wm

.. ... I iiijt

F

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

TRANSACTIONS

AND

PROCEEDINGS

OP THE

J

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

1903

VOL. XXXVI.

(Nineteenth op New Seeies)

KUITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF
GOVEBNORS OF THE INSTITUTE

BY

A. HAMILTON

Issued August, 1904

WELLINGTON
JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

KEGAN, PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNEK, & CO., PATERNOSTER HOUSE,
CHARING CROSS ROAD, LONDON

CONTENTS.

TEANSACTIONS.

I. — Miscellaneous. pages

Art. I. Notes on Two Maori Calabashes, with Carved Wooden

Necks, called Tuki or Ko-ano-ano. By Dr. Newman 1- 4
II. On the Maori Method of preparing and using Koko-

wai. By Archdeacon Walsh . . . . . . 4-10

III. Moriori Carving on the Trunks of Karaka-trees. By

A. Hamilton . . . . . . . . H- IS

IV. Llaori Marriage Customs : being Notes on Ancient

Maori Customs, Ritual and Sociological, con-
nected with Courtship, Marriage, and Divorce ;
together with some Account of the Levirate, and
of many Superstitious Beliefs and Ancient Ani-
mistic ilyths connected with the same, as held
and preserved bv the Maori Peoples of the Tuhoe
Tribe. By Elsdon Best . . . . . . 14- 67

V. The Sparrow Plague and its Remedy. By A. Bath-
gate .. .. .. .. ..67-79

VI. Note on the Veracity of the Returns of Age in the

Census of 1901. By Professor Segar . . . . 80- 84

VII. On Certain Decimal and Metric Fallacies. By R.

Coupland Harding . . . . . . . . 85-111

II. — Zoology.
VIII. The Kohoperoa or Koekoea, Long -tailed Cuckoo
( Urodynamis taitensis) : An Account of its Habit>i,
Description of a Nest containing its (supposed)
Egg, and a Suggestion as to how the Parasitic
Habit in Birds has become established. By
Robert Fulton, M.B., CM., Edin. . . . . 113-148

IX. Description of a New Fish. By Captain F. W.

Button, F.R.S. .. .. .. .. 148-149

X. On the Occurrence of Centrolophiis in New Zealand.

By Captain F. \Y. Hutton, F.R.S. . . . . 149-150

XI. Revision of the New Zealand Members of the Genus

Fhorocera. By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S. . . 1.50-153
XII. Two New Flies. By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S. 153-154

XI II. On a New Weta from the Chatham Islands. By

Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S. .. .. 154

XIV. Description of a New Blow-fly from Campbell Island.

By Captain F. VV. Hutton, F.R.S. . . . . 155-

XV. On the Occurrence of the Curlew-Sandpiper {Ancylo-
chilus sub-arqnatus) in New Zealand. By Captain
F. W. Hutton, F.R.S. .. .. ..155-156

XVI. On the Anatomy of Parvphaoita fumosn, Tenison-

Woods. By R. Murdoch"' . . . . . . 156-161

32398

VI

Contents.

PAGES

Art. XVII. On the Occurrence of Vanessa atalanta and Plusia
festucce in Southland. By A. Philpott . .
XVIII. Notes on Southern LcpidojJtera. By A. Philpott ..
XIX. Notes on an Insect found in some Hot Springs at

Taupo. By J. W. Poynton
XX. The Sipiinciiiids of New Zealand. By Professor
W. B. Benham
XXI. On a New Species of Leech (Hirudo antipodum) re-
cently discovered in New Zealand. By Professor
W. B. Benham
XXII. A Note on the Oligochceta of the New Zealand Lakes.
By Professor W. B. Benham . .

XXIII. An apparently New Species of Regalecus [R. jM'keri).

By Professor W. B. Benham . .

XXIV. A Species of Ixodes parasitic on the Grey Duck. By

Professor 0. Chilton . .

IGl

101
-17(»

170-r

172-184

185-1'J2

in2-19S

198-200

201-20-2

III.— Botany.
XXV. Plants naturalised in the County of Ashburton. By

W. W. Smith . . ■ . . . . . . 203-2-2.5

XXVI. A Botanical Excursion during Midwinter to the
Southern Islands of New Zealand. Bv L. Cock-
ayne, Ph.D. .. .. .. .'. .. 225-333

XXVII. Abnormal Growth of a Plant of Phormium colensoi.

By Right Rev. W. L. Williams . . . . 333-334

XXVIIL On Abnormal Developments in New Zealand Ferns:
with a Lis: of Papers by various Authors on the
Ferns of New Zealand. By A. Hamilton . . 334-:372

XXIX. List of Papers and Notices on Botanical Subjects in
the " Transactions of the New Zealand I nstitute "
and other Publications. By A. Hamilton .. 34-2-37-2

1\'. — Geology.
XXX. On the Subdivision of the Lower Mesozoic Rocks of

New Zealand. By Professor Park .. ..373-

XXXI. On the Age and Relations of the New Zealand Coal-
fields. By Professor Park .. .. . . 40o-

XXXII. On the Geology of North Head, Waikouaiti, and its
relation to the Geological History oi Dunedin.
By Professor Park . . . . . . . . 4 1 S-

XXXIII. On the Jurassic Age of the :Maitai Series. By Pro-
fessor Park .. .. .. .. ..431-

XXXIV. On the Discovery of Permo carboniferous Rocks at

Mount Marv. North Otago. By I'rofessor Park 447-
XXXV. The Norther > Wairoa By E. K. Mulgan, M.A. . . 4r.3-
XXXVI. No'-es on a Small Collection of Fossils from Whare-
kuri, on the Waitaki River, North Otago. By
A. Hamilton . . . . . . •• 4:05-

XXXVII. Boulders in Iriassic Conglomerate, Nelson. By Dr.

P. Marshall . . . . . . . . • . 407

XXXVIII. Second Supplement to the " Matcials f r a Bib-
liography of the Dinornithidie." By A. Hamilton 471-
XXXIX. No e on the Remains of somo ICxtinct Birds of New

Zealand found near Ngapara. By A. Hamilton.. 474-
XL. Note on a Dyke at Nugget Point.' By R. Speight,

M.A., B.Sc. .. .. .. .. .. 477

XLI. Some Caves and Water- passages in the Greymouth

District. By H. N. McLeod .. .. .. 47U

404
■lis

.4:11)

-44(;

4ii4

4(17
471
47 s
477
47'.l
480

Contents.

vu

V. — Chemistry and Physics. pages

A"RT. XLII. On the Regeneration of Cyanide Solutions. By
Godfrey Doveton, M.A.I.M. E. Communicated
by Professor J. Park . . . . . . . . 481-4S3

XLIII. Studies on the Chemistry of the New Zealand Flora.

By Professor T. Easterfield and B. C. Aston . . 483-4S6
XLIV. Note on the Interaction of Citric and Sulphuric

Acids. By James Bee . . . . . . 486-487

XLV. An Experiment bearing on the Wave Theory of Light.

By J. S. S. Cooper . . . . . . . . 487-4')0

XLVI. The Physical Properties of Kauri-gum. By J. S. S.

Cooper .. .. .. .. .. 4'JO-

XLVII. Note on a supposed Heat-effect. By J. S. S. Cooper.

492
492

I. — Miscellaneous —conimwed,

XLVIII. On certain Statistics respecting the Trend of English

Trade. By Professor H. W. Segar . . . . 493-501

XLIX. A Note on Drawing for Competitions. By Professor

H. W. Segar.. .. .. .. .. 501-504

L. A Comparison of the Age-distribution of the Popula-
tions of the Four Chief Provincial Districts of
New Zealand. By Professor H. W. Segar . . 504-511

Annual Report of the New Zealand Institute . . . . 515

" New Zealand Institute Act, 1903 " .. .. .. xii.-xiv.

Regulations of the New Zealand Institute under the Act of 1903 xiv.-xvii.

Report on Colonial Time-ball Observatory . . . . . . 517

Proceedings — Wellington Philosophical Society . . . 523

Auckland Institute . . . . . . 529

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury . . . . 534

„ Otago Institute . . . . . . . . 538

Westland Institute . . . . . . . . 543

„ Hawke's Bav Philosophical In.stitute . . . . 545

Nelson ' . . . . . . . . . . 546

LIST OP PLATES AT THE END OF THE VOLUME.

Plate

I. Calabash, with Carved Mouthpiece. — Newman

II. ]\Iouthpiece of Calabash. — Newman

III. ]\Ioriori Carving, Chatham Islands. — Hamilton

IV. Veracity of Census Returns. — Segar
V. Veracity of Census Returns. — Segar

VI. Paryphanta fuviosa. — Murdoch

VII. New Zealand Sipuncitlids . — Benham

VIII. Himdo antipodum. — Benham . .

IX. Regalecus parkeri. — Benham . .

X. Ixodes anatis. — Chilton

XI. Leaves of Panas simplex. — Cockayne

XII. Sand Dunes, Enderby Island. — Cockayne

XIII. Rata Forest, Auckland Islands. — Cockayne

XIV. Olearia lyallii Forest, Ewing Island. — Cockayne
XV. Olearia lyallii Forest, Ewing Island. — Cockayne

To

illustrate

Article

I.

I.

III.

VI.

VI.

XVL

XX.

XXI.

XXIII.

XXIV.

XXVI.

XXVI.

XXVI.

XXVI.

XXVI.

VI n

Contents.

LIST OF PLATES— continued.

Plate

XV). Exterior View of Eata Forest, Enderby Island

Cockayne
XVI L North End of Auckland Island from Enderby

Island.— Cockayne
X\'I11. Aristotel la frnticosa. — Coeka,yne
XIX. Cliffs, Antipodes Island. — Cockayne
XX. Fl.at Meadow, Antipodes Island.- — Cockayne
XXI. Aralia lyallii, Ruapuke Island. — Cockayne
XXII. Effect of Moist Air and Light on Veronica lyco
podioidi's. — Cockayne

XXIII. Auckland, Bounty, and Antipodes Islands, Maps

of.— Cockayne

XXIV. Campbell Island, Map of. — Cockayne ..
XXV. Abnormal Growth of Phormmm. — Williams

XXYI. Fern Variations. — Hamilton . .
XX VII. Fern Variations. — Hamilton ..
XXVI 1 1 . Geological Sketch-map, Nugget Point and Catlin'
River. — Park
XXIX. Section, South Head, Shaw Bay, to Nugget
Point. — Park
XXX. Section, Mount Cook Range to Pott's River. -

Park
XXXI. Sections, Tank Gully.— Park ..
XXXIl. Geology of Waikouaiti, North Head. — Park

XXXIII. Section across Well's Creek, Eighty-eight Valley

—Park .. .. .. ■ .. \

XXXIV. Section from Waimea Plains to Wairoa Gorge anrl

Upper Roding River

XXXV. Section, Waitaki to Mount Mary.— Park

XXXVI. Plan of Part of Waitaki Valley.— Park . .

XXX VII. Aturia ziczac var. Australis. — Hamilton

XXXVIII. Section of Aturia ziczac var. Australis. — Hamilton

XXXIX. Rock Section. — Marshall

XL. Rock Sections. — Marshall

XTJ. Rock Sections. — Llarshall

XLll. Age-distribution in New Zealand.— Segar

XLIII. Age-fiistribution in New Zealand. — Segar

XUV. Age-distributiou in New Zealand. — Segar

To

illustrate
Article

XXVI.

XXVI.
XXVI.
XXVI.
XXVI.
XXVI.

XXVI.

XXVI.

XXVI.

XXVII.

XXX.

XXX.

XXX.

XXXI.

XXXII.

XXXIII.

XXXIII.

XXXIV.

XXXIV.

XXXVI.

XXXVI.

XXXVII.

XXXVII.

XXXVII.

L.

I,.

L.

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OP THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OP NEW-
ZEALAND INTITULED "THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867";.
RECONSTITUTED BY AN ACT OP THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OP NEW ZEA-
LAND UNDER "THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1903."

BoABD OF Governors.

EX OPPICIO.

His Excellency the Governor.
The Hon. the Colonial Secretary.

NOMINATED BY" THE GOVERNMENT UNDER CLAUSE 4.

Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S. ; E. Tregear,
F.E.G.S. ; John Young; J. W. Joynt, M.A.

ELECTED BY AFFILIATED SOCIETIES UNDER CLAUSE 4.

Wellington : Martin Chapman ; Professor T. H. Easterfield,
M.A., Ph.D. Auckland: Professor A. P. W. Thomas,
M.A., F.L.S. ; J. Stewart, C.E. Napier: H. Hill, F.G.S.
Christchurch : Professor Charles Chilton, D.Sc, F.L.S. ;
Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S. Westland : T. H. Gill,
M.A. Nelson: L. Cockayne, LL.D. Otago: A.Hamilton;
G. M. Thompson, F.L.S.

OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1903-4.

President: Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S.

Hon. Treasurer: J. W. Joynt, M.A.

Editor of Transactions : A. Hamilton.

Secretary: T. H. Gill, M.A.

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES.

Wellington Philosophical Society ...

Auckland Institute

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury

Otago Institute ...

Westland Institute

Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute

Southland Institute

Nelson Institute...

DATE OP AFFILIATION.

10th June, 1868.
10th June, 1868.
22nd October, 1868.
18th October, 1869.
21st December, 1874.
31st March, 1875.
21st July, 1880.
20th December, 1883.

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT.

Thk following Act reconstituting the Institute was passed by
Parliament : —

1903, No. 48.

An Act to reconstitute the New Zealand Institute.

[ISth November, 1903.

Whereas it is desirable to reconstitute the New Zealand
Institute with a view to connecting it more closely with the
affiliated institutions :

Be it therefore enacted by the General Assembly of New
Zealand in Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the
same, as follows : —

1. The Short Title of this Act is "The New Zealand
Institute Act, 1903."

2. "The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867," is hereby
repealed.

3. (1.) The body hitherto known as the New Zealand
Institute (hereinafter referred to as "the Institute") shall
consist of the Auckland Institute, the Wellington Philoso-
phical Society, the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, the
Otago Institute, the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, the
Nelson Institute, the Westland Institute, the Southland Insti-
tute, and such others as may hereafter be incorporated in
accordance with regulations to be made by the Board of
Governors as hereinafter mentioned.

(2.) Members of the above-named incorporated societies
shall be ipso facto members of the Institute.

4. The control and management of the Institute shall be in
the liands of a Board of Governors, constituted as follows : —

The Governor ;

The Colonial Secretary ;

Four members to be appointed by the Governor in
Council during the month of December, one thou-
sand nine hundred and three, and two members to
be similarly appointed during the month of Decem-
ber in every succeedmg year ;

Two members to be appointed by each of the incor-
porated societies at Auckland, Wellington, Christ-
church, and Dunedin during the month of December
in each alternate year ;

One member to be appointed by each of the other
incorporated societies during the month of Decem-
ber in each alternate year.

Netv Zealand Institute Act. xi

5. (1.) Of the members appointed b)' the Governor in
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•out reappointment shall retire.

(2.) Subject to the provisions of the last preceding subsec-
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xiv Neio Zealand Institute.

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General Eegulations.

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Begulations. xv

as honorary members is recommended, shall be forthwith
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30th November.

TRANSACTIONS

OP THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE,

1903.

I. — MISCELLANEOUS.

Art. I. — Notes on Two Maori Calabashes, luith Carved
Wooden Necks called Tuki or Ko-ano-ano,

By A. K. Newman.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th November, 1903. \

Plates I. and II.
The Maoris having abandoned their original arts, and their
old methods of fashioning weapons and utensils, and their
charming quaint carvings, it is desirable that real original
relics of all kinds should be described and depicted ere they be-
come lost ; and this is all the more necessary as the country
is being flooded with cheap untrustworthy imitations. Origin-
ally the Maoris devoted much labour to carving ornaments,
and such carvings abounded in the pas, but through time and
neglect many of the commonest have become rare.

Eecently I bought these two large calabashes, with their
artistically carved wooden necks or mouthpieces, and as I
cannot find any detailed account of them in our literature or
in the Transactions I put on record this description, their
history, and their uses. My pair were discovered lying
neglected in a Maori outhouse in the Wairarapa. They
belonged to a Maori who said they belonged to his grand-
father, and are believed to be a hundred years old. This is
probably true, for the making of such articles has long been
abandoned, and the few now existing show marked signs of
age.

Each calabash consists of the rind of a gourd called hue,
the seed-vessel of a plant brought in the canoes from Ha-
waiki. To the neck of each gourd is affixed, at its narrowest
part, a wooden collar or mouthpiece quaintly carved. The
whole is called a taha; the neck is commonly known as tuki,

1— Trans.

2 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

or, rarely, ko-ano-ano. The whole was surrounded by a net-
work of flax, a sort of large open knotted network with the
various ends twisted together to form a handle. This flax-
work was called kete.

The Maoris, having no knowledge of pottery, ingeniously
used these gourds to preserve the flesh of birds for eating.
Pigeons were plucked and dressed and then put into the
gourd, and the melted fat of the pigeons was then poured
into it until full to the neck, which was finally covered by the
broad leaves of the rangiora plant. Elsdon Best says the
gourd had often a wooden lid, but I have never seen one in
anv museum. Sometimes the calabashes were clothed in
closely woven flax covers, and some were planted on three
elaborately carved legs. The meat so preserved was known
as hualma. When pigeons wei'e scarce tuis or wekas were
made into hiialma. Rats were thus preserved — always with
their skins on. In the old cannibal days they were occa-
sionally filled with choice bits of human flesh.

At Toka-anu I first saw a pair of tnkis. They were shown
to me by their owner, a great rangatira, and were among his
choicest possessions, and clearly he was extremely proud of
them. They were jet-black, and smaller than mine ; in fact,
the entrance was so narrow that former ancestors of his used
to call up a small boy whose hand used to fish out the dainties.
Best says that in consequence they were sometimes called
nguiu-iti. Best has seen them ornamented with feathers.
These tahas belonged to the chiefs, and at great feasts they
acted as choice centre ornaments.

One of our greatest Maori authorities says they were
formerly common in the Urewera country, and were rarer
about Taupo. As far as I can discover they were rarely seen
south of this. They are now rare. Three or four specimens
are in the Auckland Museum, and there is one in tlie Maori
iiouse of the Wellington Museum. I have seen no others
except the pair at Toka-anu and my pair, and tukis are absent
from many collections. Mair has seen them weighing 1001b.
when full. Mair told me that none ai'e now being made —
kerosene - tins do as well and are less trouble to get.
Hamilton in his great work on Maori art figures one, but
has only a brief reference to it. Ilis pair of calabashes in
the museum are mimis the tukis.

Neither Tregear nor Williams in their dictionaries have
the word, but Tregear gives a Mangarevan word puUiki,
" to draw together the mouth of a sack." These tukis cer-
tainly draw together the necks of the calabashes, enclosing
their meaty contents, which, in addition to the dainties above
mentioned, sometimes were filled witli dog-meat, of which
Best says the hind quarters w'cre most liighly esteemed. On

Newman. — Notes on Two Maori Calabashes. 3

rare occasions these calabashes were filled with fat worms.
The Maoris were, therefore, well up in the arc of preserving
animal food in enclosed vessels, the interstices being filled with
melted tallow.

It will be seen how rich is the mahogany red-brown
colouring of these gourds, a result partly due to age and
partly to the animal oil with which they were smeared inside
and out. The Maoris now rarely grow these gourds, and the
old people say that for some unknown reason they cannot
grow them the same size as formerly. Mair has seen the
gourds so large as to fill the two arms of any Native carrying
them. My largest gourd is 46 in. in circumference, and its
height from base to where the tuki is affixed is 13 in.

From the fact that I have seen only five specimens, all
told, of these tukis, that there are three or four in the Auck-
land Museum and none here, I think I am justified in saying
they are so rare now that they deserve fuller description, and
to be embalmed in the pages of these Transactions.

These tukis, Mair tells me, were always made of the same
wood, matai. Their degree of blackness depends partly upon
their age and partly upon the amount of fat, and dirt, and
smoke to which they have been submitted. Each tuki, being
made of thick and hard wood, would outlast several genera-
tions of gourds, which were thin and brittle. The tuki was
attached to the gourd by holes pierced at its lower end,
through which flax was passed and then drawn through
similar holes in the gourd. Each gourd near its narrow end
was carefully pared down until it closely fitted the end of the
tuki. The flax was then tightly tied, and the result was a
very creditable piece of close-fitting workmanship. Outside,
to cover the junction of the tuki and gourd, a broad strip of
flax was very tightly tied. When the melted fat was poured
in it filled all the crevices, and the huahua inside was pre-
served in an airtight chamber.

The Maoris used to preserve birds also in calabashes slit
up in a difi"erent manner, of which pictures may be seen in
White's " History of the Maori." They were frequently
covered with a fine carving, necessarily very shallow owing
to the thinness of the gourd. They were called papa, or
kumete. White, though depicting with great care several
specimens of papa, or htmete, does not depict a single speci-
men of a taha with a carved tuki. Moreover, the carving on
a papa was radically difi"erent from that of a ttiki.

The gourd of the larger taha is a rich mahogany red-
brown, whilst the tuki is darker. The gourd is surrounded
by flax knotted so as to form large diagonal four-sided figures
surrounding the gourd and gathering together to be formed
into a handle, thus making it easy to carry. It is quite likely

4 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

that the tuki is far older than the gourd. The smaller gourd
was broken by being dropped whilst being carried on horse-
back, but the tuki is uninjured. Both tukis are made of
matai. The ttiki, or neck, of the larger calabash is 3 in. from
top to bottom where it joins the gourd. Its circumference
low down is 15 in. It is slightly bell-mouthed — it is 4f in.
across the mouth, aiid is larger than most tukis. The other
tuki is the same in shape and make, but it is smaller and is
attached to a smaller gourd. The interior of each is quite
smooth, and at the bottom it is pierced by several holes to fix
it to the gourd. The carving of the larger tuki is in whorls,
like much of the tattooing on a Maori's face, these whorls
running round the tuki. The carving is beautifully done in
parallel curving lines in groups of three, with between each
group a series of small pinnacles arranged symmetrically be-
tween each band of three continuous lines. To break up the
monotony, at two points opposite each other there are fresh
lines running from top to bottom of the collar at right angles
to each other. The rim is smooth on top, but its circum-
ference is broken up by pairs of notches close together, but
each pair equidistant from the others. The outside edge,
w^hich was originally a circle, has been pared down until it
has become a seven-sided figure ; the smaller tuki is similarly
made into a fourteen-sided figure, but in each case only on the
extreme outside edge of the rim. The tukis were always made
circular. The smaller tuki is not notched in the rim, and the
spiral curves wind uninterruptedly around the body.

These tukis seem to be excellent samples of Maori carving
carried to its highest point. The gourds, with their rich red-
brown colouring, surmounted by these exquisitely carved solid
wooden necks, form really beautiful specimens of Maori art,
and it is no wonder they were highly piized ornaments at big
feasts.

Akt. II. — On the Maori Method of -preparing and using

Kokowai.

By Archdeacon Walsh.
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 3rd A^iguH, 1903.]
I HAVE much pleasure in presenting the Auckland Museum
with a stone grinding-slab and rubber used by the Maoris of
old time in the manufacture of their favourite red pigment
generally known as kokowai.

The occasion seems to furnisli an opportunity for offering
a few notes on the subject, in the composition of which 1

Walsh. — Method of preparing and using Kokowai. 5

have had some difficulty, as in my residence in a country
district I have not the means of consulting many works of
reference. They are therefore not as complete as they
might be under more favourable circumstances. I am largely
indebted, however, to a compilation from various sources
given in Hamilton's " Maori Art " (pp. 299-301), and have
gathered a good deal of useful information from some of the
older settlers in these parts, chiefly from Mr. James Bedggood,
of Kerikeri, whose long residence among the natives and fre-
quent opportunities of observation enable him to speak with
authority on the subject.

The old Maoris' assortment of pigments was very limited.
They used black and white, the former manufactured chiefly,
I believe, from the soot of burned kauri-gum or resinous
wood, and the latter from a kind of pipeclay. They had also
a very beautiful cobalt blue called piikepoto, a natural pro-
duct formed from the decomposition of fossil bones, and
found in very limited quantities in ''pockets in clay rock.
These, with the red kokoivai, constituted the "palette" of
the old-time Maoris. No attempt apparently was ever made
to produce a variety of shades by the blending of the different
colours.

Of the pigments named the kokotvai was by far the most
important. The black and the white were chiefly employed
in small quantities for fine work, while the use of the blue
was solely confined to personal adornment. But the kokowoA
was in universal requisition. It formed the general colour of
all the painted work on the canoes, the houses, and the more
ornamental portions of the palisading surrounding the pas ;
and it was also extensively used as a personal decoration,
it being the very general custom of the chiefs and other
people of note to cover their bodies with it.

The raw material from which this favourite pigment was
made consisted of a species of red ochre or oxide of iron found
in deposits in the ground. This was first roasted in a very
hot haangi, or native oven, and afterwards ground to a fine
powder on a flat stone by means of a round smooth boulder.
A finer variety was produced from creeks and streams which
held the oxide in suspension. Fascines of fern, &c., were sunk
in the water, and after some time were found to be covered
with a deposit of the material in the form of an impalpable
powder. They were then taken out and dried, when the
powder was easily shaken ofi", the result being a pigment of
the very finest quality, which was made up into balls, wrapped
in leaves, and roasted, as already described. This variety was
called hora, that procured from deposits in the earth being
known as taken (A. H. M., vol. iv., p. 103).

The vehicle generally used for the manufacture of the

6 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

paint was shark-oil, but when required for personal adornment
it was often mixed with vegetable oils expressed from the
seeds of the titoki (Alectryon), the kohia (Passiflora) , the miro
(Podocarpus ferruginea), or the tangiao {Tetranthera calycnris),
which were more or less sweet-scented (" Maori Art," p. 300).

A convenient vessel for mixing the paint was found in the
paua-shell {Haliotis). The small holes in these were stopped
with a flax cord inserted in them and joined so as to form a
handle ("Maori Art," p. 300). When required in a greater
quantity a large vessel such as a calabash was employed.

Various modes were adopted in the application of the
kokotoai, each depending on the purpose for which it was
required. For the treating of woodwork the mixture was
made up into the consistency of ordinary paint and smeared
over and rubbed in with a bunch of vnika, or flax-fibre. "When
required for a cosmetic it was used in a moi'e liquid state.
Polack, in describing a hahunga, or feast at the ceremonial
scraping of the bones of a chief, says, " Eed paint was much
in requisition. A quantity of the mixture was arranged in a
broken calabash, into which some of these antipodal exquisites
absolutely dipped the entire head and face" ("Manners and
Customs of the New-Zealanders," vol. i.,p. 81). In this form
it was also used for saturating the clothes, which was some-
times done. Occasionally it was used in a form of greater
consistency. One of the old writers relates that a Maori who
was completely covered with kokoivai kept a small lump of it
in his hand, which he was constantly rubbing on to any por-
tion of his body from which the colour had worn ofi".

Fortunately, the raw material for this much-sought-for
pigment was pretty widely distributed ; but as there was
much difference in quality a good deposit of kokoivai formed
a valuable possession, and the question of ownership some-
times gave rise to tribal disputes. One important kokoical-
field which supplied the wants of the people over a large
portion of the Bay of Islands district is situated at a place
called Te Ngau Areha, on the highest point of a range of
hills which forms the watershed of the Waitangi and Waihou
Eivers. Here are still to be seen several extensive excava-
tions, each of which was under separate ownership, and of
which one was always kept tapu, its product being reserved
for sacred purposes. A similar field lies on the right bank of
the Mangonui River, near the harbour, and probably many
others now forgotten miglit be found in several places. Mr.
Elsdon Best gives the name of a famous spring which de-
posited the red pigment near Ohaua. It was known as Nga
Toto o Tawera (the Blood of the Morning Star). In Hawke's
Bay four varieties are recognised — kokotvai, taupo, tareha, and
taramea. In Taranaki the material does not seem to be so

Walsh. — Method of preparing and using Kokowai. 7

plentiful. Mr. W. H. Skinner, of the Survey Office, New
Plymouth, informs me that the great place for the kokowai-
deposits in the middle of that province is towards the head-
waters of the Waiwakaiho Eiver, among the spurs of Mount
Egmont and the Patua Eanges. He also describes a place
in the Mokau district where the work of collection was one of
considerable difficulty and even danger. At the north side of
the mouth of the river, he says, there are two or three caves
worn out by the action of the sea. The floors of these caves
are covered to a good depth by water, and away in their
innermost recesses the deposits of kokotvai are found. To
obtain this the Maoris were obliged to swim, and in one
place to dive under a depression of the roof, coming out in
an inner chamber where the deposits lie. This field has long
since been abandoned, and twenty years ago when Mr. Skinner
visited the spot only one old Maori knew the secret of diving
under the rock. Altogether there must have been an im-
mense quantity of kokowai used, and an incredible amount
of labour expended in the preparation of it. Most of the
old writers speak of the prevalence of the "red ochre," and
it seems to have been in universal use throughout the whole
of the Maori-inhabited country.

The grinding-slab was usually a flat piece of hard coarse-
grained sandstone about 2 ft. long by 12 in. to 15 in. wide,
the same kind as that used for sharpening the stone imple-
ments.* All those found about the Bay of Islands appear to
be of the same quality as the specimen before us, which has
evidently been used for both purposes, as, though each surface
bears marks of abrasion, only one shows traces of the red
pigment. A favourite place for obtaining these stones is
situated near Waimate North, where the rock naturally
splits off into flags of the required thickness.

The rubbers {autoru) were generally smooth beach- or river-
worn pebbles, about 6 in. long, of hard basalt or volcanic
stone. They were often brought long distances, especially in
the northern peninsula and in inland districts where no suit-
able stones are to be found. A favourite place for obtaining
them was the Little Barrier Island, but it is not improbable
that on their more distant excursions down the east and west
coasts the Maoris would keep a look-out for good specimens,,
which they would bring back with them on their return tO'
their homes. It is to be hoped that in time some of these
will find their way into the Museum, when geologists will, no
doubt, be able to locate their places of origin, and perhaps

* Though I have inquired of many of the old natives in the distrixjt,
I have been unable to obtain the specific name for the grinding-slab.
One Maori told me that each slab had its proper name. This, I think, is
not improbable. — P. W.

8 Tramsactions. — Miscellaneous.

throw some unexpected sidelights on the past history of the
race.

A good grinding-slab was a valuable article, and was prized
accordingly. They were generally, if not always, tapu (con-
secrated), and in order to insure their safe keeping and pre-
serve them from desecration they were usually deposited in
some tvahi-tajju, or holy place, which no common person
would dare to enter, and which the tohunga (priest) would
only visit formally and officially. In later times, when the
fear of the tapu began to wear off, the stones were sometimes
buried underground for additional security in a spot only
known to one or two of the tohttngas or chiefs of highest rank.
As an instance of the dread of the tapu even within the
memory of persons now living, I may mention that as late as
forty or fifty years ago one of these slabs was ploughed up on
the Mission farm in the Waimate, where some land \vas bein^^
prepared for a crop of potatoes. A young girl who had
thoughtlessly handled the stone was warned of the danger
she had incurred, and actually died of fright a few days after-
wards. In another case a stone which was identified as one
formerly used for preparing kokoivai for a chief was accident-
ally found in a wooded gully, and the whole place was at once
declared Lapic, ajid none of the timber could be used for
cooking until an elaborate ceremony of tvhakanoa had been
held, when the spot was " made connnon."

The question has naturally been raised as to the purpose
intended by the use of the kokoivai as a cosmetic. Dr. Short-
land remarks that " a reason for some persons painting their
body and clothes was that they might leave a mark behind
them, that people might know where their sacred bodies had
rested" ("Traditions of the New-Zealanders," p. 112). There
may be something in this, but that it was not the only reason
is evident from the fact that the painting of the body\vas not
confined to chiefs of particular note, but was practised by
men generally of the rangatira class. Kokowai was, like the
purple of the Romans, a sign of rank, but not reserved ex-
clusively for persons of the highest station. From Polack's
account, already quoted, it will be seen that it was in general
request among men of fashion at the feast which he describes;
and Bidwell observes that in his time it was impossible to be
carried by a native without getting one's clothes soiled by
the " red dirt " which had saturated their mats (" Rambles iii
New Zealand." 1841, p. 35). Though probably certain dis-
tinguished individuals kept themselves painted at all times,
the minor rangatira appear to have been decorated only on
festal and ceremonial occasions, one of which was the startmg
on a hostile expedition, when the whole party were arrayed in
full " war-paint." There is no doubt that one of tiie prin-

Walsh. — Method of prej^aring and using Kokowai. 9

cipal objects in the application of the kokoiuai, with its
admixture of shark-oil, was at once to protect the body from
the changes of temperature and from the annoyance of sand-
flies, mosquitoes, and certain parasitic insects which seem to
have been very abundant among the old-time Maoris, and
afflicted all classes alike (see "Cook's Voyages"). This
double purpose would probaljly be fairly accomplished by the
strong-smelling oil alone, but the addition of the earthy matter
would doubtless render the application more effective, and at
the same time give it an aristocratic appearance. So far as I
have been able to learn, this use of the kokowai was exclu-
sively confined to the male sex, women and girls using various
pigments derived from the pollen of flowers and other vege-
table sources in small spots or patches on their faces.

Though there were several shades of kokowai, according to
the quality of the article, the general and favourite colour was
a rich warm red something like that of a well-burnt brick, with
a " mat " surface. When used for the painting of a war-canoe
it was relieved with black, and occasionally with white. Thus,
the hull and topsides were invariably red, and the figure-head
and stern-post, as well as the long batten which covered the
joint between the hull and topsides, were usually a lustrous
black, while for several feet under the bows a running pattern
was painted in black and white suggestive of the rippling of
the waves. The effect of this combination was most striking
and beautiful, especially when the head and stern pieces were
further decorated with their ornament of kaka (parrot) and
pigeon feathers, and the covering-batten spaced at intervals
with the white plumes of the gannet.

On the great wooden images carved on the principal posts
of the palisading of the pas, on the entrance-gates, on the
barge-boards and the door and window pieces of the house,
and, in fact, on all carved work whatsoever, the kokoiuai always
formed the general ground tint ; and a contrast was obtained
by picking out some of the smaller details — e.g., the moko, or
tattooed pattern on the faces or bodies — in black, the effect
being further enhanced by the insertion of pieces of paua-shell
(Haliotis) for tlie eyes of the figures.

For interior decoration the kokowai was specially adapted.
It formed the ground colour of the massive slabs or pilasters
which spaced off the walls into panels and supported the roof.
These in a large tribal meeting-house were elaborately carved
with a succession of grotesque semi-human figures with eyes
of the iridescent paua-shell and the wonderful convolutions of
the moko picked out in black. On the broad rafters the pre-
vailing red and black alternated in filling up the spaces
between the scrolls of a bold running pattern in white.
Several excellent samples of these rafter-patterns are repro-

] 0 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

duced in colour by the Rev. Herbert Williams in Part II. of
Hamilton's "Maori Art."

The kokowai met the eye of the Maori at every part of his
sm'roundings during his lifetime, and did not leave him even
in death, as it was the custom, after the bones of a chief had
been scraped clean at the hahunga, or ceremonial feast held
for the purpose, to give them a coating of his favourite colour
before tliey were deposited in their final resting-place.

As prepai'ed by the Maoris in the old time the kokowai
formed a paint of extraordinary permanence an<i durability.
A piece of carving in the possession of Mr. W. H. Skinner
was exposed to the weather for at least sixty years, but on
all sound portions of the wood the colour is still quite strong
and fresh. A still better example, if possible, may be seen on
my grinding-slab. This, together with the rubber, was found
in the vicinity of an old pa near Waimate, which has not been
occupied within the last two centuries. The two stones lay
together at the edge of a bush in a spot which must have been
overrun by innumerable fires, the heat of which was sufficient
to scale the hard basalt of the rubber ; but in spite of this
exhaustive test the kokowai is still there. Neither sun, rain,
fires, nor the lapse of time has been able to obliterate it.

Though it may have been well on aesthetic grounds, as a
general rule, to restore the Maori carvings in our museums to
something like their original appearance with a fresh coat
of paint, I think it would be interesting to leave a few good
specimens untouched, as, apart from the fact that these
weather-worn objects have a beauty of their own which it is
a pity to destroy, it would be an advantage to have an oppor-
tunity of seeing how this wonderful mixture is capable of
enduring the most trying conditions.

On the origin of the name kokoivai Mr. S. Percy Smith,
F.R.G.S., in a note on the subject kindly sent to me, thinks
that the word is probably derived from the colour. Koko, he
says, is evidently connected with colour, kokouri and kokotea
meaning respectively dark- and light-coloured. Koko is also
connected with a strong or unpleasant smell. On the term
horu, a common name for a variety of the kokowai (see above),
Mr. Percy Smith quotes from " L'Anthropologie " for August,
1891, as follows : " There is no doubt that in certain Egyptian
myths there is connection between Horus, the sun god, and
Iron," and asks, " Is not the Maori name horu, the name for
an oxide of iron, derived from the same source ?"

Hamilton. — Moriori Carving on Trunks of Karaka-trees. 11

Akt. III. — Moriori Carving on the Trunks of Karaka-trees.

By A. Hamilton.

[Bead before the Otago Institute, 3rd December, 1903.]

Plate III.
A RECENT paper in the "Annals of Botany" on the genus
Corynocarpus'-'' draws attention to the remarkable character
of the genus, and to the fact that up to the present time
it has not been found outside certain parts of the Colony of
New Zealand. Now, however, it has been found that New
Caledonia and the New Hebrides have what is practically the
same tree so far as the fruit is concerned, the specific diifer-
ences being based on small variations in the flower.

The Corynocarpus, under the name of " karaka," has long
been reputed to have been brought to New Zealand by one of
the canoes from distant lands.! One of the earliest of these
traditions, given by Mr. Shand in his valuable notes on the
Chatham Islands, is to the effect that Maruroa and Kauanga
brought the karaka-berry from Hawaiki in the "Kangimata"
canoe and planted it all over the island, the places where it
was set being named. They planted it first at a place which
they called Wairarapa, that being their name for the tree
(according to one statement), near Te Ika-rewa. Mr. Shand
says that it is found growing plentifully not far from the sea-
shore on the main island and in Pitt Island wherever the
soil is at all suitable, but not in the higher parts of the
southern portion of the main island. He also notes that the
natives used certain incantations or spells to insure a good
crop of the berries. The kernels when gathered were cooked
in a native oven, or U7nu, then put into flax baskets and the
outside pulp removed by trampling with the bare feet, after
which they were steeped in water for not less than three
weeks to remove the poisonous element — the same process as
the Maoris practised.

Many years ago the late Mr. W. T. L. Travers| drew at-
tention to the various marks which his son saw on the trunks
of the large karaka-trees, and states, the quarrels of the Mori-
ons "appear to have arisen chiefly out of conflicting claims

* " On the Genus Corynocarpus, Forst., with Descriptions of Two
New Species," by W. Botting Hemsley. Ann. Bot. 17, p. 743, 1903.

f In his account of the coming of Turi the navigator to the west
coast of the North Island of New Zealand in the " Aotea " the Rev. T. G.
Hammond says, " On the north bank of the [Patea] river is Papa-whero,
where Turi planted the karaka-seed from Hawaiki, which grew to trees
and flourished till the war with the Europeans, when the parent stock
was destroyed " (Polynesian Journ., vol. x., p. 194).

+ Trans. N.Z Inst., 1876, vol. ix., p. 15 (seep. 22).

12 Transactions. — Miscdlaneous.

to the possession of valuable karaka-trees, the fruit of which
was a staple and tnuch-liked article of food, . . . nearly
all the older karaka-trees on the island are marked with
devices indicating their special ownership — a fact of very
great intei'est. . . . These figures are very rude, but
were evidently sufficient for the purposes of the owners."

Captain Mair," in the discussion which followed on the
reading of the above paper, did not agree with Mr. Trave)'s re-
garding the individual ownership of the karaka-trees, as these
trees covered a third of the island, and tlieir fruit must have
been more abundant than the small number of the inhabitants
could consume. Dr. Cockayne, who has recently explored
the island botanically, draws attention to the large number
of trees in the bush, and is evidently of the opinion that the
karaka is indigenous ; so the question as to whether the tree
was indigenous to the island or was planted there by the early
inhabitants is as much in doubt as ever.

Lately a number of the marked trees have been cut down,
and there are now several examples of the carvings in the
Christchurch and Wellington Museums, and for a photograph
of one of the oldest and most characteristic I am indebted to
Mr. J. J. Kinsey, of Christchurch. It represents, in the con-
ventional manner found in old cave paintings, a human being.
It has been deeply cut through the bark of the tree down to
the wood. The photograph is an excellent one, and shows
the rounded swelling of the new growth of bark very well.
Most of the other specimens that I have seen have had the
figure indicated, by incised lines, and are probably much more
modern than the one figured.

In connection with this marking of trees, it should not be
forgotten that the Eev. E. Taylorf states that sacred trees are
common on the east coast of New Zealand. In the Bay of
Plenty, he says, they are generally to be discerned by being
painted red, or bound round with garments, or having rags
suspended from their branches. Although there is every pro-
bability that these trees wei'e karaka-trees, it is not so stated.
If they had not been "on the coast," the usual habitat of
this tree, we might have concluded that the trees were re-
served, or tapued, by chiefs for the sake of their bark for
tanning purposes, or for their timber, such as are still to be
seen in the Urewera countrv.

The following extract from the first-quoted paper is an
interesting part of the botanical history of the genus : " Ciyry-
nocarpus was established by the Forsters in 1776 (Char. Gen.
PI. Ins. Mar. Aust., p. 32, t. 16), and, although the descrip-

• Trana. N.Z. Insc, 1876, vol. ix., p. 621.
t " Te Ika a Maui," 2ud ed., p. 20.

Hamilton. — Moriori Carving on Trunks of Karaka-trees. 13

tion is incomplete and the figures of the pans of the flower
inaccurate, there can be no question about tlie tree intended.
It was described from specimens collected in New Zealand on
Cook's second voyage (1772-75), and the perfect fruit seems to
have been unknown to the Forsters or they would hardly
have given it a name signifying club-fruit. They were evi-
dently unaware, too, that the fruit of Corynocarpus is edible,
or it would have been included in G. Forster's ' De Plantis
Esculentis Insularum Oceani Australis.' But Sir Joseph
Banks and Dr. Solander, who were the botanists on Cook's
first voyage (1768-71), also brought specimens of this tree to
England, and it was described and figured by them under the
name of Merretia lucida (in memory of Christopher Merrett,
M.D., author of ' Piuax reruni naturalium Britannicarum,'
1661). The authorities of the Botanical Department of the
British Museum have obligingly furnished me with a copy of
the description, which is very full, and accurate in most of the
details. The most important point in which it differs from
what I have observed and what other authors have described
or figured is the shape of the petaloid staminodes. They de-
scribe them as ' apice tricuspid ata, cuspide intermedio duplo
maiore.' The staminodes of G. similis and C. dissimilis are
acutely toothed at the apex, whilst those of C. IcBvigata are
irregularly and minutely toothed from about the middle up-
wards and around the top. There can be no doubt about
Banks and Solander's specimen having been brought from
New Zealand, because exact localities are given, and because
Cook did not visit the New Hebrides on his first voyage. On
the second voyage he touched at several of the islands; but
the Forsters record their Corynocarpus from New Zealand,
and their figures and description of the staminodes convey no
information whatever beyond the presence of such bodies in
the flower. Banks and Solander also describe a fully de-
veloped fruit in the following terms : ' Drupa oblongo-ovalis,
glaberrima, lutea, magnitudine Olivae Hispanicae (l^unc), sub-
stantia carnosa, lutea sesquilineam crassa edulis.' They fur-
ther describe the 'nucleus' (seed) as ' amarissimus.'
In 1823 or 1824 it appears to have been introduced into
English gardens. ... A. Cunningham, in 1840 (' FloraB
Insularum Novae-Zelandise Precursor,' in Ann. of Nat. His-
tory, iv., p. 260), gives a Latin description of all the parts
except the fruit, and cites Banks and Solander's manuscript
name. He is also the first, so far as I am aware, to explain
the process by which the Maoris got rid of the poisonous pro-
perties of the seeds and rendered them edible."

With regard to the first notice of karaka-berries as food,
Polack gives the name kou as " the steamed kernels of the na-
tive fruit karaka." His work was published in London in 1840.

14 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Art. IV. — Maori Marriage Customs : being Notes on Ancient
Maori Customs, Ritual and Sociological, coimected xoith
Courtship, Marriage, and Divorce, together ivith some
Account of the Levirate, and of many Superstitious Beliefs,
and Ancient Animistic Myths connected ivith the same, as
held and preserved by the Maori Peoples of the Tuhoe
Tribe.

By Elsdon Best.

[Read befoTA the Auckland Institute, 5th October, 1903.]

In works treating on Polynesian ethnology and sociology
the subject of niarriage is invariably disposed of in a few
sentences. The writer usually states that there was no mar-
riage rite among these peoples, but that, in New Zealand, a
custom obtained by which young people were betrothed to
each other. Others have said that a formal handing-over
of the woman to her husband was usual in New Zealand.
These brief remarks show a surprising paucity of information,
and are often rendered in such a manner as to give readers
the impression that marriage among the Maori people was, in
former times, but a low type of cohabiting, to which no
ancestral customs, forms, or rite pertained. 1 propose to
show in this paper that these scant accounts are misleading,
and that the impressions left on the reader's mind after a
perusal of the same are quite erroneous.

The Maoris were ever a most punctilious people, and ever
adhered rigidly to ancient customs and forms, social and
otherwise. No exception was made in regard to such of these
as related to marriage. They might occasionally be ignored
by young people, but if so the tribal opinion, or that of the
sub-clan or family group, would at once condemn such a
breach of custom. I propose, then, to show that — First,
there was a marriage rite among the natives of New Zealand.
Secondly, a recognised and enforced mode of procedure
obtamed in regard to marriage, the arrangement of which was
conducted by the elders of the interested couple. There were,
undoubtedly, exceptions to the above arrangements, but these
exceptions are no proof that such rules were not generally
recognised, and upheld. The same might be said of our own
marriage system, which is by no means universally followed
among us. For instance, the rite, which will be explained
anon, was performed over parties belonging to the rangatlra
class only — i.e., persons of good birth — but never over low-born
persons [tutua or ware) ; but even in the case of the latter the
marriage would not be a formless pairing or cohabiting, but
would be proposed, discussed, and arranged, with possibly

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 15

little ceremony, but nevertheless deliberately and properly
adjusted.

The description of such customs, &c., pertaining to court-
ship, betrothal, marriage, divorce, and other matters as will
hereinafter be described has been obtained entirely from
members of the Tuhoe Tribe of Maoris, who have inhabited
for centuries the rugged district situated between the Bay of
Plenty and Te Wairoa, on the East Coast. This article does
not assume to be a description, or even a compendium, of the
marriage customs of all the native tribes of New Zealand.
Differences in customs, &c., are sure to be found as between
different tribes.

The system of ethology, or code of ethics, of the Maori
in former times was suited to a communistic and primitive
people, and, like their religion, was more closely adhered to
and upheld than the systems, moral and religious, of many
more-advanced peoples. To marry any one of closer kinship
than a third cousin was deemed incest, and great excep-
tion was taken to such unions. They were severely con-
demned.

In order to understand the following notes on the Maori
marriage system it is necessary to have a clear idea of the
tribal organization of these people, and their system of con-
sanguinity.

The natives of New Zealand base their tribal organization
on their descent from the last and most important migration
of Polynesians from the isles of the Pacific, although they are
also descended from the ancient tribes of the land, a prior
migration of a similar ethnic people. This latter origin is,
however, not much heard of, as the mana (power, prestige,
<fec.) of the old-time people passed away and was replaced by
that of the descendants of the last migration, which arrived
at New Zealand about the middle of the fourteenth century.
Thus, the Tuhoe Tribe, although principally of aboriginal
blood (of the earlier migration), have long discarded their
ancient and more applicable tribal name of Nga-Potiki for
that of Tuhoe-potiki, who was a chief of the descendants of
the latter migration.

The collection or group of peoples, termed iivi (tribes) by
the natives, are subdivided into hapu (sub-tribes or clans),
and these again into %\\h-hapu or family groups (also termed
hajm) .

Edward Jenks, in his " History of Politics," says that the
tribe " is a large group, consisting of several hundred indi-
viduals, the fully qualified among whom certainly believe
themselves to be descended from a common male ancestor.
But in most cases the common ancestor of the
tribe is a fictitious person," &c. The other social unit he

16 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

terms the clan (or sept). This, he says, " is a much smaller
body, consisting of some three or four generations only, in
descent from a perfectly well-known male ancestor," &c.
Now, these remarks are not applicable to the social organiza-
tion of the Maori people. Jenks's " tribe " is equivalent to the
Maori hapu or sub-tribe. His " clan " is the Maori sub-/ia/^?t
(or sub-clan). In former times it was a poor Maori tribe
indeed that could not muster a thousand fighting-men. Also,
among the Maori a common ancestor of a tribe is by no
means a fictitious person. The Maori clan or sub-tribe may
be descendants of an ancestor who lived ten, or fifteen, or
more generations ago, and may consist of hundreds of indi-
viduals, {'ertainly it would appear that in some cases — e.g.,
the Arawa — the primal social unit might be termed rather a
group of tribes, a league. But in cases where all members
thereof are descended from a common ancestor, and, however
non-cohesive in times of peace, yet group themselves ever to-
gether in defence against an extra-tribal enemy, and act in
other important matters as a political entity, then such a
people, or collection of peoples, must be looked upon as a
tribe.

The unit of the social organization of the Maori is, I take
it, the consanguineous family group or sub-clan [i.e., sub-
hapn). Now, it would entirely depend upon the numbers of
such a sub clan as to whether the members thereof would
or would not be required by native custom to contract exo-
gamous marriages. Even then such unions would not be
exogamous in regard to the tribe or hapu. As a tribal matter
marriages were usually endogamous in former times. We
will, however, make this matter clearer by means of the
genealogy of a portion of a suh-hajni as an illustration.
Prior, however, to entering upon a description of Maori
marriage we will tarry a while with the gods, and invade the
realm of myth and animism.

Animistic Myths and Mythical Okigin op Marriage.

In this paper I make use of the term " marriage " to denote
the union or coliabiting not only of the genus homo, but also
of gods, heroes, mythical beings, personifications, and animatea
natural objects and phenomena.

The most remote allusion to sex in Maori mythology
pertains to the period, long anterior to the existence of Eangi
and Papa-tuanuku (the Sky and Earth), when certain primor-
dial beings or personifications existed in the primitive chaos
from which the elements and all living beings have sprung.
These beings are said to have been bisexual, and to have pro-
duced offspring down to the time when earth and sky were
so formed, after which the progeny and descendants of the

Best. — Maori Marriage Ctcstoms. 17

latter appear to have been more distinctly anthropomorphous ;
at least, they are credited with human passions, and are said
to have performed divers manual feats and tasks.

The primal beings above mentioned would seem to have
been animistic conceptions, personifications of eras and aBons
of time. They represented chaos, they emerged from nothing-
ness, from the dark void, from the womb of time. They were
the origin of the Maori cosmos, and as time rolled on the
universe became more ordered, the elements came into being
through the same agency of sex, the heavenly bodies appeared
as offspring of sexed personifications, after which came the
heroes of Maori mythology, gods and demigods, and then man
appeared — that is to say, man as we know him, man of the
world of light, the world of life and being. Such is, in few
words, the spirit of the Maori cosmogony and anthropogeny,
as also the origin of sex. In fine, Maori myths and origins are
noted for the mytho-poetic ideas and animistic conceptions
which they contain and are based upon.

When Eangi and Papa, the Sky Parent and the Earth
Mother, came into being they embraced each other as hus-
band and wife, and produced certain beings who were the
origin or personification of trees, birds, fish, winds, war,
peace, &c. ; and these children, objecting to the state of dark-
ness in which they lived, on account of the sky lying pressed
down upon the earth, cast about for a plan whereby they
might enjoy light and space. This ended in their forcing
their parents apart. Tane, tutelary deity of trees, forests, and
birds, thrust the sky upwards and propped it up with poles.
Observe here the origin of divorce, and the name thereof.
Toko (noun), a pole ; also, a ray of light. Toko (verb), to
propel with a pole. Now, the Maori term for divorce is toko,
and in the invocation repeated by the priest during the per-
formance of the divorce rite occur the words —

Ka tokona atu nei korua
Tu ke Rangi, tau ke Papa —
(You two are forced apart as were Rangi and Papa).

But of divorce and its ritual more anon. We have not vet
married our Polynesian couple.

' The first marriages mentioned in Maori myth in which
members of this world {te ao marama, the work! of life, light,
or being) were concerned were those of Tiki and Tane. Tiki,
who was of the Po (world of Darkness or Chaos), married Ea,*
who was of this world. They had Kurawaka, who married
Tane-nui-a-rangi, one of the offspring of Rangi and Papa.
Hence the expression Te Aitanga a Tiki (the Offspring of
Tiki) is applied to man by the Maori people.

* Compare Ea of PlicBnician mythology.
2— Trans.

18 Transactioyis. — Miscellaneous.

Tane sought long for woman ere he found her. He
married many singular bemgs and produced offspring of pass-
ing strangeness ere he came to Kurawaka. For instance, he
married Hine-tu-maunga, and produced Para-whenua-mea
(personification of flood- waters). He married Hine-wao-riki,
and had the kahika (a forest tree). He married Muuiuhanga,
and produced the totara (a forest tree). He married Tu-
kapua, and had the taivai (a tree which grows on high ranges).
He married Mango-nui, and had the taiva and hinau (both
trees). He married Te Pu-whakahara (a star name), and had
the maire (a tree). And so on, a long list of such unions,
until he went to Eangi and asked, " Where is the uJia (female,
or female nature) ?" And Eangi said, " The ivhare o aiUta is
below." Then Tane came and found woman of this world.
The expression 2vhare o aitua appears to mean " the origin of
misfortune and death," and to be applied to the female sex or
nature. Even so, Tane came to earth and found woman.
And the Maori people trace their descent from Tane, as they
do from Tiki. Thus, also, the trees of the forest are their
distant relatives, fellow-descendants of Tane. And this is one
reason why the Maori is so close in touch with nature. He
speaks of the forest trees as if they were sentient beings ; he
fells a tree and says, " Tane has fallen "; he performs strange
rites in order to placate the gods of the forest ; he peoples the
forest depths with singular beings.

In Maori myth the heavenly bodies are credited with the
possession of sex and of human attributes. The sun has
two wives, Hine-raumati and Hine-takurua, the Summer
Maiden and the Winter Maiden. The star Eehua (Antares)
has also two wives, Whakaonge-kai and Euuhi, the latter
being also known as Peke-hawani. The moon, which is
deemed a male, has two wives (perhaps I should say two legal
wives, inasmuch as the moon is said to be the husband of all
women, and is the cause of inenstruation).

Such animistic illustrations might be given ad nauseam,
but we will now give a few items from the Tuhoean folklore
tales. The Tuhoe Tribe were originally known as Nga-Potiki,
the Children, or the Descendants of Potiki. These aborigines
are descended from one Potiki, a remote ancestor, whose origin
was a most singular one, as follows : One Hine-pukohu-rangi
is the personification of mist in Tuhoean myth. It was this
Maid of the Heavenly Mist who lured to earth Te Maunga,
the Mountain, and from the union of these two sprang Potiki
fthe Child), from whom sprang Nga Potiki (the Children, or
Descendants of Potikij, who are now known as Te Ure-wera
and Tuhoe. They are the Children of the Mist.

A similar being seems to have been one Tairi-a-kohu, who
descended to this world in order that she might bathe in the

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 19

waters thereof. She was captured by Uenuku, who kept her
as his wife, but she only remained with him during the hours
of darkness, returning at dawn to celestial regions. But
Uenuku revealed her to his people, and she then left him,
returning nevermore. And Uenuku wandered to far lands in
search of his lost bride until death came to him. But ever he
is seen in the form of a rainbow when Tairi-a-kohu, the Mist
Goddess, appears.

Before leaving the realm of myth there is one other singu-
lar item of folklore to be mentioned — viz., the animising of
natural objects. For instance, there are strange legends con-
cerning the mountains of the Taupo district and their doings
in the misty past. Rangi (see aiite, the Sky Parent) married
Tongariro (a male mountain) to Pihanga (a female), and the
result of that union was rain, sleet, snow, and gales. Among
these mountains quarrels arose, hence Taranaki (Mount Eg-
inont) migrated westward, while Kakara-mea, Maunga-pohatu,
and others went towards the Bay of Plenty. Putauaki* had a
great admiration for Maunga-pohatu, and expressed his love
by means of a song. This affair does not seem to have ended
very happily, for those two mountains still stand many leagues
apart. Another singular and more modern instance of moun-
tain-marriage occurred about eighty years ago, when the long
war between Tuhoe and Kahungunu Tribes came to an end.
To bind the peacemaking Hipara, a chief of the latter tribe,
gave his daughter, one Hine-ki-runga, as wife to a Tuhoe chief.
Also, to make the matter more secure, two big hills near
Waikare-moana were married ; the one, Turi-o-Kahu, was
"set up" as a male, the other, Kuha-tarewa, as a female.
Thus these solid hills were joined together as a sign and
token of enduring peace.

We will now turn to the marriage Maori, and describe the
ancient customs of the mountaineers of Tuhoeland in regard
to these matters.

As TO Exogamy and Endogamy.

When making inquiries as to the marriage customs of
primitive peoples it is desirable to first ascertain as to whether
the system of marriage is exogamous or endogaraous, after
which the lines of inquiry are the more easily ascertained and
followed. In regard to the Maori people of New Zealand, they
maybe termed an " endogamous " people, albeit exogamous
marriages are of more frequent occurrence now than they
were in former times, before European settlement put an end
to the intertribal warfare and broke down to a certain extent
the barriers which existed between the various tribes ; for the

* Putauaki is the native name of Mount Edgecumbe.

20 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Maori people, like so many other races, could never form
themselves into a nation, but were ever split up into many
tribes, who waged war against each other for long centuries.

The Maori were endogamous in regard to the tribe and the
sub-tribe or clan {hapu), and also to some extent in regard
to the 's,\xh-hapu — i.e., the gens, or family gi'oup. Not that
marriages did not take place as between members of one hapu
.and those of another, or even between those of one tribe and
.another. Such marriages did occur, the latter, however, much
more rarely than the former. Still, it was considered desir-
.able to marry within the hapii, or clan, for social and political
reasons. Marriages between members of one tribe and those
-of another were generally of a political nature, as to cement
a peace-making. We are speaking of pre-European days now,
for latterly extra-tribal marriages have become more frequent.

As to marriages between members of the same '&uh-hapu
{gens, family group), it would depend entirely on how many
generations that group was composed of — i.e., in regard to the
number of generations of descent of the members thereof from
a common ancestor. The custom among tlie Tuhoe Tribe is
simply this : the members of the third generation of two
divergent lines from a common ancestor may intermarry.
Observe : —

Te Rangi-ka-whetui

Tawa (m.) Te Pou-whenua (m.)

