexes bearing dorsally on the last segment a more or less tubercular (honey- dew) organ composed of an orifice, an operculum, and a lingula ; the lingula usually concealed, sometimes projecting. Genitalia terminal ; genitalia of female conical, more or less acute, divided into two sections, between which is the ovi- positor; genitalia of male forcipate, enclosing the penis. Wings exhibiting in each only a single median vein with one basal posterior branch; the wings are carried flat at rest. Pupse enclosed in more or less transparent chitinous cases of elliptical form, convex above, flat beneath. Eudimentary antennae, feet, and wings enclosed, and in many cases visible through the case. Rostrum and setae protruded. Pupa-case naked, or bearing hairs or spines, which may carry more or less of dorsal wax or meal ; margin composed of adjacent tubes, from the ends of which may be produced a fringe of waxy threads, varying in length and in solidity ; this fringe is sometimes replaced by a ring of wax more or less thick and elevated ; sometimes the fringe is entirely absent. On the abdominal dorsum is an (honeydew) organ similar to that of the adult, but usually less tubercular ; the lingula may }n-c- trude or be obsolete. Larvae elliptical, usually flat and thin ; sometimes enclosed in chitinous cases, which are discarded on changing to the pupal state. Organs in the earliest stage not usually recog- nisable, but becoming faintly visible with the growth of the insect. Dorsal abdominal organ as in the pupa. Maskell. — On Aleurodidas. 423 ' Eggs elliptical, with a short peduncle for attachment to the leaf. The relationship between Aleurodes and a Coccid of the section Lecanince, or a Psyllid of the section Triozince, is very noticeable in the earlier states ; and the principal character by which it can be distinguished is the vasiform orifice, which has its counterpart in a Lecanid in the abdominal lobes, and in a Triozid in the "anal ring" (see my paper on Psyllida, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1889). Another, but less conspicuous, difference is in the feet : in a Lecanid there is but a single claw, and in a Psyllid the two claws have beneath them a fan-shaped pad. The adult Aleurodes differs from Coccids in the possession of four wings in both sexes, and from Psyllids in the single median vein of both wings. For a reason of which I am not aware, the word " Aleu- rodes " has been treated by all authors as feminine. I have not thought it worth while io disturb the arrangement. 1. Aleurodes abutilonea, Haldeman. Journ. Araer. Soc. Sci. and Arts, 1850, 2nd ser., p. 108. 2. Aleurodes aceris, Geoffroy. Chermes aceris ovatus, Geoff., Hist. abr. des Insectes, 1764, p. 509; Aleurodes aceris, Barensprung, Zeit. fur Zool. Alton und Burm., 1849, p. 176 ; Bouche, Entom. Zeit. Stett., 1851, p. 108 ; Frauen- feld, Yerh. Zool.-Bot.-Gesellsch., Wien, 1866, p. 795; Siguoret, Ann. de la Soc. Entom. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 394. 3. Aleurodes aepim, Goldi. Mittheil, Schweitz. Entom. - Gesellsch., vh., 1886, p. 250. 4. Aleurodes asparagi, Lewis. Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, 1895, p. 88 ; Eep. EaHug Soc, 1893, p. 1. 5. Aleurodes asplenii, Maskell. Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1890, vol. xxii., p. 173. Yasiform orifice subconical ; operculum small ; lingula moderate, clavate. 6. Aleurodes avellanse, Signoret. Ann. de la Soc. Entom. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 385 ; Douglas, Ent. Mo. Mag., 1894, vol. XXX., p. 154. 7. Aleurodes banksiae, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXY. — 1. Larva brown, elliptical ; length about ^^-in. Margin dis- tinctly crenulated, but bearing no fringe. Abdominal seg- ments fairly distinct. Dorsum bearing, within the margin, a row of longish, strong spines, of which four, on the anterior region, extend beyond the margin ; also, on the anterior ■124 Transactions. — Zoology. thoracic region, six other spines in two rows ; the extremities of all these spines are dilated into three minute spicules. Vasiform orifice with regularly convex sides and end, the anterior edge concave ; operculum moderate, subcircular ; lingula obsolete. Pupa-case intense glossy black, flattish, elliptical ; length about ^V"- Abdominal segments moderately distinct. Margin crenulated, but less conspicuously than in the larva ; there is sometimes a small fragmentary waxy fringe. Dorsum bear- ing rows of short fine hairs in place of the strong spines of the larva. Adult form unknown. Hah. In Australia, on Banksia integrifolia and on Callis- temon linearis. My specimens were sent from Melbourne by Mr. C. French. 8. Aleurodes barodensis, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXV. — 2. Eggs orange - coloured, leather large, oval, pedunculated ; length about jJoin. The eggs and empty sliells are found in large numbers on the leaf. Larva dark-brown, becoming later almost black ; elon- gated elliptical ; slightly convex ; abdominal segments fairly distinct ; length about ^V^- Margin minutely crenulated, and bearing a short white waxy fringe, which is fi'equently very fragmentary or absent. Dorsum bearing, within the margin, a row of about thirty-two small simple circular pores ; within these is a transverse row of four on the anterior thoracic region, another transverse row of four on the anterior ab- dominal region, a longitudinal row of four on each side of the abdomen, and one on each side of the vasiform orifice. Vasi- form orifice subconical, the posterior extremity slightly pro- duced ; operculum short, rounded, subconical ; lingula cylin- drical at the base, afterwards widened, finally tapering, not quite reaching the edge of the orifice. Pupa-case very dark-brown or glossy-black; very elon- gated, elliptical, with sides nearly straight, the width only about one-third of the length. Dorsum sometimes slightly convex, sometimes flat, sometimes slightly concave ; ab- dominal segments indistinct. Vasiform orifice apparently as in the larva, but difficult to make out on account of the very dark colour of the case. Margin crenulated, and bearing a very elegant, long, snowy-white fringe of slender waxy cylin- drical tubes. There is frequently some white powdery meal on the dorsum, which probably bears pores as in the larva, but it IS most difiicult to detect them. The ventral surface is flat, brown ; the rudimentary organs are not distinct, owing to the dark colour. Adult form unknown. Maskell. — On Aleurodidae. 425 Hab. Ill India, on SaccJiaruvi officinale. My specimens were sent by Mr. Cotes, late of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, from Baroda. He informed me they were rather damaging to the sugar-cane in those parts. The very elongated form is distinctive, besides the black colour. 9. Aleurodes bergii, Siguoret. Ann. de la Soc. Entom. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 395. 10. Aleurodes brassicse, Walker. Catal. of Homopt. in Brit. Mus., p. 1092; Koch, Pflanzenlause, p. 326; Frauenfeld, Yerh. Zool.-Bot.-Gesellsch, Wien, 1867, p. 794; Douglas, Ent. Mo. Mag., 1895, vol. xxxi., pp. 68, 97. 11. Aleurodes caprese, Signoret. Ann. de la Soc. Entom. de Trance, Dec, 1867, p. 384. 12. Aleurodes carpini, Koch. Die Pflanzenliiuse, Aphiden, 1857, p. 395 ; Signoret, Ann. de la Soc. Entom. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 382; Douglas, Ent. Mo. Mag., 1895, vol. xxxi., p. 117. 13. Aleurodes cerata, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXVI. — 1. Larva yellow, flattish, elliptical, with a slight constriction near the posterior extremity; length about ^V^^- Dorsum hairless, but there are some scattered, extremely minute simple circular pores which produce a small quantity of white meal, and this sometimes rises into small lumps of felted threads. Margin thickened, formed of closely adjacent cylin- drical tubes, the ends of which form minute crenulations, from which springs a fringe of moderately long white wax. Vasi- form orifice subconical, with concave anterior edge and emar- ginate sides ; operculum regularly subelliptical ; lingula not quite reaching the end of the orifice. Pupa-case orange-yellow ; outline as in the larva, but rather more convex ; length about ^^^in. Dorsum hairless, but bearing many small simple circular pores, not set closely together : from these pores is produced a quantity of white w'ax much more plentiful and solid than in the larva ; some- times it forms only a thick, nearly homogeneous shell cover- ing the insect ; in other cases it is produced in several curling and irregular more or less cylindrical processes ; in others again several pupae are covered by one agglomerated mass. Margin as in the larva, and bearing a similar wdiite fringe, amongst the tubes of which are some slender threads longer than the fringe. On turning over the pupa-case the rudi- mentary organs are clearly visible. Adult form unknown. 426 Transactions. — Zoology. Hah. In New Zealand, on Fagiis menziesii. My speci- mens were sent by Mr. Eaithby, from Eeefton. This handsome form may be easily mistaken for a Coccid. It is typical of the family in this respect : that the pupa is dis- tinguishable from the larva principally by size and the larger quantity of waxy matter. 14. Aleurodes citri, Eiley and Howard (Ashmead). Insect Life, 1893, p. 219. 15. Aleurodes comata, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXVI. — 2. Eggs yellowish-brown, elliptical ; length about xfo^^^- ' peduncle rather short. Larva yellow ; somewhat thick, fiattish, regularly ellip- tical ; length about -s^in. Dorsum bearing four longish fine hairs, of which two are on the cephalic region and two close to the vasiform orifice. Margin entire, not thickened, bearing a row of rather long, strong hairs, sixteen on each side, and two shorter ones at the abdominal extremity. Eudimentary eyes dark-red, tubercular, may be made out. Vasiform ori- fice broad, short, subelliptical ; operculum short, transversely divided ; lingula obsolete. Pupa-case yellow ; elliptical; length about -0^1^- The dor- sal four hairs as in the larva, and there is usually a small quantity of dorsal white meal. Abdominal segments indis- tinct. Margin with wide, shallow crenulations ; marginal hairs as in the larva. Vasiform orifice, operculum, and lin- gula as in the larva. On turning over the pupa-case the rudi- mentary feet, antennae, &c., are clearly visible. Adult of general normal form ; length of body about ^^in. Head and thorax dark-yellow. Abdomen lighter yellow. Geni- talia brown. Wings narrow, grey ; nervure straight ; the basal branch very short, almost obsolete ; margins of wings minutely serratulate, each serration bearing a minute spine ; on the anterior edge of the hind-wing are four very fine hairs. The fore-wing bears four faint brownish patches difficult to dis- tinguish ; they form almost two transverse bands, but do not seem to meet at the nervure. Genitalia of male and female normal ; each arm of the forceps of the male beai'S a few short hairs. Hah. In Fiji, on a gramineous plant unknown to me. My specimens were sent by Mr. E. L. Holmes. This species may be distinguished by the marginal and dorsal hairs of the larva and pupa. Something similar may be seen in A. citri, Eiley and Howard, as figured in Insect Life, 1893, p. 219 ; but that species has four cephalic and four posterior long dorsal hairs ; its wings are innuaculate, and the adult male bears remarkable tufts of wax on the Maskell. — 0)1 Aleurodidie. 427 abdomen ; the serrations of the wing-margins are also dif- ferent. 16. Aleurodes corni, Haldeman. Journ. Amer. Soc. Sci. and Arts, 1850, p. 108 ; Signoret, x\nn. de la Soc. Ent. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 398. 17. Aleurodes cotesii, j\raskell, sp. nov. Plate XXVII. — 1. Larva yellow, the median region darker than the margin ; form elliptical ; length about 4^^^- ^^^ ^^^^ earliest state only very faint indications of the insect itself appear, and the whole is very thin and flat ; later on the enclosed future pupa begins to be visible, and the ventral surface becomes more convex ; the eyes also appear. The larval integument becomes too small for the growing insect, and splits longitudinally ; and in the early pupal state it may be seen attached along the dorsal edges of the pupa-case. Margins somewhat thickened, the adjacent tubes forming minute crenulations, and within it the dorsum bears numbers of very small circular pores ; from these and from the marginal tubes is produced a quantity of white waxy matter, some of which covers the dorsum in scattered patches, and the rest spreads out round the larva in a very long fringe of delicate threads, frequently much longer than the insect itself. This waxy matter is very brittle, and, as a rule, the whole surface of a leaf is powdered over with the fragments, making the leaf look as if mildewed. Pupa-case, in the earliest state, scarcely distinguishable from the late larva ; afterwards, as the insect grows, it be- comes much thicker. The form remains elliptical; the length reaches about -^qIH. The dorsal disk is slightly convex, flattened towards the margin ; it is larger than the ventral disk, and slightly overlaps the sides, which are vertical. The hollow thus formed is covered by a ring of thin white wax, and there is also a plate of wax beneath the ventral surface ; portions of this ring and of the plate are frequently seen amongst the long threads of the larva. The pupal margin is crenulated, but bears no fringe, and the dorsum has no pores or wax. The outline of the enclosed pupa may be made out indistinctly on the dorsum, and the rudimentary organs vent- rally on turning over the case. Vasiform orifice subconical, with regularly convex sides, the anterior edge concave ; oper- culum subelliptical ; lingula very short, not extending beyond the operculum. Adult form unknown. Hab. In India, on Bosa. My specimens were sent by Mr. Cotes, late of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. They came from Quetta, Beluchistan. I have named the species after him. The overlapping of the sides by the dorsal disk of A. cctesii 428 Transactions. — Zoology. is found also in a New Zealand species, A. fagi, Maskell, 1889 ; bat that insect has no fringe, and the margin bears twenty-four hairs. 18. Aleurodes croceata, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXVTI.— 2. Larva light-brown, thin, flattish, elliptical ; length about -g^oin. Dorsum bearing two spines on a level with the rostrum, but no others, nor any hairs. Margin deeply crenulated, truncate at the posterior extremity, where there are two rather long setae. Fringe absent, or very fragmentary. Pupa-case dull-black, elliptical ; dorsum convex ; length about oVii^- ; abdominal segments fairly distinct. Dorsum apparently without hairs or spines. Margins deeply crenu- lated, and surrounded by a mass of yellow wax, which is com- posed of slender tubes so closely adjacent as to be almost homogeneous ; this fringe is not flat, but has the internal edge elevated, so that the pupa-case looks raised up on a sloping yellow ring. Vasiform orifice small, subcorneal, with a very convex anterior edge ; operculum nearly covering the orifice ; lingula short, subcylindrical. Adult form unknown. Hab. In Australia, on Sti/jyJielia (Monotoca) cUijjtica. My specimens were sent by Mr. Froggatt, from Botany, near Sydney. The sloping yellow waxy ring will readily distinguish this sjiecies in the pupal state. This ring is so nearly homogene- ous that it looks quite glassy and solid. 19. Aleurodes decipiens, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXVIII. — 1. Larva yellow, with often a pinkish tinge ; elongated ellip- tical, the width about two-fifths of the length ; dorsum slightly convex ; length about xV^- Faint indications of the future pupa may be discerned. Dorsum hairless, but covered with great numbers of rather conspicuous though not much elevated pustules, which are larger towards the mai'gin than on the median region. Margin slightly thickened, composed of ad- jacent tubes whose ends form crenulations, from which spring short curling cylinders of wax usually not set closely together. Abdomen distinctly cleft from the vasiform orifice to the pos- terior margin, where there is a short seta on each side of the cleft. Vasiform orifice conical, very much elongated, the anterior edge concave, sides emarginate, nearly one-half the length of the cleft ; operculum subcircular ; lingula excessively long, but not extending beyond the orifice, cylindrical at the base, then somewhat dilated, then tapering to a point where there are two rather long setae ; the dilated portion of the lingula is covered with very minute dots, which may perhaps be fine hairs. Maskell, — On Aleurodidse. 429 Pupa-case not observed with certainty, but amongst several larvae on the leaves sent there is one pupa which may possibly belong to this species. It is yellow, elliptical, liattisb; length about oV^- 'y i^i^rgin and marginal cylinders as in the larva. Dorsum covered with great numbers of pustules, smaller and less conspicuous than those of the larva, and bearing also six short spin}^ hairs, one on each side of the rostral region, one on each side of the thoracic region, and one on each side of the vasiform orifice ; also eight transverse rows of minute circular pores on the cephalic and thoracic regions. The abdomen is distinctly cleft, and there are two short seta? at the posterior extremity. But the vasiform orifice diifers from that described above : it is subcircular, with a concave anterior edge ; operculum rhomboidal ; lingula very short, not extend- ing beyond the operculum. The rudimentary antennae and feet may be made out with moderate clearness. Adult form unknown. Hah. In Australia, on Styplielia (Monotoca) ellvptica. My specimens were sent by Mr. Froggatt, from Botany, near Sydney, in company with A. croceata. The principal feature of the larva of this species is its remarkable resemblance to a Coccid of the section Lecanina. At first sight the abdominal cleft seems to point directly to a Lecanium, and the characters of the dorsum and the margin might also be Lecanid; but an examination of the very peculiar vasiform orifice and its lingula shows that it is clearly Aleurodid. I have thought it well to indicate by the specific name the de- ceptive nature of the general appearance. If the pupa above described belongs to A. dccipiens, it will be exceptional from being smaller than the larva ; as for the differences m the dorsal hairs and vasiform orifice, they may be unimportant. 20. Aleurodes dubia, Hegeer. Beitrag zur Naturges. der Ins., 1859, p. 14; Signoret, Ann. de la Soc. Entom. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 392. 21. Aleurodes erigerontis, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXVIIL— 2. Larva not observed. Pupa-case pale-yellow, flatfish, elliptical ; length about ■Jjin. Abdominal segments moderately distinct. The en- closed pupa is brownish, and faintly discernible dorsally ; on turning over the case the rudimentary feet and antennae may be made out, but confusedly. Margin composed of slender tubes, giving it a fluted appearance, their ends forming minute crenulations ; it bears a short fringe of white, straight cylin- ders of wax, which is frequently very fragmentary. Dorsum hairless, but exhibiting within the margin a row all round of 430 Transactions. — Zoology. small tubercular papillae, set rather closely together ; from these spring moderately long, curling, white waxy cylinders, which are extremely brittle, and therefore frequently broken off. "Within this series the dorsum has eight large circular orifices, two on the cephalic, four on the thoracic, and two on the abdominal regions. Yasiform orifice elongated, conical, with emarginate sides, and a deeply bifid apex ; operculum elongated, conical, with emarginate sides, and end rounded ; lingula moderate, extending a little beyond the operculum, its outer end clavate and emarginate. Eyes red, reniform ; after treatment with reagents they appear fluted at the base. Adult form unknown. Hab. In Mexico, on Erigeron sp. My specimens were sent by Mr. T. D. A. Cockerell. This species is closely allied to .4. nicotiance, described below ; but differs in the number and arrangement of the large dorsal orifices, in the vasiform orifice, and in the absence of lateral depressions. 22. Aleurodes eugenise, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXIX.- — 1. Larva dull-white or grey, or slightly yellowish ; form roundly elliptical, the anterior edge very shghtly compressed; dorsum scarcely convex; length about J^jii^i- Dorsum marked with very delicate radiating striae. Margin without either fringe or hairs, and not at all thickened, but finely fluted and minutely crenulated. Three marginal depressions and radiating dorsal patches as described below in the pupa. Pupa-case very pale yellow, or greyish ; dorsum very slightly convex; form roundly elliptical or subcircular ; length about Jfyin. as a rule, but reaching J^in. The enclosed pupa is conspicuous dorsally, dark-brown, the segments fairly dis- tinct ; on turning over the case the rudimentary feet may be made out rather confusedly, and the antenna more faintly. Dorsum of the ease marked with radiating striae, more clear than those of the larva : these striae are most conspicuous near the margin, which is not at all thickened, nearly entire, but marked with narrow but deep channels dividing it into broad segments. At three points in the margin there are small concave depressions, one at each side opposite the rostrum, and one at the abdominal extremity. Corresponding with these, on the dorsum, are three very faint radiating dotted patches : when viewed by transmitted light, these patches are seen to be formed of a lace-hke pattern, with small irregular cells, and at their extremity they end in a circular orifice deeply crenulated ; the anterior pair extend from the rostrum to the margin, the posterior one from the vasiform orifice to the margin. Vasiform orifice with straight anterior edge, sides and end regularly convex ; operculum Maskell. — Oil Aleurodidae. 431 nearly covering the oritice, and of similar form ; lingula short, almost regularly cylindrical, scarcely extending beyond the operculum. There is no marginal fringe, nor are there any dorsal or marginal hairs. Adult form unknown. Hab. In India, on Eugenia jamholana. My specimens were sent by Dr. Alcock, Superintendent of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. From the great numbers on the leaves it would seem that the insect is injurious. They came from Poona. A short description of this insect was sent by me to Dr. Alcock for insertion in " Indian Museum Notes" ; but I have included it again here in order to note the distinctions W'hich separate it, firstly from A. eugenice, var. aurantii, next described, and secondly from A. citri (Ashmead), Eiley and Howard, Insect Life, 1893, p. 219. As to the first, my descriptions and figures will suffice. From A. citri the species differs in the entire absence of marginal and dorsal hairs in the larva and in the three radiating lace-work patches, of which no mention is made by Eiley and Howard, but which are con- spicuous characters of A. eugenice. This insect and its variety, with A. citri, A. melicyti, and others, may be placed in a series of which A. proletella, Linn., may be taken as the type. 'li. Aleurodes eugenige, Maskell, var. aurantii, var. nov Plate XXIX.— 2. Larva very pale-yellow, sometimes almost white ; form roundly elliptical, llattish ; length about ^^n. Dorsum stri- ated, but the striations are very faint, except near the margin. Margin not at all thickened, finely fluted and crenulated, bearing no hairs or fringe. There are three small marginal depressions and three dorsal patches, as in the pupa. Pupa-case very pale-yellow, roundly elliptical or sub- circular, flatfish and thin ; length about -^-^in., reaching some- times as much as ^Vn. The enclosed pupa is only faintly discernible dorsally, rather darker than the case, the abdo- minal segments moderately distinct; on turning over the case the rudimentary organs are less confused than in A. eugenia. Dorsum of the case very finely marked with radiating striae, which are a little more conspicuous near the margin. Margin not thickened, almost entire, divided by deep narrow channels into segments narrower than those of A. eugenics. There are three marginal depressions, two opposite the rostrum and one at the abdominal extremity, and three radiating patches terminating at these depressions ; the patches end (as in the type) in crenulated circular orifices, but are composed of great numbers of very minute circular pores or dots, which do not form a lace- work pattern. Vasiform orifice subtrapezoidal or 432 Transactions. — Zoology. subelliptical, broader than long ; operculum nearly fitting the orifice ; lingula very short, cylindrical with a dilated end, sometimes obsolete. Adult form unknown. Hab. In India, on Citrus aurantium. Mr. Cotes, late of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, sent me some orange-leaves from " North-west Himalayas," thickly covered with this insect. I attach this as a variety to A. eucjenice on account of the similarity in several respects, notably in the dorsal radiating patches, though it differs in some others. It has none of the marginal or dorsal characters of ^4. citri, Eiley and Howard. 24. Aleurodes fagi, Maskell. Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1889, vol. xxii., p. 175. 25. Aleurodes filicum, Goldi. Mittheil. Schweitz. Entom. Gesellsch., 1886, p. 247; Douglas, Ent. Mo. Mag., 1891, p. 44. 26. Aleurodes floccosa, Maskell, sp. nov., Plate XXX. — 1. Larvse and pupae covered, either singly or in colonies, with more or less of white flocculent matter. Larva dull -yellow, elongated elliptical; dorsum very slightly convex ; length about ^^^in. The tubes of the margin end in very minute crenulations, and bear a white, almost always very fragmentary, waxy fringe. The dorsum bears eight strong spines in pairs ; the three pairs on the cephalic, thoracic, and anterior abdominal regions are rather broadly lanceolate ; the pair close to the vasiform orifice are cylindri- cal. The larval exuviae are found, as described below, at- tached to the pupa-case. Pupa-case duil-yeilow, elliptical ; dorsum slightly convex ; the enclosed pupa brownish, moderately distinct; length about -J-g-in. to -gxi^n. ; the median region over the pupa is more con- vex than the margins. Margin composed of adjacent tubes forming conspicuous crenulations, which bear, besides the flocculent matter, a moderately long fringe of straight white waxy tubes. Dorsum bearing six long slender spines in pairs ; one pair is on the thoracic region, another pair close to the vasiform orifice, and a third pair near the abdominal extremity ; this last pair frequently bear a pencil of white wax (as shown in my figure). These spines are not lanceolate but cylindrical, with tubercular bases. The larval exuviae seem to be at- tached to the pupal dorsum by the two thoracic long spines, and as the larval and pupal colours are the same it is easy to mistake the lanceolate larval spines as belonging to the pupa. Maskell. — On Aleurodidae. 433 Vasiform orifice twice as broad as long, anterior edge concave, posterior edge nearly straight, sides rounded ; operculum short, broad, subelliptical ; lingula obsolete. Adult form unknown. Hub. In Jamaica, on Lignum vitm, in company with A. steUata (described below), which is frequently seen entangled in the flocculent mass of A. floccosa. My specimens were sent by Mr. Cockerell. The dorsal spines (differing in the larva and the pupa) will distinguish this species. Perhaps, when the adult is known, the insect may be found to be an Aleurodicus, in which genus A. anoncB, Morgan, and A. cocois, Curtis (also West Indian species), produce masses of flocculent matter. Clearly, how- ever, the organs which I have described separate A. floccosa from these two ; and I find no mention anywhere of the carry- ing in them of the larval exuviae on the pupal dorsum, surely an important character. 27. Aleurodes fodiens, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXX. — 2. Larva dull - yellow, flat, elliptical ; length about -V^^- Dorsum faintly striated transversely. Margin very minutely crenulated, and bearing no fringe or hairs. Pupa-case dull - yellow, flat, almost circular ; diameter about gLin. Enclosed pupa clearly discernible, of a darker colour than the case ; abdominal segments distinct. The case is marked with radiating striae, but there are no tubercles, hairs, or pores, nor any radiating patches. Margin slightly thickened, almost entire ; no marginal hairs or fringe. Vasi- form orifice subconical, anterior edge slightly concave, sides rounded, apex a little produced ; operculum subtrapezoidal, covering about half the orifice ; lingula very short, not extend- ing beyond the operculum, frequently obsolete. On turning over the case the rudimentary feet and antennae are clearly visible : in a late stage the eyes also become very distiiact. The pupse excavate rather deep pits in the surface of the leaf, on the under-side, just large enough to hold the case; on the upper side of the leaf there is a corresponding elevation. Adult form unknown. Hab. In New Zealand, on Drimys axillaris. My speci- mens \vere sent by Mr. R. Eaithby, from Reefton. The formation of pits in the leaf is characteristic of this species. In this proceeding it resembles the Coccid insect, Bhizococcus fossor, Maskell, 1883, which acts in a similar manner on Santaliim cunning haruii ; and the Aleurodes may very easily be mistaken at first sight for a Coccid. I have no idea of the manner in which this excavation is performed, or of the organs which may be employed in it. I have remarked on this point frequently in my papers on Coccida when refer- 23 434 Transactions. — Zoology. ring to several species of that family which burrow more or less deeply into leaves or twigs. 28. Aleurodes fragariae, Walker. List of Homopt. in Brit Mus., 1851, 1092; Signoret, Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 383. 29. Aleurodes fraxini, Signoret. Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de France, 1867, p. 386. 30. Aleurodes goyabse, Goldi. Mittheil. Schweitz. Entom. Gesellsch., 1886, vii., p. 248. 31. Aleurodes hirsuta, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXXI. — 1. Larva pale-yellow, very thin and fiat, elliptical ; length about ^'jin. Dorsum bearing about twenty-eight rather long slender spines, which may be considered as arranged in two series, one submarginal, the other median ; the extremities of these spines are dilated, and bear three very minute spicules. Margin distinctly crenulated, but the tubes are very indistinct ; there is no fringe ; there are three small marginal depressions, one on each side opposite the rostrum, and one at the abdominal extremity. Pupa-case pale-yellow ; elliptical, the cephalic region somewhat acuminate; length about o^oin. The marginal region is flat and thin, the portion covering the pupa con- siderably convex ; the enclosed pupa is clearly visible. The margin is as in the larva, with three depressions ; there is no fringe. The dorsum bears, just within the margin, a series of very long slender cylindrical spines, forty-eight in all ; there is a second series of about sixteen (eight on each side) following the base of the median convexity ; and a third of six or eight on the median region ; the ends of most of these spines are dilated as in the larva. Vasiform orifice roundly subconical, with slightly concave anterior edge ; operculum similar, nearly covering the orifice ; lingula apparently obsolete. Eudimentary feet and antennae indis- tinct. Adult form unknown. Hah. In Australia, on Acacia loiicjifoUa. Specimens sent by Mr. Froggatt, from Sydney. This species seems to approach A. pJiiilyrca, Haliday (Entom. Mag., 1835, p. 119), but differs in the absence of a waxy fringe, and in the arrangement and the length of the dorsal spmes. Signoret (Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 389) says of A. i)hillyrea that the " tubes of the fringe are so conspicuous as to make it difficult to see the spines, and it is only with a good light that these can be made out." This is certainly not the case with A. hirsuta. Maskell. — On AleurodidsB. 435 32. Aleurodes holmesii, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXXI.— 2. Larva dull-yellow, elliptical, flattish ; length about -^in. Margin thickened, almost entire, the crenulations being very- minute and confused. Dorsum bearing, on the thoracic region, six strong rather short spines ; of these, two are median, the four others submarginal. In the earliest state there is no fringe, but in the latest stage there is a fragmen- tary short fringe of vvhite wax. Pupa-case dull-yellow, rather lighter coloured than the larva ; form elliptical, flattish, and rather thick; length about Jvin. Abdominal segments moderately distinct. Dorsum bearing a submarginal series of strong short spines ; two of these on the cephalic region and four on the posterior ab- dominal region are large and conspicuous, the other eight (four on each side), on the thoracic region, are smaller. From these spines is produced a quantity of white waxy secretion, which is very fragmentary, often entirely absent ; it scarcely ever seems to completely cover the dorsum. Margin very dis- tinctly and conspicuously crenulated with large thick seg- ments ; these produce a fringe of closely-adjacent waxy tubes, which at first is flat, then becomes a rather thick ring or cushion, and at last becomes so thick as to raise the pupa somewhat high above the leaf, and then it seems as if resting on a very elegantly-fluted white wall ; vasiform orifice sub- elliptical, with concave anterior edge and broadly-rounded sides and end ; operculum broad and short, the posterior edge concave ; lingula very long, extended beyond the orifice, sub- cylindrical, with emarginate sides and compressed extremity, the end rugose, with four rather long and many very short setee or hairs. Adult form unknown. Hab. In Fiji, on Psidium sp. My specimens were sent by Mr. R. L. Holmes. The arrangement of the dorsal spines, and the peculiar lingula, will distinguish this species. 33. Aleurodes immaculata, Hegeer. Beitrag zur Naturges. der Insekt., 1855, p. 3 ; Signoret, Ann, de la Soc. Ent. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 390 ; Douglas, Ent. Mo. Mag., 1884, p. 215. 34. Aleurodes jelinekii, Frauenfeld. Verb, der Zool.-Bot. Gesellsch., Wien, 1867, p. 799; Signoret, Ann. de la Soc. Entom. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 393. 35. Aleurodes lacerdae, Signoret. Ann. de la Soc. Entom. de France, 1883, p. 63. 36. Aleurodes lauri, Signoret. Ann. de la Soc. Entom. de France, 1883, p. 68. 436 Transactions. — Zoology. 37. Aleurodes limbata, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXXII.— 1. Larva dark-brown, flat, elliptical ; length about yV"- Dorsum hairless. Margin crenulated, but without fringe. Pupa-case very dark-brown, or intense black, with the marginal region lighter coloured ; form elliptical ; dorsum convex ; abdominal segments indistinct ; length about g^in. There appear to be no dorsal hairs, but there are two spines, rather long, on the thoracic region. Marginal tubes ending in large and conspicuous crenulations, from which springs a very long fringe of white was ; the portion of the fringe nearest the case is reticulated, or lace-like ; the outer portion extended in long, slender, separate, wavy threads. Vasiform orifice elongated, subconical, with nearly straight anterior edge ; operculum about two-thirds as large ; lingula not certainly observed, but probably very short, if not obso- lete. The larval exuviae are commonly attached to the pupa- case by the two long dorsal spines. Adult form unknown. Hab. In Australia. Specimens were sent by Mr. Froggatt on Acocia loncji folia, from Sydney; and by Mr. C. Musson, on Lciicojyogon junifjerimts, from Kurrajong Heights. The lace-like arrangement of the fringe and the attach- ment of the larval exuvise to the pupa-case may be used together to distinguish this species. 38. Aleurodes lonicerae, Walker. Catal. of Homopt. in Brit. Mus., 1851, p. 1092; Koch, Pflanzenliiuse, 1857, p. 327; Prauenfeld, Verb, der Zool.-Bot. Gesellsch., Wien, 1867, p. 796; Signoret, Ann. de la Soe. Ent. de France, Dec, 1867, p 381 ; Douglas, Ent. Mo. Mag., Feb., 1896, p. 31. 39. Aleurodes melicyti, Maskell. Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1889, vol. xxii., p. 174. Vasiform orifice elongate, subconical, anterior edge slightly concave ; operculum subsemicircular, small ; lingula extending a little beyond the operculum, subcylindrical, the median part compressed, then rather dilated. The orifice and lingula approach those of A. riibicola, Douglas (Ent. Mo. Mag., 1891, p. 322, fig. 5), but the pupa differs considerably in many particulars. 40. Aleurodes nicotianae, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXXII. — 2. Larva pale-yellow, very thin, flat, subelliptical, with a de- pression on each side on the thoracic region, the abdomen tapering to the posterior extremity, where there are two rather long seta? ; length about gyn. Dorsum hairless. Margin not thickened, minutely crenulated ; there is no fringe, but a- few scattered very fine marginal hairs. Maskell. — On Aleurodidae. 437 Pupa-case yellow, the median region darkening as the pupa approaches its metamorphosis ; form elliptical, with four lateral depressions, two on each side (similar to those in the Goccld genus Lecani urn) ; length about /^in. Dorsum hairless, but bearing, just within the margin, a series of rather large tubercular pustules, subconical with an apical orifice, set somewhat closely together ; and from each of these springs a curling, white, cylindrical waxy tube extending beyond the margin : within this series are twelve other pustules — one, large, on each side of the cephalic region ; one, large, on each side of the thoracic region ; two, large, on each side of the anterior abdominal region ; one, large, on each side close to the posterior extremity ; and one, small, on each side of the vasiform orifice. From these last series of dorsal pustules exudes a thin, yellow, waxy matter, which seems to be very brittle; as it is generally only fragmentary. Margin slightly thickened, composed of slender closely-adjacent tubes ; there is only a very short fragmentary waxy fringe, although, as the dorsal waxy tubes extend beyond the margin, the case seems at first sight to be fringed ; at the posterior extremity there are two setae. Vasiform orifice sub-semi-elliptical, the anterior edge straight ; operculum similar, but about half the size ; lingula exten colour very dense dull -black. Dorsum minutely striated ; abdominal segments fairly distinct ; there are no dorsal hairs or spines. Margins very indistinctly crenulated, the crenulations very wide and shallow ; there is no fringe. Vasiform orifice small, serai- elliptical ; operculum covering about half the orifice ; lingula not observed with certainty, probably obsolete. Adult form unknown. 438 Transactions. — Zoology. Hah. In Australia, on Acacia j^ycnantha. My specimens were sent by Mr. French, from Melbourne. It is possible that this may be only a larger form of A. hanksice {ante), but the colour is much less glossy, and the margin differs slightly. 42. Aleurodes papillifer, Maskell. Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1889, vol. xxii., p. 173. Vasiform orifice semi-elliptical ; operculum small ; lingula broadly clavate. 43. Aleurodes phalaenoides, Blanchard. Insect. Voy. du Chih, de Gay, 1840, p. 319; Signoret, Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 399. 44. Aleurodes phillyrea, Haliday. Entom. Magaz., 1835, p. 119; Bouche, Entom. Zeit. Stett., 1851, p. 108; Sig- noret, kxm. de la Soc. Ent. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 388. 45. Aleurodes piperis, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXXIII. — 2. Eggs dark-yellow, elongate-elliptical, transversely striated; length about xi5ii^- Larva very dark-brown or black, very slightly convex, elliptical ; length about ^^jin. Dorsum bearing long, very black spines, of which four are on the cephalic, eight on the thoracic, and ten on the abdominal regions. Margin not thickened, but very distinctly crenulated. There seems to be no fringe. Pupa -case intense glossy black, slightly convex, with a median longitudinal ridge ; abdominal segments indistinct. Form elliptical ; length about -^^m. Dorsum bearing many long black spines, of which one series of from twenty to twenty- four are submarginal, the others scattered (seemingly about twenty, but very difficult to make out on account of the intense black colour) ; two of the spines, at the posterior ex- tremity, are longer than the others. Margin with veiy small crenulations ; there is a very short fringe of white wax, which in many specimens is not noticeable. Vasiform orifice broadly rhomboidal with rounded angles, anterior edge slightly con- cave ; operculum semi - elliptical, covering about half the orifice ; lingula short, roundly clavate. The larval exuviae are commonly seen attached by the dorsal spines to the pupa- case. The pupa extracted from its case is reddish-yellow, the rudimentary feet and antennae yellow, the rudimentary wings yellow with bands of dark-brown, the eyes dark-brown. Adult form with the thorax red, banded with brown ; the abdomen red ; genitalia brown ; feet and antennas darkish- Maskell. — On Aleurodidae. 439 yellow, tipped with brown. The antennae and feet are normal. Fore wings with three bands of dark-brown, of which the outer one does not quite reach the margin at the extremity. The genitalia do not exhibit any special features. Hah. In Ceylon, on Piper {nigrum ?). My specimens were sent by Mr. E. E. Green, from Punduloya. I know^ of no described species in which the larva and pupa have such strong black spines as this. The wings of the adult are not particularly distinctive, for those of A. sacchari, Mask., 1889, have quite similar bands. I have found it ex- tremely difficult to correctly distinguish the dorsal spines on the pupa ; and the vasiform orifice also presents much diffi- culty. 46. Aleurodes prenanthis, Schrank. Fauna Boica, 1801, u., 147 ; Signoret, Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de France, Dec, 1867, p. o99. 47. Aleurodes proletella, Linnaeus; A. cliclidonii, Latreille. Linn. Syst. Nat., p. — ; Latreille, Mag. Encycl., ii., p. 304 ; Eeaumur, Mem., vii. ; Westw^ood, Introd. to Mod, Class, of Ins., vol. ii., p. 443 ; Koch, Pllanzenlause, 1857 ; Frauenfeld, Verb, der Zool.-Bot. Gesellsch., Wien, 1867 ; Signoret, Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 378; Douglas, Ent. Mo. Mag., 1894, p. 40; ih., 1895. p. 68. 48. Aleurodes pulvinata, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXXIV.— 1. Larva not observed. Pupa-case dark-orange, with two broad lateral longitudinal bands of dark-brown, which do not touch the margin, and \Yhich denote the enclosed insect. Form roundly elliptical, the cephalic extremity sometimes slightly depressed ; dorsum slightly convex ; abdominal segments moderately distinct. Length about -^-Q\n. The dorsum bears, some distance within the margin, a series of twenty-two tubercular pores, glands, or spinneret orifices. Of these, four on the extreme cephalic region are small, with simple circular orifices ; the next two (one on each side), on a level with the rostrum, are large and conspicuous, consisting of a cylindrical tube with wide circular orifice ; the next four (two on each side) on the median thoracic region are rather small, but larger than the anterior cephaUc ones, and have circular multilocular orifices ; the next eiglit (four on each side) on the abdominal region are similar to the two large ones near the rostrum ; the last four (two on each side) near the abdominal extremity are about equal in size to the four on the cephalic region, and are simple. The margin is very finely striated, but not crenulated ; and for some distance wnthin it the dorsum 440 Transactions. — Zoology. is covered with great numbers of very small simple circular spinneret-orifices, but these do not extend to the median dorsal regions. There is no fringe, properly speaking, but all the organs just described produce secretion, as noticed presently. Vasiform orifice rather broader than long, the anterior edge slightly concave, the posterior edge broadly convex ; operculum small, coverhig about one-third of the orifice, with both edges concave, the anterior very deeply, the posterior less, depressed ; lingula very long, extending some distance from the orifice, roundly conical, v\'ith two rather long setae near its end. The spinneret tubes and orifices above mentioned secrete a large quantity of snow-white waxy threads closely felted, and also, scattered amongst these, several long straight glassy rods, which are very brittle ; these rods, when closely ex- amined, are seen to be very delicately fluted. The threads appear to be produced from the very numerous mmute spin- nerets, and the rods from the rows of larger tubes. It results from the absence of small spinnerets on the median dorsal regions that the pupa-case in those parts is uncovered ; con- sequently, it appears as if lying on a thick ring or cushion of cotton, from which fact I have derived its specific name. On turning over the pupa-case and dissolving the waxy matter, the rudimentary feet and antennae are clearly visible ; the feet are thick and short, the antennae rather long, slender, and in the latest stage numerously ringed. Adult form unknown ; but from the appearance of the rudimentary wings in a late pupa examined, which was almost on the point of emerging when it died, I believe that the fore- wings will be dark and banded witli dark-brown, or perhaps black. Hah. In Trinidad, West Indies. My specimens were sent by Mr. F. W. Urich. I think the plant is Jatropha sp. It has been necessary to be particular in describing and figuring the detads of spinnerets, &c., in this species, on account of its similarity in some respects to three West Indian insects: Aleurodicus anome, Douglas and Morgan; A. cocois, Curtis ; and A. ornatus, Cockerell. I have already, in my introductory remarks, mentioned that these and other authors employ frequently the term "larva" to denote indiscrimi- nately what I take to be both the larval and the pupal states. Now, first, as to colour : the "larva " of A. anor.oi is said to be "ochreous " ; that of A. cocois (as far as I can make out) is similar; that of A. ornatus is "grey." No author mentions dark longitudinal brown bands, such as those which are so conspicuous in A. pulvmata. What is much more important, in A. aiLonce Mr. Morgan gives fourteen " lateral infundibuli- form compound spinnerets " and " secreting glands" ; A. cocois Maskell. — 0)1 Aleurodidae. 441 (ap. Riley and Howard) has also foui-teen ; A. oniattis has glands "practically as in A. anoncB" ; but in A. imlvinata there are twenty-two of these organs. No author mentions minute dorsal spinnerets within the margin, such as those which are so extremely numerous in A. pulvinata; yet, as these appear to be certainly the producers of the ring of waxy threads, they are of importance. As regards the vasiform orifice and lingula, I find those of A. auoncB (which Mr. Morgan curiously terms the "anus, colon, and ilium") and those of A. cocois not greatly dissimilar; in fact, they may be said to be practically identical. These organs are not mentioned for A. ornatus. In the figure 41b of A. cocois (Ins. Life, 1893, p. 314) the lingula of the adult female is shown as protruding considerably from the abdomen ; probably this will also be the case in A. imlvinata. I believe that the wings of A. pulvinata will be not far removed from the darkly-banded ones of A. ornatus ; but in the face of the statement that the " larva " of that species is " grey," and in the absence of any further information, I shall not at present so identify the insect, nor shall I yet relegate it to the genus Aleiirodicus. 49. Aleurodes quercus, Signoret. Ann. de la Soc. Entora. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 384. 50. Alearodes ribium, Douglas. Ent. Mo. Mag., 1888, p. 265 ; 1889, p. 256. 51. Aleurodes rubi, Signoret. Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 382. 52. Aleurodes rubicola, Douglas. Ent. Mo. Mag., 1891, p. 322. 53. Aleurodes sacchari, Maskell. Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1889, p. 171. The vasiform orifice of this species is situated on a project- ing tubercle ; it is broader than long, with slightly concave anterior edge ; operculum covering nearly all the orifice ; lingula obsolete. 54. Aleurodes simplex, Maskell. Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1889, p. 175. The vasiform orifice in the pupa is elongate, subconical, with nearly straight anterior edge ; operculum small, scarcely covering a fourth of the orifice ; lingula extending a short dis- tance beyond the operculum, but not reaching the edge of the orifice, cylindrical, with the extremity slightly dilated and emarginate. The adult (unknown in 1889) is pale-yellow all over ; the 442 Transactions. — Zoology. wings are entirely immaculate, with minutely serrated mar- gins. Genitalia normal. The abdominal cleft and emarginate lingula of this species (especially the former) will distinguish it from A. ruhicola. 55. Aleurodes stellata, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXXIV. — 2. Larva light-brown, elliptical, flat ; length about eV^^- Margin minutely crenulated, but without a fringe. Pupa-case dark-brown, sometimes black; elliptical; very slightly convex, with a median longitudinal ridge ; length about ^^oin. Abdominal segments indistinct. Dorsum covered with white meal, which frequently becomes rather thick and solid ; this meal is secreted by dorsal pores, which it is not easy lo make out on account of the blackness of the case ; there seem to be two large ones on the cephalic region and two on the thoracic, also four smaller on the abdomen, and the whole dorsum is marked with very numerous minute dots, which may be orifices of spinnerets. The margin is conspicuously crenulated, and bears a long fringe of white waxy tubes, which become agglomerated into almost a solid plate ; these tubes are longer in some places than in others, so that the fringe presents the appearance of a star with usually about eight rays. Vasiform orifice small, roundly subconical, the anterior edge straight ; operculum subsemicircular, covering about half the orifice ; lingula obsolete. Adult form unknown. Hah. In Jamaica, on Lujnum vitce, in company with A. floccosa. Specimens from Mr. Oockerell. 56. Aleurodes spirsese, Douglas. Ent. Mo. Mag., 1894, pp. 73, 154. 57. Aleurodes stypheliae, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXXV. — 1. Eggs oval, yellow. Larva very dark-brown ; elliptical, flattish ; abdominal segments distinct ; length about ^^in. Dorsum bearing a few hairs. Margin very conspicuously striated and crenulated, with scarcely any, if any, fringe. When the larval exuviae are attached to the pupa-case the anterior edge is recurved, giving the larva a truncate appearance. Pupa-case very dark-brown, or glossy-black ; elliptical, with the abdomen rather tapering ; length about ^^pin. Dorsum convex, with a mediaii longitudinal ridge, and distmct abdominal segments. On the dorsum there are two long spiny hairs situated on the centre of the thoracic region ; and there are also some very minute pores in two rows on the abdominal segments ; from these pores is secreted some scanty and fragmentary white meal. Margin very conspicu- ously tubular and crenulated, and bearing a fringe of white Maskell.— 0/i Aleurodidae. 443 waxy tubes, which are frequently as long as the breadth of the pupa-case. The larval exuviae are almost always attached to the pupal dorsum by the two long hairs of the latter. Vasiform orifice with a concave anterior edge, the sides and end broadly rounded ; operculum large, with emarginate sides, almost covering the whole orifice ; lingula apparently obso- lete. Adult form unknown. Hah. In Austraha, on Styphelia (Monotoca) richei. My specimens were sent by Mr. C. French, from Melbourne, and by Mr. Froggatt, from Sydney. 58. Aleurodes T-signata, Maskell, sp. nov. Plate XXXV.— 2. Larva very dark-brown, or to the naked eye quite black ; eUiptical ; dorsum convex, with a longitudinal raised ridge and distinct abdominal segments; length about gV"- ^^® dorsum bears twenty-four large, thick spines, with blunt rounded ends — eight (in two transverse rows) on the cephalic region, four on the thoracic region, and twelve (in two longi- tudinal rows) on the abdomen ; between the four on the thorax are four smaller ones on the median region. These spines bear short curling tubes of white wax. Margin deeply crenulated, and bearing a short fragmentary white fringe. Pupa-case intense glossy black ; elliptical ; dorsum convex, with a median longitudinal ridge, which is broader and thicker than that of the larva ; length about o^gin. The cephalic extremity is very frequently acuminate. Dorsum bearing large spines which are arranged somewhat differently from those of the larva, those on the cephalic region forming a sub- marginal series instead of transverse rows. There are also more numerous small spinnerets — eight on the cephalic region, six on the thoracic, twelve on the abdomen, and two close to the vasiform orifice ; besides which, on the centre of the first abdominal segment, there are two large spines. There are thus forty-eight spinnerets (large and small) on the pupa, in- stead of twenty-eight as in the larva. Margin, very con- spicuously and deeply crenulated, and bearing a fringe of white waxy tubes, usually of some length, but the fringe is often fragmentary and sometimes quite broken off. Vasiform orifice small, subsemicircular ; operculum small, covering half the orifice ; lingula obsolete. At the abdominal extremity there are two moderately long hairs, and these hairs frequently carry a pencil of white wax longer than the fringe. The pupa, when extracted from its case, is yellow, with the divisions of the thorax and abdomen marked by darker colour ; the v/ings, eyes, feet, and antennae partly developed, the eyes reniform, dark-brown ; the whole is enclosed in a very thin translucent membrane which lines the pupa-case. 444 Transactions. — Zoology. Adult of normal form. The head and thorax are dark- brown, patched with yellow ; the abdomen is yellow, with the genitalia and the dorsal cornicle brown ; feet and antennae brownish-yellow. Antennae normal, witli seven joints. Feet long and slender ; claws normal. Forewings exhibiting four light-crimson patches— one small rhomboidal patch close to the anterior margin at about half its length ; a second, sub- rectangular, near the point of curvature of the anterior margin ; a third, of irregular shape, opposite the second, but not touching the posterior margin ; and a fourth, broadly T-shaped, the base of the T springing from the posterior margin at its most concave point. Genitalia of female sharply conical ; genitalia of male not observed. In the dorsal cornicle the lingula does not protrude, and is probably obsolete, as in the pupa. Hah. In Australia, on Acacia longifolia. My specimens were sent by Mr. Froggatt, from Botany, near Sydney. The very thick and strong spines of the larva and pupa distinguish this species from A. banksice, in which they are much more slender, though somewhat similarly arranged. 59. Aleurodes tinseoides {auctor ?). Signoret, Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 399. 60. Aleurodes vaccinii, Kiinow. Bntom. Nachricht., 1880, VI., p. 46 ; Douglas, Ent. Mo. Mag., 1880, p. 89 ; ib., 1889, p. 256. 61. Aleurodes vaporariorum, Westwood. Gard. Chron., 1856, p. 852 ; Frauenfeld, Verb, der Zool.-Bot. Gesellsch., Wien, 1867, p. 798; Signoret, Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de France, Dec, 1867, p. 387 ; Douglas, Ent. Mo. Mag., 1886, p. 164. 62. Aleurodes xylostei, Westhoff. Jahresber. Zool. West- fal. Verein, 1886, p. 56 ; Karsch, Entom. Nachricht., 1888, xiv., p._31. Genus Aleukodicus, Douglas and Morgan. General characters of Aleurodes; vein of fore wing branched a second time near its extremity. In the diagnosis of this genus Mr. Morgan (Ent. Mo. Mag., 1892, p. 31) states that the structure of the genital organs of the niale is "different from any species of the genus Aleu- rodes.'' I have been unable to detect any such difference. Under A. anonce the genitalia of the male are said to be "in form of a forceps, between which lies the penis," and are so figured {loc. cit., plate i., fig 4). Signoret, in his generic characters of Aleurodes, says, "Extremity of the inale ab- Maskell. — On x\leurodidae. 445 domen ending in an organ formed like a forceps " (p. 378). x\nd in all the species which I have seen this feature is quite constant, as shown in the figures attached to this paper. I cannot therefore include this amongst the generic characters of Alciirodicus. In a note to the same diagnosis {loc. cit., p. 82) Mr. Doug- las says further that Aleurodicus differs from Aleiirodes "in the characteristics of the larva." But nothing is given in the description of the text which is any more than a specific difference, and I cannot see how the larva is to be employed for generic purposes. The doubly-branched nervure is, however, a sufficient character for separation. 1. Aleurodicus anonae, Douglas and Morgan. Ent. Mo. Mag., 1892, vol. xxviii., p. 32. 2. Aleurodicus asarumis, Shinier. Trans. Amer. Entom. Soc, vol. i., p. 281. This species is here placed in the genus Aleurodicus on the authority of Messrs. Eiley and Howard, Insect Life, 1893, p. 219. 3. Aleurodicus cocois, Curtis. Aleurodes cocois, Curtis, Gard. Chron., 1816, p. 284; Signoret, Ann. de la Soc. Ent. de France, 1867-68, p. 398 ; Aleurodicus, Douglas and Morgan, Ent. Mo. Mag., 1892, p. 32; Eiley and Howard, Insect Life, 1893, p. 314. 4. Aleurodicus ornatus, Cockerell. Ent. Mo. Mag., 1893, p. 105. INDEX TO PLATES XXIV.-XXXV. Plate XXIV.— 1. Tyyes of details; greatly magnified. a. Type of adult Aleurodes. b. Head of a;lult viewed from above. c. Head of adult viewed from beneath, showing rostrum and mentum. d. Head of adult viewed sideways, showing rostrum and mentum. e. Antenna of adult. /. Eye of adult. g. Foot of adult. h. Last joint of tarsus and claws. Plate XXIV.— 2. Types of details; greatly magnified. a. Type of wings of Aletirodes. b. Type of forewing of Aleurodicus. c. d, e, /, types of marginal serrations cf wings: c, A. asplenii ; d, A. piperis ; e, A. asparagi ; /, A. T-signata. 446 Transactions. — Zoology. g. Vasiform orifice, operculum, aud lingula, normal form with retracted lingula. h. Vasiform orifice seen from the side, lingula retracted. k. Vasiform orifice seen from the side, lingula extended. I. Type of female genitalia seen from above. m. Type of female genitalia seen from the side. n. Male genitalia (A. asplenii) seen from above, o. ilale genitalia (.4. coviata) seen from above. p. Type of male genitalia, seen from the side. Plate XXV.— 1. Aleurodes hanksice. a. Larvie and pupte on leaf. b. Diagram of larva, showing arrangement of spines. c. Spine of larva, more highly magnified. d. Vasiform orifice and operculum (diagram). e. Margin of larva. /. Pupa-case, dorsal view. Plate XXV.— 2. Aleurodes barodensis. a. Larvas, pupse, and eggs, on leaf, enlarged. b. Larva, dorsal view. c. Diagram of larva, showing arrangement of pores. d. Margin of larva and pupa. e. Vasiform orifice, operculum, and lingula. Plate XXVI.— 1. Aleurodes cerata. a. Larvae and pupie on leaf. b. Pupa-case, dorsal view, enlarged. c. Diagram of pupa-case, showing pores. d. Margin of larva and pupa. e. Vasiform orifice, operculum, and lingula (diagram). Plate XXVI.— 2. Aleurodes coviata. a. Larvae and pupoe on leaf. b. Diagram of laiva, showmg hairs. c. Margin of larva. d. Pupa case, showing enclosed insect. e. Margin of pupa case. /. Vasiform orifice and operculum (diagram). g. Forewing of adult. h. Margin of wing of adult. k. Genitalia of adult male (diagram). Plate XXVII.— 1. Aleurodes cotesii. a. Larvte and pupse on leaf. b. Larva, dorsal view, enlarged. c. Margin and dorsal pores of larva. d. Pupa- case, dorsal view, enlarged. e. Margin of pupa-case. /. Pupa-case, side view. g. Vasiform orifice, operculum, and lingula (diagram). Maskell. — On AleurodidaB. 441 Plate XXVII.— 2. A leiirodes croceata. a. Pupse on leaf. 6. Diagram of larva, showing spines. c. Pupa-case, dorsal view. d. Margin of pnpa-case. e. Vasiform orifice, operculum, and lingula (diagram). Plate XXVIII.— 1. Aleurodes dccipiens. ■. a. LarvEe and pupte on leaf. b. Larva, dorsal view. c. Margin of larva. d. Vasiform orfice, operculum, and lingula of larva (diagram). e. Pupa-case (?), dorsal view. /. Abdominal extremity of pupa-case (semi-diagram). Plate XXVIII.— 2. Aleurodes erlgerontis. a. Pupae on leaf. h. Pupa-case, dorsal view. c. Margin of pupa-case. d. Diagram of pupa-case, showing papillte and pores. e. Vasiform orifice, operculum, and lingula (diagram). /. Eye of pupa, after treatment, side view. Plate XXIX.— 1. Alexirodes eiigenice. a. Pupaj on leaf. b. Pupa-case, showing enclosed insect. c. Diagram of pupa-case, showing radiating patches. d. One of the radiating patches, enlarged. e. Margin of pupa-case. /. Vasiform orifice, operculum, and lingula (diagram). Plate XXIX.— 2. Aleicrodes eugenics, var. aurantii, a. Pupa? on leaf. b. Pupa-case, showing enclosed insect. c. Diagram of pupa-case, showing radiating patches. d. One of the radiating patches, enlarged. e. Margin of pupa-case. /. Vasiform orifice, operculum, and lingula (diagram). Plate XXX.— 1. Aleurodes floccosa. a. Larvffi and pupaj on leaf. b. Diagram of larva, showing spines. c. Lanceolate spines of larva, enlarged. d. Pupa-case with attached larva, dorsal view. e. Dorsal spines of pupa case, enlarged. /. Margin of pupa-case. g. Vasiform orifice and operculum (diagram). 448 Transactions. — Zoology. Plate XXX.— 2. Aleurodes fodiens. a. Puptc on leaf. b. Pupa in pit on under-sin-face of leaf. c. Elevation on upper surface of leaf. d. Pupa-case, showing enclosed insect. e. Margin of pupa-case. /. Vasiform orifice, operculum, and lingula (diagram). Plate XXXI.— 1. Aleurcdes hirsiita. a. Larva; and pupse on leaf. b. Diagram of larva, showing arrangement of spines. c. Diagram of pupa-case, showing arrangement of spines. d. Spine of pupa-case, enlarged. e. Margin of pupa-case. f. Vasiform orifice and operculum (diagram). Plate XXXI.— 2. Aleurodes hohnesii. a. Larvfe and pupte on leaf. b. Pupa-cases, dorsal and side views. c. Diagram of pupa-case, showing spines. d. Margin of pupa- case. e. Vasiform orifice, operculum, and lingula (diagram). f. Extremity of lingula, enlarged. Plate XXXII.— 1. Aleurodes limbata. a. Larvte and pupas on leaf. b. Pupa-case with attached larval exuvise. c. Margin of pupa- case. d. Vasiform orifice and operculum (diagram). Plate XXXII.— 2. Aleurodes nicotiance. a. Larvffi and pupse on leaf. b. Diagram of larva, showing depressions and marginal hairs. c. Pupa-case, dorsal view. d. Diagram of pupa-case, showing pustules. e. Margin of pupa-case, with pustules. /. Vasiform orifice, operculum, and Imgula (diagram). Plate XXXIII.— 1. Aleurodes niger. a. Pupa on leaf. 6. Pupa-case, dorsal view. c. IMargin of pupa-case. d. Vasiform orifice and operculum (diagram). Plate XXXIII.— 2. Aleurodes ■pijjeris. a. Larvae and pupse on leaf. b. Pupa-case, dorsal view, with attached larval exuvise. c. Margin of pupa-case. KiNGSLEY. — Zoological Notes. 449 d. Vasifonn orifice, operculum, and liugula (diagram). e. Pupa extracted from case, dorsal view. /. Forewing of adult. Plate XXXIV.— 1. Aleurodes pulvinata. a. Puppe on leaf. b. Pupa-case, dorsal view. c. Pupa-case, ventral view, showing enclosed insect. d. Diagram of pupa-case, showing arrangement of pores. e. Margin of pupa-case, showing dorsal spinnerets. /. Vasiform orifice, operculum, and liugula (diagram). Platk XXXIV.— 2. Aleurodes stellata. a. Larvfe and pupa? on leaf. b. Pupa-case, dorsal view. c. Margin of pupa-case. d. Vasiform orifice and operculum (diagram). Plate XXXV.— 1. Aleurodes styphelicB. a. Larvae and pupae on leaf. b. Pupa case, dorsal view, showing attached larval exuviae. c. Margin of pupa-case. d. Vasiform orifice and operculum. Plate XXXV.— 2. Aleurodes T-siijnata. a. Larvas and pupae on leaf. b. Diagram of larva, showing arrangement of spines. c. Oue spine of larva, enlarged. d. Pupa case, dorsal view. e. Margin of pupa-case. /. Pupa extracted from case, dorsal view. g. Forewing of adult. Art. XL. — Zoological Notes, Nelson District. By E. I. KiNGSLEY. [Read before the Nclso7i Philosophical Society, 13th January, 1896.] Eurystomus pacificus (Australian Eoller). The first -recorded occurrence of this bird in New Zealand, according to Sir Walter Buller, was in 1881, when Mr. F. E. Clarke reported it in a paper read before the Westland Insti- tute {vide Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xiii., p. 454) ; and about the same time four other specimens were obtained in three other places, making altogether five specimens. The localities were far apart, but all situate on the west coast of the two Islands. 29 450 Transactions. — Zoology. Last April (1895) the presence of a strange bird was noticed at Stoke, near the sea-shore, west of the entrance to Nelson Harbour. Mr. C. Martin states several members of his family noticed its peculiar flight and heard its cry. Mr. A. E. Green also saw it, and the latter gentleman found it dead on the sands on the 17th April, and sent it to a taxidermist, when it was found to be too decomposed to preserve. It was after- wards given to me, and proved to be a specimen of the Australian Eoller. I embalmed it, in order to keep the body for reference. It is stated by Sir Walter Buller, on the authority of Messrs. Cayley and Gould, that the Australian Eoller is very local in its habitat in New South Wales, arriving there from the north not earlier than October and disappearing in Feb- ruary. If this is the case, it appears very strange to find in the month of April in New Zealand a bird which should, in the natural order of events, have been at that time in its winter habitat in New Guinea. The other recorded instances apparently occurred at such time as the bird would in an ordinary case have been in New South Wales. Scale Insect (Planchonia quercicola). In December, 1894, I noticed at Stoke a scale insect on the oaks on Mr. Marsden's property ; specimens were for- warded to Mr. Maskell, who identified it as Planchonia querci- cola, a species hitherto not recorded as found in New Zealand. As I understand Mr. Maskell intends to describe it, I shall confine myself to the result of inquiries and observation as to its occurrence in this district. It appears it has been at Stoke something like fourteen years ; the owner lately has checked its increase by pruning and cutting down badlj'-iri'fested trees. In Nelson itself about seven or eight years ago an oak badly attacked was cut down and burnt in the grounds near the Pro- vincial Buildings. Near by, in grounds adjoining the brewery, is an oak with the insects plainly visible ; in Trafalgar Square and on the Church Hill I noticed its presence ; also on an oak in St. Paul's Churchyard, Brightwater ; and at the entrance- gates of the residence of the Bishop of Nelson stand two oaks, one badly infested, but, curiously enough, the other apparently quite free. At present I am unable to give an opinion as to whether the insect is increasing rapidly or not ; very possibly the presence of its natural enemy may account for the fact that no great damage such as occurred in the Bois de Boulogne, Paris, about sixty years ago has as yet been done. It would, however, be well if the several owners would prune the diseased branches, and thus keep it in check. Park. — On Animal and Vegetable Parasites. 451 Art. XLI. — Animal and Vegetable Parasites associated with the Production of Neoplasms in Cattle and Sheep. By Archibald Park, M.R.C.V.S. Communicated by Sir J. Hector. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 17th July, 1893.] I DID not expect to be called upon to address such a learned body as the members of the Philosophical Society in this colony. When I left Tasmania I merely put up a few pre- parations to show Sir James Hector the progress 1 have made since he visited my laboratory in Hobart in October, 1893. Of course you are all aware that tuberculosis is the disease that we are led to believe is dangerous above all others in consuming the flesh of animals affected by it. During the early part of my professional career I was quite satisfied to accept the testimony of what was considered to be reliable investigation ; but when Dr. Creed, of Sydney, New South Wales, so warmly took up the subject of tuberculosis in rabbits, in 1883, and by his influence Mr. Anthony Willows, M.E.C.V.S., was despatched to Tasmania to investigate the disease in that colony, I was enabled to see what Mr. Willows pronounced to be tuberculosis, scrofula, cancer, &c. My ex- perience in the Old Country twenty years before enabled me to pronounce an adverse opinion at the time, and, having since struck out a line of investigation for myself on this important subject, I find that no one has yet de- monstrated the existence of tuberculosis in wild rabbits, as the disease so frequently alluded to is the well-known Coccidium oviformce. Then, the "scrofula" in cattle as reported by Mr. Willows proves to be the now well-known actinomycosis ; and I am glad to say no case of tuberculosis has yet been found in Tasmania, notwithstanding the alarming report cir- culated by the New South Wales Stock Department in 1884. I have spent eighteen years in Tasmania, and have taken every opportunity to find tuberculosis in cattle in that colony, but up to the present time I have not succeeded. It has always occurred to me, Why should tuberculosis be so pre- valent in these colonies (I mean in Australasia) as is reported ? There must be something wrong somewhere ; so, still endea- vouring to solve the mysterj^ I obtained permission and assist- ance from Mr. P. R. Gordon to visit Queensland in 1893, and went on to several stations where caitle were not knocked about, as would have been the case if I had only made exami- nations at boiling-down establishments. x\fter making over 452 Transactions. — Zoology. seventy post mortems in 1893, I felt convinced that tubercu- losis could be easily demonstrated in some cases, but yet could not understand why it should appear to be preceded by an animal parasite — viz., Spiroj^tera reticulata. The photo- graphs and specimens which I exhibit will show the nature of the tuniours, of the size of a pea to the size of a large cocoa- nut, in which is enclosed the worm which produces the lesions referred to. Of the life-history of these parasites I am unable to give any account, except that they are never found until an animal has passed at least one summer of its existence on the pas- tures, nor am I able to explain the way in which they gain entrance to the body ; but it would appear that they are probably lodged in the connective tissue by means of the circulation, as the embryos are seen free in the tissue. On the other hand, if the adult female should attach itself from without, it could easily penetrate the fauces and gain en- trance to the connective tissue, gliding down the neck to the brisket, where they are most commonly found, always lying between groups of muscles, and as low down as the stifle- joint. Sometimes very large tumours are found at that point. I issued a report to the Queensland Government pointing out the association of the animal and vegetable parasite exist- ing in the same tumour, and in my opinion the Spiroptera reticulata caused much of the mischief done (a primary lesion). At the same time I prepared and sent to Dr. M. Armand Euffer a section of the tumours, and in December following I received a letter confirming the observation made by me. This letter is appended hereto. In a letter signed " S. Bradbury," in tlie Live-stock Journal, New South Wales, it is suggested that, if the state- ment made by me were true, then 50 per cent, of cattle must be affected with tuberculosis ; also, that such a statement, if unchallenged, would damage the stock interests of the colony. In the meantime the Queensland Government had requested me to undertake another journey and further in- vestigate the disease, and I carefully noted that sixty-three out of seventy-seven cattle submitted to me for examination harboured Spiroptera reticjtlata, or 80 per cent, instead of 50 per cent. : my 1894 examination thus confirming more fully the statements of the previous year. By the specimens in the tube you will observe every stage of degeneration. Under the microscopes are sections of the tumours showing tubercle bacilli, while the phagosites are seen destroying and digest- ing the Spiroptera. Unless one studies this subject closely it seems almost incredible that the cells in our bodies could attack and destroy an animal so large as a worm ; nevertheless it is a fact, and this is the " zooparastic tuber- Paek. — On Animal and Vegetable Parasites. 453 culosis " of Metchnikoff. It is also very clearly seen in the lungs of sheep and in the intestines as small knobs. When we find a large number of encysted parasites of this kind it is easy to see how readily one can mistake such cases for tuber- culosis, especially when no microscopic examination is made, as in sheep they cannot be seen without a lens of some kind. Cancer is the next subject to command attention. This is ■said to be due to the consumption of animal food affected with cancer. For my own part, I have no proof of this, but I can show you specimens of the latest form of cancer-parasites in man, and also certain intracellular bodies in cattle that bear a striking resemblance to those bodies as described by Buffer, Walker, Fox, and others ; but, until we have proof of the statements made concerning cancerous meat, I would say, keep a contented mind until proof is obtained. In order to prove what I have said, we will now examine the preparations, under the microscopes, of cancer, actinomy- cosis, tuberculosis, Spiroptera reticulata, and also a prepara- tion by Dr. Whittell, of Adelaide, of actinomycosis and Spiroptera reticulata in the same tumour, giving further proof of another vegetable parasite finding a nidus in the same tumour. 