I ___ : I .

Tanira (m.) Te Akiu (f.) Toka mauku

I I , '- ,

Hapine (f.) = Rangitere-mauri (m.). Te Waihuka (f.). Te .-\mo (m.)

I
Whare-pouri (m.)

I
Kuini (f.).

Here we have Tawa and Te Pou-whenua, both sons of
Rangi-ka-whetui. Tawa had Tanira, who had Hapine. Te
Pou-whenua had Te Akiu and Toka-mauku. Te Akiu had
Rangi-tere-niauri. Toka-mauku had Te Waihuka and Te
Amo. The latter had Whare-pouri, who had Kuini. Now,
•when Hapine and Rangi wished to marry an objection was
raised by some members of the tribe on the ground tliat the
•connection was too close and that the marriage would be an
incestuous one. This objection was overruled — in the first
place because it was shown that Hapine and Bangi were of
the third generation from a common ancestor — viz., Rangi-ka-
whetui ; and, secondly, because the marriage was arranged in
due form {Jie inea ata lohahamoc) by tlio parents of both and
by the tribe. Hence no further opposition was made, and the

Best. — Maori Marriage Gustoyns. 21

couple were duly married. Nor are they ever reproached with
having transgi'essed tribal custom. But Tanira would not be
allowed to marry Te Akiu, because they are only the second
generation from a common ancester. Such a union would be
looked upon as being incestuous. Nor could Eangi marry T&
Waihuka, for the same reason. Te Amo might marry Hapine,.
though possibly some of the tribe might have objected, as irs
the case of Eangi ; but such opposition would break down if
the couple persisted, as shown above. The natives say that
it is only among dogs that near relations have connection,
with each other.

Hall sisters and brothers are not allowed to marry, they
being looked upon as are full brothers and sisters, a relie
possibly of a system of maternal filiation of remote times.

Now we will show an incestuous marriage which took
place in this district a few years ago, and which was bitterly
condemned by the tribe : —

Te Ngaro (m.)

Taiapo (m.) Hatata (m.)

i I

Towai (f.) = Pepi (m.)

I
3 children.

Here Towai married Pepi, and both are of the second genera-
tion from a common ancestor — viz., Te Ngaro. These two
are first cousins, but according to the consanguineous nomen-
clature of the Maori they are termed " brother " and " sister"
to each other. Hence this union is looked upon as incestu-
ous, and is spoken of as " He ngazi lohiore, he luhakahoichoii'"
("It is incestuous, it is disgusting"). Disparaging allusions
to the above couple are often heard. Such unions are in-
frequent, and, it would appear, universally condemned.

It will thus be seen that the Maori were an endogamous-
people, and are so still to a great extent. Doubtless it was-
deemed desirable to keep as many fighting-men within the
clan-limits as possible in the warlike days of old.

In regard to exogamous marriages, the following pro-
verbial saying explains the situation: " Te inati o Maivake-
roa " is used to denote that when a woman marries into>
another tribe or clan she and her mana are lost to her people
and clan. She goes to live with her husband, and returns na
more. But a son dwells with us, and we have the advantage
of his mana (prestige, &c.), strength, knowledge, and so on;
a son remains with his people, not so a daughter.

Many statements met with in various ethnographical
works concerning the customs of primitive peoples and.

22 Transactions. — Miscellaneoiis.

others are often misleading when we apply them to a race
whose customs are known to us. Too much is taken for
granted ; many assertions are too general. In " The Primitive
Family," by C. N. Starcke, we read, " The tribe is endoga-
mous, but the clan or sub-tribe is exogamous — i.e., a person
must always marry out of the sub-tribe." This statement, as
we have seen, does not apply to the Maori of New Zealand.
The same writer says, " No people are exogamous as a tribe,
only clans or sub-tribes are so." It is quite certain that no
Maori tribe was exogamous ; neither were the sub-tribes.

As a consequence of the Maori recognition of both agnatic
and uterine filiation, it follows that property is inherited
through both parents, as also is rank and prestige. Pro-
perty inherited consists principally of land interests. Hence
it follows that the native claims to land are often most in-
tricate and difficult to adjudicate upon, as our Native Land
Court Judges know full well. The children born of exo-
gamous marriages were entitled to an interest in the lands
of both parents, providing that such lands were occupied by
them. In such cases it is the custom to live for some time
at one place, cultivating food there, and utilising the various
natural products of the land, and then to go and live on other
lands wherein the person is interested. Thus both claims are
kept up, according to Maori custom.

One kind of exogamous marriage among the Maori w^as
the result of their frequent intertribal wars, in which many of
the conquered people were enslaved. It was by no means
uncommon for a native, even the chiefs, to marry a slave
wife, and the children of such an union would inherit their
father's rank and property. They would continue to live as
members of their father's tribe, by whom they would be
better treated and more honoured than they would be by
their mother's tribe should they return to it ; for on that
side the degrading stigma of slavery would lie upon them —
there were, in fact, dead to the mother's tribe.

When the Tuhoe Tribe expelled Ngati-manawa from Te
Whaiti that stricken people took refuge with the Kahungunu
Tribe, to whom they paid a tribute of preserved birds, i^'c,
for being allowed to dwell in those parts. However, they got
into trouble with one tribal section of tlieir overlords, and
were in sore straits, wlien a Tuhoe chief went and brouglit the
remnant away to Rua-tahuna. Here many of Tuhoe wished
to slay them, but several chiefs of Tuhoe, in order to save the
lives of the fugitives, gave some of them women of the Tuhoe
Tribe as wives. Hence the refugees were safe, and through
those women are the Tuhoe and Ngati-manawa Tribes con-
nected.

Andrew Lang, in his "Custom and Myth," says, "On

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 23

the whole, wide prohibitions of marriage are archaic : the
widest are savage ; the narrowest are modern and civihsed."
On this basis the marriage system of the Maori may be termed
civihsed, inasmuch as not only could a person marry another
of the same clan-name, but also one of the same gens or
family group, providing that they were at least of the third
generation from a common ancestor. So long as this rule was
respected no very serious opposition to a marriage would be
made by these people. A young man might inform his elders
that he wished to marry a certain relative of his. His elders
would remark, "Emoehorua ho to tuahvie, kia kai tho ana
korua i a korua" — i.e., " Marry your sister, that you may assail
each other" — the meaning of the remark being that it is
desirable to marry within the clan, and that when the couple
quarrelled and proceeded to kai upoko, or curse each other,
the remarks would not be so serious coming from a relative as
they would if they were uttered by a non-relative. The epi-
thets would not in the above case be deeply resented, or be
treasured up as a wrong to be avenged [kaore c maniaetia).
In regard to the use of the term "sister," a perusal of the
table of consanguineous nomenclature, to follow, will explain
this.

Filiation, Consanguineous and Affinitativb Nomen-
clature.

Letourneau, in his work " The Evolution of Marriage,"
states that "filiation by the female line seems to be generally
adopted in Polynesia." This statement is misleading in
regard to the natives of New Zealand, where kinship is
certainly claimed through either or both parents. This is
probably the result of the system of permanent marriage
which here obtained, and which has evidently been in force
for many generations. The various tribes and clans (hapu)
are usually named after male ancestors, but some after
females. Such a tribe or hajm (sub-tribe) consists of the
descendants of such ancestor. Thus, Ngati-Tawhaki (the De-
scendants of Tawhaki), a hajm of the Tuhoe Tribe, is com-
posed of the descendants of Tawhaki, who lived nine gene-
rations ago ; Ngati - Tuhea, a suh-hajm {gens or family
group) of Ngati-Tawhaki, are the descendants of Tuhea,
who flourished four generations back; while Ngati-Hinekura
are the descendants of a woman named Hinekura. Blood
relationship was, and is, counted through both parents. The
rank of chiefs is transmitted through both the male and
female lines. Perhaps the descent through first-born male
children of chiefs — i.e., aho ariki — was, and is, most highly
esteemed, but the mother, if of high birth, and more especially
if an eldest daughter, had, and has, great prestige and

24 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

influence. Unless property inherited be from the mother
alone, it might be said that the order of succession of in-
heritance was from father to the eldest son, perhaps later
to the younger children, but always with the tendency to
revert to the offspring of the eldest son. In the work above
quoted is a statement to the effect that, under European
influence, the Maori of New Zealand have adopted agnatic
filiation, " but this new system still jars against ancient
usages, which formerly harmonized with the maternal
family." I quite fail to see how agnatic filiation can be said
to be new among the Maori, when for centuries past rank
and mana (prestige, power) have been transmitted through
both the male and female lines of descent. Uterine filiation
is of undoubted importance among the Maori, especially when,
conveying rank ; but the male line appears to have been
equally important, and the ara tane, or male line of descent
from a noted ancestor, is looked upon with pride by the
descendants of such ancestor. Given the fact that both
parents were of equal rank, it is possible that greater weight
would be given to masculine filiation ; but if the mother
was of higher rank than the father, then their children would
prefer to trace their descent through the mother, witb whom
their increased rank and prestige originated.

In claiming land in the Native Land Courts of the colony
a native may claim through either or both parents, the latter
course being adopted when he has a claim through both. If
his mother only held an interest in the land, then he would,
of course, claim it through her alone, and give his genealogical
descent through her. The same process would be adopted if
only his father had an interest in such lands.

There is no evidence to prove that the matriarchate system
prevailed among the Maori, whose system of filiation may
appear somewhat peculiar, inasmuch as, as we have seen,
rank, property, and mana (prestige, power, authority) was
transmitted by both the male and female lines. It is per-
haps needless to state that the group - marriage system was
unknown among the Maori. Polygamy existed to a certain
extent, but only among men of rank. If ever the matri-
archate existed among the Maori, then it must luive been
in times long passed away, though possibly the estimation in
which the maternal line is licld when endowed with rank may
be a survival of that ancient system.

The Maori recognised a difference between real filiation
and adoption. A man could niarry the adopted daughter of
his parents, provided that she was not nearly related to him.

In regard to consanguineous nomenclature, it may be
stated that degrees of relationship are not by any means
clear as used among the Maori, as will be seen anon.

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs.

25

Deniker, in his " Eaces of Man," says that the " classifi-
catory system "* obtains among the Maori. To this, as de-
scribed by him in chapter vii. of the above work, a quahfied
assent may be given. He seems, however, to imply that
exogamy and group marriage obtained among the Maori,
which is quite erroneous.

But this much is correct : In the Maori system of con-
sanguinity myself, my brothers, sisters, and cousins are all
termed "brothers" and "sisters." Also my father, with his
brothers, sisters, and cousins, are all termed "brother" and
"sister" to each other; and so on. My children and their
cousins form another such group. But the second group,
given above, does not include my mother, as Deniker states.
He is right, however, in stating that I, as a Maori, would
term the children of my brother or sister " my children," and
their grandchildren as " my grandchildren."

We now submit an abbreviated list of terms of the con-
sanguineous and affinitative nomenclature of the Maori people,
which will illustrate the above remarks.

System of Maori Nomenclature, Consanguineous and
Affinitative.

The Person spoken

of.

The Speaker.

Degree of Consangu

nity.

Male. Female.
Term used. Term used.

Papara (true or real

Same.

father

"

Father . .

P;ipa

Matua(i) tilne (male

parent)
Koliara (real mother)
Whaea

^^

Mother . .

Koka

Matua wahine (fem ale
parent)

"

Elder brother

Tuakana

Tiingane(2).

Younger brother

Taina or teina

„

Elder sister

Tiiahin

Tiiakana.

Younger sister

„

Taina or teina.

Father's brother

P;ipa

Same.

sister

Whaea or Koka

mother

Kiila

It

father

Koroua

(1) Matua means simply "parent." Becomes rndtua in plural.

(2) Tungane simply = brother of a female, a generic term for brothers, not for
elder brother only.

(3) Tiiahine simply = sister of a male, a generic term for sisters, not for elder
sister only.

* See L. Morgan's " System
Society."

Consangmnity " and " Ancient

26

Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

System op Maori Nomenclatdre, Consanguineous and

Affinitative— conimweti.

The Person spoken of.

The Speaker.

Degree of Consanguinity.

Male.

Female.

Term used.

Term used.

Father's mother's brother . .

Koroua

Same.

„ „ sister

Kuia

„

father's brother

Koroua

„

sister

Kuia

„

„ raother's mother . .

Kuia tuarua or tipuna
tuarua(4)

«

father

Koroua tuarua or ti-
puna tuarua

"

Stepfather

Papa whakaangi

,,

Mother's brother . .

Papa

ff

sister

Whaea or koka

„

mother

Kiiia

„

father

Koroua

„

mother's brother . .

Koroua

„

sister

Kuia

„

father's brother

Koroua

,^

sister

Kuia

^^

mother's mother . .

Kuia tuarua or tipuna
tuarua

'/

brother's

Papil or matua keke . .

»/

son

grandparents

tipuna (tipuna in
plural)(5)

ft

Stepmother

Whaea, whakaangi

,,

Stepchild ..

Tamfuti whakaangi('')

„

Stepbrother

No distinct term.

Stepsister . .

„

Children of father's elder

Tuakana

brother

Children of father's younger

Taina or teina

brother

Children of father's elder sister

Tuakana

Children of father's younger

Taina or teina

•C) ■■

„

sister

Children of mother's elder

Tuakana

brother or sister

Children of mother's younger

Taina or teina

brother or sister

/

Son

Tama (tamaiti = child)

ff

Eldest son

Tama

„

Youngest child

Potiki

,,

Son's wife. .

Hiinaonga . .

tt

(i) Tuartta means " second. " Kuia taurua = aecoud grandmother— r.«., great
grandmotlier.

(■'■') Tupuna is a variant form of tipuna.

C) Tamariki whaktangi in plural,

0) Tuakana lutro doiiotes iiieuibcrs of elder branch of fnniily, taina tliose of
younger brancli, but tlio male speaker would call his female cousins here his
tuiihinc, or sisters. The female speaker would term her male cousins tungane,
or brothers.

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs.

27

System of Maori Nomenclature, Consanguineous and
Affinitative — continued.

The Person spoken of.

The

Speaker.

Degree of Cousangumity.

Male.

Female.

Term used.

Term used.

Daughter . .

Tamahine (tarn a
in plural)

line

Same.

Eldest daughter

Tamahine (among
hoe)

Tu-

"

Daughter's husband

Hunaonga . .

f/

Children of son or daughter . .

Mokopuna . .

, ,

rr

brother's children

rl • •

, ,

„

sister's children . .

„

, ,

//

Brother s or sister's child

Tamaiti (tamariki
plural)

in

"

„ eldest son

Tama

tt

„ youngest

Potiki

. .

It

child

Husband . .

, ,

Tane.

Wife

Wahine or hoa
hine(8).

wa

Brother's or sister's children's

Mokopuna . .

. .

Same.

children

Elder sister's husband

Taokete

, ,

Tuakana tane.

Younger sister's husband

f/ ' •

, ,

Taina tane.

Elder brother's wife

Tuakana wahine

, ,

Taokete.

Younger brother's wife

Taina wahine

, ,

//

Brother's or sister's son's

Hunaonga . .

. .

Same.

wife

Brother's or sister's daughter's

// • •

, ,

tf

husband

Husband's sister ..

Taokete.

Wife's brother

Taokete.

Husband's elder brother

, ,

Tuakana tane.

younger brother . .

, ,

Taina tane.

„ parents . .

Himgarei or
hiingawai.

Wife's elder sister . .

Tuakana wahine

, ,

younger sister

Taina wahine

, ,

, parents

Hiingarei or hiingawai

Husband of wife's sister

Hoahoa.

Wife of husband's brother . .

, ,

Hoahoa.

Male children of father's

Tuakana or

Tungane.

and mother's brothers and

taina

sisters

ite -

Female children of father's

Tuahine

- see a)

Tuakana or

and mother's brothers and

taina.

sisters

/

1.

Husband's child by former

Tamaiti whaka-

wife

angi.

Foster-child

Tamaiti whangai

Same.

(8) Wahine (in singular) = woman, female, wife.
Soa wihine = female companion, literally.

Becomes wahine in plural.

28 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Spea.king generally, a native always speaks of his cousins
— i.e., the children of his father's and mother's brothers and
sisters — as his " brothers " and " sisters." The terms tuakana
and taina, given in the table, do not always imply that such
persons are older than the speaker in years, but that they
belong to an elder [tuakana) or younger (taina) branch of
the family. Also, in speaking generally of the children
of his brother or sister a native always calls them his
" children. "'■'■

It will be noted in the above table that the term papa,.
meaning "father," is applied not only to the speaker's real
father, but also to all brothers of his parents and to sons of
his parent's uncles. The term papara, which denotes the
speaker's real father, is not often heard, the generic term papa
being much more common. The same remarks apply to the
term loJiaea (mother), which is applied not only to the
speaker's real mother, but also to sisters of his parents, and
others. Also, the term tuahine has a wide application, it
being applied by a male speaker to his cousins, and to-
daughters of his parents' cousins, &c. Thus, when you hear
that a Maori has married his " sister" you must not take it
literally, for she is probably a cousin several times removed.
It behoves one to be careful, for it is very easy to make errors-
in Maori consanguinity.

These remarks on Maori nomenclature might be continued
indefinitely, but must be kept for a separate paper. It will be
seen, however, that, although some of the more generic terms,
as those above quoted, have a wide meaning, yet terms of kin-
ship among the Maori are much more copious and definite
than such a system as the Hawaiian, as given by Letourneau
in his chapter on " The Family in Polynesia." His informa-
tion, however, niay have been meagre.

There is no sign of polyandry among the Maori so far as
my researches have extended. Close questioning of the old
men leads one to the conclusion that monandry has been the
custom of the people for many generations, probably centuries,
or some trace or influence of the custom would probably be
noted. The old-time historical traditions help to prove the
monandrous conditions which obtained here and in other
isles in times long passed away. Certainly there are a few,
very few, isolated cases on record among the Tuhoe Tribe
where, a married woman having committed adultery, it was
agreed to by her people that she should have the two
husbands. The evidence, even in these cases, is against a
former polyandrous system.

* Taku tamaiti = my child ; aku taiiiariki = my children.

Best. — Maort Marriage Customs. 29

Polygamy and Monogamy.

Generally speaking, the Maori people were monogamous —
that is to say, the bulk of the people married but one wife.
But. among the chieftain class polygamy obtained, and, indeed,
may still be met with among the Tuhoe people. Polygamy
does not appear to have obtained among the common people,
but seems to have been a privilege of rank. In many cases
a chief would take a slave wife in addition to his principal
wife, who would be of his own people, and probably his equal
jn rank. Again, the taking of a second wife would sometimes
be caused by the sterility of the first wife, and a desire to
have children. I know of a case in which a half-caste, a
successful business man, and liying as a European, took a
second wife for the above reason. This, of course, was a
marriage a la Maori, and not an act of bigamy, as no marriage
ceremony was performed.

At the present time one native here at Rua-tahuna has
three wives, and several others have two each. In two of
these cases the parties live together, with others, in large
communal sleeping-houses, and appear to get on well
together. In the third case the two wives live at different
villages, and are not friendly with each other. The husband
lives sometimes with one and sometimes with the other.
Te Ika-poto, Tama-rehe, and Te Purewa, famous chiefs of
this district in the last century, had each four wives.

The different wives of polygamous marriages appear to be
kind to each other's children, but such kindness, albeit of a
somewhat negative nature, is common among the natives.

Consanguineous polygamy obtained here. A man would
sometimes marry two sisters, and sometimes a mother and
daughter. The latter was a rare occurrence, but the former
frequently occurred. The marriage of the deceased wife's
sister was, and is still, common, while the marriage of a
widow to the deceased husband's brother was an established,
and, indeed, an ancient, custom. Two sisters would sometimes
marry two brothers.

The first or bead wife of a polygamous marriage is termed
the wahine matua. WaJiine = woman, female, wife; matua =
first, important. Among the Ngati-Hau Tribe the remaining
wives are termed muri-manu. Muri = after, subsequent time,
behind ; manu = bird. The wives in polygamous marriages
term each other hoahoa. Cf. hoa = friend, companion, mate ;
ivhakahoa = to associate with. The xvahine matua, or head
wife, was not exempt from labour.

In polygamous marriages the first-born child would rank
first and have the greatest authority of any of the children in
matters connected with the land, &c., as well as in all other

30 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

ways, although such child might not be the son of the chief
wife, but born of one of the muri-manu. All children of the
several wives would inherit the property of the parents — i.e.,
they would have a share in the land and in any personal pro-
perty the parents might possess. The father would take the
children with him on hunting, fishing, and bird-snaring expe-
ditions, and thus they would be taught the land-boundaries,
and would learn the location of snaring-trees, bird-troughs,
&c. And in after-years the father would apportion such lands
among his children, the first-born son probably receiving the
largest share, if of a capable and influential personality.
Hence it will be seen that the children of the principal wife
did not necessarily take precedence over the others.

Incest.

We have already shown what marriages are deemed
incestuous by the Maori. It is worthy of note that the rules
in regard to marriage of relatives among the Maori nearly
resemble our own. Such a system does not appear to be
common among barbarous peoples.

Professor Westermarck has stated that the horror of incest
is not an instructive sentiment (animals do not have it), but
rather a social habit, springing from sexual I'epulsion for per-
sons, even unrelated to the family, with whom one has been
brought up from infancy."''

Andrew Lang, in his " Custom and Myth," quotes Morgan
(of Primitive Sociology fame) as follows: "Primitive men
very eai'ly discovered the evils of close interbreeding " ; as also
the latter's statement that "early man discovered that
children of unsound constitutions were born of nearly related
parents." Mr. Lang goes on to say, " Mr. Morgan supposes
early man to have made a discovery (the evils of the mar-
riage of near kin) which evades modern physiological science.
Modern science has not determined that the marriages of
kinsfolk are pernicious. Is it credible that savages should dis-
cover a fact which puzzles science ? " Now, it may or may not
be credible, but how is it that the Maori holds this view, viz. :
that marriages of those closely related is followed by a tiyu-
heke (degeneration, deterioration) in the of3"spring'? For, as we
have seen, the Maori ai'e endogamous, and they have no totem
system, for exogamy or totemism might have been taken
as a cause for the Maori custom already given. Maine,
author of " Early Law," regards exogamy merely as a prohi-
bition of incest. The Maori idea may be summed up in the
words of an ancient proverbial saying of the people, " E moe
i to tuahine, he itiiti" — i.e., "Marry your tuahine and the

* See Deniker's " Races of Man," chap. vii.

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 31

result will be puny offspring." Tuahine = sister ; also used
for cousins.

Tane, Tangotango, and Wai-nui were children of the
primal parents, Eangi and Papa (Sky and Earth). Tane
married his own daughter, while Tangotango (a male) married
his sister Wai-nui, and this, according to Maori myth, was the
origin of incest. Marriage also originated in those days of
the misty past in the union of the strange beings who pre-
ceded man.

It does not appear that incest was common among the
natives. It is given sometimes as an explanation of peculiari-
ties in genealogies. To bring upon themselves the contempt
of the tribe would be the result, and this would act as a
deterrent, more especially among a communistic people such
as the Maori.

Since the arrival of Europeans in this land the old native
laws, rules, and customs have become much relaxed, and the
change in many cases is for the worse. The social rules of
the Maori suited such a people, and they do not grasp or
adopt ours in a way for such to be beneficial to them. Inter-
marriages with Europeans do not as a rule produce a
desirable cross. Half-castes are, physically, a fine people,
though not long-lived as a rule. Mentally they are clever,
quick, and sometimes attain distinction. But morally they
are often below par, their code of ethics in many instances
being an uncertain quantity. In one such family at least four
members thereof have been guilty of incest, but it does not
seem to trouble them in any way. A native couple who com-
mitted incest in this district were expelled from the tribe. A
native of the Rotorua district cohabited with his own daughter.
On it becoming known they fled together, but were pursued
and caught. The girl was taken back home and the father
was expelled.

Incest is, in this district, termed iraivaru, moe tuahine, and
ngaic ivhiore, the expression kai ivhiore being a variant form
of the latter. Three of these terms are connected with dogs.
Irawaru is the name of a person in Maori mythology who was
turned into a dog by the magic arts of Maui, and who was
afterwards looked upon as the origin, or tutelary deity, or
parent of dogs. Nga^c ivhiore means "tail-biter." Those
who commit incest are compared to a dog which turns and
bites its own tail.

It will thus be seen that the Maori has very sensible
notions on the subject of incest and consanguineous mar-
riages. His ideas on such thmgs resemble those of the most
advanced peoples. He does not bar whole groups of slightly
related peoples from intermarrying, as do so many barbarous
and semi-civilised races.

32 Transactioyis. — Miscellaneous.

Youthful Cohabiting.

There is a Maori saying, "He iti kopua wai, ka he to
vianaiua."'^- This saying is heard when a girl wants to marry
too soon, before she is old enough, in the opinion of her
elders. Early marriages seem to have been common among
the Maori, although the elders appear to have believed it to be
harmful, judging from such sayings as the one given above,
and which were somewhat plentiful. The young folk early
arrive at puberty — Colenso says from twelve, and even eleven,
years upward. There was no system of obligatory defloration
of girls, nor was it in any way necessary or practicable. The
girls attended to that, for illicit intercourse was, and is still,
common among the young people. It often happened, say the
elderly people, that a girl would have intei-course with a youth
before she arrived at puberty — " before the growth of hair," as
a native puts it. Daughters of chiefs were probably looked
after better than those of the common people, and those girls
who were made pz^/u were tapic to all men until married.
Girls who had been with young men were sometimes de-
tected by traces oi pm-apara, ttc, being found upon them.

In former times many girls married, or were married, very
young, even sometimes before puberty and before the com-
mencement of menstruation — at least, so say these natives. A
young girl of this district was lately married and she cannot
have been more than thirteen, or at the most fourteen, years
of age. This is, however, unusual here. The term krypepe is
here used to denote this marrying of very young girls : " E
tama ! He kop)cpe koe i te tamaiti na."

Several causes may be assigned for the early marriages of
the Maori — the early age of puberty ; the carrying-out of the
taumou, or infant betrothals ; the keen sexual desire of girls,
not repressed or controlled by long generations of self-control
and moral teachings of elders, as among more advanced
peoples. Possibly it was as w^ell so, for -^-outhful cohabiting
being common, and a prolonged course o general intercourse
being conducive to sterility in the female, it were better for
the girl to be married to one man. For her days of freedom
in sexual matters would then be over. Adultery spelled
trouble in the days of yore.

An old native saying has it thus : " Korerotia hi runga ki
te takapau whara-nui," the meaning of which is, "Let
matters be properly arranged by the elders in council. Do
not let the young people cohabit promiscuously, but let the
tribe marry them according to proper rules and older
custom."

•Applied to the girl : "A small pool of water will exhaust a man's
breath if he immerses himself therein."

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 33

The term whaiaipo, meaning sweetheart or lover, is ap-
plied to both male and female persons, single or married. It
is not, however, applied to any one as a married person, but
only to those who have a lover other than the husband or
wife, and to that lover himself or herself. Hence it may
describe the sweetheart of an unmarried person or the lover
of an adulterous wife or husband. Another term having a
similar meaning, and said to be a more ancient expression, is
ivhakaaiveatve, while a kai-ivhakaaweaive is a go-between, a
person who acts as a messenger between two lovers. The
etymology of the term ivhaiaipo is significant.

There was no cult among the Maori that required the
prostitution of girls before marriage, as those of Aphrodite and
Mylitta. Neither was there any prostitute class among them.
The young people, when gathered together at night in the
whare tapere, or "play-houses," in which many games,
dances, &c.. were indulged in to pass away the time, would
make advances to each other and afterwards meet at some
place agreed upon. Such places were often in the forest, and
were termed ta7ipu)iipu7ii. These advances spoken of were
often made by the girls, the recognised sign being a pinch, or
the scratching of the finger-tip on the hand of the desired
person.

PUHI.

The ptchi custom among the natives was a singular one,
and deserves mention here. Williams's Dictionary gives the
following meanings of piihi : (1) A betrothed woman ; (2) a
much-courted unbetrothed young woman. Neither of these
definitions appears to describe the puhi among the Tuhoe
Tribe. A betrothal here is termed taicmou* of which more
anon. A puhi among Tuhoe was a girl of good family, first-
born daughter of a chief, who was rendered tajm — i.e., she
was not allowed to have sexual connection with any man, nor
to perform any work except such as the weaving of the
better-class garments, as korowai, aronui, kahu-kura, maro
kopua, &c., which work was equivalent to the "fancy work "
of ladies among us, a hght and genteel employment. She
would have some attendant to cook for her, and was under
restriction in many ways. These puhi were not allowed to
marry, or, at least, such was often the expressed intention,
though they might fall from grace in after-years when tired
of single life. The idea was to make her an important person
— " Ka whakapuhitia hai wahine rangatira "—in the tribe, a
lady of rank, to be treated with respect and looked up to. If
a puhi were detected in illicit intercourse with any man she

* Taiwiou was the name of the function or custom ; the girl was not
termed a taumou.

3— Trans.

34 Transacti07is . — Miscellaneous.

was degraded and the tapu taken off her. No girl of the
common people could be a puhi, nor yet a younger daughter,
but only the tajmiru (first-born daughter of a chief's family).
The j^uhi was a renowned personage (he wahine ingoa nui),
for such was the object of the custom. Hine-i-tm-ama was a
famous pw/ii until she fell from grace. She fled to the forest
and there gave birth to a child (afterwards known as Tu-
Avairua). A search-party found her by hearing her singing a
lullaby over her child in the depths of the forest. Huinga-o-
te-ao/of the ancient Maruiwi, was a famous pichi, she who
died the tragic death near 0-hiwa. Nahau was another
renowned jJ2t/a, so tajm that she could do nothing for herself,
hence the saying, " E noho ra, E Nahau ! Tena te ia o Bangi-
taiki hai kaioe i a koe."

The following song, termed a Waiata. viate kanehe, was
composed by a pichi of days gone by who had fallen in love
with a man named Kau-i-te-rangi. She thus addresses

him : —

Tera te waka i a Kau-i-te-rangi — e
Kapokapo aua mai me he rau harakeke.
Tera, E Pa ! Ka raakamaka i o rimu
Kia hemo ake ai nga tapu i ahau
Kapo ana koe ko te whakahoro e roto
Oma ana ki matenga
Kia patua i roto Tuhapari e te ika
E ta te moari, e te tau — e
Tuakina a Piha, ka whiu ki te pari.

Courtship, "Atahu," Arranging of Marriage.

A good deal of formality pertained to the arrangement of a
marriage. When a young man wished to marry a certain girl
he would usually inform his elders of his wish. A meeting of
the village community, usually a suh-hapti or family group,
would then be held, and the matter would be discussed at
length, each person who wished to make any remarks rising
to address the meeting, both men and women taking part in
the discussion and arrangements. The girl would be asked
before all the assembled people as to whether she was agree-
able or not. The matter would not be ended with the consent
of the girl, her parents, and near relatives. The tribe would
take part in the matter and have their say, often making
objections on some ground or other, as in the case, already
quoted, of Kangi and Hapine. Sometimes when they expect
opposition a young couple will take to the woods and remain
there for some time, until the matter is arranged or they are
discovered and the girl taken away.

There is, of course, much more formahty in arranging a
marriage between persons of the chieftain class than is the
case among the common people, marriage having its origin as

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 35

a social custom, so far as rites and rules are concerned, and
not as the result of a national religion or theological system.
Marriage among the low-born people, the common people, of
the tribe was ever an event unmarked by rite or invocation
such as pertained to marriage among the chieftain class.

When a young girl w^ished to marry a certain man she
would possibly have intercourse with him before informing
her elders of her wish. But, still, if she was of good family
she was thought more of if she went to her elders first and
said, " I desire So-and-so." If they considered him an un-
desirable person they might say, "He is a tutua (of low birth).
Do not have him, but marry So-and-so, who is of good birth,
although ill-favoured " ; and the girl would probably do as
they bid her. Even now it is a common thing when a mar-
riage occurs to hear the remark made, " The tribe married
them." The old-tune habits and customs of a communistic
people die hard.

The young unmarried girls of the present time are de-
cidedly unchaste, more especially those living in the larger
settlements, where the young people are thrown together a
good deal. Adultery is of rather frequent occurrence in this
district, and generally seems to be detected. For some reason
the natives do not seem to be able to keep a secret well In
adultery, as in other matters, one of the persons usually men-
tions or admits the matter.

A considerable number of native women have married
Europeans, and many of these women, it must be said, lead
most exemplary lives, for many are clean, industrious, and
evidently desirous of living as Europeans do. They are often
prolific to a white man, families of six and seven bemg not
infrequently met with. They take a pride in being able to
cook European articles of food, such as are not used among
the natives, and are a great improvement on the native woman
as seen in the Maori villages.

As observed, the Maori of old had a clear perception of
the desirability of arranging marriages in due orthodox form,
or, as he terms it. He mea ata lohakarite (a matter carefully
arranged), this remark, however, applying principally to the
rangatira or chieftain class.

In the days of yore when a man desired a woman who
disliked or was afraid of him he would hie him to the village
priest and enlist his services. The priest (tohimga) would
take some substance, horil (red ochre) being often used for
this purpose, which he would proceed to render efficient as a
sort of love philtre. This he did by uttering over it a charm
which comes under the generic term of hoa (ka hoaiwj, e ia
taua mea). He then hands the article to the man, who takes
it away with him. He must not turn aside on his way back.

36 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

nor yet partake of food, but proceed direct to where the
desired woman happens to be. Even if she were in a cook-
ing-shed preparing food he would go straight to her and
cram the substance into her mouth. That is sufficient. Even
though she spits it out, yet the charm will be effective and
she will come to him, her dislike will be overcome.

The expression ^uhakaivherewliere is applied to conciliation
of a desired woman by means of gifts. A man will give or
send to a woman some present which he hopes will cause her
to like and desire him. The term arwant signifies " to chase "
and " to woo." while viatdrd means " to woo, pay addresses
to."

The custom known as kai tamdhine was a singular one.
A party of young, active, and presentable men would form
themselves into a party and go on a visit to some village
where resided a young woman noted for her good looks and
qualities. The visit was for the express purpose of showing
themselves and their accomplishments to the girl, in the hope
that she would accept one of them as a husband. The period
of the visit would be quite a gay time, for the party of young
men would give performances of various kinds, in order to
exhibit their skill, grace, dexterity, and so forth, each endea-
vouring to excel his companions. They would perform haka,
or posture dances, of various kinds, and play games of skill.
Each would hope that the girl would select himself as a
husband.

The term kai tamahine is a peculiar one. Kai signifies
" to eat, to bite." also "food." Tamahine = daughter. Ac-
cording to Letourneau, when a Kabyle father has married his
daughter the phrase in ordinary use is, " He has eaten his
daughter." Among that strange people girls were sold by
the father or other relative.

The term ringa hoea (rejected hand) is used among some
tribes to denote a rejected suitor. Such a rebuff would some-
times cause the disappointed man to have recourse to magic.
He would make use of a magic charm or spell ikarakia
makutic) known as 'payaki. This had the effect of killing the
hapless woman — so, at least, my informants tell me, and who
am I that I should doubt the word of these sages !

In the Legend of Paoa we read that when that old-time
wanderer was on his travels he remained at a certain village
for some time as a guest. The daugliter oi his host fell in
love with him, and, coming to his side one night, she scratched
his hand as a sign of her desire for him. She had already
spoken to her parents about the matter and they had con-
sented to her marrying him.

There was a sort of love charm, termed atahu or iri,
which was formerly much used in order to cause a person of

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 37

the opposite sex to entertain affection for the operator. It
was also used to influence an absent lover, wife, or husband,
and to cause such to return to the lone one. In conjunction
with the atahu obtained a singular custom of sending a bird,
the miromiro, to carry the love and desire of the operator to
the distant woman, wife, or husband. If the rite was properly
performed it would cause a woman to come to her lover how-
ever distant he might be, or however much her friends might
try to prevent her from going. The atahu or iri is a karakia
(charm, spell, ritual, invocation, incantation) to cause a person
of the opposite sex to love the repeater. When Tamatea-rehe,
of the Children of Awa, saw first his (future) wife, Manawa,
he was much struck by her, and this feeling increased so that
eventually he despatched a miromiro bird to convey his love to
that dark-skinned maid. At the same time he utilised the fol-
lowing iri in order to influence the affections of Manawa, and
to " bind " her to himself. It is also termed a karakia lohaka-
piri, a " fastening charm " : —

Iri kura, iri kura

Iria te tupua ,

Tupua nuku

Te whakamaua mai Manawa

Ki toku tinana

Whiti ora a te tahito

Hotu nuku, hotu rangi

Tukia te papa i raro i a Manawa

Te pukenga, te wananga

Whakamaua ki tahito o te rangi

Iri toro, iri toro

He— i.

The following atahu was given by a member of the Ngati-
raukawa Tribe. He says, " This is an atahu used to cause a
woman to desire a man or a man to desire a woman. When
the shades of evening fall the tohxinga (priest) goes to the
waterside and, having used the water in ancient form, he per-
forms the atahu rite, repeating the following charm : —

" Tu te urunga, hau te urunga
Maniania te moenga
Hakune atu te po, hakune atu te ao
Ko tou aroaro i tahuri mai ki ahau
Ko toku aroaro i tahuri atu ki a koe
He miromiro taku manu ka tukua atu
Hei hiki mai i a koe, E te ipo.

The applicant gives to the priest some article, such as a
garment (in modern times often a pipe), in order to give
mana (power, prestige, or effectiveness) to the rite." The
expression ipo here used is equivalent to a term of endear-
ment. It means "pertaining to love": He waiata ipo = a
love-song. The two last lines render thus : " My bird sent is
a miromiro, to bring you hither, 0 love ! "

38 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Practically all rites performed by the priest of old were
executed either at a sacred fire or by the waterside, and
nearly always at dawn or dusk, not in the day-tinne.

An old warlock of Awa discourseth upon the atahu, " The
miromiro is a bird employed in the atahu tvahine. Should a
man desire a certain woman, although she might be a member
of a different tribe, yet will he obtain her. Though her home
be afar off he will obtain her. He despatches a miromiro
bird to fetch her. He notes carefully the wind. If it is blow-
ing in the direction of the home of the woman he desires he
then takes a feather, being careful to seize it with his left
hand, and passes it under his left thigh, after which, holding
the feather upright in his advanced left hand, he recites the
following charm : —

" Hau nui ana ra
Ko te hau — e
Te kura i te ipo — e
To ara mai, E te ipo
Haere ki roto i a koe mihi ai
Waha mai te ipo, E te hau — e
Tutakina iho ki au — e
* Whiwhia mai, rawea mai

Tore hei.

He then tosses the feather into the air for the wind to carry.
(In the charm he calls upon the wind to bear his love to him.)
iSefore long she will have arrived."

Eegarding the passing of the feather under the left thigh :
When a priest proceeded to takahi a wounded person, and
recite a charm to heal his wound, it was always the left foot
that he placed upon his patient, for that is the ta2)u foot. It
is the manea of that foot that gives force, virtue, effectiveness
to the rite and charm. The manea is the hau of the human
foot or footstep, a sacred or supernatural power, essence, or
quality, which has great influence in preservmg human life, &c.

When in olden times a young man of the Tuhoe Tribe

went through the operation of being tattooed the following

atahti was repeated over him by the priest, in order to cause

women to admire and like him : —

Taku tamaiti i wehea e au ki te rangi

Ka piri, ka tata

Ka huakina mai Tangaroa — e

Whakina mai ko ou Hine-tuakirikiri

Ko ou Hinc-tuarourou

Mai te ruwha, mai te ruwha

Mai te aroha, mai te aroha

^lai te aroha ra koo— e.

Here follows another atahu of the Tuhoe Tribe : —

Tiikoto ra, K hino !
I to urunga, i to moenga
Iri kura, iri kura, iri toro
Ka whana atu koe i reira

Best.— Maori Marnage Customs. 39

Kia rokohanga mai e koe

Nga tai tu o te akau — e

Ka whana atu koe

Kia rokohanga atu e koe

Nga tai ka tanumi

No Rarotonga — e

Tirotiro ko rangi ki te whetu

Whakatahato mata ki te marama

Whakataha to mata ki te marama

Au nei he motu puhi rakau

Whakina te tau kia rangona

Mokimoki te kakara kia iria — e

Na to ngakau koe i hua kia mahia tiori

Na to matua koe i hua kia mahia tiori

Tu ana a ia ki te rangi, mihi konaki ai

Te ipo e ki te moenga

E tangi ana ra te korori

E tangi ana ra te korora

Taku hei mapuna

Kua riro titapu I

Kou te ruru, kou te ruru I

Kou !

And^here is another : —

Pu mauri kura

I whanake i te tara o Maninihau — e

Ki horo mai ra tonga

Ka pukea au e te wai — e ' ^

Maua ko te aroha )

I roto wahine atu ra — e -1

Tuarua rawa mai ki te moenga

He ringa ta auta rawa ake

Ka ea kai te moenga — e

E tangi ana ra te korori, te korora

Taku hei mapuna

Kua riro titapu — e

Kou te ruru, kou te ruru ! i

Kou! ;

The following so-called atahu is a modern one, as will \
be seen by the English words occurring therein. Nor is it

a charm for general use, as are the foregoing. It was |

composed by a woman named Matua-kore, whose husband \
had deserted her, in order to express her feelings. She

evinces a desire to have recourse to the atahu, but is \

doubtful as to its efficacy : — \

Homai ma nei e te Jiiihi, e te runanga '<

He kupu hai whakapaa/w ^

Mo te ngakau o Kuini whaihanga '

Tenei to paipa me kawe atu ki a Te Reretautau '
Hai iri atu, hai atahu kia hoki mai ai
Nohea e hoki mai
Ka tini, ka mano nga puke

Kai waenga ko Tauaki, ko Takamai i

I o Apa ripa tauarai ki o Te Ao ■

Ki a Te Manihi te aroha nei au |

Haere ra, E Ura E ! ',
Korua ko to kakau whakawhana

40 Transactions. — Miscellantous.

Waiho au i konei aue kau ai

Aue, te tane ra !

Aue, te tane !

Tee ko mai i te wai para hoanga ki waho

Aue, te ai — e !

Ka whiti nei au kai Rurima, kai Mautoki

Kai Karewa, te motu o te kuia

Ka eke nei au te puke huia

Kai Ruahine au ka taru mate

Ka hinga au ki te whare — i.

The following illustration and imaginary conversation was
given by a native in explanation of the atahu and sending of
the miromiro ; " A man comes to the priest. He says, ' I
have come to you because a man has run away with my wife.'
It is asked, ' What shall be done ? ' And replied to, ' Do
you arrange it as according to ancient custom.' Very well.
When the sun sets, then the miromiro bird will be despatched
in order to bring back the woman who has been cajoled and
carried off by a man. Although she may be in a house when
the bird arrives it will go inside and perch upon her head.
Then swiftly the woman returns, like the wind which blows
beneath her feet. Ere long she has arrived. This was a very
effective rite of the Maori."

The following modern instance of au atahu was related
to me by a Whakatane native, who seemed to believe it (the
charm recited has already been given) : Himiona, a native now
living at Whakatane with his wife Kumara, had left her some
years previously in order to visit friends at Poverty Bay.
While at the latter place he became attached to a native
woman there, and they lived together as man and wife.
Kumara heard of this, and at once went to Rangi-taiki in
order to consult one Riperata, an old wise woman of that
place. She was told by the latter to return in the eveniucr.
She did so, and was conducted by Riperata to a stream, who
also made her divest herself of her clothing, when the a^ed
one sprinkled her with water and repeated the atahu charm
over her. Riperata said, " I can see the vairua (spirit) of
your husband standing by your side. Return now to your
home; in a week your husband will return to you. When he
arrives and greets you do not tangi-' (cry) over him, but both
of you go to the water and immerse yourselves therein."
This immersion in water was to cleanse the twain from the
tayu of the rite performed. Riperata then despatched a bird,
the miromiro, to bring back the errant husband. The bird
flew to the East Coast, and to the village where Himiona was
living with his new wife. The couple were seated among
others in a house at the time. The bii-d entered the house
and alighted upon the head of Himiona. At once he was

* Friends are welcomed by prolonged weeping among the Maori.

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 41

seized with a desire for his first wife ; his love for her returned.
He rose and started to return to Whakatane, a journey of
some days. His companions could not persuade him to
remain ; nor could they catch the bird, which went its way.

It sometimes occurred that the people of a family group
or clan would resolve to demand a girl of another village com-
munity as a wife for one of their young men. A party of
them would proceed to the place and demand the girl for that
purpose. If a single woman, she might be handed over with-
out any trouble occurring, provided that she was agreeable to
marry the young man. If not she would be held and pro-
tected by her people. Sometimes a very stormy scene would
follow, as each party strove to gain possession of the girl, who
would be seized by the opposing parties, and who sometimes
suffered severely at their hands. Even fatal consequences
would at times attend these wild scenes. Or, on arrival at
the residence of the girl, the party might seize her at once, in
which case trouble would be likely to quickly ensue, and the
two parties be transformed into a seething mass of excited,
yelhng beings, resembling maniacs. Scenes of violent abduc-
tion were by no means rare in Maoriland. And yet woman
occupied among the Maori people a much better position
than she occupied among most barbarous races. She was
usually upheld by her people when she objected to marry a
certain man who had desired or been selected for her. She
was to a considerable extent independent, and had a voice in
matters affecting the tribe. It was, perhaps, in connection
with adultery that her status appeared lowest, for she was
then regarded apparently as property, and any one tamper-
ing with her must needs pay for meddling with another per-
son's property.

As already observed, many statements have been made by
writers that the Maori had no marriage rite, but that a couple
simply agreed to live together, and that was all there was
about it. But if a marriage between two young people was
not he mea ata whakarite (a matter deliberately arranged) by
their elders, or by the tribe or sub-tribe, then such a union
was much looked down upon and condemned. If the recog-
nised and established usages were not respected and followed,
but the union a mere moe noa iho, or random cohabiting, then
a child born to such would be termed a poriro (bastard), a
moenga hau, he mea kite ki te take rakau, a thing found under
a tree.

In speaking or writing of the customs of other peoples,
more especially those of the more primitive races, we are
much too apt to set up as a standard of propriety, &c., our
own rites or customs, and if those of the people under discus-
sion do not coincide with our own, then thev are condemned

42 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

as improper, inadequate, or ridiculous, or statements are made
that no such customs exist among such people. These things
are wearying beyond measure.

The Maori marriage system was a very good one for a
people hving in the culture stage which obtained in Polynesia.
It was considerably in advance of the systems of many peoples
who in general culture occupied a higher plane.

In the arranging of a marriage it is not only the lamiHes
of the young couple who take part in such, but also the family
group, or the hapu, or perhaps even the whole tribe— i.e., in
a marriage of important persons. Indeed, the parents often
have little to say in regard to the marriages of their children,
the leading part in the arrangements being taken by the
brothers and sisters of the parents. The Maori likes to obtain
for a son-in-law an industrious man {ihu-pukti or ilm-oneone).

Taumou (Betrothal).

The term taumou (of which taumaii is a variant form) is
applied to the custom of the betrothal of young people which
obtained in Maoriland. This custom was also known as
whakapahlwha. The little couple so betrothed, or promised,
by their elders would be described as he mea karangaranga.
Observe the etymology of the second term above : WJiaka is
a causative prefix ; pa = to touch, come into contact with ;
kfavhd = the thighs.

It is probable that the taumou was practised only among
the people of good birth, and not by the common people. This
is the method which the evolution of marriage rites appears to
take : First, the cohabitation of man and woman, as among
savages, devoid of ceremony or ritual ; abduction, often forcible,
of the woman. Then as a laic institution, a social arrange-
ment, often followed by the purchase of the woman. In both
of these stages the woman is treated as a being much inferior
to man ; she represents so much property, and can be punished,
ill treated, or disposed of in any way which the husband sees
fit to adopt. These modes are the usus and coemptio of
ancient Rome. The third stage, as the Roman confarreatio ,
in which we see the adoption of a ritual, crude at first, but
afterwards becoming more ceremonious as the people advance
in culture. Note a passage in Letourneau's " Evolution of
Marriage " : " We must note that at Rome, as in Greece,
the religious ceremony was in no way essential to the
marriage, which was a laic and civil institution in the first
place." Quite so, for only the upper classes had this ceremony
performed at their marriages, hence is it termed the "aristo-
cratic marriage."

Now, the Maori was iu this third stage of marriage-evolu-
tion. He was adopting, or adapting, ritual to his old-time

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 43

system. But it was essentially an aristocratic rite, for only
those of high birth had the ceremony performed at their
marriage ; the common people were not deemed worthy of
the priestly invocations or the unuc kotore. They were dogs.

We return to our tauviou. This was not a universal cus-
tom among the chieftain class ; every girl or boy of good birth
was not so betrothed. It was sometimes done for political
reasons, in order to advance the welfare of the clan or tribe.
These betrothals took place during the infancy of the couple.
For instance, a man while visiting a village community
might cliance to see a little girl \vho took his fancy, and
whom he would desire to pre-empt, as it were, as a wife for
his own little son when they should have arrived at marrying
age. If the girl was of equal rank to his son he would claim
her by making some such remark as, " Maku t07in koe, mo
taku taviaiti" (" You are for me, for my child"). And that
remark would be agreed to by the elders of the girl, unless
they had some special objection to him or to the proposed
alliance. It would then be arranged that the two children
should be married w^hen they grew up. It would be very bad
form for any person to disregard the betrothal. Should any
man have sexual connection with the girl he would very
probably be slain, if a commoner, and possibly cooked and
eaten ; for the saying of old was, " Zwa eke he taumou tia
tetahi, ka^caka hai ratveke" ("Those on whom a taumoic ha,s
been placed, do not interfere with them ").

After the betrothal the girl might be kept at home with
her parents, or they might let her future father-in-law take
her away to live at his place, and there to associate and grow
upwith her future husband ; or she might stay alternately at
each place. This custom, like many other strange ones, has
long died out. The coming of the Europeans changed all
these things, hence we use the past tense in describing them.
Old Hauraki and his wife, of Eua-tahuna, are two of the few
survivors of the last who were tatcmou.

A girl or boy who happened to be so betrothed was not
termed a taumou : that expression simply implies the custom.
A betrothed girl was not termed a puhi among the Tuhoe
Tribe.

An old woman, a resident of Rua-tahuna, was betrothed
during her childhood, when she was about seven or eight
years of age, to one Tarei, of Ngati-Awa. After some time
her aunt took her to the home of Tarei's parents, that the two
children might be together. The girl remained there for some
time, but did not like the idea of marrying Tarei, so her
people took her back home, three days' march inland. No
attempt was made by either side to coerce her. But when,
subsequently, a party of Ngati-Awa visited Rua-tahuna they

44 Trayisactions. — Miscellaneous.

made things interesting for her and her friends — but that is
another story, which you will find at page 94 of Volume xxxiv.
of the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute."

The Umu Kotoke.

The urmi kotore was the marriage feast of the Maori — that
is to say, of the aristocratic marriage before mentioned. It
was at this function that certain invocations were repeated by
the priest over the couple.

In the first place, the priest repeats a prayer or invoca-
tion over the twain to preserve them in health and prosperity,
to ward off from them all evil, physical or otherwise. After
this the pair enjoyed the rights of married people. The
marriage feast is then prepared, and is known as utnu kotore,
or kai kotore. Probably the former term is more correctly
applied to the ritual pertaining to this function and the latter
expression to the actual food. Ujjiu means a steain-oveu, in
which food was prepared by the neolithic Maori ; but the term
is also used to denote a rite as performed by a priest — e.g.,
umu 2)ongipo7igi = a magic rite to destroy man. Kotore means
" the lower end, buttocks, anus, tail of a bird." The word
rejierejye (and tareperejje) also means the buttocks, hence the
above feast is sometimes termed kai reperepe [kai = food).

I asked an old man why the word kotore is applied to a
marriage. His answer was brief and convincing, " Ko te take
i kiia at he kai kotore, i moe ko tona kotore i te taiie ra.
Ehara i te mea i moe ko tona mahunga" ("The reason of
the feast being called a kai kotore is because the woman's
kotore married the husband. It was not her head that mar-
ried (slept or cohabited with) him ").

The kai kotore is special food, the best procurable, cooked
in a separate oven {timu kotore) for the relatives of the young
wife. Food was cooked in other ovens for the rest of the
assembled people. Only the relatives of the young wife
partook of the kai kotore, or kai reperepe, cooked in the umu
kotore. The young couple themselves did not eat of the kai
kotore. In some cases the wife's younger sisters would
decline to eat of the food prepared in the umu kotore, koi
purua — i.e., lest they he p7ikupa, or barren.

Further invocations were repeated by the priest at the
umti kotore which constituted a part of the marriage ritual,
and gave viana (efficacy, power, prestige) to the ceremony.
Another invocation, known as the oJiaoJia, was then repeated
over the couple. This was equivalent to a blessing — in the
first place, that the twain might not be assailed by sickness or
the shafts of magic, but be preserved in health. It also invoked
a state of fruitfulness for the wife, that she might bear child-
ren. In the event of the wife being nervous, or afraid of her

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 45

husband, an invocation known as a tvhakapiri, was repeated
over her by the priest, in order to cause her to cleave to her
husband, to bind them together (literally, to "fasten" them
together). This was performed at the above ceremony, lest
they become separated.

The bulk of the assembled people had their food separate
from the party who partook of the kai kotore, and the food
prepared for the former was not termed kai kotore. The_
■mdtdmua, or first-born son of the interested families, would
not partake of the kai kotore.

On my asking an old man of the Ngati-Awa Tribe as to
whether or not his ancestors had these invocations repeated
at the marriages of their important people, he replied, " Yes,
it is quite true about the marriage invocations of former days.
0, friend ! the best invocation to use for a woman nowadays
is money. If a man has acquired plenty of money he will
acquire a wife easily enough. That is the proper invocation.
The moneyed man gets a wife." Which was, raethinks, not
bad for the neolithic Maori.

Pakuwha.

We will now give some description of the custom of
pahcivha, which may be defined as a formal handing-over of
the woman to her husband. It was a universal custom ap-
parently."'' Tlie young couple may or may not have gone
through the ritual of the aristocratic marriage. The term
pahiivha is applied to relations by marriage, and also to the
ceremony of handing over or delivering the wife to her
husband and his people, for, as usual among the Maori, the
husband had little or nothing to say during the function, his
relatives doing all the speechmaking on his side of the house.

The pakuwha was made the occasion of a sort of marriage
hakari, or feast. It was, and still is, quite an important item
in the social life of the Maori. These meetings served to
break the monotony of the lives of the people, and they
thoroughly enjoyed them. Marriage and death are two im-
portant causes of these social functions, and the Maori enjoys
bo til.

The pakuwha often takes place after the couple have been
married, or have cohabited and arrangements concerning the
marriage (see ante) have, of course, been completed.

" I am living, say, at Eua-tahuua. My daughter marries,
or is to marry, a man from Te Whaiti, a day's journey distant.
1 and my relatives form a party and escort my daughter to
her husband's home at Te Whaiti. We have been invited to
do so by the elders of my son-in-law, who live at that place.

* I.e., among the rangatira class, not among low-born people.

46 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

In some cases they would build a special house for this event.
Such house is termed a whare jmkmoha, but would receive a
special name also, and be kept closed and unused until my
party, the ope pakmvha, arrive there, when we take up our
quarters in it. The tavii, pertaining to all new houses of
importance remains upon it until our arrival, when it is
removed and the house rendered noa (common, free from
tajyu) by the priest of my party. Such a house would be built
only when the parties are of high birth. In special cases
it may be an elaborately carved house, in others a plain one
having no embellishments of that kind, and in yet others it is
merely a temporary house. The house is for the entertain-
ment of the pakuwha party (ope pakmvha)."

(Sometimes the husband and wife go together to this
function along with her relatives, and at others the relatives
of the girl escort her to the home of the young man, where
she is formally handed over to be his wife. Which amounts
to this : that the pakmvha feast may be held either at the
time of the marriage, or, in other cases, same time after
the couple have been cohabiting. But always the first feast
or entertainment (the ivhare tuatahi, or "first house," as
natives term it, in allusion to the building of the special
house) is given by the man's relatives, never by the woman's.
The latter it is who give the second feast, or ivhakahoki
pakuivha).

" Those Te Whaiti people have been busy collecting
and preparing food for us. The realms of Tane and of Tauga-
roa have been called upon to furnish food-supplies for many
months. Potted birds, dried fish, and divers vegetable pro-
ducts are ready in large quantities. Fuel is piled up in
apaapa around the cooking-sheds, and parties of young people
roam the forests for such woods as burn brightly without
emitting much smoke. This is for the purpose of warming
and lighting the houses at night, such fires being probably
supplemented by crude lamps burning fat obtained from
birds. There will be much talking in these houses at night,
many speeches delivered by eloquent speakers, and much
posture dancing.

" We send word to Te Whaiti by messenger as to the
day of our arrival at that place. We time our arrival tliere
so as not to arrive late in the day, even if it is necessary to
encamp for the night within a short distance of the village of
our hosts. When we march into the village we do so in close
column and with a slow regular movement, albeit we do not
keep step, as do the white men in their marching. Our
column advances in silence, and each person tliereof looks to
his front, apparently unconscious of the noisy welcome of the
village.

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 47

" As we inarch into the marae, or plaza, we see that the
village people are drawn up in a mass by the side of the new
iiouse, the xvhare pakmvha (not in front of it), where they are
crying us welcome ; and in advance of them are some of the
old women, standing singly out in the marae or mounted on
shed-roofs or on the defences of the village, where each cries
ioudlv ill the doleful tones of the Maori a welcome to our
party. And each of them is waving a cloak or shoulder-cape,
waving us forward to our destination. This is the tatvhiri,
or poivhiri. It is the welcome of the Maori people, even from
the days of our ancestors.

" Slowly we march forward until we are opposite the
column of the village people, and then we halt, with perhaps
a space of fifty yards separating us. The wild welcome of
our hosts still rings out, but no sound comes from our party.
We do not tangi'-'- unless some misfortune has lately afflicted
one of the parties, or my son-in-law has been long absent from
his people. At such a meeting there is no general hongi (the
native salute by pressing noses together). The priest of our
party alone might so salute a few of the village people in that
manner.

" The next thing done is the rahiri ivhare — i.e., the lifting
of the tapu from the ivhare pakuwha. This is performed by
the priest of our party, who mounts the roof of the house and,
standing on the ridge-pole thereof, recites the invocation
known as a kaioa ivhare. This was an important rite to the
Maori of former days, but we will not go into that matter
now, it is too long. Leave it for the days that lie before.

" The house is now free from tapu and may be used. Our
party enter and rest therein. Then, one after another, the
leading men of the village come and make speeches to us.
The speaker does not enter the house; he walks back and
forth in the front thereof as he delivers his speech, for this is
the ancient custom of the Maori. The speeches made are a
welcome to us — first to my daughter, who has married into
this clan, and also to us, her elders and relatives. The leading
remarks of all these speeches are a welcome to the young
wife, as, ' Haere mai taku taonga,' &c. (' Welcome, my treasure,'
and so forth). When the speeches of the village people are
over, then one of our party will go forth from the house and
make a speech, returning the greetings of the other party.
But all remarks centre round and upon the young couple.
After the first speaker finishes and retires to the house another
goes forth to have his say, and so on, until all who wish to
speak have done so.