5, York Terrace, Regent's Park, N.W., London, Deab Mr. Park, — 8th December, 1893. I was very glad to hear from you again, and to have an account of your extremely interesting observations. I am also greatly obliged to you for the thirteen beautiful sections you have sent me, which I have examined witli the greatest interest. There is not a doubt that these preparations represent sections through some kind of new growth, which form cysts containing in their interior a peculiar-looking worm, which resembles marvellously and is probably identical with the Spiroptera reticulata. In some of tlie sections one could also see large giant cells, vyhich were evidently tilled with all kinds of debris, which were probably bits of embryos, or even of adult worms, which these giant cells had taken into their interior, killed, and digested. The worms varied to a great extent, and, in some, one could see the process of the formatioa of embryos, &c. I was greatly interested also in some of the sections which showed the Spiroptera as well as the tubercle bacilli at the periphery. I must say tiiat tliis discovery of yours strikes me as being entirely new, and one which might prove useful in elucidating various pathological problems. It strikes me as exceedingly probable that the Spiroptera penetrates first, and then, through the irritation which it produces, and through its altering of tlie animal's resistance, it gives the tubercle bacillus a chance to invade the body and thrive : but I do hope that you and your assistants will work out this most interesting problem. I was also greatly interested in tlie notes of cattle slaughtered by you during the year 1893 in Queensland. There can be no doubt from your list that true tubercle must be exceedingly rare, and that actinomycosis and diseases due to worms, Spiroptera, &c., must be equally common. I confess I should have been greatly astonished had tubercle been as fre- 454 Transactions. — Zoology. quent as it is generally said to be, for the conditions which appear to favour the occurrence of tubercle seem to be absent in your country. You must not be disappointed if the veterinarians pooh-pooh your observations. It is the best proof that you can have that they are really original ; and I think you are doing good service by showing the occur- rence of two parasites belonging to two kingdoms in one and the same animal, and even in one and the same tumour. I hope that if you have any material to spare you will send us some over, as now that the British Institute of Preventive Medicine is in work- ing-order I shall be able, to get the pathological anatomy worked out in London. Yours very truly, M. Armand Ruffeb. Akt. XLII. — Notes on the Cicadidae of Netv Zealand. By W. F. KiRBY, F.L.S., F.E.S., Assistant in Zoological Depai*tment, British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington, London. Communicated by G. V. Hudson, F.E.S. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 26th February, 1896.] Through the kindness of Mr. G. V. Hudson I have lately re- ceived a very interesting series of specimens, which will enable me to clear up the synonymy of most of the New Zealand species of Cicadidce. Very few species are at present known, all of which belong to the genus Mclampsalta, Amyot, which may be recognised by the long narrow basal cell of the tegmina, from the lower and outer angle of which one nervure only, which soon bifur- cates, is emitted, instead of two.''' This genus is widely distributed in the Old World, but is particularly numerous in the Australian region, where it is the largest and one of the most characteristic genera of CicadidcB. A list of the Cicadidce of New Zealand was published by Captain Hutton in 1873, in which twelve species were enume- rated ; and in 1879 Dr. Buchanan White published a revised list in the Entomologists Monthly Magazine, xv., pp. 213, 214, describing one species, but reducing the total number to nine. Since then Mr. Hudson has discussed the New Zealand species in the "Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," vol. xxiii., and in his " Manual of New Zealand Insects." The species now known to me are as follow : — * For tegmina of M. cingnlata see figure on pi. ix., Trans, N.Z. Inst,, vol. xxiii. KiKBY. — On New Zealand Cicadidge. 455 I. Melampsalta cingulata, Fabr. Tettigonia cingulata, Fabr., Syst. Ent., p. 680, n. 9 (1775). Cicada cingulata, Hudson, IVans. N.Z. Inst., xxiii., p. 50, pi. 9 (1891); Man. N.Z. Ins., p. 118, pi. 20, figs. 1, la (1892). Cicada zealandica. Bond, Vov. " Astrolabe," Ent., p. 611, pi. 10, fig. 6 (1832) ; Walker, List Homopt. Ins. B. M., i., p. 159, n. 98 (1850) ; iv., p. 1125 (1852). Cicada indivulsa, Walker, I.e., Suppl., p. 33 (1858). Cicada cingidata, var. obscura, Hudson, I.e., p. 51 (1891). By far the largest of the New Zealand species. The types are in the Banksian Collection in the British Museum, C. indivulsa. Walker, was described from a bleached specimen. There are no specimens of this or of any allied species from Australia in the Museum except M. convergens (Cicada convergens. Walker, List Homopt. Ins., i., p. 114, n. 120, 1850), which is very distinct from M. cingulata by the nearly black abdomen, with the incisions very narrowly red- dish ; the two short basal stripes on the mesothorax, which are fused into one large one ; and the distinct black line bounding the costal area on its lower edge. Of this species there are two rather indifferent specimens in the Museum ; but neither M. cingulata nor M. convergens appears quite to agree with p. 289, which was described from Sydney, and subsequently the description of Cicada flavicosta, Stal, Eugenie's Besa, indicated as a synonym of M. cingulata. II. Melampsalta muta, Fabr. There are several distinct forms which Mr. Hudson con- siders to be varieties of this species. I express no opinion on the subject, but have attempted to give the correct synonymy below, in the order adopted by Mr. Hudson : — a. Muta, Fabr. Tettigonia muta, Fabr., Syst. Ent., p. 681, n. 17 (1775). Cicada muta, var. subalpina, Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxiii., pp. 51, 52 (1891) ; Man. N.Z. Ins., p. 119, pi. 20, fig. 2 (1892). The types in the Banksian Collection show this to be the typical form of the species. (3. Cruentata, Fabr. Tettigonia cruentata, Fabr., Syst. Ent., p. 680, n. 10 (1775). 456 Transactions. — Zoology. Cicada rosa, Walker, List Homopt. Ins., i., p. 220, n. 173 (1850). Cicada hilinea, Walker, I.e., Suppl., p. 34 (1858). Cicada muta, var. rufescens, Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxiii., p. 52(1891). The type of this form is also in the Banksian Collection. Walker's C. hilinea is one of the female specimens alluded to by Mr. Hudson. y. Flavescens, Hudson. Cicada rmita, wax. flavescens, Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxiii., p. 52 (1891). I have not seen this form. 8. Augusta, Walker. Cicada angusta, Walker, List Homopt. Ins., i., p. 174, n. 121 (1850). Cicada muta, var. cinerescens, Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxiii., p. 52 (1891). €. Cincta. Cicada cincta, Walker, List Homopt. Ins. B. M., i., p. 204, n. 156 (1850). Cicada muta, var. minor, Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxiii., p. 52 (1891). Walker's description is taken from a discoloured specimen. III. Melampsalta outers. Cicada cutera. Walker, List Homopt. Ins. B. M., i., p. 172, n. 116 (1850). Cicada orbrina, Walker, I.e., Suppl., p. 34 (1858). Cicada aprilina, Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxiii., p. 53 (1891); XXV., p. 163 (1893). A long series of this insect stood in the British Museum collection under the name of Cicada muta, among which were only two specimens really belonging to the latter species. This is probably the reason why Mr. Distant so positively maintains that C. aprilina is not distinct from C. muta. IV. Melampsalta sericea, Walker. Cicada sericea, Walker, List Homopt. Ins. B. M., i., p. 169, n. 113 (1850). This insect differs from M. scutellaris much as M. muta, form angusta, differs from the form rufescens. The single specimen is from Auckland. The eighth apical cell is, how- KiKBY. — Oa New Zealand Cicadidse. 457 ever, of the same shape as in M. miita, and it may be a form of that species. V. Melampsalta scutellakis, Walker. Cicada scutellaris, Walker, List Homopt. Ins. B. M., i., p. 150, n. 88 (1850). Cicada aiche, Walker, I.e., p. 195, n. 146 (1850). Cicada trislis, Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxiii., p. 52 (1891). The type of scutellaris, Walker, is a small male in fair condition, "collected by Earl," but without; exact locality, in which the dark markings of the mesothorax are almost obliterated. The type of arcJie is a specimen bleached almost beyond recognition. M. scutellaris appears to be a variable species, and in some of its forms it approaches 31. muta. It may, however, easily be distinguished from ill. muta by the eighth apical cell of the tegmina, which is fully twice as long as broad, and in M. muta not much longer than broad. VI. Melampsalta nervosa. Walker. Cicada nervosa. Walker, List Homopt. Ins. B. M., i., p. 213, n. 166 (1850). This species has always reddish markings, and does not vary much. The types were presented by Dr. Sinclair, and were without locality ; but there are others in the Museum labelled " Auckland." VII. Melampsalta mangu, B. White. Melampsalta mangu, Buchanan White, Ent. Mo. Mag., xv., p. 214 (1879). This species is referred to M. nervosa by Mr. Distant ; but I am not convinced of the identity of the two insects. Dr. White writes, "Four specimens from Mr. Wakefield, labelled * On rocks at Porter's Pass, Canterbury, about 3,500ft.' " It may be identical with the following species, but I doubt it. VIIL Melampsalta cassiope, Hudson. Cicada cassiope, Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxiii., p. 54 (1891). Mr. Distant has referred this species to M. nervosa, under which name I have received a specunen from Mr. Hudson ; it is, however, perfectly distinct. It is, however, probably identical with an insect noticed by Dr. Buchanan White at the end of his account of M. mangu : "I have another species much resembling M. mangu, but larger, and altogether black." 4 58 Transac tions . — Zoology . IX. Melampsalta iolanthe, Hudson. Cicada iolanthe, Hudson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxiii., p. 53 (1891); Man. N.Z. Ins., p. 119, pi. 20, figs. 3, 3fl, 3b (1892). If this form is constant, it appears to be quite distinct from any of the foregoing species. In addition to the foregoing species, Dr. Buchanan White enumerates M. telxiope, Walker {— duplex, Walker = arche, Walker). The types of telxiope and duplex, which appear to be synonymous, are from Australia, and I regard the bleached C. arche as certainly referable to M. scutellaris. I cannot tell, without working out the great genus Me- lampsalta, which I have not time to undertake at present, whether any of the New Zealand species are identiccxl with some of those described by Walker or others, under other names, from Australia, Tasmania, or unrecorded localities. Some of the New Zealand species appear to be very variable ; and there must be many still undiscovered. It would be de- sirable for resident entomologists to try to obtain a series of the species occurring in different localities, in order to work out this small but interesting branch of the New Zealand fauna exhaustively. From Australia (including Tasmania) about eighty Cica- didce are at present recorded, belonging to the following genera : — '■•Thopha, Amyot (four species). ■'■CyclochUa, Amyot (one species). Dundubia, x\myot (one species). ■' Henicopsaltria, Still (two species). ^'Macrotristria, StJil (one species). Ghremistica, Stal (four species). '■'Fsaltoda, Stal (nine species). Huechys, x\myot (one species). Tibicina, Amyot (nine species). Abroma, Stal (two species). ■'Cyrtosoma, Westw. (two species). ■''GIdorocysta, Westw. (two species). ■■'•Tettigareta, White (two species). Melavipsalta, Amyot (thirty-seven species). It is true that the cicad fauna of New Zealand is very much poorer than that of AustraUa, and that some of the genera above enumerated are tropical or subtropical forms ; but both countries are very imperfectly explored at present — it can hardly be supposed that when Australia has fourteen genera — eight of which (indicated by an asterisk) are peculiar to the country — and eighty-three species. New Zealand has only one genus, represented by eight species in all. At any Fakquhar. — On Neio Zealand Hydroida. 459 rate, I expect to find several species of Tihicina, resembling Melam-psalta, but with two separate nervures rising from the end of the basal cell, instead of one nervure bifurcating im- mediately, as in Melampsalta. If special attention is given to the subject by collectors, I have little doubt that several new species, and even genera, might easily be added to the New Zealand list. Aet. XLIII. — List of Netv Zealand Hydroida. By H. Fakquhae. [Bead before the Wellivgto7i I: hilosopJiical Society, 26th February, 1896.] GYMNOBLASTEA. Clavidae. 1. TuBiCLAVA kubba. — TiiMcJava rnhra, Farquhar, 1895, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxvii., 209. Hah. Wellington Harbour. 2. CoKDyLOPHOEA, sp. — Cordylophora lacustris{?), Hamilton, 1883, N.Z. Jnl. of Sci., i., 419. Hab. Esk Kiver, Hawke's Bay. Corynid.se. 3. CoEYNE TENELLA. — Corync tenella, Farquhar, 1895, Trans, N.Z. Inst., xxvii., 208. Hab. Wellington Harbour. Endendridae. 4. Endendeium nov^-zealandi^. — Endendriwn novcB-zea- landicc, Marktanner-Turneretscher, 1890, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 201. Hab. Auckland. Tubulariidae. 5. TuBULAEiA ATTENNoiDES. — TubulaHa attennoidcs, Cough- trey, 1875, Trans. N.Z. Inst., viii., 302. Hab. Dunedin Harbour ; Ocean Beach. CALYPTOBLASTEA. Campanulariidae. 6. Campanulaeia caliculata, var. makeogona. — Campanu- laria integra(>) (Hutton), Coughtrey, 1874, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vii., 291. G. caliculata, Coughtrey, 1875, ib., viii.. 460 Transactions. — Zoology. 299; 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 4), xvii,, 25; V. Lendenfeld, 1885, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., ix., 910. C. coliculata, var. makrogona, v. Lendenfeld, 1885, ih., ix., 922; Bale, 1888, ib. (ser. 2), iii., 755. Hah. Port Chalmers ; Taiaroa Head ; Wellington Har- bour ; Australia. 7. Campanularia bilabiata. — Campanularia hilahiata, Coughtrey, 1874, Trans. N.Z. List., vii., 291 ; 1875, ih., viii., 299. Hah. Timaru. 8. Campanularia carduella. — Campanularia carduella, All- man, 1885, Jnl. Linn, Soc. (Zool.), xix., 132. Hah. N.Z.* •9. Campanularia pruticosa. — LaomecUa fruticosa, Esper, 1830, Pflan. Abb. nach der Natur mit Faben erleuchtet (3), xxxiv., 162. Sertnlarella fruticosa, Thompson, 1879, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), iii., 100. Campanularia fruticosa, Marktanner-Turneretscher, 1890, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 205. Hah. N.Z. ; Philippine Islands ; Ceylon. 10. Obelia geniculata. — Ohelia gcniculata, Linnaeus, 1767, Syst. Nat., i., 1312 ; Hincks, 1868, Hist. Brit. Hyd. Zooph., 149; Coughtrey, 1875, Trans. N.Z. Inst., viii., 299; 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 4), xvii., 24; Bale, 1884, Cat. Aust. Hyd. Zooph., 59; 1894, Proc. Eoy. Soc. Vict, (new. ser.), vi., 99 ; Marktanner-Turneretscher, 1890, An- nal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 208. Laomedea geniculata, Coughtrey, 1874, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vii., 290. Halj. Wellington Harbour ; Cook Strait ; south and east coasts of South Island ; Australia ; Europe ; east coast North America. 11. Obelia (?) pygm^a. — Ohelia pygmcBa, Coughtrey, 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (ser. 4), xvii., 25. Hab. DunedinC?). 12. Obelia australis. — Obelia australis, v. Lendenfeld, 1885, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., ix., 604, 920 ; Bale, 1888, ib. (ser. 2), iii., 753. Hab. East Coast. 13. Hebella scandens. — Lafo'ca scandens, Bale, 1888, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (ser. 2), iii., 758. Hebella scandens, Marktanner-Turneretscher, 1890, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 214. Hab. Auckland ; Australia. * N.Z. denotes that the species has not been recorded from any definite locality. Faequhak. — On Neiv Zealand Hydroida. 461 14. Clytia (?) ELONGATA. — C7//i/« (?) eloncjata, Marktanner- Turneretscher, 1890, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofui., v., 215. Hah. Aackland. 15. EucoPE ANNULATA. — Eucope anuulatci, v. Lendenfeld, 1885, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., ix., 602. Hah. Auckland. Perisiphoniidse. 16. Lafoea cylindrica. — Lafoea cylindrica, v. Lendenfeld, 1885, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., ix., 912. Hah. Bay of Islands. 17. Lafoea dumosa(?). — Lafom diimosa(?), Coughtrey, 1875, Trans. N.Z. Inst., viii., 299. Hah. Otago Peninsula. 18. Cryptolaria gracilis. — Gryptolaria gracilis, Allman, 1888, " Challenger " Eeport, xxiii., Hydroida, 42. Hah. Off the East Cape, 700 fathoms. 19. Perisiphonia pectinata. — Pms?^/ioma pectinata, All- man, 1888, " Challenger" Eeport, xxiii., Hydroida, 45. Hah. Off the East Cape, 700 fathoms. Haleciidse. 20. Halecium DELiCATULA. — Halecium delicatula, Coughtrey, 1875, Trans. N.Z. Inst., viii., 299; 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 26. Hah. Dunedin Harbour. 21. Halecium parvulum. — Halecium parvuhim, Bale, 1888, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (ser. 2), iii., 760; Marktanner- Turneretscher, 1890, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 218. Hah. Auckland; Australia. Sertulariidse. 22. Sertularia elongata. — Sertidaria elongata, Lamouroux, 1816, Hist. Polyn. Flex., 189; Thompson, 1879, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.\5), iii., 107 ; Bale, 1884, Cat. Aust. Hyd. Zooph., 75; 1888, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (ser. 2), iii., 770; Allman, 1885, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xix., 140; Marktanner-Turneretscher, 1890, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 230. Dynamenc ahietinoides, Gray, 1843, Dief- fenbach's " New Zealand," ii., 294. Sertularia ahieti- noides, Hutton, 1872, Trans. N.Z. Inst., v., 257 ; Cough- trey, 1874, lb., vii., 285; 1875, ih., viii., 300; 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 28. Hah. Lyall Bay ; Australia ; Tasmania. 462 Transactions.— Zoology. 23. Sertularia bispinosa. — Dynamene hisyinosa, Gray, 1843, Dieffenbach's " New Zealand," ii., 294. Sertularia bispi- nosa, Hutton, 1872, Trans. N.Z. Inst., v., 257 ; Coughtrey, 1874, JZ>., vii., 284; 1875, ib., viii., 300; 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 27 ; Bale, 1884, Cat. Aust. Hyd. Zooph., 67 ; 1887, Trans. Eoy. Soc. Vict., xxiii., 92 ; 1888, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (2), iii., 745; Marktanner-Tur- neretscher, 1890, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 229. Sertularia ojjerculata (?) , Thompson, 1879, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), iii., 106. Dlphasia symmetrica, v. Lenden- feld, 1884, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., ix., 414. Hab. Lyall Bay ; Auckland; Australia; Indian Ocean. 24. Sertularia crinis. — Sertularia crinis, Allnian, 1885, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (ZooL), xix., 139. Hab. Tauranga. 25. Sertularia trispinosa. — Sertxdaria trispinosa, Coughtrey, 1874, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vii., 284; 1875, ib., viii., 300; 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 28; Bale, 1884, Cat. Aust. Hyd. Zooph., 69; 1883, Proc. Eoy. Soc. Vict., xxiii., 92. Hab. N.Z. ; Austraha. 26. Sertularia ramulosa. — Sertularia ramulosa, Coughtrey, 1874, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vii., 283; 1875, ib., viii., 300; 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 28. Hab. Dunedin Harbour ; Bluff Harbour ; Timaru. 27. Sertularia operculata. — Sertularia operculata, LiunaBUS, 1767, Syst. Nat.,i., 1307; Busk, 1852, Macgillivray's Voyage of the " Eattlesnake," i., 387 : Hincks, 1868, Brit. Hyd. Zooph., 263; Bale, 1882, Jnl. Mic. Soc. Vict., ii., 44; 1884, Cat. Aust. Hyd. Zooph., 67; Allman, 1888, " Chal- lenger" Eeport, xxiii., Hydroida, 61; Marktanner-Tur- neretscher, 1890, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 231. Hab. N.Z. ; Auckland Islands; Australia; Kerguelen ; Patagonia ; Falkland Islands ; South Africa ; Europe. 28. Sertularia minima. — Synthecium gracilis, Coughtrey, 1874, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vii., 286. Sertularia pumila, Coughtrey, 1875, Trans. N.Z. Inst., viii., 301; 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 29. Sertularia minima, Thompson, 1879, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), iii., 104; Bale, 1884, Cat. Aust. Hyd. Zooph., 89; 1887, Proc. Eoy. Soc. Vict., xxiii., 109 ; Marktanner-Turneretscher, 1890, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 231 ; Allman, 1885, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (ZooL), xix., 138. Sertularia pumiloides, Bale, 1882, Jnl. Mic. Soc. Vict., ii., 21, 45. Hab. Timaru ; Dunedin ; Australia ; Cape of Good Hope. Farquhak. — On Neio Zealand Hydroida. 463 29. Sertulaeia unguiculata. — Scrtularia unguiculata, Busk, 1852, Voy. of the " Eattlesnake," i., 394; Bale, 1882, Jnl. Mic. Soc. Vict., ii., 45; 1884, Cat. Aust. Hyd, Zooph., 76; Marktanner-Turneretscher, 1890, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 231 ; Bale, 1894, Proc. Eoy. Soc. Vict., vi. (new ser.), 100. Sertularia sp., Coughtrey, 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 29, note. Tlmiaria ambigna, Thompson, 1879, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), iii.. 111. Desmoscyphiis nnguiculata, Alhnan, 1885, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xix., 144. Hab. Bluff Harbour ; Australia. 30. Sertularia simplex. — Sertularia simplex, v. Lendenfeld, 1885, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., ix., 913, 984. Hab. Lyttelton. 31. Sertularia huttoni. — Sertularia huttoni, Marktanner- Turneretscher, 1890, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 233. Hah. N.Z. 32. Sertularia unilateralis. — Sertularia unilateralis, All- man, 1885, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xix., 139. Hab. N.Z.; Australia. 33. Sertularella johnstoki. — Sertularia johnstoni, Grav, 1843, Dieffenbach's "New Zealand," ii., 294; Hutton, 1872, Trans. N.Z. Inst., v., 256; Coughtrey, 1874, //)., vii., 281. Sertularia suhpinnata and S. delicatula, Hutton, 1872, Trans. N.Z. Inst., v., 256. Sertularella jolinstoni, Coughtrey, 1875, Trans. N.Z. Inst., viii., 299 ; 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 26; Thompson, 1879, Ann. and Mag. Nat Hist. (5), hi., 101 ; Alhnan, 1876, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xh., 261; Bale, 1884, Cat. Aust. Hyd. Zooph., 109; 1887, Proc. Eoy. Soc. Vict., xxih., 93; 1894, ib., vi. (new ser.), 102. Sertularella purpurea, Kircheu- pauer, 1884, Abh. des Natur., viii. Hab. Lyall Bay ; east and west coasts of the South Island ; Chatham Islands ; Australia ; Tasmania. 34. Sertularella capillaris. — Sertularella cajjillaris. All- man, 1885, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xix., 133. Hab. N.Z. 35. Sertularella polyzonias. — Sertularia polyzonias, Lin- naeus, 1767, Syst. Nat., i., 1312. Sertularella 'polyzonias, Hincks, 1868, Hist. Brit. Hyd. Zooph., 235 ; Bale, 1SS4, Cat. Aust. Hyd. Zooph., 104; Marktanner-Turneretscher, 1890, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 224 ; Allman, 1879, Trans. Eoy. Soc, clxviii., 282. Scrtularia simplex, Hutton, 1872, Trans. N.Z. Inst., v., 257; Coughtrey, 1874, ib., vii., 283 ; 1875, ib., viii., 300. Sertularella simplex, Cough- 464 Transactions. — Zoology. trey, 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii.,27. Ser- tularella hcrijuelensis, Allman, 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 113. Hah. Lyall Bay; Timaru ; Dunedin ; Australia; Ker- guelen ; South Africa ; Falkland Islands ; Europe ; North America. 36. Sertularella robusta. — Sertularellarobnsta, Conghtrey, 1875, Trans. N.Z. Inst., viii., 300; 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 27. Hab. Dunedin ; Foveaux Strait. 37. Sertularella pygm^a. — Sertularella pygmcea, Bale, 1882, Jul. Mic. Soc. Vict.,ii., 25; 1884, Cat. Aust. Hyd. Zooph., 108. Hab. N.Z. ; Australia. 38. Sertularella ramosa. — Sertularella raviosa, Thompson, 1879, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), iii., 102 ; Bale, 1884, Cat. Aust. Hyd. Zooph., 111. Hab. N.Z. ; Australia (?). 39. Sertularella exigua. — Sertularella exigua, Thompson, 1879, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), iii., 101. Hab. N.Z. 40. Sertularella Integra. — Sertularella Integra, Allman, 1876, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xii., 262. Hab. N.Z. 41. Sertularella muelleri. — Sertularella muelleri, Kirchen- pauer, 1884, Abh. des Natur. ver., Hamb., viii., 49; Len- denfeld, 1885, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., x., 478. Hah. Chatham Islands. 42. Sertularella episcopus. — Sertularia fusiformis, Hutton, 1872, Trans. N.Z. Inst., v., 257; Coughtrey, 1874, ih., vii., 285. Sertularella ejnscopus, Allman, 1876, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xii., 263. Sertularia longicosta, Coughtrey, 1875, Trans. N.Z. Inst., viii., 300; 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 28. Hab. Lyall Bay. 43. Thuiaria zelandica.'-'' — Thuiaria zelandica, Grav, 1843, Dieffenbach's " New Zealand," ii., 214 ; Hutton, 1872, Trans. N.Z. Inst., v., 258; Coughtrey, 1874, ih., vii., 288; Quelch, 1883, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), xi., 247. Thuiaria dolichocarjja, Allman, 1876, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xii., 270; Thompson, 1879, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), iii., 110; Bale, 1887, Proc. Eoy. Soc. Vict., xxiii., 108. Hah. Hokianga. ' T cannot agree with Mr. Bale that the law of priority should be set aside in this case. Faequhak. — On Nexo Zealand Hydroida. 465 44. Thuiaiua monilifera. — Sertularia monilifera, Hutton, 1872. Trans. N.Z. Inst., v., 257; Coughtrey,"l874, ib., vii., 282 ; 1875, th., viii., 301 ; 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 30. Tliuiaria cerastiuvi, Allman, 1876, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xii., 271. Thuiaria monilifera, Tiiompson, 1879, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), iii.. 111. Hab. Hokianga ; Lyall Bay. 45. Thuiaria subarticulata. — Thuiaria articulata, Hutton, 1872, Trans. N.Z. Inst., v., 258. TJmiaria subarticulata, Coughtrey, 1874, ib., vii., 287; 1875, ib., viii., 301; 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 30 ; Thompson, 1879, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), iii., 110; Bale, 1888, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (ser. 2), iii., 746. Thuiaria bidens. All- man, 1876, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xii., 269. Sertularia fertilis, Lendenfeld, 1884, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., ix., 406. Hab. Lyall Bay ; Oamaru ; Timaru. 46. Thuiaria quadridens. — Thuiaria. quadridens, Bale, 1884, Cat. Aust. Hyd. Zooph., 119; Lendenfeld, 1885, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., ix., 915. Hab. Timaru ; Australia. 47. Selaginopsis nov^ - zelandi^. — Pericladiwn novce-ze- landice, Thompson, 1879, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (5), iii., 112. Selaginopsis novce-zelandice, Thompson, loc. cit., p. 113 (note). Hab. Pandora Bank. 48. Desmoscyphus buskii. — Desmoscyphus buskii, Allman, 1876, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xii., 265. Hab. N.Z. 49. Hydrallmania bicalycula. — Hydrallmania (?) bicalvcula, Coughtrey, 1875, Trans. N.Z. Inst., viii., 301; 1876,''Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 29. Hab. Bluff Harbour ; Wickliff Bay. Syntheciidae. 50. Synthecium elegans. — Syntliecium elegans, Allman, 1870, Gymno. and Tub. Hvd.,'ii., 229; 1876, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xii., 266; Coughtrey, 1874, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vii., 285. Sertularia elegans, Coughtrey, 1875, ib., viii., 301 ; 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 29. Hab. Bluff Harbour. 51. Synthecium ramosum. — Synthecium ramosuvi, Allman 1885, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xix., 137. Hab. Tauranga. 30 466 Transactions. — Zoology. 52. Synthbcium campylocakpum. — ^Synthecmm campylocar- puvi, Allman, 1888, "Challenger" Report (Zool.), xxiii., Hydroida, 78 ; Marktanner-Turneretscher, 1890, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 248. Hab. Auckland. Plumulariidse. 53. Plumularia setacea. — Corallina setacea, Ellis, 1755, Co- rall., pi. xxxviii., fig. 4. Plumularia setacea, Hincks, 1868, Hist. Brit. Hyd. Zooph., 296; Bale, 1888, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (ser. 2), iii., 778. Plumularia tripartita, Lendenfeld, 1884, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., ix., 477. Hab. Timaru ; Australia ; Europe. 54. Plumularia spinulosa. — Plmnularia spinulosa, Bale, 1882, Jnl. Mic. Soc. Vict., ii., 42; 1884, Cat. Aust. Hyd. Zooph., 139; Lendenfeld, 1884, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. , IX., 475. Hab. Timaru ; Australia. 55. Plumularia turgida. — Plumularia tnrgida, Bale, 1888, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (ser. 2), iii., 779. Hab. Lyttelton. 56. Plumularia campanula. — Plumularia campanula, Busk, 1852, Voy. of the " Rattlesnake, " pi. x., fig. 5 ; Biile, 1884, Cat. Aust. Hyd. Zooph., 124; 1894, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict, (new ser.), vi., 113; 1890, Marktanner-Turneretscher, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 255. Plumularia in- divisa, Bale, 1882, Jnl. Mic. Soc. Vict., ii., 39. Plumu- laria rubra, Lendenfeld, 1884, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., ix., 476; Bale, 1888, ib. (ser. 2), iii., 778. Hab. Auckland ; Australia. 57. Plumularia multinoda. — Plumularia multinoda, x\lhnan, 1885, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xix., 157. Hab. Taurauga. 58. Plumularia (?) simplex. — Plumularia simplex, Coughtrey, 1874, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vii., 290. Plumularia (^) sim])lex, Coughtrey, 1874, ib., viii., 301; ]874, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 31. Hab. Ocean Beach, Dunedin. 59. Antennularia antennina. —/Scr^MZana antennina, Lin- nyeus, 1767, Syst. Nat., 1310. Antennularia antennina, Hincks, 1868, Hist. Brit. Hyd. Zooph., 280; Hutton, 1872, Trans. N.Z. Inst., v., 258; Coughtrey, 1874, ib., vii., 288 ; 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii. 31. Hab. Lyall Bay ; Europe. Farquhar. — On Neio Zealand Hydroida. 467 Aglaopheniidse. 60. x\glaophenia incisa. — Plnmularia incisa, Coughtrey, 1874, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vii., 290. Acjlaophenia incisa, Coughtrey, 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 38. Hab. Lyall Bay. 61. Aglaophenia banksii. — Plnmularia banksii, Gray, 1843, Dieffenbach's "New Zealand," ii., 294; Coughtrey, 1874, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vii., 289. Aglaophenia banksii, Bale, 1887, Proc. Eoy. Soc. Vict., xxiii., 103. Hab. N.Z. 62. Aglaophenia huttoni." — Plnmularia banksii, Hutton, 1872, Trans. N.Z. Inst., v., 259. Phomdaria huttoni, Coughtrey, 1874, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vii., 290. Aglaophenia huttoni, Coughtrey, 1876, x\nn. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 31. Hah. Lyall Bay. 63. Aglaophenia acanthocarpa. — Aglaophenia acanthocarpa, Allman, 1876, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (ZooL), xii., 274. Hab. N.Z. 64. Aglaophenia laxa. — Aglaophenia laxa, Allman, 1876, Jnl. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), xii., 275. Hab. N.Z. 65. Aglaophenia Formosa. — Plnmularia formosa. Busk, 1850, Brit. Ass. Eep. Aglaophenia formosa, Kirchenpauer, 1872, Abh. der Natur., ver. Hamb., v., 26; Bale, 1884, Cat. Aust. Hyd. Zooph., 168; Marktanner-Turneretscher, 1890, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 264. Hah. N.Z. ; Australia ; South x\frica. Idiiae. 66. Idia pristis. — Idia pristis, Lamouroux, 1816, Hist. Polyp. Flex., 200; Busk, 1852, Voy. of the " Eattlesnake," i., 389 ; Allman, 1883, " Challenger " Eeport, vii., 85 ; Lendenfeld, 1884, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., ix., 419; Bale, 1884, Cat. Aust. Hyd. Zooph., 113; 1888, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (ser. 2), iii., 748; 1894, Proc. Eoy. Soc. Vict, (new ser.), vi., 104 ; Marktanner-Turneretscher, 1890, Annal. des k. k. Natur. Hofm., v., 280. Dipliasia rectangular is, Lenden- feld, 1«84, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., ix., 914. * There are two species named Aglaophenia huttoni: A. huttoni, Coughtrey (see above), and A. huttoni, Kirchenpauer = Plnmularia pcn- natula, Hutton, 1872, Trans. N.Z. Inst., v., 258; Coughtrey, 1874, ib., vii., 289; A. pennatida('>), Coughtrey, 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 31. They are both given by Mr. Bale in a list of species which were over-looked by Von Lendenfeld, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., xxiii., 103. Un- fortunately I have not seen Kirchenpauer's paper, and I cannot say which name has priority and which must be changed. 468 Transactions. — Zoology. Hab. Many parts of New Zealand coast (v.L.); Aus- tralia ; Singapore. ELEUTHEEOBLASTEA. Hydridse. 67. Hydka viridis. — Hydra viridis, Linnaeus, 1767, Svst. Nat., 1320; Hincks, 1868, Hist. Brit. Hyd. Zooph., 312; Coughtrey, 1876, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. (4), xvii., 24. Hab. Ponds near Dunedin. Art. XLIV. — On the Habits of Neto Zealand Ants. By W. W. Smith, F.E.S. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd October, 1895.] At the present tune the number of endemic ants described by F. Smith, Mayr, Hutton, Forel, and Emery comprise nineteen species, representing three sub-famihes, included in nine genera and three sub-genera. Professor Forel, in his recent classification, has carefully corrected the nomencla- ture and generic arrangement of the New Zealand Formi- cidce. This is a valuable service to students of the native ants, while his masterly definitions of their specific characters should be a safe guide to theni when describing new species or varieties. Professor Emery has also lately described and figured''' a new species (Discothyrea antarctica) from New Zealand, and removed Orectognathus i^erplexiis, Sm., to the genus Struviigenys, which species now remains as S. perplexa, Sm. It is highly satisfactory to have our interesting native ants described and classified by those eminent specialists on Formicid(X. Professor Emery's observations on the occurrence of Discothyrea antarctica in New Zealand as a case illustrating^ the " cosmopolitanism and great antiquity " of most genera of the Gonerina are equally applicable to several other genera occurring at the Antipodes. The genus Huberia of Forel is represented at present by two species : H. striata, Sm., the largest native ant, occurs in large and small communities distributed over both Islands ; H. brouni, Forel, was dis- covered by Captain Broun at Eotorua, but has not as yet * Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxvii., p. G3G. Smith. — On Neiv Zealand Ants. 469 been observed in the South Island. Forel's new var. Striata nifescens was collected by Mr. A. T. Urquhart on Pirongia Mountain. Prolascus advena, Sni., occurs in large communi- ties in both Islands. Ponera castanea, Mayr; Acantlioponera brounii, Forel ; Amhhjovone cephalotis, Sm. ; A. saundersi, Forel ; Orectognathus antennatiis, Sm. ; Ponera antipoditvi, Forel; Strumi(jenysperplexa,'&xn.; and Discothyrea antarctica, Emery, have recently been collected by Captain Broun at Drury, Mercury Bay, and Rotorua, but are unknown at present in the South Island. The genus Monomorium is represented by five species, two of which are found in both Islands. M. integrum, M. suteri, and M. smithii, discovered three years ago at Ashburton, will probably also be found to inhabit the North Island. Before dealing with the habits of endemic ants and their economic and parasitic attendants, I may state that my observations apply only to the species occurring in Canterbury. As the habits of European ants have been so exhaustively treated by Huber, White, Forel, and Lubbock, it would be superfluous to enter minutely into details of the habits of the native Forviicidce. There is practically so little difference in the relative habits of the European and iVntipodean species of ants of the same genus that it will only be necessary to record the more striking or characteristic features of the latter. The five species of Monomorium all occur commonly in large and small communities, under variously-sized stones on the Canterbury Plains. Perhaps no country can show so many species of the same genus inhabiting separate nests within so small a radius. In addition to the nests of Huberia striata, the five distinct forms of Monomoria are frequently situated within a few yards of each other. The greater number of and more populous nests of Monomoria are found under stones half embedded in sandy situations sup- porting a stunted vegetation, such as we find on old river- beds and the stony upper parts of the Plains. There are several causes which apparently guide the ants in selecting these sites. The network of roots generally growing beneath the cool, damp undersides of the stones supports several species of root-feeding Coccids, which are unquestionably of consider- able economic value to ants. The removal of the loose sand or poor sandy soil from under the stones is also more easily accomplished by the ants when forming courts and tunnels than where stones are imbedded in deep, rich soil. We have occasionally found nests of M. nit id am under stones imbedded in coarse shingle where no plants grew, and which contained no Coccids or other insects — at least, so far as we could detect without molesting the whole of the nests. On the 19th November and 12th December last we examined two of these 470 Transactions. — Zoology. nests for the purpose of collecting all insects, Sec, we could find associating with the ants. In both nests we found none. Both were large communities, each numbering about eight hundred individuals. We found vast numbers of eggs and larvte in the interstices of the stones at a depth of 15in. and 16in. from the surface. In one we obtained ten queens secreted in different parts of the nest, some in cool, moist chambers 17in. down in the shingle. Excepting some frag- ments of the elytra of minute beetles and wings of flies, we could not detect any other remnants of their food. We, how- ever, have found large and small colonies situated among stunted vegetation containing considerable numbers of Coc- cids, some minute parasitic beetles {Diarthroccra fonnicvpliila, Broun), and an Acarian {Leiosoma longipilis, Moniez). Not- withstanding the closest search in the nests of all the Mono- moria, we have observed the beetles present only in the colonies of 31. nitidum and M. snteri. M. nitidum is the most active native ant, and vigorously assails all intruders near its nest. Huheria striata, Smith, is the largest endemic ant. Al- though it exists in fair-sized colonies on the old river-beds on the Plains, the largest are met with in limestone districts, or in warm rocky valleys near the main range. At Albury immense colonies exist beneath detached pieces of limestone lying among the tussock at the base of the whole length of the sloping bed of debris beneath the great rocks. Owing to the vast numbers of ants in the nests it was frequently difficult to examine their structure or collect the economic or other insects found associating with them. In many of the nests I found considerable numbers of the pretty little shell Laoma haasti, Hutton, lying in the courts and tracks of the ants. Some were bleached, and all were empty; but whether they had crept into the nests or been carried there by the ants I am unable to say. The mollusc is extremely common among the broken rocks, and I am inclined to believe that they were carried into the nests by the ants for food. I rarely found them under stones where there were no ants, and these were generally alive. One important fact which serves to ' illustrate the effect of situation on the economy of ants is that we never observed Coccids in their nests in the neighbour- hood of the rocks. The latter is covered in parts with low vegetation, and generally teems with insect -life, especially beetles, whose elytra we found in quantities in the ants' nests. At Ashburton and on many parts of the Plains this fine ant exists in smaller colonies, and is almost invariably found associating with a large yellow subterranean Coccid {Dacty- lojjms arcccB, Maskell). The latter is a root-feeder, and occurs plentifully on the roots of Pimelea, Carmichcelia, Discaria, Smith. — On New Zealand Ants. 471 AccBiia viicrophylla, aud many other plants growing in poor situations. In the bottoms of some of the valleys of the Gawler Downs, Mount Somers, I have met with very large colonies under stones lying among the mixed vegetation. On the roots of Phnelea, Poa, and other plants were groups of a large slate-coloured form of Dactylopius poce, Maskell. They were firmly attached to the roots, and did not appear to be molested by the ants. In order to test their relations I care- fully detached a few and dropped them in the midst of the throng of excited ants. They were instantly seized by workers and carried into the dark galleries. On one occasion we noticed some extremely minute transparent- winged flies rise from the underside of the stone when turned over. The nest contained over sixty adult females of D. jmcb, and possibly these minute flies were the males of this Coccid. The presence of certain plants in some localities explains the presence of ants' nests near them. The roots of Accena micropJujlla are particularly liable to the attacks of D. arecce, and a species of root-feeding white woolly Aj)his. Both insects are a great attraction to this ant, which forms clear passages alongside the Aphis- and Coccid-infested roots. These tracks are frequently traversed by the ants who attend on and obtain food from these rhizophagous insects. I have occasionally observed the ants moving leisurely over the Aphis and Coccids, gently stroking them with their antennae, and moving their woolly and cottony secretions. The latter when freshly secre- ted unquestionably contains a sweetish moisture, which attracts the ants, and is much relished by them. The three economic insects alluded to above are the only species we have observed in the nests of, or being attended by, this fine ant. It is an enchanting scene in ant-life to gently turn over a large stone and look into a populous colony of H. striata. From Sep- tember to January the courts and galleries of the nests con- tain groups of eggs and larvae of different ages. When the light and air is admitted the eggs and larvae are rapidly seized by the workers and borne aw^ay to places of safety in the inner galleries of the nest. The queens are very timid, and disappear into their chambers immediately the stone is raised. When examining the structure of the galleries we have occa- sionally found it difficult to trace the queens to their hiding- places in the nest. The galleries generally ramify in many directions, and often to considerable depths, especially when the site of the nest is on stony ground. I have observed young winged queens, males, and neuters of H. striata appearing earlier in their nests than in the nests of all other species occurring in Canterbury. They begin to appear about the 10th November, and continue to add to their number until they swarm m February. A calm, sultry day is chosen for 472 2'ransactions. — Zoology. this great event in ant-life. If viewed in the sunshine a few days before svvarniing, the throng of busy ants with ghsten- ing wings presents a charming picture of social life among insects. Huber describes the attention bestowed by the neuters of some European ants on young queens during their development. In large colonies of H. striata it is a common occurrence to find queens in course of transform- ing lying in the common tracks and courts of the nests. I have frequently observed the males and workers run over and pass them by unnoticed, especially in the pupal stage. Whe- ther the care of young queens is allotted to particular indi- viduals I am unable to say. I have, however, seen a large worker seize the pupse and carry them into one gallery. In the nest in question thr-ee pupal queens lay in different parts of courts. When the worker seized the first pupa I touched it gently with red ink to enable us to clearly observe its movements among the host of ants. After an absence in the gallery of two minutes it appeared, walked rapidly along the track where the pupal queen lay, then turned almost at a right angle along another track for about 5in., seized another young pupal queen and took the same track back into the gallery where it placed the first. In two minutes more it again appeared, and, taking the one track, passed the entrance on the right where it picked up the second pupa, and, pro- ceeding along another track to the right, seized a tliird pupal queen and bore it away with the clearest deliberation into the same gallery where the previous two were taken. The question of the allotment of labour among ants is one often discussed. The preservation of their young is an instinct common to the vvorkers of all social ants. In communities of ants, like those of the higher groups of animals, more intelli- gent individuals will often occur. The removal of these young queens by the single individual showed very clearly its own undoubted intelligence and instinct for their preservation. In all probability the same ant had previously placed them in the tracks where they lay when we raised the stone. The case further illustrates the reasoning sentient powers of social ants. Huber cites a case of several workers being employed constructing a portion of a new nest. A single ant approached them and communicated his thoughts, whereupon the work done was pulled down and reconstructed on a better plan. The instinct of the preservation of their young exists in the minds of ants apart from their many intelligent habits which ai'e unquestionably acquired during their existence. The fol- lowing case, which occurred with a nest of Huberia striata, is another case m point. On 2nd November, 1892, Mr. T. Sealy, of Tinwald, informed me that he had seen a number of ants busy removing eggs from tlieir nest situated under stones on Smith. — On New Zealand Ants. 473 the Asliburton River-bed. We visited the place on tlie 4th, and found the ants inhabiting much higher ground than when Mr. Sealy observed them migrating two days previously. The object of removing the eggs was perfectly clear. The river had been slowly rising for several days before Mr. Sealy noticed them removing their eggs, and the water had pene- trated the coarse shingle to within a few inches of the old site of the nest the day we examined it. It is worthy of note that our native ants, although long isolated from other regions, are in no sense inferior in intelligence to those existing in other countries. Too niuch stress is laid on instinct by writers in guiding the habits of social insects. Monomoriuvi antarcUcum, White { — M. fulvum, Mayr), occurs plentifully in both Islands. I have met with large communities of this ant under stones in open situations in Westland. They, however, exist in larger communities on the eastern side of the Alps, especially on the outskirts of the bush, and in warm valleys of the lower hills bounding the Plains. Like H. striata, they haunt the habitats of subter- ranean Coccids, and may frequently be seen gently stroking them with their antenna. I have frequently observed workers seize large females of D. pace and remove them to places of safety. When studying the habits of ants it is important to gently raise the stones covering their nests. By doing so an excellent glimpse of the natural conditions of the nests is obtained. If this is practised on a calm, dull day the ants do not so readily become excited as they do on sunny or windy days. In some of the nests where Coccids were numerous we noticed the ants foi- a few seconds removing the soft cottony secretion from them. It is a common occurrence to see many of the ants moving about the nest with minute pai-ticles of the fine cottony substance adhering to their heads and mandibles. Where Coccid- {D. arecie) and Aphis-infested roots of Acana microphylla are found in patches on the Ashburton Eiver-bed they are attended by this ant, who treat these parasitic insects with care, gently stroking them with the antennae, and mani- pulating the cottony secretions with the mandibles. My friend Mr. A. Brooks informs me that this species occurs in the bush at Danevirke in very large communities. Excepting the brighter colours of the specimens sent to me from Dane- virke there is no other feature to distinguish them from speci- mens collected on the Plains. In the INIount Somers district this ant is found in the autumn in greater numbers in spider- webs than other species of Monomoria, and the same fact is recorded by Mr. G. V. Hudson from the WeUingtou District. M. nitidmn, Smith : In addition to the foregoing remarks on this interesting ant I have to refer to some curious Coc- 474 Transactions. — Zoology. cids, Acarians, Thysanura, and Coleoptera occurring in their nests. Mr. Maskell has described and figured''' Ripersia formi- cicola, and made some suggestive remarks on this Coccid in relation to ants. On this question he stated that " There appears to be a general consensus of opinion that Aphides are made use of by ants for their honey-dew, or, as frequently stated, employed as ' milch-cows ' ; but this is the first in- stance that I know of where ants and Coccids dwell together, and the quantity of honey-dew secreted by the Bipersia cannot be very great. ... It would be interesting to know whether in other countries Coccids are found under similar conditions, and, if so, how the ants and they mutually behave to each other." These very suggestive remarks on the mutual relations of ants and Coccids dwelling amicably together has created a general interest among students of the Coccidce. There has lately been an earnest and extensive search made for Coccids in the nests of British and Continental ants, with the result that another new species {Eipersia tomlini, New- stead) was discovered by Miss Tomlin in an ant's nest in the Island of Jersey. Other new species belonging to different genera have also been discovered associating with ants in England, and have lately been described by Mr. Newstead. When the first specimens were sent to Mr. Maskell we had not previously examined the ants' nests to ascertain the pos- sible number of BipiersicB in each. Since reading Mr. Maskell's paper, three years ago, we have made a minute and prolonged search for Bipersice in the nests of all the known Monomoria. On first turning over a stone covering a nest w'e have observed from three to thirty-two Bipersice inhabiting the tracks and courts. When air and light is admitted into the nest these minute insects begin to move about, seeking concealment. When they are not seized and carried away by the ants they will occasionally walk unassisted into the galleries. They are frequently found moving about on the under-surface of the stone covering the nest. We have often raised the stone off the nest and witnessed the ants along with the Coccids seize the latter and carry them about for several minutes all over its surface. We have laid the stone down and allowed the ants to escape, when they generally went in a direct line for the nest and carried the Coccids into the galleries. In a paper " On the Origin of Ants' Nests"! I have dis- cussed the question of the presence of numerous Coccids under stones as frequently forming the basis of ants' nests. In referring to several points I wrote, " I have mentioned the presence of Aphides and Coccids feeding on the roots * Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxiv., p. 38. t Entomologists' Monthly Magazine, second series, vol. iii., p. 60. Smith. — On Neio Zealand Ants. 475 beneath the boulders as forming au economic basis for the origin of the ants' nests. The cool damp undersides of the boulders naturally draw the roots of plants and attract their parasites to them, while at the same time they afford the requisite conditions for establishing young communities of the ants. The latter instinctively search for these sites, and w^hile thus engaged several of the sexes meet and associate together to form new nests. Beneath some of the stones we have often observed where they had only commenced to excavate their galleries, and we have seen others in course of progress — from the most rudimentary to the highly-finished and numerous galleries in the nests of the old and flourishing communities. When the work of excavating the galleries has commenced the ants do not readily desert the site, and they bestow great care on the domestic or economic inhabitants of their nests." These remarks applied chiefly to M. nitidum ; and, although I mention having examined two nests situated in rough shingle which contained no Coccids, they are, as a rule, applicable to the origin of the nests of this species. We have counted eighty-four Coccids (B . formicicola) with a single colony, and probably we missed many more when digging up the shingly site of the nest. After a patient search for several years among hundreds of nests we have not discovered this peculiar Coccid elsewhere than in ants' nests. The curious beetle Diarthrocera formiciphila, Broun, we observed in tlie imago state associating with ants. Professor E. Moniez has lately described and figured an Acarian [Leiosoma longipiUis) and two Thysanura {Drepavtira hrachycephala and Lipura incerta) found associating with Monomoria in New Zealand. Two more species {Entomohrjja multifasciata, TuUb., and Achoratis armatus, Nic, Tullb.) were also among the insects sent to Professor Moniez. These latter species he considers occur accidentally in ants' nests. M. s^tteri, Forel, is a somewhat smaller ant than M. nitidum, but of very similar habits. Large and small communities of this glossy-black species exist under boulders on the Ashburton Eiver-bed. Like the preceding species, they haunt and protect colonies of Coccids parasitic on the roots of several plants. B. formicicola occurs abundantly in their nests, the white, cottony fringes of this minute Coccid rendering it a con- spicuous object among the bustling ants. Although D. poce is commonly found on the roots of several species of Pon, it attacks the I'oots of other plants, and occurs plentifully on roots under stones in nests of this ant. I have seen the adult females walking leisurely about the courts of the nest, where there were no roots near, each covered with masses of a white cottony substance. Twice have I noticed the little black ants struggling ineffectually to cai*ry off some of these large Coccids. 476 Transactions. — Zoology. After several failures to do so the ant turned, walked back- wards, and dragged the Coccids into the galleries. We have found nests situated under large boulders lying on fine sand, with no roots penetrating them, which contained several dozen adult females of R. formicicola. It is a common occurrence to find numbers of this Coccid, in all stages of development, attached to roots in the nests. I, however, can only con- jecture that these adult Coccids were brought into these nests by the ants from elsewhere. They walk freely about the ti'acks and courts, but on what they subsist, in the absence of roots, 1 ani at present unable to say. When viewed with a strong lens the walks and courts of the nests of this species exhibit the perfection of workmanship. In some of the nests we have observed groups of minute yellow eggs, together with clusters of those of the normal colour — white or reddish-white. On the 10th October, 1892, we found several nests, all close together, containing clusters of queen eggs, or those which develope into queens, while only a few worker - eggs wei-e observed in the nests. In all ants' nests it is a simple matter to distinguish these eggs, chiefly from their size, and different periods of time required for their development. My knowledge of the latter is too imperfect at present to enter into details of their development. I, however, hope to be able to deal with this question in a future paper. M. integrum, Forel, recently described, is the rarest species of the genus— at least, in the neighbourhood of Ashburton. Except in size, it closely resembles M. s uteri, and is of similar habits. I have observed the two Coccids, B. formicicola and D. 'poce, in two nests which we examined, under stones on the river-bed, a few miles above Ashburton. In structure it is a more slender and graceful form than any of the preceding species. At present I am unable to give full details of its habits. M. smithii, Forel, is the smallest species of the native Mono- moria. It exists generally in small communities on the river- bed here, and is readily distinguishable from all the native ants by its minute size and clear brown colour. The nests generally occur on sandy situations, among stunted vegetation, which support the Coccids associating with the ants. B. for- micicola associates with them, and is tenderly carried off by the workers when the stone is raised off the nests. In young colonies which contain few eggs it is a common mode of con- cealment to rapidly burrow into and disappear in the fine sand on the bottom of the nest. The smallest nest of this ant we have noticed contained one queen, one male, and five neuters. As the colonies increase in numbers during the summer, dozens of adult females of the mmute star-like Coccid, B. formicicola, are occasionally found leisurely walk- Smith. — 0)i New Zealand Ants. 4:77 iug about in the nests. The Acavians and Thysanura, ah-eady mentioned, are generally found in the nests of this species. On the 28th November, 1893, we discovered a somewhat large colony under a stone lying near some plants of Carmichcslia nana. The roots of the latter were growhig under the stone, and were badly infested with the Bvpersia. The fine sand had been removed from under the roots, and left them clear in the nest. Attached to the roots were numbers of BIpersics, some of which the workers seized and removed to dark recesses in the nest. The ants had to climb up about 2in. of tlie perpendicular side of the nest to reach the horizontal roots. They each seized a Coccid, returned back along the root, walked down the wall, and disappeared into the recesses of the nest. It is therefore clear that the habit of preserving Coccids in their nests is general among the native Monomoria. Mr. Maskell states that the secretions yielded by these minute Coccids cannot be much. The species preserved by the ants are perhaps the only subterranean forms which secrete sweet, or at least edible, substances, so much sought after by the ants. Even the small amount secreted by some species is apparently sufficient to warrant our minute ants in protecting and preserving them in their nests. B. formicicola is a beau- tiful object when examined alive on a shaded field of the microscope. Prolascus advena, Smith {= Formica advena, Smith; Preno- lopis advena, Mayr) : This peculiar ant is not uncommon on the Canterbury Plains. It is generally found in very large colonies, especially in limestone districts and in warm, rocky valleys sheltered from cold winds. The same habit of haunt- ing tiie habitats of Coccids holds good with this as with the preceding species. As this ant is somewhat I'are about Ash- burton, I have not been able to study its habits and economy so fully as other species. It is a very timid and excitable ant, and no sooner is the stone raised off their nests than they present a scene of bustle and excitement. I have only twice seen them carrying Coccids about in their nests: but any further remarks on this ant I withhold for the present. Sivanning of Ants. — The calm, sultry days of February and March bring forth vast swarms of young ants to seek "fresh woods and pastures new" wherein to establish young colonies. For weeks before they take flight the nests are crowded with winged ants awaiting the proper time and natural conditions to do so. Seven years ago I recorded in the Field our meeting with a vast swarm of M. nitidum when driving across the Plains from Ashburton to Mount Somers. When we met the swarm we were moving at a walking-pace, and halted to witness it passing over us. In a few seconds horse, trap, and occupants were covered with minute winged ants. I alighted 478 Transactiona. — Zoology. anrl went towards the wire fence, which was also covered with milhons of ants from the swarm. Many had cast their wings, while others again took flight and mingled with the dense swarm. The densest part of the swarm appeared to be about 6ft. to 10ft. from the ground, and flew at the rate of perhaps a mile an hour. As they proceeded numbers kept dropping out of the Hight, and alighted on the tussocks, shook off their wings, and disappeared in the grass. As a natural means of distribution, the dispersion of immense swarms like the one under notice would thickly people with ants the line of country it passed over. An immense swarm of this nature could only be formed by the union of numerous nests which would be advantageous to the species. After the flight the queens meet and associate with males from other nests, and establish new colonies. When referring in my former paper''' to the general economy of the Tetramoria I stated that, " In order to ascer- tain if the Tetramoria form granaries or otherwise store food in summer and autunni for winter use, w^e have carefully examined many old nests in the months of April and May, but in no instance did we discover any food stored ; we, how^- ever, have noticed a greater number of Aphides and Coccids in their nests during winter than in summer or autumn, and I think it probable that they are brought into the nests by the ants before the winter from beneath the adjacent stones." I have often observed ants with Coccids, excepting Paper- sice, under stones apart from their nests. Owing to the pre- sence of numerous rhizophagous Coccids — and in some cases Aphides — I am inclined to believe tliat these minute ants never possessed the instinct or knowledge of storing food. The milder climate and shorter winters at the Antipodes favour the ants in procuring food. When the relations of ants aiid Coccids are perfectly known, it will be found, I believe, that their mutual dependence will be, in many instances, more general, especially in temperate climates. The following case, from the report of the Inspector of the Cape (South African) vineyards for 1886, is of interest: "I have met with," the Inspector wrote, " a very singular subterranean Coccid, both at Moddergat and at the Praal, attended upon in one case by a small ant, Acantholopis capensis." The mutual relations of ants and Coccids, of ants and Aphides and the larvae of several species of butterflies and other insects, require further investigation. In the case of some subterranean Coccids, they must belong to very ancient forms, especially so as spe- cies of the same genus are found in ants' nests in both hemi- spheres. * Loc. cit., p. 64. Phillips. — On tlie Comb of the Hive-bee. 479 I have now to thank Mr. Maskell, Captain Broun, and Professors Forel and Emery for naming and describing the new species of Coccids, Coleoptera, and ants submitted to them respectively. To Mr. H. Suter, who took much interest and trouble in forwarding the ants to Europe, my thanks are also due. Abt. XLV. — 0)1 the Construction of the Comb of the Hive-bee. By Coleman Phillips. [^Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, Mh September, 1895.] During the past autumn, whilst shifting my bee-boxes, I disturbed a couple of hives to such an extent that the bees deserted them. These boxes were really double hives (two boxes to each hive), with a hole, 3^in. square, leading from the lower to the upper box. I had consequently a good opportunity of carefully examining the deserted comb in the lower boxes, which I will name A and B. To my surprise I noticed that the square hole in the top of box A had been bridged across by two walls of comb, whilst in box B a comb- bridge leading straight across the hole had only just been begun. This was all the comb in box B. Box A, it will be noticed, is almost full of comb, lines of it stretching from sid.e to side, and two of these across the square hole, proving that, in both instances, the bees, having ap- parently satisfied themselves of the dimensions of the holes, ignored them completely, and relied upon the bridging-powers of their comb-construction to span the distances. The fact that in box B the new line of comb (which, when complete, would stretch from side to side of the box) had been begun directly at the aperture, and the bridge of comb at once thrown straight across, almost reaching to the other side, shows how thoroughly the bees recognised the obstacle, seeing that they had the whole of the box at their disposal in which to start operations. Darwin makes no reference to these honeycomb bridges in his " Origin of Species." All that great writer does is to strive his utmost to show that the comb of the hive-bee arose in accordance with his great theory of natural selection. He enters very fully into the cell-making instinct of the hive-bee. He cites other authorities to support his theory, which, if wrong in this instance, is certainly wrong throughout liis 480 Transactions. — Zoology whole work. So completely do I disagree with the theory as explaining the origin of species, so certain am I that there is another force, energy, or intelligence in nature far superior to it (which I have named "a common vital force") — an intelligence that acts equally upon all living things throughout the whole universe we see around us — that I have determined to pin Darwin down to his own words in regard to this one matter of the cell-making instinct of bees, and to show, to the best of my ability, how the theory of natural selection fails to explain anything at all regarding bee-life — • why it should, in some respects, resemble the busy life of a human community, or this wonderful specimen of what is called "instinct" in the construction of honeycomb. Often- times have my friends said to me, "Look how well Darwin explains his principle of evolution by natural selection in the superiority of the hive-bee cell to that of the humble- bee ! " I propose now to ask members whether he tells us anything at all in this one special matter. The following is Darwin's conclusion to his section (cap. viii., p. 227, " Origin of Species"): "Thus, I believe, the most wonderful of all known instincts, that of the hive-bee, can be explained by natural selection having taken adviintage of numerous, successive, slight modifications of simpler in- stincts ; natural selection having by slow degrees more and more perfectly led the bees to sweep equal spheres at a given distance from each other in a double layer, and to build up and excavate the wax along the planes of iiitersection ; the bees, of course, no more knowing that they sivept their spheres at one 2^'^^Ti'i<^ular distance from each other than they knoiv tvhat are the several angles of the hexagonal j^fisnis and of the basal rhovibic plates ; the motive-power of the process of natural selection having been the construction of cells of due strength and of the proper size and shape for the larvae, this being effected with the greatest possible economy of labour and wax; that individual swarm which thus made the best cells with least labour, and least waste of honey in the secre- tion of wax, having succeeded best, and having transmitted their newly-acquired economical instincts to new swarms, which in their turn will have had the best chance of succeed- ing in the struggle for existence." Nothing can be plainer or more emphatic than these words as explaining the theory of natural selection. I have italicised certain words in order not only to show how mistaken this conclusion was, but also to emphasize the existence of this con- stant guiding vital intelligence, of which Darwin took no ac- count. There is no reference to the words, " vital intelligence or force " in Darwin's index. It is of no moment whether he himself compiled the index or the index was compiled for him : Phillips. — On tlie Comb of tlic Hive-bee. iSl I should certainly think he supervised it. But it is quite plain that so little was thought of these two words that they were omitted from the index. In his conclusion Darwin certainly continues with the words, "the motive-power of the process of natural selection," as being sufficient to account for the cell- construction of the hive-bee ; but no person has yet granted natural selection to be a motive-power. Every one admits that vital intelligence is a motive-power, because we all ex- perience it, although we do not know what it really is; and we can all further admit that natural selection is one method by which that intelligence acts, subject, however, to the higher law of progressive adaptation of species. That is to say, that each species, like a magic puzzle, has in itself the power to change, to adapt itself, to build cell on cell, by a thousand thousand differeiit modifications, so as to enable it to suit itself to new environments. I pointed this out in section iii. of my paper — ■" Potentiality of Divergence.""^' The bridging principle of construction in the comb of the hive-bee can be seen at a glance in both boxes on the table. There is no simple cell-construction in the bold manner in which the bees throw their comb straight across the two holes — no simple "sweeping of equal spheres from respective dis- tances." Again, it will be observed that the walls of comb stand at certain distances from each other — never less than three lines, but usually six lines — that being, I suppose, as far as the bees can reach between wall and wall of comb. Surely the bees know what they are doing when rigidly keeping the different lines of comb at these stated distances. For it will be observed that, no matter how the bases of the hanging walls of comb start, whether in straight or diagonal lines, each single wall rarely approaches a neighbouring wall within three lines. These bases, indeed, can start anywhere in the box, because the bees evidently possess two separate pieces of knowledge amongst many others : (1) The average length of the rhombus or cell to accommodate the larvae ; (2) the dis- tance to be observed between the walls of growing comb. Possessing these two pieces of knowledge, which Darwin does not credit the bees with, as well as the "instinct of the sweep- ing of spheres " to form the cells, which he does credit them with, the bees can fill in a space anywhere in the box. The result always is that a box becomes filled with walls of live comb at stated distances apart, and the two layers of cells of fairly equal lengths. But should a growing wall of comb come in contact with a neighbouring wall, as sometimes happens, that contact is immediately stopped, and the point of contact forms a stay. It will be observed that these stays Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1893, p. 611. 31 ■482 Transactions. — Zoology. are numerous round the sides of the box. This is evidently to strengthen the walls of comb and keep them firm, the stays rarely impeding the free passing of the bees round the hive. In Article Ixxi. of our Transactions of 1893, " Spiders as Engineers," I pointed out how beautifully spiders stayed their webs, and showed, moreover, that some of our own susj)en- sion-bridges (notably the one in Hobson Street, Wellington) are stayed exactly in a similar manner. Now, if any person closely examines box A he will observe somewhat similar stays all round the box, but rarely between the walls of comb. What, then, is the intelligence that guides insects and animals to stay their constructions in this way? Wherein does the theory of natural selection account for it ? Does nature, under that theory, thin out all the variations of the different species until only those survive which know how to adopt this principle of staying? For that is the constant argument: "Only those survive that have been naturally selected to survive." Now, granting this argument, under the higher law of pi-ogressive adaptation, how does the theory account for such widely-dif- ferent species as man, spiders, and bees using almost the same principle in staying their widely-different structures? For, whether the stay is made of wax, web, or iron, there the prin- ciple is all the same. To say that " Similarity of object leads to similarity of means " implies that there is in nature a previously-existing method or means to a particular end for all species. Furthermore, it will be observed that the walls of comb run fairly straight : so that bees know how to make fairly straight hnes, as well as how to make bridges. I do not say ihat every wall is absolutely straight — there are curves in some — but the tendency is to run straight lines. Of the three centre lines of comb in box A, the bees, it will be observed, had a guide for two of the walls in the little gap where the two boards forming the top of the box should have closely met. The third wall, of course, followed the centre wall near the gap after it had been constructed. The reason for the diagonal walls is not clear. I have seen boxes of comb with all the walls fairly parallel and straight excepting in one corner, where the beautiful white comb forming the queen's home is built. This comb is usually built dia- gonally, perhaps for purposes of easier defence should an enemy invade the hive. The fact of aiming at straight lines at all, even in the diagonal walls, shov^-s a bee's further know- ledge, which Darwin ignored. I do not for one moment mean to say that the principle of natural or artificial selection is absolutely non-existent in nature. What I mean is that in the higher law of progressive adaptation of species, natural selection plays, as I have said, only a minor part. Phillips. — On tlie Comb of the Hive-bee. 483 I may be allowed here to digress for one moment to give an example of progressive development which forms one phase of progressive iidaptation as distinct from the theory of natural selection. It was formerly supposed that a very minute crustaceous animal inhabiting the open sea, named Zoea, was totally distinct from the genus Megalopa, which again was sup- posed to be totally distinct from every known genus of Crus- tacea. Gosse very clearly points out that " These conclusions were set aside by the brilliant discovery of Dr. Vaughan Thompson that Zoea and Megalopa were the same animal in different stages of existence ; and that, moreover, both were but the early states of well-known and familiar forms of larger Crustacea, which therefore undergo a metamorphosis as com- plete as that by which tlie caterpillar changes to a chrysalis and the chrysalis to a butterfly, and in every essential point parallel to it. In the Cove of Cork Dr. Thompson met with a considerable number of Zoeas, which he kept in captivity. Some of these changed into the Megalopa form, which in turn changed to the most abundant of all our larger Crustacea, the common shore-crab (Garciims mcenas). Thus, in its progress from the egg to its final development, the crab was forced to pass through two temporary conditions, which had previously been regarded as types not of genera only, but of diliferent families, and both strikingly dissimilar from the group to which, in its perfect state, it belongs." Here we have an example of progressive development which quite puzzled Darwin himself under his ow^n theory. But w^e know of many other instances of peculiar stages of development in nature to which the theory of natural selection does not at all apply, and I propose to refer to them later on. But let us proceed. It will be observed that the sides of the comb-walls — the ends of the layers — are finished off almost in perfect planes. Pass the fingers carefully over them, and, UD matter whether the distances between the walls be three, five, seven, or nine lines (for my non-scientific hearers I may explain that twelve lines go to the inch), it will be seen how beautifully the bees know when to cease the length of the cell or rhomb. (In geometry a rhomb or rhombus is an oblique- angled equilateral parallelogram.) Here is a further piece of knowledge on the bees' part of which Darwin took no account. I may explain that it is by the dexterous use of their stings that the bees finish off and cap their cells, injecting a minute portion of formic acid into the honey as the cell is filled and closed. This acid is really the poison of their stings, and it imparts to the honey its peculiar flavour and keeping-qualities. The sting is an exquisitely-contrived little trowel, and it greatly helps in giving the plane surface to the sides of the layers. I may further be allowed to say that to describe the cylindrical 484 Transactions. — Zoology. tongue of the bee, which laps up the honey, ahnost exceeds, according to Suammerdam and Gosse, the utmost efforts of human knowledge. Now, hold a piece of comb up to the light, or break off a piece. It will be observed that the cells forming each side of the comb-wall — the two layers — do not start from the same base. The hexagon is not continued straight through the wall, but is broken in the centre, forming the basal rhombic plate. This I take to be the most marvellous work of con- struction in the comb ; for here the bees know exactly how to break the joint, for the special purpose, I suppose, of giving strength to the comb-walj and to the two opposite cells. There is no " blind sweeping of equal spheres at stated dis- tances" in this breaking of the joint, for the bees know exactly how to place and plane the basal plates and angles out of the wax so as to perform this most delicate and wonderful principle of construction. Therefore, whatever the guiding principle of construction in nature may be which controls such a work, the principle of natural selection is not within a thousand miles of it. We can admit, for the sake of argument, that there may be a principle of natural selection— I do not for one moment say there is — between the simple cocoons of the humble-bee and the cells of the hive-bee, of which the cell of the Mexican MelijMna domestica is the intermediate stage. This is what we are asked to admit. Pierre Huber, however, who has carefully described and figured the cell of Melipona domestica, calls it a " gross imitation" of the three-sided pyra- midal base of the cell of the hive-bee. Darwin ignored these words completely, and made use of Huber's name as a sup- port for his theory. But what has this very short series of natural-selection stages — (so very short a one, with so few examples, and these so very uncertain, that I am completely surprised Darwin did not himself candidly admit his w^ant of proof, in place of taking it for granted that w^e should accept his theory as a matter of course : he, moreover, drawing in the name of Professor Nyman to support his assumption by the statement that " the accuracy of the workmanship of the bee has been greatly exaggerated ") — what even has this short series to do with breaking the joint at the base of each cell ? Surely the bases might have been equal in the layers for the starting of the sides of each rhombus ! But they are not so, and the bees know that they are not to be so, just as surely as the horse-bot knows that the safest place to deposit its eggs is just beneath the horse's chin. Evolutionists will, of course, say that the horse-bot has been naturally selected to do this. I propose to expose the fallacy of such an argument later on. It is not necessary for me to go into tlie actual details of the cell-making, the gathering of the honey and the secretion Phillips. — On the Comb of the Hive-bee. 485 of the wax, its deposit, working and planing off into hexagonal or basal plates. An observer must watch the bees at w^ork in a glass hive, or read any bee-book upon the subject. The sets of combs on the bees' hind feet for scraping up the pollen, and the little baskets or paniers on the tibia joints immediately above these combs for carrying it to the hive, are so wonder- ful in their construction that I can only marvel at this one display of Divine intelligence. My mind positively recoils from ascribing it to any blind principle of natural selection I will admit a slight "sweeping of equal spheres at given distances," because the bees have to work in the dark by feel and sound, and to economize space. There are, I think, one or two other senses than ours amongst bees, of which we at pre- sent know little or nothing. In referring to this point Gosse says, " The comparative moisture or dryness of the atmo- sphere, delicate clianges in its temperature, in its density ; the presence of gaseous exhalations ; the proximity of solid bodies indicated by subtle vibrations of the air; the height above the earth at which flight is performed, measured basometrically ; the various electrical conditions of the atmosphere ; and per- haps many other physical diversities which cannot be classed under sight, sound, smell, taste, or touch, and which may be altogether unappreciable, and therefore altogether inconceiv- able, by us." To which I may add now the " sembling " of insects, more especially that of the oak egger-moth {Lasio- campa quercits). But there are a hundred marvels of vital action, energy, or intelligence connected with a bee-hive^such as the bees always turning their faces to the queen (just as man does to his queen) as^ she moves through the hive ; their choice of a queen, and all the struggles consequent thereupon; their building a palace of beautiful comb for the queen, and its strategical defence ; their killing off the drones or superfluous bees before the winter sets in ; their crooning the night before swarming, just as men and women croon and cry when they have to leave their parent homes ; their sw^arming, and their hanging about in the vicinity of the parent hive for two or three days in order to see whether man will put them in a box and place them near their birthplace ; their harmlessness whilst waiting about, and the ease by which an experienced bee- taker can sweep them with his bare hand into their new hive, &c. All these things rest upon the immutable principles of a guiding vital intelligence, from which natural selection is as far removed as the sun from the earth. All this is done by what we have perhaps mistakenly named "instinct." But closely examine the new swarm when clustering upon a bough — there is little danger, as bees rarely sting during swarming time — it will be observ'ed that the individual bees are constantly on the move ; those on the inside coming to 486 Transactions. — Zoology. the outside of the cluster, and those upon the outside going inwards to reheve those holding on to the hough, and to give them a spell from bearing the heavy weight of the cluster. The young bees, new to life, know that it is their bounden duty to do this, and not to go flying about seeking honey. "Will any person for one moment say that the bees have been taught to do this sensible work by the principle of natural selection ? — that only those bees have survived which have known how to swarm properly ? Or will they not admit with me that there is some guiding energy or intelligence which tells the young bees how to swarm now, as it has told them for a million years, and just as it tells them how to plane and shape the basal rhombic plates of their cells? It will be noticed in box A that the hanging wall of comb grows downwards until it reaches the bench upon which the box rests within a distance of about -^in. Pass a straight- edge over the box and this space will at once be seen. This space is left for ventilation and room in the hive. The bees have to think of proper ventilation just as we have. On very warm, calm days a certain number stand at the entrance to their hives and convert themselves into miniature air-fans by rapid vibration of their wings. No doubt the comb-walls are constructed to afford a free ventilating- space. The cell there- fore lengthens outwards as the comb -wall descends, the wall itself usually having a sharp edge, which is the first form- ing of the basal rhombic plates. But, no matter how these wonderful basal plates start, the rhomb or cell very slightly curves outwards from them, and lengthens to its proper position in the layer. There appears to be only one set of basal plates in the comb-wall, even when one side of the wall is lengthened to three times the ordinary length of the cell so as to form a stay. Of course, there cannot well be more, otherwise there would be a closed and vacant cell in the centre of the wall. The bees know quite well how and when to make their cells of different lengths as circumstances require. In this a most marvellous intelHgence is displayed, the cells having to vary by gradation from the ordinary to three times their ordinary length. The mere fact of lengthen- ing the cell into different lengths as required shows that there is a guiding principle at work far removed from the mere " blind sweeping of equal sphei'es at stated distances." The bees work from cell to cell, from base and angle, with mathe- matical precision, leaving the whole wall a perfectly-finished, work. The marvel lies in this continuity of simplicity in the angular construction, proving undoubtedly to any unprejudiced mind that there is no blindness whatever in the bees' mode of working. But can it be said that the hexagonal cell is the result Phillips. — On the Cottch of the Hive-bee. 487 of a sweeping of an equal sphere at all? Examtne the cell. It is six-sided, almost mathematically correct. The basal plates of the rhomb do not form a plane, but contain three faces or oblique angles too, so that I cannot see where the " sweeping of equal spheres" finds place in this construction. They may start the cell by sweeping a sphere, but there is no sphere left by the time the cell is finished. The bees measure the cell-distances in the layer by the size of their own bodies ; and then tlie prmciple of construction is hexagonal and not circular. The cell of the humble-bee is circular ; that of Melipona domestica civcw\a.\', and oftentimes a "gross imita- tion of the cell of the hive-bee." But can any person say that the cell of the hive-bee is not the proper cell, devised and perfected by nature, and that the humble-bee cell and that of. Melipona are only variations? As a rule, it is the humble-bee that drives the hive bee away. What ground, then, has Darwin for applying his theory to this construction at all ? Do his instances prove his argument? Can they not be read entirely the other way — namely, that they are but degraded variations of the proper cell? And if we find that Darwin has been absolutely mistaken in applying his theory to this one insect, what value are we to attach to his other instances of proof? The cell of the humble-bee ought to be far and away superior to the cell of the hive-bee, but it is not so. Darwin, moreover, names it as " the most wonderful of all known instincts, that of the hive-bee." In my opinion he is wrong. The ant shows a far more wonderful display of what is called " instinct." I shall refer later on to the ant. The bee, ant, spider, and man show similar knowledge of exactly similar subjects. To say that the bee works without this knowledge, but simply owing to " blind evolution by natural selection, having taken advantage of numerous successive slight modifications of simpler instincts" (which modifications and instances are not given), is to me a proposition quite un- tenable. A hive swarms. A certain number of the older bees may, or may not, accompany the queen and the young bees. These may or may not teach the new swarm how to begin their labours and use their little planes— like our carpenter's planes — to level off and reduce to a uniform thickness the walls of their cells. And let it be noted, how beautiful and perfect the wall of the hexagon is — never breaking into an adjoining cell, but a perfectly watertight compartment for holding its store of honey, food, or young larvae. In my opinion there is no ne- cessity for the young brood to be taught how to go to work any more than it is taught how to sv?arm. In the realm of nature throughout the whole universe we see around us, certain com- mon vital laws rule. A young hive-bee goes to work with its 488 Transactions. — Zoology. little tools and builds its cell in the most cheery confidence, because it knows that food in flowers has been provided for it, and because it has been designed to build the cell exactly in this special manner to store its food. It has been as much designed to do this as it has been designed to fertilise plants. Will any person who objects to the word "designed" kindly explain how it is that numerous species of plants depend for existence and propagation almost entirely upon the visits of bees '? We know of no other principle of construction that will hold so much liquid so well and in so small a space as that of the cell of the hive-bee. There is the cell of the mason-wasp, which is a very wonderful structure too, al- though oftentimes a great nuisance to us in New Zealand. But this cell is round or oblong, with no oblique angles — a much more simple construction than that of the hive-bee. Moreover, it is built of clay, not of wax. How is the doctrine of natural selection to explain this one vast difference of ma- terial in exactly a similar operation ? True, its whole purpose is different, but nevertheless a cell is built.''' But after the swarm has been taken, away the young bee flies. It may have to fly a mile or more ; but it brings back its nectar, unerringly selects its new home out of a row of perhaps twenty boxes, and sets to work just as I suppose its ancestors have worked throughout all time. The dividing wall of the two layers of cells are named "basal rhombic plates." I cannot define more than three plates with clearly -formed and beautiful oblique angles. Yet in his con- clusion Darwin says, " the bees, of course, no more knowing that they swept their spheres at one particular distance from each other than they knew what are the several angles of the hexagonal prisms and of the basal rhombic plates." Now, I ask any one really desirous of testing these statements — (and, not- withstanding the weight of authority Darwin makes a point of always bringing to support his arguments, I hold that every one of his statements requires the most careful testing and verifying)- — to look at these basal plates of the cell and ask himself whether the bee knew what it was doing or whether it did not ? If not, if it only acts from the blind principle of evolution and natural selection that is immediately afterwards referred to in the conclusion, why is it that each basal plate is * The mason-fly, by some method I cannot explain, stupefies, either by injecting a fluid or paralysing certain nerves, the spider which it has entombed in the cell with its egg. Tliis stupefaction lasts a period of two to four months. The larvte of the fly hatch out and feed upon the beautifully-preserved body of the spider. I have often thought that this process of stupefaction should be carefully investigated, in order to see whether nature has not in this matter shown us an example whereby we might preserve our meat. Phillips. — On the Comb of the Hive-bee. 489 exactly alike, and as mathematically correct as a spider's web? What is it that keeps these angles uniform right through the comb-wall? — for a well-constructed oblique angle is not a mere blind sweeping of a sphere. To give Darwin every credit, which I naturally wish to give to so great a writer, I will say this: that, if this instance of natural selection in regard to the hive-bee cell he has given us offers any proof of his theory to scientific minds (I regret it does not to mine), then at best it is but an exemplification of the law of progressive adaptation of species. The hive-bee, the humble-bee, and Meliioona domestica are each useful for its particular work. Eed-clover, for instance, in New Zealand could not be fertilised until we introduced the humble-bee. It is also said in Canterbury that the humble-bee in some places takes all the honey from the flowers, leaving little or none for the hive-bee. The cell of the humble-bee should there- fore be far superior to the cell of the hive-bee. But Darwin places the cell of the humble-bee at the bottom of the scale, and most unmistakably says that Melipona domestica and the hive-bee cells have been naturally selected from it. To say that the humble-bee is evolved by natural selection from the hive-bee, or vice versa, or that the hive-bee cell is naturally selected from the Mexican-bee cell, looks to me quite absurd, even from Darwin's own proof. As Pierre Huber distinctly says, "The Mexican-bee cell looks like a gross imitation of a portion of the hive-bee cell." Moreover, we have in New Zealand many native bees which build simple single cells in the ground for storing their food. The humble-bee cell is almost a clay cell. Wasps in Europe build their nests of clay. But all these are quite ditferent structures to the finished ceil of wax of the hive-bee. Again, even in the hive-bee ceils there is no blind sweeping of equal spheres, seeing that the cells for the queen-bees are considerably larger than those for the com- mon bees of the hive, and are also differently constructed." * I attach the following description of the cell-formation and work of the queen-bee as bearing upon the question. I regret my inability to give the author's name : " The province and occupation of the queen-bee consist in laying the eggs from which originate the prodigious multitudes that people a hive. Every bee in the community is apparently aware of this fact, and consequently treats her with due respect, even to the extent of never turning its back upon her until, the liive being overcrowded and a new queen having been made, a swarm is thought necessary, when all respect disappears, and, should she show the least reluctance, she is forced out to seek new quarters with other emigrants. The creation of a queen is one of the greatest wonders of that most wonderful of insect communities — a hive of bees ; for no sooner does the old queen die, or the members of the community become convinced that they are overcrowded, and that a swarm is necessary, than they begin to build one or more queen-cells, which are utterly unlike the well-known hexagonal cells in which honey is stored or the brood of either workers or drones is reared, 490 Transactions. — Zoology. There are many other points to be considered in this matter of honeycomb-construction and the cell-making in- stinct of the hive-bee, but I will rest content with the points I have already raised, merely asking any unprejudiced person whether Darwin's premises and conclusion are borne out in this one instance by his theory of natural selection. In Brazil there is a bee that builds its comb on the very outmost twigs of lofty trees, as a protection against climbing and marauding enemies. Wherein does this exhibition of intelli- gence differ much from the New Guinea natives building their huts in lofty trees for similar protective purposes ? To my mind, very little. Yet we are asked to admit that bees live their life and work in sole accordance with a blind principle of natural selection. being in shape and size not unlike an acorn. In each of these, if more than one, either a worker-egg— worker- and drone-eggs being dissimilar, and laid in different comb— or a worker and worker-larva not more than three days old is placed, and the latva is fed with peculiar food, called "royal pap " or " royal jelly," with the result that in sixteen days — five days less than would be required for a worker and nine less than for a drone — a queen, or perfect female, is produced. She alone has a life extending to years, that of the workers being limited to months at the longest." III.— BOTANY, Abt. XLVI. — Notes on MS. Descriptions of Collections made during Captain Cook's First Voyage. By T. Kirk, F.L.S. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 25th September, 1895.] It affords me great pleasure to comply with the request of Sir James Hector to give a short account of the valuable type- written MS. which he has had laid upon the table this evening. It will be remembered by all present that the most famous of modern navigators, Captain Cook, was accompanied on his first voyage by two naturahsts who took their place amongst the foremost scientific men of the day — Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander — the entire cost of the natural-history investigations made during the voyage being defrayed by the generosity of the former. Captain Cook first landed on the shore of New Zea- land at Poverty Bay, on Sunday, the 8th October, 1769, and subsequently visited Tolaga Bay, Opuaragi (Mercury Bay), the Thames Eiver, the Bay of Islands, Queen Charlotte Sound, Admiralty Bay, &c., during which the naturalists collected about 360 species of flowering-plants and ferns. But they were no mere collectors : folio drawings of most of the plants were made by Sydney Parkinson, one of the draughtsmen engaged for the voyage, and on the return of the expedition to England were engraved on copper ; while excellent MS. de- scriptions were prepared by Dr. Solander, the entire cost being defrayed by Banks. Unhappily, these plates and de- scriptions have never been published. At the instance of Sir James Hector, the Board of Governors of the New Zea- land Institute authorised the necessary outlay for copying the descriptions in London, and the MS. is now submitted for inspection. Sir Joseph Hooker, in the introduction to the original " Flora Nova3-Zelandise," speaks of Solander 's MS. in very high terms, and from such references as I have already been able to make I can heartily indorse his testimony to its merit. It is most unfortunate that for a century and a quarter plates and descriptions alike have remained inac- cessible to local botanists. Had they been published by their 492 Transactions. — Botany. authors, the botany of New Zealand would have been far better known sixty years ago than was possible under the conditions that then existed, a large amount of error and con- fusion would have been avoided, and the synonymy of many species greatly simplified. Many of Solander's names, which in the majority of species are most appropriate, • have been applied to different plants, while others have not come into use in any way, many New Zealand plants having been de- scribed by Continental writers who had no knowledge of Solander's excellent work. It is perhaps not generally known that Sir Joseph Banks was extremely anxious to accompany Cook on his second voyage, and succeeded in having a grant of £4,000 voted by the House of Commons to pay for the necessary assistance ; but, owing to the resolution not being sufficiently well defined, the Comptroller of the Navy, who from some obscure cause wished to thwart Banks, succeeded in preventing him from joining the expedition. John Eeynhold Forster and his son George were appointed chief naturalists, and received the sum voted by the Government at the instigation of Sir Joseph Banks. Their botanical work, although of great value, was not equal to that of Banks and Solander either in extent or quality. Their collection of New Zealand phaenoganas and ferns comprised only 160 species, of which about 150 were published in George Forster's " Florulae Insularum Austra- lium Prodromus." A few others were described in " Charac- teres Generum" and " De Plantis Esculentis Insularum Oceani Australis Commentatio Botanica," but the descriptions are very meagre, and suffer greatly by contrast with the ex- cellent work of Dr. Solander. The specimens collected by the Forsters were arranged in fasciculi and distributed to various museums and private collections. Unfortunately, in some instances a plant has received different names in different fasciculi, resulting in a large amount of error and confusion. Their drawings of the plants and animals collected during the voyage were purchased by Sir Joseph Banks for £400, and are included in the Banksian Collections now in the British Museum. It is worth while to remark that the three works already mentioned, with another, " De Plantis Magellanicis et Atlanticis," all published between 1776 and 1787, comprise all that was published respecting the botany of Cook's first and second voyages, and therefore all that was published respecting the botany of New Zealand prior to M. A. Eichard's " Essai d'une Flore de la Nouvelle Zelande," in 1832. In this con- nection I should like to state my sense of personal indebted- ness to C. E. Carter, Esq., who, at my suggestion, has kindly placed copies of these books in the fine collection of works on New Zealand which he has so generously presented to the T. KiKK. — On Dactyiauthus taylori. 493 New Zealand Institute. Apart from their special value to the botanist, a considerable amount of historic interest must be attached to them by all New-Zealanders. At the risk of seeming somewhat egotistical, I should like to state that the Minister of Education has sanctioned the small outlay necessary for obtaining a complete set of proofs from the Banksian drawings of New Zealand plants in the British Museum, and that copies reduced by photo- lithography will be printed at the Government press, to form a special volume of illustrations for the " Student's Flora of New Zealand," now in preparation. The MS. volume of descrip- tions now on the table will be bound for the library of the New Zealand Institute. I am reluctant to allow this opportunity to pass without expressing my thanks to Sir James Hector for his continuous and loval efforts to insure the new Flora being made as com- plete and exact as possible. When its publication was first mooted some years back he advised the Government that, as a simple matter ef business, it would be wise to send the editor to London to examine the collections of New Zealand plants made by the early botanists, and especially the vast accumulations that have been sent to Kew during the last thirty or forty years. The same course had previously been suggested by Sir Joseph Hooker, but had not been brought under the notice of the Government, When the Government declined to adopt the advice Sir James warmly supported the proposal to secure the MS. copy of Banks' and So- lander's unpublished Flora, which is now before the meeting, and thus rendered material assistance. He has done every- thing in his power to facilitate the work and render it as nearly perfect as possible. I gladly take this opportunity of acknowledging his many good offices. Art. XLVII. — Notes on Dactylanthus taylori. Hook. f. By T. Kirk, F.L.S. IRead before the Wellington Pliilosojphical Society, 25th September, 1895.] The remarkable monotypic genus Dactylanthus constitutes the fourth tribe of Balanoijliorem, an order of root-parasites most of which have a very local distribution. Dactylanthus, the " pua-reinga " of the Maoris, was originally discovered about 1867 by the Eev. Eichard Taylor, growing on the roots 494 Transactions. — Botany. of Pittosporum, Fagus, and other trees near the head of the Whanganui Eiver, at an estimated altitude of 4,000ft. Al- though the plant grows over a wide area it is remarkably local, so that it is desirable to record the localities in which it has been observed. After its original discovery it does not appear to have been noticed by any collector until April, 1869, when I had the good fortune to discover it, at an altitude of 1,800ft. or 1,900ft., on the Thames Goldfield, where it was para- sitic on the roots of Schcfflera digitata and Coprosma grandifolia ; but, owing to the advanced period of the summer, the speci- mens were so much decayed that only the rhizomes were in a fit state for removal : several of these were deposited in the Colonial Museum.* It was decidedly rare, and was limited to a very small area. Although I paid several visits to the habitat in subsequent years, the complete destruction of the arboreal vegetation by mining operations appeared to have killed the parasite ; but I believe it has been recently col- lected by Mr. Cheeseman, either in the habitat where it was first observed by me or some other in its near vicinity. It w^as next observed by Mr. J. P. Marshall on the banks of the Mohanga Eiver, Eangitikei, and he kindly presented me with a male specimen in 1878. In 1887 it was collected by Mr. W. H. Skinner in the Taranaki District, but I am ignorant of the exact locality, although Mr. Skinner generously forwarded his specimen for my herbarium. It is the only female speci- men that I have seen ; the fruits are fully formed, but not ripe. Two small specimens were very kindly given me at a later date by Mr. H. C. Field, who found them in the Wha- nganui district, but did not state the precise locality. More recently it has been discovered in two localities by Mr. A. Hamilton — at Tarawera, between Taupo and Napier, and at Nuhaka, near the Mahia Peninsula. I am indebted to his goodness for a specimen from the latter habitat. It has also been found in considerable quantity in the forest district between Clyde and Waikaremoana, but the discoverer's name is unknown to me. Lastly, it has recently been found by Mr. H. Hill in the East Cape district, where it evidently grows in great luxuriance, judging from the fine specimen which he has liberally presented to the Colonial Museum ; it measures fully Sin. across, and is by far the largest that has come under my notice. Unhappily, most of the specimens at present obtained are iu very poor condition, and enable us to add but little to the excellent description drawn by Sir Joseph Hooker from the material collected by the Eev. E. Taylor. The following notes are written in the hope that they may prove of sufficient * See Trans. N.Z. Inst., ii. (18G9), p. 94. T. KiuK. — On Dactylaiithus taylori. 495 interest to draw the attention of surveyors, explorers, and settlers in forest districts to one of the most remarkable plants in the flora. The large rhizome by which it is attached to the roots of its host is usually subterranean, very woody, rounded or amorphous, entire or deeply lobed, and forms a kind of boss, covered on the surface with rounded papillas, each of which marks the point at which a flowering-stem was given off. The rhizomes vary greatly in size ; some might be completely hidden under a penny-piece, while others are fully 8in. in diameter and 4in. or 5in. thick. When growing on a declivity, roots of the host-plant, from which the soil has been washed away, may be found with the rhizome of the parasite fully ex- posed, when the position of the flowering-stems is easily made out ; but usually the rhizome is buried in the humus amongst which it grows, and only the upper part of the flowering-stems rises above the soil to a greater or less extent. The flowering-stems are dioecious, from 2in. to Sin. long, somewhat club-shaped, and clothed with brown ovate or oblong imbricating scales, which are evidently fleshy when first de- veloped, but at length become so brittle that they crumble into minute fragments at the slightest touch. The flowers are developed on very short spadices, lin. to l|^in. in length at the apex of the stem, and are mostly hidden by the apical scales ; the males, which I have not seen, are covered with crowded anthers, and the females with sessile ovaries in great profusion. The ripe fruit is about the size of a radish-seed, and contains a minute undivided embryo, imbedded in granular endosperm. Unhappily, nothing is at present known of the process of germination and development. Although the dull-brown colour of the flowering-stems renders the portion that appears above ground very incon- spicuous, the flowers emit a strong perfume. In a letter to Sir James Hector, Mr. Hill states that he was enabled to discover the plant solely through the "delicious daphne-like fragrance which it emitted," his attention being first attracted by the perfume. The large area over which it has already been observed, extending from the Hauraki Gulf to Taranaki and Eangitikei, warrants the idea that a careful search would be rewarded by its discovery in localities where its occurrence has not hitherto been suspected. x\ny explorer or settler who would communi- cate a supply of good specimens would render a great service to botanists at large, although there is nothing in the material that has come under my notice to support the idea of there being more than a single species. 496 Transactions. — Botany. Further Notes, read 16th October, 1895. The following extract of a letter from Islv. A. Hamilton, in- forming me of the discovery of Dactylanthiis at Tarawera, will be read with interest. It is dated 28th March, 1883 : — " Some tinie ago, when I went to Lake Waikaremoana, YOU were kind enough to send nie a list of plants which I should endeavour to find, and made particular mention of Dactylanthus taylori. x\lthough at that time I was not fortu- nate enough to see or hear of any specimens, I. have been on the look-out for it ever since, and last week, when collecting at Tarawera, on the Taupo-Napier Eoad, I found it. " I was searching under the trees at the top of the ranges for Corchjceps robertsii, and picked up a scaly bud like an immature cone. On looking about to see where it had come from I found a tuberous -looking mass, about lOin. by 6in., covered with the circular scars from which these small spike- buds had fallen. Disposed irregularly round the mass were two different kinds of brown scaly spikes, the male (?) being much longer than the female. Eemembering that you asked me to examine the manner in which ic was attached to the root of the tree, I removed as much as possible of the vege- table mould and decaying leaves which partially covered the plant, and, finding a small tuber, bearing two or three good spikes, apparently distinct from the main mass, I carefully cut away the root of the tree and placed it, with the plant and the surrounding soil, in a box, carefully packing it with moss so that it could not shift. I then cut two or three of the mature male and female spikes from the larger plant, which I left carefully covered with branches. I tried to trace the root on which it seemed to grow back to the trunk of the tree, and uncovered it all the way. Even then it was hard to say what tree it was, as three — a Fagus, a Pittosporum, and some other — had their roots closely intermixed. Some little distance away I found the remains of another small mass, which had been broken up by a falling tree. ... I carefully examined the tuberous portion, and found that, although it rested on the root of the tree, there was no attachment of any kind, but a woody root passed down the lower part of the tuber into the ground : this, unfortunately, I had cut through. The repre- sentation given by Taylor is fairly good, but the tuber seems to be growing from the root of the tree instead of on its own, and must have been from a larger specimen than mine." Mr. Hamilton has suggested a question of considerable importance, one perhaps that can 'only be determined by watching the development of the plant from the embryo. In the large specimen presented to the Colonial Museum by Mr. Hill the woody rhizome viewed from below presents every T. Kirk. — Oji Dactylanthus taylori. 