* Tangi = to wail for the dead, or as an affectionate salute to long-
absent friends.

48 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

" Then a procession of people of the village appears on the
scene, each bearing a basket of cooked food, and all singing a
weird song as they slowly advance. They place the baskets
in a row before the tvhare pahavha and retire. Then our
party leave the house and, seating themselves before the
food, proceed to satisfy their hunger.

" In addition to the above cooked food given to our party,
there is also a supply of food presented to us, and which we
can either use during our stay at Te Whaiti or take home
with us when we return. This food is brought into the house
in baskets, &c., and placed before us. The interior of the
house is now quite free from tapti, the bringing of this food
into it is the last act of the ichahanoa, or freeing from tapu.
This latter supply of food is often termed kai kotore, and is
for the relatives of the young wife. It is composed of the
best sorts of food, such as preserved birds. On the following
dav a large heap of food is stacked up in the marae and pre-
sented to our party. This is termed a tahuaroa.

" After the kai kotore is brought in the village people then
carry in their presents of clothing, fine cloaks, capes, aprons,
as also greenstone and shark's-tooth ornaments, &c. ; and, in
modern times, horses also, which, however, are left outside.
These are placed in front of the young couple, who are seated
together. Probably no formal or lengthy speech is made ;
each person bearing a gift lays it down, outspread if a
garment, saying, ' Tenet te taonga ki a koe.' For these gifts
are to the husband.

" When these gifts are all presented the young husband
rises and presents them all to his wife's people, to myself and
relatives, who have escorted him and his wife from Rua-
tahuna to this place. He keeps none of the gifts for himself,
nor yet any for his wife. If he did so he would be considered
an ignorant, low-bred sort of fellow. Kuti ki a raua ko te
mdvd — the prestige of the thing is enough for them.

" Sometimes at these functions a turanga-a-tohu would
be performed, usually the day after the arrival of the visitors.
This is a kind of war-dance, but simply given as an exhibi-
tion.

" Our party would stay a few days at Te Whaiti as the
guests of my son-in-law's people, or possibly a week. Pro-
bably the young couple would stay there for some time,
possibly until the return feast came oli' at Rua-tahuna, when
they would, of couise, attend tiiat, and perhaps settle down
there.

" The return feast mentioned is known as a whakahoki
pakmvha. We, the relatives of the young wife, give this feast
to mv son-in-law's people. A special house might or nught
not be built by us for the event, and the description already

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 49

given will apply to this function. We make presents to our
guests as they did to us."

The above is a description of the paktavha as it obtained
in Tuhoeland, and still does, with the exception of several
items, as the rahiri whare and turanga-a-tohu. This custom
was not carried out with low-born people. Also, the elders
of the husband would probably decline to give a feast and
gifts to, and entertain, the relatives of the wife if she was
known as a kai-rau (fornicator).

When the son of Te Purewa married a Turanga woman
the house built for the pahmvlia, near Gisborne, was a tem-
porary one, but it was a gift to the guests, and a valuable one ;
for it was a long house, and the walls thereof were composed
of calico print, while the roof was covered with new blankets.

Some time ago Paora, of Tuhoe, married a Ngati-Eaukawa
woman here at Eua-tahuna. They lived here about two
years, and then went, accompanied by some of Paora's rela-
tives, to the wife's people. The young couple lived there
about a year, then they returned to Eua-tahuna, escorted by
some of Ngati - Eaukawa, who were entertained here by
Paora's relatives. This latter was a ivhakahoki pakutvlia.
The couple have smce returned to the wife's home, where
they are now living.

The expression ta pakuwha is applied to affinitative rela-
tives— i.e., relatives by marriage. A company of related
people travelling together to visit the parents-in-law of one of
their number is so termed. (Compare ta tataeto = a flock of
whiteheads — a bird.) It appears to be applied only to a com-
pany of persons. A couple visiting their son-in-law would be
termed simply pakuwha.

Kaupapa yakuwha : " Suppose I marry your daughter.
I select a greenstone weapon or ornament or a fine cloak
and present it to you (my father-in-law) as a kaupapa paku-
wha. Hence we hear such questions as, ' Where are the
kaiqoapa of the pakuivha?'" Then such gifts are exhibited
for inspection. Or a man may ask, " Where did you obtain
that weapon of yours?" "Oh, it is a kaupapa pakuioha of
the daughter of such a person."

The term ivhakatakoto paktiwha seems to apply to any or
all of the arrangements for a marriage, from the ta2iinoii to-
the marriage feast.

Ope pakuwha always carried their arms with them in
former times. It was not well to move abroad without
weapons in the old fighting-days, for treachery was a common
occurrence, and no man knew when he was safe.

Very often the pakuiuha party were greeted by a turanga a
tohu, which is practically a war-dance, all the performers
being armed ; but it is merely given as an exhibition, and not, as-

4— Trans.

50 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

in time of war, as a species of divination to see what fate has
in store for the tribe. The guests were challenged in the
orthodox manner as they marched on to the plaza, while the
village people would be divided into several columns, all kneel-
ing and waiting for the signal of the fugleman to spring
to their feet and, with brandished weapons, to roar out the
resounding ngeri. In late times a pahtwha party is often
welcomed with a volley from the guns of their hosts.

Neither the tiimahaiui, nor the jjoiigaihu, nor yet tuhaka-
reka pertained to the ojje pakuicha, but only to the kaihau-
kai.*

We will here give a few words of explanation in regard to
the careful supervision and arrangement of marriages among
the natives. To a great extent it was caused by tribal anxiety
to avoid a mesalliance, to prevent a person of good birth from
marrying into a family of ivare, or low-born people, to keep
unmixed the blood of the rangatira class, to uphold the rank,
fame, and dignity of first-born lines of descent, and hence to
prevent all tijmhcke, or degeneration, of blue-blooded lines.

For the Maori were ever true aristocrats, ever looked down
upon the low-born, and exalted rank and birth. They treated
with respect and deference even those members of the aristo-
cratic class who were not endowed with the qualities necessary
for the leading of men and the supervision of tribal affairs.
And their method of preserving such rank and prestige was by
a strict observance and retention of the aho viatamua — i.e., of
primogeniture. For the rangatira. or high-born class wei'e
descendants of some noted, and probably remote, ancestor
through the eldest-born of each succeeding generation, while
the lower classes were the descendants of younger sons of
by-gone centuries. The first-born lines retained the mana
(power, prestige) of the tribe, hence they were careful not to
allow any of their members to marry into the ware, or lower
classes — i.e, into younger branches — but always within their
own class. Formerly, as we have seen, marriages of the
" upper class " were arranged by the elders of the young
people and by the tribe, in order to avoid such mesalliances.
But most of these old customs have been deserted by Tuhoe
since the advent of Europeans. Young people now please
themselves as to whom they marry, hence tipuheke abound
[i.e., degeneration).

The Maori custom of building a special house in order to
signalise, as it were, any important event was a very peculiar
one. We have seen that such a house was built in order to
emphasize a marriage. A similar custom obtained when

* For an explanation of these terms ate article on " Food-supplies of
Tuhoeland," Volume xxxv. of the Transactions.

Best. — Maori Marriage Ctistoms. 51

organizing a war expedition, as also to avenge a defeat. The
latter was a most peculiar thing. If a people did not consider
themselves strong enough to avenge a defeat they often built
a special house, after which they invited the people who had
defeated them to visit them, upon which they entertained
them in the new house during their stay — and that was their
revenge.

Another purpose for which a special house was built we
will explain by means of a true illustration : When Warahoe
were defeated at Taupo, in the fight known as Kohikete, one
of their women who was taken prisoner was taken as a wife
by Te Eau-paraha. She never returned to her people, who,
after passing through many troubles, took refuge at Eua-
tahuna with the Tuhoe Tribe. But a few years ago her
grand-daughter visited the Warahoe people, now living at
Te Whaiti, in order to show herself to her grandmother's
people. After a time she returned to her home at Porou-
tawhao, near Levin. Then Warahoe decided to invite her
to pay them another visit. So they fell to and built a
house at Te Whaiti to mark the event, and prepared food
and also gifts for their guest, who duly arrived. She was
entertained in the new house for some time, numerous
presents were given to her, and she was escorted back to
her house by a party of Te Whaiti people. Hapurona said,
" Ko Laku kahui tara hai luhakakoki i a hoe " (" My flock
of tara (a sea-bird) shall escort you home "). The term kahui
tara implied a band of well-born persons. So that house
was named Te Kahui Tara.

Nowadays there is none of the umu kotore ritual carried
out, and but little of the formal arrangements as of old,
though a modified form of pukuivha entertainments still
obtains.

Adultery {Purevmi, toukohi).

Among the Tuhoe Tribe the wife seems to be more fre-
quently guilty of adultery than the husband. An old warrior
of my acquaintance informed me that " if a married woman
was interfered with in former times it was the cause of
serious quarrels and fighting. Men lost their lives thus over
women. This fighting over women was not known in ancient
times. It began with Maui-tikitiki (thirty-five generations
ago), whose wife, Whatu-nui, was interfered with by Maui-
mua. That was the cause of Maui turning on Irawaru."

Incontinence, if treated lightly in the matter of young
girls, was a serious offence in a married woman, and some-
times severe punishment, even death, was inflicted upon the
erring one. If a married man commits adultery both he and
his paramour are punished by his wife's relatives by means
of a taua. The taua (hostile party) would be composed of

52 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

the wife's relatives. They march to the erring husband's
abode and demand satisfaction for the injury done to them
and to his wife. Such satisfaction is often in the form of
greenstone ornaments, the jewels of Maoridom ; also other
kinds of portable property, and latterly horses. The wife's
relatives would receive such goods, not herself. Such pay-
ment in goods is never returned.

If a low-born person or a slave committed adultery with
a woman of rank in former days he would probably be slain
and, if a slave, certainly eaten.''' If a man of rank committed
adultery with a slave woman that was thought nothing of.

Both adultery and the abduction of another man's wife
were punished by a taua, as above described.

In some cases a piece of land is given in payment for
adultery, as satisfaction for the mjured party. But in after-
years such land might be redeemed by the adulterer and his
friends handing over an amount of goods (me unu ki te taonga)
for the same. When Pihi, of Ngai-Te-Au, committed adultery
here her people made over to Ngati-Rongo, her husband's
hapic. a piece of land at Okerekere.

It sometimes happened that a man, for committing adul-
tery with a married woman of rank, had to migrate and live
elsewhere. This would depend a good deal upon his own
standing in the tribe.

The tMca which is organized in order to obtain satis-
faction for adultery would often, in former times, proceed
to murti, or plunder, the adulterer's home. In this case
a mob of excited natives would I'ush the place and seize
all portable property and carry it off, and would often burn
the house down as well. An old saying in connection with
adultery is, " Ko te wahine ma tetehi, ko te whare ma teteki "
(" The woman for one, the house for the other"). It was bad
policy to get in the way of such a party. A rough-and-tumble
scrimmage often occurred, in which blood would flow, and
sometimes, but perhaps not often, fatal wounds would be
inflicted. An aggrieved husband would sometimes tight a
duel with the man who interfered with his wife, but it was
not a duel to the death. He would be satisfied usually if he
mflicted a wound upon his adversary.

The term kai taonga is applied to the action taken by
parties who ask payment for an injury and such is given
without any fuss or violence. It is not applied to mum, or
violent plundering, as described above.

When a party went to the adulterer's home to demand utu
(payment, &c.) for his act many speeches would be made,

• As my informant put it, " Knore i inoua to viua tangaCa" (" Men
(slain) were not wasted in former times "). He was killed for committing
a crime, then, of course, he would be oaten. Why waste him ?

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 53

and eloquent accounts of the injury received were accom-
panied by much fierce gesticulation. Such old-time songs as
the following were often sung by the first speaker of the party
as disclosing the purport of their visit : —

Taku wahine ra

Ka riro koe i Te Tini o Te Manahua
Homai he turuturu, homai he taketake
Hei whakautu mo te manu nunui a Tane
Ka whiwhi au ki te tika — i.

Some time before the fight at Mana-teepa one Te Hau,
one of Te Ika-poto's four wives, committed adultery at Te
Whaiti. The people of that place knew that trouble would
ensue for Te Ika was a person of importance among Tuhoe,
so they proceeded to build a fighting pa (fort) at Ahi-kereru.
Te Ika-poto raised a taua, who were armed with guns, and
marched ou Te Whaiti, where they attacked the pa, and
after a good deal of firing on both sides the attacking force
killed Te Eua-Whakatara of the garrison, after which peace
was made.

In a case of adultery which occurred here the wife was
the erring party. The goods, greenstone ornaments, &c.,
handed over by her relatives as satisfaction to her husband
were not retained by him, but by an aunt of his. " Koi nei
hai wahine mo te tane, ko aua taonga" ("The goods were
then a wife for the husband ").

If a married man committed adultery with a married
woman in former tmies both of them were subjected to a
taua, and they and their relatives of the family group had to
give compensation. Also the husband of the second woman
would have the right to taua the first man. Or if a married
man had connection with a single girl both he and his para-
mour would be subject to a taita, and also if a married woman
committed adultery with a single man both suffered. In late
times these rules have been somewhat modified. In some
cases a man, if of high birth, would repudiate his adulterous
wife, very probably at the instance of his friends, who would
say, " Discard that woman and marry So-and-so." Adulter-
ous women were sometimes slain by the enraged husband,
and would very likely be cooked and eaten, if not closely
related, but a member of another clan.

Smce the introduction of Christianity another custom has
arisen, said to have been obtained from the Scriptures. An
adulterous wife is isolated, taken away from the village and
camped in a tent or some deserted hut away from any in-
habited place. An elderly person accompanies and takes
charge of her. After a certain number of days she is allowed
to return to the village. Her paramour is sometimes treated
in a similar manner. I noted one case here in which a

54 Transactions. — Miscellaneous,

married man had committed adultery with a single girl, and
the man was so isolated, with an old man to take charge of
him. In this case the man's wife accompanied him, and
acted as cook for the trio.

When Te Iri-o-te-ao, wife of Rongokarae, committed adul-
tery that fine old gentleman set fire to the house in which she
and her children were and burned them all to death. When
Kai-ahi, of Te Urewera, committed adultery with Ruru's wife
Euru shot and wounded him.

Another custom was for the injured husband to take his
adulterous wife to a public trail, where all might see her.
He would there lay her down on her back m the track and
stretch out her legs and arms and fasten them to pegs. She
was left spread-eagled m that manner that all might see her
who passed by. Such an act was termed a xvhakaineine.

The form of taua known as tatia-a-jjoke was a party which
demanded payment, and performed the extraordinary actions
of defiance known as inkari, and sung derisive songs. It was
also said to have exalted the wronged wife of the adulterer,
presumably by it showing that she must be a person of conse-
quence for her friends to take so much trouble for her.

I knew one case in which a white man married to a
native woman was subjected to a taua for adultery, and lost
some of his horses and also goods out of his store, which were
handed over to or taken by his wife's relatives.

The tana-a-jjoke* would be directed against a woman who
had busied herself in gaining the affections of a married man
and induced him to leave his wife for her. The taua-a-poke
is against women only.

If a wife ran away from her husband he might follow her
and try to induce her to return, or he might attack the man
whom she fled with, or he might, like unto Eangi-monoa of
old, take no steps whatever. Some one said to him, " O
Rangi ! your wife has fled from you." "Let her go as she
goes," replied Rangi, " the Hau o Puanui will bring her
back." This was the name of Rangi's food -store, and he
meant that she would return when pinched by hunger.

" A woman taken from the shoulder of her husband by

another man. The husband girds himself for the fray and

seizes his spear. His song is : —

" Kaore hoki taku mate whakariri— e

Ki te ai puremu e. Ki te ai maro-nui

Ki te ai whakatutu

Whakatutuki te hihi o te mamaru

Ki roto ki te waha o to puta — e

Ka pati te paraheka tungou tou mea — i."

• A tntia sent against a man is termed taua only. A taua-a-poke is
sent against women only.

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 55

The shoulder of the husband is looked upon as the pillow
of the wife, and is so termed. This form of song is a
tutara, and is composed and sung by a husband to show his
contempt for his adulterous wife, whom it is also meant to
degrade.

The following is a tutara composed by one Oneone as
against his wife Whare-hau, who had committed adultery : — j

E paki Whare hau, ko koe ko te tane i

Ka kite iho na koe i te kiriruatanga j

I te marotanga o toku nei ure

Taia ki to tara, he karinga na te tonga

He karinga na te kape

Poharu ra i te moana.

In this case, however, the lady replied by composing the
following : — 1

Noho noa taku tara

Ohia noa kia kaupapatia

Nohea e anga iho i te tirohanga kino j

Ki te tumatakuru

Te pari ki te mata

Kauaka hoki ra e whakawheoitia

Kai rere au i to pari, tau rawa ko tawhiti j

Te motu ra i Pongaponga, e whakakau mai ra j

Ko au nei te whanau hai te taingariu j

Hai maka i te puna,* hai timo i te punake '

Te rongo te taringa i o riri nui ra

Whakarae t'>nu au ko Hine-hore

Ko au i te motu raia

He whakairinga patu ka mokeke ana

Te tipua tara i riro nei

Mou te turituri, moku te pawera

Hapainga taku tara, rite rawa Hauraki

Te whanake o te hau nui e hori noa mai ,

Na wai te kai ka whiu, ka maka kai te tahua -•

Hoki mai whakamuri te kiwi ki Orete

Kai roto mai a Ngaweke i

He whakautanga mo Hine-matukutuku

To peru whakanuku ahiahi — e.

Not to be outdone by a woman, the hapless Oneone replied
with : — '

A Tutara. '

Ehara i toku nui naku anake ia

Naku ra i tohe atu, kia kite hoki au

I mau mai ai ra te tawara ki au \

E ware ana au nga matu a VVhakaarif |

Nga mahi a Kokirif i waiho ki tana hua ;

Nga mahi a Rewharewhaf i waiho nei ki au. i

The expression tango tu means to take a wife away from ;

her husband. It is usually caused by huneinei (anger, vexa- ]

I

* Puna = punga. |

t The co-respondents.

56 Transactions. — Miscellamous.

tion). It does not apply to the abduction of a single girl. If
a woman marries, say, into another clan or tribe, and in after-
time her people are vexed with her husband on account, per-
haps, of some slighting remark he has passed about them or
about his wife, they will go and take her away from him and
conduct her back to their home. That is a ta^igo tu. Some-
times the husband's people would show fight and a scrim-
mage would ensue, or perhaps the former might not consider
it advisable to use force. A company of people bent on a
tango tti would not be termed a taua. In a case that came
under my notice a girl eloped with a man of Ngati-Whare.
They were pursued by the girl's elders and brought back, and
the girl was taken from him, as her people would not let
her marry him. That was termed a taiigo tti.

1 will now tell of the Eua-a-Peka. This is the name of a
bathing -pool of warm water at 0-hiue-uuitu, in the Arawa
country. A singular old custom pertaineth to this pool. In
former times any married woman or man who bathed in this
pool was free to have sexual connection with any person she
or he might fancy. No objection was made, no taica went
forth to punish or plunder, for it was an old-time custom,
a privilege inherited from other generations. The origin of
this singular license is unknown to me, but it is interesting
as an illustration of Maori ethics. It is said that the old-time
saying, " Ko Turanga mahau rau (" Turanga of the number-
less husbands "), applied to the Poverty Bay district, implied
that the married women of that district were somewhat loose
in their morals ; also that but little notice was taken of such
incontinence, an unusual thing in Maoriland.

In olden times, when a man was leaving home on a
journey, he would repeat a charm or incantation (karaha)
known as taujm over his wife ere he left, the effect of which
was that any man who had connection with her during her
husband's absence would perish through the power of the
spell.

The Tuhoe saying, " Toevga nuihara iiui a Te Wai-haroto "
("The prized leavings of Te Wai-haroto "), implies tliat a
man when away from his wife did not like to have her in-
terfered with by any one. " Ngat-I'e-Au tarn makuku" is
a, saying applied to the clan of Tuhoe of that name, a clan
famous for the number of adulterous women it contained.
A more widely known proverb is, " Te pnapua ka laka i Aro-
mea, he kai na te ure tavgata ke." This implies that any
woman left by her husband for a long time is justified in tak-
ing another man as husband, and that the wanderer would
have no right to complain when he returned.

An adulterous parent is not allowed to retain any viana
■(power, authority) over her or his children ; the other parent

Best. — Maori Marriage Ctistoyns. 57

•will have control of them. When a couple separate through
the adultery of one of them the children are retained by the
non-adulterous parent. Still, in after-years the children will
probably be quite friendly with their erring parent.

The expression to paepae is applied to a woman dis-
carded, repudiated, by her husband (and vice versa) on ac-
count of infidelity. It is a beUttling expression : she is only
fit to drag the beam of a latrine. The term karatuhaea
(scarifier) is a modern word for the same thing, the natives
having seen the scarifier cultivator at work on the coastal
farms. The discarded adulterer is only fit to do menial work,
to weed cultivation-grounds, &c. — said to be draggmg the
scarifier.

The term tiko hika is applied to a vi^oman who has many
lovers, as also is the expression kaikai-rau. Adultery is
termed puremu, and also toukohl. He ivahine toukohi = an
adulterous woman.

E whaeE ! He wahine toukohi koe. — Old Song.

Williams's Dictionary gives this as tokohi.

The word tvhaiaipo means a lover, sweetheart, and is here
applied to male and female lovers, whether single or married.
It is not applied by a wife to her husband, nor by the latter to
his wife. The terra kari hika implies frequent sexual inter-
course. The star Paretlrau is spoken of as a ivahine kari hika,
or ^cahine tiweka — i.e., a lady of indifferent character.

We give a few specimens of such songs as were composed
•by natives in connection with adulterous women :—

A Song, composed by Kahua, whose Wife had been tampered

WITH.

Kaore taku raru

He rau tahuritauga ki te whare ra

I whakawarea au e koe ki te tama iara

Na Te Pu-Whakahara ou ngutu

Te hohoro ki nga kokinga rau

Tenei te kurehu nei, he moe po pea i au ra

Ko te moe he mea tenei au kai runga

Te torohanga tini whetu ki runga i te rangi

He whakahinga noa koe i a Tane-mahuta

Ki nga urn kiokio

Ki nga paruparu ki OTu-whai-ao

Rere pu o korua mauri tee tika i te ara

Tapabi noa i te whenua

Apiti rawa atu ki te takotoranga o Haumia

Ki te aka o te whenua

Totoro to waewae hai ringaringa

Totoro to ringaringa hai waewae

Ka takofco te ika whenua o te rangi

Katahi ka auraki mai

Ki te whanau a te mangumangu kikino

Ki te aitanga a Punga i au — e.

68 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

A Song by Te Eere-ure concerning his Adulterous Wife.
Tenei au te ware nei
Tera koe te tu noa ra
Te ako noa ra i te rakau a Tutawake
I te hani kura, i te kawau ruku roa
I te kawau maro
He kura takahi puni tenei.

A Song by Te Ahoaho for his Wife, who was an Adulteress..
E muri koe awatea nei
He whakaputanga no te wairua
I ronco pea koe i te ki
Whakarerea te waka to kau
Ka pa hoki ra hai te waka whakairo
Kia mau ai, E hine !
Whai atu koe ki a Tama-houtake — e
Ki te ure i puhia ki te kura, ki te awe
Ki te raukawa — e,
Ki te kanohi pokaia ki te whao
Ki te uhi maitai

Na te tipua ako noa ake nei ki te mahi
Koua kitea te kinonga
I te po tata o te raumati
Kai tawhiti ra a Te Ahoaho
Hai hi mai i te ika nei
I te tuatini, i te nanua pounamu
Hai kai ma te wahine
Ki mai ki ahau — e
He aha ahau te tito ai ki to tara
Ko ana mokopuna naku ra
Kai pakupaku tete noa i waenga o te tara
Miminga a ringa mai na tohou ure '

He ure i puhia ki te kura
I whakataua ki te tama
Na Ruru-tangi akau-roa e tete noa mai ra
E whakapi mai ra i te one o Tatai arorangi
Tenei ka haramai

Ka tipi rawa i tc momo o te tangata
I hikaia to tara ki te ahi koe
Nau, E Tapeka ! I tora i te wheuua
Ka rere te kora ki to rakau
E tuhi ana, e rapa ana
Kai te uiratanga mai, kai te koha
Kai te pou taka mai i runga i te rangi
I kai whiri ai koe ki te ure wai kore
Ki te ure tipua, ki te ure i a Tahurangi
Ka mau te hu ki to hengahenga
Ka taka i te mutunga.

It sometimes happened that a man would be so vexed by
the infidelity of his wife that he would not only forsake her,
but also leave the district for ever and live with some other
tribe. When Kopura, wife of Tihori, a famous ancestor of
Nf^ati-Awa, went wronj^ with Whare-pukaea, her husband's
younger brother, Tihori left the district and migrated with
some of his people to the north, where they settled among the
Ngapuhi Tribe. Hongi Hika was a descendant of Tihori. As
Tihori was leaving in his canoe his wife came down to the

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 59

beach and called out, " Eeturn to me and to our children."
Tihori replied, "Farewell! He tamariki tome kei te mata-
mata o taku ure " — a similar reply to that made by the revolt-
ing Egyptian troops when asked to return during their march
south, as described by Herodotus.

When a married couple among the natives quarrel they do
so in a remarkably noisy manner, as is usual in all Maori
squabbles and quarrellings. They shout at each other and
gesticulate, and indulge in all kinds of defiant language and
gestures. They have no compunction whatever as to washing
their soiled linen in public. Also ivhakamomori, or acts of
desperation, are sometimes committed. An Arawa woman
whose husband had been unfaithful to her threw herself into
a boiling spring — a fearful death. In another casein this dis-
trict a woman left her husband on account of a quarrel, and,
on his pursuing her in order to bring her back, she jumped
over a high cliff. Wives often leave their husbands in this
manner in this district, but they usually come together again
ere long.

Polygamous wives sometimes quarrelled among themselves,
as when Uenuku-koihu's two wives, Maru-hangaroa and Kahu-
kura-kotare, fell out, and the former made away with the
latter by means of the magic rite known as urmi pururangi.

In the days of yore native children were usually naked,
though girls often wore a rude maro, such as a bunch of tow
fastened on with a string — hai huna i te aroaro. That was in
childhood ; but women never went naked, although men some-
times did. A woman would not be seen without her maro, a
kind of apron or kilt. Note the term maro-mci, used to denote
a married woman, and which signifies " big apron." This is
significant of a change in their clothing made at marriage or
at puberty.

There dwelt in former times at 0-potiki a married woman
named Mahuru, who for some reason left her husband and
came to Eua-toki, where she married one Takarehe. And it
fell upon a certain fine day that the fair one prepared some
fern-root for her better-half's dinner. However, she neglected
to remove the fibres from the meal, whereupon Taka aiose
in his wrath and struck the erring one upon the head with
his weapon as a token of his disapproval of her indolence.
Mahuru said, " You may now marry your weapon as a wife
for you," and fled to her father, Tamahape, who was peace-
fully weeding his ku7nara-ga.rden. As she came to him Tama
saw the blood flowing from her wound, and said, " You are a
survivor." Mahuru said, " It was my husband; he is follow-
ing me." " Eemain here by my side," replied Tama. When
Taka arrived he attacked Tama, who parried his blow and
slew Taka, whom he and his daughter cooked and ate. Thus

60 Tr ansae tions. — Miscellaneous .

Taka was useful even in death. He filled a long-felt want,
doubtless. This anecdote is inserted not only as an item of
ethnography, but also as a hint to any ill-used wives, and as a
warning to those who assault their devoted wives.

Divorce.

That there was a ritual of divorce which obtained among
the old-time Maori is certain, but it is not clear that when a
couple wished to separate they had recourse to the same.
Some natives state that it was so used, but there is evidence
in favour of the statement that it was more often utilised as a
means of separating husband and wife by one who wished to
marry the husband or wife, as the case might be.

Tikitu, of Ngati-Awa, states, " Suppose that you have two
wives, and that one becomes jealous of the other. She comes
to me, the tohunga (wise man, priest, shaman), and asks me
to separate her rival and their husband, to cause her to leave
him, that she, the applicant, may then be the only wife. To
effect this separation I have recourse to the toko rite. The
karakia toko (divorce invocation) separates a couple by
causing their love for each other to cease. The same invoca-
tion is used in all cases, whether the parties to be separated
are willing or not. Suppose that my daughter marries you ;
although you love each other, yet if I take my daughter to the
priest and he recites the toko invocation over her then she
will no longer feel any affection for you. And should a man
wish to be rid of his wife and to marry some other woman, if
his wife is willing then he goes himself to the priest."

Another authority, and a more learned man than Tikitu,
says, " The toko is a karakia (invocation, charm, incantation,
ritual) to divorce a married couple who have no desire to
separate, but whose elders wish to part them. The priest
takes the couple to the water (where rites are performed) and
sprinkles them with water, then repeating over them the
karakia toko : —

" Ka tokona atu nei korua
Tu ke Eangi, tau ke Papa, &c.

The couple are thus divorced."

My own particular sage, he who has long endeavoured to
guide me through the mystic gloom of the wharc takiura,
explains thusly : " A married woman comes to the priest in
order that he may cause her love for her husband to cease
(kia miria tona aroha). The priest takes the ahua (semblance
or personality) of her affection at the sacred waters, whitlier
he conducts lier, and there he ' separates ' her affection from
her and abolishes (destroys) it — that is to say, he washes the
aria, or ahua, of her love away. Then the priest recites the
toko invocation : —

Best — Maori Marriage Customs. 61

"Toko te rangi

Tu ke Eangi

Tau ke Papa-tuanuku.

Nga rakau i te ngahere

Te homai mo to kiri

Kia tutu, kia wewehi mokinokino

Nga otaota i te ngahere

Te homai nio to kiri

Kia tutu, kia wewehi mokinokino

Nga ongaonga i te ngahere

Te homai mo to kiri

Kia tutu, kia wewehi mokinokino.

This has the effect of destroying her affection, and of
causing her to fear her husband. She will not approach him

again.

In this account of a singular ceremony the priest takes
the applicant for divorce to the stream, pool, or spring set
aside for the performance of sacred rites thereat, and there he
sprinkles her with water, and takes from her the formless,
immaterial personality of her affection for her husband. This
he does by just touching her body with his fingers, as if pick-
ing or plucking something from her. This semblance or like-
ness of her love he washes off or away, as it were, and so it is
miria, or separated from her. In his invocation he calls upon
the sky to stand apart, on high, and be separated from earth ;
and also upon earth to lay separate from the sky ; and upon
the nettles, and plants, and shrubs, &c., of the forest to
cause the skin (metaphorical) of the applicant for divorce to
rise, "like quills upon the fretful porcupine," in dislike of her
husband.

The term for divorce {toko) is taken from the act of Tane of
old, he who performed the first divorce on record when he
separated earth and sky — for this is an animistic myth, old
as man himself. Rangi is the Sky Parent, the personification
of the heavens, whose wife was Papa-tuanuku, the Earth
Mother (the Ouranos of Grecian mythology). This primal
pair originally embraced each other, hence the world was in
darkness until Tane separated the parents of gods and men
by thrusting up the heavens, an action described by the word
toko. Observe the allusion to this in the first three lines of
the divorce invocation.

The term toko is also used to imply the abolishing and
driving-away of a high wind by the repeating of a charm
known as tokotoko, commencing —

Tokona nga hau
Tokona ki waho, &c.

A toko, or divorce invocation, is given at page 296 of " Nga
Moteatea."

The following is a portion only of another toko : —

62 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Kia ongaonga to kiri

Kia rere pari

Kia wehea i runga

I a Papa-tuanuku raua ko Rangi

I tokona nei e Paia, &c.

Paia is another name for Tane.

In the above crude ritual we observe how our own sacred
rites have originated. The primitive divorce rite here given
was a rehgious ceremony of the Maori, though we prefer to
term such items superstitions, or necromancy, or ma^^ic, or
some such title. The invocations of the umu Icotore were the
beginning of a marriage rite from the like of which our own
ceremonial system has sprung. Far back in the remote past
the men of old strove to build up social systems, to evolve
social laws, that would benefit class or nation. Ancient
Egypt and ancient Chaldaea broke out the trail by which the
Maori travelled in the years that came after. Ever strivinc^,
evec seeking, making for self-advancement, for national ad-
vancement, led on by fanaticism or love of study, and of
knowledge, and of power, the men of yore groped their way
through the gloom and evolved rites and laws, selfish, super-
stitious, brutal, or unjust at times, but the prototype of our
own.

It does not appear that a woman could repudiate her
husband without just cause. If she disliked him much and
persisted in her design to leave him it would probably be
agreed to.

Separations are rather common among the Tuhoe Tribe
nowadays, sometimes after children have been born.

Widows and the Levieate.

At the death of her husband a woman would make it her
business and pleasure to join in the extravagant mourning of
the Maori, marked by laceration of the body and doleful wail-
ings. Not infrequently widows committed suicide by strangu-
lation or starvation on the death of the husband out of grief
and affection {ka tohakangakau hi ta ratau tane). Moeren-
haut seems to imply that they were strangled on the tomb of
the husband, but my authorities make it self-destruction, not
at the hands of anotlier person.

The term maro jJurua is applied to a woman who marries
again after the death of her husband, in whicb case she might
retain her children by the first husband, or her relatives might
adopt and rear them.

The levirate was essentially a Maori custom — that is to
say, the custom of a widow marrying the brother of her
deceased husband. It was evidently an ancient law, and
appears to have been generally followed. The widow was

Best. — Maori Marriage Cjistoms. 63

■expected to so mari-y whether the brother were older or
younger than her deceased husband. This new husband
often assumed the name of his dead brother, discarding his
former one. He would ivhakanoa (make common, free from
taptij the bed of his departed brother, for both bed and widow
would be tapic. Should the widow refuse the brother and
marry some other man, such action was considered wrong,
and an offence. Hence the relatives of her former husband
would probably attack the new one, burn his house, and
possibly slay him. Wars have sprung from such occurrences.
After the widow had married the brother, should she take a
dislike to him she might he divorced from him by the
priest, and could then marry any one she liked, because she
had become noa, or free from tajju, by first marrying the
■brother of her former husband.

A widow would not marry again soon after her husband's
death. Were he a person of importance she would probably
remain a year in the ivhare potae (or xvhare taud — -house of
mourning — a figurative expression). A widow would not
refuse to marry again. It was also a common thing for a
man to marry the sister of his wife, sometimes during the life
of the latter, at others after her death.

The levirate was in force among the Hebrews of old and
many other peoples. Letourneau appears to think that it
became law among barbarous peoples in order to provide the
widow with a protector and a living withal, but this scarcely
seems to apply to a communistic people.

Widows of men slain in fighting often married those who
avenged their husband's death. If taken prisoners in battle,
women were generally appropriated by members of the vic-
•torious party.

Notes concerning various Customs connected with

Marriage.

It was sometimes the case that a single woman would be
given as a temporary wife to a visitor of distinction, but a
married woman would never be so offered. A case of this
kind came under my notice in this district not long ago, the
recipient being a white man not particularly distinguished.*
An amusing story is told of one of the bishops of the English
Church receiving such an offer in the early days. I am not
aware as to whether it was accepted or not. Even of late
years we have heard of wives being sold in England, and in
an issue of the London Times of 1801 appeared an account of
how a man put a halter round his wife's neck, led her into a
public place of the city, and sold her.

• Unless joining in French's ride to Kimberley made him so.

64 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

The reason why girls were usually tattooed before mar-
riage was that red lips were not considered sightly, but were
disliked. Women are still most conservative in having their
lips and chin tattooed.

There is no evidence to show that the jus primcB noctis
ever obtained among the Maori, but a man who held the
power that a priest did might claim almost any girl he desired,
with a very good chance of getting her. I have seen that
sort of thing in Mexico, where the peasant class are not a bit
more advanced in regard to religion than are the Maori.

When a man had been befriended or assisted in some
way by another, and he felt that he would like to make some
return, he would perhaps give his benefactor a piece of land.
Or on his death-bed he might say to his daughter, " When
you are grown up marry our benefactor ; do not heed the fact
that he is much older than you " (Ka ivhakatuhi ki tana
tamahine, " Ki te uyaro laku kanohi, ki le puta to ihu, me
moe i a mea, ahakoa he kaunuitica ia ").

Natives say that it is the correct thing for a wife to leave
her home and live with her husband aujong his people. This
was not always the case among the Tuhoe Tribe ; the husband
sometimes settled down with his wife's people. Hence it
will be seen that no hard-and-fast rule obtained in regard to
this matter. I have noted that several women of distant
places who married men of this district, and whose husbands
died before them, returned to their parents' home after the
mourning ceremonies, &c., were over.

A man who lives with his wife's people might perhaps be
given a piece of land by them, and his children by her would
inherit such land. If, however, the couple have no issue, the
husband would not retain the land after the death of his wife,
and he would then probably return to his own people, the
land returning to the original owners. This simply amounts
to his cultivating, &c., on his wife's right to such lands.

When a man of rank married a low-born or a slave
woman she would have no viana (power, influence) or stand-
ing in the tribe, but their children would not only be free, but
would inherit the rank, kc, of their father. No one w-ould call
them slaves or low-born, except that in quarrelling a person
might say, " Your mother was a slave, or a low-born person."
The same result would follow should a low-born or slave
man marry a woman of rank. Tareha, a chief of great manu,
of Heretaunga, was the son of a slave woman captured at
Kohi-kete.

1 have noted that after a man marries he will, when he
obtains something suitable, make a present to his parents-in-
law. Also that if a wife's parents see that she is badly off
they often try to help her by giving her things ; or if the latter

Best. — Maori Marriage Customs. 65

be well off she may assist her parents. No special clothing
or furnishing is prepared or made by a woman when she
marries. When married those of the highest rank receive
the most presents, useful and ornamental, although there is
no recognised system of making wedding-presents, as with us.

A man shows no avoidance of his parents-in-law, as among
some races ; he is, on the contrary, often more friendly with
them than with his own people.

In a marriage between persons of equal rank the husband
has the greatest maua (authority, prestige), both in regard to
property and also in respect to the conducting of tribal
affairs. Taking the family of such persons, the wife would
be the next in authority ; and of the children the eldest son
takes first rank, then the eldest daughter, then come the
younger children, male and female. The youngest child
would possess the least authority of all the children.

If a woman of rank marries beneath her she will always
retain her superior viand and rank above her husband. Still,
this woman loses caste to a certain extent by such a marriage,
and the tribe will say that she has lowered herself by marry-
ing such a man [ka karanga te iwi, na te moenga i te tane
hehe i ttpuheke ai taua wakine).

" When Kareko married Tmioti she committed an offence,
for she was of high birth while he was a ware (person of low
birth). Hence Ngati-Tawhaki sent a ta^ia (see ante) to de-
mand satisfaction, and I handed over to them a piece of
land known as Matawera as utu (compensation)."*

We will now give a few proverbial sayings of the Maori,
and a short list of terms and expressions which may be of
some interest in connection with our subject : —

" Te inati o Mawakeroa." — This saying is applied to the
passing-away of a woman and her maiia (power, prestige,
authority) from her own people or clan when she marries. A
son marries and abides with his people, but a daughter marries
and goes to live with her husband's people, taking her mana
with her; she deserts her kin for a husband.

" Mau te ivahine, makii te ivhemia, kia ai koe i te tore
tangata, kia al hoki au i te tore xvhenua." — To you the woman,
to me the land, that you may breed men while I breed food.

Tane inoe ivhare — E, kurua te takataka !
Tane rou kakahi — E, aitia te urej
(An indolent husband — thwack him on the noddle. An industrious hus-
band— be kind to him.)

Tane = man (vir), male, husband.
Wahine — woman, female, wife.

* From Wi Patene's evidence in Hikurangi Block hearing.
5— Trans.

€5 Transactions. — MiscellaJieotis.

Hoa = friend, mate, companion, also spouse. Taku hoa
wahiyie = my wife ; literally, " my female companion."

Takakau — single person of either sex.

Maro-nui — He loahine maro-nui = a married woman — a
woman with a large apron, literally. But only applied to
women who have been married according to tribal customs,
everything duly arranged, not to adulterous unions or mere
cohabiting.

Makau = lover (male). Among some tribes it means
" spouse."

Pouaru = widow, widower.

Pani = orphan, widow.

Moe = to sleep, also " marry." The term noho is also used
to denote marrying — Ka noho a Toi, ka noho i a te Kura.

Ringa hoea = rejected hand. Applied sometimes to a
rejected suitor, but not used in that sense alone.

BepcrejM = the buttocks (also tareperepe). Kai reperepe —
kai kotore (see ante).

Eiveeive = blood relation.

Moe tahaknra = to di'eam that one is in the company of a
person who is really dead, as one's late wife.

Moe tahurangi — to dream that one is with an absent, but
living, woman, as one's sweetheart.

Titoi = masturbation.

Eegarding repudiation : At the present time when a man
wishes to repudiate his wife — and in most cases of separation
nowadays the cause is the husband's desire for another
woman — his elders try to patch the matter up and to
persuade him not to repudiate her. The blame in these
cases of separation is laid upon the one whose fault it was.
If the woman was in fault it will be said of her, " Oic mahi
o, te wahine tutua " (" Just like a low-born woman ").

We have now come to the end of this paper, for the above
notes are all that I have collected on the subject of marriage
among the Tuhoe Tribe. There is much left unrelated, but
many most interesting facts in connection with Maori rites
and customs will never see the light, for the men of old took
the knowledge thereof with them when they lifted the old-
time trail to the setting sun in search of the Children of Pani.

For a barbarous people, the Maori treated their women
well, and gave them considerable freedom and authority. Of
course, neither sex were overburdened with modesty : they
spoke openly of things which we only speak of in private or
not at all. It is difficult for us to examine these customs,
rites, superstitions, and ideas of a primitive people witli an
unprejudiced mind (if not quite impossible), but, could we do
80, the Maori system of arrangement of marriages would be
seen to be a very good one for a primitive and communistic

Bathgate. — The Sparrow Plague and its Remedy. 67

people, inasmuch as it was a useful stage in the evolution of
that moral discipline which is necessary to the advancement
of a people. Their passions were not, and are not, disciplined
by long centuries of self-control and repression ; they are
nearer to nature, and not so imbued with artificial ideas, such
as modesty, as is civilised man. Perhaps this lack of long
training is why the morality of primitive peoples appears to
degenerate when they are brought into contact with the
intrusive white man. When I was living in Nevada I often
saw Indian men offering their wives to workmen in the rail-
road camps ; yet old pioneer settlers informed me that when
they first knew the natives such a shameless custom was un-
known. Indeed, any of the native women who accepted the
advances of a man other than her husband in those days
was simply burned to death.

The evolution of morality among the Maori has been
rudely broken by the great changes that have overtaken
them. We shall see in the years that lie before if the chain
can be mended.

But do not try to drop too many links.

Art. V. — The Sparroio Plague and its Remedy.

By A. Bathgate.

{Read before the Otago Institute, 8th September, 1903.]

Sir Walter Buller, in the introduction to " The Birds of
New Zealand," writes, "To my mind the popular outcry
against the sparrow is scarcely warranted by the actual state
of the case. It is only at one particular period of the year,
when the farmers' grain is ' dead ripe,' that the bird makes any
inroad upon it. In large fields the loss is barely noticeable ;
but in the case of a small patch of grain — say, an acre or two —
at the edge of the forest or in a bush clearing it naturally
becomes a serious matter, because the sparrows appear to
concentrate their forces on such inviting spots, and leave
practically nothing but straw for the reaper. Hence, of course,
the outcry and clamour on the part of the small farmer. But
if people really knew how much the country is indebted to this
much-abused bird I venture to think that there would be a
still louder outcry against the sinful practice, now so general,
of poisoning sparrows." He then goes on to assert that the
" young birds are fed entirely and exclusively on animal food.
Every five minutes or so during the long summer day one or
•other of the parent birds visits the nest, carrying in its bill a

68 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

caterpillar or a grub, a beetle, fly, or worm, but never a grain
of corn or fruit of any kind." In support of his assertions he
quotes in a note an anonymous "newspaper record" telling
of the examination of the contents of the stomachs of 118
sparrows by an unnamed investigator, which showed that
three of the birds had eaten nothing but grain for the pre-
ceding twenty-four hours, seventy-five had partaken of little
besides insect food, while insects had formed a large part of
the diet of the remainder. The value of this quotation would
have been enhanced had some clue been given to the identity
of the investigator or: the locality where the investigation was
conducted.

x\s Sir Walter Buller pleads guilty to being accessory to
the importation of the sparrow into the colony, it is possible
he may be somewhat prejudiced in its favour. One small
inaccuracy may be noted. Sir Walter asserts that it is only
when the farmers' grain is "dead ripe" that the mischief is
done, but I think most farmers will tell you that the birds
begin their depredations when the grain is in the milky stage,
and do not desist so long as the grain is accessible.

I dare say there are still a few people who are of the same
opinion as Sir Walter Buller, and who will contend that the
house-sparrow repays in some measure the injuries it undeni-
ably inflicts by the benefits it confers by destroying injurious
insects. Such persons say that, while the evil wrought is
manifest to the most superficial observer, the good they do
is hidden from most eyes. This latter statement, while true
regarding many birds, whose good deeds far outw-eigh their
trifling misdemeanours, is, I fear, a fallacy as regards the
sparrow. The assertion made by Sir Walter Buller that the
sparrows feed their young entirely upon insects is one which
requires confirmation. The idea that because the bills of the
young birds are soft they must of necessity be fed on soft food,
■which I have heard urged as a proof of the statement regarding
the food of the young, seems to me most fallacious. As the
food is dropped by the parent into the gaping mouth of the
nestling, and is gulped down at once, the texture of tlie
nestling's bill can hardly be a factor in determining the nature
of its food. That sparrow's do destroy a good many insects I
readilv admit, ])ut I feel assured that anv services thev thus
render are comparatively trifling and would be better per-
formed by other birds, and are unworthy of consideration.

Some few months ago there came into my possession a
book published by the United States Department of Agricul-
ture (Division of Ornithology and Mammology, Bulletin 1),
entitled "The English Sparrow {Passer doviesticxis) in North
America." It is a thick pamphlet of about four hundred
pages, and bears abundant evidence of the thorough manner

Bathgate. — The Sparrow Plague and its Remedy. 69

in which the Department referred to performs its work. In
reading it I was struck by the judicial manner in which the
compilers have marshalled the facts collected, and I think that
no unprejudiced person would fail to concur in the verdict,
which is a complete condemnation of the sparrow. I do not
purpose following in any detail the various ramifications of
the inquiry, but I shall refer to some of the evidence adduced.

The Department dissected at Washington 522 sparrows,
of which 338 were obtained in that neighbourhood and 184
were sent thither in alcohol from other places, whilst another
lot of 114 were dissected at Westchester by competent men.
The birds were obtained from time to time throughout an
entire year ; the contents of the stomach were carefully
examined and the results tabulated. Any which contained,
or were suspected of containing, insect-remains — 102 in all —
were sent to Professor C. V. Riley, of the Entomological De-
partment, who further examined the contents and classified
the insect-remains, the horny head of a caterpillar or the leg
or wing-case of a beetle being sufficient to enable him to de-
termine at least the genus to which the insect belonged. Out
of the 102 stomachs examined by Professor Riley 92 were
found to contain insect-remains. In 47 of these noxious
insects were found, beneficial insects in 50, and insects which
were harmless or of no economic importance in 3L. So that
out of these 522 sparrows only 47, or a trifle over 9 per cent.,
had conferred the slightest benefit on humanity.

In a pamphlet entitled " The House-sparrow," published
by the late Miss Ormerod, the well-known entomologist, and
Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier, the authors arrive at the conclusion
that the sparrow is an unmitigated pest, and support their
view by evidence drawn from various sources. Amongst
others quotations are given from a publication by Mr. J. H,
Gurney, of Keswick Hall, near Norwich, England, also en-
titled "The House-sparrow," which contains a table showing
the contents of the stomachs of 694 sparrows examined by
qualified observers in diflerent places at regular intervals
throughout the whole year, and the results are summarised by
Mr. Gurney as follows : "It may be said that about 75 per
cent, of an adult sparrow's food during its life is corn of some
kind. The remaining 25 per cent, may be roughly divided as
follows : Seeds of weeds, 10 percent. ; green peas, 4 per cent,;
beetles, 3 per cent. ; caterpillars, 2 per cent. ; insects which
fly, 1 per cent. ; other things, 5 per cent. In young sparro'ws
not more than 40 per cent, is corn, while about 40 per cent,
consists of caterpillars, and 10 per cent, of small beetles."

In Hardwicke's " Science Gossip" for 1883 it is recorded
that Mr. A. Willis, of Sandal, examined eighty-seven sparrows'
stomachs in 1882, and found insects in eight only.

70 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Dr. Edward Crisp examined 100 stomachs of young
sparrows before the British Association at Birmingham in
1865, and not 5 per cent, of them contained insect food.

Mr. John Cqrdeaux opened the crops of thirty-five young
sparrows of various ages, and found on an average two parts of
soft grain and one part of insects.

Colonel Champion Russell, of Stubbers, near Eomford,
Essex, examined the contents of the stomachs of sparrows
shot over a wide extent of country for fifteen years, and he
gives the result of his observations in the following words :
" On the whole, the deduction from the food test during fifteen
years seems to be that sparrows are useless, and that the
insects which would be given to their young by them if they
were allowed to live in numbers about my premises would be
so much food taken when they most want it from better
birds, which live entirely, or nearly so, on insects."

In an essay entitled " Birds in the Field and Garden," by
Champion B. Eussell, presumably the same gentleman as the
one from whom I have just quoted, there occurs the following
passage: "Personally, I consider that only one bird should
be shot ' on sight,' and that is the domestic sparrow, whose
relations to man are on a par with those of rats, mice, and
other human parasites." Now, the essay referred to is the
first-prize essay published in February, 1903, by the British
Society for the Protection of Birds, and one would expect that
coming from such a source the bias, if any, would be in favour
of the bird ; but the condemnation is unsparing.

Turning again to the American report, I find in the table
the birds are, under the heading " Age and Sex," indicated by
the abbreviations " ad.," which I assume stands for adult,
" juv." for young, and " im." for immature, which I take to be
nestlings, and, taking a couple of the latter at random, I find
that one contained wheat, oats, and grass-seed, and no msects,
and another wheat and the remains of one beneficial insect.

But it is unnecessary to pursue this bi'anch of the subject
further, as I think that in the face of such evidence it would
be difficult for the friend of the sparrow to maintain his
defence, and that Sir Walter Buller's assertion that the young
are fed exclusively on animal food is disproved.

I may here call attention to the fact I have ah'eady re-
ferred to — that the American investigators found that, while
injurious insects were found in only forty-seven stomachs,
beneficial msects were found in fifty and harmless insects in
thirty-one ; so that even in the matter of the destruction of
insects the sparrow does as mucii harm as good.

In another publication by the Agricultural Department
of the United States, dealing with the native insectivorous
cuckoos, it is stated that the food of these birds was found to

Bathgate. — The Sparrotv Plague and its Remedy. 71

consist almost exclusively of injurious insects, with but a small
proportion of beneficial or innocuous kinds.

Before closing my indictment of the sparrow I shall refer
to one aspect of it which the American observers consider sus-
tamed — namely, that it drives away from its neighbourhood
the purely insectivorous birds, and thus allows injurious
insects to increase in such localities. Professor J. A.
Lurtner, State Entomologist of New York, writing of the
increase of the caterpillar of the tussock moth, which is very
destructive to trees in many parts of the States, says, " The
extraordinary increase of the Orgyia cucostigvia is owing to the
introduction and multiplication of the English sparrow. This
may seem a strange statement in consideration of the fact that
the sparrow was imported from Europe for the express pur-
pose of abating the caterpillar nuisance in New York and
some of the New England cities. . . . The increase of
the Orgyia cucostigma commenced and has continued to pro-
gress with that of the sparrow. A remark made to me that
the caterpillars had been observed to be very numerous in
localities where the sparrows also abounded induced me to
undertake to verify or disprove the idea that had suggested
itself to me that the sparrow afforded actual protection to
the caterpillars and promoted their increase." After giving
details of the observations, he goes on to say, " That the
sparrows decline to eat the Orgyia caterpillar is not a charge
against them. They could not eat them with impunity. The
diet would doubtless prove fatal to them. The charge to
which they are amenable is this : By the force of numbers,
united to a notoriously pugnacious disposition, they drive
away the few birds that would feed upon them." The authors
of the English pamphlet from which T have quoted concur in
the view expressed by the American investigators that the
sparrows drive away more useful birds, and I am by no means
sure that we might not have similar cause for complaint here,
as some of our native insectivorous birds, sucli as the tomtit
{Myionioira maci ocephala) and the fantail {Bhipidura flahel-
lifera), are much less numerous in the neighbourhood of Dun-
edin than they once were. It is probable, however, that the
increase in the number of cats may have been the main cause
of the diminution of the number of the former, though the
advent and increase of the sparrow, I am inclined to think,
has been a considerable factor. '

I shall not take up your time by dwelling on the minor
counts of the indictment, such as the injuries to fruit and
vegetables, and the damage to and disfigurement of buildings
by their nests, as I think I have already made out a strong
case against the sparrow, and, having done so, I shall now con-
sider the remedy.

72 Transacticns. — Miscellaneous .

In America there are many checks to the increase of the
sparrow which are lacking here, such as the severe winter and
natural enemies, so that it behoves us to take more strenuous
measures than our American cousins to combat the existing
great and steadily increasing nuisance. Yet I find the follow-
ing passage in the American report : " The English sparrow is
a curse of such virulence that it ought to be systematically
attacked and destroyed before it becomes necessary to deplete
the public treasury for the purpose." The pamphlet reviews
the various methods of combating the nuisance, such as
poisoning, trapping, shooting, paying a bounty for eggs and
heads, and even utilising the sparrow as an article of food.
Under the latter heading it mentions that the sparrow is
excellent eating, equalling the smaller game birds. " In
fact," it says, " at restaurants it is commonly sold under the
name of ' rice-bird,' even at times of the year w'hen there are
no rice-birds in the country." I do not know that we are ad-
vanced enough or possess a sufficient number of gourmets to
create a market for sparrows for the table, but in Calcutta- a
species of lark is caught in large numbers and is so utilised,
not merely fresh but also preserved in tins, and they are sold
under the name of ortolans, so perhaps some day our preserv-
ing-works may be employed in canning sparrows to masquerade
under the name of New Zealand ortolans.

Poisoning does not appear to have been so successfully
carried on in America as here, while trapping appears to have
been conducted on a very limited scale, and the method of
destruction most favoured seems to be shooting. Speaking
of this mode of destruction, the writers say, " The sparrow
is a cunning, wary bird, and soon learns to avoid the means
devised by man for his destruction, hence much sagacity
must be displayed in the warfare against him. In the winter-
time, if food is placed in some convenient spot at the same
hour each day for a week, the sparrows will gather in dense
flocks to feed, and large numbers of them may be killed at one
time by firing upon them wuth small shot. By spreading the
food along a narrow strip of ground which can be raked
conveniently from some hiding-place the best results can be
obtained." This mode may be very suitable in a country
W'here the ground is covered for weeks with snow, but it
would not, I fear, prove very efficacious in New Zealand.

The bounty system is considered at some considerable
length, and is condemned as being unsatisfactory and ex-
pensive, a view in which I concur. Time will not permit my
■discussing this aspect of the question, but one ol)jection is
that the young of beneficial birds, such as the hedge-sparrow
{Accentor modidaris), or of the harmless ones, such as the
goldfinch {FrinytUa cardueUs), are to the ordinary individual

Bathgate. — The Sparrotv Plague and its Remedy. 73

indistinguishable from those of the destructive sparrow or
equally obnoxious green linnet {Chlorospiza chloris), so that
the destruction of beneficial and liarmless birds is encouraged
and rewarded.

Our County Councils have chiefly adopted this method of
fighting the pest, and many of them have encouraged in
divers ways the killing of sparrows and green linnets by
poison, but beyond this and the placing on the statute-book
of an Act or two no systematic attempt has been made to
combat the evil. I shall therefore proceed to show you what
appears to me a more excellent way.

The means the adoption of which I advocate are of two
distinct kinds, systematic trapping and the introduction of
the natural enemies. It is well known that expert English
bird-catchers can capture unlimited quantities of birds of
almost any variety. To such an extent has the catching of
birds been carried in the Old Country that the Legislature
has been compelled to pass a Wild Birds Protection Act.
These bird-catchers devote their energies chiefly to the taking
of song-birds, and some idea of the extent of the trade may
be gathered from the following extract from the Illustrated
London Neios of the 10th January last, when it is recorded
that "in a recent London County Court case the defendant
stated that he generally bought a hundred dozen linnets,
skylarks, and other British song-birds a week. For hnnets
he paid £2 for ten dozen." If there was any market for
sparrows I am sure that the price would be very much lower.
I therefore suggest that each County Council should be com-
pelled by law to employ at least one expert bird-catcher,
who would be instructed to devote his attentions to sparrows
and green linnets only, with perhaps an occasional raid on
the blackbirds, and that they should have power to levy on
all municipalities within or on their borders a proportion of
the cost of their operations. This, I am certain, would be
cheaper and much more efficacious than the bounty system.

My suggestion that the municipalities should contribute to
the cost is because the towns are the nurseries in which the
sparrows to a large extent multiply. This fact is noted in the
American pamphlet, and not long ago I had local confirmatory
evidence on the point. A gentleman residing in a subutb of
Duuedin had acquired the habit of every morning throwing
some pieces of bread to the sparrows, and deriving amuse-
ment from their antics in squabbling over the spoil. He con-
tinued the practice for some months, but one fine morning no
sparrows came, nor when he returned from business in the
evening was the bread gone. For some weeks he observed
few, if any, sparrows ; but after a time they returned, and he
resumed his habit of feeding them, and continued it thi'ough-

74 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

out the year, uncil again there were no sparrows. This set
him thinking, and he reahsed that the season was the same,
and that it was the time of the ripening of the grain. There
was only one inference, which was that the absence of
sparrows was due to the fact that the httle wretches had all
gone harvesting. It is therefore only fair that the towns,
which, of course, in any case live on the country, should con-
tribute to the destruction of the sparrow ; and no doubt every
suburban grower of gooseberries or green peas would gladly
contribute his quota towards keeping the pest within bounds.
Were such a system adopted, coupled with the introduction of
their natural enemies, which to my mind is the surer remedy
of the two, the small-bird nuisance would soon be a thing of
the past.

At the recent conference of the acclimatisation societies
held in Wellington Mr. A. C. Begg brought forward a resolu-
tion in favour of the introduction of enemies to the destructive
small birds, but with the characteristic fear of such bodies of
repeating any of the mistakes of the past the conference would
have none of it. Such fears, in my opinion, arise from the
same lack of knowledge on the part of many of those con-
trolling our acclimatisation societies which led to the intro-
duction in the first place of the sparrow and green linnet.