497 appearance of true root-parasitisin, so far as caube determined without the destruction of the specimen ; the same is to be seen in a specimen from Nuhaka which I exhibit to-night. At the same time, there can be no question that, as the woody rhizome extends over the surface of a large root, it adapts itself to the contour of the root without developing new organs of attachment — at least, in certain instances, probably in all. On the other hand, I exhibit a young specimen the rhizome of which forms a small disc, scarcely exceeding lin. in dia- meter and fin. in thickness ; a tortuous woody root appears to have developed directly from the centre of the lower surface of the disc, and has attained a total length of Gin. or Tin. There is a very regular expansion of the supposed root up- wards at the junction with the rhizome, and with our present knowledge it does not seem possible that this can have been produced by parasitism. For the present I hesitate to inter- fere with this root in any way until further specimens of a similar character can be obtained, when careful dissection of the point from w^hich it is given ofi", and a microscopical exami- nation of its structure, will doubtless throw light upon the subject. I have little doubt that specimens of this kind are more frequent than might be expected. Mr. Hill assures me of his conviction that the plant is truly parasitic for the whole term of its existence, and that it never developes ti-ue roots. If we may suppose that it is at first parasitic and onlypioduces true roots after attaining a certain stage of development, we have exactly the reverse of what takes place in sucli plants as Cuscuta, the i-adicle of which forms a true earth-root immediately after germination ; but as soon as the stem produces haustella, which enable it to absorb the assimilated juice of some other plant, the root perishes. The process would be closely analogous to that exhibited by the native sandalwood {Fusanus cunninghaviii), and the "eye-bright" {Euphrasia cuneata), &c., the roots of which become attached to those of other plants, and for a time at least absorb the chief portion of their nourishment in an elaborated condition. The facts, however, are still obscure, and much has to be done before the difficulties surrounding the subject can be properly cleared up. My only excuse for again drawing attention to Dactylanthus, while still unable to make any material addition to our knowledge of such an interesting organism, must be the hope I entertain that by this means the assistance of observers favourably situated for examining the plant in the living state may be more readily obtained. .92 498 Transactions. — Botany. Abt. XLVIII. — On Zannichellia and Lepilsena in New Zealand. By T. KiKK, F.L.S. \Read before the Wellingtoji Philosophical Society, 26th February, 1896.-] Zannichellia 'palustris, L., was first discovered in New_ Zea- land by Colenso ; it was included by Sir Joseph Hooker in his original " Flora of New Zealand," pubhshed in 1853, and sub- sequently in the " Handbook of the New Zealand Flora," Colenso's habitat on the East Cape being for many years the only local station recorded for the plant. On its discovery in the Waikato in 1870, the learned Baron von Mueller sug- gested the strong probability of its belonging to the Austrahan genus Lejnlcena, the principal species of which were formerly confused with Zannichellia, and, at his request, some of the Waikato specimens were submitted for his examination, when they were kindly identified by him as Lejnlcena preissii, F. Mueller. The plant exhibited a very close resemblance in- deed to a European form of Zannichellia, with the achenes on long slender pedicels, the similarity extending even to the form of the ripe fruits. This identification, however, led local botanists to assume, somewhat hastily, that, as in Aus- tralia so in New Zealand, all plants hitherto indentified as Zannichellia must be referred to Le-pilcena ; and the older genus was completely neglected until three or four years ago, when Mr. Petrie detected Zannichellia ])alustr is in Otago, and I had the pleasure of collecting it in flower and fruit in the Makararoa Stream, Hawke's Bay, a locality which affords strong support to the accuracy of Sir Joseph Hooker's deter- mination of Colenso's original specimens. As it is probable that both Zannichellia and Lepilcena are of more frequent occurrence than has hitherto been supposed, it seems desir- able that attention should be drawn to the chief characters by which the members of these closely-allied genera may be most readily identified. Both are inconspicuous submerged aquatics, with capillary stems and leaves, and axillary apeta- lous flowers ; the leaves in both are from |in. to upwards of lin. in length. Zannichellia is monoecious. The male flower is enclosed in a membranous bract, and consists of a single sagittate anther, with the filament at first short and stout, but ultimately much elongated. The female flower is also protected by a mem- branous bract, and consists of from four to six carpels sessile or shortly stalked, with short styles and capitate stigmas. The T. Kirk. — On Zannichellia and Lepilteua. 499 fruits are curved achenes, tipped with slender styles, and arranged in fascicles of from three to six. In European spe- cimens the dorsal margin of the achenes is more or less crenulate or rarely spined, but this character is not strongly marked in the New Zealand specimens. A plant with the achenes more than three in a fascicle may safely be referred to Zannichellia ; rarely, owing to suppression, the achenes may be reduced to three or two, when the genus must be deter- mined by the monoecious or diceoious habit. The cotyledon is twice folded in Zannichellia. The only habitats in which Z. 'paliistris has at present been observed in the colony are Mercer, Rangiriri, and other places in the Lower Waikato ; Waikaremoana, Whangape, and Waihi Lakes : T. Kirk. East Cape district : W. Colenso (Handbook). Makararoa Stream, Hawke's Bay : T. K. Waikouaiti Lagoon, Otago : D. Petrie ! The only species observed in the colony is Z. palicstris, which varies considerably in the shape of the fruits and the length of the styles. The Rangiriri plant has rather turgid, almost sessile carpels, which closely approach the form known in Europe as Z. polycarpa, but the styles are longer ; usually the carpels are carried on short pedicels. Lepilcena is characterized by dioecious flowers, the males solitary in the axils of the leaves, and consisting of three, or rarely two, sessile anthers, each seated in a minute perianth at the apex of a very short peduncle, the whole invested by the dilated and sheathing bases of two opposite leaves. The anthers are two - celled, the cells opening by slits on the outer face, and are monadelphous, cohering dorsally, so that they resemble a six - celled anther. The pollen is produced in great profusion, and appears to be discharged in the water before the full development of the female flowers; but further observations are required on this point. The female flower consists of three free carpels, which may be sessile or shortly stipitate : they spring from the apex of a very short peduncle with minute teeth. The perianth consists of three membranous bracts, and is closely invested by the dilated and scarious bases of the floral leaves. The fruits are three in number, rarely two ; sessile, or on rather long pedicels, usually with long slender styles : the dorsal margin is quite entire. L. preissii, F. Mueller, has only been found in the Wai- kato River near Churchill, where it occurred in considerable quantity and in great luxuriance, some of the slender stems exceeding 18in. in length. As it was late in the season (24th April) when collected, only fruiting specimens were obtained, with two or three imperfect female flowers. The male flowers have not been observed. 500 Transactions. — Botany. In 1881 I discovered another species in the Canterbury District, and recorded it under the name of L. biloculata in the report of the School of Agriculture, Lincoln, 1884 (second term). As will be seen from the appended description, it differs in several important particulars from any other species. Lejxilcena hilocularis, T. Kirk, in Eeport of Sch. of Agric, Lincoln, 1884. Stems much branched, capillary, 3in. — 12in. long. Leaves fiat, slightly broader than the stem, linear, one-nerved, obtuse. Male flowers enclosed in the dilated sheathing-bases of two opposite floral leaves. Anther solitary, sessile, on a short three-toothed peduncle, broad, connective produced, acute^ the anther dehiscing from the apex. Eemale flower : perianth of three lanceolate membranous bracts at the apex of a short peduncle, carpels three, sessile, styles equalling or exceeding the perianth, stigmas dilated ; reflexed, deeply fimbriate, exserted. Achenes three, rarely two ; dorsal margin entire, style more than half the length of the achene, usually straight. South Island. — Canterbury — drains and streams running into the Selwyn. In a small stream near the outlet of Lake Ellesmere : T. Kirk. Otago — Waihola Lake : D. Petrie ! The leaf-bases enclosing the male flowers are developed to a remarkable extent, the upper free portion on each side of the leaf presenting a stipular appearance, and appears to be composed of two (or perhaps three) membranous bracts adnate with the bases of the floral leaves. The leaf-bases investing the female flowers are much smaller. The plant exhibits a departure from the usual characters of the genus — (1) In the large solitary anther which dehisces from the apex downwards, the cells diverging laterally ; (2) in the produced connective ; (3) in the reflexed and almost laciniate stigmas, which are very conspicuous. Submerged aquatic plants have received little attention from New Zealand botanists, although it can hardly be doubted that other species will reward careful search. T. KiKK. — Oil the Products of a Ballast-heaj). 501 Art. XLIX. — On the Products of a Ballast-heap. By T. KiiiK, F.L.S. [Read before the Wellingto7i Philosophical Society, 26th February, 1896.] During the summer and autumn of 1892 and 1893 attention was drawn to the introduction of injurious weeds in earth - ballast, as exemplified by the introduction of the cockle-burr''' (Xanthium strumarium, L.), in the ballast of the ship " Silver- stream " from Buenos Ayres, which had been temporarily deposited near the Bunny Street entrance to the railway goods-station, Wellington. As the total number of species exceeded one hundred, and 20 per cent, of them were new to the colony, it seems advisable to record this short chapter in the history of the introduction of exotic plants in New Zea- land at some length, more especially as the great majority of the newcomers are of South American origin, and hitherto less than a dozen of our naturalised plants have come from that part of the globe. The ballast, of which some portion had been removed when I first saw it, originally covered an area of about 40ft. in breadth by 70ft. or 80ft. in length, with a general height of 3ft. or -Ift. It had been clothed with a dense weedy growth, which had been cut down by the railway authorities, who learned the possibility of some of the plants proving noxious from the newspapers of the day. The ballast itself consisted chiefly of soil from cultivated land sparingly mixed with fragments of brick and other building rubbish. Portions of the earth were distributed some yards beyond the original area during its removal for the formation of a new platform at the passenger-station, so that certain of the plants were scattered for some distance along the line of removal. Although the soil was removed so closely that the old surface was laid bare in most places, numerous seed-containing par- ticles were left behind, when several plants which had not been previously observed made their appearance for the first time. The total number of plants collected is 101, of which about seventy belong to the great army of combatant weeds which have now become distributed along the great lines of ocean-travel all round the earth, and for the most part appear to find little difficulty in establishing themselves and encroach- ing upon their iuiligenous congeners when once introduced : * See Trans. N.Z. lust., xxvi. (1893), 310. 502 Transactions. — Botamj. these do not enter into the scope of this paper to any material extent. Attention must be directed specially to the twenty species not hitherto observed in the colony, and to the few not previously known to occur in the Wellington Provincial District. In October, 1893, after the removal of the ballast, the newly-pared surface soon became clothed with a robust growth of the purslane, Portulaca oleracea, Chenopoclium avibrosioides^ Panicum crus-galU, and other plants not previously seen under spontaneous conditions in Wellington. From its bright-yellow flowers, which were produced in great abundance, the purslane was remarkably prominent ; but, as its showy corollas invariably closed immediately after the hour of noon, the dull appearance of the area in the afternoon formed a remarkable contrast with its morning brightness. Amongst these plants were others of great rarity, although very inconspicuous : Petunia ;parviflora, Euiohorhia ovalifolia, Bo2ibieva multifida, Nicotiana acutiflora, Eragrostis minor, Acicarj^ha trib^Uoides, Setaria imberbis, nearly all of which are natives of South America. Scarcely any of these were to be seen before the ballast was removed. Amongst the plants of the first year were Cheno- 2:>odium ficifoUmn, Emex australis, Alternanthera sessilis, Galinsoga parviflora, Ecliium ylantagrneuvi, Ceiiia tnrbinata, Bowlesia tenera, Gichorium endivium, none of which made their appearance the second year except the Chenopodium, which occurred in some quantity, and was represented by a few straggling specimens last year, although not a scrap is to be seen at this date. In all probability the soil would still be productive if slightly broken up to the depth of a few inches. Xanthiwn strumarium made its appearance the first year, numerous specimens were observed during the second year, and four or five were seen last year. When growing on the stiff clay it assumed a stout, robust appearance, differing widely from its usual appearance in Europe. None of the Wellington specimens exhibited the luxuriance shown by those of Austra- lian growth, and, as it does not develope flowers and fruit until March and April, it is scarcely probable that it will become permanently established in this part of the colony. It would doubtless have a more favourable chance on the light soils of the Auckland Isthmus. Boubipva multifida assumed a very robust growth, and there seemed some probability of its being able to maintain its existence, although it failed to ripen seeds, as several strong plants w^ere growing at the commencement of March, but most of them disappeared during the winter months, probably from injuries caused by cattle quite as much as by the severe frost. As the area is now mostly covered with a thick growth of common weeds, intermixed with patches of cocksfoot, meadow-grass, and rye-grass, there is but little probability of the rarer species again making their T. KiKK. — On the Prochicts of a Batlast-heap. 503 appearance unless the surface should be disturbed. The species still to be found, although ia small quantity only, are Erodium malacoides and GJienopodiwm ambrosiokhs, of each of which a few specimens are making a good fight against the coarser weeds ; Petunia parviflora, now represented by three small plants only ; and the plant here identified as Aster im- bricatus, which has increased to a small extent : it may be expected to become permanent, together with the Erodium, although the latter is too much at the mercy of accident. Amongst the plants developed on the ballast are three in- digenous to New Zealand, although extending to other coun- tries. DicJwndra repens, Forst., made its appearance in small quantity during the first year, but plentifully the second year, and in small quantity last year ; this year it is not in evi- dence. It has a wide distribution in temperate and extra- tropical countries in the Southern Hemisphere, so that its reintroduction from South America is not a matter for sur- prise. Another species, Cotula coronopifolia, is still more widely distributed, as it extends to Europe, and occurs in a naturalised condition in the British Islands : its range appears to be extending. Cotula australis, Hook, f., has, however, a more limited distribution, being apparently confined to New Zealand, Aus- tralia, and Tristan d'Acunha. Unless, like its congener, C. coronopifolia, ir is becoming naturalised in distant countries, the seeds must have been mixed with the ballast in Welling- ton, although this is somewhat improbable. Emex australis did not appear after the first year. This South African plant requires a warmer climate than that of Wellington. In Queensland and other tropical countries it has become a great pest : on two occasions it made its appear- ance in the Auckland District, but did not prove permanent. I append a list of the plants collected on the ballast and on the soil where it was deposited during the last three years : — Note. — Species not previously observed in the colony are distinguished thus (*), and those not previously observed in the Wellington Provincial District thus (f). FUMARIACE^. Fumaria muralis, Sonder. Crucifer^. Barbarea praecox, B. Br. Sisymbrium officinale, L. Brassica napus, L. Capsella bursa-pastoris, DC. Senebiera coronopus, Poiret. „ didyma, Pers. Lepidium ruderale, L. 504 Transac lions.- — Botany. Caryophyllacp:^ . Silene auglica, L., var. quinquevulnera. Cerastium triviale, Link. Stellaria media, L. Spergula arvensis, L. Spergularia rubra, St. Hilaire. Polycarpon tetrapbyllum, L. PORTULACE^. fPortulaca oleracea, L. Naturalised in Auckland. MALVACEiE. Malva parviflora, L. Modiola multiiida, Moench. Geraniace^. iErodium malacoides, Willd. Naturalised at the Bay of Islands, 1867, but not observed elsewhere. Leguminos^. Ulex europaeus, L. Only two plants observed. Medicago sativa, L. „ lupulina, L. „ denticulata, Willd. Melilotus arvensis, Wall. Trifoliuni repens, L. „ minus, Sm. „ resupinatuni, L. Umbellifer^. *'Bowlesia tenera, Spreng. Monte Video, Brazil, &c. lApiuni leptopliyllum, F. Muell. Foeniculuni vulgare, Gart. EuBIACEiE. Sherardia arvensis, L. GALYCERE.E. *Acicarpha tribuloides, Juss. Buenos Ayres. Composite. '■'Aster imbricatus, JValp. Erigeron canadensis, L. jErigeron linifolius, Willd. Naturalised in Auckland and Nelson. =''Gnaphaliuui purpureuui, L. Eiorida, Carolina, &c. „ luteo-album, L. *Xanthmm sirumarium, L. Naturalised in most warm countries; but, although numerous specimens made their appearance, very few seeds, if any, were perfected, and the plant has died out. T. KiKK. — On the Products of a Ballast-heap. 505 Xantiiiuiii spinosum, L. '"Pascalitx glauca, Ontcga. In various parts of South America. Only two specimens observed on the ballast. '^Galinsoga parviflora, Cav. Monte Video, Brazil, &c. Anthemis cotula, L. Chrysanthemum inodorum, L. Cotula coronopifolia, L. Indigenous in New Zealand, also in South Africa, extra-tropical South America, and some parts of Europe. Cotula australis, Hook. f. New Zealand, Australia, and Tristan d'Acunha ; so that it must either be naturalised in Monte Video or seeds must have become mixed with the ballast in Wellington. *Cenia turbinata, Pers. Cape of Good Hope. This also ap- pears to have become established at Monte Video. Only a few specimens observed on the ballast. Senecio vulgaris, L. Cryptostemma calendulacea, B. Br. Cnicus lanceolatus, L. "-^'Cichorium endivium, Willd. Originally from eastern and northern India, but now established in many warm countries. Only a few specimens noticed. Lapsana communis, L. Picris echioides, L. Crepis virens, L. Leontodon hispidus, L. Hypochgeris radicata, L. Sonchus asper, Hojfm. Pmmulace^. Anagallis arvensis, L. „ var. caerulea. BOBAGINE^. tEchium plantagineum, h. A few specimens were observed, but the showy flowers were so attractive that they were speedily plucked, and the plant died out. Naturalised in Auckland. Con voLvuLACE^ . Dichondra repens, Forster. Identified in the absence of flowers. A native of New Zealand, but found also in many parts of South America. SoiiANACEiE. "^'Nicotiana acutiHora, S'^. Hil. Brazil. Only a few speci- mens seen. *Petunia parviflora, Jass. South Brazil, Monte Video, kc. Only a few specimens seen. 506 Transactions. — Botany. SCROPHULAEINE^ . Verbascum blattaria, L. Veronica arvensis, L. Plantagine^. Plantago major, L. „ lanceolata, L. Amaranthace^. *Amaranthus deflexus, L. EuroiDe. fAlternanthera sessilis, B. Br. Indigenous on the Auckland Peninsula. Found in many tropical and extra-tropical countries. CHENOPODIACEiE. Chenopodium album, L. ■''- „ ficifolium, Ij. In great abundance (Europe). „ murale, L. tChenopodium ambrosioides, L. Possibly indigenous on the Auckland Peninsula and in Taranaki, but not previously observed in Wellington. *Eoubieva multifida, Jio^. Buenos Ayres, Brazil, &c. Atriplex deltoidea, Bab. POLYGONACE^. Polygonum convolvulus, L. Eumex pulcher, L. „ obtusifolius. „ sanguineus, L., var. viridis. „ acetosella, L. fEmex australis. Stein. South Africa. Naturalised in many warm countries. Has been collected in Auckland and Tauranga, bat soon dies out. EUPHOEBIACE^. Euphorbia peplus, L. '■'■ „ owoWioMa,, Evfjl. Chili, Mendoza, Monte Video, &c. Urticace^. Urtica urens, L. Cyperace^. Cyperus vegetus, Willd. Gramine^. '•'Paspalum dilatatum, Poir. Brazil, &c. Panicum sanguinale, L. fPanicum colonum, L. Naturalised in Auckland, but very rare at present. ■j-Panicum crus-galli, L. This was very plentiful, but has completely died out. It is naturalised in Auckland. '■'Setaria imberbis, B. et S. T. Kirk. — On the Products of a Ballast-heap. 507 Phalaris canariensis, L. Avena sativa, L. „ strigosa, Schreb. Cynodon dactylon, L. *Eleusine coracana, GcBvt. Monte Video, Brazil, &c. *Eragrostis minor, Host. Brazil, La Plata, &c. Dactylis glomerata, L. Briza minor, L. Poa annua, L. f Glyceria rigida, Sm. Hawke's Bay, Otago, &c. Bromus unioloides, DC. „ sterilis, L. * „ vestitus, Thunh. South Africa. Lolium perenne, L. „ italicum, A. Br. „ teniulentum, L. Lepturus incurvatus, L. Hordeum murinum, L. I am indebted to the Director of the Eoyal Gardens, Kew, for the authentication of most of the South American species. Note.- — As this paper was written in September, it may be advisable to state that the position of several of the surviving species has somewhat improved during the iaterval. Aster ivihricatus has increased to a considerable extent, and Cheno- podium ambrosioides is more plentiful. Boubieva multifida must have produced perfect seeds, as it has increased con- siderably, although I failed to detect them ; several plants of Petunia parviflora have made their appearance ; and there are about a score specimens of Chenopodium ficifolium ; while the old plants of Pascalia glauca have developed new stems, which seem likely to produce flowers in April. It will be remembered that the ballast was used in the formation of a platform at the passenger-station. The sur- face of the platform has been covered with asphalt ; but beyond the asphalted portion I found three specmiens of Pascalia, and in the immediate vicinity several plants of Boubieva and Chenopodium ficifolium. Should the platform be broken up during the twentieth century, most of the plants enumerated in the list will doubtless make their appearance in profusion. 1st March, 1896. 508 Transactions. — Botany. Art. L. — Notice of the Occurrence of an Undescribed Palm-lily on the Auckland Peninsula. By T. Kirk, F.L.S. [Read before the WcUinrjtoii Philosophical Society, 26th February, 1896.] The special interest attached to the arborescent Liliacece of the colony will, I doubt not, be a sufficient apology for drawing attention to the existence in the extreme north of an unde- scribed plant belonging to this group, although but little can be said respecting ic beyond the fact of its occurrence. At present it is not possible to determine whether it should be referred to Cordylme or Dracczna, or possibly enough to some other genus ; but it is only by publishing the facts as far as known that attention can be drawn to the plant, and specimens obtained for identification. About three years ago Mr. John Maxwell sent the upper part of a leaf of what appeared to be a species of Cordylinc or DraccBua, informing me that the plant from which it had been taken was growing in the garden of Mr. Eeid, Ahipara, and that it had been found in the forest near that settlement. On applying to Mr. Reid, that gentleman most obligingly for- warded a complete leaf, and stated that he had two plants under cultivation, both of which were obtained from the bush on the face of a cliff, about 200ft. above sea-level ; the flowers and fruit were quite unknown. He promised to search for the mass of tree-roots, which I am glad to say is still living under plant, and inform me of the result. Subsequently I received a living plant, which had evidently been dug from amongst a cultivation, although it has made no growth at present. Re- cently I learned that it was forwarded by a young lady, who unfortunately did not favour me with any information as to the conditions under which the plant was found. The blade of the leaf sent by ]\Ir. Reid is exactly 18in. long by 5^in. broad at its widest part; it is almost elliptic- oblong in shape, although the upper half is slightly broader than the lower ; the apex is rather abruptly acute, and the base is gradually narrowed into the petiole, which is fully ^in. broad on the flattened upper surface, and convex beneath, with a broad wing along each margin for its entire length of 4in. Tlie abruptness with which the petiole is narrowed into the midrib is very remarkable ; the midrib is extremely slender, and is continued to the point of the leaf, being scarcely more than a mere line in the upper part ; the innu- merable nerves being given off along its entire course. In T. KiKK. — On an Undescribed Palm-lily. 509 texture the leaf approaches that of Cordyline banksii, but is more membranous. I entertain the hope that specimens of the flowers and fruit may be obtained in time to allow of its being described in the " Student's Flora," and venture to ask the assistance of any resident in the district who may be interested in natural- history pursuits towai'ds realising this object. It affords me pleasure to name this plant provisionally Cordyline cheesemanii, as an acknowledgment of my obliga- tion to Mr. Cheeseman for his excellent botanical work. I venture to remonstrate against the use of the unmeaning name " cabbage-tree " applied by many settlers to the various species of Cordyline. It may be too much to expect that the native names, " ti," "tikapu," " ti koraha," &c., should come into general use, but surely the most appropriate name, " palm- lily," for which we are indebted to the learned Baron von Mueller, is sufficiently elegant and euphonious to be generally adopted. May I be permitted another digression ? I am convinced that much has yet to be done in working up the plants of the district to the north of Whangape and Mongonui. The Cun- ninghams' exploration scarcely extended so far north. Mr. Colenso visited the district in very early times, nearly fifty years ago, when he discovered Lycopodium drumviondii, which has not been found by any later collector. Buchanan's visit to the district in 1865-66 was of a somewhat cursory character, my own visit in 1867 was restricted to a few days during the early winter ; yet a few novelties were found by both of us even under such disadvantageous conditions. Ozothamnus lanceolatus, discovered by Mr. Buchanan, and Kyllinga mona- cephala, detected near Mongonui by Mr. Ball, have not been observed by others. There can be no doubt that a careful examination of the district from Whangape and Mongonui northward would be attended with gratifying results. It has long been known as the home of several plants of a tropical or subtropical character, such as Hibiscus diversifoliiis, Ipovioea ixdmata, Cassytha jMniculata, Pisonia wnbellifera, &c. It would be of great assistance to New Zealand botanists if some of the intelligent settlers of the district could be induced to assist in the work. 510 Transactions. — Botany. Aet. LI. — A Revision of the New Zealand Species of Hymenanthera, B. Br. By T. Kirk, F.L.S. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 26th February, 1896.'] Hymenanthera was first published by R. Brown in his ac- count of the botany of the Congo appended to Tucker's narrative of his expedition. Two plants in the Banksian Herbarium were named by him H. dentata and H. angustifolia respectively, but the descriptions were first published by De Candolle in 1824 (Prodr., i., 315) ; the former was characterized by its oblong denticulate leaves, the latter by its entire linear leaves : both are now united under H. dentata by the common consent of botanists. In 1833 Endlicher described ZZ". latifolia from Norfolk Island ; and in 1842 A. Cunningham described H. ohlongifolia, which is now referred to H. dentata. The first New Zealand species was discovered by Banks and Solander in 1769, probably in Queen Charlotte Sound, but was completely lost until 1876, when it was rediscovered by J. D. Enys and the writer, who described it under the name of H. ohovata in 1894. The first-described New Zealand species was discovered by R. Cunningham, on the coast opposite the Cavallos Islands, in 1834 ; his specimens, however, were im- perfect, and the plant was published by A. Cunningham in his Precursor as Sccevola (?) novce-zcalandicB ; it was not until 1853 that the plant was properly understood and described by Sir Joseph Hooker as Hyvienanthera crassifolia, the value of the excellent description being enhanced by the beautiful plate which accompanied it. Another New Zealand species was described by J. Buchanan as II. travcrsii in 1882, and the Australian II. dentata was collected in the Southern Alps about the same time. H. latifolia of Norfolk Island had been discovered on the Great and Little Barrier Islands by the writer six years earlier. Another species, discovered on the Chatham Islands by Captain Gilbert Mair, was referred by Baron von Mueller to H. latifolia as a variety in 1864, but in this paper is treated as a distinct species. A synopsis of the distinctive characters of each is appended. Hymenanthera comprises sparingly- branched shrubs which are usually erect, and others which are excessively branched and most frequently depressed ; the branches of the latter are sometimes naked, divaricating, rigid, and spinous, with pale or brownish bark which is often closely dotted with lenticels. The leaves are alternate or sometimes fascicled, entire or denticulate or serrate, petioled, usually coriaceous or rarely T. Kirk. — On Hymenantliera. 511 membranous ; the stipules are usually small and fugacious. The flowers are hermaphrodite or dioecious ; solitary, or more usually fasciculate and shortly pedicellate, rarely solitary ; they are rarely produced in the axils of the leaves, most frequently on the naked parts of the branches. The sepals and petals are obtuse or rounded at their apices, or the petals may be narrowed above and shortly revolute. The androe- ciuin consists of five sessile anthers which open longitudinally and form a ring surrounding the style ; their connectives are, however, connate, and are produced into a rounded or sub- acute ciliated membrane above each anther, with a curious obovate dorsal appendage. The ciliated processes and their dorsal appendages vary in shape in the different species, but not sufficiently to afford distinctive characters. Stigmas 2, rarely 4 or 3, divergent, styles very short. The fruit is a spherical 1-celled berry of a deep purple colour, or rarely white. The seeds are 2 in number, rarely 4, 3 or sometimes solitary by abortion ; they may be ovoid, plano- convex, or convex and pointed with one or two angular faces at the base and a strophiole which may be very slightly developed or large and distinctly cupular. The cotyledons are orbicular in all the seeds examined by me. The most im- portant differential characters are those afforded by the seeds taken in conjunction with the leaves. Baron von Mueller appears to have been the first to draw attention to the plano-convex form of fruit (Plant. Vict., i., 69), but did not attach to it the importance which it seems to me to merit. It will be seen that H. dentata, E. Br., is only represented by its variety angustifolia ; I have seen nothing in the colony approaching var. ohlongifoUa of Norfolk Island, in which the denticulate leaf is over l^in. long, and I have not had the opportunity of examining Norfolk Island specimens of H. latifolia. The New Zealand plant, which is only known in a fruiting condition, was kindly examined for me by the director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, in 1876, and referred to H. lati- folia var. ; but the differences do not appear to be sufficiently marked to render it worthy of special distinction. Mr. Cheeseman sends a sterile leafy specimen from the Three Kings Islands, characterized by more strict slender branchlets and oblong or oblong-ovate leaves with obscurely sinuate- dentate revolute margins and slender petioles. The leaves are of thinner texture than in H. latifolia, and the reticula- tions on both surfaces are not so strongly marked. 1. H. crassifolia, Hook. f. Fl. N.Z., i,, 17, t. 8. A low rigid spreading shrub, with short stout tortuous branches, bark white, furrowed, branchlets pubescent. Leaves 512 Transactions. — Botany. alternate or fascicled, very coriaceous, linear, spathulate, or linear-obovate, ^in.-l^in. long, entire or sinuate, toothed or lobed, rounded or retuse, petioles very short. Flowers small, axillary, solitary or in small fascicles ; peduncles shorter than the flowers, curved, with two ovate bracts below tlie middle. Sepals much shorter than the petals, minutely erose ; petals linear oblong, recurved at the apex. x\nthers forming a tube round the ovary, connective fimbriate with a dorsal scale. Ovary 1-celled, placentas 2. Berry purple or white, 2-seeded. Seeds- 2, convex on the outer face. Handbook, 18. Sccevola (?) novcs-zealandicB, A. Cunn., Precurs., n. 429. North Island. — Maritime rocks opposite the Cavallos Islands : B. Cunningham. Northern shore of Cook Strait, from Cape Terawhiti to Cape Palliser, kc. ; Port Nicholson : T. Kirk. South Island. — Nelson : Coast between the Boulder Bank and Croixelles Harbour : T. Kirk. Marlborough : Pelorus Sound, &c. : J . Butland ! Canterbury, Coast of Banks Pen- insula : /. B. Armstrong ! Otago : D. Fetric. Stewart Island. — T. Kirk. October, November. Erect shoots with broader leaves are sometimes developed in sheltered situations. 2. H. dentata, R. Br., var. angustifolia, Benth. Fl. Austr., i., 104. An excessively branched shrub, 2ft. -8ft. high ; branchlets terete, imbricate, about as thick as whipcord, often naked and spinescent, closely dotted with minute lenticels. Leaves on very short petioles, often fascicled, narrow linear-oblong, cuneate at the base, rather membranous or subcoriaceous, entire or sinuate or shortly lobed, rounded at the apex, -^in.- ■|in. long. Flowers perfect or dioecious, almost sessile, soli- tary or geminate. Male flower not seen. Female almost sessile, petals narrow, anthers abortive, style short, stigmas 2, spreading. Berry 2-seeded, seeds oblong, flat on the inner face, convex on the outer, with a small discoid strophiole. Hook., Comp. to Bot. Mag., i., 274; Hook, f., Fl. Tasm, i., 27 ; H. anqustifolia, E. Br., in DC. Prodr., i., 315 ; H. hanksii, F. Muell., PI. Vict., i., 69. North Island. — Wellington : Turangarere ; A. Hamilton ! Upper Eangitikei ; D. Petrie ! South Island. — Nelson : Wairoa North : W. II. Bryant ?ind T. Kirk. Canterbury: Alps: J.B.Armstrong! Otago: Paradise, Mount Earnslaw, T. Kirk ; Kelso, D. Petrie. Easily distinguished by the lenticellate bark, slender twigs which are flexuous when grown in sheltered conditions, and the dioecious flowers. The Tasmanian plant is said to produce hermaphrodite flowers. At present I have only had the op- T. Kirk — On Hymen anthera. 513 portunity of examining the female flowers of the New Zea- land plant. Var. alpina. Depressed, 1ft. -2ft. high, branches very short, rigid, stout, usually terminating in stout spine. Bark whitish, lenticel- late. Leaves less than -jin. long, usually fascicled, very cori- aceous, oblong-obovate, petiole vei-y short. Flowers on very short straight peduncles. Sepals erosulate-ciliate. Petals broad, recurved. Anthers very broad, connective, much pro- duced, nearly entire, dorsal scale broadly cuneate. Style slender, stigmas 2, spreading. Berry white, 1-2-seeded ; the former ovoid with a minute discoid strophiole ; the latter with the inner faces flattened at the base but not angled. South Island. — Alps of Canterbury and Otago ; 2,000ft.- 4,000ft. A remarkable plant, forming a mass of very short stout spinous branches. Possibly a distinct species. Decem- ber, Januar3\ 3. H. obovata, T. Kirk ; in Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxvii. (1894), 350. An erect glabrous shrub, 4ft. -8tt. high, branches few, slender, ascending ; bark pale. Leaves in the young state obovate-cuneate, 3-lobed or -toothed, membranous, mature, very coriaceous, lin.-2in. long, obovate or oblong, narrowed into a slender petiole below, rounded or retuse above, rarely apiculate, margins slightly recurved, rarely entire. Flowers, male not seen. Female sepals broadly ovate, rounded at apes. Ovary 2-celled ; stigmas 2. Fruit solitary or twin, on very short curved peduncles ; ovoid, purple, 2-seeded. Seeds nearly ovate, slightly concave on the inner face, con- vex on the outer; strophiole cupular, thin. South Island. — /. Buclianan ! Nelson : Graham River, Mount Owen, T. F. Cheeseman ! between Takaka and Ri- waka, T. Kirk. Marlborough : Queen Charlotte Sound, J. H. MacmaJion ! Canterbury : Broken Eiver basin, /. D. Enys and T. Kirk (1876) ; Ashburton Mountains, T. H. Potts ! Chiefly on limestone rocks, 2,000ft.-4,000ft. The rather slender branches and the strict habit dis- tinguish this species from all others at sight. 4. H. traversii, J. Buchanan; in Trans. N.Z. Inst., xv. (1882), 339, t. 28. A spreading shrub, 1ft. -2ft. high, twigs with reddish longi- tudinal rugose bark, viscid when fresh. Leaves rather crowded, coriaceous, oblong-obovate or oblong- spathulate, about lin. long, narrowed into a rather stout appressed petiole, obtuse or sub - acute, margins recurved, nerves 33 514 Transactions. — Botany. obscure. Flowers few, solitary, on short decurvecl pedicels in the axils of the upper leaves. Sepals coherent at the base, subacute. Petals linear, oblong, narrowed below, spreading. Fruit not seen. South Island. — Nelson : In the forest, Gouland Downs, near Collingwood : H. H. Travers. My knowledge of this plant is confined to Mr. Buchanan's description, and a small llowerless specimen, for which I am indebted to him. It is distinguished from all other species by the red bark and rugose leaves with appressed peduncles. Good specimens in flower and fruit are much to be desired, as the anthers and ovary are not mentioned in the original description. 5. H. latifolia, Endlicher; in Fl. Insul. Prodr. Norf., n. 127. A sparingly - branched shrub, 2ft. - 10ft. high, erect or straggling. Leaves ovate -lanceolate, or oblong -lanceolate narrowed into the petiole, 2in.-4in. long, lin. broad, obtuse, coriaceous, encire, sinuate or sinuate-serrate, marginal nerve stout. Flowers not seen. Sepals ovate, in the fruiting state scarcely coherent at the base. Fruiting peduncles very short, erect or curved. Berry 2-seeded; seeds ovoid, flat on the inner face, with irregular longitudinal stvise. on the outer con- vex surface. Strophiole large, cupular. North Island. — Auckland: Tapotopoto Bay, T. Kirk; Mount Camel, /. Buchanan; Whangapoua and Flat Island, Great Barrier Island ; Arid Island, T. Kirk ; Three Kings Islands, T. F. Cheesenian. Littoral. Also on Norfolk Island. The New Zealand plant has not been seen in flower. Endlicher describes the female flower of the Norfolk Island plant as having abortive or perfect stamens. He also states that the ovary is 2-celled and the stigma capitate, both of which appear to be erroneous. The leaves are strongly re- ticulate on both surfaces. 6. H. chathamica, n.s. An erect shrub, with furrowed lenticellate bai'k. Leaves lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate, narrowed at the base, acute, 3in.-5in. long, -^in.-liin. broad, very coriaceous, strongly reti- culate on both surfaces, sharply toothed. Flowers in crowded fascicles, dioecious, pedicels slender, longer than the flowers, decurved. Sepals coherent at the base, narrows ovate. Petals very long, obovate with a broad base, revolute at the apex. Anthers with a narrow lanceolate jagged connective, more than half as long as the anther - cells ; dorsal gland cune- ate-spathulate, rounded above. Female flowers not seen. Berry ovoid or almost globose, white ; stigmas 4-lobed ; 4- rarely 3-seeded, seeds angled, curved towards the point. T. Kirk. — On Veronica. 515 convex on the outer surface ; strophiole very small. H. lati- folia, var. chathamica, F. Mueller, Veg. Chat. Islds., 9. North Island. — Wellington: Patea : Sir James Hector. Flowers and fruit not seen. Chatham Islands. — Originally discovered by Captain Gil- bert Mair ! September, October. Distinguished from all, other species by the long lanceolate sharply-toothed leaves, strictly dioecious flowers, tetramerous stigma-lobes, and 4-seeded berries. Occasionally the leaves are linear-laceolate, and less than -^in. in breadth. I am in- debted to my friend Mr. Cox for excellent specimens of the male plant. Art. LII. — Notes on Certain Veroyiicas, and Descriptions of Neto Species. By T. Kirk, F.L.S. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 36th February, 1896-] It is not proposed to oifer a complete revision of the New Zealand Veronicas on the present occasion, although it is hoped that this much-needed work may be accomplished in a short time. It is, however, desirable to supplement the published descriptions of certain species from more copious material than was available when they were originally drawn ; to amend certain errors that crept in from the examination of imperfect specimens ; and to describe a few new species, most of which have been in hand for some years past. With the full revision it is intended to furnish an account of the most striking characteristics of the New Zealand species generally, more especially with regard to their mor- phology and distribution. It may, however, be pointed out that the species of the dimorphic — or, as it might with equal propriety be called, the mimetic — section are invested with special interest, the entire section, with the single exception of the AustraUan V. densifolia, being endemic in the colony. At present, strangely enough, our knowledge of the early leaves of these singular plants has been chiefly obtained from old specimens on which they are often produced by reversion, especially under cultivation : the subject will not be satis- factorily worked out until the seedling as well as the more advanced stages have been studied in a systematic manner.''' * For the first recorded mention of dimorphism in the leaves of New Zealand Veronicas, see Trans. N.Z. Inst., xi. (1878), 464. 516 Transactions. — Botany. Mr. N. E. Brown, of Kew, was the first to point out that most of the plants referred in the Handbook and the " Trans- actions of the New Zealand Institute" to Logania and Mi- trasacvie weve true Veronicas. To the botanist acquainted w^ith the subalpine and alpine vegetation of New Zealand it seems the most natural mistake in the world that flowerless specimens of Veronica tetragova should be referred to Podo- carjms or Dacrydium when examined without reference to their minute structure, while the general aspect of one or two others, coupled with tetrandrous or pentaphyllous flowers, equally accounts for their reference to Logania on the exami- nation of specimens destitute of fruits, or at best with fruits in an immature condition. The reference of others to Mitra- sacme is unquestionably due to an oversight arising from the severe physical pain under which the describer laboured during the progress of his work. Veronica canescens, T. Kirk, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., ix. (1876), 503, t. xix., f. 2. Limb of corolla spreading at maturity ; lobes broad, rounded at the tips, the uppermost longer than the others. Capsule wholly included within the calyx, broadly ovoid, slightly compressed, retuse. South Island : Canterbury— Lake Forsyth, T. E. ; Lake Lyndon, /. D. Enys and T. Kirk. Otago — Oamaru, J. Buchanan; Maniototo Plains, D. Petrie, T. Kirk; Wyclilfe Bay, Dunedin, B. C. Ashton ! Sea-level to 2,800ft., but re- markably local. According to the Index Kewensis, the trivial name has been erroneously applied to three other species: V. "can- escens," Bast., Fl. Maine et Loire, Supp. 21, is V. teucrium, L., Sp. PI., ed. ii., 216; V. "canescens," Presl., ex Schult. Mant., i.. Add. II., 229 =7. yrostrata, L., Sp. PL, ed. ii., 22; V. "canescens," Schrad., Comm. Veron. Spic, 19 = V. incana, L., Sp. PL, 10 : all natives of Europe. V. anagallis, L., Sp. PL, 12. This has not been observed since it was collected by the Eev. W. Colenso in Hawke's Bay. As it is a plant that pro- duces seeds in great abundance in Europe, it is not easy to account for its disappearance, even if it be assumed that Mr. Colenso's specimens were of exotic origin. V. hookeriana, Walp., Eep., iii., 341. This species extends over a wider area than is generally supposed, as it is found in the Kuahine Eange (Colenso), Tongariro, Ngauruhoe, and is especially abundant on Euapehu. I believe that it occurs on the Kaimanawa Eange also, but T. Kirk. — On Veronica. 517 have not seen specimens. V. nivea, Hook., Ic. PL, t. 640. V. nivalis, Hook, f., Fl. N.Z., i., 196; Hanclbk., 215. V. loganioidcs, J. B. Armstrong, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., xiii. (1880), 359. Leaves of young plants in rather distant pairs, Hnear- subulate, dilated at base and often toothed, spreading above ; stems pubescent or tomentose. Calyx-lobes ovate-lanceolate, especially in the fruiting stage. Capsule broadly elliptical, equalling or slightly exceeding the calyx, didymous, turgid. South Island : Canterbury — Eangitata Valley, /. F. A. ! Clyde Valley, W. Gray. Notwithstanding the suffruticose character of this rare plant, the didymous capsule shows that it is closely allied to the herbaceous section. V. erecta. n. s. Stems 6in.-10in. high, erect, strict, simple or sparingly branched from the base, glabrous or rarely puberulous. Leaves distant, sessile, oblong-lanceolate, acute, fin.-lin. long, membranous, patent, margins often puberulous or ciliate at the base, bark reddish-purple. Eacemes 2-6 in the axils of the apical leaves, 3in.-4in. long, strict, erect or ascend- ing, naked below. Flowers fascicled or solitary, often dis- tant ; rhachis pedicels and bracts puberulous or pubescent. Bracteoles exceeding the pedicels, ciliate. Calyx campanu- late, divided for three-fourths of its length, segments ovate- lanceolate, subacute or acute, ciliate. Corolla-tube rather broad, shorter than the spreading limb, upper lobe broadly rounded, lower narrow acuminate, stamens exserted. Cap- sule ovate, oblong, acute, compressed, one-thiixl longer than the sepals. South Island : Otago -Believed to have been collected on Mount Bonpland, but the exact habitat uncertain. A very distinct species, remarkable for the strict erect habit and elongated interrupted racemes with the flowers often fasciculate. It should be placed next to V. raoulii, Hook, f. Described from cultivated specimens kindly for- warded by Mr. Martin, nurseryman, of Green Island. V. petriei. Stems decumbent or prostrate, woody, 4in.-6in. long ; branches ascending, 3in.-4in. long. Leaves lin.-^in. long, elliptical oblong, rounded at the apex, narrowed into a short broad petiole, membranous, glabrous or the margins glandu- lar, ciliated ; opposite petioles connate. Flowering branches densely clothed with foliaceous obtuse linear bracts, racemes terminal ; flowers solitary, sessile, partially hidden in the axils 518 Transactions. — Botany. of crowded linecar ciliated bracts, which slightly exceed the calyx. Calyx cleft to the base, lobes 4, linear, obtuse, ciliated, exceeding the corolla-tube ; limb much shorter than the tube, lobes spreading or reflexed, the lower acute, the uppermost rounded ; stamens 2, included ; style long, slender. Capsule oblong, slightly turgid, seated in a cupular disk. Mitrasacme petriei, J. Buchanan, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., xiv. (1881), 350, t. XXX., f. ] . South Island : Otago — Mount Bonpland, D. Petrie I 6,000ft. Tiie densely-crowded linear bracts easily distinguish this fine plant from all other New Zealand species. It is, perhaps, the most remarkable of the many plants added to the Otago flora by its energetic discoverer, to whom I am indebted for the only specimen I possess. The stems are really perfoliate. V. Imlkeana, F. Muell., ex Hook, f., Handbk., 213. Bracts oblong, obtuse, shorter than the tubular calyx"; corolla - lobes subacute. Capsule retuse and turgid when mature. Sea-level to 3,000ft. Var. oblonga. Leaves narrow-oblong, fully Sin. long including the petiole, coarsely toothed. South Island : Marlborough — Awatere ; T. Kirk. Var. fairfieldii, sp.. Hook, f., Bot. Mag., t. 7323. Flowers larger and more deeply coloured than in the type, panicle usually shorter and broader. Bracts glandular-pu- bescent, equalling or shorter than the spreading calyx, acute ; calyx-lobes acute or subacute with scarious margins ; lobes of corolla rounded at the apex. South Island : Fairfield Downs. The typical form was originally discovered by the Hon. F. Weld. V. macrantlia, Hook, f., Handbk., 213. Sparingly branched, 1ft. -2ft. high. Leaves varying from oblong-ovate to obovate-lanceolate, thick and glossy. Calyx broadly ovate, acute, equalhng or slightly exceeding the sepals. Corolla pure white. South Island : Mountains of Nelson, Canterbury, and North Otago, but often local ; 2,500ft.-4,000ft. V. haastii, Hook, f., Handbk., 213. Leaves imbricating, patent or deilexed, fleshy when fresh, very coriaceous v»dien dry. Flowers in 2-6-flowered fascicles at the tips of the branches, forming an oblong head, much T. KiKK. — On Veronica. 519 hidden by the apical leaves ; bracts equalling the sepals but broader, sepals linear-oblong, obtuse, corolla small, equalling the sepals, tubular, lobes acute. Capsule equalling or shorter than the calyx, ovate-oblong, acute, glabrous. South Island : Nelson — Mount Arthur, etc., Gheeseman, Bryant ! Gihbs ! Canterbury— Mounts Darwin, Dobson, Tor- lesse, and Cook, source of the Waimakariri, Haast ! Leith Hill, Enys I Otago — Mountains north-east of Lake Hawea ; Mount Arnould ; D. Petrie ! 3,000ft.-6,000ft. V. dasyphylla. Stems rigid, woody, lin.-3m. long, creeping at the base, branches with the leaves ;^in. diameter. Leaves closely quadrifariously imbricate, connate in pairs at the base, erect or spreading above, oblong-obovate, rounded above, ciliated below, sessile, very coriaceous. Flowers solitary, terminal, sunk amongst the apical leaves. Calyx divided nearly to the base, lobes oblong, obtuse, hispid pubescent below, ciliated. Corolla broadly funnel-shaped, tube broad, shorter than the limb, lobes 5, large, rounded, spreading. Stamens 2, filaments very short; style long, slender. Capsule oblong, seated in a cupular disk, rather turgid, much shorter than the calyx, slightly retuse. Logania tetragona, Hook, f., Handbk., 189 and 737 ; J. Buchanan, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., xiv. (1881), 347, t. xxviii., f. 2. South Island : Nelson — Mount Arthur, &c., W. H. Bryant ! Otago — West Coast Sounds, Lake District, and Mount Alta, J. Buchanan ! Ben Lomond and Old Man Eange, D. Petrie ! 3,500ft.-5,000ft. A small species, remarkable for the large terminal flower with its pentamerous calyx and corolla. All the flowers ex- amined by me are diandrous. I am indebted to the Director of the Herbarium, Kew, for a small portion of the type-speci- men. V. gilliesiana. A prostrate or suberect shrub, stems lin.-6in. long, much branched, spreading, tetragonous, with the leaves :|-in.-^in. diameter. Leaves glabrous in the young state, lax, linear, pinnatifid ; mature closely imbricating below, connate by the broad base, tips spreading, linear or linear-oblong, convex beneath, deeply concave above or rarely flat, rounded and very obtuse at the tip, margins ciliate. Flowers terminal or near the apex of a shoot, axillary, solitary or in 2-4- flowered umbels. Calyx deeply divided, lobes 4, oblong, ciliate; corolla funnel-shaped, tube shorter than the calyx, segments orbicular spreading, the uppermost much nar- rowed at the base ; stamens 2 or rarely 4, filaments very 520 Transaciions. — Botany. short, included, style scarcely exceeding the antiaers. Cap- sule ovate-oblong, coinpresse Lakes Wakatipu and Te Anau. I do not feel quite certain of the identification of this species. Veronica buxifolia, Benth.- — Common on the lower hills and mountain valleys of E., C, and S. Swampy Hill, Dunedin ; Maungatua ; Waipori ; Blue Mountains ; Eweburn Creek ; Mount Ida; &c. Ascends to 3,000ft. Veronica pinguifolia, Hook. f. — Common on dry high mountain-slopes of C. and W. Mount Ida (4,000ft.) ; Mount St. Bathan's ; Mount Arnould; &c. Veronica pimeleoides, Hook. f. — Common on rocky faces in upper valleys of Taieri and Clutha. Speargrass Flat; Clyde; Cromwell ; Queenstown ; Mount Ida ;&c. Ascends to 3,000ft. Veronica lycopodioides, Hook. f. — Humboldt Mountains. Veronica hectori, Hook. f. — Hector Mountains (4,000ft.). Veronica salicornioides, Hook. f. — Mount Ida; Waipori; Maungatua (2,000ft.-3,000ft.). Veronica cupressoides, Hook. f. — Lainmerlaw (3,000ft.). I have not seen this plant wild, but plants taken from above station are growing at Lawrence. Veronica epacridea, Hook. f. — Mount Arnould (5,000ft.). Veronica macrantha, Hook. f. — Clinton Saddle, Te Anau (3,000ft.). Veronica linifolia, Hook. f. — Arrowtown (3,000ft.). Veronica lyallii, Hook. f. — Not rare in the lower mountain valleys of C, S., and W. Mount Ida; Queenstown; Te Anau ; Mataura Village (the lowest station known to me). Veronica bidwillii. Hook. f. — Not rare in mountain valleys of C. and N.W. Mount Ida ; head of Lake Hawea; &c. (2,300ft.-3,000ft.). Veronica cataracts, Forst. Common in valleys of far W. Clinton Valley ; Milford Bound ; &c. Veronica canescens, Kirk. — Common in dry plains of C. Moa Flat ; Maniototo Plain ; Hawea Flat ; Five-Eivers Plain ; &c. Veronica petriei, T. Kirk ( = Mitrasacme petriei, J. Bu- chanan).— Mount Bonpland (4,500ft.). Petrie. — On the Flowering Plants of Otago. 571 Pygm.?^a pulvinaris, Hook. f. — Not rare on tops of lofty mountains of N. and W. (4,500ft. -6,000ft.). Kurow Mountains ; Mount St. Bathan's ; Mount Pisa. OuRisiA MACROPHYLLA, Hook. — Flagstaff Hill, Dunedui ; Paterson's Inlet, Stewart Island. OuRisiA MACROCARPA, Hook. f. — Cliuton Saddle, Lake Te Anau (3,000ft.). OuRisiA COLENSOI, Hook. f.— Clinton Valley, in bush (1,800ft.). This species has been identified for me at Kew. Mr. N. H. Brown, in his report, remarks that two species are mixed up in the description in Sir J. D. Hooker's Hand- book. OuRisiA SESSiLiFLOBA, Hook. f. — Not uncommou on lofty mountains of far W. Mount Bonpland (4,500ft.) ; Hector Mountains (5,000ft.) ; Clinton Saddle, Te Anau, at 3,500ft. OuRisiA c^spiTOSA, Hook. f. — Common in mountain valleys of N. and W. (3,000ft.-5,000ft.). Mount Ida ; Dunstan Mountains ; Old Man Eange ; Hector Mountains ; Mount Cardrona ; &c. OuRisiA PBOREPENs, Petrie. — Mount Bonpland (4,500ft.). Euphrasia revoluta. Hook. f. — Not rare on lofty mountains of W. and N.W., at 5,000ft. and upwards. Hector Moun- tains ; Mount Tyndall ; Mount Arnould. Euphrasia Antarctica, Benth. — Common in N., C, and W. (300ft.-4,500ft.). Kurow; Mount St. Bathan's; Crown Range ; Mount Cardrona (4,500ft.) ; &c. Euphrasia repens. Hook. f. — In mountain-bogs ; probal^ly not rare. Mount Kyeburn (3,500ft.) ; Maungatua ; Blue Mountains. Utricularia COLENSOI, Hook. f. — Boggy stations at Te Anau, and head of Paterson's Inlet. Myoporum LiETUM, Forst. — Common near the sea in the E. and S. Mentha cunninghamii, Benth. — Common in open lands. West Taieri ; Strath Taieri ; Maniototo ; Eoxburgh ; &c. Plantago uniflora. Hook. f. — Eare near E. and S. coasts. Tomahawk Lagoon, Dunedin ; Paterson's Inlet ; Te Anau. "What may be a mountain form of this occurs in abundance on Mount Kyeburn, Mount Ida, and Dunstan Mountains, at 3,000ft. -4,000ft. Plantago brownii, Eapin. — Eather rare on wet mountain stations of E., C, and N. at 3,000ft.-4, 000ft. Mount Ida; Blue Mountains ; Maungatua; Hector Mountains. 572 Transactions. — Botany. Plantago lanigeea, Hook. f. — Not uncommon, but local on mountains of C. and N.W. Old Man Eange ; Hector Mountains; Mount Pisa; &c. (4,000ft .-5,500ft.). Plantago spathulata. Hook. f. — Not rare on moist uplands of C. and N.W. Naseby ; Mount St. Bathan's; moun- tains of Lake District. Ascends to 3,000ft. Plantago kaoulii, Decaisne. — Common in moist lowlands. Chenopodium teiandrum, Forst. — Common on E. and S. coasts ; rare inland. Cromwell ; Ophir ; &g. Chenopodium urbicum, L. — Common by waysides, &c. •Chenopodium glaucum, L., var. ambiguum. — Common at sea- side, and in saltish stations inland. Dunedin ; Oamaru ; Roxburgh ; Cromwell ; Maniototo Plains ; &c. Chenopodium carinatum (?), Br. — Kawarau Eiver. My speci- mens have two stamens, a condition not rare in Australian forms of the species. Probably introduced. Chenopodium detestans, T. Kirk. — Common in dry lowlands of C. and N. Maniototo Plain ; Cromwell ; Lake Hawea; &c. Su^da maritima, Dumortier. — Common by salt lagoons of E. and S. coasts. Atriplex patula, L. — Common by waysides, &c. Atriplex billardieri. Hook. f. — Sandy shores of Paterson's Inlet. Atriplex buchanani, T. Kirk. — Common in saltish stations of C. and W. ; rare near E. coast. Green Island Beach ; Maniototo Plain ; Ida Valley ; Alexandra ; Cromwell ; &c. Salsola australis, Br. ('?). — Otiake Eiver; Lowburn ; Ban- nockburn. Spreading rather rapidly, and most likely in- troduced. Salicornia indica, Willd. (?). — Abundant on low flats near the sea on the E. and S. ScLERANTHUS BiFLORUS, Hook. f. — Abundant up to 4,000ft. Polygonum aviculare, L. — Abundant by waysides and on edges of fields. Most likely introduced. MuHLENBECKiA ADPRESSA, LabilL — Abundant in valleys of C. andN.E. Lake District ; Kurow ; Sowburn ; &c. Muhlenbeckia complexa, Meisner. — Abundant in bush and scrub. Muhlenbeckia axillaris. Hook, f . — Lower Waitaki Valley ; Maniototo Plain ; throughout the Clutha Valley ; Lake District ; &c. Petrie. — On the Flotvering Plants of Otago. 673 MuHLENBECKiA EPHEDROiDES, Hook. f. — Eatlier rare and local. Kurow ; Awamoko ; Eoxburgh. RuMEX FLExuosus, Forst. — Abundant in N. and C; more rare elsewhere. RuMEX NEGLECTUS, T. Kirk. — Port Molynetix ; Catlin's ; Bluff; Paterson's Inlet. PiMELEA TKAVERSii, Hook. f. — Eather rare on mountains of C. and N. Mount St. Bathan's; Mount Ida (2,000ft.- 3,000ft.). PiMELEA ARENARiA, A. Cunn. — Not rare on sandhills of E. and S. coasts. PiMELEA PROSTKATA, Vahl. — Common in open lands. PiMELEA LYALLii, Hook. f. — Counnon in the Lower Waitaki and Upper Clutha Valleys ; Kurow ; Manuherikia Valley ; Lake District ; &c. I have not seen this in the Taieri basin. PiMELEA SERiCEO-viLLOSA, Hook. f. — Abundant in Clutha Valley north of Cromwell to Lake Hawea. I have not seen this outside this very limited district. Kelleria dieffenbachii, Hook. — Not uncommon throughout. Signal Hill; Lawrence; Tapanui ; Bluff; Catlin's; &c. Kelleria lyallii, Hook. f. — Not rare on lofty mountains of C. and N.W., at 5,000ft.-6,000ft. Dunstan Mountains; OldManEange; Hector Mountains ; Mount Pisa; Mount Cardrona ; &c. Kelleria villosa, Berggren. — Mount Ida (4,000ft.). ExocARPUs BiDwiLLii, Hook. f. — Head valleys of Eweburn Creek, near Naseby. I have observed this plant nowhere else in Otago. Euphorbia glauca, Forst.— Common on sandhills of E. and S. coasts. Paratrophis microphyllus, Hook. f. — Not uncommon in bush in E. and S. Dunedin ; Hampden ; Catlin's ; West Taieri ; &c. Fagus menziesii, Hook. f. — Not rare on hills of E. and S. Mount Cargill ; West Taieri ; Catlin's ; Tapanui ; &c. Fagus fusca. Hook. f. — Common in the higher valleys of the far W. Lakes Hawea, Wanaka, and Wakatipu. Fagus clipfortioides, Hook. f. — Common in the higher valleys of the far W. Lakes Hawea, Wanaka, Waka- tipu, and Te Auau. Fagus solandri, Hook. f. — Common in lower valleys and hill slopes W. of the Lake District. 574 Transactions. — Botany. Urtioa incisa, Poiret. — Not rare thoughout ; chiefly in bush and scrub. Uetica fekox, Forst. — Eather rare in bush on the E. Oamaru ; Otepopo ; Saddle Hill ; Otago Peninsula ; &c. I have not observed this plant far inland. Parietaria debilis, Forst. — Eather rare, chiefly in bush and scrub, in the E. and N. Kurow; Oamaru; Otago Penin- sula ; Lake Wanaka. Australina pusilla, Gaud. — Not rare in bush in the E. and S. Dunedin; Catlin's ; Chasland's Mistake ; &c. LiBOCEDRus BiDwiLLii, Hook. f. — Mount Cargill (800ft.- 2,000ft.). PoDOCARPUs FERRUGINEA, Don. — Not rare in forests of E. and S. PoDOCARPUS NIVALIS, Hook. f.— Mountains of W. and N.W. Mount Arnould (3,500ft.) ; Clinton Saddle. PoDOCARPUS TOTARA, A. Cunn. — Common in lowland forests of E. and S. PoDOCARPUS HALLii, T. Kirk.— Mount Cargill. PoDOCARPUS SPICATA, Br. — Not rare in lowland forests of E. and S. Dunedin ; West Taieri ; Catlin's. Now largely cleared off by cutting for timber. PoDOCARPUS DACEYDioiDEs, A. Eicli. — Not rare in wet low- land and hilly forests of E. and S. Dunedin; Kaitangata; Catlin's ; Southland ; &c. Dacrydium cupressinum, Sol. — Common in forests of E. and S. Dacrydium colensoi, Hook. f. — Mount Cargill (2,000ft.). Dacrydium laxifolium, Hook. f. — Eather rare in bleak swampy stations of S. and W. Stewart Island ; Chnton Valley (900ft.) ; Blue Mountains (3,000ft.). Dacrydium bidwillii. Kirk. — Eare in bleak mountain swamps. Maungatua (3,000ft.); Waipori ; The Desert, Lake Te Anau (800ft.). Phyllocladus alpinus, Hook. f. — Not rare on the lower mountains of E., C, and W. Mount Cargill ; Mount Ida (3,000ft.) ; forests of Lake District from Hawea to Te Anau. Earina mucronata, Lindley. — Common on tree-stems in forests of E., S., and W. Dunedin; Catlin's; Bluff; Te Anau; &c. Earina autumnalis. Hook. f. — Eather rare near the E. coast, Dunedin ; Nugget Point. Peteie. — On tJie Flowering Plants of Otago. 575 Dendkobium cunninghamii, Lindley. — Eather rare on trees and rocks in forests of E. and S. Port Chalmers; Leith Valley ; Catlin's. •Sarcochilus adversus, Hook, f . — Very rare on rocks and trees in bush in vicinity of Dunedin. Sawyer's Bay ; Pine Hill (on Griselinia littoralis, Raoul). ■Gastrodia cunninghamii, Hook. f. — Not rare in forests of E., S., and W. Dunedin; Pine Hill; Maungatua ; Lake Te Anau ; Lake Wakatipu ; Bluff; Stewart Island. This seems much more plentiful in the mossy forests of the W. Elsewhere it is more easily overlooked. Gastrodia minor, Petrie. — Scrub at Opoho Creek, near Dun- edin. Not at all easy to detect, and not very plentiful. Adenochilus gracilis, Hook, f . — Moss-carpeted forests of far W. Lakes Wakatipu and Te Anau. The long, stout rootstocks usually lie in moss, and have no connection with the soil. The way in which they absorb food is well worth investigating. OoEYSANTHEs TRILOBA, Hook. f . — Sparingly found in the forests of the E. and S. Dunedin ; Bluff Hill. CoRTSANTHEs oBLONGA, Hook. Forests of Catliu's district. Apparently a very rare plant in Otago. CoRTSANTHES ROTUNDiFOLiA, Hook. f. — Not rare in the forests of the E. and S. North-east Valley ; Waitati Creek ; Cat- lin's ; Heriot (in boggy ground) ; BlufT. CoRYSANTHEs RivuLARis, Hook. f. — Eare in deep shady valleys in bush. Head valleys of Water of Leith ; Bluff. CoRYSANTHES MACRANTHA, Hook. f. — Not uucommon in moist stations in bush and scrub. Dunedin ; Kaitangata ; Bluff; Lawrence ; Pembroke ; &c. Microtis porrifolia, Sprengel. — Common in dry, open sta- tions, and very variable in size and robustness. Galadenia minor. Hook. f. — Not uncommon in scrub and heath in the E. and S. Dunedin; Mtinuka Creek; Cat- lin's; Bluff; &c. Caladenia lyallii. Hook. f. — Swampy Hill, Dunedin ; Mau- ngatua ; Blue Mountains. Ascends to 3,000ft. Chiloglottis cornuta, Hook. f. — Bluff; Maungatua. As- cends to 3,000ft. Chiloglottis bifolia. Hook. f. — Not uncommon in moist heathy stations of E. and S. Swampy Hill; Maungatua; Catlin's; Invercargill ; Bluff. Eanges from 3,000ft. to near sea-level. 576 Transactions. — Botany. Pterostylis banksii, Br. — Not rare in bush near the E. and S. coasts. Dunedin ; Port Molyneux ; CatUn's ; Bluff. Pterostylis graminea, Hook. f. — Not rare in moist open stations in C, E., and S. Dunedin ; Kaitangata ; Owaka Valley ; Naseby. Pterostylis foliata, Hook. f. — Eather rare on the uplands of the E. Dunedin (Signal Hill) ; Milburn ; Tuapeka West. Pterostylis mutica, Br. — Not uncommon on dry uplands of C. and E. Horse Eange; Lee Flat ; Naseby; Cambrian; St. Bathan's. Lyperanthus antarcticus, Hook. f. — Swampy Hill ; Mau- ngatua (2,500ft.), in peaty stations. A rare and local plant. Thelymitra longifolia, Forst. — Common in moist stations, especially in the E. and S. Dunedin ; Port Molyneux ; Milton ; Lawrence ; Maniototo Plain ; &c. Thelymitra pulchella. Hook. f. — Not rare in the S. ; much more uncommon in the E. Dunedin (Signal Hill) ; Inver- cargill ; Bluff. Thelymitra uniflora, Hook. f. — Not rare in wet lowlands of E. and S. Swampy Hill; Maungatua ; Port Molyneux ; Catlin's ; Invercargill. Prasophyllum nudum, Hook. f. — Common in open lands. Dunedin ; Naseby ; Kaitangata ; Catlin's ; Naseby ; &c. Libertia ixioides, Sprengel. — Not rare on the edge of bush and in scrub in the E. : Dunedin ; Horse Eange; Wanga- loa ; &c. Smaller forms are sparingly found in the interior : Macrae's ; Maniototo Plain ; &c. Libertia micrantha, Hook. f. — Southern corner of Stewart Island, and forests west of Lake Te Anau. Hypoxis pusilla, Hook, f.— Otepopo. I have not seen this elsewhere. As it flowers very early, and is very incon- spicuous, it is easy to overlook. Typha angustifolia, L. — Common in ponds and sluggish streams. Lake Waihola ; Taieri Plain ; Cromwell ; Lake Hayes ; Lake Hawea ; Waiareka Valley ; &c. EuPPiA maritima, L. — Common in salt lagoons and tidal streams on the E. Waikouaiti ; Tomahawk ; Taieri Plain; Lake Waihola ; &c. It grows abundantly in the Waipahi Eiver in perfectly fresh water. Zannichellia palustris, L. — Waikouaiti Lagoon. Lepil^na bilocularis, T. Kirk (m.s.). — Waikouaiti; Lake Waihola ; Taieri Plain. Peteie. — On the Flowering -plants of Otago. 677 ZosTEKA NANA, Eotli. — Common on submerged and tidal niudbanks in E. and S. Duuedin ; Bluff ; Stewart Island. Ehipogonum scandens, Forst. — Common in the forests of the E. and S. Dunedin ; Catlin's; Bluff; &c. Callixene parvifloea, Hook. f. — Common in bush in the S. and W. Catlin's ; Seaward Bush ; Te Anau ; Stewart Island. CoRDYLiNE AusTRALis, Hook. f. — Common in most parts, and ascending to 3,000ffc. in the interior. DiANELLA INTERBIEDIA, Endl. — Not rare in scrub near the E. coast. Dunedin; Akatore ; &c. AsTELiA NEEVOSA, Banks and Sol. — Not rare on the lower up- lands of the E. and S. Hills round Dunedin ; Circle Hill ; Tuapeka district ; Blue Mountains ; Waipahi ; &c. AsTELiA LINEARIS, Hook. f. — Not rare on the mountains of the C. and W. at 4,000ft. and upwards, but descending almost to sea-level in the south of Stewart Island. Hector Moun- tains ; Mount Bonpland ; Chnton Saddle (3,000ft.) ; Pe- gasus Inlet (20ft.). AsTELiA GRANDis, Hook. f.- — Common in the forests of the E., S., and W. Dunedin; Port Molyneux ; Catlin's; In- vercargill ; Bluff; Te Anau ; &c. Arthropodium candidum, Kaoul. — Not uncommon in dry bushy and open stations throughout. Dunedin (Opoho Valley) ; West Taieri ; Black's ; Macrae's ; Tapanui ; Cromwell. Antheeicum hookeei, Col. — Common on moist hill and mountain slopes throughout. Dunedin ; Macrae's ; Nase- by ; Clyde ; Bannockburn ; Blue Mountains ; Waipahi ; &c. Phormium tenax, Forst. — Common in lowland swamps and on banks of rivers and streams, especially in the E. and S. Phormium colensoi, Hook. f. — Not rare in the C. and S. on hills of 1,000ft. and upwards. Lake Hawea ; Waipori Eoad (from Lawrence) ; Waitepeka ; Upper Owaka (3,000ft.) ; &c. Herpolirion nov^-zealandi^, Hook, f.— Not rare in low- lands and lower uplands of E. and S. Eanges from sea- level to 3,000ft. Maungatua ; Waipori; Clinton; Cat- lin's ; Invercargill ; Bluff ; &c. JuNCUS VAGiNATUS, Br. — Eather rare and local. Sawyer's Bay ; Strath Taieri ; Alexandra South ; Lumsden ; Pater- son's Inlet. 37 578 Transactio7i,s. — Botany. JuNcus AusTRALis, Hook. f. — Commou in swamps of E., C, and S. Macrae's ; Waipori ; Tuapeka West ; Tapanui ; Waipahi ; Catlin's ; &c. JuNCUS COMMUNIS, E. Meyer. — Abundant in wet open stations throughout. JuNCUs PLANiFOLius, Br. — Not rare in the E. and S. Dun- edin ; Inch-Clutha ; Cathn's ; &c. JuKCUs BUFONius, L. — Abundant in wet stations. JuNcus NOV^-ZEALANDi53, Hook. f. — Abundant in wet sta-- tions. Ascends to 2,000ft. JuNCUs LAMPEOCAKPus, Ehr. — Abundant in wet stations in E. and S. ; less common in interior. Sawyer's Bay ; Green Island; Tuapeka district ; Cromwell; Catlin's; Invercargill. JuNCUs BREViFOLius, T. Kirk. — Not rare in lowland and up- land wet stations of C. and S. Eanges from 3,500ft. to sea- level. Clarke's Diggmgs ; Naseby ; Lake Wanaka ; Lake TeAnau; Port Molyneux; Catlin's. JuNcus TENUIS, WiUd. — Duuedin. Most likely introduced. JuNcus PAUciFLOEUS, Br. — Waitati ; Tokomairiro district. May quite well be an introduction here. JuNcus ARTicuLATUs, Ehrhart. — Lake Waihola. Most likely introduced. EosTKoviA GEAciLis, Hook. f. — Common, at 5,000ft.-7,000ft. on the mountains of the W. Hector Mountains; Mount Arnould ; Mount Pisa ; Llount Bonpland ; &c. LuzuLA CAMPESTRis, DC. — Abundant, LuzuLA AUSTEALAsicA, Steudcl. — Not rare near the E. coast and in the lowlands of the S. Lawyer's Head ; Brighton ; Beaumont ; &c. LuzuLA PUMiLA, Hook. f. — Commou on mountains from 4,000f t.-6,500f t. Eock and Pillar Eange ; Old Man Eange ; Mount Ida, &c. LuzuLA EACEMosA, Desv., var. teaversii, Buchenau. — Not rare on all mountains of C. and W., at 3, 000ft. -5, 000ft. Old Man Eange ; Mount Ida ; Mount Pisa ; &c. LuzuLA PiCTA, A. Eich. — Not rare in the E. and C. Lawyer's Head; Tapanui; &c. I do not see how this can be kept distinct from L. campcstris, DC, and insert it only because it is recognised as a good species in Buchenau's monograph of the Juncacea. LuzuLA CHEESEMANii, Buchenau. — Not rare on the mountains of the C. Mount St.Bathan's; Dunstan Eange; Mount Pisa; &c. I have, from various parts of the interior, several other Petrie. — On the Floivering -plants of Otago. 579 forms of this most difficult genus that, when better known, may prove distinct species. They have been placed in the hands of Professor Buchenau for determination and description. Leptocarpus simplex, a. Eich. — Common in sandy and swampy saline stations on the E. and S. coasts. Hypolena laterifolia, Benth. — Not uncommon in wet stations in the S. Inch-Clutha; Catlin's ; Otaraia River; Invercargill ; &c. •Gaimardia setacea, Hook. f. — Swampy mountain stations in the E. and S. Maungatua; Blue Mountains (3,000ft.). Alepyrum pallidum. Hook. f. — Rare in swampy mountain stations in C. and S. Maungatua ; Mount Kyeburn ; Clin- ton Saddle ; Blue Mountains. €entrolepis viridis, T. Kirk. — Maungatua ; Blue Mountains ; Lake Te Anau (3,000ft.-700ft.). Centrolepis minima, T. Kirk, var. — Shores of Lake Te Anau. Schcenus axillaris. Hook. f. — Bluff; Stewart Island. Schcenus pauciflorus, Hook. f. — Common in bleak upland valleys. Hindon ; Maniototo uplands ; Lake District (3,000ft.); Pembroke; &c. Schcenus concinnus. Hook. f. — Not rare in wet, saltish stations near the E. and S. coasts. Waikouaiti ; Otago Heads ; Catlin's Eiver ; &c. 0.\RPHA alpina, Br. — Not rare on wet hills in the S. and on the mountains of C. and W. Maungatua; Old Man Range ; Blue Mountains. This descends almost to sea- level at the Bluff and Stewart Island. SciRPUS MARiTiMus, L. — Rather rare on the E. coast. Oamaru ; Waikouaiti ; Otago Heads. I have not observed it south of the last station. SciRPUS PUNGENS, Valil. — Common on salt mud-flats of E. and S. coasts. Dunedin ; &c. IsoLEPis NODOSA, Br. — Abundant on salt sandhills and sandy shores of E. and S. Dunedin ; &c. IsoLEPis PROLiFER, Br. — Invcrcargill. IsoLEPis RIP.A.RIA, Br. — Abundant on the E. and S. coasts; less common in wet stations in the interior and W. IsoLEPis CARTiLAGiNEA, Br. — Bluff and Stewart Island. IsoLEPis AUCKLANDicA, Hook. f. — Not uncommon in wet stations on the mountains of C. and W. Old Man Range (4, 000ft.) ; Mount Kyeburn ; and mountains of Lake Dis- trict. 580 Transactions. — Bota,ny. IsoLEPis BASiLARis, Hook. f. — Not Uncommon in wet stations of moderate elevation in the middle part of the Clutha Valley. Beaumont ; Eoxburgh ; Speargrass Flat ; &c. IsoLEPis INUNDATUS, Br. — Not uncomuion in wet valleys in scrub near the E. and S. coasts. Dunedin ; Port Moly- neux ; Catlin's. Heleocharis sphacelata, Br. — Head of Paterson's Inlet. Heleochaeis acuta, Br., var. platylepis. — Common in wet stations throughout. Dunedin ; Cromwell ; Kelso ; Cat- lin's ; &e. Heleocharis gracillima, Hook. f. — Not rare in the interior and S. Maniototo Plain ; Te Anau ; &c. Heleocharis acicularis, L. — Lake Te Anau. Desmoschenus spiralis, Hook. f. — Abundant on sandhills of E. and S. coasts. Cladium glomeratum, Br. — Not rare in wet scrubby valleys. Signal Hill ; Catlin's ; Heriot ; Pembroke ; &c. Eather local. Cladium junceum, Br. — Not uncommon on the S. and W., mostly near the seaside. Bluff; Te Anau ; &c. Gahnia procera (?), Forst. — South of Stewart Island ; Lake Te Anau ; and valleys of S.W. region. Lepidosperma tetragona, Labill. — Abundant on wet clay hills of E. and S. Dunedin; Bluff; &c. Oreobolus pumilio, Br. — Not rare in wet mountain stations. Maungatua; Mount Kyeburn (3,500ft.); Dunstan Moun- tains ; Old Man Range ; Blue Mountains ; Bluff. Descends^ to sea-level at Inch-Clutha. Oreobolus strictus, Berggren. — Not rare on wet hills of B. and S. Swampy Hill; Maungatua; Mount Kyeburn; Hector Mountains (4,000ft.) ; Blue Mountains. Descends to sea-level at Inch-Clutha. Uncinia leptostachya, Raoul. — Common in bush and scrub in the E. and S. Dunedin; Kaitangata ; Catlin's; &c. Uncinia sinclairii, Boott. — Not rare in the C. and N.W. Eweburn Creek, Naseby ; Black's ; Hector Mountains- (4,000ft.); Mount Cardrona ; &c. Descends to 1,200ft. Uncinia compacta, Br., var. divaricata. — Not uncommon in the higher valleys of C. and W. Mount Ida ; Mount Tyn- dall ; head of Lake Hawea ; Clinton Valley and Saddle ; &c. Eanges from 1,000ft. -5, 000ft. The forms found at high elevations are very short and depauperated. My U. clarkei is probably only a form of this species. It was Petrie. — On the Flowering -plants of Otago. 