It only remains to consider what should be introduced to
keep the sparrow within bounds, for extermination is not now
to be looked for. Various birds have been suggested, such as
jays, magpies, and owls, and our local society have already
turned out a few barn-owls [Strix flaviviea), a species I do not
consider the best for the purpose, though undoubtedly a useful
bird, its favourite food being rats, mice, voles, and such small
deer, but it will take small birds also. The long-eared owl
{Strix otus) or the tawny owl {Ulula stndula) prey on small
animals also, including rabbits, but are, I believe, more ad-
dicted to capturing small birds than their barn relatives.

The jay (Garrulus glandarius) apparently renders good
service in America, as Dr. S. M. Hamilton, of Monmouth,
characterizes it as one of the spai*row's worst enemies. It is,
however, a forest-haunting bird, while sparrows avoid woods.
Morris, in his " British Birds," gives the following account of
its habits and food: "The bird," he writes, " is exclusively
addicted to woods and their immediately neighbouring trees
for its habitat. . . . The acorn is the most choice
' morceau' of the jay, and for this he even searches under the
snow ; but he also feeds on more delicate food, such as beans,
peas, and cherries, as well as on beech-nuts, grain, garden
and wall fruit, berries, corn, worms, snails, cockchafers and
other insects, larvae, frogs and other reptiles, and mice, and
is deterred by no scruples or qualms from making away with

Bathgate. — The Sparroxv Plague ayid its Remedy. 75

young birds, even partridges and eggs." This extensive menu
is a little jumbled up by our author, but apparently from his
putting young birds last he does not deem them the most
important item on the bill of fare. Probably in the States
during their severe winter the jays may be driven in from
their woodland haunts to seek their food amongst men and
sparrows. It appears to me that it would not be desirable to
bring the jay here, where the conditions are so different.

The magpie {Pica candata), on the other hand, though
shy and wary in the British Isles, where gamekeepers wage
a constant war against it, would naturally frequent the
habitations of man. It is not persecuted in Norway, and an
English writer, speaking of it there, says, " The magpie is
one of the most abundant as well as the most attractive of
Norwegian birds. Noted for its shy, cunning habits here "
[in England], "its altered demeanour there is the more re-
markable. It is on the most familiar terms with the inhabit-
ants, picking close about the doors and soujetimes walking
inside their houses. It abounds in the Town of Drontheim,
making its nest upon the churches and warehouses. We saw
as many as a dozen of them at one time seated upon the
gravestones of the churchyard. Few farmhouses are without
several of them breeding under the eaves, their nests sup-
ported by the spout." As the magpie eats young birds, here
is the bird to keep the sparrows' nuujbers in check, for it
will live in towns and close to dwellings — just the localities
sparrows frequent. The magpie's appetite is omnivorous, and
it is cliarged with at times killing weakly lambs, and varying
its diet by partaking of grain and fruit ; but I never at Home
heard any complaints of this bird from the farmers, whilst
the gamekeepers had not a good word for it. The bird will
eat carrion, so if one were disturbed taking a meal from a
dead Iamb it would probably be blamed for its death, which
may have occurred from natural causes. Nor, I think, can
there be much in the charge that it partakes of grain and
fruit, otherwise it would not be such a favourite in Norway,
nor so abundant as it is in France. If, however, it did take
a little grain and fruit occasionally, the quantity consumed
by it would not approach what would have been eaten bv
the sparrows, greenfinches, and blackbirds which had been
destroyed by the magpie. If it did get too numerous, being
a good-sized and conspicuous bird it would not be difficult
for the bird-catchers to reduce its numbers. It is, in my
opinion, the best bird to introduce to cope with the sparrow
plague.

Some one or more of the shrikes would also be desirable
acquisitions, and against none of them could even a suggestion
of evil-doing be made ; the only objection to which some of

76 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

the species might be open would be that they might devote too
much attention to insects and neglect the sparrows. Nor are
they likely to become such familiar friends as do the magpies
in Norway. In the American pamphlet already referred to
several of the correspondents write m praise of the shrike, of
which the following example will suffice : Mr. H. K. Coale,
wi'iting from Chicago, says, "The northern shrike {Lanius
borealis) feeds on them (sparrows) all winter." Mr. Bar-
rows, the author of the pamphlet, in writing of natural
enemies, says, " Probably the most useful bird in this respect
is the northern shrike, which visits most of our northern cities
in winter and feeds freely on the sparrow. At one time this
shrike became so abundant on the Common and in the Public
Gardens in Boston that it threatened to destroy all the
sparrows, but the short-sighted authorities kept a man busy
in shooting the shrikes until several dozen had been killed,
and the useless sparrows were considered safe." From the
nature of the migrations of the shrike referred to I fear it
would not be suitable for New Zealand. There is another
American shrike of less migratory habits, the loggerhead
{Lanms Ludovicmnus), though it moves to the southward in
winter ; but it is smaller, and, though it eats birds, the greater
proportion of its food consists of insects, of which the great
majority are of an injurious character. The great grey shrike
{Lanius excubitor), which is found in almost every European
country, a large part of Asia, and northern Africa, and is an
occasional visitant to England, would be more suitable. It is
also more or less migratory, but as it is found in France at
all seasons of the year it would probably find the climate
of New Zealand equally suited to its I'equirements. It,
however, frequents woods and forests in the summer, and
only visits the more open districts in the winter. It would
therefore be more likely to exterminate our native woodland
birds than the sparrow. The most likely bird of the shrike
family is the red-backed shrike {Lanius colkiris). Tiiis bird
has a wide range, being met with as far north as Norway
and as far south as Cape Colony. It rarely visits Britain.
It is often known as the butcher - bird, and is very pre-
datory in its habits. It lives largely on insects, as well
as small birds and animals. Dr. Brehm savs, " It often
continues to kill long after it has satisfied the cravings of
hunger, and pursues small quadrupeds or birds so incessantly
as to drive away or destroy all such as have been un-
fortunate enough to niake their homes in its vicinity."
The woodchat [Lanius rufus) is a summer visitor to southern
Europe from Africa, and it is also found at the Cape. Its
habits are similar to those of the red-backed shrike, but
apparently its chief diet is insects in all stages, and worms.

Bathgate. — The Sparroiv Plague and its Remedy. 77

and it only captures birds when its ordinary food is scarce. It
is also migratory, and does not, on the whole, seem very suit-
able. I merely mention it as it could be procured from Cape
Colony. The range of climate in New Zealand would pro-
bably be sufficient for both these two last-named birds, but
the grey shrike seems to have the advantage of being the
least migratory. The easiest to introduce into this colony
would be the red-backed shrike, as, being obtainable from Cape
Colony, only a short voyage would be required, and the
tropics would not have to be crossed. It makes an interesting
cage bird, as it has wonderful powers of imitation.

To sum up, I may say that, while I do not advocate the
stoppage of poisoning operations, I think that the money
spent in paying for heads and eggs could be laid out to much
greater advantage, and I recommend the introduction of the
magpie and the long-eared and tawny owls and red-backed
shrike, or some of them, but especially the magpie. I may
add that I think the long-tailed native cuckoo {Eudynamis
taitensin) should be protected by law, as it destroys the eggs
and young of other birds, and, as it is a conspicuous object
when it visits any populous neighbourhood, it usually falls a
victim to some random gunner.

Just a word regarding the existing law, and I have done.
" The Birds Nuisance Act, 1902," imposes on the local autho-
rities in the Middle Island the duty of destroying injurious
birds from a day to be fixed by the Governor in Council. The
birds to be deemed injurious are to be determined by the same
authority. Districts may be proclaimed embracing within
their borders the areas managed by several local authorities,
and in such case the Act provides for a conference of dele-
gates from each local authority being held for the purpose of
recommending to the Governor a suitable day on which the
work of destroying injurious birds should commence, and the
methods that should be employed by each local body. To my
mind there is too much " machinery " about the Act for it to
be easily set in motion ; and, as the Act provides for the
appointment of the inevitable Inspectors and the making of
regulations, I fear the amount of red tape about it would clog
its action. The suggestion I have already made — that each
county should be bound to employ a bird-catcher — would be a
very much simpler and less costly method. No Inspectors
would be required, as every farmer who suffered from the
depredations of birds would complain to the County Council,
and take care that the bird-catcher was zealous in the per-
formance of his duties.

The idea in the statute that declaration of war should be
proclaimed on a certain day — I assume, in each year — seems
to me a very mistaken one. That we shall ever get rid of the

78 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

sparrow or the green linnet is not, I fear, to be expected, but
that the plague can be kept under control so as to cease to be
a serious matter I firmly believe. That can be accomplished,
however, by no spasmodic efforts, but by waging the war
against the small depredators at all times and seasons from
vear's end to year's end. Bad as things are now, they will
become worse unless some really systematic efforts are made
to combat the pest. Miss Ormerod and Mr. Tegetmeier,
speaking of the extent of the damage done by sparrows in
England, say, " The amount of the national loss by reason
of ravaged crops and serviceable birds driven away may be
estimated without fear of exaggeration at from one to two
millions a year." What our ovvn losses are no one can tell,
but they must already amount to a very large sum. As
regards the introduction of the natural enemies, that is
a matter which would best be undertaken by the Govern-
ment.

I may, in conclusion, refer to an objection that some will
raise to our introducing any predatory birds into the colony.
Such people will say, " Look at the introduction of stoats and
weasels to kill the rabbits ; our interesting ground-feedmg
birds are gone, while the rabbit still flourishes ! So will it be
if such birds as you advocate are introduced; our dwindling
band of native songsters will disappear, while the perky spar-
row will still thrive and multiply." To such I would x'eply
that none would mourn the loss of our native birds more than
I should, but the situation demands the risk. Every school-
bov who has gone bird-nesting knows that the nests of our
native birds are much more difficult to find than those of the
imported birds, and I doubt not that the magpie or shrike
would find enough of the clumsy conspicuous nests of the
sparrows or the easily-discoverable nests of the blackbirds and
thrushes to supply their requirements with little trouble to
themselves, so that the scarcer and better-hidden nests of our
native birds would generally escape.

Since the foregoing was written a Proclamation has been
issued under the Birds Nuisance Act dividing the South Island
into eight districts, and cieclaring the house-sparrow, yellow-
hammer, and greenfinch to be injurious birds. The first and the
last named are rightly placed in that category, but the second
is not, so far as I am aware, numerous anywhere in tlie colony;
and, if it were, I do not think it would ever become a nuisance

at least, it was not, like the green linnet and sparrow, looked

on as an injurious bird in Britain when I was a boy. A few
yeilowhammers [Emberiza cilrunella) were turned out here in
the early days of acclimatisation, and though they throve for
a time they eventually died out. At the same time the cirl
bunting {Emberiza cirlus) was introduced, and increased much

Bathgate. — The Sparrow Plague and its Remedy. 79

more rapidly than the yellowhammer. It has disappeared
from this neighbourhood, but is still to be met with in the
country, and as it is a much more active bird, and is destruc-
tive in its habits, I believe this to be the bird at which the
Proclamation was intended to be aimed. Though the two
birds bear some resemblance to one another in plumage, no
one with any knowledge of British birds could mistake the one
for the other, and the pleasing plaintive little song of the
yellowhammer is most distinctive, and it may still be heard in
some parts of the colony. This is, however, a trivial matter
compared with the failure of the conferences to even forecast
any benefits to be derived from the Act. There was abundant
evidence of the futility of the whole affair, and the delegates
seemed to be fully aware of the fact. ' Some showed this by
abstaining from attending : at Dunedin a delegate character-
ized the whole affair as "unworkable," but said "it had to
be seen through"; while in some conferences the resolution
arrived at was that the destruction of the birds should be
left in the hands of the Government. The Timaru con-
ference resolved "that the Government be asked to offer a
bonus of £500 for the most effective method of dealing with
the small-bird pest," thereby showing their utter want of
confidence in the present Act, and their hopelessness of ex-
periencing any beneficial results therefrom, at the same time
indicating their opinion of the importance of the question and
the necessity for grappling with the problem in an effective
manner.

80

Tran&ac t ions . —Mi see i Icmeous .

Abt. VI. — Note on the Veracity of the Returns of Age in the

Cens^Ls of 1901.

By H. W. Segar, M.A., Professor of Mathematics, Univer-
sity College, Auckland.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 6th July, 1903.'}
Plates IV. and V.

The statistics of the ages of the people afforded by census
returns are marred by an element of uncertainty due to the
ignorance, carelessness, and wilful misrepresentation of indi-
viduals. A person ignorant of his own age, ignorant of and
careless in ascertaining the ages of members of his household,
or wilfully misrepresenting the age of himself or the ages of
others, is very apt to choose numbers ending in 0 or 5. Many,
for instance, knowing an age to be about 40, will put it
down in a round number as 40 without further bother. The
result is that in census returns generally we find a greater
number of people returned as being of such ages than is con-
sistent with the numbers returned for neiglibouring ages, as is
shown in the following table : —

Table I.— Number

OF People returned at certain Ages in New
Zealand Census, 1896.

Ages.

Number of
People.

Ages.

Number of
People.

39-40
40-41
41-42

7,224
10,186

5,55G

49-50

1 50-51

51-52

4,926
7,909

4,092

44-45
45-46
46-47

5,751
7,676

5,741

54-55
55-56
56-57

5.285
5,699

5,562

Here the numbers recorded as being of ages 40, 45, 50, and

55 are evidently in excess of what should be.

The numbers ending in 0 are more patronised than those
ending in 5. Also, numbers ending in 2 and in 8 are favour-
ites in the same way, but to a much less extent. The result
is that at these ages, and especially at those which are
multiples of 10, we have clusters, as it were, of population
in the census returns of ages, and corresponding deficiencies
in the other ages. Now, as a matter of fact, in all popula-
tions that have not been subject to some very remarkable
and unusual event that would tend to increase or diminish

Segar. — Veracitji of Census Returns. 81

the number of people at particiilar ages above or below the
normal, the number of people at the several ages should
change gradually and continuously from age to age. If the
populaiion be grouped into quinquennial age-periods, we find
that the numbers in the successive age-periods do change in
this manner.

Figs. 1, 2, illustrate these remarks by the graphical
method. Fig. 1 gives the line which represents the numbers
returned at the several ages from 20 to 80 years in the census
of 1896, and also a similar line constructed by taking for the
central year of each quinquennial age-period the average
population of each year of age in that period. The ordinates
for these averages are measured along those corresponding to
the central years — namely, those ending in 2 or 7. Fig. 2
illustrates similarly the results of the census of 1901.

The curve given by taking the population in quinquennial
age-periods offers a great contrast to the other. The absence
of any pronounced angular projections indicates the absence
of any serious tendency for the ages of people to be entered in
special quinquennial periods. The population, then, as ar-
ranged in quinquennial age-periods may be taken as being
practically correct, and the corresponding curve gives us a
fair average curve with which to compare the other. The
excesses entered in special years are consequently seen in
each case to be drawn in the main from the neighbouring
years.

A comparison of the lines for the two census years shows
at once a remarkable resemblance m the forms of the lines
representing the population recorded according to each year
of age, indicating a remarkable general persistence in the ten-
dencies we are considering. The variations from the average
are very small until the age of 20 is reached, and this is why
the figures are taken only as beginning at that equation. The
variations are not considerable until the age of 30 years, and
are greatest, relatively to the population of the age concerned,
at 50 and 60 years.

A careful comparison of the two diagrams will make it
obvious that in 1901 the variations due to erroneous returns
of age were considerably less than in the previous census.
We say a careful comparison because the mere magnitudes of
the variations do not, as a rule, differ greatly in the two cases ;
it is the variations relatively to the population at each age
that differ considerably. If the number of erroneous returns
made in 1901 were proportionate to those of 1896 they ought,
absolutely considered, to be much greater, because of the
much greater population between the ages 20 and 80 years in
the later of the two years. This point is also illustrated in
the following table, which takes the populations returned at

6 — Trans.

82

Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

each year of age ending in 5 or 0 and compares them with
the means of the numbers returned for the two neighbouring
ages in each case. The percentages of excess are then given.

Table U. — Veracity of Census Returns op Age.

1896.

1901.

Age.

Mean of

Numbers of

Adjacent

Ages.

Number of

Age

specified.

Per-
centage

of
Excess.

Mean of

Numbers of

Adjacent

Ages.

Number of | J^.e
specified. 1 E^^ggg

1

20
25

14,961 ' 14,850
12,919 13,266

-0-7
2-7

16,898
15,158

17,142 1-4
15,266 0-7

30
35
40

45
50

9,100 ! 12,079
8,373 9,226
6,390 10,186
5,746 7,676
4,509 i 7,909

32-7
101
59-4
33-6
75-4

11,337
9,840
7,316
6,617
5,133

14,682

10,287

10,735

8,044

8,134

29-5

4-5

51-7

21-6

58-4

55
60
65
70
75

5,424 1 5,699
3,048 ; 5,445
2,419 3,038
1,172 1,763
873 927

5-1
78-6
! 25-6
■ 50-4
! 6-2
1

4,784
3,883
3,580
1,896
1,100

4,949
5,965
4,095
2,662
1,157

3-4
53-1
14-4
40-4

5-2
. ..

80

290 , 414 1 42-8

! . 1

466

550 18-0

It will be noticed in this table that in every case, except
for the age of 20, there is a diminution in the percentage
of excess, that in the majority of cases this diminution is con-
siderable, and that in the one case in which there is an in-
crease the excess in both censuses is only very small. Such
small excesses, moreover, should be ignored, as they are no
greater than the variations in the annual number of births.

The above is but a rough method of dealing with the ques-
tion, but it is really sufficient for the purpose in hand, as the
reductions are so considerable. As, however, the excess is
measured for any year from the mean of the recorded popula-
tions of the two neighbouring years, which are themselves
less than the true populations of those years, the excess
obtained is not the excess of the recorded population over the
irue population for the year of age under consideration, but
is considerably greater than it. The diminution of the one
excess involves, however, a somewhat proportional diminution
in tlie other, and so tlie above argument is not vitiated,
although we must not take the percentages of Table II. as
measuring the proportion of erroneous returns for the several
years of age.

Segar. — Veracity of Census Returns.

83

There is another way of approaching the problem. The
census tables, giving the numbers recorded at each age, may
be adjusted by distributing the total numbers in certain
groups of ages over the single years according to actuarial
laws and methods. This has been done by the Actuary of
the Government Life Insurance Department for the last two
censuses, and the results are recorded, not in the ordinary
census volumes, but in the reports of the Registrar-General
on the same. Table III., following, takes for both censuses
these adjusted numbers, compares with them the recorded
numbers, and presents the excess as a percentage, the ages
considered being from 20 to 75, at which latter age the tables
of the Government Actuary cease.

Table III. — Veracity op Census Returns of Age.

1896.

1901.

Age.

Adjusted

Population

at Ages

specified.

Recorded
Population

at Ages
specified.

Per-
centage

of
Excess.

Adjusted

Population

at Ages

specified.

Recorded
Population

at Ages
specified.

Per-
centage

of
Excess.

20

14,755

14,850

0-7

16,725

17,142

2-5

25

12,620

13,266

5-1

15,254

15,266

01

30

9,975

12,079

21-1

12,199

14,682

20-4

35

8,-359

9,226

10-4

9,963

10,287

3-3

40

7,545

10,186

35-0

8,245

10,735

30-2

45

6,150

7,676

24-8

7,161

8,044

12-3

50

5,708

7,909

38-6

5,847

8,134

39-1

55

5,085

5,699

12-1

4,963

4,949

-0-3

60

3,845

5,445

41-6

4,451

5,965

340

65

2,565

3,038

18-4

3,728

4,095

9-8

70

1,390

1,763

26-9

2,248

2,662

18-4

75

750

927

23-6

1,083

1,157

6-8

As was to be expected, the percentages of excess in this
table are smaller than in Table II. They give a reasonably
accurate estimate of the proportions of the returns, at the
several ages considered, that are erroneous. Comparing the
results for the two censuses, we get the same general result
as before ; in every case but two there is a reduction, and
generally this reduction is considerable. The two exceptions
consist of the age of 20 — and in this case the percentages of
excess are small in both censuses — and the age of 50 — and in
this case, although the percentage of excess is large in both
census years, the increase in the later year is very small.

Thus the fact is conclusively established that in the recent
census there was a much greater approach to truth in the

84 Transactions. — Miscellanecus.

returns of age than in the preceding census. It would have
been of interest to have considered some earlier censuses and
found what the tendency was in this matter in earlier times,
but the census returns prior to 1896 do not give the popula-
tion for each year of age, and it is impossible to pursue the
question.

As to what the reasons are — and such must exist — for this
very substantial and satisfactory progress we cannot suggest
anything with confidence. Countries differ very much in the
matter we have been discussing, and on the whole the better
the education of the people the more truthful are their returns
of age. In India, on the one hand, the returns reach the
height of the ridiculous; in 1890, for instance, out of 100,000
persons of all ages, the number returned as of 39 years was
322, and of 41 years was 216, while the number returned as
of 40 years was no less than 5,240 ! In Germany, on the
other hand, the results are far better than our ow^n. One
can hardly claim, however, that the education of the people
of New Zealand has improved in five years to such an ex-
tent as would be necessary to explain the phenomenon. If
the improvement I have pointed out were confined to or
more conspicuous in the older ages, the influence of the old-
age pension scheme, that has made many an old person
better acquainted with his age, and would be likely to
make him more precise in recording it, might be put forward
as a main cause, but the improvement is about equally con-
spicuous on the whole throughout the period from 30 to 80
years of age. Of course, a higher moral sense in the people
would suffice to explain everything ; let us hope this is the
true cause.

I have calculated tables for the sexes taken separately
similar to those discussed above, but which I do not propose
to publish. They reveal the fact that there is, on the whole,
nothing much to choose between the sexes in the matter of
inaccurate returns of age, m spite of the fact that the chief
blame for this offence is popularly given to females. If
females are more strongly tempted from motives of vanity to
make inaccurate returns, it may be that a finer moral sense
prevents them yielding to the temptation to any greater
extent than the males. But, however the causes of such
inaccuracies may differ in kind or in degree in the two sexes,
the results in tlie main are the same. A greater preference in
the males than in tlie females for the ages 35 and 45, and a
greater preference in the females than in the males for the
ages of 50, 60, and 70, are apparently the only decided
differences that the tables reveal.

Haeding. — Certain Decimal and Metrical Fallacies. 85

Art. VII. — On certain Decimal and Metrical Fallacies.

By E. CouPLAND Harding.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 5th August and

7th October, 1903.]

If there be one quality more than another that distinguishes
the scientific from the unscientific rnind it might well be
defined as the ability, or, perhaps more coiTectly, the habit,
of discriminating clearly between the symbol and the thinf^
signified. Symbols, indispensable though they be, are always
more or less defective representives of truth, and are full of
danger, when, instead of servants, they become masters and
dominate the thoughts of men. They give rise to a mul-
titudinous brood of fallacies, and fallacies as they gradually
develop ripen into positive evil. In theology the exaltation
of the symbol becomes idolatry, with intellectual darkness,
moral corruption, and spiritual death : in science it may be
found elevating the latest convenient working-hypothesis
into an established law of nature, when that which was at
one time helpful becomes injurious. Truths appeal to the
higher intellectual faculties, and can be appreciated only by
application and study ; symbols may be memorised by "rote
and acquired with slight trouble — they are nothing more than
counters, though only too easily mistaken for genuine cur-
rency. Truths grow by accretion ; symbols remain un-
changed, and when outgrown they are a check on progress.
Of this fact schemes of notation afford sufficient proof. Our
English tongue, the world-language of the future, is cruelly
hampered in its conquering course by a defective notation —
not only inadequate, but the type of all that is etymologically
and phonetically misleading. A thousand years ago our
Saxon ancestors had something like a scientific and con-
sistent orthography — a living system, adapted to its purpose.
To-day we find a living language imprisoned in a dead
alphabet. The symbol is outgrown. Musical notation affords
another, though less extreme, instance. A very slight chancre
would convert a system at present perplexing and incon-
sistent into one consistent and helpful ; but again progress
is fettered by the outworn symbol. Our arithmetical nota-
tion, happily, is free from the absurdities attaching to musical
and orthographic notation. If, for example, the symbol 5
might under certain arbitrary rules signify the same as 32,
41, or 55, if it was sometimes to be read as 7, and occasion-
ally, being " silent," had to be ignored altogether — if tlie in-
terpolation of another symbol having sometimes a ne^^ative
and sometimes a positive value made it equal to 6 — then our:

86 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

arithmetical notation would be fairly comparable with our
orthography, and computation would be as difficult as Eng-
lish spelling.

But it is quite easy to be in bondage to arithmetical nota-
tion. Thousands of folk skilled in computation, using figures
daily, confound them with the things they represent, never
realising that after all tliey are merely counters — symbols,
perfect and efficient within their own very limited range, but
representing in reality only a convention, and no solid fact.
The mathematician knows their place and their limitations ;
the mere computer, finding them ready to his hand, imagines
them to be rooted in the very nature of things. He knows.
for example, some of the curious properties of the number 9,
but would be unable to discriminate between the inherent
properties of that number — those, for example, which are
peculiar to the square of 3, and which no notational system
could affect — and those other qualities which are accidental and
notational, and would be transferred to another number were
any other radix substituted for that of ten.

This is a point of basic importance in the consideration of
the subject of any proposed change in measures and weights,
and especially when a change of standard is involved. The
subject is of practical importance now, when the foreign sys-
tem, already permissive, has advanced another stage in our
Parliament, and will, unless resistance is offered, displace in a
few years — legally if not actually — our Imperial standards.
There has been no popular demand for the change ; there is
absolutely no popular discontent with our present standards :
but an active minority has carried its point so far, as agitators
can — without public sympathy or approval, but in the face of
that massive apathy and general indifference to any change
that does not threaten some immediate loss or disability. And
it is noteworthy that the arguments urged in support of the
change appeal to popular notational fallacies rather than to
mathematical facts or scientific truths.

Of late years we have seen, at annual meetings of Institutes
of Accountants, Chambers of Commerce, and similar bodies,
formal resokitions passed on the subject as casually and per-
functorily as the vote of thanks to the chairman. In our own
Parliament during the current session a Bill, further-reaching
in its effects (should it ever become effective) and more
revolutionary in its scope than any legislation ever before
proposed in this colony, passed its preliminary stages with less
notice than is sometimes given to a fifty-pound item on the
estimates. It does not seem unreasonable to infer that those
who deal thus lightly with grave matters have neither studied
them nor realised their importance. They know that oui-
system of money-computation is defective and causes unneces-

Hakding. — Certain Decimal and Metrical Fallacies. 87

sary waste of time, and when they are told that " the decimal
system " will set everything right they do not investigate for
themselves. The onus of pi'oof lies with the aggressive mi-
nority, and that proof is not forthcoming. They offer instead
of proof many assertions which will not bear examination.

The initial fallacy is to call the French scheme " the "
decimal system. It is a decimal scheme, as are also other and
better schemes. Its one distinguishing feature is its unit — the
meter. It is therefore not " the decimal system," but the
" metric " system. The misnomer gives rise to the inference —
and the notion is widely held- — that decimalisation involves
a change of standards, which is not the case. Thei'e can be
no warrant for so radical a change except it be plainly
shown —

(1) That the standard proposed is scientifically or practi-

cally better intrinsically or extrinsically than the
existing one ;

(2) That the advantage is so great as to outweigh the

disturbance and inconvenience occasioned by the

change.
I do not think that these propositions can be seriously dis-
puted. If, then, it can be proved —

(1) That the meter is arbitrary, possessing no scientific

value nor any ascertainable relation to anything in
creation ;

(2) That the national standards possess these qualities in

a high degree ;

(3) That for practical purposes the existing standards are

essentially better and more convenient —
what excuse is there for the change ? And there is over-
whelming proof in support of these propositions.

I have spoken of the resolutions of certain bodies in favour
of the change as perfunctory. It is significant that almost
immediately after the last formal resolution of the Wellington
Chamber of Commerce the chairman wrote to the press
pointing out that the change, if made, would have serious and
unlooked-for consequences. Yet these consequences must
surely suggest themselves to any one who gives the matter any
consideration.

As for the decimalisation of the national coinage, it has
long been a desideratum. A suggestion was lately made to
divide the pound sterling into four hundred parts. It was
put forward as "decimalisation of the coinage," which it is
not. The subject has been fully dealt with by a commission
of leading mathematicians in Britain, and a complete and
consistent scheme was long ago formulated. The figure
representing the number of pounds would be followed by
three figures separated by a space or decimal point, and

88 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

representing respectively "florins," "cents," and "mils."
The first step was actually taken in 1849, when the florin
was coined, and the complete reform would undoubtedly have
been carried out and extended to weights and measures also
as far as practicable but for the opposition of the " metric "
party, who have regularly blocked any systematic reform of the
national measures. They have realised throughout that with
a rational coinage system the crusade against the national
standards would be almost hopeless.

They invariably lump together the present coinage system,
which is indefensilDle, with the standards of weight and mea-
sure, and draw a supposed parallel. But the imaginary
parallel is a fallacy. Weights and measures deal with en-
tities and qualities outside our own control. Whether we
weigh a load of ballast or compute the distance of a star
we ai'e engaged in investigating realities — relations and inter-
relations between ourselves and the universe without — and
must adapt our methods, as conveniently as we may, to things
as we find them. Coinage, on the other hand, is entirely
artificial. From first to last the form it takes is under our
own control ; it should be adapted to the radix of computa-
tion. Our coinage is not so adapted, and to that extent
is irrational. Further, it conforms only very imperfectly to
weight and measure standards. We need not go further than
to America for a practical example. In the United States
and Canada the coinage has been decimalised, the weights
and measures remaining unaltered.

We come now to perhaps the greatest and most audacious
of the fallacies propounded by the advocates of the meter.
We find it stated that it would save so much of the time at
present given to the study of arithmetic as would amount
to a complete revolution. Last year it was asserted by an
Australian writer that "compound calculations would be
no longer necessary, and need not be taught in schools."
Children, he said, were "kept at school learning arithmetic
from one to two years unnecessarily because of archaic and
antiquated rules and clumsy and involved methods." Every
mathematician, every qualified teacher, knows tliat this is not
the truth. Every one engaged in any kind of calculation has
necessarily to deal with varying ratios ; one of the chief pur-
poses of the study of arithmetic is to qualify us to equate
them, and it is to assist us in this work that artificially fixed
standards are required. Fallacious as the assertion is, it is
the stock plea of the metrists. It is the argument of the
spelling-reformers borrowed and misapplied. Years of school
life are wasted in learning by rote archaic and outworn forms
of spelling — forms wliich misrepresent and caricature our
speech ; but what chance would a Bill for reforming ortho-

Harding. — Certain Decimal and Metrical Fallacies. 89

graphy have in Parliament ? What New Zealand Chamber
of Commerce has ever urged the necessity of rational spell-
ing? Yet this colony has as much right to lead in the one
direction as in the other, and the gain orthographic reform
would bring would be incalculable. In this respect, how-
ever, prejudice is so strong that the Education Department
insists on retaining corrupt forms that have largely died out
in common use. It clings tenaciously to the intrusive "u"
in " honour," "labour," and even in "neighbour." It was
not without surprise that I saw in the Weights and Measures
Bill of 1903 even such a concession to systematic spelling as
*' meter." By the way, it seems curious that this little colony
should strain the " silken thread " by endeavouring to initiate
a change that should begin at the centre of the nation's com-
merce. It can scarcely expect to force the hand of the
Empire in a matter like this. In fact, should our Parlia-
ment attempt to give effect to the proposal it would have
enough to do for many years to come in forcing its accept-
ance upon the people of the colony.

We have been persistently told that the metric system is
scientific. It professes to be, but the claim is based on fallacy.
Not only is it found on examination to break down in this
respect at nearly every point, but on purely scientific grounds
as on practical it compares unfavourably with the national
standards. It was itself the outcome of a period of social and
scientific delirium, and its history to the present day is a
record of practical inadequacy and of bureaucratic coercion.

Up to the last decade of the eighteenth century European
weights and measures, though exhibiting appreciable varia-
tion in standard and still encumbered with obsolescent tables
applying only to specific industries or localities, were prac-
tically uniform in principle. The standard of measure was
the foot, duodecimally divided. In England the inch was also
divided into twelve, and the twelfth-inch, known as the " line,"
was used chiefly in scientific measurements. It is the unit
known to printers as " nonpareil," or in present nomenclature
"six-point." The third-inch, equal to four lines, was the
lowest unit popularly recognised, and was known as the
"barleycorn," as it was supposed to be fairly represented by
the length of a grain of barley from the centre of the ear.
Old table-books still in use in my childhood began, not as
might reasonably have been expected, " Twelve lines equal one
inch," but " Three barleycorns, one inch." Some idle jocosity
has been indulged in on the assumption that an actual barley-
corn was the ultimate basis of Saxon measurement, but this
is a fallacy. The popular name of every measure, without
exception, refers the standard to some supposed natural equi-
valent. In weight, for instance, we have the " grain." No

90 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

people were more strict in the matter of standards than the
Saxons. They had a practical and scientific system ; their
monarchs made it a matter of duty to see that no corruptions
or deviations took place, and the British measures have been
so closely guarded that after a thousand years the divergence
is so slight as only to be detected by very accurate measure-
ments. In France, as in England, the foot was divided into
twelve inches, and the inch into twelve lines, and the line again
into six, and this last subdivision, of J^'i'^ch, was called the
" point." Whether the point was also recognised in Britain I
do not know ; it is now, and as it is the basis of all printers'
measurements it is usually known as the "typographical
point." As it is not minute enough for all purposes, the half-
point difference is recognised in the smaller types, so that in
systematic type-measurement, which is exactly the same in
principle (though not in standard) all the world over, the old
national measures are retained, in which the duodecimal sub-
division is consistently followed throughout :—

12 half-points = 1 line.

12 lines = 1 inch.

12 inches = 1 foot.

The French standard was larger than the English in the
proportion approximately of 555 to 517, and the Continental
and British type-standai'ds differ respectively to-day in the
same proportion."

A like agreement in principle with diversity of standard
prevailed in regard to weights for ordinary purposes, the
pound being divided by the simplest series of all — 2, 4, 8, 16.
The larger measures and weights were varying multiples,
more or less systematic, some local, others adapted to special
purposes only, and many of limited application, obsolete, or
nearly so. A uniform principle underlying so much divergence
in detail might have suggested a reason, and possibly a good
reason, for its retention. Scientific reformers would have
inquired if such reason existed ; for with uniformity of prin-
ciple already to their hand nothing more was required to
establish an international system than the harmonizing and
unification of the standards of measure and weight, which
could have been accomplished with a minuuum disturbance of

* Theorelically. The systematization of type was seriously taken in
hand in the United States some years ago, and is now in general use. At
first the national standard was taken, but the vested interests of large
houses working on an inaccurate system prevailed, leading to a departure
from the true standard, which, though infinitesimal and ignored in all
ordinary reckoning, is greatly to be regretted. The precise divergence
between the American type-standard and the British Imperial standard is
0005 inch in the foot, the typographical inch as at present defined there-
fore equalling 0-999583 of the standard inch.

Harding. — Certain Decimal aiid Metrical Fallacies. 91

local prejudices, for the changes as they applied to any given
locality would scarcely have been noticed, while thp advan-
tages would speedily have made themselves manifest. But no
such inquiry was made. The accidental discrepancies were
magnified, the underlying principles ignored, just as they are
by the metrists of to-day, and a bran-new scheme must be
devised — one which, as it was to supersede all others and last
for all time, must be nothing less than perfect.

In that strange period of unrest the judicial faculty seemed
to be completely suspended ; the scientific spirit, which
breathes only in an atmosphere of humility, was dead.
Truth-seekers there were none, for there remained no truth
to seek. Carlyle, in his trenchant style, has pictured the
utter intellectual barrenness of the time, and the absence of
the creative faculty — the scientists who made no discovery,
the ingenious men who brought forth no invention. In every
department, theoretical or practical — in science, philosophy,
politics, or morals — empty symbols took the place of realities,
fallacies of facts. Miss Gierke, in a late article in Knoivledge,
has eloquently described the self-sufficient "science" of the
time : —

There were no more worlds to conquer. . . . Nature for the
moment submitted readily to the trammels put upon her by human
thought ; her intricacies no longer seemed to defy unravelment ; her
modes of procedure looked straightforward and intelligible. ... It
was an epoch of peremptory renewals. Tde formula of equality promised
to regenerate society ; a political panacea had been found by the creation
of a republic " one and indivisible," and the success of the guillotine in
securing its supremacy was almost outdone by the triumphs of the
calculus in vindicating the unimpeded sway of gravitation.

In this spirit — the antithesis of the scientific spirit — the
task was undertaken. The result was a comedy of blunders
to which the history of science can scarcely furnish a parallel.

The unit of measurement was necessarilv the foundation
of the entire system. The reformers had to their hand the
ancient foot of France with its authoritative standards ; they
had access to the corresponding measures of Eui-ope, from
which, had they chosen, they might have deduced an average.
But their unit must be new. Destined to be universal, it
must be earth-commensurable. It must at the same time be
unmistakably and indisputably French. So at great expense
and with enormous labour they measured an arc of the meri-
dian passing through France, divided the quadrant of the
meridian thus deduced into ten million parts — that is, a forty-
millionth of the entire circle — and this unit is the metre.

Note, first, the initial blunder — denounced by Herschel as
" a scientific sin "—the choice of a curve as the basis of recti-
linear measurement. The fact that the curve was on so large
a scale that its true form was inappreciable to the senses does

92 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

not affect the question. To tx'eat it as a right Hne was inex-
cusable on the part of men professing to institute a scientific
reform in a scientific way. They based their whole fabric on
a fundamental fallacy, consciously and deliberately, without
even the excuse of ignorance. Note, too, that an arc of
the meridian — unless it be one like that of Greenwich Ob-
servatory, selected by common consent as a starting-point
— has no significance, and even in such an exceptional case
its significance is only arbitrary and factitious. The meri-
dians of a sphere are infinite in number, and unless the
sphere is geometrically perfect are not uniform. The de-
grees of the terrestrial meridians vary in length from 66'91 to
69-40 miles. Note, too, that the standard, it lost, could never
be restored by a repetition of the original process. Variations
in the result inevitably appear on remeasurement, however
exact, and this particular measurement was exceptionally
difficult. As it was, the result was soon found to be appre-
ciably wrong. The error is now stated to be 4,008 ft. So
that the new universal earth- commensurable and French unit
proved, after all the trouble and expense lavished upon it, to
be arbitrary — to possess no more intrinsic significance than
the length of a i-andom straw picked up in the harvest-field.
It may be said — it has been said, since the insignificance of
the standard cannot be disputed — " No matter, so long as the
standard is there and is recognised.""^' But it is evident that
a really scientific standard must have significance. The re-
formers must have realised this, else why all this costly and
elaborate preliminary parade of earth - measurement? Why
inconvenience a whole nation for a hundred years when the
ancient toise, divided and multiplied by ten, would have

* An old article in the Atheno'um, referring to the erroneous measure-
ments on which the standard was hased, said, " An error of ^Jg inch in
the determination of the vidtre is more than counterbalanced by the
extreme simplicity, symnietry, and convenience of the metric system.
Professor Bessel observed in rcs])ect to the vu'tre that, in the measure-
ment of a length between two points on the surface of the earth, there is
no advantage at all in proving the relation of the measured distance to a
quadrant of the meridian. Professor Miller, of Cambridge, who quotes
this remark, deems the error in the relation of the vuHre to the quadrant
of the meridian to be of no consequence ; and he mentions another slight
error in the metric system, discovered by recent research, and relating to
the density of water, which he gives in the following words of Bessel :
'The kilogramme is not exactly the weight of a cubic di'cimiHrc of water.
Many of the late weighings show that water at its maximum dpnsity has
different density from that a.ssumed by the French philos iphers who pre-
pared the original standard of the kilogramme ; but nobody wishes to
alter the standard of the gramme on that account.' " So that while the
defects, real or imagitied, of the British system are proclaimed and paraded
by metrists, the acknowledged errors in the French scheme, fundamental
or co-ordinate, arc " of no consequence."

Harding. — Certain Decimal and Metrical Fallacies. 93

answered every purpose of the metre, and have saved, in the
full literal sense of the words/a world of trouble?

In a pamphlet published seventeen years ago Mr. Chris-
topher Giles, of Adelaide, thus summed up the "scientific"
foundation of the whole system : —

Based on a curve — therefore unscientific in theory.
Arbitrary — therefore wanting in scientific significance.
Non-earth commensurable.
Devoid of universality, in origin, genius, and fact.

It does not seem to be as generally known as it should be
that our own much-criticized scheme of lineal measurement —
the origin of whicli is too remote to be traced — is scientifically
sound on all the points where its modern rival is so con-
spicuously defective.

Some may imagine that the yoke imposed on France was a
light one. On the contrary, it was not the least oppressive of
the many terrible sequela of the Eevolution, and it was im-
posed only against stout resistance and with much utterly un-
necessary agony. The system is permissive in the British do-
minions, and so long as it is only permissive and the national
standards are in free and general use no very active opposition
is likely to be offered. In India, though an Act was passed in
1870 substituting the metric for the national standard, and
the law still stands unrepealed, it is a dead letter. In the
United States a strong organization has been formed "for
preserving and protecting our Anglo-Saxon weights and
measures." It keeps the subject before the public by means
of literature and lectures, and sees that the metrist minority
are met with counter-agitation. Some such institution ap-
pears to be needed in New Zealand.

In Great Britain, where Commission after Commission has
investigated the subject, expert and scientific testimony has
been strongly in opposition to the "reform." From astro-
nomers and mathematicians of the highest repute it has met
with unqualified opposition. I do not know of one who has
pronounced in its favour. These are men of unquestioned
scientific standing : men, moreover, trained to consider
realities rather than symbols, and the relations of things
rather than the mere notation by which such relations are
expressed. The leading British daily paper is a consistent
opponent of the metric change, and the Times, in dealing
editorially with a scientific question, may be trusted to have
the best scientific advice available.

By whom is the change advocated ? Chiefly by computers,
who, as is well known, are not necessarily mathematicians.
Computation is not an intellectual but a mechanical operation.
There is no kind of computation that cannot be performed
more efficiently and quickly by a machine than by a human

94 Transactions. — Miscellaneous,

brain. As regards money-reckoning, the computer has a
genuine grievance and a good case ; but a coinage reform need
not disturb the standard weights and measures.

There is one important department of science — that
embracing chemistry and physics — the practitioners of which
are inchned to look favourably on the proposed change. Their
work involves electrical measurements, and the only standard
available is aftiliated to the meter. It is not that any intrinsic
merit can be claimed for the system itself — its nomenclature is
a linguistic horror ; but those engaged in branches of science
where these measures are in use naturally prefer one system
instead of two. It must be remembered, however, that the
convenience of this limited class of workers would be gained
at the cost of the inconvenience of other branches of scientific
men, especially those concerned with celestial or terrestrial
measurements, as well as of the disturbance of all existing
systematic work by land and sea.

As against the Times, we find in the Scotsman an able
newspaper advocate of the system. But the Scotsman admits
that two generations would not suffice to carry the change into
effect.

The stock arguments in favour of the meter, when exa-
mined, still further add to the monumental pile of fallacies. We
are told, for example, that in our insular prejudice we are
holding out against the peoples of the world — that our com-
merce is crippled by our unintelligible system. Statistics are
adduced to show how many millions have adopted the meter,
and how many Governments have legalised it as their standard.
These statistics look formidable enough, but it shows a curious
lack of proportion when insignificant principalities whose
commerce is a negligible quantity are balanced against Powers
such as Great Britain, the United States, and the Eussian
Empire. Comparative - population statistics are wonderfully
inflated when wild tribes within European " spheres of in-
fluence" are counted in. Figures thus built up may seem
imposing, but on applying reasonable tests we find fallacy
once again.

The truth is the exact contrary. Among the educated, civi-
lised, and progressive peoples of the world — and these alone
are concerned in the question — the British-American stan-
dards are in use in the proportion of two to one, and a still
larger proportion of the world's commerce is in the hands of
the people who adhere to these standards. Two-thirds of the
world's printed matter — two-thirds of the correspondence
passing through the world's post-oflices — is produced by
English-speaking folk. This gives something like a fair test
of the proportions involved. The suppression of the old
European national standards leaves the British weights and

Harding. — Certain Decimal and Metrical Fallacies. 95

measures (with perhaps the single exception of the typo-
graphic standard, the decimahzation of which is impossible)
the sole rival of the meter, the sole repi'esentative of a system
which has survived the vicissitudes of thousands of years, and
which now is in a majority of more than two to one. Again
to quote Mr. Giles, the inch-and-foot scale represents —

The greatest amount of territory by land and sea.
The highest rate of increase in population.
The greatest wealth.
The pre-eminence in commerce.
The first place in extent and power of colonisation.
The greatest freedom for its individuals.

The first in philanthropy and improvement in the condition of sub-
ject races.

It is significant that no country has ever voluntarily
adopted the meter. It has always been arbitrarily enforced
upon the people — in Sicily literally at the bayonet-point.
And even under the most rigidly repressive rule the old
system often lingers. A writer in the London Engineering
World only a few months ago stated that in Prussia, Hun-
gary, Hamburg, and Hanover the " fuss " is still used in
measurement, and that he could give other instances of the
survival of the old standards.

In France, it is needjess to say, there was no attempt to
consult the people as to the change. It is instructive to read
what Rees's Cyclopedia (1819) placed on record regarding the
introduction of the scheme into that country : —

That beautiful and scientific theory [this authority says] has not
been found unexceptionable in practice. On the contrary, it met with
such opposition on account of the Greek and Latin terms and the decimal
division that in 1801 the Government allowed the people to use, for a
limited time, their own vocabulary of names, applying them to the new
standards, which are still retained. And in 1812 a further concession
was made by the Imperial Government to the prejudices and habits of
the people. They were allowed to continue the ancient vocabulary
applied to the new standards with the word usuel added to each : thus,
two metres are the toise ustu-lle ; half a kilogramme, the livre tisuelle,
&c. ; and these zmits are not divided decimally , but into halves, quarters,
and eighths. The long measures are also divided duodecimally. Besides
the binary divison of weights, the livre usuelle is divided into ounces,
gros, and grains, like the ancient livre, poids de marc. Hence the
new ounce and its divisions depart so viridely from the gramme that the
proportion cannot be ascertained without a troublesome calculation.
Thus, after more than twenty years of troublesome experiment and
trial of the metrical system the only advantage that has been gained
is that of establishing one common standard, the metre; but uniformity
might as well have been obtained by making the ancient toise (so univer-
sally known) their standard.

" Uniformity" being the avowed object, the change of the
standard, with all the perplexities it involved, was, as the
critic of the Cyclopedia recognised, unnecessary. The one
remaining recommendation, then, of the metric system is its

96 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

decimal radix of weights and measures, universally applied.
That certain advantages accrue from this unity of method is
too obvious to admit of dispute ; but they are far from making
the system the perfect one its advocates represent it to be.
Its perfection we are expected to take for granted. But, in
view of what we are required to abandon in its favour, it is
not only reasonable but necessary to inquire, Is it not
possible to overrate the advantages of a universal decimal
system ?

This question brings us to first principles, to the base of
the whole fabric — the system of notation and numeration in
world-wide use. Is this system itself perfect, either practi-
cally or scientifically? It is as much an "accidental in-
heritance"— to quote Mr. Mattieu Williams's contemptuous
designation of our national standards — as the standards them-
selves; but the reformers did not go to the root of the matter
— they made no attempt to reform nor even, apparently, to
investigate it. The fact that our numeral signs are called
" the ten digits," and the further fact that in many languages
the words "five" and "hand" are related, or even identical,
associate our system with the primitive method of finger-tally
as unmistakably as the verb " calculate " embodies the fact
that pebbles were used in bygone days as instruments of
reckoning. But, widespread, almost universal, as decimal
calculation is and has been, ten has never been the sole radix
in common use. In practical concerns it is the geometrical or
tangible qualities of numbers with which we have to deal, and
the geometrical defects of ten as a radix are a standing dis-
qualification, with all its factitious advantages as the root of
our notation. Were it possible for the world to start afresh —
as the Frenchmen a hundred years ago dreamed of doing —
mathematicians would certainly discard ten as a root-number
and seek another, and that number would almost certainly be
twelve. Had such a proposition come from the French
scientists when the change was undertaken it would, even if
ultimately found impracticable, have had good scientific rea-
sons in its favour; in fact, the difficulties, great though they
are, might not then have proved insurmountable.

Our arithmetical notation expresses actual numbers only
from 1 to 9. Thenceforth, both in speech and writing, all
numbers are indicated not as they are in themselves, but
in their relation to the radix ten. So with fractions. Only
those with a single numerator and denominator express
actual relations to unity ; beyond these the artificial element
makes its appearance. Mr. R. T. Barbour, writing last year
in an Australian review, remarked that, instead of vulgar
and decimal fractions, we should say vulgar and natural.
This is a good instance of a notational convention obscuring

Harding. — Certain Decimal and Metrical Fallacies. 97

genuine relations, for the suggestion that there is anything at
all "natural" in decimal fractions, especially as contrasted
with vulgar fractions, is a complete inversion of fact. Take
that convenient school-book illustration the apple ; halve and
quarter it. Which form most correctly aud naturally ex-
presses the proportion the sections bear to the whole ? The
"half" or "quarter" represents the actual fact accurately
expressed by the vulgar fraction, and by that alone. To
describe the fruit as divided into sections of 0-5 or 0-25 is
to introduce an artificial convention remote from the fact,
warrantable only when, for purposes of calculation, we are
considering the pieces in association with others actually
divided into fifths, tenths, or twenty-fifths. The " Autocrat "
has told how, after defending his landlady's pie, " I took more
of it than was good for me — as much as 85°, I should think —
and had an indigestion in consequence." This does not
strike an appreciative reader as intended for the "natural"
mode of expression, but rather as a piece of playful pedantry
on the author's part. Vulgar fractions are so universally and
unmistakablv natural that no convention or notation, how-
ever ingenious, can dislodge them. Therefore the German
typefounder of to-day, being a man of common-sense, cata-
logues his smaller wares by the "half-kilo." (his nearest
approach to the discarded pficnd), the American coins his
half- and quarter-dollar, and so to the end of the chapter will
weights and measures necessarily be popularly divided,
thought of, and spoken of in halves and quarters, whatever
official system may be in vogue, or by whatever written
symbol these values are expressed.

The radix of 2 is one of the most important in practical
use, and in many cases it is the only practicable one. It
governs not only our own, but the other traditional systems of
weights ; it is the obvious corollary of any system of balanc-
ing. In book-folding it is in all ways the most convenient,
and its sole rival, the sextuple fold, is almost extinct. The
names "twelves" and "twenty-fours" are still in use to
indicate certain shapes and sizes, but as a matter of practice
such are nearly always now printed and folded as eights-
or sixteens. A " decimo " sheet would be an obvious im-
possibility. Two of the multiples of 2 — eight and sixteen —
have been suggested as notational substitutes for ten ; but as
an arithmetical radix either of them would be little, if any,
better, apart from the consideration that one is inconveniently
small and the other just as inconveniently large. The latter
would further involve a cumbrous notation and an extensive
nomenclature, as an American would-be reformer, who boldly
selected sixteen as his radix, discovered many years ago. De
Morgan, in his " Budget of Paradoxes," has made merry over

7— Trans.

98 Traiisactions. — Miscellaneous.

the uncouth terms devised by this innovator ; but if there had
been any sound basis for the suggestion itself the professor
would have treated the paradoxer more seriously.

A duodecimal scale has had numerous advocates, and a
large amount of work has been done in the way of compiling
tables, &c., in appropriate notation by isolated workers, many
completely ignorant of the fact that others have gone and are
going over the same ground. I have seen more than one
publication on the subject. One of these, by Mr. Henry M.
Parkhurst, an American mathematician, contains elaborate
tables of logarithms, primary and secondary multiples, least
divisors, &c., all calculated on the radix of twelve, and I
understand that the author has much more matter of the same
kind in manuscript. He uses X and A, contracted to the
width of the other digits, to represent ten and eleven, and
these two special characters give his tables a peculiar appear-
ance. There is, or was, a Duodecimal Society in England,
formed to bring about organized and united action, but I have
never seen any of its publications, nor do I know its address.
The most prominent duodecimalist, however, was the late Sir
Isaac Pitman, who took up the subject with characteristic
energy. His attention was directed to the matter through
the agitation in and out of Parliament in favour of the
metric system, among the defects of which he held that its
decimalism was not the least. " With a view to carrymg his
proposal into practice," his biographer writes,''' " new types
were ordered (?, ten, and 'i, eleven) in four sizes, and it was
Mr. Pitman's intention to employ the new notation in his
Journal, and to recommend it for general adoption. During
1857-58 he counted everything as far as possible by dozens
and grosses, with a view of paving the way for the new
numeration ; but he was unequal to the task of undertaking a
reform of this magnitude in addition to the writing and spell-
ing reform, and after a series of trials he reluctantly aban-
doned the project, but not without hope of seeing it inaugu-
rated at some future period." For two years he used the
notation in his Journal, and kept it up in his private accounts
till 1862. His scheme included a coinage system — pence,
shillings (a gold twelve-shilling-piece to take the place of the
half-sovereign), and " bancos " = a gross of shillings. The
figures " 7S3," with currency symbol prefixed, would thus
repx'esent seven "bancos," ten shillings, three pence. He
probably proposed to reform current weights and measures on
the same plan, but, not having access to the old Journal files,

•"A Biography of Isaac Pitman, Inventor of Phonography." By
Thomas Allan Reed. London : Griffith, Parran, Okeden, and Welsh.
1890.

Harding. — Certain Decimal and Metrical Fallacies. 99

I have no details. The disturbance of measures by complete
duodecimalisation would amount to no more than systemati-
zation, and would be comparatively slight, but it would have
been otherwise with weights. It will be noted that a single
radix would have governed arithmetical notation, measure-
ment, and coinage.

To those who have any knowledge of the life and work of
Isaac Pitman it is needless to say that he was the reverse
of an idle dreamer. He was one of the most industrious,
methodical, and practical of men, possessing extensive know-
ledge and an inventive mind. Without these qualities he
would never have made the practical success he did of his
system of phonography, which, on its own merits alone, dis-
lodged every previous system of shorthand, and still holds its
ground against all rivals. When he received his somewhat
belated honours from royalty, they were generally approved
as having been bestowed on a public benefactor. Any man
who looks forward in advance of his time must bear the
penalty of being ignorantly esteemed a paradoxer ; but even
in the field of speUing-reform, to which he devoted years of
apparently fruitless toil and expense, his work has not been
lost, for he has familiarised the millions who write short-
hand with the idea of a rational alphabet, of which they make
dailv use. But the reform of arithmetical notation, however
desirable in theory, seems to be too large a contract for any
man, or even any nation, to undertake, and its foremost advo-
cate was well advised to let it drop.

As notational signs the Pitman figures could scarcely be
improved upon. While conforming in character to the familiar
numerals, they can also be read as the initial letters of the
words "ten" and "eleven" respectively. The following
table of various numbers compared in the two notations gives
an example of the symbols as they appear in actual use : —

Decimal.

Daodecimal.

Decimal.

Duodecimal

12

10

287

= 122

22

18

432

= 300

100

84

999

= 623

107

82

1570

= lU

144<

= 100

1728

= 1000

Apart altogether from any theory of reform, a little prac-
tice in this notation is a remarkably illuminating exercise in
arithmetic, showing, as it does, that the decimal system con-
ceals more than it discloses of the properties of numbers.
Awkward fractions disappear, while numerical relationships
come out in a simple and beautiful manner. One important
series after another, broken and marred by decimal misrepre-
sentation, falls into regular and harmonious sequence, and the

100 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

geometrical relations, which to the worker in any branch of
science or art are of essential importance, in a larger measure
than is possible under any other radix, are represented in their
real significance.

This is in itself no slight advantage, for geometry is of all
sciences the most tangible and practical. How comes it to
pass that the dozen holds its ground so persistently in com-
merce, notwithstanding the convention of reckoning by tens?
Very much because there are so many ways of making a con-
venient and compact parcel of twelve equal units, while tens
and hundreds pack very badly indeed, making misshapen
parcels and wasting space. To those who have to pay freight
charges — as all must do, directly or indirectly — this is a con-
sideration of importance.

The two ratios with which the practical work of life brings
us into constant contact are graphically represented respec-
tively on the clock-dial and the compass-card. With both
of these decimals are in constant discord. The old Baby-
lonian division of the circle into 360 degrees is comprehensive
enough to take in the decimal, but its place is subordinated
to the more important and significant geometrical angles,
which only duodecimal division can give.

It may be regretted that a numerical system so nearly
perfect as the duodecimal — simplifying as t would all the
practical mathematical work of the world to an amazing
extent — can never, unless humanity develops an unforeseen
capacity for the acceptance of great reforms, be adopted. If
it were merely a matter of relative merit there could be no
doubt of the result, for mathematicians are unanimous as to
its superiority. But one of the great arguments against the
metric system applies witli equal force to duodecimalism.
The decimal radix is so strongly entrenched in tradition, in
notation, in thought, speech, and literature, that its dislo'dg-
ment may be reasonably assumed to be impossible. We find
a tacit recognition of the place that twelve should occupy of
right in the significant facts that our popular multiplication -
table extends to 12 x 12, and that children are taught simple
multiplication and division up to twelve, not ten. And ham-
pered though we are in all directions by our defective arith-
metical radix, we still are free to use, in weighing and mea-
suring, the divisions that the experience of many ages has
proved to be the best adapted to our needs. That freedom
it is the avowed object of the metrists to destroy. They would
widen still further the gulf that unfortunately divides arith-
metic from geometry, and make our bondage to the decimal
complete.

In any notation two radices are required — a major as
well as a minor — and it is important that there should be

Harding. — Certain Decimal and Metrical Fallacies. 101

due correlation between the two. There is a notable differ-
ence in this respect between the ancient system, universal in
the British Empire, and the modern French scale. While our
own system does not appear to be the best possible, this corre-
lation is duly observed ; in the French scheme it is neglected,
with the result that the nomenclature is unscientific and mis-
leading. It is the usual convention to break any long series
of figures into groups of three for the sole purpose of facilitat-
ing reading. The comma, usually employed for this purpose,
is no more a mark of grammatical punctuation than the period
when used as a decimal point. But French numeration is so
glaringly anti-arithmetical that it can be explained only on the
theory that in their inveterate habit of mistaking arbitrary
symbols for scientific facts the devisers of the scheme attached
some occult mathematic significance to the triple grouping.
In fixing the major radix the question arises at which stage to
abandon ten and substitute a multiple. Theoretically, as it is
easy to show, the second radix should be a power of ten which
is (1) a square number, and (2) the roots of which are also
squares till we reach the square of ten. Such numbers are
successively one hundred, ten thousand, and one hundred
millions. Either of these, radically subdivided, brings us in
the end to ten ; any other multiple of ten will yield as its root
number an interminable decimal. For the larger radix one
hundred is obviously too small ; multiplied by a million it is
inconveniently large. The point naturally indicated for the
break, therefore, is the myriad, in which case the ciphers
would properly be grouped not in triplets but in fours. By
this arrangement the numeration table would stand thus, the
square numbers being indicated by small capitals : —

One ... ... ... ... 1

First Series (Minor Radix).