581 carefully compared with the type of U. compacta by Mr. C. B. Clarke, F.R.S., F.L.S., before I published it, and was by him pronounced to be new. Later materials con- vinced him that it was only a form of the present species, as was also another form, for wluch he proposed the name U. petriei. Uncinia austealis, Persoon. — Common in bush throughout the district. Dunedin ; Catlin's; Lake Hawea ; &c. Uncinia fekruginea, Boott. — Not rare in forests of E. and S. Dunedin ; Catlin's ; Stewart Island ; etc. Uncinia c^spitosa (?), Boott. — Not rare in bush in the E., S., and "W. Dunedin ; Catlin's ; Lake Te Anau ; &c. Uncinia eupestkis, Raoul. — Common on clay hills and open stations of E. and S. Dunedin; x\katore ; Kaitangata ; Waipori; Blue Mountains ; &c. Up to 3,000ft. Uncinia filifokmis (?) , Boott. — Rather rare on mountains of C. and W. Hector Mountains ; Maungatua; &c. Uncinia banksii, Boott. — Rather rare and local in bush in the E. and S. Dunedin ; south of Stewart Island. Uncinia eubea, Boott. — Common in open lands of E. and S. Dunedin; Maungatua; Kelso; Clinton; Catlin's; Bluff; &c. Uncinia puepueata, Petrie. — Rather rare in the E. ; more common on mountains of N.W. Signal Hill; Swampy Hill ; Maungatua ; Macrae's ; Horse Range ; Mount Car- drona ; Mount Tyndall ; &c. Uncinia eigida, Petrie. — Common in sci-ubby and open lands of E., S., and S. central districts. Waitati ; Tokomairiro ; Tuapeka ; Miller's Flat ; Akatore ; Kaitangata ; &c. This plant, which has been referred by different authors to U. rubra, Boott, and U. riparia, 13r., still seems to me as distinct as any species of the genus that is to be found in the colony. It is far more distinct from any of its con- geners than U. ferruginea is from U. australis. Uncinia eipaeia, Br. — Not uncommon in bush and scrub in the E., S., and W. Dunedin; Catlin's; Lake Hawea; Lake Te Anau ; &c. To this may belong my U. laxiflora, which is, however, quite unlike typical specimens of Brown's plant sent me by Baron von Mueller, as well as the figure of the latter in the " Flora Tasmanise." In my view, Bentham has included more than one species in his character of U. riparia, Br., in the "Flora Australiensis." Uncinia tenella, Br. — Clinton Vallev ; Matukituki Vallev. 582 Transactions. — Botany. Carex pyeenaica, Wahl. —Common on all the mountains of C. and W. at 5,000ft. and vipwards. Old Man Eange ; Hector Mountains ; Mount Cardrona ; Mount Pisa ; Mount Arnould. Carex acicularis, Boott. — Old Man Eange, near head of Obelisk Creek (3,500ft.). Carex inversa, Br. — Rather uncommon in the C. and S. Ida Valley ; Maniototo Plain ; Strath Taieri ; Catlin's. Carex colensoi, Boott. — Common in dry uplands of E., C.^ and S. Kurow ; Maungatua ; Blue Mountains ; Lake Wanaka ; Maniototo Plain ; Lumsden ; &c. Carex echinata, Murray. — Not uncommon in lowland and mountain swampy stations. Eomahapa ; Port Molyneux ; Catlin's ; Blue Mountains ; Lake Te Anau ; Hector Mountains (5,000ft.). Carex teretiuscula, Goodenough. — Eather rare in the E., C, and S. Strath Taieri ; Sowburn ; Cromwell; Catlin's. Carex virgata, Solander. — Common in boggy and swampy stations throughout. Carex appkessa, Br. — Common near the E. and S. coasts. Dunedin ; Catlin's; also at Lakes Te Anau and Hawea. Carex vulgaris, Fries., var. gaudichaudiana, Boott. — Com- mon in wet stations throughout. Eanges from sea-level (Lake Waihola) to 5,000ft. (Hector Mountains). Carex testacea, Solander. — Common throughout the drier parts of the district. Waikouaiti ; Dunedin ; Lawrence ; Maniototo Plain ; moiuitains at Lake Wanaka ; Mount Cardrona (4,000ft.) ; &c. Long confounded by colonial botanists with C. raoulii, Boott, a mistake that led me to describe the true C. raoulii, Boott, as a new species — my C. goyeni. Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., was the first to recognise the true G. testacea of Solander. Carex ternaria, Forst. — Common from sea-level to 4,000ft. Dunedin ; Old Man Eange ; &c. Carex raoulii, Boott.- — Eather rare in open and scrubby valleys of C. and W. Mount Ida ; head of Lake Waka- tipu ; Lake Wanaka ; &c. Carex lucida, Boott. — Common in lowlands of E., C, and S. Dunedin ; Waipahi ; Maniototo Plain ; &c. Ascends ta 2,500ft. Carex pumila, Thunberg.— Common on sandy shores of E. and S. Carex forsteri, Wahl. — Not rare in woodlands of E. and S. Dunedin ; Catlin's ; Horse Eange ; Clinton Valley. In the Petkie. — On the F ioicering-plants of Oiago. 683 last station only a peculiar variety, identical with Cheese- man's C. cinnamomea, occurs. Cabex pseudocypeeus, Br.— Not rare in swamps of E., C, and S. Inch-Clutha; Catlin's ; Waipori ; Lake Wakatipu. Ascends to 2,000ft. Cabex flava, L. — Not rare in wet stations throughout. Otago Heads ; Catlin's ; Maniototo Plain ; Lake Wanaka. Ascends to 3,000ft, at Clarke's Diggings. Carex breviculmis, Br. — Common in dry open stations. Saddle Hill ; Flagstaff Hill ; &c. Ascends to 4,000ft. on Mount St. Bathan's, &c. Cabex trifida, Cavaiiilles. — Rather rare on the E. and S. coasts. Otago Harbour ; Hooper's Inlet ; Catlin's ; Stew- art Island. Carex neesiana, Endl. — Not rare in the E. and S. ; much more rare in C. and N. Dunedin ; Otago Heads; Cat- lin's ; Horse Range ; Roxburgh ; &c. Carex dissita, Solander. — Not uncommon in wet forest and open valleys of E. and S. ; rarer in N.W. Dunedin; Catlin's; Invercargill ; Macrae's (1,800ft.) ; Lakes Wanaka and Wakatipu. Carex buchanani, Berggren. — Common in the Upper Clutha basin and the W. ; rare in the E. Lake Waihola ; Bal- clutha ; Cromwell ; Lake Te Anau ; &c. Carex dipsacea, Berggren. — Not uncommon in pools and shallow lagoons of E., E. central, and S. districts. Wai- kouaiti ; Maniototo Plain ; Manuherikia Plain ; Waipahi ; Lumsden ; &c. Cabex comans, Berggren. — Not rare in drier open uplands of E. central district. Waipori ; Hyde ; Kyeburn Creek ; &c. My C. cheesevianii is doubtless a form of this. Berg- gren's figure, which I had before me when the latter was described, is not at all characteristic of the prevailing Otago forms of the species. Cabex lagopina, Wahl. — Not rare in lofty mountains of W. andN.W.,at4,000ft.-6,000ft. Hector Mountains ; moun- tains east of Mount Aspiring ; head of Lake Wakatipu ; &c. My C. loarkcri is the same plant. I have lately found this at the sources of Broken River, Canterbury. Carex kaloides, Petrie. — Common in the upper Taieri basin ; more rare in the Clutha basin. Balclutha ; Strath Taieri ; Maniototo Plain ; St. Bathan's ; Speargi'ass Flat ; &c Ascends to 2,000ft. 584 Transactions. — Botany. Cakex muelleei, Petrie (=C viridis, mihi, a name previously used). — Not uncommon on the mountains of the C. and N.W. Eough Ridge; Clark's Diggings; Carrick Eange ; Nevis Valley ; Cardrona Valley ; &c. Ascends to 4,000ft. Carex wakatipu, Petrie. — Common on the mountains of the C. and N.W. Mount Ida ; Mount St. Bathan's ; Hector Mountains ; Ben Lomond ; Mount Cardrona ; &c. (from 3,000ft.-5,000ft.). Caeex longioulmis, Petrie.— Glory Cove, Stewart Island. Carex littorosa, Bailey ( = C. littoralis, Petrie, a name previously used). — Common on mudflats of E. and S. coasts. Dunedin ; Bluff; Paterson's Inlet. Carex uncifolia, Cheeseman. — Not uncommon on the moun- tains and in the higher valleys of the N.W. Mount Cardrona (4,000ft.) ; Nevis Valley; Arrowtown. Carex resectans, Cheeseman. — Common in the dry plains of the interior. Gimmerburn ; Ida Valley ; Albertown ; &c. Carex petriei, Cheeseman. — Not uncommon in the higher valleys of the N. and W. Mount Ida ; Dunstan Moun- tains; Hector Mountains ; Mount Cardrona. Ranges from 700ft. at Te Anau to 4,500ft. Carex berggreni, Petrie.— Rather rare on the mountains of the C. Mount Pisa (5,000ft.) ; Old Man Range ; Mount •Kyeburn (3,300ft.). Carex kirkii, Petrie. — Common on the mountains of the C. and N.W. ; rarer towards the E. Macrae's ; Nevis Valley ; Old Man Range ; Hector Mountains ; Mount Pisa (l,800ft.-4,500ft.). Carex thomsoni, Petrie. — Not rare on the summits of the highest mountains of the N.W. Old Man Range ; Hector Mountains ; Mount Pisa. Ranges from 4,500ft. to 6,500ft. Carex hectori, Petrie. — Old Man Range (5,000ft.). ' Carex Nov^-ZEALANDi.a:, Petrie. — Shores of Lake Te Anau. Ehrharta colensoi, Hook. f. — Clinton Saddle, Lake Te Anau (3,000ft.). Ehrharta thomsoni, Petrie. — Paterson's Inlet and head of Port Pegasus, Stewart Island. MicROL.a:NA stipoides, Br. — Dunedin ; Kelso ; Moa Flat ; Speargrass Flat ; head of Lake Hawea ; Invercargill ; Stewart Island. It has been alleged that this grass will not stand frost, but at the Speargrass Flat stations it grows most luxuriantly, though the frosts are very severe, and last for several months. Petkie. — On the Floioering -plants of Otago. 585 MiCEOL^NA AVENACEA, Hook. f. — Common in forests through- out. Dunedin ; Catliu's ; Invercargill ; Lake Hawea ; Lake Te Anau. MiCEOLiENA POLYNODA, Hook. f. — Dunodin, at various stations in the Leith Valley. Alopecurus geniculatus, L. — Common in wet stations throughout up to 2,000ft. Dunedin; Cathn's ; Kelso; Maniototo Plain ; Lake Wanaka ; Lake Te Anau ; &c. HiEROCHLOE REDOLENS, Br. — Common in moist open sta- tions. HiEROCHLOE alpina, Eoem. and Schultz. — Not rare on wet hills and the higher mountains. Maungatua ; Macrae's ; Eock and Pillar Range ; Waipori ; Blue Mountains ; Clin- ton Valley ; &c. Descends to sea-level at Inch-Clutha and Catlin's. ZoYSiA PUNGENs, Willd. — Not rare on low tei-races of Upper Clutha. iVlexandra ; Cromwell; Bendigo ; Albertown. EcHiNOPOGON OVATUS, Beauv. — Not uncommon in dry low- land stations. Dunedin; Beaumont; Lake Wanaka; Arrowtown ; &c. Stipa setacea, Br.^ — Kawarau River ; Firewood Creek, Crom- well ; Kurow ; Duntroon ; Wharekuri. This is an Aus- tralian grass, and is most probably introduced in these stations. DiCHELACHNE CRiNiTA, Hook. f.- — Commou throughout in dry, open lowland stations. Dunedin ; Lawrence ; Cromwell ; &c. Apeea aeundinacea. Hook. f. — Rare and local in the E. Horse Range ; Dunedin ; Kaitangata. Agrostis ANTARCTICA, Hook. f. — Head of Clinton Valley, Lake Te Anau. Agrostis canina, L. — Abundant in C, W., and N. ; more rare in E. and S. Naseby ; Nevis Valley ; Cromwell; &c. Agrostis parvifloea, Br.- — Town Belt, Dunedin. I have not seen this elsewhere in Otago, and am of opinion that it is introduced in the Dunedin district. Agrostis muscosa. Kirk. — Abundant on wet hills and uplands of E. and S. Hindon ; Waipori ; Macrae's ; Blue Moun- tains ; &c. Ranges from 1,500ft. to 3,000ft. Agrostis muelleri, Benth. — Abundant on the mountains of N., C, and W., at 4,000ft. and upwards. Mount Kyeburn ; Mount Ida; Mount St. Bathan's ; Hector Mountains; Mount Pisa ; Mount Cardrona • &c. 586 Transactions. — Botany. Agrostis tenella, Petrie. — Macrae's ; head of Lake Waka- tipu. Agrostis dyeri, Petrie. — Mountains east of Hunter Kiver. Deyeuxia forsteri, Kunth. — Abundant in moist lowland stations. Dunedin ; Maniototo Plain ; Waipori ; Lums- den ; Lake Te Anau ; &c. Deyeuxia stricta, Colenso. — Shores of Lake Te x\nau. This is most probably only a variety of the foregoing species, growing in stations sodden with water. Deyeuxia pilosa, A. Rich. — Not rare in the mountain valleys- of the far W. Hunter River ; Matukituki Valley ; Clinton Valley. Deyeuxia billardieri, Kunth. — Not uncommon on sandhills of E. and S. coasts. Shag Point; Otago Heads; Dunedin Beach ; Catlin's ; Stewart Island. Deyeuxia setifolia, Hook. f. — Rare and local on the central mountains. Hector Mountains ; Old Man Range. At 3,500ft.-4,000ft. Deyeuxia avenoides, Hook. f. — Common on uplands and lower mountain slopes throughout. Swampy Hill ; Wai- pori ; Mount St. Bathan's ; Hunter River ; &c. Ascends to 4,000ft. Deyeuxia quadriseta, Br. — Common in the district round Dunedin ; more rare in C. and W. Lake Wakatipu ; Dunedin. Almost confined to scrubby lands. Deyeuxia scabra, Benth.— Mount Pisa (3,500ft.) ; Swampy Hill. Most likely introduced. Deyeuxia leptostachya, T. Kirk (MS.).— Catlin's; Stewart Island. Perhaps a var. of D. billardieri, Kunth. Abundo conspicua, Porst. — Common in moist open lowland stations. Danthonia cunninghamii, Hook. f. — Not rare on moist banks on E. and S. Dunedin; Waipori; Stewart Island. Danthonia raoulii, Steudel. — Most abundant on uplands and lower hills throughout. Dunedin (100ft.) ; AVaipori ; Wai- pahi ; Invercargill ; Blue Mountains ; Hector Mountains ; &c. In the C. and N. this does not descend nearly so low as it does in the E. and S. Danthonia flavescens, Hook. f. — Common on the mountains of the far W., at 4,000ft. and upwards. Mountains east of Lake Hawea and west of Lake Wanaka. Descends to 3,000ft. at Clinton Saddle. The eastern stations men- tioned in Mr. Buchanan's work on the New Zealand Petkie. — On the Floiverhig-plants of Otago. 687 Grasses are given in error. He confounded robust forms of D. raoulii with the present species. Danthonia semiannularis, Br. — Abundant in open lands throughout, and very variable. Danthonia pilosa, Br. — Signal Hill ; -Heriot ; Kelso. Danthonia buchanani, Hook. f. — Matukituki Valley. Danthonia nuda, Hook. f. — Common in the drier lowlands and on dry hills of E., C, and N. Macrae's; Kurow ; Strath Taieri ; Lakes Wanaka and Hawea ; Tapanui. Danthonia thomsoni, Buchanan, is identical with this. I can vouch for this, as, through the kindness of Sir J. D. Hooker, I have been able to compare a spikelet of the original plant collected by Colenso with specimens of Buchanan's species, wdiich I was the first to collect in Otago. Sir J. D. Hooker did not notice that there were two pencils of hairs on the flowering glume. As they over- lap, they would naturallj'' be taken for a single pencil. "When a dissecting-needle is slipped in and the edge of the glume raised the two pencils are at once seen. Sir Joseph did not happen to do this, and so described the glume in- correctly as having a single pencil of hairs. Danthonia ovata, Buchanan, var. — Clinton Saddle (2,500ft.). If this is a form of Buchanan's species the latter has been very poorly described. He did not collect it himself, and most hkely had indifferent material to work on. The pre- sent plant differs from D. atistralis, Buchanan, only in not being tufted. Danthonia ceassiuscula, T. Kirk. — Mount Arnould, Hunter Eiver (5,000ft.). Deschampsia pusilla, Petrie. — Hector Mountains (6,000ft.). Deschampsia tenella, Petrie. — Sources of Water of Leith ; Catlin's ; Clinton Saddle. In all these stations only in bush. Deschampsia chapmani, Petrie. — Head of Clinton Valley, Te Anau (2,000ft.). Deschampsia nov^e-zealandi^, Petrie. — Naseby ; Pembroke ; Mount St. Bathan's ; Hector Mountains. Eanges from l,000ft.-4, 000ft. Confined to very wet stations. Deschampsia c^spitosa, Beauv.— Common throughout in wet and boggy ground. Dunedin ; Waihola ; Waipahi ; Lums- den ; Eoxburgh ; &c. Kceleria ckistata, Persoon. — Common in dry uplands and mountains, and on sandhills of E. coast. Dunedin; Old Man Eange ; Cromwell ; Arrowtown ; &c. 588 Transactions. — Botany. Tkisetum antarcticum, Trinius. — Not uncommon in rather dry stations. Duneclin ; Maungatua ; Mount St. Bathan's ; &c. A variable plant. Trisetum subspicatum, Beauv. — Common, at 4,000ft. and upwards, on mountains of N., C, and W. Knrow Moun- tains ; Old Man Range ; Mount Pisa ; Mount Cardrona ; &c. Tkisetum youngii, Hook. f. — Not uncommon on mountains of W., at 3,500ft.-5,000ft. Carrick Range ; Mount Bon- pland ; Mount Tyndall ; Clinton Saddle ; &c. Olyceria stricta. Hook, f.— Common close to the sea on the E. and S. coasts. Oamaru ; Dunedin ; Catlin's ; Bluff; &c. Atropis pumila, Kirk. — Common on the mountains of the C. and N. and the higher lowlands of the E. and S. Mac- rae's ; Waiwera River ; Waipori ; Blue Mountains ; Mount Ida; Carrick Range; &c. Descends to 200ft. in the S., and reaches 4,000ft. in C. Eragrostis imbecilla, Hook. f. — Abundant in the drier parts of the E., C, and N. Dunedin; Manuherikia Valley; Maniototo Plain ; Lake District ; &c. Eragrostis breviglumis, Hook, f . — Port Moeraki ; Waipahi ; Catlin's. Now a very rare grass, as it is greedily eaten by stock. It grows only in rich alluvial or volcanic lands, and is well worthy of cultivation, as it is a tender, succu- lent grass, yielding a large amount of herbage. PoA FOLiosA, Hook. f. — Not uncommon on wet slopes on the mountains of the N., C, and W., at 3,000ft.-5,000ft. Mount Ida ; Mount Pisa ; Mount Cardrona ; Clinton Saddle and Valley, where it descends to 1,500ft. PoA ExiGUA, Hook, f . — Old Man Range ; Hector Mountains ; Mount Pisa; Mount Cardrona; &c. (4,000ft.-6,000ft.). PoA CESPiTOSA, Forst. — Common and often abundant in the drier lowlands of the E. and S. ; more rare, and chiefly in sandy stations, in the interior. PoA colensoi, Hook. f. — Common throughout, and ranging from near sea-level to 6,000ft. Very abundant on the mountains of the C. and N. A most valuable fodder-grass, and very variable. PoA LiNDSAYi, Hook. f. — -Common in dry lowland stations in the C. and N. Waitahi Valley; Ngapara ; Maniototo Plain ; Tuapeka Mouth ; Lake District ; &c. Ascends to 3,000ft. at Mount Kyeburn. PoA SCLEROPHYLLA, Bcrggreu. — On dry, broken shingle on mountains of C. and N.E. Mount Ida; Mount St. Bathan's (4,000ft.-6,000ft.). Petbie. — On the Flowering-plants of Otago. 589' PoA rusiLLA, Berggren. — Common in the E. and S. ; rarer in the interior. Dunedin ; Maungatua ; Catlin's ; Kyebnrn Crossing ; Cambrian ; &c. Ascends to 2,500ft. Dr. Berggren's figure of this plant represents a small depau- perated form of the species. PoA INTERMEDIA, Buchanan. — Dry rocky stations in the C. Black's; Hamilton's; &c. I doubt if this is distinct from P. colensoi, Hook, f., which is a very variable plant. PoA PYGM^A, Buchanan. — Plateau on top of Mount Pisa (6,000ft.). PoA KiRKii, Buchanan. — Not uncommon in mountain valleys and on mountain slopes in the E., C, and W. Maungatua (2,500ft.) ; Eock and Pillar Range ; Hector Mountains ; Humboldt Mountains. A variable plant. PoA MANiOTOTO, Petrie. — Common on dry salty plains and river- terraces of the centre. Kurow ; Bendigo ; Mount Pisa; Maniototo Plain (l,200ft.-3,000ft.). PoA coLLiNsii, Kirk (MS.). — Nevis Valley; Nenthoru. This may be a form of Poa kirkii. ScHEDONORUS LiTTORALis, E. Br., var. TRiTicoiDES, Beuth. — Common on sandhills of E. and S. coasts. Festuca scoparia, Hook. f. — Common on cliffs of the E. and S. coasts. Brighton ; Catlin's ; Stewart Island. I have not observed this north of Brighton, where it is abundant on spray-washed cliffs. Festuca duriuscula, L. — Most abundant at 1,000ft. and up- wards, both on the dry plains and on the hills and moun- tains of the interior. West Taieri ; Hyde ; Maniotota Plain ; Macrae's ; Tarras ; Hawea Flat ; &c. This species has been confounded by some botanical w'orkers and most settlers with Poa ccespitosa, Forst. It is a much more valuable grass than the latter, which is eaten only when very young. Together with Agropymm scabrum and Poa colensoi, it forms the main sustenance of the great flocks of sheep depastured on the uplands of the South Island. It can be readily distinguished from Poa caspitosa by the somewhat rough culm. The culm of the latter is always perfectly smooth. Agropybum scabrum, Br. — Common throughout the district, and especially in the dry terrace plains and lower moun- tain slopes of the central district. Dunedin ; Clyde ; Ida Valley ; &c. The most nutritious grass in the colony, and one of the most difficult to eat out. Being greedily eaten by stock as well as by rabbits, it is seldom allowed to flower, but it holds the ground well in spite of this. 590 Transactions. — Botany. AsPKELLA GRACILIS, Hook. f. — Not rare in alluvial flats and in the lower valleys of the E., C, and N. Dunedin ; Ewe- burn Creek ; Waipori ; &c. AsPRELLA LiEVis, Petrie. — Catlin's ; Matukituki Valley. Triodia exigua, Kirk. — Not uncommon in dry plains and river terraces of C. and N.W. Kyeburn Crossing ; St. Bathan's ; Moa Flat ; Lake Hawea. Eanges from 300ft.- 2,500ft. Triodia australis, Petrie. — Clark's Diggings; Mount Car- drona ; Hector Mountains ; Old Man Range ; Blue Moun- tains ; Maungatua (3,000ft.-5,000ft.). A useful fodder- grass, most abundant and very closely cropped on the Blue Mountains. Elsewhere it grows chiefly by the sides of shallow gently-sloping mountain brooks. Besides the foregoing grasses I have from Waikouaiti and Deep Stream immature specimens of a grass that will no doubt prove a new genus. Mr. T. Kirk, F.L.S., has gathered the same plant in the Wellington District. I sent specimens of it to Kew a number of years ago. Appendix. List of Plants reported from Otago which I have not gathered or observed. Ranunculus tenuis, Buchanan. Pachycladon glabra, Buchanan. Pachycladou elongata, Buchanan. Lepidium australe, Kirk. Notothlaspi hookeri, Buchanan. Hectorella elongata, Buchanan. Aristotelia erecta, Buchanan. Melicope parvula, Buchanan. Geum alpinum, Buchanan. Gunnera hamiltoni. Kirk. Ligusticum acutifolium, Kirk. Olearia oleifolia, Kirk. Olearia traillii. Kirk. Erigeron novae-zealandiae, Buchanan. Erigeron bonplandi, Buchanan. Celmisia martini, BucJianan. Celmisia robusta, Buchanan. Abrotanella muscosa, Kirk. Haastia montana, Buchanan. Senecio buchanani, Armstrong . Senecio stewartiae, Armstrong. Senecio bifistulosus, Hook. f. CoLENSO. — On New Phanogams. 591 Dracophyllum pearsoni, Kirk. Mitrasacme hookeri, Buchanan. Mitrasacme cheesemanii, Buchanan. Logania armstrongii, Buchanan. Gentiana hookeri, Armstrong. Verouica glauco-coerulea, Arvistrong. Veronica monticola, Armstrong. Veronica tetrasticha, Hook. f. Veronica carnea, Armstrong. Veronica rnuelleri, Armstrong. Pygmaea thomsoni, Buchanan. Ourisia montana, Buchanan. Plantago hamiltoni, Kirk. Fagus blairii, Kirk. Scirpus muscosus, Kirk. Danthonia flaccida, Kirk. Poa walkeri, Kirk. Art. LVIII. — Phanogams : A Description of a few more Neiclij-discovercd Indigenous Plants ; being a Further Con- tribution towccrds the making known the Botany of New Zealand. By W. CoLENso, RE.S., F.L.S. (Lond.), &c. l_Read before the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, 21st October, 1895.] Class I. DICOTYLEDONS. Order I. KANUNCULACEiE. Genus 3.* Ranunculus, Linn. 1. B. rufus, sp. nov. Plant perennial, large, stout, everywhere hairy ; hairs long, shaggy, flattish, acute, dull-red. Leaves broadly orbicu- lar, 3^in. long, 5iu. wide, reddish-green, chartaceous ; margins crenate, teeth broad rounded, base truncate and cordate, hairs strigosely situated ; strongly primary-veined from petiole to margins, with secondary veins forming large areolse of irregu- lar shapes and sizes, usually 5-6 sided, with free branched veinlets within them (compound anastomosing) ; hairs form- ing a thickened elevated margin to leaves ; petioles stout, * Tlie numbers of the orders and genera given here are those of them in the " Handbook of the New Zeahxnd Flora." 592 Transactions. — Botany. 4in. long. Flowering-stem 15in. high (perhaps more, speci- mens not having basal extremity), erect, very stout, -l-in. diameter, naked; 9in. to first cauline leaf, thence 2-3 stout bibracteate stems, sub 4in. long; bracts Ifin. long, narrow, sessile, and clasping ; each stem bearing 3-5 flowers, on pedicels 2in. long, also bibracteate ; bracts long, narrow, alternate, sometimes opposite ; the low^er and main cauline leaf large, orbicular (deeply trifid in one specimen), 2iin. diameter ; petiole short, broad, and stout ; hairs retrorse. Flowers large, spreading, forming sub-corymbs, 12-14 and more on one scape. Sepals 4, elliptic, ^in. long, thin, mar- gins very membranous, longitudinally hairy along middle on outside, and very hairy and ciliate at tips. Corolla, petals 4, broadly cuneate, fin. long, iin. wide at top, tips flat-rounded, bright-yellow, shining, veined ; base of petals narrow, thick- ened ; nectary small, close to base, foveolate, with a semi- circular ridge below ; the 3 primary veins from base largely dichotomous, and running subparallel to tip. Stamens very numerous, ^iu. long, flat, 1-nerved; anthers 1 line long, narrow, elliptic, with membranous margins. Carpels many, closely packed, forming ovoid heads (immature), -^in. long, hairy, with long hairy tails, their upper portion having a flattish submembranous margin, tips acute, glabrous. Hah. Euahine Mountain-range, east side: Mr. H. Hill, 1894; Mr. E. W. Andrews, 1895. Obs. This fine plant has close affinity with three other known species from the same alpine locality — wiz., B. ins ignis, Hook.; B. riiahinicus, Col. (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xviii., p. 256) ; and B. sycJmopetala, Col. (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxiii., p. 324, and vol. xxvi., p. 313) — but differing from them all in several characters, and particularly in its peculiar and striking shaggy carpels. Order VII. Poetulace^. Genus 1. Claytonia, Linn. 1. C. calycina, sp. nov. A small perennial low creeping herb, subsucculent, gla- brous, rooting at nodes. Stems stout (for plant), branchlets short, about -|^in. apart on main stem. Leaves linear, fin. long, ^ line wide, tips obtuse, thickish, in fascicles of 4-5, stipulate. Flowers terminal on branchlets, 2-3 together; pedicels of various lengths, fin.-lin. long. Calyx 2 large persistent broad sepals, half as long as corolla, concave, much imbricate in bud and in flower, tips rounded. CcJrolla white, 4 lines diameter, lobes obovate, obtuse, incurved, veined. Stamens white, spreading; antbers oblong, red; style half as long as sta- mens; stigmas 2, erect, linear, acuminate, pointed, minutely pubescent. CoLENSo. — On Neic Phcenogams. 593 Hah. Euahine Momi tain-range : Mr. A. Olsen ; 1895. Obs. This species is near the only other known southern one {G. australasica), but differs in its scape being 2-3 flowered, in its very much larger calyx (a striking character), different - shaped anthers, and bitid instead of trifid stigma. Of G. australasica Hooker says, in first describing it (" Icones Plantarunr," tab. 293), " petalis calycem quadruple super- antibus" — w^iich his plate, with dissections, clearly show; and Bentham, " sepals small orbicular, petals several times longer; style 3-cleft," ttc. (" Fi. Australiensis," vol. i., p. 177). Order XXVI. Droseeace. Genus 1. Drosera, Linn. 1. D. ruaJiinensls, sp. nov. Plant perennial, tufted, erect, sub 2in. high, glabrous ; rootstock long and straight, woody, much fibrously branched ; the whole plant very dark coloured (blackish) when dry. Leaves with petioles Ifin. long, of two forms, ovate-acuminate, and broadly orbicular-spathulate, lamina of the latter very glandular on upper surface ; glands long, flat, flexuous, and straight, dark-red, broadest at base, tips subobovoid ; petioles sub l^in. long, broad, membranous, veined, half -clasping. Scape ^in.— |iu. longer than leaves, filiform, naked. Flower solitary, small, 3 lines long ; calyx lobes broadly-elliptic- oblong, tips slightly jagged. Corolla a little longer than calyx ; petals membranous, suborbicular, entire, whitish tinged with rose-colour, veined. Stamens flat, broad, shorter than calyx, included ; anthers cordate, yellow. Styles 3, short, stout ; stigmas capitate, large, papillose ; ovary sub- ellipsoid-globular. Hab. Euahine Mountain-range : Mr. H. Hill, 1895 ; Mr. A. Olsen, 1895. Obs. A species having affinity with D. arcturi, Hook., and D. polyneura. Col. (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxii., p. 460), but differing from both in several grave characters. 2. D. stylosa, sp. nov. Plant slender, weak, suberect ; stem 10in.-12in. high, dark- green, almost black (so also stem-leaves and -sepals), striate, slightly branched, 1-2 small branches near top, each bearing 2-3 leaves and a single terminal flower. Leaves rosulate, 9-10, broadly orbicular, 2 lines wide, glandular on upper surface and at margins (glands in centre of lamina very short and small), glabrous below, pale yellow-brow^n ; petioles flat, stout, -^^in. long. Stem-leaves broadly lunate and peltate, 2 lines wide, much glandular on upper surface ; glands flattish, long (irregular lengths), strong, spreading, those of the two 38 594 Tra nsactions. — Bo ta ny . angles very long, stout, and branched (three leaves together erect at base), scattered alternately throughout stem, 6-8 lines apart, the lower solitary, afterwards 2 together, then 3-4 subfaseicled ; petioles filiform, 7-8 lines long. Eaceme at top l^in.-2in. long; with a few (5-7) distant flowers, having a single small linear toothed acuminate adpressed bract be- tween them; pedicels finely filiform, 2-3 lines long. Sepals broadly oblong, 2 lines long, membranaceous, veined, glabrous, roughish, minutely tuberculate ; tips much jagged. Corolla very membranous, twice length of sepals ; petals broadly cuneate, pink, veined ; styles 3, stout, spreading, much branched at top ; branches flattish, with numerous minute terminal and marginal globular dots. Anthers very small, suborbicular, white ; stamens dark-coloured. Ovary elliptic- globose, dark-green. Seeds linear, acuminate, somewhat fal- cate, brownish. Hab. Euahine Mountain-range, east side : Mr. H. Hill ; 1895. Oh&. A species very near to D. auricidata, Backhouse, but differing in its branched stem (in number and position of stem-leaves), in bracteolate raceme, in broad laciniate sepals, and in its very peculiar styles, these last being a most interest- ing and curious object under the microscope. Order XXXVIII. Eubiace^. Genus 1. Coprosma, Forst. 1. G. margarita, sp. nov. A small low shrub; bark dark-coloured, purplish; branches very slender, erect, and drooping when in fruit (specimens 6in.-8in. long) ; branchlets numerous, rather close, opposite, short, filiform, somewhat angular, thickly clothed with short greyish hairs, strigosely pubescent. Leaves few, more nume- rous at tips of branchlets, linear, 9 lines long, ^^vcl. wide, glabrous, green, acute and subacute, slightly falcate, recurved, tips callous, tapering at base ; petioles very short, purple. Stipules small, deltoid - acuminate, acute, pilose, ciliolate. Flowers : male not seen ; female solitary, terminal on very- short branchlets and often opposite, sometimes having a pair of linear leaf-like bracteoles at base, purple-margined, their tips minutely ciliolate, as also are the teeth of the calyx, which are very small ; peduncles slender, wiry, 1 line long. Corolla small, infundibuliform, ^in. long, pale-yellow irregu- larly spotted with purple, 4-lobed ; lobes subovate and sub- acute, spreading, margins purple ; styles twice as long as tube, stout, very pubescent, obtuse, spreading. Fruits nume- rous, globular, -^x^^- diameter, white, shining, semitransparent, crowned with the minute calycine lobes. Seeds 2, suborbicu- lar, plano-convex, ^V^^- diameter, whitish. CoLENSo. —0/i Neiu PJuenoganis. 595 Hab. Ruahine Mountain-range, east side: Mr. A. 01 sen ; 1895. Ohs. A very distinct species of this rather difficult genus, and very handsome when in fruit ; its Httle sohtary, globose, white, shining fruits resembling pearls strung on its light feathery foliage (whence its specific name). At this season its appearance is most striking, further increased by the graceful drooping of its slender loaded branches. I regret not having seen its male flowers ; indeed, my female speci- mens— in fruit and in early flower — are the result of two visits made during two seasons, autumn and spring, to the mountains. Genus 2. Nertera, Banks and Solander. 1. N. montana, sp. nov. A small low creeping succulent glabrous herb, rooting at nodes, lin.-3in. high, branches numerous and very short. Leaves suborbicular, broader than long, apiculate, 1-2 lines diameter, concave, tapering, a few rather long weak white cilias at margins ; these are flat, semitransparent, and jointed ; petioles 1 line long. Flowers small, terminal on short branch- lets, sessile, pale-greenish. Corolla, tube shorter than limb ; lobes deltoid, subacute, spreading, subhyaline, pubescent within. Stamens spreading longer than styles ; anthers ex- serted, suborbicular and cordate, yellow ; styles 2, spreading, recurved. Ovary broadly ovoid, glabrous. Hah. Euahine Mountain-range, east side : Mr. A. Olscn ; January, 1895. 2. N. papulosa, sp. nov. A minute low creeping herb, 3in.-4in. long, rooting at nodes, much branched ; branches very short ; subsucculent, glabrous, finely papillose ; stems purple-splashed. Leaves very small, scarcely 1^ lines long, suborbicular -deltoid, tip subacute, pale-green with purple margins, stippled below ; petioles as long as leaves. Flowers terminal, very small, sessile ; corolla 1 line in diameter, greenish-yellow, 4:-parted ; lobes deltoid, acute, finely pubescent within; stamens 4, longer than lobes ; anthers orbicular, yellow ; stigmas 2, recurved, shorter than anthers ; ovary oblong. Fruit globular, glabrous, shining, sessile, j^o^n. dian^.eter, red. Seeds 2, oblong-ovoid, gV^- lougj plano-convex, greyish-white. Hab. Low wet spots on the sides of the mountain Tonga- riro, in the Taupo district : Mr. H. Hill ; 1893. Ohs. This is an interesting little plant — a perfect gem — in its lustrous, lowly, humble beauty. I have succeeded in grow- ing it, and therefore have been able to watch its minute development, and to note all its grave characters in its fresh 596 Transactions. — Botany. state, in confirmation of dried specimens biouglit away by Mr. Hill. Order XXXIX. Composite:. Genus I. Olearia, Mamch. 1. 0. consivuUs, sp. nov. A bushy shrub, 5ft.-6ft. high, with long slender branches ; bark dark-brown, striate. Branches numerous, erect, straight and drooping, opposite, angled, ribbed ; bark reddish-brown, bright, shining on the younger branchlets, with more or less of orange-coloured dry waxy exudation, which is also scattered on leaves (beneath), and peduncles. Leaves numerous, regularly distant on branchlets, 6-9 lines apart, fascicled, 5-7 together on the lower and 3 on the upper part of branchlets, opposite, but on iiowering branchlets the terminal portion above the flowers has only single leaves opposite, erect, spreading, linear or sub-linear-spathulate, 2 lines long, aV^- wide, thickish, tip broadly rounded, base slightly tapering, sessile, margins entire subrevolute, dark-green and slightly scaberu- lous above with midrib deeply sunk, the same slightly promi- nent and orange-coloured below, with close whitish shining hairs. Heads many, solitary, axillary, regularly opposite (in pairs) on lateral branchlets, 2-3 lines apart, subcampanu- late, 4 lines long. If lines diameter ; peduncles 1 line long. Involucral scales many, imbricate in 4 rows, yellow, shining, with a green central stripe in their apical portion, the outer broadly ovate and short, the middle narrow ovate acumi- nate, the innermost longest 2f lines long, very narrow Imear- lanceolate, with thin undulating shining margins, coarsely ciliate-jagged. Florets few (11), as long as pappus, slender, red-brown (dry) ; style-arms very long recurved brown rough- isli lanceolate, tips acuminate, acute. Pappus nearly equal, white, shining, slightly scabrid, tips acute. Achene linear, Hattish, striate, glabrous, shining. Hah. Norsewood, County of Waipawa — margins of woods and streamlets : M7\ A. Olseii ; 1895. (Flowering in autumn.) Obs. A species very near to 0. fasciculata, Col. (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. XXV., p. 330), but differing from that species in fewer rows of involucral scales, of a different colour, and free from waxy exudations, &c. 2. 0. quinqueficla, sp. nov. A shrub " 7ft.-8ft. high," of upright growth; branches long, slender; bark darkish-brown, striate, with minute whitish membranaceous scurf ; branchlets very slender and straight, erect, bark red-brown, glabrous, shining, with slightly scattered red scaly exudation, angled, a prominent ridge decurrent from base of pair of leaves above to the next pair below. Leaves CoLENSo. — 071 Neiv PluPHOijams. 597 numerous, decussate, sub-linear- spathulate, 2-2|- lines long, scarcely -j line broad, erect, opposite and sub-fascicled 3-4-5 together, the bases of the outer pair semiclasping and meet- ing around the stem, margins entire, revolute, green gla- brous and slightly scurfy above, densely hairy below ; hairs whitish-grey, coarse and dull ; petioles short, stout, those of the outermost pair of leaves thickened at bases. Flowers numerous, heads narrow, campanulate, 2 lines long, solitary, sometimes 2 (rarely 3) together, opposite, 4-6 lines apart on branch, regular and extending nearly throughout long branches, and on very short lateral branchlets, axillary, sessile, sur- rounded by leaves. Involucral scales in 7-8 rows, broadly ovate-obtuse, closely imbricate, bright-yellow, glabrous, their centres pale with closely appressed hairs, and a line at apex, the outermost very small increasing in size upwards, the innermost 2-2-i- lines long, thin, brownish and shining within and largely reverted at maturity, their margins rumpled and slightly jagged. Florets very few, slender, as long as pappus ; disk, lamina deeply cut into 4-5 linear lobes, their margins thickened and dark-coloured, tips acute hairy ; style longer than corolla, arms filiform very long, rough, jagged, tips obtuse but not truncate ; ray, lamina very narrow, revolute, 8- nerved, tip 3-toothed ; style-arms shorter than lamina. Pap- pus numerous, patent, spreading, slightly scaberulous, tips acute, whitish with a pale reddish - brown hue. Achenes small, glabrous, pale, subangular, slightly striate, thickened at top. Hah. Hilly country near Lake Tutira, County of Wairoa, Hawke's Bay : Mr. Guthrie- Smith ; 1895. Ohs. A species much resembling and having close aftinity with the preceding one, 0. consimilis, but differing in invo- lucral scales ; in the maiiy-lobed lamina of its disk-florets, with their peculiar-coloured margins ; in its very long style- iirms ; and in its spreading, reverted, shining, brown involucres after flowering, that give it a curious appearance.