Ten ... ... ... ... 10

Hundred (10'^) ... ... ... 100

Thousand (10«) ... ... ... 1000

Myriad (10^ = lOO'^) ... ... 1,0000

Second Series (Major Radix).

Decamyriad (10')... ... ... 10,0000

Million (10'' = 1000^) ... ... 100,0000

Milliard (10^) ... ... ... 1000,0000

Billion (10« = 100^ = 1,0000-) ... 1,0000,0000

Trillion (1,0000^^ = 100,0000'^) ... 1,0000,0000,0000

Quadrillion (1,0000^ = 1,0000,0000^) 1,0000,0000,0000,0000

In this scheme the first and second series are consistent
and complementary ; the powers of the minor radix are in-

102 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

dicated by the number of ciphers and those of the major
radix by the number of groups, the index-prefixes " bi,"
" tri," &c., agreeing with the power. By this plan, and this
alone, the comma dividing the groups becomes a significant
arithmetical sign as well as an aid to legibihty. Both the
British system and the French are defective in starting from
the million, which, though itself a square number, has not a
square for its radix. In the British scheme, however, the
terms " billion," " trillion," &c., representing as they do the
successive powers of the greater radix, are correctly used ;
but the French nomenclature, in which a thousand millions
is called a " billion " and a thousand " billions " a " trillion,"
is worse than meaningless — it is misleading. If we seek the
root of the British billion, the cube-root of the trillion, and so
on, we shall always come back to the starting-point — the
million, or 10**. Applying the same process to the French
table, we have a series of anomalous results — the root of the
"billion" is 31622777 with an endless decimal fraction; the
cube-root of the " trillion " is 10,000. The fact that the French
have their own specific word, " milliard," for their modern
"billion" seems to indicate that the numeration scheme has
undergone alteration ; and, in fact, I find it explicitly stated
by one authority that in France the " older writers " use the
same system as our own. I have been unable to ascertain
whether the change was made as recently as the revolution
at the close of the eighteenth century, so few writers concern
themselves with the historic aspects of the question ; but I
am inclined to think it belongs to a remoter period. Unfor-
tunately for the English-speaking world, the French method
has become prevalent in the United States, causing such
confusion in the interchange of newspaper items and literature
in general that one meeting with a i-eference to a " billion "
in print, unless assisted by the context, can never be sure
whether a thousand millions or a million millions is in-
tended. Stranger still, the French notation was most un-
warrantably introduced into at least one important Eng-
lish text-book — the Sandhurst Military College Arithmetic
— but appeared, 1 am informed, in one edition only. Its
temporary adoption in this academy, however, has led
to serious confusion. When the present Education Act
came into force the Department found both systems being
taught to the children of New Zealand, certain provincial
Inspectors apparently preferring the French method, and it
became necessary to issue a special direction insisting on the
uniform use of the British notation in all the public schools.
Apart from scientific defects, a low base of computation,
especially when combined with a low unit of currency, is not
in keeping with the dignity of a great people. Mark Twain

Hakding. — Certain Decimal and Metrical Fallacies. 103

has humorously described the dismay of a small dinner-party
at the Azores when the landlord presented his bill, amount-
ing to " 21,700 reis," which amount was found after much
inquiry to equal 21 dollars 70 cents. But the small billion,
in conjunction with a dollar unit, is a boon to " yellow " jour-
nalists and others addicted to "tall talk." The "billions"
so glibly paraded, even if genuine, which is not always the
case, represent about two hundred millions sterling in British
currency, and it requires five times as much wealth to con-
stitute a millionaire in Britain as it does in the United States.

Not the least instructive chapter in the history of the
French reformers is the record of their failures — failures
which shattered the boasted unity of their system even at the
outset, and which the metrists of to-day keep judiciously in
the background. But it is not quite forgotten that the scheme
of these same " reformers " included the consummation of the
Christian era, and the institution of the new order in which
mankind should recognise one object of adoration only — the
Goddess of Eeason. In October, 1793, the new calendar,
designed for all time, was promulgated. Books dated in the
year 1 are still extant. The week was abolished and the
decade substituted. The whole scheme of time was de-
cimalised, but the solar system persisted in pursuing its
incommensurable movements as before. Doubtless it was
this perverse conservatism on the part of bodies celestial and
terrestrial that caused a certain astronomer to wish that he
had been present at the creation to give the Almighty the
benefit of his counsel. The new era was inaugurated with
much ceremony and indecorum — for was it not to abide for
ever ? All books of chronology record the date of its institu-
tution, but few give the date of its disappearance. In a very
few years it had vanished like a wreath of mist — imperceptibly
but effectually.

The geometric circle, like the arc of the meridian, was
regraded into 400 instead of 360 degrees. As under the re-
formed arrangement many of the most important angles could
no longer be expressed in degrees, this was one of the first
points in which the scheme broke down. In any case, the
preliminary quartering of the circle was in itself a silent but
none the less eloquent admission of the essential inadequacy
of decimalism. In fact, examination of the pretentious
scheme, no matter at what point that examination begins,
reveals fallacy piled upon fallacy.

Even if our own ancient system had no particular scientific
value — if it were really as defective as its assailants assert —
we might well hesitate to exchange it for a substitute so-
ill-considered and so imperfect, quite apart from the incalcul-
able loss and inconvenience such a change would impose upoa

104 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

us. " History," as a writer of a past generation has well
said, "shows that, while Governments change with great
facility their money systems, their constitution, and even
their religion, weights and measures seem immovable. They
are, indeed, so mixed and, as it were, matted with every
concern of property that they cannot be essentially altered
without violence and confusion. Nor are these evils of a
temporary nature. The habits, customs, and prejudices of
the multitude are not to be speedily changed." The experi-
ence of every country where such a change has been decreed
sufficiently confirms the statement. But it is not in the
interests of "the multitude" that the change is made, nor
are their " habits, customs, and prejudices," if such happen to
conflict with the prevailing fashion in science (so called),
deemed worthy of consideration. Happily, fashions in science,
as in costume, have a way of becoming unfashionable, while
despised "habits, customs, and prejudices" — often the in-
tuitive wisdom of the many, or embodying the concrete
results of the experience of a distant past — have a perennial
vitality extremely irritating to the exponents of the latest
theories.

After all, our national measures, which — in these days of
rampant "Imperialism," too! — it has become the unpatriotic
fashion to contemn, are fundamentally more scientific, as well
as more generally convenient, than their foreign rivals. They
are no mere "accidental " inheritance, nor do they show any
signs of haphazard origin. Whence the Saxons derived them,
and how, is not known ; but they can be shown to possess a
venerable antiquity, and to have passed down the ages prac-
tically unchanged. A jealous regard for accurate standards
is an ancient characteristic of our race. Were there such a
thing in nature as an imnmtable standard, convenient and
everywhere accessible, no doubt it would have been accepted,
but no such natural unit has ever been found. The wise men
of old everywhere selected the nearest approach which has yet
been found to such a unit. They did not take a random
terrestrial measurement with neither scientific nor practical
value. They recognised that measures were subordinate to
man and not man to measures, and from first to last, there-
fore, their standard was "the measure of a man." Proof of
this fact is built into the very structure of language. There is
not an ancient term of measurement in our tongue, save those
denoting infinitesimals, that cannot be referred to the human
frame.*

* The fathom is the height of a well-developed man, and also the
stretch of his p^rins, which, in fact, tlie woni itself signifies. Philologists
refer it to the root " fat," to extend. The Saxon word " fivSm " signifies
" the space reached by the extended arms — reach, embrace." In Danish,

Hakding. — Certain Decimal and Metrical Fallacies. 105

Can creation furnish a better unit ? I do not think so.
All men are not six feet high, nor are their feet usually twelve
inches in length, and it is obviously true that any one who
should in his own person combine all the precise measure-
ments which derive their names from the human frame would
not be a model for an artist. The necessity that each
measure should bear an aliquot relation to all the others — the
variations in human stature and build — make exact corre-
spondence with any of them the exception rather than the
rule. They are, as it were, the rough draft, from which,
by comparisons and averages, the actual standards of reference
have been derived. They are, however, near enough for most
of the practical needs of daily life ; they are universally
accessible as no external standard can possibly be ; and the
man who takes the trouble to ascertain and make due allow-
ance for his own " personal equation " may still serve as his
own standard, and be to a great extent independent of
external aid. I have seen a tall Maori measuring off a fabric
by the "faddom," using his arms as a gauge, and he did not
give himself short measure, as a tape afterwards proved. I
have seen women measure off yards with great correctness
by hand and eye alone ; and the accuracy with which dis-
tances can be " paced " does not need to be pointed out.
The so-called " patriotic " exercises in our schools, instead
of taking the questionable form of homage to a flag, would
be better devoted to explaining the beauty and value of
our far more ancient standards. If the children were
exercised in weighmg and measuring by the eye and hand,
their work being afterwards tested — m drawing and sub-
dividing six- or twelve -inch scales from memory — they
might in after-life be to a great extent independent of artificial
standards, except where commercial or scientific accuracy was
required.

The antiquity of our measures may be inferred from the
fact — which is abundantly demonstrated — that they are built
into the Great Pyramid of Egypt, the oldest of all the pyra-
mids, the others being very indifferent imitations — sepulchral

an allied language, the expression for "to embrace" is at tage i favn,
literally " to take in fathom," the two nouns being identical. The cubit,
yard, and ell refer to arm-measurements ; the span, the hand, the foot
need no interpretation. " Inch " and " thumb " are convertible terms in
more than one living language, and the old " finger-breadth " was two-
thirds of an inch. The "pace" is the unit of the longer measures;
" mile," a numerical term, literally means a thousand paces. Measures
were also calculated by days' or hours' journeys and variously subdivided.
Naturally among different peoples these have diverged more widely than
the smaller measures ; hence we have the modern mile varying from
11,700 yards in Sweden to 1,165 yards in Russia. But from the finger-
breadth to the league the man himself is always the ultimate standard.

106 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

monuments embodying no mathematical science.* In the
Pyramid we find most unmistakably the inch and the cubit
of 26 inches ; all the measures of weight and capacity are
based upon the inch, and the central chamber where they are
deposited is perhaps the most perfect contrivance for securing
uniformity of temperature ever devised by the skill of man.
In the Pyramid standard measure of capacity, equalling four
British '• quarters," we find the origin of the term, the larger
measure having been so long disused that the fractional
name has been somewhat of a puzzle. f A further example
of the little change which a traditional standard may sustain
when carefully preserved is found in the fact that our inch
differs from its prototype in the Pyramid by only the thou-
sandth part (miniis).

If the basis of our measure be the noblest of all — man
himself, so its popular divisions are in practice more adapted
to his daily needs than the new ones. Only last year a
photographic journal complained that the French system
provided no convenient-sized storage-bottles, and said that
photographers who, perforce, did laboratory work on the metric

• So many strange and fanciful theories have been associated with
this structure — specially built to embody the astronomical and mathe-
matical science of its founders, and to afford an enduring record of their
standard of weights and measures — that it is almost necessary in referring
to the subject to disclaim the reli£;ious theories which — unfortunately, I
think — have been associated with it. Such, for example, as that its
builders were divinely inspired, and that it is "a prophecy in stone."
To the late Professor Piazzi Smyth, Astronomer Eoyal of Scotland,
belongs the credit of making the first exact measurements and of inter-
preting the mathematical and astronomical significance of the venerable
monument ; but I cannot but think the usefulness of his work was marred,
though its accuracy was not affected, by his theological bias. He disliked
the division of the circle into 360 degrees not on scientific grounds, but
because that method was used by the idolatrous Babylonians. He
accepted as fact the Rabbinical tradition recorded by Josephus, that
Cain added to his iniquities by devising weights and measures that he
might defraud those with whom he had dealings — a story in much the
same category as that in the apocryphal Book of Enoch, whence we learn
that an evil demon, Pcnemue by name, taught the children of men
writing and the use of ink and paper, with every secret of wisdom,
whereby many have gone astray from every period of the world, and by
their knowledge they perish.

f A remarkable feature of the Pyramid standard is that it deals only
with the concrete, avoiding notation of any kind. It cannot be said to be
binary, decimal, or ducdccimal — it is, like number itself, independent of
them all, and its interpreter must find and apply his own radix. In this
respect it is consistent with its plan, for it is unique among Egy-ptian
monuments in that it is absolutely without inscription, bearing neither
hieroglyph nor alphabetic symbol. Piazzi Smyth was as thorough a
decimalist as he was an opponent of the " atheistic mrlre," but he could
find no decimal or other radix in the structure. In form it is a five-sided
crystal, and if it has a key-number (which is doubtful) that number
would seem to be 5, for its cubit is 5 x 5 inches.

Harding. —Certain Decimal and Metrical Fallacies. 107

system kept Winchester quart bottles for storage, and in
preparing solutions thought and worked in the old standards.
Yet another worker in the same field, criticizing the nomen-
clature, said it was, according to all the laws of thought, a
defect. A separate characteristic name for each successive
unit gives it individuality, whereas the cumbrous and indis-
tinctive names in the metric system are found in practice to
be a source of error.

As we have seen, the French scientists went to great pains
and expense to have some kind of cosmic basis for their sys-
tem. Our own system has not only the microcosmic basis
supplied by man himself, but according to the late Sir John
Herschel (who, by the way, did not take the Pyramid into
account at all) has relations to earth and water more striking
and harmonious than any the rival system can boast. Sir
John could speak on this subject, if any man could, with
authority. He was the ablest and most learned member of
the Standards Commission, and his letter to the Times, written
more than thirty years ago, is so much to the point that I
quote it in full : —

As Mr. Ewart's Bill for the compulsory abolition of our whole sys-
tem of British weights and measures, and the introduction in its place of
the French metrical system, comes on for its second reading on the 13th
proximo, I cannot help thinking that a brief statement of the compara-
tive de facto claims of our British units and of the French on abstract
scientific grounds may, by its insertion in your pages, tend to disabuse the
minds of such, if any, of our legislators who may be under the impression
(1 believe, a very common one among all classes) that our system is devoid
of a natural or rational basis, and as such can advance no n priori claim
to maintain its ground.

De facto, then, though not de j\ire (i.e., by no legal definition
existing in an Act of Parliament, but yet practically verified in our parlia-
mentary standards of length, weight, and capacity as they now exist), our
British units refer themselves as well and as naturally to the length of the
earth's polar axis as do the French actually existing standards to that of
a quadrant of the meridian passing through Paris, and even in itself better,
while the former basis is in itself a preferable one.

To show this I shall assume as our British unit of length the Imperial
foot, of weight the Imperial ounce, and of capacity the Imperial half-
pint, and shall proceed to state how they stand related to certain proto-
types, which I shall call the geometrical ounce, foot, and half-pint ; and
shall then institute a similar comparison between the French legally
authenticated metre, gramme, and litre in common use with their (equally
ideal, because nowhere really existing) prototypes, supposed to be derived
from the Paris meridian quadrant, distinguishing the former as the prac-
tical, the latter as the theoretical, French units.

Conceive the length of the earth's axis as divided into five hundred
million equal parts or geometrical inches. Then we will define : —

(1.) A geometrical foot as twelve such geometrical inches ;

(2.) A geometrical half-pint as the exact hundredth part of a geo-
metrical cubic foot ; and

(3.) A geometrical ounce as the weight of one exact thousandth part
of a geometrical cubic foot of distilled water, the weighing
being performed, as our Imperial system prescribes, in air of
62° Fahr. under a barometric pressure of 30 inches.

108 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

In like manner the theoretical kilogramme and litre of the French
are decimally referred to their theoretical metre on their own peculiar con-
ventions as to the mode of weighing.

This premised — (1) The Imperial foot is to the geometrical in the
exact proportion of 999 to 1,000, a relation numerically so exact that it
may fairly be considered as mathematical ; and (2) and (3) the Imperial
half-pint and ounce are, each of them, to its geometrical prototype as
2,600 to 2,601.

Turn we now to the practical deviations from their theoretical ideals
in the case of the French units. Here again (1) the practical metre is
shorter than its theoretical ideal. The approximation is, indeed, closer,
but the point of real importance is the extreme numerical simplicity of the
relation in our case, more easily borne in mind and more readily calcu-
lated on in any proposed case. (2 and 3) Any error in the practical
value of the metre entails a triple amount of aliquot error on the practical
kilogramme and litre, so that in the cases of these units the proportion
between their practical and theoretical values is not that of 6,400 to 6,401,
but of 2,133 to 2,134. Here, then, the greater degree of approximation is
in our favour ; and it is to be observed that in our case this triplication of
error does not hold good, since by a happy accident our standard pound
has been fixed quite independently of our standard yard, and our gallon is
defined as 10 pounds of water.

Like all other terrestrial things, the earth's axis is doubt-
less subject to minute secular changes ; but it is at least a
right line, and a line of unique significance, as it is used by
astronomers as the unit-measure for distances within the
solar system. It is therefore very convenient that it should
harmonize with our ordinary standards. Moreover, its length
— five hundred million inches — is a consistent decimal rela-
tion, which the forty million metres of the French system is
not. "Was it, however, by a mere "happy accident" that
such remarkable concordances occurred ? I have more faith
in both the knowledge and wisdom of the men who devised
them of old than to think so. Astronomically and mathe-
matically, the self-complacent French scientists of a hundred
years ago were as babes compared with the architect of the
Pyramid.

Sir John Herschel's casual reference to the " peculiar con-
ventions" of the French method brings out another instance
of the practical nature of our system as contrasted with the
artificial and doctrinaire methods of the metric system.
British observations and tests are made under reasonable and
normal conditions of atmospheric pressure and temperature.
The French observations have to be corrected to the prac-
tically impossible conditions of sea-level and the freezing-
point of water.

The British people are free to use, and do habitually use,
decimal divisions of their own standards wherever such
division is found to be right and convenient. Any instru-
ment-dealer will supply rules graded into eighths, tenths, or
twelfths, as desired. Foreigners are nob so ignorant of our
standards as the metric advocates would have us believe.

Hakding. — Certain Decimal and Metrical Fallacies. 109

For British buyers they are quite willing to manufacture
to British measures. Beautiful and accurate scales to
English feet and inches are " made in Germany." Time
has been decimalised for the navigator's convenience, as
the Nautical Almanac tables show ; but it would be an
intolerable inconvenience to have to exchange our present
clocks for ten-hour dials.

That our foreign trade would benefit by the change is more
than doubtful. While we were painfully and laboriously
discarding all our patterns and making new tools — probably
we should find it necessary to purchase most of them abroad
— our foreign rivals, with all their scales ready to hand, would
have an unprecedented opportunity of invading all our markets,
and during the time of transition, at all events, would have an
overwhelming advantage. Just as free trade and exchange
throughout the United States has brought vast prosperity, so,
high authorities maintain, British success in trade has been
in great measure due to the uniform system of standards
existing throughout the British-speaking world. Is this
colony desirous to strike the first blow to break it up ?
France was once kind enough to hint that she would consent
to reckon from the Greenwich meridian if Britain would adopt
the French measures. Was the suggestion made for Britain's
advantage? Scarcely. France would be the gainer in such
a compact by both changes.

The question is a vital one. Even if the change could be
shown to be for the better, would it be worth the price we
should have to pay ?

Every individual in the community would be injuriously
affected. Every map, from the magnificent British Ordnance
Survey to the diagrams on the margins of deeds, would require
recalculation on an incommensurable scale. In the case of
city frontages particularly, where fractions of inches are
precious, the recalculation would be a fruitful source of dis-
satisfaction and dispute.

All contractors' calculations of quantities, all measure-
ments of bricks, timber, and other building material, would be
affected. All graded instruments, from the artisan's two-foot
rule to the costly and delicate apparatus of the engineer,
would have to be replaced, all patterns superannuated, all
calculations translated. If workmen only realised what it
meant to them the trades-unions would make inflexible oppo-
sition to the change the foremost item on their programme.
They will protest loudly enough, we may be sure, the day
that it is sprung upon them. Then it will be too late. Those
concerned are not so supine in the United States. I read,
only a few days ago,''' that the American Society of Civil

* Engineer, 7th August, 1903.

110 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Engineers sent out a ballot-paper with a series of questions
on the subject. There were 514 responses, and the adverse
votes were three to one.

Our textile goods would be affected. The housewife would
no longer buy fabrics by the yard, nor could she do her
marketing by the pound.

All familiar landmarks, such as milestones and railway
distance-pegs, w^ould be obsolete. No doubt the State, to set
an example, would at once set about pulling them up and
grading in kilometers. " A frightful waste," says a cor-
respondent of the Engineering World (London), "and for
what use? "

To the astronomer it closes the ledger which, as Proctor
told us, has been kept posted for three thousand years. The
navigator's tables and books of reference will be obsolete, and
the shipowner will have to forget his tonnages. The occupier
of land — owner or tenant — must recalculate boundaries and
recompute superficial areas. The Land and Survey Depart-
ment would have the same costly task, and on a truly mag-
nificent scale. Two-thirds of the world's trade would be
disorganized while the change — necessarily slow — was in pro-
gress.

It would play ciuel havoc with our national inheritance of
literature. The nomenclature is barbarous and unconform-
able to the genius of our tongue, while our classics, if the pre-
sent standards ever became obsolete, would require continual
annotation. Let us open an edition of Shakespeare, say, of

A.D. 2003:—

A merry heart goes all the day,
Your sad tires in a mile-a.*

This bond is forfeit,
And lawfully by this the Jew may claim
A pound [= 0-454 kilo.] of flesh.

Full 9'144 meters thy father lies ;
Of his bones are coral made.

How the substituted nomenclature could be worked into
English verse (other than burlesque) is a question that poets
would have to settle.

On patriotic and commercial grounds alike we should resist
the change. The widest charity does not require us to com-
mit commercial suicide that France and Germany may enjoy
increased prosperity.

I have already referred to the impossibility of restoring the
metric standard by repeating the original measurements ; also
to the fact that after the lapse of a century the old standards
are not extinct in Erance. Will it be credited tliat a German
advocate of the meter urges the necessity for careful preserva-

• Mile. — An ancient lineal measure 1-G09 kilometers.

Harding. — Certain Decimal and Metrical Fallacies. Ill

tion of the neglected ancient standard in order that it may
remain as an authoritative check by which the accuracy of
the meter may be tested ? It reads hke comic opera, but it
is true. In the " History and Review of the Toise Measure
Standard," pubhshed by Ferdinand Dummler, Berhn, Pro-
fessor Dr. W. Foerster, who writes the introduction, says, —

The old French system, whose unit was the toise graduated in six
Parisian feet (= 72 Paris inches = 8B4 Paris lines) is also at present, next
to the universal and exclusively recognised (legal) metrical system, of
great scientific and practical value, since the same has not only been
the starting-point for the fixing of the basis of the metrical system, but
even at the present time has found employment in pendulum observa-
tions, and, by reason of its inclusion in numerous good measure scales
and basis-measure apparatus, in land-surveying, especially in Germany.
In order to secure a fixed and accurate transition from all the old
French units of measurement to measurements according to metric
units, and thereby to take the last step to overcome the old system, and
finally to attain a homogeneous basis for all measurements, it is of great
importance that there should be made as soon as possible in the Inter-
national Weights and Measures Office a new comparison between the unit-
lengths of the old French system and of the metric system.

The whole passage, though not so intended, is a powerful
iiidietment of the pseudo-science which wantonly cast aside
an established and useful standard for a newly devised and
nondescript substitute. Professor Foerster, it may be ob-
served in passing, does not speak disparagingly or contemptu-
ously of the old inch-and-foot scale ; but, on the contrary,
acknowledges its "great scientific and practical value" — as
British folk will begin to do after they have lost it, if the
metrists have their way. It may be as well to explain, how-
ever, how this dependence of the accuracy of the metric
standard on the ancient Paris standards arose. Of course,
the arc of the meridian could not be measured in ''metres,"
because that measurement was a preliminary to its establish-
ment ; and the surveyors necessarily made use of the autho-
ritative scale which it was their purpose to supersede. The
meter is usually described as equal to 36-9413 French or
39-3708 English inches. Its precise length, however, was
reduced to French lines, of which it equals 443-296, and to
this standard it would require to be referred should any ques-
tion hereafter arise. Evidently there is considerable vitality
in the old inch-and-foot scale still, even where it has been
most rigorously suppressed ; and in the coming Battle of the
Standards for the supremacy of the world it may yet come off
victor. By clearing the field of all inch-and-foot systems
save the British it has greatly simplified the issue. What
the result of the conflict will be it would be idle to predict ;
but there can be no question that the fittest will survive if the
English-speaking world, awakening to the importance of its
trust, remains united, and "England to herself be true."

II. — ZOOLOGY.

Abt. VIII. — The Kohoperoa or Koekoea, Long-tailed Cuckoo
(Urodynamis taitensis) : An Account of its Habits, De-
scripiion of a Nest containing its (supposed) Egg, and a
Suggestion as to how the Parasitic Habit in Birds has
become established.

By EoBEET Fulton, M.B., CM., Edin.

[Laid on the Table at the Annual General Meeting of the Otago
Institute, November-, 1903.]

So little is known of the breeding-habits of the Long-tailed
Cuckoo that the description of a nest containing what I believe
to be the egg of this interesting bird may be considered of
some ornithological importance.

The Long - tailed Cuckoo is a native of the South Sea
Islands, and visits us annually in the spring, breeding with
us, but the task of feeding its young is very frequently carried
out by the Grey Warbler {Gerygone flaviventris), a species
which actually hatches and brings up the young of the
Bronze or Shining Cuckoo (Chalcococcyx lucidus), another
summer visitant(l). How the egg of the Shining Cuckoo is
placed in the nest of the Warbler is as yet unknown ; the
Cuckoo probably lays the egg on the ground and then places
it in the nest with its beak, for it can hardly get inside the
nest without seriously damaging it ; and when we come to
consider the size of the Long-tailed Cuckoo the difficulty is im-
measurably increased. Sir Walter Buller says of this point,
" It is difficult to conceive how a bird of the size and form of
the Long-tailed Cuckoo could deposit its egg in the domed
nest of Gerygone flaviventris; and, even supposing that it
did, it would seem almost a physical impossibility for so small
a creature to hatch it ; and, again, were this feasible, it is
difficult to imagine how the frail tenement of a suspension
nest could support the daily increasing weight of the young
cuckoo "(2). This objection has been raised by others, (3) and
from my own observations of the nests of Gerygone, and the
fact that the barely fledged Shining Cuckoo fills the nest
to almost bursting-point, I am convinced that the Warbler
rarely, if ever, hatches the egg of Urodynaims. Sir Walter
Buller was long of the opinion that the Cuckoo hatched its
own egg and then cast its offspring upon a charitable world

8— Trans.

114 Trafisactions. — Zoology.

for support. This view was suggested by the fact that he
once shot an adult female of this species in which the under-
parts were quite denuded of feathers, as though the bird had
been long incubating(4). In addition to this the strange fact
that birds of many different species had been seen to feed
cuckoos(5) gave him the idea that the true parent hatched the
egg, and then left the chick to the " bird world in general " for
its support and maintenance.

It is reported of the Kermadec Islands that a resident,
thoroughly familiar with the birds there, and a reliable
observer, has frequently seen the old Cuckoos feeding their
young, and considers that they build their own nest, and bring
up their young themselves(6). It is not, however, stated
whether this nest-building is mere surmise or gathered from
actual observation. It is quite possible that an occasional
Cuckoo may, under the influence of atavism, actually build a
nest and hatch an egg or eggs. An instance is recorded of
the Great Spotted Cuckoo of Europe having been said to have
bv;ilt a nest and hatched its young ; but all ornithologists of
the time discredited the accuracy of the observer, and said
that it was a manifest error(7).

In Australia we find Cuckoos, almost without exception,
depositing their eggs in the nests of other birds. The
Channel-bill [Scythrops nova-Jiollandia) lays her egg in the
open nests of the Crow, Sparrow-hawk, (8) Black-backed
Magpie, and Pied Crow-Shrike; and the Koel {Eudynamis
cyanocephala) in the nests of the different Friar-birds and
Orioles, all open-nested birds ; the Pallid Cuckoo also lays in
similar open or cup-shaped uests(9). Nearly all the other
Australian Cuckoos, including several large ones, and three
of the four Bronze Cuckoos, carefully select dome-shaped or
covered-in nests for the home of their young(lO). Now, the
question arises. How are these eggs placed in their respective
uests? Dr. Eamsay asserts that they are laid in the nests,
and not deposited in any other manner, for he says that the
average width of the entrances of the nests of the Acanthizw
which have not been visited by the Cuckoo is 1 in. ; while
those which have contained Cuckoos' eggs vary from 2 in. to
2^ in. (11). Mr. Archibald Campbell is of the contrary
opinion, asking, " How can the Fantail Cuckoo, a bird about
10 in. long, including a tail 5 in., enter the small, covered,
dome-shaped nest of a Tit, Acanthizce species, the longest
exterior diameter of which is only 4|in.?" The side
entrance that hardly admits of one's finger may be enlarged
by the Cuckoo thrusting its head in (12). Dr. Brehm gives us
an account of the egg of the European Cuckoo, which was
deposited in the nest of the Water-wagtail. The hole leading
to the nest was large enough for the passage of the Wagtail,

Fulton. — The Long-tailed Cuckoo. 115

but not of the parent Cuckoo, and the young Cuckoo, which
was hatched out in due time, delayed his departure from the
nest until too late, his size being the cause of his permanent
iniprisonment(12a). Mr. Jesse refers to the fact that he has
found the egg of the Cuckoo in a nest, where it was impossible
for the bird to have deposited it other than by its bill(126).
M. Oustalet says, "The Cuckoo watches the moment when
the mother quits its nest then, laying its egg, seizes it by its
mandibles, passes it into the throat with the agility of a con-
juror, and flies to deposit it delicately in the stranger's nest.'"
The fact of the Cuckoo carrying her egg in her bill is now
generally admitted. If such be possible with the European
Cuckoo, why not with our Australasian species also ? Mr.
Best, of Branxholme, Victoria, says, " In the season of 1888 I
shot a Fantail Cuckoo, and on dissection it proved a specially
interesting specimen, as in its ovary I found a nearly perfect
egg, and in its gizzard another egg, which, though much
broken, was evidently an egg of the same species, probably of
the same bird. The season was a late one, and the con-
clusion I drew was that the bird had carried the egg about for
a considerable time, and, being unable to find a suitable nest,
had simply swallowed it. In Tasmania a fresh egg of the
Fantail Cuckoo was found deposited on a bare stump.
Doubtless it had been laid there by the bird, which was
probably disturbed before it could convey it away to some
suitable nest "(12).

There have been a few fortunate observers who have
actually seen the deposition of the egg upon the ground by
the Cuckoo, who then, taking it in her bill, introduces it into
the nest. The most positive evidence on this point is that of
Herr Adolph Muller, a forester at Gladenbach, in Darmstadt,
who says that through a telescope he watched a Cuckoo as
she laid her egg on a bank and then conveyed the egg in
her bill to a Wagtail's nest(13). "With one exception, all the
Australian Cuckoos are parasitic, and it seems to me reason-
able to believe the same of the Long-tailed Cuckoo of our
Islands. The occasional supervision by adult Cuckoos of
their young ones, and even feeding of them, to which I shall
presently refer, has possibly led to the belief thit these birds
sometimes hatch their own eggs ; but there is no evidence
that this ever occurs, beyond the curious fact mentioned by
Sir Walter Buller as to the female bird he shot. We may
therefore assume that the Long-tailed Cuckoo, like its Aus-
tralian kindred, either lays its egg on the ground and then
carries it to a suitable nest, into which it drops it by its bill,
or else it finds a nest with a good-sized opening and, settling
upon it, lays its egg therein. It no doubt chooses the nest of
a bird which is insectivorous, and trusts to Providence, and

116 Transactions. — Zoology.

the fact that most of the smaller birds will minister to any
unfortunate fledgling which by plaintive piping shows signs
of hunger. During the months of October and November it
is no uncommon sight to see the smaller Australian birds
feeding the young of the Cuckoos. Even the little Acanthizce.
which are seldom, if ever, the foster-parents of the PalHd
Cuckoo, join in supplying the wants, which are made known
by the continual peevish cry, which stops only while feeding
is going on or when the appetite is fully appeased. So with
the New Zealand birds : the Mocker, the Tui, the Warbler,
the Tomtit, the Eobin, the Brown Creeper, the Canary, the
White-eye, and the imported House-sparrow are all known to
feed the Cuckoo bantlings, not because they are purely duped,
but very often from a true philornithic spirit(19). There is no
doubt that at times the parent Cuckoos exercise a sort of
general supervision over their young ones, to watch, as it
were, in order to see if they are well tended, and at times to
actually assist in feeding the youngsters. This is at variance
with what we are told by Professor Newton, who says, '• The
assertion that the Cuckoo herself takes any interest in the
egg that she has foisted on her victim, or of its product, there
is no evidence worth a moment's attention "(14). To show
that there is some evidence that the parent bird does occa-
sionally take interest in the welfare of the product of the egg
we need only refer to Miss Bell's report of the Kermadec
Cuckoos, and to Mr. Archibald Campbell's book, which men-
tions several instances: "Channel-bill Cuckoos make their
appearance just before or during floods, laying principally in
Crow's nests. Later on, or prior to leaving, the old Channel-
bills go round and gather up their young, when some hard
fighting between the Channel -bills and the Crows usually
ensues "(15). The young Koel, or Flinders Cuckoo, was
found in the nest of the Friar-bird near Chinchilla, Queens-
land. Mr. Broadbent watched the young Cuckoo coming
out and the old Friar -birds feed it. The adult Koel used
to come about the nest at night, remain until dawn, and
then fly away till next night(16). Miss Fletcher, writing
to the Austra< asian , 30th May, 1896, says, " I myself have
seen a full-grown Pallid Cuckoo feeding a young one of the
same species. The young one when flushed flew feebly,
and I judged it had only recently left the foster-parents'
nest "(17). Mr. Campbell as-ks, " Do Cuckoos sometimes
assist the foster-parents in fee<iing their young, or had these
particular youngsters lost their foster-parents?" He further
adds, " I am inclined to believe that many birds by instinct
feed young Cuckoos, whether they be the rightful foster-
parents or not. Only last season Master Bardwell watched
a young Cuckoo, either a Pallid or a Fantail, being fed,

Fulton. — The Long-tailed Cuckoo. 117

first by a Scarlet Robin {Petroica leggii) and then imme-
(iiately after by a Spine -billed Honey -eater." With refer-
ence to the statement that young Cuckoos are sometimes
fed by old Cuckoos, Dr. Ramsay says, " While walking
through a half-cleared paddock I was not a little surprised,
upon hearing the cries of a young Cuckoo, to see two adult
birds of the same species (Caculus pallidas) flying after it,
settling beside it, and apparently paying it great attention.
Several times they flew away, but returned to it again, and
from their actions I am convinced that they were feeding it,
though I was unable to obtain a view sufficiently close to
make sure of the fact "(18). Of the Indian Koel {Eudynamis
honorata) Allan Hume says, "I have never seen Grows feed-
ing fully fledged Koels out of the nest, but I have repeatedly
watched adult Koels feeding young ones of their own species.
I am pretty nearly convinced that after laying their eggs the
females *keep somewhere about the locality, and take charge
of the young directly they can leave the nest, but I never
saw more than one young one in the charge of an old
female "(16a).

Mr. ivy gives several instances of South African Cuckoos
lurking about nests in which they hal deposited their eggs,
and undoubtedly keeping an eye on them ; and he says that
he saw two adult birds, Goccystcs gliudarias, with five young
ones, all flying together late in February (110). Tnis may
have been a pair which had mated, built a nest, and hatched
out a brood ; but this bird is considered always parasitic, and
Mr. Ivy was of the opinion that the old birds had merely col-
lected their brood previous to migrating. Ooe of the most
remarkable facts in this connection is the deposition in other
birds' nests of eggs already partly incubated(38). This shows
that the egg has been either already sat on by the mother
Cuckoo, or removed from one foster-nest to another. Tnis
is known to have occurred, Mr. Bendire narrating a' most in-
teresting account of it(112). Is it possible that there is still
another way in which the egg could be partly incubated —
namely, by the heat and moisture of the bird's own mouth and
throat while carrying the egg about in the search for a suitable
home for it(lll) ? Nests found one day with fresh eggs in
them, and next day with partly incubated eggs of Cuckoos in
addition, give one food for reflection(96). Many observers
have recorded the feeding of the New Zealand Long-tailed
Cuckoo by the Grey Warbler, but I can find no instance of a
young one being found in the nest of that bird, and but a single
occurrence of a supposed egg. An egg stated to be that of the
Kohoperoa was sent to Sir Walter Buller by the Rev. Mr.
Taylor, of Wanganui, but he did not say from what nest he
had removed it, though it seemed to correspond in appearance

118 Transactions. — Zoology.

with one taken in 1885 by Mr. W. Smith (of Oamaru, now of
Ashburton) from the nest of Gerygo7ie Jiaviventris{20). It was
almost spherical in shape, with a slightly rough or granulate sur-
face, of a pale-buff or yellowish-bi'own colour; length 1-25 in.,
breadth 1-15 in. A third egg somewhat similar in appearance
was found by Mr. Smith in 1888 in the nest of the Wood
robin (Myiovioira albifrons), and, being allowed to hatch out,
proved conclusively to belong to the Long-tailed Cuckoo(20).
As this is the only case on record of the discovery of the egg
and its subsequent proof of identity by successful incubation
I shortly refer to it. He found the Robin's nest with four
eggs, and next day the egg of the Cuckoo among the rest.
When the eggs hatched the young Cuckoo was of enor-
mous size compared with his mates, and w^as a very
helpless creature, with the skin almost entirely naked and
the eyes closed. It throve well, being kept supplied
with food by the Robins, and grew rapidly, and was
soon too large for the nest, and had to lie on top of the
young Robins, which appeared instinctively to crouch at the
bottom of the nest for self-preservation, for if the young
Cuckoo could have displaced them he could have occupied
the whole of the cavity of the nest. Finally Mr. Smith
removed two of the young Robins in order to make room for
the increasing size of the Cuckoo. The remaining Robin did
well, being soon nearly ready to fly. Unfortunately, Mr.
Smith did not describe the egg further than to say that " it
was almost round in shape, and of a deeper shade of colour than
the specimen in the Canterbury Museum." In BuUer's book
there also appears from the pen of Mr. Smith a graphic
account of the hatching of the egg of the Bronze Cuckoo
by Gerygone Jiaviventris, and it seems from this that the
young intruder was practically fledged and ready to fly in
about ten days, and in a fortnight voluntarily quitted its
home, which it is, however, right to mention had been placed
on the ground. It had accomplished this remarkable de-
velopment by appropriating all food which came to the nest,
and had doomed its unfortunate companions to a cruel death
by starvation (21). No doubt the Shining Cuckoo chooses the
domed nest of the Warbler because this is large enough for
the young bird until it is nearly fledged and ready to fly, and
the young bird can escape from the nest without fear of injury
by falling. The Long-tailed Cuckoo, on the other hand,
would seldom select this nest for its young, as the bird, owing
to its size, would have to leave long before it could fly, and
might easily be seriously injured, at that tender age, by falling
from tlie height at which these nests are built. For this
reason the parent Cuckoo has, tiu'ough myriads of generations,
probably come to deposit her egg in an open nest close to the

Fulton. — The Long-tailed Cuckoo. 119"

ground ; or one, at any rate, in which the young can attain to
a fairly good size before leaving, and can thus reach terra firma
without much fear of injury. In Mr. Smith's case the young
Urodynamis at a fortnight quite filled the nest, and at three
weeks was well plumaged, but only able to move about weakly
on its legs ; it does not seem to have made any attempt to fly,
but was still a huge helpless creature. This bears out what I
before said as to the unsuitability of the nest of the Warbler
as a habitation for this Cuckoo ; and the fact that no one has
ever found the young bird in such a nest makes it probable
that the deposition of the egg of the Long-tailed Cuckoo in
the nest of the Grey Warbler is of very rare occurrence. The
picture in BuUer's book showing the feeding of the young
Cuckoo by the Warbler is, however, an accurate representa-
tion of what often takes place ; the helpless youngster crawls
from the nest to the ground or large tree-trunk, and on the
ground or trunk do the various kind-hearted little insectivores
feed it. I wish some of our Australian ornithologists would
refer to the young of the Fantail Cuckoo, and give us details
of their upbringing in the tiny little nests of the Acanthiza.
Do many of these birds perish for the reasons I have men-
tioned ? How soon do they leave the nests ? and have many
instances occurred of the actual discovery of the young Cuckoo
in one of these nests? The eggs are deposited therem, but
are they hatched, and, if so, what is the ultimate result ?
Does the Cuckoo throw out its mates ? How does it get out
of the nest, and when ? How long can the nest support its
weight ? In searching for the egg and young of Urodynamis
taitensis I have paid special attention to the nests of three
birds — the Native Canary {Orthonyx ochrocephala) , the
Eobin {Myiovioira alhifrons), and the Tomtit (Myiomoira
macrocephala). Sir Walter BuUer says that a Maori at
Wellington told him that the Blue Crow {Glaucopis cinerca)
lays a single egg, and after hatching it leaves the care of the
chick to the Popokatea, or Canary [Orthonyx albicilla) (21).
Sir Walter could not accept so strange a fact in natural his-
tory, and later contributions by the same writer(22) and
others quite dispose of the idea that the Blue Crow is ever
parasitic(23). It occurred to me that the Maori had very
probably mistaken the young unfledged Kohoperoa for the
young of the Blue Crow, and that it was the former bird that
the Canary had been seen feeding. i\ll nests of the South
Island Canary {Orthonyx ochrociphala) , however, which I have
personally examined have shown the natural occupants, and
no sign of an intruder ; but my surmise proves to be the cor-
rect one, for Mr. Elsdon Best sends me the following interest-
ing information concerning the Cuckoo from the Tuhoe
natives: "The Koekoea does not build a nest, but takes

120 Transactions. — Zoology.

possession of and lays its eggs in the nest of the Tataeto hird,
sometimes called Tataeko, or Tataihore, the same as the Popo-
katea. or White-head. I have not seen the eggs of the
Koekoea, but I have seen the young Koekoea sitting together
with the young of the Tataeto on a branch just after they
could leave the nest, and being all fed alike by the Tataeto,
which would bring food, feed one after the other, and then fly
away to procure more food "(23a). Mr Eobert Eiddle, of
Orepuki, found the young Urochjiiamis in the nest of the
Yellow-headed Canary, and says that the young Canaries
were all ejected by the intruder(lOO).

The following is an account of a young Cuckoo which had
probably just left the nest of the Canary, narrated by Mr.
McLean, of Te Tua : " My boy saw a Cuckoo dart several
times among a flock of Native Canary, but could not see if
any damage was done. The birds did not seem very much
afraid of the Cuckoo, but when he came among them they
would scatter, and then when he flew to another tree would
follow him, and when he uttered his call they also would
start chirping ; then a larger Cuckoo came and joined it, and
they both flew away a short distance." Mr., Westenra, of
Akaroa, found a nearly fledged Koekoea in the nest of the
Tomtit {Myiomoira macroccphnla)(23h) .

Mr. Buckland informs me that the young Koekoea has
been seen calling for food, which was being brought regularly
to it by a Tomtit(236), and Mr. Potts records a case where
the duty of rearing the young of the Shining Cuckoo was in-
trusted to the same bird, Myiomoira viacrocephala{2Sc) , and
Captain Mair says that he has seen the Bell-bird [Anthornis
tnelaiivra) acting in the same kind capacity (24). It is pro-
bable that the Bell-bird is called upon to hatch the egg and
rear the young of the Kohoperoa, for one may often see the
latter bird chased and harried by the Bell-bird, each one giv-
ing vent to its rage in a brassy note, like " Peng, peng, peng,"
frequently repeated, a series of notes or sounds never heard
from the Bell-bird or Mocker unless it is in a savage mood.
As to the nests of the two species of Myiomoira, they are as a
rule built on a solid foundation — on a rock, or on the side of
a tree, in the hollow of the broad-leaf {Griselinia Ivcida), or
in a large fork, and often close to the ground. These are
favourable conditions ; and another important point is that
these nests have fairly large-sized cavities, in which the
Cuckoo can easily lay or deposit its egg. I took an egg from
a nest in a manuka fork in Richardson's Gully, West
Taieri, some years ago. The nest was about 5 ft. from the
ground, cup-shaped, and built of moss and ribbonwood-bark,
and was extremely like that of the Tomtit {Myiomoira
viacroccjihala), but the only egg it contained was of a red

Fulton. — The Long-tailed Cuckoo. 121

colour, beautifully speckled all over and considerably larger
than that of the Tomtit. I have now a strong suspicion that
the nest did belong to the Tomtit, and that the egg had been
deposited in it bj" the Kohoperoa. I have for some years cor-
responded v^ith Boss Bros, who have until lately been work-
ing on the Te Anau-Milford Sound route. The Messrs.
Eoss are keen naturalists, and were always willing to give
assistance to tourists interested in the flora or avifauna of
their district. I am glad to make mention here that these
gentlemen were always determined that no native birds
should be killed on or near the track save in case of absolute
necessity for food. I trust that the new guides will act
similarly. In February of last year I received a letter from
Mr. Donald Ross giving an account of a nest and eggs found
on the track, and sent to me by same post. It was supposed
by those who found it to belong to the Fern-bird, or Utick
iS'phenceacus rufescens), and the strange egg in it to the
Grey Cuckoo(25). Mr. John Ross, who is well knowm to
tlie scientific world of New^ Zealand as the fortunate finder
of the latest specimen of Notornis hochstetteri, wrote as
follows: "The nest was found just opposite Mid-camp Hut,
in a small fern-bush, not fern-tree. It was underneath the
leaves and very hard to find, as you had to lift up the leaves
before you could see it. There were four eggs in the nest,
three small and one large one, and they were quite fresh.
'J'here were several Long-tailed Cuckoos about, and they
seemed much annoyed when the boys came on the nest, and
kept singing out a good deal all the time they were about
it "(26). The nest on examination proves to be that of the
Tomtii {My iomoira macrocephala) , and contains three Tomtit's
eggs and one strange one. It is round in shape, and mea-
sures Gin. in diameter and Sin. in depth. The cavity is 2 in.
in diameter and l^in. in depth. It is composed of the
ordinary fine bush moss, interwoven with shreds of fine ribbon-
wood-bark, and ornamented on the outside with pieces of dry
white lichen and leaves of the black-birch. It is lined with
strips or shreds of ribbonwood-fibre and a minute quantity
of wool. The eggs of the nest-builder are ovoid o-conical in
shape and of a cream -colour uniformly speckled all over
with greyish-brown, very similar to the colour and marking
of the egg of the Common Lark {Anthus novcR-zealanclia.
The three in this nest are slightly smaller than the specimens
of the Tomtit's eggs which I have, but the egg of this little
bird is very variable. These measure 0-75 in. in length and
0'55in. in breadth. That which I think is undoubtedly the
egg of the Kohopei'oa, for I can refer it to no other species, is
white with purplish-brown speckles, becoming thicker and
darker at the larger end. It is something like that of the

122 Transactioyis.—Zooloijy.

Canary, but is more elliptical in shape — I should call it ovoido-
elliptical — and its length is 0-94 in., and its breadth 0-7 in. I
liave requested the Messrs. Ross, if another egg is found, ta
allow it to hatch out and in this way positively settle the
identity of the egg. I think it likely that many of the eggs are
hatched by Orthonyx and Anthornis, and very soon the young
bird crawls from the nest, to be still fed by its foster-parents,
Gerygone or any other kind-hearted strangers. The egg is
quite near enough in appearance to that of the Canary to be
easily overlooked in most clutches of eggs of that little bird.
It may be objected that this egg differs markedly from the
specimens before discovered, but I think you will agree with
ine presently that that is no reason for our doubting its
identity. In the first place, nearly all species of birds at one
time or other produce eggs differing markedly from the normal
in size and colouring. For instance, I have some specimens
of pure -white eggs of Anthornis and of Prosthemadera ;
also in my series of eggs of the little Tomtit much varia-
tion occurs, but that is not a point I am about to rely
on. My opinion is that this is another instance of that
wonderful power in nature of producing "protective resem-
blance." We all know the difficulty in finding the eggs of
the Tern among the pebbles of the river-beds ; and the eggs
of the Dotterel (Charadrius hwinctns) are similarly pro-
tected. The eggs of the Ground-lark (Anthus nova-zca-
landicb) much approach in colour the dusty earth around
the depression in which they lie, and it is almost impossible
for them to be refound if once lost sight of amidst the dried
tussocks and grass around. The same species of Gull lays
eggs which differ markedly in ground-colour and blotches
according to the part of the beach or to the character of
the debris and stones among which they lie(26).

The extraordinary difi'erence between the eggs of the two
species of Chalcococcyx, lucidus and basalis, has excited much
comment, but can, I think, be accounted for in the same way.
As we find among the New World Cuckoos several which
build their own nests and hatch their own delicate green
eggs, let us assume that this is the original natural colour of
many of these species. Now, I do not know of very many
birds which lay eggs like tliis, and it may come about, assum-
ing the habit of parasitism to have been first established, that
these birds must get their eggs into nests whei'e the wrong
colouring will not be noticed, or where the bird is so easily
duped as not to object to the peculiar appearance of the
strange egg(27). Such dupes do occur, as, for example, the
Common Hedge-sparrow will brood with complacency the egg
of tlie Redbreast [Erythracus rubecula), so unlike her own
that for all we know to the contrary she may be colour-

Fulton. — The Long-tailed Cuckoo. 123

blind(28). Few birds are so easily imposed upon as this, and
these Chalcococcyx species, hicidus and 2J^<^gosus, have come
to find that they are best perpetuated in nests which are
liome-shaped or covered in like that of Gerygone or those of
the Australian Bush-wrens or Tits. The eggs which are de-
posited in these covered-in nests remain of the original sea-
green or olive-gx'een colour, there being no necessity, as the
eggs are in comparative darkness, for "protective mimicry"
to be established. Now, when we examine the egg of Glial-
cococcyx basalts we find that the egg is white, spotted with
pinkish red, quite a different type of egg altogether. Campbell
says of this point, " It will be observed that the eggs of tlie
two little Bronze Cuckoos, plagosus and basalts, are totally
dissimilar in colouring, notwithstanding that their respective
reputed parents are exactly alike both in colour and size.
Both wear coats of glorious green ; the young birds are
liardly to be separated m appearance, and the adults are
extremely alike in plumage, and it would be of great
interest if some of our oologists could explain the
apparent anomaly in the coloration of the eggs, for
experience teaches us that in nearly every genus the
true typical egg of each species is not without character-
istic resemblance "(29). Now, the remarkable change
m the colouring of this little egg is, I think, easily ex-
plained. This bird, as one would expect, lays its eggs more
often in open or cup-shaped nests than in closed or domed
nests, and the eggs have gradually assumed a speckled colour-
ing very nearly approaching in appearance the egg of our
Gerygone and many of the smaller Australian birds. In this
the Narrow-bill Cuckoo is quite distinct from the other three
species of Chalcococcyx, whose eggs, being hidden in domed
nests, have not required to assimilate themselves to their
surroundings. As regards the dark closed nests of the Com-
mon Enghsh Wren, no adaptation of the egg of the Cuckoo
to the eggs of the owner has ever been noticpd(87). Many
of the European Cuckoos lay eggs which are wonderfully
approximate in their colouring to the eggs of those species
in whose nests they are deposited ; many are abnormally
coloured, and quite unlike the ordinary egg of the Cuckoo,
but have been proved to belong to that bird on exammation
of the contained embryos(30). Among the Australian birds
the Koel lays an egg which much resembles that of the Friar-
bird, one of its foster-parents, and the Channel-bill Cuckoo's
egg IS very like that of the Hill Crow-Shrike {Strepcra
arguta){Sl, 32). Enough has been said to show that much
variability may be expected in the eggs of parasitic birds all
the world over, and consequently differences in the various
specimens of the Kohoperoa need not be considered remark-

124 Transactions. — Zoology.

able. The egg shown here seems to have assumed an appear-
ance approaching those of the different Myiomoira species ; it
is also very like that of the Canary, and has a faint resem-
blance to that of the Ground-lark. It is quite within the
bounds of possibility that the egg which was found in a
Lark's nest by Mr. Eeischek, and described by him as a red
egg, belonged to the Kohoperoa(33). Unfortunately, he does
not say whether the nest was near tlie edge of the bush,
or in a place easily and safely accessible to the Cuckoo.
The bird would hardly venture into the open, except foi-
a few seconds at a time, and even then would pro-
bably have to return precipitately to its leafy shelter,
lest it should be hunted by all and sundry in the neigh-
bourhood. I might here refer to the extraordinary attacks
made on Cuckoos by other birds all the world over,
and in New Zealand, as elsewhere, they are persistently
hunted. Here the Tui and the Mocker are the chief offenders,
chasing and tormenting them in the same way as they harry
and hum our Owl Sceloglaux albifacies and its smaller con-
gener Spiloglaux novcB- zealandicB. The Cuckoo is semi-
nocturnal, and seldom seen, though often heard, by its
persecutors ; they know it for a stranger, and object to its
habits, which drive it to prowl round looking for a convenient
lodging for its egg. Besides this, its harsh cry, quietness of
flight, its peculiar colouring, hawk-like beak, and cruel j'ellow
iris are all combined to make birds which are otherwise
sociable very savage at its. approach. It is interesting to note
that the Piopio, or Native Tlirush (Tuningra crassirostris),
and the Long-tailed Cuckoo, birds of widely divergent genera,
are somewhat similarly plumaged, cruel-beaked, yellow-irised.
and hawk-like in appearance. I have never read or heard of
the Thrush being chased by other birds, but I have always
been struck with its savage appeax'ance. In confinement it is
carnivorous, and has been known to devour the eggs of the
Ringdove as soon as they were laid, and to actually kill
two adult Parrakeets and partially devour one of them(34:).
It certainly seems to merit the attention of the Tui or Mocker
quite as much as if not more than tlie Cuckoo. Tiie latter
bird is said to devour the eggs and young of oilier birds, and.
curious irony of fate, the only instance I can find recorded of
this shows the victim to be the very bird I have just referred
to, the Thrush, a true case of the ''the biter bit." Buller
says, " From the stomach of one of them I took the body of
a young bird, apparently a Native Thrush, or Piopio, partly
fledged and only sliglitly mutilated, showing the enormous
capacity of the Cuckoo's throat "(35). Buller, Potts(36),
and IIandly(37j all atlirm tliat our Cuckoo is predatory, but
I have vainly endeavoured to find I'ecorded any other evidence

Fulton. — The Long-tailed Cuckoo. 125

of this. Even in Australia one comes across numberless in-
stances of eggs of the various Cuckoos being placed among
clutches of eggs of other birds, but not one is recorded in
Campbell's book of the Cuckoo having thrown out or devoured
the egg of the nest- builder or of any other bird. On the
other hand, many instances are reported of the builder having
thrown /Out the egg of the parasite, or covered it up with
feathers, before laying its own eggs. This generally happens
when the Cuckoo is foolish enough to deposit its egg in the
nest before it is fully completed, or before the eggs of the
rightful tenants are laid. Many cases are recorded of the
destruction or desertion of the Cuckoo's egg by the nest-
builder, but few or none of the Cuckoo throwing out or eating
the eggs of other birds (38).

Bendire says of the American Yellow-billed Cuckoo, "lam
aware that this species has been accused of destroying the
eggs, and even of eating the young, of smaller birds, but I am
strongly inclined to believe that this accusation is unjust, and
requires more substantial confirmation. I have never had any
reason to suspect their robbing small birds' nests, and I am
upheld in this position by a number of careful observers whom
I have questioned on this important subject." Of all the
American Cuckoos mentioned by Bendire two instances only
are mentioned of this unpleasant habit. The Eoad-runner
{Geococcyx), of South California, was stated by Mr. Anthony to
have devoured a nest of young Finches, and the Mangrove
Cuckoo, of Florida and Key West, was said by Audubon " to
be fond of sucking the eggs of other kinds of birds in the
absence of their owners." No specific instance is given of
any of the Cuckoos being caught nest-robbing, and here,
as in other countries, the accusation is manifestly un-
fair (38tt). Among the parasitic Cowbirds the curious habit
obtains of puncturing the eggs of the nest - builder, but
seldom of throwing them out of the nest. This is done
purposely by the Cowbird with beak or claws, probably
to prevent the eggs from hatching. The parasite has
evidently learned that it is as well to refrain from openly
interfering with the eggs of the host, but that by making
minute punctures in them it will insure their destruction,
as the owner, on finding an egg will not hatch, will
undoubtedly throw it out herself. Bendire says this punc-
turing is so often seen that he is certain it is done in-
tentionally, but whether by beak or claws is not known. It is
undoubted that eggs of the builder are found beneath the nest
at times, but there is sufficient reason to think that this is due
to the disappointed parent discarding the addled eggs. This
habit of puncturing may have arisen from mere accidental
contact in the first place, and this, by enabling the young Cow-

126 Transactions. — Zoology.

birds in those nests to have less competition for food, would
be transmitted as an advantage, while the young Cowbirds
which had large families to compete against would have less
chance of obtaining sustenance, and would ultimately become
extinct(38^). Although writers on the American, ^Australian,
and Indian Cuckoos do not report a thieving character thereof,
Buller, Potts, and nearly all the writers on the New Zea-
land bird make the general statement that it devours the
eggs of other birds ; but no specific instance is given. Mr.
Potts gives it as his opinion that many of the eggs of the Blue
Crow {Gla7icopis cinerea) are destroyed by the Cuckoo, but he
brings forward no proof of this(39). Personally, I think that
]f this theory of universal egg -robbing were true it would
soon bring about the robbers' extinction, by the nests of all
birds which contained an egg of the marauder being deserted,
or the egg promptly thrown out by the builder. The " pro-
tective resemblance " to a Hawk is, to my mind, acquired
partly for the bird's own protection, as it seems to be a poor
fighter, but also for the purpose of frightening small birds
away from their nests, so that it can quickly seize the oppor-
tunity of safely depositing its egg in a comfortable borne.
The sudden appearance of a large savage-looking bird would
make any little Tomtit fly from its nest, and the marauder in
this way could utilise her resemblance for the perpetuation of
her species.

Professor Newton says, " So far as I can find there is
nothing to show that any instance has been known of the
Cuckoo stealing an egg, and the whole theory of egg-robbing
seems to have arisen from the numberless instances of
Cuckoos having been found with eggs in their mouths, tbroats,
or stomachs. When these instances are carefully investigated
the egg invariably proves to belong to the Cuckoo itself.
Cuckoos, too, have been not infrequently shot as they were
carrying a Cuckoo's egg, presumably their own, in their bill,
and this has probably given rise to the vulgar but seemingly
groundless belief that they suck the eggs of other kinds of
birds "(40).

When we carefully investigate the habits of the Kohoperoa
we do find that instances have been known of his eating
an egg, but more often young birds, though this is a habit by
no means universal, and no more common tlian in many
other birds which are not credited with these villainous pro-
clivities. The Native Kingfisher {Halcyon yagans), which
preys on mice and small fish, &c., has been seen to attack
and devour a fully adult Fantail {Rhipidura flabcllifera), and
fiy off with several inches of tail-feathers protruding from its
beak(40a) ; and the Thrush {Turnagra crassirostris) has
similar propensities(3o). The fact that our bird is so per-

Fulton. — The Long-tailed Citckoo. 127

sistently mobbed has called man's attention to it ; but,
like the Owl, she is saddled with regular habits which,
when looked into, prove in a large number of instances
to be absolutely false. According to Mr. Bosworth Smith,
the Owl does very little robbing of nests at all, and is a
cruelly maligned bird ; and our Cuckoo gets the discredit of
being far worse than it actually is because of the objection of
other birds to its prowling round their nests. The female
Cuckoo must place her egg in some nest, and each house-
holder is determined that hers shall not be the domicile
ciiosen if she or her mate can prevent it. Birds all the
world over object to the intruding egg, and often throw it out
of the nest, and this is the main reason, I think, for their
hunting the Cuckoo. I have endeavoured to disprove the
accusation against our bird ; but, notwithstanding a strong
opinion on my part that the tale was an idle one, I have haci
reluctantly to give way to good evidence. The following
instances show that at our end of the world the Cuckoo has
latterly acquired mischievous habits, which are, however,
not to be wondered at, seeing the continued ill-treatment it
has to put up with.

Many Cuckoos have been seen with fresh yolk smeared
over their beaks and necks, and an instance of this was
reported to me by a gentleman in Nelson Province(40«).
This, of course, is not conclusive, as the yolk might well have
belonged to an egg of the Cuckoo itself, which had been
broken by the bird in an endeavour to place it in a nest.
As a rule the information one gets is only circumstantial evi-
dence. For example, the same man says, "My opinion is
that they live entirely on small eggs and young helpless birds,
but they are so shy and cunning that it is almost impossible
to catch them at work ; but I believe their thieving is done at
night, as 1 have often found nests empty in the morning that
contained eggs or young the night before, and you can hear
their scream at all hours of the night "(40tt). " We had a lot
of trees in front of the house, and the Cuckoos used to come
into the gums at night and scream, and all the Sparrows and
other birds could be heard fluttering in the branches and
making a great noise "(406). " Frequently in summer, when
it has grown dark, we hear cries of fright and anger from the
small birds, and then the loud scream of the Cuckoo "(40c).
" x\s to the Cuckoo robbing the nests of other birds, I have not
seen one in the act, but have heard of lots of instances where
nests have been found robbed of both eggs and young birds im-
mediately after the Cuckoo has been seen in the neighbourhood,
more especially the nests of the pretty little goldfinch "(40c^).
" I cannot say that I have actually seen it robbing a nest,
but I have seen it very busy about Sparrows' nests in a

128 Transactions. — Zoology.

tree, and considered that that was what it was doing. The
Sparrows were greatly excited, and followed it from tree to
tree as it moved. My two boys say they saw eggs fall when
the bird was so employed, and that one boy climbed the tree
and found a mutilated nestling in the nest"(40e). "It can
fly down any one of the small birds with the greatest of ease,
picking it up in its claws when flying swiftly over it. It is
very fond of going into smaller birds' nests and eating the
young birds, but rarely stops to eat them near the nest, but
flies off to a tree with its prey "(40/). A lady from Queens-
town says, " One day I surprised a Cuckoo in a gully, and it
flew off with a small object in its beak. A pair of Goldfinches
seemed in great distress, and on searching I found the nest
with a few feathers in it. The nest had apparently been
recently occupied by young birds, though I am not positive of
this, and I was not near enough to see the small object held
by the Cuckoo "(40f/). "I once saw in a paddock a strange
bird which I took for a Sparrow-hawk. It was at the time
eating a small bird, and it flew about 5 chains towards a gorse
hedge. It appeared in its movements quite unlike an ordinary
Hawk, otherwise I should not have noticed it. It did not rise
high off the ground, but swooped along at a tremendous rate
about 3 ft. ofl', and simply rose over the hedge without apparent
wing-motion, and, I think, rounded on the other side "(40/;).
When ordinary food is scarce, as in early spring, and the
birds have just arrived on the coast, they have to take what
they can get, and are then carnivorous at times, for one of
my lighthouse correspondents says, "The birds I saw were
very much the colour of a Hawk spotted underneath, and with
a very long tail, and flew very fast. There were half a dozen
of them flying about, and I saw a Hawk and Seagulls chasing
them. One I fired at had a small piece of rabbit— it looked
like a leg — and it was pecking at it and flew off with it "(40/).

I now come to more positive evidence : " It is undoubtedly
true that the Cuckoo robs the nests of other birds, as several
members of our family witnessed last year. Our attention
was attracted by a great commotion in the garden, and on
going out we found two Blackbirds in a state of great
excitement, uttering loud cries, and flying round a birch-
tree. As we watched out flew a Cuckoo with a small bird in
its beak; it flew into the orchard, and the Blackbirds chased
it, dashing past it on one side and then the other, making
an incessant noise "(4O7). " I have seen a Cuckoo repeatedly
with young birds in its bill, and have examined the nest after
the Cuckoo has been at them, and have found nothing but tiie
shell of the egg left. It chiefly robs Sparrows' nests "(iOf).
" I have seen one go into a red-pine tree and take from a hole
in the trunk a young Sparrow, fly off into the scrub with it,

Fulton. — The Long-tailed Cuckoo. 129

and in a short time return and repeat the performance
with another nesthng "(92). " Only last year I noticed one
come out of a willow-tree from a Thrush's nest carrying a
Thrush's egg in its mouth, the adult Thrush chasing it "(93).
A Riversdale correspondent says, " I shot a very fine specimen
as it was flying from out of a hedge of gorse, and it had
a young Linnet in its beak, evidently just kidnapped "(94).
" Last summer I saw a Cuckoo fly across the garden with
a Thrush's egg in its beak, and two Thrushes in hot pursuit,
uttering wild cries of distress "(99).

Mr. W. Milne, of Normanby, once saw his dog catch a
Cuckoo alive and bring it to him. The Cuckoo had a full-
grown Mocker (Aniliorais melanura) in its claws. The latter
was only just dead, was still warm, and the Cuckoo had
^ready taken some pieces out of him, as the flesh was
exposed and torn in several places(95). Mr. Riddle, of
Orepuki, saw a Cuckoo chasing a number of Brown Creepers
[Certhiparus novcs - zealandice). One of these the Cuckoo
struck at and killed, and on attempting to pick the bird up
from the ground at Mr. Riddle's feet was nearly captured
by him(lOl). Sir Walter BuUer's case of the Cuckoo
which contained a Piopio I have already referred to.
Mr. George Byers, of Stirling, wounded a Cuckoo with
his " shanghai," and when the bird fell to the ground it
vomited up three little unfledged birds(40A;). Mr. Alfred
Reynolds saw a Cuckoo one day in his garden at River-
ton. It was eating an egg, which he thinks was that of a
Thrush (40/). Mr. Gallien, of Winton, when preparing a
Cuckoo for stuffing, found in its crop a complete young
Sparrow, barely feathered. He also saw a Cuckoo on one
occasion swoop on to a young Sparrow and fly away with
it. x\t another time he saw a Cuckoo attack a Sparrow's
nest, and, as far as he could see, either eat the eggs or young
ones, while the old Sparrows were flying round, very much
upset and making a great noise(40??i). Mr. Charles Bills
gives particulars of a Cuckoo dashing into his nets and
attacking a Parrakeet so fiercely that it was taken while
so engaged(40«). But there is no need for me to multiply
mstances. I have gathered sufficient to prove the occa-
sional hawk-like carnivorous habit of the Kohoperoa. There
is no doubt that he often robs Sparrows and other im-
ported birds of their young and eggs ; and this is very pro-
bably done by the male Cuckoo alone. The female Cuckoo,
if ever a thief, is no fool, and almost certainly refrains
from touching the eggs of birds in whose nests she deposits
her progeny. There are very few instances of egg-robbing
recorded, and those only since the introduction of English
birds; and, as the natural food of the Cuckoo has become

9— Trans.

130 Transactions. — Zoology

scarcer, the bird has acquired the habit of helping himself
from the nests of those who have largely been responsible for
the diminished food-supply. Many of my correspondents say
that the Cuckoo is now more common than it used to be,
and attribute this to the abundance of imported birds. Thus
Mr. Arthur, of Lawrence, "I have never seen it in dense,
but always in thin bush, and along the edges of the bush, and
especially in any patch standing out apart from the main
bush, if frequented by a lot of small birds. The Cuckoo seems
to have changed its habits during the last twenty years.
Before that one heard them often, and saw them occasionally ;
hut it was very difficult to get near them. Now they come into
the trees in one's garden, and I have seen one in a clump of
willow-trees not 12 ft. from my back. door. I have no doubt
that the change is caused by the importation of ' Home ' bird^
of different habit from the native ones. Imported birds seem
to live and breed in the vicinity of cultivated country, con-
sequently, near townships, their nests and young are much
more easily found, and are much more numerous than the
native ones, and it seems to me that the Cuckoo is living on
the eggs and young of these birds ; and, as they are more
numerous near dwellings and gardens, the Cuckoo also comes
closer, and is more in evidence than it was. I may be wrong
in my surmise, but I cannot see how the change in the habits
of the bird can be otherwise accounted for. I think if the
matter is gone into it will be found that the Cuckoo does the
best he can towards combating the Sparrow plague "(40o). I
am strongly of opinion that the Cuckoo seldom, if ever, touches
the eggs of the Tui or the Mocker, its two chief enemies, and I
should require very positive evidence before accepting this
accusation as a true one. The Kohoperoa is often chased by
these birds because they are frequently his unwilling foster-
parents. The Waikato natives say that the Cuckoo lays its
eggs in the nests of Tuis, but first eats the Tuis' eggs ; simi-
larly, the Urewera natives very naturally say that they know
the Koekoea eats the Tuis' eggs because they see the Tuis
chasing them. Mr. Crawford Anderson, of Stirling, saw an
adult Kohoperoa sitting on the nest of the Mocker : the bird
flew off as soon as he moved under the tree. The nest
was rather difficult to get at, so he did not examine it for
eggs(40j/;). Mr. Reynolds saw a Cuckoo being fed by a Tui,
and the presumption is that it had been hatched in the Tui's
nest, as the enmity between the birds is notorious, and one
can hardly believe that the Tui would fail to recognise and
attack its opponent, even though only half-Hedged, were it not
that it had hatched it out itself('405).

Some writers assert that the Cuckoo excites the fury of
her dupe by turning out one or more of the eggs, and in this

Fulton. — The Long- tailed Cuckoo. 131

way assures more thaa ordiaary(41) atteatioa to the remain-
ing egg or eggs. This is to my mind purely supposititious, for
I can find but few instances of eggs being found on the ground
beneath or near nests containing Cuckoo's eggs, and no proof
that the Cuckoo herself has performed the eviction. There
have, however, since the days of Jenner been numberless
instances recorded of the young, blind, helpless, and un-
fledged Cuckoo instinctively wriggling under and deliberately
striving to hurl, and eventually succeeding in hurling, to
destruction the rightful tenants of the nest(42). It is indis-
putable that the Shining Cuckoo throws out the young
Warblers, and I have myself found them on the ground
beneath the nest containing the young intruder ; and that
the larger Cuckoo sometimes does the same is also un-
doubted(lOO).

Darwin says that " The offspring of the foster-parents of
the European Cuckoo are commonly ejected from the nest
within three days after the Cuckoo is hatched, altliough the
latter is at this age in a most helpless condition. Trustworthy
accounts have been received of the young Cuckoo, while blind
and not able to hold up its head, ejecting its own foster-
brothers. With respect to the means by which this strange
and odious instinct was acquired, if it were of importance for
the young Cuckoo to receive as much food as possible soon
after birth I can see no difficulty in its having gradually
acquired, during successive generations, the blind desire, the
strength and structure, necessary for the work of ejection, for
those young Cuckoos which had such habits and structure
best developed would be th6 most securely reared. The
first step towards the proper instinct might have been mere
unintentional restlessness on the part of the young bird when
somewhat advanced in age and strength, the habit having
been afterwards improved and transmitted to an earlier
age "(45a). In Mr. Smith's case the young Robins seem to
have inherited an instinct that unless they kept to the bottom
of the nest the young tyrant above them would speedily bring
about their doom.

I should now like to review what evidence we have as to
the migration of the Kohoperoa from the South Seas to
these Islands. That it was known to the early colonists to
appear annually, and as regularly to disappear, is shown by
the startling statement made by the Rev. Mr. Taylor in his
book " Te Ika a Maui," for he says, " The Long-tailed Cuckoo
m the autumn buries itself in the mud of the river-beds, and
there hibernates till the following spring "(46).

In the Rev. William Yate's " Account of New Zealand,"
published in 1835, he says, " Tiiis bird, which is remarkable
for its long body and short cock's beak, is one of the sweetest

132 Transactions. — Zoology.

songsters of the woods, but it is only seen or heard for about
four months in the height of sumnaer. It secures itself during
the winter months in the holes of the puriri-tree, and does
not leave its retreat till all danger of its being overtaken with
cold has passed away. The natives say that always when
the wind is about to blow from the south the Kohoperoa
ceases its song, and does not commence again until the west
wind blows or a breeze springs up in the north." A good
many of Mr. Yate's statements appear to have been got
secondhand, for he has evidently confused the two Cuckoos.
He says, " The Pipiwharauroa, or Shining Cuckoo, has no song
at all," whereas we know it is the finest whistler we have in
the Islands. He also says, " It is a bird of passage, and sup-
posed to come from the islands north of New Zealand, though
the natives assure us that it retires in the winter into the
holes of trees or into the crevices of the rocks, and does not
fiy away for winter quarters to other and warmer climes "(48).
According to Mr. Elsdon Best, the Urewera natives say.
"These birds disappear into the earth in autumn and come
forth during the spring ; we do not see them appear from the
eaith, but such was told us by our elders. Perhaps they
retire to caves. They do not eat berries, but lizards, &c.
There is no sign of the coming of this bird, as a wind or any
other tohii — nothing but its cry ; that is the only sign. We
take the Koekoea for the sake of its kotare, or tail-feathers,
which we prize as plumes for head-ornaments. I have not
seen it eaten "(49c).

Mr. Taylor says the natives call it " Kawekawea " and
" He piri rewa," the " Flying-lizard " or " Tree-hzard." The
name Kawekawea may have been formed from the word ka-
iveau, which means a "large lizard," or from a mere misspelling
of the word koekoea, which has an entirely dilfei'ent origin.

Mr. Tregear says, " The natives have a curious fancy that
the bird loses its feathers at the approach of winter, hiber-
nating in holes in the ground. Its feathers begin to grow as
spring advances, its tail drops off, and it again becomes a l)ird.
In its lizard form it is called Gnaha at Taupo and Wanganui.
To the native mind the green lizard is moko kakariki, a very
fearsome creature, from its spiritual influences, and is the
incarnation of a god. It is born from the shells left in the
nest of the Kakariki, or Green Parrakeet, after the young birds
are hatched out ; but the Cuckoo is the child of a lizard that
is mottled or speckled, and the name of this lizard is Moko-
tapiri or Gnarara-papa or Moko-papa"(49a).

The name Kawekawea may thus have arisen from the idea
that the bird turns into a lizard ; or it may be called the Tree-
lizard from the peculiar mottled markings on the feathers,
or from the fact of its appearing about the time that the

Fulton. — The Long-tailed Cuckoo. 133

lizard casts its skin, which is similarly mottled. The name
Koekoea is possibly formed h'om the word koe, to scream, and
means the " Screamer," the word koe being evidently formed
from the squeak or scream of any bird on being captured. It
may have been applied to this particular bird from the pecu-
liar grating whistle or whizzing sound that it makes. Oe-o'e
in the Hawaiian language means " to grate or whiz."
" Koekoea," although so near in sound to the old Dutch
" koekoek " and the English " cuckow," has no onomatopoeic
reference to the actual call of this bird, which at no time
approaches the soft cooing of the Old-World Cuckoo. This
onomatopoeia is, however, well seen in many Maori words, as
in "Kuku," the Wood-pigeon {Carpophaga novcB-zealandicB),
which makes a soft cooing sound ; the high shrill calling
Kea (Nestor occidentalis) ; the harshly screaming Kaka
(Nestor meridionalis) ; and the sweetly whistling Piopio, or
Native Thrush. Tne name " Koekoea " is used by the
Urewera natives for " wanderers," or people who ever roam
about, have no settled place of abode ; and that the Maori
recognises the significance of the parasitic habit of both
Cuckoos is evident from many of his sayings or proverbs.
" Penei me te Pipiwharauroa," "You are like the Shining
Cuckoo " (in your actions — that is. You are no good, you
desert your children). Again, " Te parahika te koekoea," a
term used for a deserted child, means " the otfspring of the
Cuckoo "(49i). "E kua rite koe ki te koekoea," "You are
exactly like the Cuckoo " — that is. You are a lazy fellow like
the koekoea ; you let other people feed you : a term of reproach
used for an idle vagabond who "sponges" on others for his
food. Eeferring to the hibernating of the bird, they say,
" Ko enei manu e rua, ka hou ki rolo i te whenua noho ai i te
ngahuru " : " These two birds dig their way inside the earth
[under the soil] in the autumn." The following is a whaka-
takiri, or child's song, sung to an infant in arms : —

Ko te uri au i te whenakoiiako,

I te koekoea,

E riro ne i ma te tataihore e whangai :

" I am the offspring of the Bronze Cuckoo, of the Long-tailed
Cuckoo, left here for the White-headed Canary to feed."
When the call of the Bronze Cuckoo is first heard in the
spring-time the children(49c) greet the bird with the follow-
ing brief quatrain : —

E manu tena koe. Kua tae tenei ki te mahanatanga. Kua puawai-

nga rakau katoa.
Kua pa te kakara ki te ihu o te tangata. Kua puta ano koe riinga,

tioro ai.
Tioro i te whitu, tioro i te waru. Me tioro haere ano e koe tenei

kupu e whaia
Ake nei, ki te marae o tama nu, o bine ma: Kui, kui, kui whiti-

whiti ora.

134 Transactions. — Zoology.

0 bird, greeting to you. The warm season appears and all trees

have blo=somed :
The fragrance reaches the nose of man. You again appear trilling

on high.
Trilling on the seventh [month] , trilling on the eighth [month] .

Trill you ever forth as you fly
The following message to the homes of lads and lasses : Kui, kui, kui,

whitiwhiti ora(10.5).

In Other parts they say, " Ka tangi te Pipiwharauroa ko nga
karere a mahuru" — that is, " The cries of the Shining Cuckoo
are the messengers of warmth or spring "(49c).

Another and commoner name for the bird is Kohoperoa or
Koehoperoa, the latter, I believe, the correct spelling, though
the vowels are often variously transposed. The word is very
probably formed from the words koe, hope, roa, meaning the
•' long tail "(106). Miss Sinclair, in her book of poems
entitled " The Huia's Homeland," speaks thus of the
Cuckoos : —

Hearken friends to this quaint idyll from the love-lore of the Maori,
From the ancient native records of the Rotorua beauty, of the

beautiful wahine.
Hinemoa heard the birds sing in the bush all dark and dewv.
Heard the Shining Cuckoo's welcome to the tender flowers of

springtime,
Pretty Pipiwharauroa, fostered by Te Riroriro,
Heard the Long tailed Swallow also, heard Te Koehoperoa,
In the winter-time a lizard, in the summer-time a swallowlSO).

Sir Walter Buller tells us that, finding the birds arriving at
the same time as the crane-flies, the Maoris say, " They come
with the mosquitos " ; and also from time immemorial the
Maoris have called them " birds of Hawaiki." These facts, adds
Sir Walter, " seem to indicate that they annually come from
the warm islands of the Pacific "(51). In his essay in the fii'st
volume of our Transactions he says that they appear earlier at
the extreme North, and linger there when their notes are no
longer heard in the South. Like the Cuckoos in other parts of
the world, they appear before rainy weather or coincident
with it, and have thus come to be known in many widely
different localities as " Eain-birds " and " Storm-birds." In
many parts of Otago and Canterbury they were called
by the early settlers " Potato -birds," as they invariably
came on the scene as the potato-planting was going on ;
similaily, in the North Island they got the name of "Kumara-
birds."

When the suggestion that they come all the way from the
Pacific islands was first mane by New Zealand ornithologists
the statement was questioned by Mr. A. K. Wallace m the
following words : " Eesident ornithologists believe that the
two New Zealand Cuckoos migrate annually, the one from
Australia and the other from some part of Polynesia, dis-

Fulton. — The Long-tailed Cuckoo. 135

tances of more than a thousand miles. These facts seem to
have been accepted without sufficient evidence, and to be in
themselves extremely improbable. It is observed that the
Cuckoos appear annually in certain districts and again dis-
appear, but their course does not seem to have been traced ;
still less have they been seen arriving or departing across the
ocean. In a large and practically unexplored country there is
really no reason why the birds should not recede from one
end of the Islands to the other "(53, 52). From observations
made in the last twenty years it is now certain that they do
come from the South Sea Islands annually, and return there
after breeding in New Zealand. How they persistently
escape observation seems to me to be extraordinary, for I can
find no instance of any person having witnessed the arrival of
the bird from over the sea, as was reported of the Shining
Cuckoo by Mr. Potts(57), and it is curious that no one seems
to have found the bird on the sea-shore.

I have recently communicated with a number of the light-
house-keepers on our coast-line, and have gathered some in-
teresting information on this subject. The earliest intimation
of the appearance of the bird this year comes from Mr. John
Duthie, at Cape Palliser, who says that the first Cuckoo
arrived on the 6th June, and six or seven a few days later.
They hung about the lighthouse for six or eight weeks, and
then suddenly disappeared the first week in August(57a).
Mr. Hansen, from Pencarrow Head Lighthouse, reported that
" one morning in the first week in September, exact day un-
certain, when coming from the tower after putting out the
light, at 6.30 a.m.," he saw a Long-tailed Cuckoo. The bird
was flying low and swiftly, just skimming the tops of the
tawhina scrub(576). They have been seen at Doubtless-
Bay(57c), at Stephen Island Lighthouse(57(i), at Hunter-
viile, and on the Kermadecs(54), and at Akaroa about the
middle of the same month. At Mokohinou Lighthouse Mr.
Sandager caught several on the lantern at night in Ocio-
ber(56), and Mr. Elsdon Best reported a young one at Eua-
tahuna on the 10th of that month. This was probably one
which had wintered in the Urewera countrv, as it is rather
early for the arrival of a last year's bird from Tahiti. The
Maori who saw the bird said, " Wainehu ana te ahua," which
means that the feathers were greyish or pale, the markings
were not plain(4:9c). Mr. McNeill saw the birds at Cape
Campbell Lighthouse in thick dirty weather at night in
October(41) : they have been frequently seen at Cape Fare-
well Lighthouse ; East Takaka(40a) ; Nelson(97) ; Queen
Charlotte Sound(102) ; Sumner and New Bnghton(103) ;,
Waikouaiti, Otago(104) ; Eiverton(40/) ; and Te Tua, South-
land(107), in the second week in October: and I myself

136 Transactions. — Zoology.

saw the bird on the 20th and 25th October and subsequently
in the bush at Newington, Dunedin. Eeischek found them
oti the Barriers in November(55) ; and Mr. Byers, of Stirhug,
Otago, who has for years noted their arrival carefully, finds
that they invariably come to his locality from the 5th to the
7th November(56&). That they keep on arriving from the
north-east until about the end of November is shown by the
fact of one being caught on the lighthouse at Cape Maria
van Diemen at 5 in the afternoon of the 28th of that month.
There was a strong easterly gale blowing at the time, and
the barometer registered 29-83 in., the thermometer 63° Fahr.
The bird was exhausted and quiet, but its plumage was fi'esh
and not in any way draggled or weather-beaten(108). On the
4th December four female birds made their appearance on the
lighthouse. They remained three days. The wind was light
easterly; barometer 29-65 in., thermometer 65°. I have only
noted the dates on which the birds were actually seen. I
have numbers of references to their having been Jieard on
various dates, from the 3rd September at Queenstown, the
4th at Winton, the 13th at Akaroa, the 28th at Te Kumu(109),
onwards to the end of October at Waiau, Southland, and
elsewhere ; but as there is a possible doubt as to the accu-
racy of some of these reports I have relied on eye-witnesses
alone. I heard -what I took to be the call of the Cuckoo in the
gum-trees opposite the University at 9 p.m. on the 19th
October, and saw the bird next morning for the first time
this year at Ne-wington. Numerous other notes as to its
arrival can be found in the pages of the " Transactions of the
New Zealand Institute," and they all point to the advent of
this mysterious bird from the north-east, probably in small
parties and generally at night. I do not think it is yet clear
that they always come gradually along the Islands from the
extreme north, for they arrive suddenly at points so widely
separated from each other that it is hard to account for this
other than by the assumption that they come down in streams
from the north-east and hit the coast-line of New Zealand
at various places at about the same time. Mr. Witherby
says, '• On bright nights undoubtedly most migrating birds
fly at a great height and pass over the lighthouses without
being attracted by the light. It is on dark and especially
misty nights that they come nearer to the earth and dash
themselves against the lanterns. Birds run great and varied
risks during their migration, and mucii mortality is the result.
At the end of a long flight across the ocean they often en-
counter bad weather and heavy advei'se winds, and many on
such occasions become so fatigued that they never reacli the
land "(58). The Kohopcroa, having accomplished its spring
migration, is fairly plentiful in most parts of the southern

Fulton. — The Long-tailed Cuckoo. 137

portion of the South Island by November, and it may be noted
that the lirst arrivals sit about among the trees or fly from tree
to tree and are silent. Some say that this is due to the fact
that they are all of the male sex ; and the same observation
has been made about the first arrivals of the Pallid Cuckoo
in the southern parts of Australia(60). Nearly a century ago
Colonel Montagu remarked that in the spring male Night-
ingales always arrived in England before the females, and
since that time many observations have confirmed this state-
ment concerning the Nightingale and many other birds. Herr
Gatke has gone beyond this, and affirms that the forerunners
of the spring migration to the north are invariably old males,
next come the females, then younger males and females, and
finally only birds of the previous year. Supposing these
Cuckoos all start about the same time, it is conceivable that
during the longest journey they would tail out, and the
strongest birds, usually the males, obtain a lead(6i).

In November the birds becqme active, and begin to utter
their harsh grating " whiz-z-z-z-z-t." This grating whistle is
no doubt the call between tlie sexes, and is uttered, it is
probable, by the male alone. I am of opinion that in those
cases where birds are heard calling from tree to tree, and
apparently answering each other, the calls are really those of
several males ; but on this point I should like positive evi-
dence. The birds keep to the tops of the tall pines and
creeper-covered trees in the day-time, and are often hard to
locate, and it is extremely difficult to decide whether a par-
ticular tree is the hiding-place. This is for two reasons, one
that the bird, like its fellow-migrani the Shining Cuckoo, is
endowed with what Sir Walter Duller calls " ventriloquistic
powers " — that is, of increasing the volume of its notes from a
very quiet call to a loud piercing succession of sounds, which
performance produces exactly the impression that the bird is
at first a long way off, and then gradually approaches the
listener. Even when one has fairly decided that the bird is
in a certain tree it is very hard to detect it with the eye, for
the Kohoperoa has the habit of frequently perching along,
instead of across, the branch, a method of concealment easy
of performance to a bird with the characteristic zygodactyl
feet of this family (40a).

The Kohoperoa likes the thickly foliaged English trees,
which stand well out from the native bush — macrocarpas, firs,
Pmus insigiiis, trees which are seldom frequented by our
indigenous birds, and never inhabited by them. In this way
the Cuckoo escapes a good deal of the incessant harrying
which he used to undergo ; and, besides this, these trees are
especially suited to his peculiar modern appetite, as, in addi-
tion to the myriads of insects which infest them. Sparrows,

138 Transactions. — Zoology.

Linnets, and Greenfinches build their nests there in great
numbers. From the shelter of these masses of fohage' the
Kohoperoa sends forth his extraordinary call, which is loud,
penetrating, and very frequent during the early morning and
forenoon, getting gradually quieter, uttered at longer intervals^
and becoming very drowsy and low as noon approaches. It.
then ceases, and the bird probably sleeps for a few hours. The
call is again uttered as evening approaches, and the Cuckoo
becomes active and restless, getting ready to leave its retreat.
The peculiar call is heard all through the summer nights, and
is mistaken by many persons for the cry of the Smaller Owl,
or Morepork {Scekglaux novce-zealandicB). The cry of the
latter, however, is quite distinct, being a weird purring
sound, much more disturbing to the belated wayfarer who
passes through the dense bush than the not unpleasant notes
of the Cuckoo. On the other hand, a number of people mis-
take the thin grating whistle of the Green Linnet for the call
of the Kohoperoa; but this also can be readily distinguished,
as It is not nearly so loud, nor has it the ascending series of
notes of the latter bird Sometimes when the Cuckoo is chased
by the Tui he will settle along a good-sized bough, and, turn-
ing towards his pursuers, make a curious defiant crowing
sound(906). And it has yet another cry, difficult to describe,
which is only heard at night when the bird is flying low among
the trees. This is a queer sort of rattling noise, something
between the curious chuckle of the Kaka and a very quick
clucking of the Hen {Galhis domesticii,s){SSq).

The moment our Cuckoo shows itself in the day-time it is
pounced upon by all the small fry in the way of native birds,
who pursue and torment it until it reaches the safety of long
grass or thicket once more.

It flies with a peculiar swooping movement at times, and
by some observers is credited with strong volant powers; but,
as it is only seen on the wing for a few seconds at a time,
little is at present known of this. The flight is peculiar, with
a very rapid motion of the wings, and Mr. Potts says that " it
flies l)ut a short distance at a time, and in the young bird the
flight is awkward ; the bird alights heavily on the ground, turn-
ing each time it settles so that it faces the direction from
whence it flew "(62). This is a ciu-ious habit; can any one
suggest an explanation? Can it in any way be an indication
in the voung bird of turning toward or against the wind, and
does it afford any clue towards the elucidation of the nugratory
instinct? Is it, on the other hand, an indication in the young
bird of an instinctive turning to face its enemy, a feeling that
the instant it alights it should turn its face to its foes? Is this
the same instinct whicii causes the bird when it perches on a
branch to immediately turn sideways along it, partly to assist

Fulton. — The Long-tailed Cuckoo. 139

in concealment, but also perhaps to get another 'nough along-
side it, leaving only one side visible and unprotected ?

In watching the bird this year in the Newington bush I
iiave been struck with its Pigeon-like aspect. On leaving a
tree it first falls with little wing-motion, but more of a swoop,
to about 20 ft. from the ground, and then with a very rapid
regular motion of the wings proceeds with incredible speed
through the air ; suddenly, v;ith the least little cant to one
side, and slight spreading fanwise of the tail, it turns in an
instant at right angles to its original course and is off like an
arrow in the new direction, with its long tail streaming out
behind it; then, with another quick swoop upwards, reaches
its perching-place, where, just as it settles with a little flutter,
the tail is again slightly fanned. I have the excellent autho-
rity of Mr. Elsdon Best for saying that when the Cuckoo is
struck at by the Tui he instantly turns over, doubles back,
and thus escapes ; this, his Maori informant says, is never
seen save when the Cuckoo is attacked in the air by the Tui.
The same native says that he has seen as many as five
Cuckoos flying slowly in a line, one after another, each one
a little higher than the one just preceding it. These birds
were evidently migrating; and Mr. Arthur, of Lawrence, gives
the same curious piece of information, "I have seen them
high in the air, as if arriving or leaving for long flight. The
flight is not nearly so fast then, the wings not being moved
so quickly as when amongst trees "(40o). Burroughs says of
the American Yellow-billed Cuckoo that "it has certain pecu-
liarities that remind one of the Passenger Pigeon ; his eye
with its red circle, the shape of its head, and its motions on
alighting and taking flight quickly suggest the resemblance,
though in grace and speed, especially when on the wing, he is
far inferior. His tail is disproportionately long, and his flight
among the trees very still, contrasting strangely with the
honest clatter of the Pigeon "(38c).

Many of the larger Cuckoos have extraordinarily long tails,
and this has often been pointed out with respect to the Indian,
American, European, and Australian birds; so with our own
bird the same disproportionate appendage is displayed. Now,
there must be something more than mere sexual adornment
in this, and it has appeared to me that, as Cuckoos are uni-
versally mobbed by other birds, on account of their parasitic
habit, the long tail is a protective adaptation of structure — in
other words, a " provision of nature " to allow of rapid turning
in the air, as an aid in obtaining insect food and as a means
of escape from its tormentors. Brehm says of the European
Cuckoo that " it will dart round corners with the rapidity of
an arrow, between bushes and through branches with the
greatest address ; it rarely, however, cares to traverse a large

140 Transactions. — Zoology.

space at a time "(12a). Bendire says of the American
Cuckoo, " It can dart at full speed tiirough trees, between
boughs, and round corners as quickly as though in clear open
space "(38|. Mr. Arthur, speaking of our own bird, says that
" its flight is rapid, and that it usually flies in a direct line
from point to point without any turning, unless pursued
by a Tui, when it can turn amongst trees at an amazing
speed "(38&). This long tail may be of service if spread fan-
wise during the long flight, enabling the Cuckoo to rest its
wings by soaring for a time, and that it is fanned on alighting
I have already mentioned ; but to my mind the " steering-
oar " is its main function. The Sparrow-hawk, which it
greatly resembles, spreads his fan when soaring in the air(20),
though his tail is not nearly so long in proportion to the size
of the bird, but he has the faculty of very rapid wing-motion
and quick steering for matters of ofi'ence ; and in the same way
the Long-tailed Goatsuckers of Africa utilise their tails when
on the wing after small insects(12a). The beautiful little
Fantails, of our own Islands, also show the same marvellous
turning and doubling in the air, and m their case undoubtedly
utility is as much the cause of their wonderful appendage as is
mere sexual adornment.

Our Kohoperoa being semi -nocturnal, like the Cuckoo
elsewhere, is noiseless in its flight, and this is, no doubt,
the main reason for the success the female achieves in
getting her eggs into the nests of other birds. So far as I
can find, no one has been fortunate enough to witness this,
though it is undoubted that it must take place during the
day-time, when the builders are absent or have been driven
from the nest. Many eggs must be lost in attempts at
deposition, a large number probably swallowed or broken
by their owners, others dropped on the ground. From what
I hear of strange eggs in imported birds' nests, it is likely
that the Cuckoo is now beginning to make use of them as
homes for her young, though tlie Robin, Canary, and Tom-
tit, less frequently the Tui and Mocker, are the best-known
sufferers.

The following is a list of reputed foster-parents and of
birds which have been seen feeding the Cuckoo, with name
of observer : —

Gerygone flaviventris. Egg not described taken from nest.
W. W. Smith.

Gerygone flaviventris. Bird seen feeding young Cuckoo.
Buller and others.

Myioiiioira alhijrous. A round egg, deeper in colour than
the one in the Christchurch Museum. Smith. From
tliis egg hatched out in due course the Long -tailed
Cuckoo.

Fulton. — The Long-tailed C^ickoo. 141

Myiomoira albifrons. Young bird fed by the Kobin. R.

Riddle.
Myiomoira 7nacrocephala. Bird seen feeding the Cuckoo.

H. Robinson, Akaroa.
Myiomoira macrocephala. Koekoea found in the nest of

the Tomtit. Westenra.
Myiomoira macrocephala. Egg reddish -purple, &c. (vide
ante). John Ross's assistants, W. Millar and A.
Pittaway.
Orthonyx albicilla. Bird seen feeding young supposed to
be that of Glaucopis cinerea. Buller's Maori in-
formant.
Orthonyx albicilla. Cuckoo in nest fed along with young

Canaries. Elsdon Best's Maori informant.
Orthonyx oclirocephala. Young Cuckoo found in nest. R.

Riddle, Orepuki.
Orthonyx ochrocephala. Young Cuckoo seen among flock

of Canaries. McLean.
Carpoplutga nova - zealandim. Bird seen feeding fully

fledged Cuckoo. R. Riddle.
Gerthipariis novce - zealandice. Bird seen feeding young

Cuckoo. R. Riddle.
Prosthemadera novce- zealandicB. Waikato natives. No

details given.
Prosthemadera nova-zealandice. Tui seen feeding young

Cuckoo. A. Reynolds.
Anthornis melanura. Cuckoo seen sitting on nest. Craw-
ford Anderson.
Zosterops lateralis. A long egg of dark colour, tapering to
one end, about 1^ in. in length. Cuckoo seen coming
out of tree. McLean.
There are several other nests which have been reported to
me as containing eggs belonging to this bird, but I have
received no details in time for this paper. Of imported birds
Mr. Jules Tapper, of Clifden Station, has kindly allowed me to
examine an egg taken from the nest of the Brown Linnet.
There is no doubt of the identity of the egg, as he saw the
Cuckoo sitting on the nest. There were two Linnet's eggs in
the nest. The egg is almost the same in size and colouring as
the one found at Milford, and is described as oval, fin. in
length, light brownish-pink, with brown blotches. The Grey
Linnet is also considered a host, as a large white egg over an
inch long was taken by Mr. Geo. Byers, jun., from the nest of
that bird. Large white eggs have also been reported from the
nest of the House-sparrow, possibly belonging to the Cuckoo.
In November and December the bird is laying, and young
Cuckoos appear in January and February. It is probable that
they lay well on in the season, as I have heard them calling

142 Traniiactio)is. — Zoology.

loudly in the Dunedin Town Belt as late as the 12th February.
Professor Benhara saw some making a disturbance in the tops
of some Piiius insignis in the Eangitata district in February of
last year, and 1 saw several disporting themselves in the
garden of the late Mr. Eobert Gillies on the 7th February,
1897. Captain Mair tells us that he has seen them in flocks
on the Hurukaureo Eiver in February, and this is another
point deserving of attention, to which I shall refer later
on (63). The Cuckoo at Milford Sound seems to have laid as
late as the middle of January, and, giving a month or six
weeks, the nearly adult birds would appear about March.
The young, being distinctly spotted on the back, are readily
distinguished from the adult.

About February or March they begin to disappear from
Otago, some receding gradually north, others probabl\-
leaving direct, the young ones remaining till the last. Mr.
McLean, of Te Tua, says, " Several years ago, some
time in February, I saw a number of them — there must
have been over a dozen — assemble on some trees near
Orepuki one morning. This was the first time I had ever
seen such a thing. I was passing at the time, and
when I returned they were gone, in what direction I do
not know, but as I did not see any more that season I
presume they were preparing to migrate. Mr. Tapper, of
Waiau, in March, 1902, saw as many as nine or ten Cuckoos
in the gum-trees near his house, within a distance of 20 yards,
and they were making a great noise amongst themselves(lOl).
Mr. Byers, of Stirling, informs me that " one morning in early
February I saw six Cuckoos all on one tree together ; they
were making a great noise, not their usual long-drawn-out
chirp, but a twittering call; my impression was tliat they were
mustering their forces for migration "(38m). From this it
will be seen that they do not always recede gradually north-
wards, but are often seen in the autumn assembling in Hocks
and suddenly disappearing, and I am of opinion that in many
eases they start off on their return journey direct from any
one point in New Zealand, and that when once they have
risen into the air they probably do not alight until they have
reached their tropical home. Mr. Smith, of Lake Brunner, says
that they arrive in that neighbourhood about the first week in
October and leave about the middle of March (64). Hamilton
records an instance of the bird being seen in the Petane
Valley, Hawke's Bay, the last week in March, and asks
whether any evidence is to be had as to its wintering
there(65). To this query I may say that a young one was
seen at Queenstown in April, 1902, and its plaintive cry was
heard from day to day up till the 5th May (40/). Travers
mentions an instance of one being shot at New Plymouth in

Fulton. — The Long-tailed Cuckoo. 143

June, and suggests that some spend the winter with us(66).
BuUer thinks this unhliely, save on very rare occasions ; but,
commenting on the good condition of this bird, expresses
himself as astonished at the need for migration when there is
evidently in New Zealand abundance of winter food for the
Cuckoo(67). That the birds migrate here for breeding pur-
poses alone, and not for food, which must be ample in the
tropical islands of the Pacific, is now quite certain(81).
Cheeseman, quoting Bell, of the Kermadecs, says that the
birds are annual visitants there, thou^jh bv no means com-
mon(68) ; but in a subsequent volume of the Transactions
quotes, from the same informant, that the bird is a permanent
resident of that island(69). Kirk states that both the Long-
tailed and Shining Cuckoos may occasionally be seen in New-
Zealand all through the winter season(70). Sandager says
that two wintered at Mokohinou in 1888(71). There is little
doubt that the birds reported to me this year from Cape
Palliser had wintered near there, visited the neighbourhood of
the lighthouse, stayed for a few weeks, and then left for their
breeding-haunts in the south(40i). A correspondent from the
Bay of Plenty tells me that he has known of their having been
seen in the bush there in the winter-time(71(x). Mr. McLean,
of Te Tua, Southland, assures me that one was heard there
all through the winter of 1903, and that he had never known
of such a thing before. They are to be found on the
Chatham Islands and the Auckland Islands, according to
Travers, but I can find no details of their arrival or departure
therefrom(72) ; in New Caledonia in March and April(73) ;
and in the Solomon Islands in April and May ; and, as
Captain Hutton says, the evidence is strong that they leave
New Zealand in the autumn and travel north-west to the
tropical islands of the Pacific(75). Finch and Hartlaub give
Fiji(74), Marquesas Islands, Tonga, Samoa, Cook Islands, and
New Zealand as their habitat, and we can now accept as
certain that these birds, which are often referred to as being
feeble in wing-power, twice annually perform the extraor-
dinary feat of flying through the air for a distance of over a
thousand miles before obtaining rest for their weary pinions.

Before concluding I should like, in a few words, to give
some suggestions as to how the habit of parasitism in birds
has become established. What is the reason for this extra-
ordinary habit of imposing eggs upon other birds? Why this
utter neglect of parental responsibilities ? Among other para-
sitic birds known to science are Molothrus, or Cowbird, of
America ; Cassidix, or Rice Crackle, of South America ; and
Indicator, or Honey-guide, of South Africa ; and among these
species are to be found all the stages between true nest-
building and true parasitism. The generally accepted idea

144 Transactions. — ZooJogy.

is that set out by Darwin — that the occasional laying
of an egg in another bird's nest may reduce the work of
tending a very large brood, and be of service to the parent
in enabling her to migrate earlier ; and at the same time the
mistaken instinct of the host may make the young more
vigorous than if fed by its true parent, and thus prove of
advantage. That the eggs are laid at considerable intervals of
time was thought by Darwin to have increased the difficulty
of self-hatching, and to have helped to advance the onset of
parasitism. On carefully looking into the habits of all of
these parasites the most important point that strikes one is
the universal prevalence of promiscuous breeding and poly-
andry— that is, of the occurrence of small flocks of five or six
cock birds and only one hen (118). What is the cause of this
preponderance of males is the key to the mystery. The only
reason the writer can find is the fact that durmg migration
the strongest birds, usually the males, obtain a lead, and are
known always to arrive first in any one locality. Male
Cuckoos, silent for days or weeks, are seen m Australia and
elsewhere, and it is only on the arrival of the females that
they begin their calling. That there are non-migrating para-
sitic Cuckoos in India and many non-pai-asitic migrants every-
where makes it certain that there are other causes as well for
this preponderance of males, but that migration is one of them
seems feasible. Now, taking these birds with their peculiar
habits of breeding, there is no pairing in the true sense of the
word, though it is undoubted that the assistance of both male
and female is necessary in the construction of a nest. Wal-
lace tells us that the male bird of a pair, often a young one,
may learn from his mate, who has had previous experience of
nest-building, and, vice versa, a young female is often helped
bv an old male bird and a verv neat nest constructed. On
the other hand, a pair of young birds new to the business
often construct a very poor habitation indeed. The female
Cuckoo or Cowbird, whose companions roam about the bush,
has no mate to help her, her feet and bill are ill-adapted for
nest-construction, so she is either content with a few poor
sticks on which she lays her eggs or else she drops them one
by one into the nests of other birds. In order to make this
the more easily effected she has acquired the faculty of ir-
regular egg-laying, so that her chicks are hatched out at
intervals of several days, a habit also seen in our Native
Harrier {Circus gonkU) and in our Shags (Phalacrocorax).
Male Cuckoos and Cowbirds ai'e always in the majority,
especially at the beginning of the breeding season, and, for
reasons before mentioned, this may be partially due to the
long flight of migration. From lack of domestic habits and
assistance of the male bird the female has not acquired the

Fulton. — TJie Long-tailed Ciickoo. 145

faculty of nest-building, save in a very rude, flimsy form, or
in a great combined clumsy structure in which a number of
females lay. Cowbirds and Cuckoos show all the stages
between true nest-buildiag and parasitism. Some of the
American Cuckoos and Cowbirds and our own and the Old-
World Cuckoos, having probably passed the stages of nesting
in common and of depositing their eggs in common "boarding-
houses," but retaining the habit of irregular ovipositing, find
it expedient, in order to be ready for the return autumn migra-
tion, to drop their eggs one by one into the nests of other birds.

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES.

(1) A History of the Birds of New Zealand (Buller), 2iid ed., vol. i.,

p. 129.

(2) Ibid., p. 131.

(3) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. vii., p. 324.

(4) A History of the Birds of New Zealand, p. 131.

(5) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. vi., p. 147.

(6) Ibid., vol. xxiii., p. 219.

(7) A Dictionary of Birds (Alfred Newton), pt. i., p. 120.

(8) Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds (Campbell), vol. ii., p. 589.

(9) Ibid., p. 565.

(10) Ibid., p. 585.

(11) Ibid., p 570.
|12) Ibid., p. 570.

(12a) Bird Life (Dr. A. G. Brehm), p. 156.

(12b) Ibid.

(13) A Dictionary of Birds (Newton), pt. i., p. 121.

(14) Ibid.

(15) Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, vol. ii., p. 589.

(16) Ibid., p. 588.
(16a) Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds (Allan Hume), pt. i., p

(17) Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, vol. ii., p. 567.

(18) Ibid., p. 568.

(19) Trans. N.Z. Insc, vol. vi., p. 148.

(20) History of the Birds of New Zealand, vol. i., p. 131.

(21) Ibid., p. 136. I

(22) Ibid.

(23) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. vi., p. 146. ^
(23a) Letter from Mr. Elsdon Best, Ruatahuna, Urewera Country, 8th :

October, 1903. I

(236) Letter from Mr. J. C. Buckland, Akaroa, 1st November, 1903. i

(23c) History of the Birds of New Zealand, vol. i., p. 136. ,

(24) Ibid., 2nd ed., p. 1.35. j
(2.5) Letter from Mr. John Ross, Milford Sound Track, 12th February, 1

1903. !

(26) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. x., p. 200.

(27) A Dictionary of Birds, pt. i., p. 121.

(28) Ibid.,p 123. i

(29) Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, vol. ii., p. 585. '
(.30) A Dictionary of Birds, pt. i., p. 130. '
(31) Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, vol. ii., p, 587. i
(.32) Ibid., p. 589.

(38) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xviii., p. 125. j

(33a) Letter from Mr. A. Arthur, Lawrence, Otago, 17th September, ;

1903. I

10— Trans. !

146 Transactions. — Zoology.

(34) History of the Birds of New Zealand, vol. i., p. 132.

(35) Ibid., p. 123.

(36) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. vi., p. 147.

(37) Ibid., vol. xxviii., p. 362.

(38) Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, vol. ii., p. 571.
{38a) Life-histories of North American Birds (Bendire), p. 21.
(386) Ibid., pp. 442 and 437.

(38c) Locusts and Wild Honey (Burroughs), p. 60.

(38d) Letter from Miss N. A. Sinclair, Thames, Auckland, 27th July,

1903.
(38e) Nineteenth Century, Nov., 1902, p. 758.
(38/) Ibid., p. 764.
(88g) Ibid., p. 766.

(38/t) Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, vol. ii., p. 584.
(380 Ibid-^ P- 589.

(38/) The Birds of Australia (Gould), vol. i., p. 629.
(38A-) Birds of the North-west (Captain Elliott Coues), p. 182.
(38Z) Ibid., p. 278.

(3Sm) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xii., p. 142.

(38h) Letter from Mr. R. Byers, Stirling, Otago, 21st September, 1903.
{3So) Letter from Mr. Charles Thomson, Opotiki, Auckland, 2nd October,

1903.
{38p) Letter from Mr. H. L. Gallien, Winton, Southland, 8th October,

1903.
(38(^) Letter from Mr. Charles McLay, Waikouaiti, Otago, 10th February,

1903.
(38?) Letter from Mr. Elsdon Best, Ruatahuna, Urewera Country, 8th

October, 1903.
(38s) Letter from Mr. J. Crawford Anderson, Riverton, Otago, 9th

October, 1903.
(30) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. vi., p. 147.
(40) A Dictionary of Birds, pt. i., p. 121.
(40a) Letter from Mr. R. Sparrow, East Takaka, Nelson, 1st October,

1903.
(406) Letter from Mr. John McLay, Waikouaiti, Otago, 10th October,

1903.
(4()c) Letter from Miss Turton, Queenstown, Lake Wakatipu, 26th

September, 1903.
(40d) Letter from Mr. R. Byers, Stirling, Otago, 21st September, 1903.
(40e) Letter from Mr. A, Arthur, Lawrence, Otago, 17th September,

1903.
(40/) Letter from Mr. Charles McLay, Mackenzie Country, Otago, 7th

October, 1903.
(40(7) Letter from Miss Turton, Queenstown, 26th September, 1903.
(40)i) Letter from Mr. Lionel Orbell, Orari, Canterbury, 2nd October,

1903.
(40i) Letter from Mr. John Duthie, Cape Palliser Lighthouse, 10th

September, 1903.
(40/) Letter from Miss Turton, Queenstown, 23rd October, 1903.
(46A:) Letter from Mr. J. Crawford Anderson, Riverton, Otago, 9th

October, 1903.
(4O0 Letter from Mr. Alfred Reynolds, Riverton, 24th September, 1903.
(40»>i) „ Mr. H. L. Gallien, Winton, 9th October, 1903.

(40«) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxvi.

(40o) Letter from Mr. A. Arthur, Lawrence, 17th September, 1903.
^40/)) „ Mr. J. Crawford Anderson, Stirling, 9th October, 1903.

(40ry) „ Mr. Alfred Reynolds, Riverton, 24th September, 1903.

/41) Encyclopredia Britannica, 9th cd., vol. iii., p. 772.
{42) A Dictionary of Birds (Nowton), pt. i., p. 126.

Fulton. — The Long-tailed Cuckoo. 147

<48) The Birds of India (Jerdon), vol. i., p. 321.

(44) The Century Dictionary, 1902 ed., vol. v., p. 3825.

(45) Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, vol. ii., p. 591.
(45a) Origin of Species, 6th ed , chap, viii., p. 215.
(456) Ibid , p. 216.

(45c) Naturalist's Voyage round the World (Darwin), p. 75.

{•^bd) Origin of Species (Darwin), p. 214.

.(46) Te Ika a Maui (Rev. R. Taylor, 1870), p. 45.

(47) Pearsoti's Magazine, April, 1903, p. 357.

(48) An Account of New Zealand (Rev. William Yate, 1835), p. 65.

(49) A Dictionary of the Maori Language (E. Tregear).
(49a) Letter from Mr. E. Tregear, Wellington, 1st July, 1903.
(496) Dictionary of the Maori Language.
(49c) Letter from Mr. Elsdon Best, Bth October, 1903.

(50) New Zealand Illustrated Magazine, April, 1903, p. 213.

(51) A History of the Birds of New Zealand.

(52) Geographical Distribution of Animals (Wallace), vol. i., p. 452.

(53) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. i., p. 13.

(54) Ibid., vol. XX., p. 154.

(55) Ibid., vol. xiv., p. 274.

(56) Ibid., vol. xix., p. 181.

(57) Ibid., vol. xxii., p. 288.
(57a) Letter from Mr. John Duthie, Cape Palliser, 10th September,

1903.

(576) Letter from Mr. Anders Hansen, Pencarrow Head Lighthouse,

15th September, 1903.

(57c) Letter from Mr. Charles Hertslet, Doubtless Bay, 23rd September,

1903.

{57d) Letter from Mr George Jamieson, Stephen Island Lighthouse,

14th August, 1903.

(58) Pearson's Magazine, April, 1903, p. 362.

(59) A History of the Birds of New Zealand, vol. i., p. 131.

(60) Nests and Eggs of Australian Birds, vol. ii., p. 564.

(61) Chambers' s Journal, 3rd May, 1902, p. 410.
(61a) Birds of India (J. C. Jerdon).

(62) History of the Birds of New Zealand, vol. i., p. 131.

(63) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. iii., p. 91.

(64) Ibid., vol. xxi., p. 213.

(65) Ibid., vol. xviiL, p. 123.

(66) Ibid., vol. xxxi., p. 17.

(67) Ibid., vol. xxxi., p. 17.

(68) Ibid., vol. XX., p. 154.

(69) Ibid., vol. xxiii., p. 219.

(70) Ibid., vol. xxviii., p. 8.

(71) Ibid., vol. xxii., p. 288.
(71a) Letter from Mr. Campbell Thomson, Opotiki, 2nd October, 1903.

(72) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xv., p. 187.
(78) Ibid., vol. xxxiii., p. 258.

(74) Ornithologie de Vitis (Finsch and Hartlaub), p. 27.

(75) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxiii., p. 258. \

(76) Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed., vol. iii., p. 772.

(77) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. v., p. 235. ]

(78) Nature, vol. x., p. 459. ;

(79) A Dictionary of Birds, part ii., p. 568. i
<80) Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. iii., p. 769. i

(81) Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxiii., p. 2,58. i

(82) A Dictionary of Birds, part ii., p. 568. '
<83) J6id., part ii., p. 569. '■
(84) History of British Birds (Bewick), Memorial Edition, 1885, vol. i. •:

148 Transactions. — Zoology.

(85
(86
(87
(88
(89
(90
(91
(92
(93
(94
(95
(96
(97
(98
(99
(100
(101'
(102

103
(104

(105
(106
(107
(108

(109

'110
illl
(112
(113

Cuckoos and Shrikes in relation to Agriculture (Merriam), p. 11.

The Birds of India (Allan Hume), vol. i., p. 135.

Proc. Zool. Soc, 5th January, 1892, pp. 270-71.

Ibis, vol. for 1900, p. 640.

Ibis, vol. for 1897, p. 363.

Letter from Mr. John White, Dunedin, 9th October, 1903.

Mr. John McNeill, Cape Campbell, 12th November, 1903.

Miss Frew, Edendale, 20th November, 1903.

Mr. E. Eiddle, Orepuki, 16th November, 1903.
Otago Witness, Notes and Queries, 9th December, 1903.
Statement of Mr. W. Milne, Normanby, 10th December, 1903.
Ibis, vol. for 1902, p. 587.
Letter from Mr. R. G. Sparrow, Nelson, 22nd October, 1903.

ff f n ft It

„ Mr. James McLean, Orepuki, 26th November, 1903.

Mr. R. Riddle, Orepuki, 16th November, 1903.
Mr. Jules Tapper, Waiau, 20th November, 1903.
Miss Beauchamp, Anakiwa, Picton, 22nd November,
1903.
„ Lighthouse-keeper, Akaroa, 16th November, 1903.

Mr. Allan Orbell, Waikouaiti, 16th November, 1903.
Mr. Elsdon Best, Ruatahuna, 12th December 1903.
Mr. Edward Tregear, 1st July, 1903.
Mr. John McLean, Te Tua, 26th November, 1903.
Telegram from Mr. A. Voyle, Cape Maria van Diemen, 30th Novem-
ber, 1903.
Telegram from Mr. Norman Fulton, Te Kumu, Hunterville, 30th

September, 1903.
Ibis, vol. for 1902.

Birds of the North-west (Elliott Coues).
Bendire's Life-history of American Birds.
Trans. Aust. Assoc, for the Advancement of Science, vol. for 1904.

Aet. IX. — Description of a Nezv Fish.
By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.E.S.

[Read before the Ihilosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th NovembeTy

J 903.]

Bovichiths roseo-pictus, sp. nov.

Head and body slightly compressed. The total length
about 5h times the height of the body and 4^ times the
length of the head. The top of the head is smooth, with
two small ridges, and it descends abruptly in front of the
eyes, which are lateral. The diameter of the eye is about
equal to the length of the snout, and is more than the inter-
orbital space. Operculum with a long straight spine ; the
other bones of the head unarmed. Pectoral fins rather
pointed, as long as the head, the lower five rays slightly
thickened. Ventrals jugular, remote at their bases, pointed,
nearly as long as the pectorals, the spine soft. Dorsals
separate ; the first about half the length of the second ;
neither of them so high as the body. Anal rather shorter

HuTTON. — Occurrence of Centrolophus in Neiv Zealand. 149

than the second dorsal. Caudal apparently truncated. No
scales. The lateral line well marked, continuous, rather
rough. Minute teeth on the jaws and palate.

Dark olivaceous-brown on the back, the sides and abdo-
men silvery, with a pink spot at the base of the operculum
and five bright rose-pmk bands on each side.

D., 8/18(?); A., 13(?).

Total length, 46 mm. ; of the head, 10 mm. ; of the snout,
3 mm. Height of the body, 7'5mm. Diameter of the eye,
3*5 mm. ; interorbital space, 3 mm. Length of the base of
the first dorsal, 6'5 ram. ; of the second, 13 mm. ; of the
anal, 11 mm. Length of the pectoral, 10 mm. ; of the ventral,
9 mm.

Picked up on the beach at Sumner and presented to the
Museum by Mr. F. C. B. Bishop.

As the fish had been partially dried I could not count the
fin-rays very accurately, but it is evident from its colours that
il is distinct from any previously described species.

The type is preserved in the Canterbury Museum.

Akt. X. — On the Occurrence of Centrolophus in New Zealand.

By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.E.S.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th November,

1903.]

Centrolophus, called " blackfish " from its colour, is a pelagic
fish found in the Mediterranean and North Atlantic. Early
in the year 1893 the Australian Museum at Sydney received a
specimen from New Zealand which was described by Mr.
Douglas Ogilby as a new species, G. maoricus. On the 16th
of last February another specimen of the blackfish was picked
up at Sumner by Mr. Thomas Clark, who presented it to
the Christchurch Museum. The specimen was considerably
damaged by gulls about the head and neck, but it has been
preserved in formalin.

It differs from G. maoricus in the more numerous fin-rays,
in which respect it comes nearer to G. bntannicus of Dr.
Ounther (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 3, vi., 46), but our fish has
more fin-rays even than that species. However, without
making a skeleton it is difficult to say exactly where the
Qorsal fin begins or how many spines it has, for it rises so
slowly from tlie back and the spines are so weak.

The following is a description of the specimen : —

D., 10/47 ; A., 3/35.

150 Transactimis. — Zoology.

Greatest depth goes 5J times into the total length. The
length of the head goes b\ times into the total. The maxil-
lary reaches to below the front of the eye. The dorsal fin is-
low and the rays are feeble ; it commences above the base of
the pectoral.

The scales are minute, and form a sheath along the basal
half of the vertical fins.

Colour, dark-brown, without any spots.

Total length, 34 in. ; length of the dorsal fin, about 20 in.
or 21 in. ; of the anal, 11 in.

Art. XI. — Revision of the New Zealand Members of the

Genus Phorocera.

By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th November,

1903.']

In the New Zealand species of the genus the macrochaetae are
generally as follows : Vertical bristles, one pair on each side,
slightly diverging. Ocellar bristles present. Fronto-orbital in
two rows, the inner 6, the outer 3, stronger. Lower fronto-
orbital also 4, descending to about the middle of the eye.
Facial bristles on the lower two-thirds of the ridges ; a strong
vibrissa near the mouth. Humeral bristles, 3; post-humeral,
2. Dorso-humeral, four rows on each side. Scutellar bristles
few, about 6 on each side, pointing backwards. Meso-pleural
in a vertical band, the posterior not strong. Ptero-pleural, 2 ;
sterno-plcural, 1, very strong. The first, second, and third
abdominal segments are without discal bristles in the female.
The second segment has two marginals near the centre. The
third segment has several ; and the fourth has both discal and
marginal bristles.

P. atrox.

The sides of the face are yellowish-white ; the antennal
groove is pure-white.

P. perniciosa.

The sides of tlie face are greyish-white, with a brown spot;
the antennal groove is white.

P. nyctemeriana and P, feredayi.

I have no more information about these species.

HuTTON. — Revision of the Genus Phorocera. 151

P, nefaria.

There is a mistake in my former paper in Trans. N.Z.
Inst., xxxiii., p. 59. There is no yellow spot at the base of
the wings.

P. aurea, sp. nov.

Frontal band black ; vertex black, with blue reflections ;
sides of the face golden -yellow, with a reddish-brown spot
on each side just below the lower fronto-orbital bristles^.
Antennae, antennal fovea, and proboscis black. Thorax,
scutellum, and abdomen brilliant metallic-blue. Legs black.
Squamae greyish. Wings colourless ; the veins black, the costa
fulvous at its base. First posterior cell open. No discal
setae; marginal setae on the third and fourth segments only.
Length, 7 mm. ; wing, 7 mm.

Longbeach, November, 1902.

P. marginata.

This species has a brown spot on each side of the face.
The individuals with a green thorax I make into a separate
species, as follows: —

P. exitiosa, sp. nov.

Frontal band and antennae black, as also are the palpi
and proboscis. Vertex dark-grey. Cheeks black, with silvery
pubescence. Thorax metallic-green ; the abdomen deep-blue.
Scutellum blue, margined with ferruginous. A rather ob-
scure fulvous spot at the base of the wings. Legs black.
Length, 8-9 mm. ; wing, 6^7^ mm.

Longbeach, November, 1902.

There are 3 sterno-pleural macrochaetse.

P. tecta, sp. nov.

Frontal band dark reddish-brown ; vertex and sides of the
face yellowish-white, with a spot of reddish-brown on each
side about the middle of the antennal groove. Antennae,
palpi, and proboscis piceous. Thorax grey, with three short
black lines on the fore part. Scutellum dark-fulvous, the
base grey. Abdomen greyish-brown, with white tessellations
on each side. Legs blackish, the tibise dark-fulvous. Squamae
white. Wings colourless; the veins blackish-brown. The first
posterior cell completely closed. Three sterno-pleural macro-
chaetae. Length, 7 mm. ; wing, 5 mm.

Wellington and Christchurch.

P. casta, sp. nov.

Frontal band dark reddish- brown ; vertex and sides of face
silvery - white, without any spot. Antennae and proboscis
piceous. Thorax greyish-brown, with some obscure black lines

152 Transactions. — Zoology.

on the fore part. Scutellum fulvous, with a grey base.
Abdomen dark greyish-brown, with white tessellations on the
sides. Legs blackish, the tibiae dark-fulvous. Squamae white.
"Wings slightly tinged with brown near the base ; the veins
dark-brown. The first posterior cell barely closed. Length,
7 mm. ; wing, 5 mm.
Christchurch.

P. inconspicua, sp. nov.

Like P. tecta, but no spot on the side of the face, and the
first posterior cell slightly open. Third joint of antennae not
much more than twice the length of the second. Length,
7 mm. ; wing, 5 mm.

Christchurch.

Described from a single specimen.

P. orasus.

The sides of the face are yellow, the antennal groove
white. Legs black. Length, 7 mm. ; wing, 5 mm.

P. clathrata.

This species differs from P. orasus only in having red spots
on the sides of the abdomen, and there are many intermediate
varieties of which it is doubtful to which species they should
be referred.

P. efferata.

Frontal band dark reddish-brown ; the vertex yellowish-
w^hite, with black shadows ; sides of the face yellowish- white,
with a broad brown spot on each sid ■ half-way down the
antennal groove. Femora tawny ; tibiae and tarsi black.
Often a fulvous spot on the side of the second abdomi-
nal segu)ent. Three sterno - pleural macrochajtae. Length,
10 mm. ; wing, 7|mm.

P. fulvipes, sp. nov.

Like P. efferata, but the tibiae and tarsi fulvous. Length,
from 8 mm. to 10 mm.

P. brouni, sp. nov.

Vertex, face, and antennae black. Thorax and scutellum
dark-fulvous. Al)domen pale-fulvous. Legs black. Wings
colourless. Length, 5 mm. ; wing, 4 mm.

Maketu. Captain Broun.

A single damaged specimen, but very distinct from any
other.

P. funesta.

There is a brown spot on each side of the face.

HuTTON. — Two Netv Flies.

153

The following key to the species may be usef

1. Abdomen aeruginous.

Face j'ellowish-white . .
Face greyish-white

2. Abdomen pure-blue.

Scutellum brown.
First abdominal segment brown
First abdominal segment blue
Scutellum entirely blue.
Face dark-grey . . . . . .

Face golden-yellow
Scutellum margined with red or brown.
Thorax blue
Thorax greenish
•3. Abdomen brown, tessellated with white.

A reddish-brown spot on each side of the face.
First posterior cell distinctly closed . .
First posterior cell more or less open.
Femora black.

Abdomen with red spots
Abdomen without spots
Femora tawny.

Tibise and tarsi black
Tibiae and tarsi tawny . .
No spot on the side of the face.

Third joint of antennae more than three times

the length of the second . .
Third joint of the antennas less than three
times the length of the second

4. Abdomen pale-fulvous

5. Abdomen black . .

ul:—

atrox.
permciosa.

feredayi.
nyctemeriana.

nefaria.
aurea.

marginata.
exitiosa.

tecta.

clathrata.
orasus.

efferata.
fulvipes.

casta.

inconspicua.

brouni.

funesta.

Art. XII. — Ttuo Netv Flies.

By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.E.S.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th November,

1903.]
Limnia castanea, sp. nov.

"Vertex and antennae dark chestnut-brown ; frontal band
nearly black ; face and fore coxae silvery. Thorax tawny on
the top ; the sides dark-brown, with a broad silvery longi-
tudinal band. Abdomen dark-tawny. Halteres tawny. Legs
tawny, the tibiae and joints of the tarsi tipped wiih dark-
brown. "Wings pale-yellowish, with brown spots ; the mar-
ginal cell with four spots outside the subcostal cell, and two
smaller ones inside it. The submarginal and first posterior
with ocellated spots, the ocelli of two adjacent spots often
running together. The other cells with simple spots and
bands ; the cross-veins slightly margined. Length, 7 mm. ;
wing, 7 mm.

"Wellington.

Allied to L. ohscura.

154 Trayisactions. — Zoology.

Limnia striata, sp. nov.

Vertex and antennae bright-tawny ; frontal band the same
or darker ; a transverse band, just above the antennye, brown.
Thorax pale-yellowish, with four longitudinal dark-brown
bands, the two middle ones rather approximated ; the sides
yellow. Fore coxae and sides of the face white. Halteres-
tawny. Abdomen brown. Legs tawny, the tibiae slightly
tipped with brown ; the hind tarsi dark-brown ; sometimes-
the middle tarsi are also dark-brown. Wings nearly white,
with brown spots ; the marginal cell with four large spots
outside the subcostal cell and two small spots inside it.
These are not ocellated. Submarginal and first and second
posterior cells with ocellated spots. The other cells with
simple spots; cross-veins broadly margined. Length, 5 mm. ;
wing, 5 mm.

Longbeach, among grass near the sea.

Art. XIII. — On a New Weta from the Chatham Islands.
By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.E.S.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th November,.

J 903.]

Pleioplectron serratum, sp. nov.

Joints of the antennae cylindrical in l)oth sexes, broader
than long near the base. Pronotum and mesonotum not
margined. Fore and middle femora unarmed below ; the
hind femora with fifteen teeth below in each row, those of
the outer row smaller than those of the inner ; fore and
middle tibiae with three pairs of spines below, none above ;
hind tibiae slightly grooved above, with 16 to 20 red spines,
nearly regular in size. Subgenital plate of the male trans-
verse, with a long stout process, rounded at the end, between
the styles. The subgenital plate of the female is hidden.

Colours, fuscous-brown, the face and palpi pale ; antennae
fuscous. No pale line on the pronotum. Legs pale-yellowish,
the hind femora usually with some fuscous markings. Total
length of the male, 32 mm.; of the female, 27mm. Length
of the pronotum, J 15 mm., $ 6^ mm.; of the thorax,
<y 17 mm., $ 15 mm.; of the abdomen, <? 15 mm. $ 12 mm.;
of the ovipositor, 14 mm. Length of the fore tibia, J 9 mm.,
2 7-Bmm.; hind tibia, J 18 mm., J 15mm.; of the iund
femur, J 21mm., 9 16-17 mm. ; width at mesonotum,
(J 9 mm., $ 8 mm.; length of the antennae, 45 mm.

Collected on Pitt Island and presented to the Christcliurch
Museum by Mr. J. J. Fougere.

HuTTON. — Occurrence of the Curleiv-Sandjnper. 155

Art. XIV. — Descripiion of a New Blmo-fiy from Campbell

Island.

By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.E.S.

\^Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th November,

1903.]

Calliphora cockaynei, sp. nov.

2 . Head and face brownish-black, third joint of antennae
lighter ; palpi and tip of proboscis fulvous. Eyes hairy ;
thorax brownish-black ; a fulvous spot on each side behind
the eye and another at the base of the wings. Wings tinged
with fulvous ; the veins dark-brown, but fulvous at their
insertion, thus making a double fulvous spot on the side of
the thorax. Squamae grey ; abdomen metallic greenish-blue ;
legs black. Length, 12-5 mm.; wings, 10 mm.

Hab. Campbell Island. Collected by Dr. L. Cockayne,
July, 1903.

Described from a single specimen which had been put
into formalin.

Allied to C. quadrimaculata, but easily distinguished by
the colour of the abdomen.

Art. XV. — On the Occurrence of the Ciorleiv- Sandpiper (x\.n-
cylochilus sub-arquatus) m Netv Zealand.

By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, -ith Noveviber,

1903.]

The Curlew-Sandpiper is one of those birds which breed in
the Arctic regions and pass the winter in Africa, India, and
Australia. We do not know it as a regular visitor to New
Zealand, but two specimens were shot at Lake EUesmere by
Mr. Edgar Stead on the 5th of last April, one of which went
to the British Museum and the other to the Canterbury
Museum. The British Museum specimen is in the winter
plumage, but the one in our Museum is just commencing to
change into the breeding-plumage, having rufous feathers on
its breast and rusty ones on the neck and back. The length
of the bill is 1-4 in.; of the wing, 5-3 in. ; of the tarsus,
1'15 in. ; and of the middle toe and claw, 1-15 in.

The bird is easily recognised from any of the other Sand-
pipers by its long slender bill, which is slightly curved down-
wards, and by the white upper tail-coverts.

156 Transactions. — Zoology.

The winter plumage is as follows : Above ashy-brown, the
centres of the feathers darker ; rump and upper tail-coverts
white ; tail ashy-brown, with a subterminal bar of dusky, the
feathers with white shafts and fringed with white. Under-
surface pure -white, with tiny lines of dusky-brown on the
sides of the face, sides of the neck, and lower throat and fore-
neck.

Art. XVI. — O71 the Anatomy of Paryphanta fumosa, Tenison-

Woods.

By E. Murdoch.

[Read before the Wellington Philosojyhical Society, 17th December, 1903.]

Plate VI.

Vitrina fumosa, Ten. -Woods. Proc. Lin. Soc. N.S.W., iii.,
p. 124, pi. xii., figs. 3, 3a.

V. fumosa, Ten. -Woods. Petterd, Monograph, "Land Shells
of Tasmania," 1879, p. 51.

To the kindness of Mr. Charles Hedley and Mr. W. F.
Petterd I am indebted for an example of this rare species.
The specimen under notice was collected and identified by
Mr. Petterd, the original discoverer of the species. It was
gathered at Mount Farrell, north-west Tasmania, and is
certainly one of the rarest members of the genus Paryi^hanta.

The shell (figs. 1 and 2) is subglobose, imperforate, exceed-
ingly thin, shining, of a dark-olive lint, and without sculpture.
Whorls 3, rapidly increasing in size. The spire small, lightly
convex, and scarcely elevated above the body- whorl. Proto-
conch consists of about If whorls, ligliter in colour and
apparently devoid of sculpture. Sutures impressed. The
lines of growth on the body-whorl are minute, somewhat
irregular, and have a slightly criniped appearance at the
suture. Aperture broadly ovate and slightly oblique to the
axis of the shell. Columella sliort, curved, and very lightly ex-
panded. Outer lip slightly projecting at the suture. The um-
bilical area slightly impressed. Alt., 10 mm. ; lat., 13'5 mm.

The shell, with the exception of llie apical whorls, appears
to consist almost completely of conchin, and in tliis respect it
resembles certain of the New Zealand species — e.g., P. iinmla,
Pfr.

The animal is, unfortunately, very much contracted, hard,
and difiicult to handle. It is black or blue-black in colour,
somewhat ligliter posteriorly. The ruga3 on the sides of the
body and neck are large, irregular in shape, and do not

Murdoch. — Oft the Anatomy of Paryphanta fumosa. 157

appear to form regular rows, except some two or three on
the neck. Behind the visceral mass there is a median dorsal
line which does not extend to the fitll length of the tail,
and the rugiE on this area are considerably smaller than on
the anterior portion of the animal. The tentacles are com-
pletely retracted, and the labial projections, if any, are not
distinguishable. On the external surface of the mantle, and
close to its margin, is a lightly impressed line of a dark-blue
colour, and on the under-side are small right and left lappets,
the latter forming a narrow inconspicuous fold. The foot is
of a sepia colour around the margins, shading to lighter in the
middle area ; except in colour there is no indication of it being
divided into median and lateral areas. It is thrown into
several transverse prominent folds, and its w^hole area has the
appearance of being minutely transversely and longitudinally
grooved. This rugose aspect is doubtless largely due to its
contracted condition.

The buccal mass (fig. 3) is large, and very similar to the
corresponding organ in other members of the genus ; but in
the form of attachment of the retractor muscle it differs from
any that have come under my notice. The muscle is com-
pletely attached to the posterio-ventral side of the buccal
mass ; it extends from the posterior and forward to the flexure,
as shown in the figure. The muscle forms, as it were, a
double cushion (fig. 4), attached on the inner margins and
anterior areas. In P. hochstetteri, Pfr., and P. busbyi, Gray,
the retractor muscle almost envelops the curved-down pos-
terior end of the buccal mass. It is roughly in the form of a
hollow cone, but the greater portion of the muscle certainly
goes to the ventral side. In longitudinal section of the buccal
mass it is found that the area of greatest muscular concentra-
tion is at tlie ventral flexure or immediately posterior to it.
To this area are attached the enormously developed posterio-
dorsal series of muscles, which proceed from the odontophoral
cartilage and radular sac. It would thus appear that in
fnmosa the retractor muscle is more completely applied to the
area where the greatest resistance is required.

The radula has the formula 38-0-38, the rows of teeth
forming an obtuse angle curved towards the margins. The
teeth (tig. 5) are all aculeate. They increase in length to about
the ninth ; a few succeeding teeth are apparently without
change, thence they very gradually decrease in length ; the
twenty-fifth to the twenty-seventh diminish somewhat more
rapidly, and the last is reduced to about one-half of the length
of the adjoining tooth. With the exception of the innermost
tooth, all have practically the same diameter ; thus the teeth
towards the margins, and the centre also, are in proportion to
their length more robust than the intermediate teeth.

158 Transactions. — Zoology.

The oesophagus enters the buccal cavity in the anterior
third ; it is a thin, narrow tube, without any distinctly marked
crop. The stomach forms a small elongated sac surrounded
by the liver ; and the tract of the intestine is apparently simi-
lar to Helix.

The salivary gland (fig. 6) partly envelops the oesophagus,
and is situate on the posterior portion of the buccal mass ; it
consists of right and left lobes, the former being somewhat
the smaller. The two lobes anteriorly are almost completely
fused together ; viewed from the ventral side the divisional
line is seen to form a well-marked furrow on the posterior half
of the gland, but on the anterior portion it is scarcely indi-
cated, and the two parts cannot be separated without severing
the tissue of the gland. There is but a single salivary duct,
which proceeds from the median cleft on the anterior end of
the gland and enters the buccal cavity on the right of the
Cfisophagus and slightly posterior to it. Transverse sections
taken at the point w^here the salivary duct becomes merged in
the gland show that the ducts proceeding into the right and
lesser lobe are somewhat more conspicuous than those to the
left side. Neither of the lobes or glands appears to have
suffered any loss of function. In the situation of the salivary
duct it has the appearance of having changed from its normal
position, and to some extent doubtless it has, but it is presum-
able that the anterior end of the gland is more perfectly fused
and drawn together than in its normal condition ; also, it is
fairly conclusive proof that in a normal state the glands are
functionally united. The condition of the salivary glands in
Paryjyhanta is somewhat variable : thus, in P. hochstetteri they
are functionally united, while in P. busbyi they are distinctly
separate in function. In the former species the union of the
glands is most apparent in the very young individuals. The
right gland is much the smaller ; its duet divides into two
branches, either immediately before or as it enters the sub-
stance of the gland. One of these branches proceeds to the
anterior portion of the left gland, where it divides into several
lesser tubes; also, the cellular structure of glands is continuous
in this area. In adult specimens the line of cleavage between
the two glands is much more pronounced, but there is always
some portion in which the glandular mass is continuous. The
left salivary duct unites with its gland in a position consider-
ably posterior to that of the right duct and gland.

The pedal gland (fig. 7) opens anteriorly between the
head and foot ; it forms a long slender tube much folded and
lying upon the floor of the body-cavity. Its posterior end is
enlarged, partly imbedded in a shallow cavity in the muscles
of the foot, and from its ventral side proceeds a small muscle
which unites with the adjoining tissue.

Murdoch. — On the Anatomy of Paryphanta fumosa. 159

Ketractor muscles : The buccal-mass retractor is very large,
almost equalling the pedal muscles. Both muscles coalesce
towards their posterior extremity. The tentacle-retractors
arise in separate bands from the posterior portion of the pedal
muscle ; they bifurcate towards their anterior ends and supply
the retractors to the inferior tentacles. The right ocular
retractor passes between the branches of the genital system.
The form and position of the muscles, with the exception of the
attachment of the retractor with the buccal mass, agree per-
fectly with the New Zealand ■s.^peciQ^— busby i,'-^'- urnula,\ and
hochstetteriA

Pallial region (fig. 8) : The kidney is tongue-shaped, its
anterior end having a somewhat truncated appearance ; in
length it is twice its breadth, about half the length of the
lung, and about one-third longer than the pericardium. The
ureter is a well-marked tube of medium width ; it follows the
margin of the kidney, and appears to open into the right
posterior corner of the lung close to the rectum.

The pericardium is in the usual position on the left side of
the kidney. The great efferent pulmonary vein follows the
margin of the ureter to a point almost in line with the right
border of the kidney ; thence proceeds forward towards the
respiratory pore. There are 3 comparatively large pigmented
efferent vessels on the cardiac side of the lung; also in front of
the respiratory pore are several small pigmented vessels from
both rectal and cardiac sides. On the rectal area of the lung
are numerous small efferent and afferent vessels, but they are
not pigmented, and it requires a very careful illumination to
show any trace of them. On the cardiac side are several
afferent vessels, two of which are comparatively large, and
with pigmented margins.

Generative organs (figs. 9 and 10) : The atrium is very
short. The penis forms a simple sac of medium length, with
the retractor muscle inserted in the posterior end and attached
distally to the diaphragm. Its internal wall has a prominent
thickening, yellowish in colour and the surface covered with
minute granules ; it extends from the entrance of the vas
deferens to almost the anterior termination of the penis. The
vas deferens arises a little below the apex of the penis ; it has
a few slight convolutions, thence a slender uniform tube until
immediately before its union with the oviduct, where it is
enlarged, almost sac-like. The vagina is somewhat slender,
and in length rather more than equals the penis. The recep-
tacuium seminis is in the form of a small elongated sac,
situate close to the sacculated uterus, and when the organs

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxv., pp. 258-62, pi. xxvii.

t Proc. Malac. Soc, London, 1903, vol. v., pt. iv., pp. 270-73.

160 Transactions. — Zoology.

are in a natural position (fig. 9) it is completely enveloped
by the sacculations. Its internal walls are richly plicated.
The albumen gland very large, and the hermaphrodite duct
densely convoluted. The right lobe of the liver, including the
hermaphrodite gland, was torn off and remained in the shell
when extracting the animal.

The systematic position of fumosa has already received
some attention. Ancey, in Journal de Conchoiogy, xlix., p. 12,
places it in Paryi^hanta, and refers to it as an interesting
Antarctic species. Suter, in the same publication (p. 316), at
once throws doubt on its pertinence to Paryyhanta. To this
Ancey replies (J. de C, li., p. 44) that until anatomical in-
vestigation disproves it the species may by shell characters
fairly be assumed to be a Paryphanta.

The most striking peculiarity in the anatomy of the several
known species of Paryphanta is the marked difference in their
genital organs. The difference is chietiy centred in the re-
ceptaculum seminis ; the contour of this organ is so distinct
in each species that, when added to the minor difference in
other organs, it presents a type of genitalia unusually distinct
amongst species of the same genus. P. busbyi can scarcely
be compared with the other members, its genital organs are
almost totally different ; but this condition is probably due to
degeneration. On the other hand, the general anatomy does
not appear to present any important differences, except the
form of attachment of the buccal-mass retractor in P. fumosa.
This divergence from the typical form is an important feature,
for as a rule the form and position of the principal muscles in
a genus or family show a far smaller range of variation than
organs such as the jaw, dentition, or genitalia ; however,
apart from this feature, the arrangement of the muscles, as
previously stated, is identical wuth P. hochstctteri ; also, there
IS a mass of evidence from totally diverse, uncorrellated organs
which is quite in accord with Paryphanta.

^'g-J-[ Shell.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VL
Paryphanta fumosa, Ten. -Woods.

3. Buccal mass, &c.

4. Buccal-mass retractor muscle, form of attachment.

5. Teeth.

G. Salivary gland, ventral side.

7. Pedal gland.

8. Pallial region.
(J I

, „■ • Generative organs

Philpott. — Notes on Southern Lepidoptera. 161

Eeference Letters.
af. V. Afferent pulmonary veins. | p. Penis.

alh. g. Albumen gland. per. Pericardium.

ef. V. Efferent pulmonary veins, i r. Right salivary gland.

h.d. Hermaphrodite duct.
int Intestine.
re. Rectum.
k. Kidney.

I. Left salivary gland.
CBS. CEsophagus.

r. m. Retractor muscle.
r. s. Receptaculum seminis.
s. d. Salivary duct,
s. cj. Salivary gland:

u. Ureter.
V. d. Vas deferens.

Art. XVII. — On the Occurrence of Vanessa atalanta ajid
Plusia festucae in Southland.

By Alfred Philpott.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 5th August, 1903.]
Early in April of this year I had an opportunity of examining
a collection of Lepidoptera formed by Mr. Eobert Dunlop,
manager of the Orepuki Oil and Shale Works. Among them
I was very much surprised to see a specimen each of
V. atala7ita and P. festuca. I learnt from Mr. Dunlop that
the specimen of V. atalanta was the only one secured out
of several seen. This insect, however, has been previously
taken in New Zealand. Mr. T. W. Kirk states (Trans.
N.Z. Inst., xvi., 550) that he captured a specimen in the
Wellington Botanical Gardens in the summer of 1881, and
at a subsequent date saw others.

P. festuccB, I believe, has not previously been observed in
New Zealand. The specimen under notice was attracted by
the electric light, and, though not in the best condition, I do
not think there can be any doubt of its identity. Mr. Mey-
rick says (" Handbook of British Lepidoptera," 157) that
P. fest^lC(^ is found in Britain and Ireland, north and central
Europe, and northern Asia. It is just possible that the
species is also a true inhabitant of New Zealand, like its
near relative P. chalcites.

Art. XVIII. — Notes on Southern Lepidoptera.

By Alfred Philpott.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 7th October, 1903.]

This paper is intended as an extension and amplification of
my " Catalogue of Southland Lepidoptera " (Trans. N.Z.
Inst., xxxiii., 167). I have also taken the opportunity to
correct several errors which unfortunately appeared in that

11— Trans.

162 Transactions. — Zoology.

article. Though the majority of the species dealt with are to
be found in Southland, I have not restricted myself to arti-
ficial boundaries, and " southern " in this case must be under-
stood to mean practically Southland and Otago. For much
information regarding the moths of central Otago I am
indebted to Mr. J. H. Lewis, and I have also freely availed
myself of information supplied by other trustworthy workers.
Where no locality is given for a species it may be understood
that it is to be found in the near neighbourhood of Inver-
cargiil.

Metacrias strategica.

This moth appears to be on the increase. The larva is
probably distasteful to birds, and as it feeds on introduced
grasses its increase is not a matter for surprise. On the
9th December, 1901, I put a couple of newly emerged females
in a box and placed it on a low shrub. This was at half-
past 5 in the morning, and in a few minutes several males
were flying round the bush, and in the course of the day
nearly two hundred visited the box. I have several times
seen the males on the wing between 5 and 6 a.m. It re-
sembles in this habit the very common Nyctemera annulata.

Miselia iota, Hdsn.

A very worn example of this moth was taken in the
winter of 1900, and a second was secured at sugar m October,
1901.

Orthosia immunis.

There appears to be only an autumn brood of this moth.
I have met with it in fair numbers on the ragwort (Senecio) in
March, but have not taken it at any other time.

Physetica cserulea.

This moth may be struck off our southern lists for the
present, the Orepuki examples having turned out to be Leu-
cama moderata.

Leucania propria.

This species is often confused with L. atristriga. The
fore wings are, however, broader in 'propria, and the differ-
ence in form of the dark longitudinal basal streak is very
noticeable. This streak in atristriga tapers to an acute
point, while in propria it is but slightly tapered, and ends
obtusely.

Li. acontistis.

I learn from Mr. J. H. Lewis that this species is common
at Ida Valley and Wedderburn.

Philpott. — Notes on Southern Lepidoptera. 163

L. toroneura.

Also fairly common at Ida Valley.

Melanchra disjungens.

On the authority of Mr. Eobert Gibb, Tuturau, near
Mataura, mav be added to the localities for this handsome
moth. It is strange that it has never been taken in this
district, which is not more than thirty miles from Tuturau.

M. paracausta.

Abundant at Haldane and Tuturau ; much scarcer at West
Plains.

M. lithias.

Common at Wedderburo, J. H. Lewis.

M. proteastis.

For the past three years I have always obtained a few
examples of this rarity during the month of x\pril.

M. diatmeta.

Three in December at flowers of Parsonsia alhiflora,'-^- and
one at sugar in September.

M. umlbra, Hdsn.

Eecently described by Mr. Hudson from specimens secured
in this district. This fine moth, which is common during the
summer months, is extremely variable. Three varieties are
figured by Mr. Hudson.

M. homoscia.

Rare, but occurring from October to June.

M. grandiosa.

The type specimen was taken at sugar on the 11th May.
A few evenings later another was secured by Mr. George
Howes.

M. octans.

Evidently a very rare insect. Beside the type specimen,
now in Mr. G. V. Hudson's collection, but one other example
has been taken. This is in the possession of Mr. Robert Dun-
lop, of Orepuki.f who secured it at the electric light.

* I should point out that this plant, though sometimes called the
white rata here, is a totally distinct species from the white rata (Metro-
sideros) of the north.

t Mr. Dunlop's address is now Shettleston, Glasgow, Scotland.

164 Transactions. — Zoology.

M. exquisita.

Type taken at sugar in December. Mr. Lewis has also
taken one at Ida Valley.

Agrotis admirationis.

Fairly common at Ida Valley.

Dasypodia selenophora.

This tine moth may, I think, be placed on our list as
permanently established. About a dozen examples have been
noticed during the last three years.

Tatosoma topea.

Fairly common at flowers of Parsonsia albijiora in De-
cember.

Paradetis porphyrias.

Mr. G. V. Hudson found this peculiar little moth in fair
numbers at Paradise, Lake Wakatipu.

Hydriomena rixata.

Common at light from December to February.

H. purpurifera.

One specimen in January at flowers of ragwort. The
species is fairly common on Flagstaff Hill, near Dunedin.

H. subochraria.

One example in February at flowers of ragwort.

Venusia verriculata.

I secured one at sugar in June. A dense fog prevailed,
and no other insects were about.

Xanthorhoe orophyla.

Mr. J. H. Lewis has met with orophyla at Wedderburn.
It is probably generally distributed north of Dunedin.

X. stinaria.

According to Mr. Lewis this species is very common at the
Matukituki River, Wanaka.

X. occulta.

Bare, but might easily be passed over as cegrota.

X. oraria.

Abundant during the summer months on the sandhills near
the coast.

Philpott. — Notes on Southern Lepidoptera. 165

X. cinerearia.

This moth varies considerably in point of size and depth of
colouring. I have one specimen so dark as to be almost
black.

X. bulbulata.

Common at New Eiver on sandhills, and probably found
in most uncultivated open situations.

Lythria euclidiata.

Abundant in all open undisturbed situations.

Dasyuris partheniata.

Mr. George Howes took several near Dunedin.

Notoreas insignis.

I have examples from Wedderburn.

N. synclinalis.

I have not met with this beautiful moth in any other
locality than Seaward Moss, where it is very common during
the summer months. When on the wing the insect appears
to be almost black, the striking coloration of the fore wings
not being observable.

Theoxena scissaria.

Ida Valley in October.

Selidosema fenerata.

Not common ; one or two at ragwort in February.

S. fascialata.

Fairly common at ragwort in February.

Hybernia indocilis.

Wedderburn, J. H. Lewis.

Sestra flexata.

I have taken so far but one example of this species, and
am inclined to regard it as an extreme form of humeraria.

Ipana leptomera.

The southern forms of this variable species appear to be
darker than those of the north. Examples from Wellington
which I have had an opportunity of examining are light
ochreous- brown, while southern forms (males) are dark-
brown and the females delicate silvery-grey. The male
variety with the four black spots on the fore wings is not
uncommon here, while the form with the large black blotch
in the centre of the fore wings is occasionally met with.

166 Transactions. — Zoology.

Declana egregia.

Air. Robert Dunlop, of Orepuki, has taken a fine series of
this handsome moth ; in fact, lie found it to be one of the
most frequent visitors to the electric hght. It seems to be a
constant form in a very variable genus.

D. hermione.

Several at light, Orepuki.

D. griseata.

One at sugar at West Plains, and several at Orepuki.
Very variable.

Erebia pluto.

Fairly common on the mountains round Lake Wakatipu.

Erebia butleri,

Humboldt Range. I am indebted to Mr. G. V. Hudson
for examples of this and the preceding species.

Chrysophanus salustius.

There is a great difference between northern and southern
forms. Typical Wellington males are almost one-quarter
larger, and exhibit very little of the dark-brown colour, the
spots being reduced to mere dots, and the terminal bands
being very narrow. Examples from this district have tlie
brown colouring extending from base to about ^, and broad
borders of the same colour on costa, termen, and dorsum ;
the spots are also large, and in many cases form unbroken
bands. Altogether, our variety of sahistius much more nearly
resembles C. enysii than Wellington specimens of salustius.
An apparently constant distinction between enysii and salus-
tius will be found in the colour of the cilia of the hind wings.
In sahistius this is bright-yellow, in enysii dull-orange.

Diptychophora persophanes.

Very common here among manuka during summer. I
have also examples from Dunedin and Lake Wanaka.

D. lepidella.

West Plains, Dunedin, and Lake Wanaka. Probably
generally distributed wherever manuka {Leptospermuvi) is
found.

D. interrupta.

Lake Wanaka and Ida Valley. Mr. Lewis informs me
that Ida Valley specimens are duller and more inconspicuous
than Lake Wanaka forms.

Philpott. — Notes on Southern, Lepidoptera. 167

D. auriscriptella.

Plentiful among manuka. Our variety appears to be
somewhat smaller and duller in colour than northern forms.

Thinasotia flaviferella.

Wedderburn.

Crambus simplex.

Common at Wedderburn. I have also met with it at
Sandy Point and New Eiver, near Invercargill.

C. apicellus.

Abundant during summer months.

C. vitellus.

Eairly common, West Plains and Wedderburn.

O. tahulalis.

Very rare. One example at light in February.

C. cyclopicus.

Wedderburn.

C. corruptus.

Wedderburn.

C. xanthogrammus.

Ida Valley. I am indebted to Mr. J. H. Lewis for speci-
mens of this and the two preceding species.

C. aethonellus.

Abundant and generally distributed November to January.
Some slight variation is exhibited in the form of the white
central stripe of the fore wings and the depth of ground-
colour.

Orccramtous thymiastes.

This beautiful insect is abundant at Seaward Moss. I
have not met with it in any other locality.

Diasemia graminalis.

Very common on sandhills at New River from October to
January. It is not restricted, however, to sandy situations,
being found in plenty in most open localities.

Paraponyx nitens.

Common at light in February.

Scoparia indistinctalis.

Not common. I have met with two or three specimens..

168 Transactions. — Zoology.

S. ustimacula.

Fairly common in low-lying bush.

S. trivirgata.

Abundant in dry open country. The markings appear to
be constant, but there is unusual variation in point of size.

S. chimeria.

A few examples in bush during February.

S. colpota.

Abundant in swampy bush in January and February.

S. asterisca.

Rare. One or two at light in February.

S. exilis.

Common, and generally distributed.

S. encapna.

Durmg February I found this species in fair numbers in a
swampy situation here. It is not easy to follow its move-
ments when on the wing, as its flight is erratic and rapid.

Platyptilia haasti.

P. falcatalis.

The moth referred to a.s falcatalis in the "Catalogue"
(Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxiii., 167) should be haasti. I have,
however, since found the true falcatalis at Wailiopai. It ap-
pears to be much scarcer than haasti.

Pterophorus lycosemus.

Several examples in December.

P. monospilalis.

A few, associated with lycosemus. Are they varieties of one
species?

Pyrgotis pyramidalis.

Otatara in October. Not so common a,s plagiatana.

Harmologa sisyrana.

H. oblongana.

I am indebted to Mr. Lewis for examples of these insects.
They were taken at Wedderburn.

H. amplexana.

Fairly common.

Philpott. — Notes on Southern Lepidoptera. 169

Atomotricha ommatias.

An early spring species. Very common at sugar in April
and May.

Brachysara sordida.

Also an early species. Not so common as the preceding.

Trachypepla euryleucota.

A few in December. My specimens were all taken when
the manuka {Leptospermum) was in blossom. I am inclined
to think that as the moth sits at rest its white head, thorax,
and basal portion of wings are of protective value by reason of
their resemblance to an opening manuka-bud.

Semiocosma peroneanella.

Not common. Generally distributed. Through the kind-
ness of Mr. G. V. Hudson I have been enabled to compare the
northern S. peroneanella with this insect (Semiocosma mystis,
of Meyrick) and an^ unable to separate the species. The
character relied on by Mr. Meyrick as distinctive is by no
means constant in the southern forms.

S. paraneura.

Common at sugar in December and January.

Gymnobathra calliploca.

Very common in forest during summer.

CEccphora epymilia.

Comes occasionally to sugar in November and December.

<E, griseata.

I think that this species may be taken off our southern
lists for the present. I cannot find that Mr. Howes's examples
differ from hcmimochla.

Phseosaces liochroa.

Uncertain in appearance. I found it in some numbers in
the summer of 1901-2.

Heliostibes electrica.

Not uncommon in January.

Erechthias fulguritella.

Occasionally met with.

Gracilaria linearis.

Frequently taken at light, and common among rough
herbage during spring and summer.

170 Transactions. — Zoology.

Lysiphragma howesii (mixochlora).

Not uncommon. Its pupal cocoons may be found in-
similar situations to those of ejnxyla, but are not so con-
spicuous, being often almost hidden in the substance of the
bark. Mr. Ambrose Quail described this insect as hoiuesii,
but Mr. E. Meyrick's description of mixochlora seems to me to
fit it very well, and I have some doubts of its distinctness.

Porina dinodes.

I took about a dozen examples of this handsome moth at
light in March, 1902. The larvae live on the i^oots of grasses,
and inhabit deep tunnels lined with silk. When full-grown
they are nearly 4 in. long, and nmch lighter in colour than the
larvae of despecta or cervinata, being whitish-ochreous, with
paler neutral surface and darker thoracic segments. The
head is bright brownish-red. The tunnels are driven in rather
an oblique direction to a depth of from loin, to 20 in. Three
examples which I tried to rear pupated about the middle of
August, but failed to emerge from that state. I am strongly
of opinion that the larva of this moth is the " vegetable cater-
pillar." No other moth in this district known to me is large
enough to warrant the assumption that its larva may be the
host of the fungus. I have several times found the fungus-
attacked larvEe here, and, as far as a comparison between
these and the living larvae of P. dinodes can be trusted, I think
it bears out my opinion.

P. cervinata.

In November, 1900, I was successful in taking for the first
time females of this species. They are very rare in com-
parison with the males, and are duller in colour, with fewer
markmgs.

Art. XTX. — Notes on an Insect found in some Hot Springs

at Taupo.

By J. W. POYNTON.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 2nd September, 1903.]

About a mile from Lake Taupo, close to the Taupo-Napier
Eoad, are the well-known hot springs locally named the
" Black Terraces," from the terrace-formations of dark colour
formed by the principal springs.

The terraces are of the usual kind. There is a pool of
water confined by a rim of siliceous deposit. The hot water
flows over this rim at the lowest part and falls into another
basin below. There are perhaps a dozen of these small

PoYNTON. — Insect found in some Hot Springs at Taupo. 171

cascades from the source of the largest springs to the bottom
where its waters flow into the creek. As the water spreads
out in several directions after issuing from the earth there are
different series of these basins, and altogether they would
cover about a quarter of an ctcre. Where there is water on
the rims it is quite shallow, but a considerable part of most of
them is exposed. A few inches from the edge the water
deepens to 6 in. or 8 in. Covering the bottoms of these pools
or basins, which vary in area from less than a square foot to
several square yards, there is a slimy vegetable growth of
dark-green colour of varying thickness.

While on a visit to these springs last March I noticed great
numbers of small flies hovering about the pools or on the
silica at their edges. They were really in millions, some of
the dry patches of silica being covered by them 'to a depth of
an inch or more. Their size was about half that of the
common house-fly. In shape they were something similar,
but more slender and graceful, and of a dark colour, almost
black.

Their power of flight was feeble. I asked a resident
of the locality if they appeared in the autumn only, but he
assured me that they were there all the year, and that in
the spring-time numbers of native birds gathered about the
springs to feed upon them.

It occurred to me that they might breed in the hot water,
and so I examined the organic matter at the bottom of the
basins. It was alive with larvae about one-half as large as
that of the blow-fly, of a dark greyish-green colour, shaped
curiously like a shark with its double-lobed tail. In still
pools this slime could be seen all in motion, so numerous
were these larvae. The green matter was evidently their
food, and supported them generously, judging by their
numbers. On the surface of the water a great many pupa-
shells were floating. These shells drifted to the lips of the
basins, and in a great many places, becoming entangled, they
formed small obstructions across the little depressions through
which the water flowed. As silication proceeds rapidly in
most of these springs, it is obvious that these rafts of shells,
being cemented together and to the basin-edges by the silica,
will m time raise the level of the water, compelling it to
find an exit elsewhere, and this in turn will get blocked too.
This may afi'ord an explanation of the remarkably level nature
of the walls of these small i'eservoirs. I broke off a piece of
the top of one of these dams, and the outlines of numerous
shells imbedded in the silica were clearly visible.

I regret very much that my visit, which was limited ta
about an hour, prevented me from making further observa-
tions. Some specimens of the fly were sent by Mr. Hudson

172 * Transactions. — Zoology.

to Captain Hutton, who said it was an uudescribed species of
Opomyza .

Some very interesting questions are presented for solu-
tion by this little creature : Has it any enemies in the hot
water where it develops ? If not, it is not surprising that
in its mature form it appears in such numbers all the year
round. Has it by long residence in the hot water changed
its nature, so that it no longer breeds at certain times of the
year ? Where food is abundant, and the temperature of the
water is practically the same the year through, there would
be no necessity for a breeding season. If the nature and
habits of the insect have been much changed from those of
its nearest relatives, these facts may indicate a longer period
of existence for our thermal springs than they are generally
credited with.

The statement as to the gathering of the birds might also
be investigated. There is no natural bush of any extent
within miles of these springs, and the congregation at a par-
ticular time of the year of many native birds may be due to a
survival of an ancestral habit, as some avian migrations are
known to be.

It is a curious thing that the cast-ofi shells should materi-
ally assist in building these natural incubators, as I am
certain they do. Complete sections of different basin-walls
should be made in order to ascertain if this process has been
in operation since the beginning of the terrace-formation.

These questions are deserving of further study by a com-
petent scientist.

Art. XX. — The Sipunculids of Netv Zealand.

By W. B. Benham, D.Sc, M.A., F.Z.S., Cor. M.E.S. Tasm.,
Professor of Biology, University of Otago.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 3rd December, 1903.]

Plato VII.

Up to the present time only three species of sipunculids have
been recortled from our sliores, and these were described a
good many years ago, before it was customary to seek for
generic and specific characters in internal anatomical features ;
in other words, the external form, colour, and dimensions were
considered to vield sullicient material for diagnosis. It will
not be surprising, tlierefore. if a re-examination of these species
may necessitate their removal to genera other than those to
which they were originally assigned.

Benham, — T]ie Sipimciilids of New Zealand. 173

•

The first sipunculid to be described was named Si2Jicnculns
ceneus by Baird''' in 1868. Eleven years later Captain
Huttonf described two new species, which he named Sipun-
culus lutulentus and Phascolosoma annulatum. The former
was obtained at Cape Campbell, at the north-east point of the
South Island, tbe latter from Dunedin and Caps Campbell.

My attention was directed to the group by the gradual
accumulation of specimens from various parts of the coasts
of both Islands, and on dissecting a worm which agrees in
external appearance with Captain Button's diagnosis of
Phascolosoma anmdatum I at once observed that it possesses
internal characters that range it with quite a distinct genus —
viz., Pliyscosovia (or Phymosoma, as it has been called up to
within the last few years). This led me to examine those
specimens in the store-room that retain labels in Captain
Hutton's handwriting, with the result detailed below.

I find three such bottles or tubes, each containing a single
specimen — namely, (a) labelled ''Phascolosoma amiulatimi,
Hutton, Dunedin"; [h] labelled merely "Cape Campbell,"
containing a worm differing entirely from the preceding ;
(c) with a label the writing on which is almost obliterated,
but which appears to be " Sijjunculus cyatieus," without any
indication of locality. This specimen appears to have dried
up at some time : it is hard, shrivelled, nearly black, and
quite unrecognisable. I failed, unfortunately, to find any
trace of tube or bottle bearing a label " Si2:)H7iCitl'ics lutu-
lentus," either in the store or in the Museum itself. It is
possible that it was sent, together with a collection of annelids,
to the British Museum by the late Professor Parker. The
tubes {a) and (h) are either Hutton's "types" or "cotypes."
The worm contained in the former (<x) is not Phascolosoma at
all, but is Physcosoma, characterized by the crescentic form of
the tentacular crown situated above the mouth, and by the
longitudinal muscles being in several distinct bundles; that in
(b) belongs to the interesting genus Dendrostoma, as is shown
by the form and arrangement of the circumoral tentacular
crown.

Physcosoma, Selenka, 1897 { — Phymosovia, auctorum).
Physcosoma annulatum, Hutton = {Phascolosoma annn-
latum, Hutton.)

As the specimen in the tube agrees almost precisely with
Hutton's diagnosis I insert it here. In the original diag-
nosis, however, there are one or two slight errors, due pro-
bably to the examination of specimens imperfectly extended.

* Proc. Zool. Soc, 1868, p. 81.
t Trans. N.Z. Inst., xii., p. 278.

17i Transactions. — Zoology.

These I have corrected, and the corrections are indicated by
italics: —

" Body papillose, cylindrical, tapers posteriorly ; pale-
brown, tubercles darker. Proboscis nearly as long as the
body, and tapering gradually into it ; posteriorly papillose, and
coloured like the body ; anteriorly smooth, very pale, freqiiently
with some brown blotches ; the anterior end encircled by
about 18 to 20 narrow brown raised rings of Iwohlets. Mouth
with a dorsal crescent of about 20 short blunt oral tentacles."

Localities. — I have received specimens of this worm from
the following localities, and in considerable numbers from
some of these localities, viz. : — Stewart Island : Collected by
the late Professor Parker, by Messrs. H. Suter. W. M.
Thomson, and E. Jennings. Foveaux Strait: Prom the
oyster-beds, collected by Mr. A. Hamilton. Warrington :
Collected by myself. Dunedin : Collected by Captain
Hutton. Specimens from each lot have been dissected, as
well as the " cotype." They all agree in essential characters,
of which a detailed account follows : —

Form of Body .—For descriptive purposes it is convenient
to distinguish the body from the proboscis (or introvert), for
the latter may be retracted within the former, unless the
animal be carefully ansBsthetised.

(a.) The body is, as usual, cylindrical, and pointed more
or less markedly at its posterior end. It is widest in the
middle, and somewhat tapered towards the base of the m-
trovert. Usually the body is curved to one side, so that the
ventral surface is concave. But if a series of specimens be
studied this form is departed from in various degrees, owing
partly to the different methods of preservation and partly to
the different states of contraction of circular and longitudinal
muscles at death. Now, as in times past stress has been laid
on the form of the body in diagnosing species, it is worth
noting one or two of the forms assumed owing to the above
cause : The hinder moiety may be more strongly contracted
than the anterior moiety, so that the posterior end looks
somewhat like a tail ; or the circular muscles at both ends
may be more strongly contracted than those of the greater
j)art of the body, and a more or less spherical form i-esults ;
while at other times the middle of the body is constricted.
(See figures.)

[b.) The cylindrical 2)roboscis, or introvert, when fully
extended is much narrower, and usually as long as or even
longer, than the body ; but necessarily the proportions vary
somewhat according to the condition at death.

The tentacles are twenty in number, short, finger-shaped,
and grooved along their outer — i.e., oral — margin. They are
arranged in the manner typical of the genus in a crescent

Benham. — The Sipunculids of New Zealand. 175

immediately above the mouth, with the concavity directed
dorsally. In this dorsal gap are 4 black eye-spots ; and oc-
cupying the intra- tentacular area is a somewhat rectangular
disc, slightly lobed right and left to form 2 small rounded
projections, which are only visible on extreme extension. As
in some other species, such as P. varlans, there is a post-oral
collar, but it is very small in the present species.

Immediately below the mouth there are several circles of
closely set booklets, each circle having the appearance of a
brown narrow ring. The number of these rings varies a
good deal : Hutton gives 12 as the number, but in some
i count 16 or 18, while in others, when mounted for micro-
scopical examination, there are as many as 20 — -to which
must be added some 5 or more very closely set rings at the
oral end of the series, which are not recognisable except
under a high-magnifying lens. Tlie individual booklets are
much curved, as shown in the figure.

Colour. — The colour is highly variable ; it is generally pale
to dark brown, gradually becoming darker at each end. In
some of the very pale specimens there are large blotches of
very dark pigment, irregular in size and arrangement ; but
the ground-colour is always very pale — indeed, it appears
white in preserved material — and the brown colour is due
to pigment in the dermal papillae which cover the body.

These papillae are largest and most densely packed at
either end, slightly larger — at any rate, in some individuals—
at the anterior than at the posterior end, but along the entire
ventral surface they are small ; and both dorsally and laterally
in the middle region of the body they are also quite small.
These smaller papillse have less pigment in them than the
larger, so that this middle region is of a paler tint, for the
papillae are here more widely separated from one another,
and allow a greater amount of ground-colour to come into
view. The papillae are of the usual circular form.

The anus is, generally, quite inconspicuous, but in some
specimens it forms a slight prominence ; and occasionally it
appears as a paler spot in the dark-brown surroundings.

The colour of the introvert is usually paler than that of
the body — sometimes, indeed, it is almost white — and in these
cases it is often marked with dark-brown blotches, which are
larger near the oral extremity. But the colour at the
proximal region graduates into that of the body, and except
in this portion, where the papillae graduate into those of the
anterior end of the body, the papillae are quite minute and
invisible without a lens.

Dimensions. — There is a considerable range in the size of
the body of my specimens — from 20 mm. to 40 mm. — though
an average specimen is about 30 mm. to 35 mm. The " type "

176

Transactions. — Zoology.

is smaller than several others, though I have several that are
still smaller. The introvert is of about the same length as
the body, though in some instances it is considerably longer.
In one case, mentioned below, the introvert is almost twice
the length of the body. This was killed slowly by adding
KCN to the water ; so that the total length of a fully ex-
tended (preserved) individual is 50mm. to 70 mm.
Dimensions in Millimetres.

Type.

Warring
ton.
(Fig.)

Stewart Island.

Foveaux Strait.

(a.)

(fc.)

(a.)

(b.)

Length of body
Greatest diameter of

body
Length of introvert . .
Diameter of introvert

20

30

39

33

32

4

9

8

8

6

*

30

t

t

15

2

2

3

2-5

2-5

1

22
6

40
2

» Only 5 mm. of introvert is everted.
t Introvert totally retracted.

As to the internal anatomy a few words will suffice. The
longitudinal muscles of the body-wall are separated into about
18 to 20 major and a few minor bundles. These, as in other
species, anastomose, so that the actual number will vary
according to the level of the trans-section.

There are four retractor muscles of the introvert, of which
two are much stouter than the other two — from two to three
times stouter. All are attached to the ventral side of the
body- wall a little beyond the middle of the body-length, and
the stouter ones are attached somewhat further back than the
other two, almost in the same longitudinal line.

The intestine presents 7 or 8 double coils — i.e., the de-
scending and ascending limbs each turn 7 or 8 times round
the axis of the spire. There is a spindle muscle present, which
is attached posteriorly as well as anteriorly. In addition a
slender muscle passes from the anterior end of the intestinal
coil, to be attached to the body-wall close to the nerve-cord.
A similar muscle is mentioned by Shipley as present in P.
varians.''-

There are two " brown tubes " (nephridia). These are
comparatively long, nearly half the body-length. Each is,
of course, quite free, and is dilated anteriorly to form a
nearly spherical bladder, which opens outwards. In some
instances this is so greatly distended as to appear like a
caecum, f

• Q.J. M. So., xxxi., p. 10.

t An interesting variety of Physcosoma annulahnn has 3 brown tubes
at the same level ; but what is most misleadirg is tbe presence, at the

Benham. — The Sipunculids of New Zealand. 177

Some of the individuals are males, others are females, but
I could detect no difference in size or colour between the
sexes.

Dendrostoma, Grube (em. Keferstein).

D. aeneum, Baird (= Sipunc^dus ceneus, Baird, 1868 = Si-

punculus hitulentus, Hutton, 1879 = Phascolosoma Imttoni,

Benham, 1903). (Index F.N.Z.)

In the tube (b) above mentioned is a single sipunculid,
which, except in its smaller size, closely agrees with Hutton's
diagnosis of Sijyimculus lutulentus ; and, moreover, was col-
lected at Cape Campbell, the locality ascribed to that species.
To this matter I will return after describing the worm ; for,
in addition to this individual, I have received a considerable
number of specimens from Auckland and the neighbouring
coast. Several of these, as well as the above individual, have
been opened.

Form. — [a.) The cylindrical body is broader posteriorly
than anteriorly, but the hinder extremity is bluntly rounded.
There is no definite " pyriform swelling," such as Captain
Hutton describes for his S. lutulenUis, in any of my specimens,
and in the above-mentioned individual (b) the hinder end is
retracted, so that it is even more rounded, more obtuse, than
usual ; and a similar condition is presented by some others in
which the introvert is retracted.

{b.) The introvert is quite short, barrel-shaped, so that its
middle is of greater diameter than the anterior extremity of
the body. The mouth is surrounded by a four-lobed ten-
tacular crown, the base of which is surrounded by a collar,
rendered conspicuous by its deeper purple margin. Each
lobe of the tentacular crown is usually dichotomously divided
twice successively, so that there are in all 16 short lobules.
(There is some variation in actual details, for sometimes only
one dichotomy exists ; in other cases each lobe ends in 5 or 6
lobules.) Each lobule is fringed on each side by a single row
of finger-shaped tentacles or cirri, of which the proximal ones
are much larger than the distal ones, there being a gradual
diminution in size. There are usually 5 tentacles on each
side of a lobule, together with a terminal small one, though
I note that often there are only 4 on the inner margin of

hinder end of the body, of a white cap-shaped mass of calcareous
material, which, associated with a circular white patch at the base of
the introvert, led me, on inspection, to refer it to the genus Aspidosiphon,
and as such I included it, most unfortunately, in the Index Faunae
N.Z. On closer examination, however, it turned out that the circular
patch is situated on the ventral side instead of on the dorsal side, and it
is readily scraped away, consisting apparently of some sort of secretion ;
while the posterior cap consists of a mass of tri-radiant calcareous sponge-
spicules, closely aggregated together, and adhering quite firmly to the
body- wall.

12— Trans.

178 Transactions. — Zoology.

a lobule and 5 on the outer ; thus there are about 160 to 176
tentacles altogether. Each tentacle is grooved on its upper —
i.e., oral — face. These grooves lead into a furrow running down
the lobule ; the latter leads to a similar furrow on the lobe ;
thence a furrow passes across the oral disc to the subcentral
mouth, which is transversely disposed. The structure of this
tentacular crown appears to relegate the worm to the genus
Dendrostoma as defined by Selenka* and by Shipley,! and the
internal anatomy agrees with this diagnosis.

Colour. — The colour of the preserved specimens is a very
pale yellowish-brown, and has a shiny appearance. The pos-
terior end in some individuals is more definitely brown, while
in other cases there is a well-marked dark ring round the base
of the introvert. Some individuals are nearly white. Fortu-
nately, I have a note as to the colour and appearance of the
living worms collected at Warrington. They are white and
smooth to the naked eye. Some are slightly brownish. One
individual has white tentacles ; in another these are reddish-
brown ; and Dr. Agnes Kelly, who collected a number of
specimens at Waiheke, has noted that they are " yellowish-
grey " ; and in alcohol they have a more decidedly yellow
tint than those collected by me.

The surface of the body is almost smooth in the preserved
specimens ; but posteriorly there are longitudinal and circular
furrows which mark out irregular rectangular areas. These are
distinctly visible in some individuals over the hinder third of the
body, becoming more distinct as the extremity is approached.
These rugosities appear again towards the base of the introvert.
In Button's specimen (&), and in some individuals variously
preserved, these furrows are much less evident than in others,
so that the body appears in these cases much smoother
and more shiny. Thus, in the Warrington specimens a
hand-lens is required in order to see these very shallow circu-
lar furrows, whereas in some well-preserved individuals from
Rangitoto and from Auckland they are very much more
distinct, and the "raised areas" render the body rough-
looking, especially posteriorly.

There appear to be no papillas, but under a hand-lens
minute black dots are recognisable sparsely scattered over
the body, which are probably minute papillae.

The introvert itself is smooth, paler in colour than the
body, and is provided with 3 or 4 irregular circles of
widely spaced blunt hooks, which are nearer together on the
dorsal than on the ventral side. These circles of hooks occupy
-about the middle third of the introvert, the anterior margin of
which is deeply pigmented, and forms a prominent collar.

* "Challenger" Eeports, vol. xiii., pt. 36 (Sipunculida;) , p. 14.
t " Cambridge Natural History," p. 425,

Benham. — The Sipunculids of New Zealajid. 179

The tentacles are, in the specimens studied, pale — no
doubt white in life — but the furrows in the oral disc and the
lobes, &c., are purplish; and in one individual examined each
tentacle is marked with one or two linear dots of the same
colour.

Dimensions. — The average size of the body is about
25 mm., but it varies considerably. The specimen from Auck-
land has fully extended introvert and tentacles, as will be
seen from the following table : —

Dimensions in Millimetres.

Auckland.

Rangitoto.

Warrington.

(a.)

(6.)

(c.)

Cape
Campbell.

Length of body

Greatest diameter of body . .

Diameter anteriorly

Length of introvert

Greatest diameter of introvert

30

26

22

18

15

6

9

8

8

11

3

4

, ,

, ,

10

, ,

, .

. .

, ,

5

32
8
3

Specimen (c) is thus nearly spherical.

while several from Waiheke are much smaller than any of
these. This difference in many cases is due to differences in
condition of preservation.

Internal Anatomy. — The longitudinal muscles form a con-
tinuous sheath. There are two large retractor muscles to the
introvert, which are inserted into the body rather far back —
at about one-third from the hinder end. The spiral intestine
exhibits about 8 double coils. The spindle muscle is attached
anteriorly only, so that the intestinal spire is free posteriorly.

The vascular system is provided with numerous caeca,
resembling the figures given by Shipley for Physcosoma ivel-
donii.''' There is a pair of free " brown tubes," each of which
is dilated spherically at the external aperture ; and there is
no forward caecum. Several of the worms examined are
sexually mature.

Localities. — Cape Campbell, South Island: Hutton's
specimen (h). Auckland: Collected by Professor A. P.
Thomas and Mr. H. Suter. Kangitoto, in Auckland Harbour :
Collected by Mr. H. Suter. Waiheke, in Auckland Harbour :
Collected by Dr. Agnes Kelly. Warrington, South Island :
Collected by W. B. Benham.

Eemarks.
The scanty literature at my disposal does not permit me
to make comparisons with other species of sipunculids, or.

•Q.J.M.Sc, 1891.

180 Transactions. — Zoology.

indeed, to affirm with certainty that these two species are
endemic, but in all probabihty this is the case. Ic is interest-
ing to note that, whereas all the sipunculids collected on the
North Island are Dendrostoma aneum, the commonest species
on the shore of the South Island is Physcosoina annu-
latum, and this is the only sipunculid hitherto collected at
Stewart Island. Shipley''' says that Physcosovia "is almost
entirely tropical," and that Dendrostorjia is "found only in
tropical seas." The local distribution of these two species
along our coasts is, then, of interest in breaking this record.
The shores of Stewart Island cannot be termed in any sense
" tropical " ; and although Auckland Harbour may deserve the
epithet, yet Wariington is distinctly extra-tropical, and at this
spot I collected, on the same day and under neighbouring
stones, both the above-named species.

We have here, then, in the case of Dendrostoma, as it
seems, a migrant from tropical seas, and further collections
along the coast will be examined with increased interest, in
the endeavour to ascertain how far north P%scosoma journeys^
and how far south Dendrostoma. Captain Hutton gives
"Cape Campbell and Dunedin" as two localities for Phys-
cosoma annulattmi, so that the two species overlap on the east
coast of the South Island.

As TO THE PeOBABLE IDENTITY OF SiPUNCULUS LUTU-
LENTUS AND S. JENEUS.

A careful comparison of my numerous individuals with
Hutton's specimen (&) from Cape Campbell shows a complete
identity ; and, moreover, with the exception of the greater
length ascribed by him to S. lutulentits, my specimens and
his specimen (&) agree with his diagnosis of that species, for
the form of the body, which he states ends in a " pyriform
swelling," is, as we now know, merely a matter of preserva-
tion, due to a constriction of the circular nmscles near the
hinder end.

Hutton's type of -S\ lutulcntus measured Gin. — i.e.,
150 mm. — whereas the largest specimen seen by me is only
40 mm. His measurements, converted into millimetres,
stand thus as compared with a fully extended specimen from
Auckland presented to the Museum by Professor A. P.
Thomas : —

F. W. H. A. P. T.

Total length ... ... 150 40

Breadth ... ... ... 10 6

Length of introvert... ... 18-75 10

Breadth of introvert ... 6*25 3

• " Cambridge Natural History."

Benham. — The Sipuncuiids of Nexo Zealand. 181

Or, taking the proportional breadths and lengths, we
have —

F, W. H. A. P. T.
Length of introvert

Length of body
Breadth

1 1

8 3

Length
Breadth

of body ... ... 3-I5

of introvert ... i- ^

Length

I am not aware how far the proportional lengths of body
and proboscis are of value in determining specific characters,
but, seeing that in Physcosoma annulatum there is consider-
able variation in relative length of introvert and body, de-
pending on the method of killing and so forth (seq above),
it is probable that the diiferences above tabulated may be
explicable in the same way.

It will be noted that in the Auckland specimen the intro-
vert is relatively nearly thrice as long as in the Cape Campbell
specimen, and the question suggests itself, Was the introvert
in the latter fully extended ? No mention is made of the
tentacular crown by Captain Hutton, and it is possible that
the introvert was only partially everted. But the animal is
relatively about one-third the diameter of the carefully killed
individual from Auckland, which might be the result of kill-
ing it in strong alcohol.

We have, at any rate, I think, only a difference of size
to contend with ; and, failing other known differences, it is
scarcely likely that this would be a specific difference, as
amongst my material the individuals (some twenty or thirty)
from Waiheke are much smaller than the Auckland or
Warrington individuals.

As I have said, I can find no trace of the undoubted
""type" of Sipunculus luiulentus, and in communicating with
Captain Hutton on the subject he says that, as far as he
remembers, he had only one specimen of S. lutulentus. If
that is so, then the individual {h) must be the type, and
Dendrostoma huttoni be replaced by D. lutulentum of the
Index F.N.Z.

But now let us turn to Baird's description of Sipuncuhis
(Bueus and compare it with Hutton's description of S. lutu-
lentus, and I think we shall find that these two are syno-
nymous. For ready comparison I will arrange the characters
in parallel columns : first, Hutton's diagnosis of his species ;
secondly, Hutton's translation''' of Baird's Latin diagnosis; and,
thirdly, Baird's longer description, which is here dissected.

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., xi., 316.

182

Transactions. — Zoology.

S. lutulentus.

S. cBneus.

Hutton's Translation.

Baird's Description.

Colour pale-brown.

Body cylindrical,
narrowed posteri-
orly, and ending
in a pyriform
swelling.

Cylindrical portion
of the body smooth,
faintly reticulated
anteriorly, but
only transversely
striated posteri-
orly ; theposterior
pyriform portion
rougher, especially
the caudal apex.j

Proboscis short,
roughened, thin-
ner than the
body.t

Length, Oin.; length
of proboscis, |in. ;
breadth of body
anteriorly, 0-4in. ;
breadth of pro-
boscis, 0-25 in.

Colour white shin-
ing-bronze.*

Body cylindrical,
slender anteriorly,
posteriorly thicker,
fusiform, reticu-
lated.

In the anterior por-
tion corrugated,
then smoother and
miyiutely granu-
lated; caudal apex
oval, smooth, shin-
ing.\

Proboscis short,
smooth, the ante-
rior portion thicker
than the body.f

Length, G^in.; length
of proboscis, 6 lines
= ^ in. ; breadth,
anterior end of
body, IJ lines =
0-12 in. ; breadth,
posterior body, 4
lines = 0-3in. ;
proboscis, 2 lines
= OlGin.

The general colour is white,
except towards the caudal
extremity, where it is very
shining, with an iridescent
metallic lustre.

The upper extremity is nar-
row, the body gradually en-
larging in size as it descends,
so that at the caudal ex-
tremity it is three times as
large as anteriorly, and is
of a fusiform conoidal form,
the warty tubercles at the
same time being larger there
than elsewhere. Scattered
over the surface we see a
good many small ivarty-
looking tubercles, j

The body is slender, ringed,
the rings or annulations
being very close together,
small and finely but dis-
tinctly reticulated across.
The upper extremity is
strongly corrugately reti-
culate, the middle portion
less distinctly so, and tbe
caudal almost synootJi.j

The proboscis is smooth-look-
ing, but when examined
with a glass we see it
ringed or annulated or
finely reticulated. Ttie
proboscis in this species is
much J thicker than the
upper or anterior part of
tlie body.

* An erroneous translation of " fPiieo luteita."

I Thie italics in these columns are mine.

; His measurements do not bIjow any excessive difference, there being a dif-
ference of only J lino. Baird states that the " oral cirri are not visible," so the
proboscis was not fully everted.

Benham. — The Sipunculids of New Zealand. 183

It will be noted that the most striking difference in regard
to the dimensions of these two species is exhibited by the
" breadth of body anteriorly," for in Baird's example this is
very much less than in Hutton's. But, presumably, each took
the greatest diameter, which in the former case is near the
hinder and in the latter near the anterior end, and this
greatest diameter is nearly identical. May we explain this
difference in form by difference of contraction on death ?

A comparison of the brief diagnosis of Sipunculus ceneus
with that of S. lutulentus presents only three apparent
differences, apart from colour and dimensions — viz., the
character of the surface of the body in the various regions :
(a) the condition of the hinder end of the body ; (6) the con-
dition of the proboscis ; and (c) the character of the skin of the
body. In both the first two cases S. lutulentus is " rougher "
than S. ceneus. But if we read Baird's longer description we
find that the " smoothness " referred to in the Latin diagnosis
is qualified : the caudal extremity being " almost smooth,"
and the proboscis " smooth-looking." Now, as I have men-
tioned in the description of the species, I find a good deal of
difference exhibited by the surface of the body of the speci-
mens in my possession, depending on the mode of preserva-
tion. For example, in two of the Warrington individuals
(killed slowly in alcohol) the reticulation — i.e., " roughness " —
on the hinder end is by no means evident, and one would
call it " smooth " ; also, in most of the individuals collected
in Auckland Harbour, at Waiheke (preserved in formol), the
body appears smooth, whereas in others the body-wall is
more strongly contracted and the reticulations are more pro-
minent, (c.) Baird's species is said to be covered with
"small warty-looking tubercles," or, in the words of the
diagnosis, the surface is, in the middle part of the body,
"minutely granulated"; whereas S. lutulentus, according to
Captain Hutton, has a "smooth" body. In the account
given of the specimens described in this paper I have men-
tioned the minute tubercles, and I find that in some indi-
viduals these are much less evident than in others, and no
doubt this is due to the method of preservation.

As regards the colour, Baird's is " white," Hutton's is.
" pale-brown." Here, too, I find the same differences, as I
have mentioned.

In conclusion, I believe that these two species are syno-
nymous ; and, notwithstanding the great difference in size
between these on the one hand and the numerous individuals
in my possession on the other, I believe that the latter too
are of the same species, which must stand as Dendrostoma.
CBueum, Baird.

184 Transactions. — Zoology.

Unfortunately, in preparing my list of worms for the
Index F.N.Z. I had not had time to fully examine the
character of the tentacular crown, or to compare my speci-
mens with what appears, from Captain Hutton's information,
to be the type of his Sipuncuhis httulentus, so that this sipun-
culid appears as Phascolosojna huttoni.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII.

Figs. 1-10 represent Physcosoma anmdatum.
Pigs. 11-14 represent Dcndrostoma aneum.

Fig. 1. Physcosoma (natural size) with the introvert retracted. This is
the usual condition in which the animal dies — the position of
rest.

Fig. 2. A small individual with the introvert fully extended (natural
size). The distal extremity of the introvert, seen from in
front.

Fig. 3. Showing the tentacular crescent overhanging the mouth (en-
larged), with the brain above.

Fig. 4. The distal extremity of introvert from the side (enlarged), show-
ing the rings of booklets.

Fig. 5. A booklet (much enlarged).

Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9 illustrate the different forms (natural size) of body
assumed on death, and may to some extent be regarded as
various phases of movement during life. In fig. 6 the muscles
at the hinder end are strongly contracted and the introvert is
nearly fully everted. In fig. 7 the circular muscles in the
middle of the body and the introvert are retracted ; while in
fig. 8 the longitudinal muscles are in contraction, giving rise
to a more or less globular form of body. In fig. 9 the body
has a normal shape, of moderate extension, and the introvert
is almost completely everted. Figs. 6, 7, 9 represent indivi-
duals killed slowly by adding alcohol gradually to sea-water ;
while fig. 7 is a specimen killed suddenly by being plunged
into alcohol.

Fig. 10. A specimen with a calcareous cup at the posterior end of body
(see next), giving it the appearance of Aspidosiphon.

Fig. 11. Deiulrostovia cBueum of the natural size.

Fig. 12. "View of the oral disc and tentacular crown (enlarged). This is
so far diagrammatic that on the right side some of the ten-
tacles are represented as spread out flat.

Fig. 1.3. Side view (enlarged) of part of the tentacular crown, showing the
2 lobes, each subdivided into lobules, bearing filiform ten-
tacles.

Fig. 14. A horny spine from the introvert (much enlarged).

Lettering

br.

Dorsal region of head, con-

iK

Base of introvert

taining brain, above which

m.

Mouth.

are seen the eye-spots.

P-

Papilla.

c.

Collar.

s.

Spine.

h.

Rings of booklets.

t.

Tentacles.

i.

Introvert.

Benham. — New Species of Leech (Hirudo autipodum). 185

Art. XXI. — On a Neio Species of Leech (Hirudo anti-
podum) recently discovered in Neiu Zealand.

By Professor W. B. Benham, D.Sc, M.A., F.Z.S., Cor.

M.E.S. Tasm.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 9th June, 1903.']

Plate VIII.

Three years ago Professor Deudy, in association with one of
his pupils at Canterbury College, published* a description of
a small aquatic leech (Glossiphonia nova-zealandice) collected
in Lake Takapuna. This is the first certain record of the
occurrence of a member of the class Hirudinea in this
country.

Nevertheless, from time to time people have referred to
"leeches" as occurring m various parts of the bush or in
lakes — as, for instance, Eeischek,! in his interesting account
of his ornithological expeditions, mentions being bitten by
leeches ; and I have heard, in correspondence, of their occur-
rence. And Dr. Chilton some years ago took Home specimens
caught at Lake Hayes, near Queenstown, and gave them to
Mr. F. E. Beddard, but nothing has since been heard of
them.

Moreover, in the United States National Museum there
are two individuals of a terrestrial leech, Geobdella limhata,
ascribed to " New Zealand. "| It is very doubtful whether
this locality is the correct one. Mr. Moore, who identifies
them with the species originally described by Grube under
the name H. (Chtonobdella) limhata, and found at Sydney, §
writes to me that no information is forthcoming beyond the
writing on the bottle (or tube), '' New Zealand." Now, it
seems to me extremely unlikely that land-leeches, if they occur
in New Zealand, would have been overlooked by the various
collectors and naturalists who have contributed so much to our
knowledge of the natural history of New Zealand during the
last few years, and that yet they should have been obtained
during a short visit to this colony by the United States Ex-
ploring Expedition of 1853. Mr. Moore promises me that he
will look through the records of this Expedition and endeavour
to find out any details as to these leeches. If they are really
from New Zealand, it is probable that they do not belong to

*Dendy and OUiver, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxiii., 1900, p. 99.

t Reischek, Trans. N.Z. Inst., xvii., p. 197.

+ Moore, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., xxi., 56.3.

i Grube, " Anneliden in Reise Pregatte 'Novara,' " 1868, p. 41.

186 Transactions. — Zoology.

the species above mentioned ; but more probably they were-
not obtained from these Islands.*

In view, therefore, of the very scanty information as to
this group of animals in our Islands, it was with very great
interest that I received from Mr. L. Cockayne, of Christ-
church, seven specimens of a leech of considerable size which
had been collected by Mr. Dunlop, late of Orepuki, during
a botanical and zoological excursion made by these gentlemen
to Open Bay Island, off the west coast of the South Island.

These leeches were discovered in a way that suggests why
it is that these animals have not been hitherto discovered by
collectors. It appears that Mr. Dunlop was searching for
insects known as " wetas " under soft tussock-grass in the
burrows formed by "mutton-birds" {Pujfimcs sp.). The
burrows were in quite moist earth on a hillside, and while
plucking up the tufts of grass and groping amongst the roots,
which were imbedded m swampy soil, he felt a bite on his
wrist. Fortunately, Mr. Dunlop is keenly interested in
natural history, and he carefully withdrew his hand and
found a leech attached thereto. He proceeded to examine
the nest further, with the result that he found six more
individuals and some cocoons.

From this account, given to me verbally by Mr. Dunlop, I
imagined that we had to do with a land-leech, but examma-
tion of the specimens shows that it belongs to an aquatic
genus — at any rate, a genus all the species of which, hitherto
described, live in water or marshy places — viz., Hirudo. I
was certainly scarcely prepared to find this widely spread
genus in New Zealand. It is to it that the medicinal leech
of Europe and Japan and elsewhere belongs, and one would

* Since writing this article I have received a letter from Mr. Moore,
dated 19Lh November, 1903, as follows :—

" Since returning to Philadelphia I have re-examined the land-leeches
attributed to New Zealand, and find that my former identification is
correct, so far as one can be certain from comparison with Grube's de-
scriptions and figures alone.

"I have traced all clues known to mc which might throw light on
the authenticity of the label. No one recognises the handwriting, and
no trace can be found of the few notes on annelids made by Professor
Dana while on the Wilkes Expedition ; nor is there any mention in the
narrative or reports of the Expedition of any land-leeches encountered
either in Australia or New Zealand. The notes wore at one time in the
possession of [a gentleman] who, so Professor Verrill informs me, became
insane as the result of a sunstroke during the Civil War, and has been
confined for many years in an asylum.

" As I understand that errors in locality were frequent on the labels
accompanying the Wilkes collections, and considering all the circum-
stances, it seems probable that the specimens were collected at Sydney, one
of the stopping-places of the Expedition. In any event, I now consider
them as valueless in establishing the occurrence of the species in New
Zealand. — Very truly yours, "J. Percy Mooee."

Benham. — New Species of Leech (Hirudo antipodum). 187

have expected that a new genus would represent it here.
It is possible, as I indicate below, that a new genus should
be formed for it, but in the absence of the necessary time
I must leave the more detailed examination of internal cha-
racters till a future occasion. At present I discuss only
the external features, all of which agree precisely with those
enumei'ated by Professor Whitman* as being characteristic of
Hirudo. This genus is represented in Australia — at any rate,
in New South Wales— by H. australis, Besisto, described by
Grube {loc. cit., p. 40) and figured by Schmarda.f But this
species differs from the New Zealand species in colour, size,
and the character of the jaws.

Hirudo antipodum, n. sp.

Diagnosis.

The general coloration (in specimens preserved in formol)
is as follows : Ground-colour of a pale coffee-brown, faintly
toned with reddish ventrally. On the dorsal surface are 5
black bands — viz., [a) a median band of considerable width
(about a quarter the breadth of the body) ; (&) a supramar-
ginal band rather narrower than this, and separated from the
former by a space wider than itself ; and (c) a linear streak
separating this strip of ground-colour into two nearly equal
strips. The ventral surface pale-brown, slightly speckled
with black, and usually with an irregular line of small black
dots near the margin.

Size. — The largest specimen is 48 mm. in length by 12 mm.
in breadth, the greatest diameter being in the posterior third
of the body ; sucker 8 mm. in diameter. Smallest individual,
21 mm. by 6 mm., and the sucker 3 mm.

JaiDs. — Small, concealed by three large fleshy folds ar-
ranged alternately with the jaws ; the latter are longer than
broad, with a straight inner margin and convex outer border.
There are no distinct denticles, but mere irregularities of the
inner margin.

Locality. — Open Bay Island, off the west coast of the
South Island, New Zealand. In amongst the wet roots of
grasses, &c., at the bottom of nests of Puffinus sp.

Description. — The specimens were preserved in formol.
The colour in the preserved leeches is a coffee-brown, but in
formol a pigment has been extracted which colours the solu-
tion green. Some of the individuals were, on arrival at
the Museum, transferred to alcohol. This is not discoloured,
and the worms are a little darker in tint than the others.

•Whitman, Q.J. Mic. Sci., xxvi., 1886, p. 316.

t Schmarda, Neue Wirbellose Th., 1, (2), 1861, pi. xvi., fig. 140.

188

Transactions. — Zoology.

The median dark band varies in width and in density of pig-
mentation. In some cases the pigment - spots are so close
together as to form a black band ; in other cases they are less
close, so that the ground-colour shows between them and in-
terrupts the continuity of the band. In some cases the lateral
margin of this band extends outwards irregularly at intervals
across the neighbouring field of ground-colour, and this may
take place to such a degree that the median band coalesces
with the intermediate linear streak (c). In one specimen the
median band (a) is separable into 3 bands — viz., a pair of ad-
median black linear streaks and a median area in which the
pigment - spots are less closely aggregated. Naturally, the
width of the supramarginal band varies to some degree,
though there is always a distinct band of ground-colour be-
tween it and the actual margin of the body.

As to size, it is evident that some of my specimens are quite
young and probably immature. The cocoons are empty :
perhaps the smallest individuals are but recently hatched.

Dimensions in Millimetkes.

Length.

Breadth.

Height.

Sucker.

{«)

48

12

8

8

(b)

40

10

6

7

(c)

39

9

6-5

7

(d)

26

7

7

{e)

24

10

6

5

(/)

21

6

4

3

One of the individuals (g), which may be the one that bit Mr.
Dunlop, is gorged with blood, and is much redder than the
rest. It is strongly convex ventrally, and the back is longi-
tudinally bent upwards. Its dorsal length (along the curve)
is 22 mm., and ventrally (along the curve) 38mm., greatest
breadth 11 mm., and height 8 mm. The sucker is only 5 mm.
diameter with margins inflated ; it is thus a small indi-
vidual.

I have placed this leech in the genus Hirudo, for it pos-
sesses 5 pairs of eyes, on anuuli 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8; and the
segmental sensillseon annuli 8, II, 14, 19, and subsequently on
every fifth annulus up to the 94th. Tlien we come to abbre-
viated segments, and the sensilUe occur on the 97th and
99th, but I could not detect any on the 101st annulus. Both
the 101st and 102nd are very small, and the anal depression
affects them both.

Of the sensillaj I could detect 8 rows on the dorsal sur-
face, but I could not detect any on the ventral. The sensillaB
are all situated on the ground-colour, and were very distinct

Benham. — Neio Species of Leech (Hirudo antipodum). 189

in the formol specimens when I examined them on arrival,
but at the present time I find it more difficult to distinguish
them ; and they were much less evident in the alcohol speci-
mens. In the formol the sensillae appeared of a different
tint from the surroundings — of a more orange colour ; and the
sense-organ at the tip of the papilla was whitish.

With regard to the head, I carefully looked for any pre-
ocular annuli, such as Castle* refers to, but there are none
in this species. Indeed, the first distinct annulus crossing
the body transversely is that which carries the 3rd pair of
eyes. The anterior semicircular margin of the head is
marked by a series of furrows at right angles to the margin,
and traceable on to the ventral surface into the oral sucker.
Thus, at the extreme anterior extremity the grooves are
sagittal, and as we trace them backwards they gradually
assume a more transverse direction till the 3rd eye is
reached. These furrows delimit small quadrate areas, and
of these there is a couple between the right and left eye of
the first pair — i.e., one on either side of the median line. The
1st eye lies in the second of such areas ; then between the 1st
and 2nd eye is an area ; the 2nd eye occupies one ; then
another between 2nd and 3rd eye. These small areas appear
to bear the same relation to these eyes as does the annulus
between the 3rd and 4th eyes. It may be that each such
"area" represents an annulus of some primitive leech, but
I find no mention of them in Whitman's paper, though in the
beautiful drawing by a Japanese artist of HceDiadijJsa japonica
(pi. xvii., fig. 6) similar "areas" exist, having the same
general arrangement. In this case, however, they resemble
the quadrate, flattened papillae which cover the surface of
the body generally. My material of hirudineans, and the
literature at my disposal, does not permit me to pursue the
subject further; but as we have reason to believe that the
" head " is composed of abbreviated somites, and this ab-
breviation is more or less marked in different genera, it seems
a possible view that these "areas" have some connection with
the missing annuli of the ocular region.

The first complete annulus is the 5th. This " buccal "
annulus forms the edge of the hinder margin of the oral
sucker, or mouth ; and it is distinct from the 6th, though it is
very narrow in the ventral region.

The genital pores have the usual position — viz., between
the 30th and 31st annuli ; and between the 35th and 36th
there is a fairly long protrusible cirrus. I have been unable to
detect the nephridiopores.

* Castle. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., Philadelphia, xxxv., 1900,
p. 285.

190 Transactions. — Zoology.

Of internal anatomy I can only note that the alimentary
•canal is similar to that of the medicinal leech, since I have
not as yet examined the other organs.

The most characteristic feature about this new species is
the existence of three fleshy folds concealing the jaws. If the
mouth, or oral sucker, be viewed from below three semi-
circular ridges are seen, one transversely disposed — ventral
ridge — the other two being obliquely placed, and meeting in
the median dorsal line. These folds may be termed -''lips," and
correspond to structures which occur, indeed, in Hirudo medici-
nalis (with which alone I have had an opportunity of comparing
them by personal observation), but are quite feebly developed
and inconspicuous. In our native leech, on the other hand,
they are so prominent as to be mistaken at first for the jaws,
but that they are arranged in the wrong way. Microscopic
examination, however, shows that they are highly vascular in
structure and hood-like in form, each being concave towards
the median plane and convex externally, with a thickened free
margin.

On turning these aside, or by cutting away the ventral
"lip," the true jaws are exposed in the usual position — viz.,
a median dorsal jaw and a pair of latero- ventral jaws —
alternating, therefore, with the " lips." But the form of the
jaws differs from that of other species of Hirudo (so far as
I am aware) in that they are not semicircular, with the basal
axis longer than the vertical axis. On the contrary, in
H. antipodum the vertical axis is greater than the basal axis,
the median {i.e., oral) margin is nearly straight, and the outer
margin convex. Further, there is practically an absence of
denticles, such as occur in the other species of the genus.
Nevertheless, the oral margin has its cuticle raised into a series
of irregular rounded prominences, which appear to be due to
oblique foldings of the cuticle, and these are arranged in a
single series. But, although practically edentulous, we have
the evidence of Mr. Dunlop that the jaws are sufficiently armed
to pierce the human skin.

So different are these jaws from other species of Hirudo
that one is tempted to make a new genus for our species ; but
as in all other external features, at any rate, this species
agrees with other species of the genus Hinido I have con-
sidered it better to leave it in this genus till I have worked
out the internal anatomy, and especially after reading Whit-
man's remarks (loc. cit., p. 366) on the ^ev\\x9.Hcevwpis, wliich
he includes within the genus Hirudo, since the only character
in which the two genera differ lies in the less number of den-
ticles in the former: " In view of the great variability in the
number of denticles not only among different species of one
and the same genus, but also among different individuals of

Benham. — New Species of Leech (Hirudo antipodum). 191

the same species, and even in the different jaws of the same
individual, this distinction hardly deserves generic rank." On
the next page (367) he considers this question a little more
fully, and proceeds, " So long as the denticles are sufficiently
numerous and well formed to enable the leech to live by
sucking blood it is plain that the reduction has not reached a
point at which the formation of a new genus becomes impera-
tive." It is true that much systematic work has been done
since Whitman's paper was published, but as I have not
access to E. Blanchard's papers (except that dealing with the
Italian leeches, in the Boll. Mus., Zool. Torino, ix., No. 192),
and as my species does not fit into any of the genera (other
than Hirudo) enumerated in Perrier's " Zoologie," I prefer,
as I have said, to leave our New Zealand species in the genus
Hirudo.

It may be well to mention that the edentulous leeches of
Japan, referred to the genus Whitmannia by E. Blanchard
{:= Leptostoma, Whitman), differ in the details of the annu-
lation of the body as well as in the position by the genital
pores. Moreover, the genus consists of land-leeches.

The Cocoon.

The cocoon, of which I give a figure, agrees generally with
the account given by Moquin-Tandon* of that of Hirudo
medicinalis (p. 177 and pi. xi.). It is regularly ovate, of
dark-brown colour and horny texture ; it measures 14 mm.
by 8 mm. over all. The outer surface consists of stiff horny
filaments projecting outwards from a continuous horny mem-
brane. The latter is marked by numerous shallow depres-
sions, each irregularly circular, or, more properly, hexagonal or
polygonal, in outline. The low walls which separate the de-
pressions give origin, at the point where two or more meet, to
short vertical filaments; these branch into two or three shorter
threads, lying in a plane at right angles to the vertical fila-
ments : these threads terminate in a small thickening, and
interlace, or may even be united with neighbouring threads.
In this way a very loose and easily broken felt- work is pro-
duced. The basement membrane, though tough, is quite thin,
and on the inner surface is smooth and shiny, and marked by
feebly convex areas corresponding with the shallow pits seen
on the outside. I opened one cocoon, which was empty ; and
as they both floated in the preserving fluid I judge that the
other is also empty. Probably the smaller leeches captured
are only recently hatched, but there is no perforation in the
wall of the cocoon.

* Moquin-Tandon, Monogr. d. 1. Fam. des Hirudinees, 1846.

192 Transactions. — Zoology.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIII.

Fig. 1. Outline of Hirudo antipodiwi (x 2) taken from a small specimen^
which was not curved. (It appears desirable to insert this
figure, as so few people in New Zealand seem to know a
"leech"; the land-planarian is commonly referred to by this
name.)

„ 2. View of the dorsal surface of the head (enlarged), showing the
arrangement of eyes and sensillse and pigmentation.

„ 3. View of a short portion of another individual, dorsal surface, in
which the median black band is broken up into three narrow
streaks. ( x 2.)

„ 4. Under-surface of the head; a, b, the peculiar fleshy lips. (En-
larged.)

„ 5. The same, still more magnified, after a median incision through
the body-wall and ventral lip has been made ; the lips are turned
aside so as to expose the three jaws (j). m, the muscles thereof.

„ 6. One of the jaws (camera, Oct. 1, obj. 3, Leitz), showing the
feeble development of the denticular ridges.

„ 7. A cocoon (enlarged), the surface only partly filled in. In the
middle is seen the external surface of the basal membrane ; and,
marginally, the felt-work. A, shows a piece of the surface, still
more enlarged. B, the cut edge of the wall, showing the rela-
tion of the felt-work to the basal membrane.

Aet. XXII. — A Note on the Oligochaeta of the Neiu Zealand

Lakes.

By W. B. Benham, D.Sc, M.A., F.Z.S., Professor of
Biology in the University of Otago.

[Read before the' Otago Institute, 11th Augicst, 1908.']
During the year 1902 two young naturahsts from the Old
Country — Messrs. Keith Lucas and Hodson — visited this
colony for the purpose of making a biological and topo-
graphical survey of the principal lakes. Mr. Lucas was good
enough to hand over to me for identification all the Oligo-
chceta, or annelids, which were collected by him. Naturally,
I was delighted to have the opportunity of investigating the
character of the deep-water fauna of our lakes, especially as,
in the first place, such an opportunity is, in all probability,
not likely to recur for several years ; and, secondly, because
our knowledge of the fresh-water annelids of the colony can
be compressed into a very small compass. I propose to-night
to give merely a brief summary of my results, a full and illus-
trated account of which I have sent to the Zoological Society.
The material upon which this paper is based consisted of
thirty-three small tubes, containing about a hundred and
fifty specimens, which, after examination, I find represent
about a dozen species, all new to science, referable to nine
genera (of which one is new), belonging to five families.

Benham. — The Oligochaeta of the New Zealand Lakes. 193

Family PHEEODRILID^.

Phreodrilus, Beddard.

1. P. lacustris, n. sp. Wakatipu and Manapouri.

2. P. mauiensis, n. sp. Taupo.

Family TUBIFICID^.
Taupodrilus, n. gen.

3. T. simplex, n. sp. Taupo, Waikare, and Manapouri.

Limnodrilus, Clapar^de.

4. L. lucasi, n. sp. Taupo and Eotoiti.

5. L vejdov sky amis, n. sp. Waikare and Waikaremoana.

6. L. sp. incert. (immature). Wakatipu and Manapouri.

Tubifex, Lamarck.

7. T. sp. incert. (immature). Taupo, Eotoiti, and Waikare-

moana.

Family ENCHYTE^ID^.
Enchytraeus, Henle.

8. E. sim^blans, n. sp. Taupo.

Achseta, Vejdovsky.

9. A. maorica, n. sp. Manapouri.

Family HAPLOTAXID^.
Haplotaxis, Hoffmeister.

10. H. heterogyne, n. sp. Wakatipu.

Family MEGASCOLECID^.
Sub-family Megascolecin^.
Diporochseta, Beddard.

11. D. aquatica, n. sp. Manapouri.

Plutellus, Perrier.

12. P. lacustris, n. sp. Wakatipu.

All these worms are -of small size, none exceeding 3 in.,
the majority but little more than 1 in. in length, while one
was only about -J- in. ; and the diameter of the majority does
not exceed the thickness of a stout pin. Hence the work of
identification was by no means an easy one, necessitating the
constant use of higher powers of the microscope, for the
external differences between these fresh - water worms lie
chiefly in the form and number of the small bristles with
which each segment of the body is provided, and these

13— Trans.

194 Transactions. — Zoology.

bi'istles had to be examined under an oil-immersion lens
for thorough investigation. After sorting the worms into
groups in this manner one or more of each group was then
stained and mounted entire for a preliminary examination of
the internal structure ; and further examples of each had to be
cut into a series of transverse sections and series of longi-
tudinal sections, each section being about o^^in. in thickness,
or even less, in order that the internal anatomy might be
thoroughly explored, for by this method alone can the dif-
ferences between species, and even genera, be properly deter-
mined. Those who have had experience in this minute micro-
scopic work will perhaps appreciate the length of time required
and the tedious nature of the work of identification.

Of the nine genera, five are common in Europe and North
America, the only localities in which these annelids have
received adequate attention ; these five are — Tuhifex, Limno-
drilus, EnchytrcBus, AchcBta, and Haplotaxis.

Of these probably cosmopolitan genera Limnodrilus and
Haplotaxis have already been recorded from New Zealand,
but the species of Limnodrilus referred to by Beddard was
immature, and was too insufficiently characterized to be
identifiable ; I have found it necessary to make two new
species of Limnodrilus. Of Haplotaxis one species has
hitherto been recorded from New Zealand, one from Europe,
one from America. I thus add a fourth to the list — a second
from New Zealand.

A sixth genus, Phreodrilus, has hitherto been found only
in South America, Falkland Islands, Kerguelen, and New
Zealand. I have to add, as a result of my investigaiions, two
new species, one of which, unfortunately, is represented only
by a single immature individual ; but the other. Ph. lacustris,
is common in Lake Wakatipu, and one interesting fact
about it is that it is more nearly allied to the Kerguelen
Island species than to the other New Zealand species. This
is a very remarkable fact, especially in conjunction with
similar facts observed in the case of certain of our earth-
worms (Notiodrilus) presenting a similar distribution, where
the species from the Macquarie and from the Auckland
Islands are more nearly related to the South American and
Falkland Island species than to those living on our mainland.

Two other genera, Plutellus and Diporochceta, are Aus-
tralian. The former has not hitherto been met with here,
though two species of the latter have been recorded.

The ninth and last genus difiers from any hitherto known
to science, and I have named it Taupodrilus, to indicate the
fact that it occurs cliaracteristically in Lake Taupo.

When we consider the many endemic genera of terrestrial
worms occurring in New Zealand, and the generally unique

Benham. — The Oligochaeta of the Nexo Zealand Lakes. 195

character of the earthworms, it appears somewhat disappoint-
ing to find such an absence of pecuHar genera in the case of
the aquatic worms. Nevertheless, this is in accordance with
the usual character of fresh- water fauna the world over — at
any rate, in the case of the smaller invertebrates — and espe-
cially of the OligocJiceta, for there is a remarkable uniformit}^
in the aquatic annelids in all parts of the world hitherto
explored, with a mere sprinklmg of peculiar forms. And this
difference in the facies of the terrestrial and aquatic annelids is
due to the difference in the manner in which the two kinds of
Oligochceta are transported from one country to another.

Now, as I have pointed out in previous communications,
earthworms can only be distributed by their own active loco-
motion or migration through or on the earth, hence con-
tinuous land-areas — at some period or another — are necessary
to explain the occurrence of allied species in two spots now
isolated by stretches of sea. But in the case of the fresh-
water worms, which are of small size, the means of dispersal
from one country to another does not necessarily depend on
their own emigration ; and though in this case we are still
somewhat in the dark as to the exact manner of transport,
yet from analogy with what we know to be the mode of dis-
persal of the smaller aquatic molluscs, Crustacea, and insects
it appears extremely probable that these small aquatic worms
may be conveyed by birds, especially by wading-birds, such as
the red stilt and heron, and by ducks like the teal, grey duck,
and crested grebe, which, dabbling in the mud at the margin
of a lake or in the neighbouring swamp or stream, carry away
some of this mud on their feet. The occurrence, for example,
of Plutellus in Wakatipu and of Diporochceta in Manapouri,
both of which worms have their home in Australia, is probably
to be explained by their being carried, or by their cocoons
being carried, in this mud adhering to the feet of such birds.
The length of time required by a fairly strong-flying bird with
a wind behind it in passing across the Tasman Sea would not
be more than thirty-six to forty-eight hours — and perhaps
even less — and during this time, if the worm were enclosed in
a ball of earth, it is quite possible that sufficient moisture
would be retained in the centre of the ball to preserve the life
of this small worm. At any rate, the cocoon would easily
withstand a considerable amount of drying-up, and when the
bird alights on the shore of the lake the cocoon, deposited in
the water, would give the species a start in the new locality,
and as each cocoon contains several eggs the species would
have a fair chance of survival. Since the mud continues to
adhere to the feet, it is clear that a certain amount of moisture
persists, otherwise the mud would crumble away during the
journey. Now, M. De Guerne has investigated the mud ad-

196

Transac tions . — Zoology .

herent to the feet of wild ducks in Europe, and found it to
contain, or, rather, to give rise to, after proper cultivation,
numerous small creatures, such as nematodes, rotifers, eggs of
water-fleas, and other small organisms, while other records
state that small moUusca have been found adhering to the feet
of birds after long periods of flight.

The lakes that were explored during the survey are
Wakatipu and Manapouri in the South Island, and Taupo,
Eotoici, Waikare, and Waikaremoana in the North.

The annelid fauna of the northern set of lakes is quite
different from that of the southern couple, not merely in the
species, but in the genera ; and, as we should expect, the
different lakes in each group are occupied by different species,
though there are one or two species common to two or more
lakes. Only in the case of one species — viz., Taupodrilus
simplex — do I find the same worm occurring both in the
northern and southern lakes.

The richest — i.e., most varied — fauna was obtained from
Manapouri, where five species, representing as many genera,
belonging to four families, were collected in only six spots.
But Taupo is nearly as rich, where five species, belonging to
five genera, representing three families, were collected at four
stations.

Table showing Fauna of the Lakes explored.

Species.

Number

of

Individuals.

Depths,
io

Feet.

Number

of
Stations.

Wakatipu: Maximum depth, 1,242ft.; number of stations at which
OligochcEta were obtained, 10 ; total number of individuals ob-
tained, 37.

Plutellus lacustris

Phreodrilus lacustris
Haplotaxis hetcrogyne
Limnodrilus, sp. A, inc.

17

10

2

1

300-1,200
800-1,000
550
1,000

7
3
1
1

Manapouri: Maximum depth, 1,458ft. ; number of stations, 6; total

number of specimens, 16.

Phreodrilus lacustris
Taupodrilus simplex
Limnodrilus, sp. B, inc.
Acha^ta maorica
Diporochaita aquatica

G
G
1
1
2

150-500

10-1,000
150-500

350
350-500

Taupo : Maximum depth, 534 ft. ; number of stations, 4 ; total number

of specimens, 32.

.. I 11 150-500 2

1 150-500 1

12 300-450 1

.. 7 ? 1

..1 ? 1

Taupodrilus simplex
Phreodrilus mauiensis
Limnodrilus lucasi
Enchytra'US simulans
Tubifex, sp. inc. . .

Benham. — The Oligochaeta of the New Zealand Lakes. 197
Table showing Fauna op the Lakes explored — contimted.

Species.

Number

of

Individuals.

Depths,

in

Feet.

Number

of
Stations.

RoTOiTi: Maximum depth, 228 ft.; number of stations, 2; number of

specimens, many.

Limnodrilus lucasi .. .. I Numerous \ 100-228 i 1

Tubifex, sp. inc. . . . . . . i 2 . . : 1

Waikare : Maximum depth, Oft. ; number of stations, 1.

Limnodrilus vejdovskyanus . . 1 30 j 9 I 1

Taupodrilus simplex . . . . I 1 I 9 | 1

Waikaremoana : Maximum depth, 8-46 ft. ; number of stations, 3 ; num-
ber of specimens, 16.

Limnodrilus ve]"dovskyanus(?)
Limnodrilus, sp. inc.
Tubifex, sp. inc. . .
Indeterminable fragments . .

6
1
1

8

800-840
200-750

80

Eemaeks on the above Table.

Lake Wakatipu thus yielded, in eleven hauls at different
stations, a total of thirty specimens, which fall into four
species, belonging to as many genera, and representing four
families. Of these Limnodrilus was represented by a single
immature individual. But the commonest species is Platellus
lacustris, which was obtained at eight stations widely sepa-
rated and at depths varying from 300 ft. to 1,200 ft. It
occurs both in the North Arm and in the South Arm of the
lake. Phreodrilus was obtained at only three stations in the
South Arm, in depths from 300 ft. to 1,000 ft.

Lake Manapouri, whose greatest depth Mr. Lucas found to
be 1,458 ft., yielded sixteen specimens for six hauls. These
fall into five species, belonging to as many genera, and repre-
senting four faiiiilies. But here again a single specimen of
Limnodrilus too immature for identification is included. It
is possible that the hauls were made in depths beyond that
at which the members of this genus dwell, for they are more
numerously represented in the shallower lakes of the North
Island. The remaining worms, however, are very interesting
— firstly, the small worm Achceta maorica, represented, unfor-
tunately, by only a single individual, is the fourth species of
the genus, and has hitherto only been known in Europe.
Then, the new genus Taupodrilus occurs at two stations,
ranging from 10 ft. to 1,000 ft. in depth — the only species
which is common to the lakes of the two Islands. Phreodrilus
is represented by the same species as in Wakatipu. And,
finally, Diporochceta aquatica, the first member of the genus

198 Trails actions. — Zoology.

recorded from such deep water — indeed, hitherto the New
Zealand species have only been recorded from swamps.

Turning to the North Island lakes, Taupo presents us
with the richest fauna. Its depth is only 534 ft., very shallow
as compared with Wakatipu. It yielded thirty-two specimens
for four hauls, belonging to five genera. Of these Taiqjodrilus
is the most interesting, and is widely distributed, having
occurred at two spots ranging from 150 ft. to 500 ft. in depth ;
and it is apparently pretty common, as about a dozen mdi-
viduals were collected. Linmodrilus lucasi and Enchytrmns
simulans are also about as numerous, though only obtained at
one spot each. In this lake I find a single specimen of a
second species of Phreodrilus.

Waikare, with a maximum depth of 9 ft., yields chiefly
Limnodrilus, which genus is represented by a distinct species
in Eotoiti, where it occurs in abundance.

From Waikaremoana, which with a depth of 846 ft.
ought to have yielded some interesting forms, I only received
sixteen specimens, which, unfortunately, are so badly pre-
served as to be unidentifiable, though some at least belong to
the genus Limnodrilua.

Art. XXIII. — An apimrently Neiv Species of Regalecus

(E. parkeri).

By W. B. Benham, D.Sc, M.A., F.Z.S., Professor of

Biology in the University of Otago.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 9th June, 1903.]

Plate IX.

In November, 1902, I received a silvery Oar-fish, which was
washed ashore in Deborah Bay, near Port Chalmers, in Otago
Harbour. It was observed with its head downward and the
tail flapping above water in the air.

The colour was silver, without — so my informant states —
any other coloration. The long nuchal fin-rays were broken
off at the base, as also were the pelvic fin and the tail, so
that it is possible that the two former fins may have had the
bright-red colouring known in E. glesne. The silver was
marked by 14 dark transverse bands set at fairly regular
intervals from the back of the head to the end of the body.
Eacli band extends over the entire depth of the body, and is
separated from its neighbours by a space about equal to its
own length, which varies from liin. to 2 in. (30 mm. to
50 mm.), the latter being the length of the bands near the

Benham. —All apparently Neiv Sjjecies of Eegalecus. 199

middle of the body. These colour-bands are not black, but
extremely pale grey, and could only be recognised by reflec-
tion in certain lights, the grey being due to minute pigment-
cells below the silver.

The fish is remarkable for its very great length as com-
pared with its vertical height, being much more ribbon-like
than other ribbon- fishes. Its total length (without the caudal
fin) is 45 in. (1,144 mm.) ; it greatest height (at the level of
anus) is only 0-75 in. (18'75 mm.) ; its thickness at this point
is g^in. (7-3 mm.). This brings the ratio of length to height
to about 60.

The head measures 2^ in. in length (53 mm.), and fin. in
height (21mm.). Diameter of eye -Jin. (12mm.); distance
from anterior margin to tip of retracted snout is fin. (18 mm.).

Anus, 13^ in. (337 mm.) from snout.

Fin-formula: D., 7/390; P., 10; V. (?).

Height of body, J^ of the total length ; length of head,
-i3-\- of the total length ; pre-anal region to total length is
i to 3-3.

The dorsal fin is about half the height of the body, and
there are 9 fin-rays to the inch anteriorly — or, roughly, about
390 fin-rays altogether. The anterior rays measured along
their length are fin. (15 mm.); in the hinder part they are
about -Jin. (12mm.) long. The membrane reaches nearly to
tips of the rays. The anterior or nuchal portion of the fin
was damaged, but the bases of 7 rays remain, which are stouter
than the usual rays, and no doubt were elongated, as in
B. glesne. The pectoral fin is ^^ in. long, with 10 rays ; the
pelvic (broken) are represented by a pair of minute knobs just
behind the level of the pectorals on the throat. No doubt
they were elongated in life.

Teeth absent in the upper jaw, but there are two pairs of
delicate conical teeth far forward in the lower jaw, and ou
the palate a small median tooth.

The lateral line has a characteristic course : starting from
the upper part of the back of the head, it passes rapidly
downwards behmd the pectoral fin to gain the lower part of
the side, about 1^ in. (28 mm.) behind the head. Thence the
right and left lateral lines run backwards parallel, one on
each side of the narrow belly close to the ventral mid-line
and separated by a distance of |^in. (3 mm.).

The head has black (not dark-blue, as in B. glesne) pig-
ment bordering the lips, and a curved band of the same colour
across the forehead, concentric with but slightly removed
from the hinder border of the maxillary bone. The top of the
head is black. The iris is also partially black, so arranged
that the silver portion is a vertical oval, there being a greater
width of pigment anteriorly to the pupil than posteriorly.

200 Transactions. — Zoology

There are black pigment-spots along the base of dorsal fin
and along side of body at posterior end.

The gonad is 7 in. long.

From the above it will be seen that the present fish does
not agree with any of those enumerated by Dr. Giinther in
the British Museum Catalogue (" Fishes," iii., p. 300, et seq.),
but it most nearly approaches the Indian species B. russelii,
Shaw, which is figured in Day's " Fishes of India," pi. 79,
fig. 2. This is 2ft. Sin. in length — i.e., 816mm. For this
species Giinther (p. 311) gives the following diagnosis :—

•' D., 4-5/320 ; C, (?) ; P., 11 ; V., 1. The height of the
body is one-twentieth of the total length. Teeth none. Caudal
rays distinct."

The figure given by Day is 193 mm. — i.e., about a quarter
the natural size. The greatest height is at the head ; thence
the dorsal surface slopes rather rapidly at first and then
more gradually to the end of the body (a little more rapidly
apparently than in our specimen). Height at level of pectoral
is 8 mm. on figure [i.e., 32 mm. in the fish) ; height at middle
of body, 4 mm. on figure (i.e., 16 mm. in the fish) ; length of
head, 10mm. on figure {i.e., 40mm. in the fish); diameter
of eye, 2mm. on figure (i.e., 8mm. in the fish); anterior
margin to snout, 2mm. on figure {i.e., 8mm. in the fish);
height of dorsal fin in mid-body, 2-5 mm. on figure {i.e.,
10 mm. in the fish).

Thus the ratio of height to length is J^ contra (Giinther).
Day states of the dorsal-fin rays that the " central rays are
the longest."

This fish is evidently different from Day's, and I propose
the name B. parkeri, in memory of my predecessor', who
made a careful study of the anatomy of B. glesne. At the
same time it is possible that the present fish is the young of
some known species, but it is convenient to record the occur-
rence under a distinctive name.'"

* Since writing this article I have received a second specimen of thia
fish, captured at Stewart Island by Mr. Traill, and given to me by Mr.
G. M. Thomson. This innividual is much longer than the one described
above, its measurements being as follows : Total length, 75 in. ; greatest
height (exclusive of fin), 175 in. The ratio of leiigth to height is about
43 (the fish is proportionately higher tlian the above) ; length of head,
3 in. ; distance of ai.us from tip of snout, 2'2 in. There are, on the average,
some 7 fin-rays to ihe inch, wliich gives a total of 525 fin rays. The tail,
though without the caudal fin, is uniMJure(), i<o that we may supplomenc
the above account. At the hmder end of the body, about ^\ trom extreme
tip, the dorral fin ceases, and the ventral body-wall suddenly curvea
upward and backward to meet the dorsal line in a sharp point. On the
upper surface, close to the point, are the broken stumps of three or four
fin-raya.

Chilton. — Species of Ixodes parasitic on the Grey Duck. 201

Art. XXIV. — A Species of Ixodes parasitic on the Grey Duck.

By Chas. Chilton, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Professor of Biology,

Canterbury College.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th November,

1903.]
Plate X.

In May, 1903, Mr. W. W. Smith, of Ashburton, sent me
some specimens of a " tick " found on a specimen of the grey
duck (An.as superciliosa), with the request that I would ex-
amine them, and describe them, if necessary.

The specimens forwarded appear to belong to the genus
Ixodes, Latreille, of which five species have been already
described as parasitic on various New Zealand birds. Of
these three were described by the late "W. M. Maskell — viz.,
I. eudyptidis, from a penguin ;■•' I. apteridis, parasitic on the
North Island kiwi [Apteryx manteUi);\ and I. ajjtericola, found
on the South. Isl&nd kiwi {Apteryx australis). I Mr. T. W. Kirk
has described one species, I. viaskellii, obtained from young
specimens of the pencilled albatros, and has also recorded the
fact that he found on a large gull a tick exactly similar to the
one from the crested penguin described by Mr. Maskell. § A fifth
species has been more recently described by M. Neumann in
a paper wiiich I have had no opportunity of consulting. ||
I have been unable to identify my specimens with any of the
others described from New Zealand, and have therefore
ventured to describe them as new. I do so, however, with
considerable hesitation, as I have not specially studied the
group. I hope, however, that the description and figures
given below will be sufficient for future identification. In the
general shape and markings on the body the species here
described seems to rather closely resemble Ixodes 7naskellii,
T. W. Kirk, but in the absence of figures of that species I
have not ventured to refer my specimens to his species.

Ixodes anatis, sp. nov. Plate X., figs. 1 to 6.

Female. — Body broadly elliptical, slightly constricted at
the sides ; cephalic shield lighter in colour than rest of
body, very small, oval, narrowing in front, only partially
visible in dorsal view. On dorsal surface two shallow
grooves or markings extend backwards and outwards from
the cephalic shield, and lead to two irregular depressions
situated about one-third the length of the body from the an-
terior end ; from these depressions extend two well-marked
lateral grooves, curving slightly inwards and reaching nearly

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., xvii., p. 19. f L.c, xxix., p. 291. J L.c, xxix.,
p. 29 . § L.c, xix., p. 65. |! Mem. Soc. Zool. France, 1899, p. 132.

202 Transactions. — Zoology.

to the posterior end of the body. An indistinct median
groove runs forward from the posterior extremity of the body
and gradually disappears before reaching as far forward as
the depressions. Whole dorsal surface free from hairs, but
marked with very tine parallel striae, which anteriorly are con-
centric with the margins of the cephalic shield, but soon become
transverse. On the ventral surface two grooves arise at the
bases of the legs and run backwards, at tirst nearly parallel,
but afterwards curving slightly outwards, and not reaching so
far as the posterio-lateral margins of the body. Posteriorly is a
median groove extending from the posterior margin for nearly
one-third the length of the body ; it is well-defined anteriorly,
but becomes shallower and less distinct posteriorly.

Eostrum and palpi short, scarcely visible in dorsal view ;
rostrum cylindrical, straight, proximal two - thirds smooth
above, distal third provided with numerous recurved hooks ;
on the under-surface these hooks extend along two-thirds of
the length and proximally become arranged in four rows,
the teeth of the inner row smaller than those of the outer.
Palpi straight, not extending beyond the end of the rostrum,
only the two terminal joints distinct ; penultimate joint nearly
twice as long as the terminal, slightly narrowed at the base ;
terminal joint rounded at the end, and with an oval marking on
the under-surface ; both joints with a few fine scattered hairs.
Legs with the last two joints indistinctly separated, the last
bearing two strongly curved claws arising from a small pad.

Size — length, 10 mm.; breadth, 5 mm.

Male. — Smaller specimens (length, 3 mm.; breadth,
1-5 mm.), which are presumably males, are similar in most
respects to the females, but have the cephalic shield darker in
colour and the grooves on the dorsal and ventral surfaces less
well marked, and bear a few very fine hairs sparsely scattered
over the body.

The colour of the animals when alive was, according to
Mr. Smith, " females dull-green, males brownish-green."

Type specimens have been deposited in the Canterbury
Museum.

I have to thank Miss E. G. Freeman, of the Christchurch
School of Art, for drawing for me figures 1 and 2, representing
the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the female.

DESCRIPTION OP PLATE X.

Ixodes anatis, Chilton. ? .
Fig. 1. Dorsal view of female, x about 4 times.
„ 2. Ventral vi"w of the same, x about 4 times.
„ 3. Rostrum, seen from abnve, x about CO times.
„ 4. Rostrum, seen from below, x about 60 limes.
„ f). Fourth leg, x about 3U times.
„ G. End of same, more highly magnified.

III. — BOTANY.

Art. XXV. — Plants naturalised in the County of Ashburton.

By W. W. Smith.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th November.

1903.]

It is now over thirty-one years since the late Mr. J. F. Arm-
strong, Curator of the Botanical Gardens, Christchurch, con-
tributed the first paper to this Institute* on the naturalised
plants of the then Province of Canterbury. The list attached to
his paper enumerated 171 species of naturalised plants observed
by Mr. Armstrong in the neighbourhood of Christchurch.
"This," he vprote, "is certainly very remarkable when we
consider that twenty years ago few or none of these plants
were known in the province." In deploring the rapid extinc-
tion of many species of native plants, he also remarked that
" the indigenous flora seems to have arrived at a period of its
existence when it has no longer strength to maintain its own
against the invading races." During the intervening thirty-
one years since Mr. Armstrong's paper was published the
number of species of naturalised plants has vastly increased,
while their phenomenally rapid dispersion, and, in many
cases, aggressiveness, has proved a serious menace to practical
and profitable farming in Canterbury and in many other
extensive farming-areas in New Zealand.

The settlement of the County of Ashburton began in 1851,
when a number of sheep stations or runs were let by the
Canterbury Provincial Council to gentlemen some of whom
are now honoured names in the history of the province. The
Ashburton County extends from the Eakaia to the Eangitata
Eiver, and from the sea-shore on the east coast westward to
the dividing-range which is also the eastward boundary of
the County of Westland. The flora of the whole county was
then in all its native beauty and splendour. Extensive areas
of magnificent primeval bush existed at Alford Forest and
Springburn, and at Peel Forest, on the south bank of the
Eangitata Eiver. After twenty-five years of great activity in.
the sawmiliing industry these richly timbered forests are now

* Tran?, N.Z. Inst., vol. v., p. 284.

204 Transactions. — Botany.

almost " cut out." Their sites, which will remain for a few
years more or less strewn with decaying stumps and trunks,
form valuable pastoral lands, on which all introduced fodder
and other plants generally grow luxuriantly. The broad
Canterbury Plains were " billowy bays of grass," clothed with
dense tussocks comprising several species of Poa (chiefly Poa
australis), with extensive groups of the palm-lily [Cordyline
australis) and Discaria to2imatou, extending from the sea-
shore to the slopes of the fore ranges. When the fierce
north-wester blew across the plains the successive gusts pro-
duced the wave-like motions of the dense and close-growing
tussocks, akin to those observed by "Australian Felix" on the
gi'assy plains of Victoria. In the hot sunshine the tussocks
absorbed and retained a great amount of heat, which, when the
north-wester leached through them, produced, especially during
the night, the hotter wind experienced by the early settlers
domiciled on the lower half of the Canterbury Plains. Amongst
the tussocks flourished many species of interesting native
plants, most of which have now almost vanished from the
plains. On the swampy land extensive areas of Phormmm
tenax, with numerous species of aquatic and sub -aquatic
plants, grew luxuriantly. The draining of the extensive
swamps — a work of great colonial enterprise — and the sub-
sequent depasturing of farm stock thereon, has almost com-
pleted the annihilation of this class of native plants on the
plains.

The phenomenally rapid dispersion and naturalisation of
numerous species of exotic plants in New Zealand, and the
equally rapid disappearance of many species of native plants
from their habitats, during the half-century of British colonisa-
tion will ever remain a subject of great interest to botanists.
Mr. Armstrong's remarks in re the "indigenous flora liaving
arrived at a period of its existence when it had no longer
strength to maintain its own against the invading races " are
very suggestive. Although we know that the native flora
possess equally perfect methods of fertilisation in most species
to those invading plants that have supplanted it in many
large areas, its disappearance must be due to other causes at
present imperfectly known. In almost every district, especi-
ally on the poorer lands, that remained for many years un-
ploughed and almost untouched by stock, the displacement of
the native plants by more hardy alien species proceeded apace.
The conquest of the New Zealand flora by the northern in-
vaders is due in some measure to their greater development
" in the most extensive land-area of the globe, where competi-
tion has long been most severe and long continued, "■• which

• "Island Life," p. 511.

Smith. — Plants nakiralised in the County of Ashburton. 205

has fitted them to supplant the less vigorous antipodean plants
in a soil and climate perfectly adapted to their habits. With
few exceptions the indigenous plants of New Zealand never
attained the development necessary to fit them in the struggle
with the strongly developed European plants. On the deeper
and richer land of the plains, where the close-growing tussocks
[Pea australis) grew high and vigorous, they more than any
other class of plants prevented the dispersal and growth of
introduced species.

The annual practice of burning the extensive sheep-runs to
promote fresh growth oi the tussocks, and the subsequent
sowing of the burned areas by scattering weed-infested seed
broadcast over them, will explain the occurrence of many
species of exotic plants naturalised on the upland country in
the early years of settlement. With so much weed-infested
seed sown on the virgin soil, and considering the lack of
proper tillage the land received, we should not be surprised at
the presence in the colony of so many species of exotic plants
and plant-parasites, interesting though they are to the botanist
and zoologist. We also know that much valuable land was
purchased and farmed in the early days of Canterbury by
many quite inexperienced men, whose lack of knowledge of
plants and indifferent style of farming were the chief causes
of the rapid spread of exotic plants now naturalised in the
county and elsewhere. Many species flourish in imperfectly
tilled land where many valuable economic plants and cereal
crops could make little growth.

Unlike the river-beds of Britain, the broad, warm, sandy,
and silty flats of the glacier and other rivers crossing the
Canterbury Plains provide more congenial conditions and sites
for the growth of many representatives of the Scandinavian
flora, where they frequently attain abnormal dimensions. A
European botanist would be charmed to view the luxuriance
and beauty of many species of British plants naturalised in
New Zealand. When I visited the lower gorge of the Eakaia
River in February, 1901, the more swampy parts were ablaze
with the flowers of large masses of Erythrcea centaurium,
Prunella vulgaris, Mimulus moschcetus, Vicia tetrasperma,
^Enothera biennis, Geranium molle, Galiicm aparine, Bellis
verennis, Grepis virens, Bartsia viscosa, Plantago lanceolata,
Trifolium prateiise, and T. reyens. I had not previously
observed these plants display such great vigour nor attain
such perfection of growth. The drier flats were also ablaze
as far as the eye could see with the orange-coloured flowers
of Hypochaeris radicata. On the small shingle-fans at the
mouths of the numerous gullies opening into the Eakaia
Valley Cardims lanceolatus grew in extensive masses, so high
and strong as to be quite impassable in some places on horse-

206 Transactions. — Botany.

back. This thistle is not now so aggressive on newly broken -
up land in the county as formerly."

Every year, during our frequent botanical and entomolo-
gical excursions, we discover alien species of plants occurring
or observed for the first time in the country. It is note-
worthy how isolated and strictly local some species are, and
remain almost stationary, while others multiply and disperse
over large areas within a few years. Some recent introduc-
tions or new arrivals in this district have increased and
spread at a remarkably rapid ratio compared to many other
species which were earlier comers. On the lOth January,
1899, we discovered the first specimens of Polycjonum lapa-
thifulmvi met with in the county. Since that date it has
spread up the river, and is now annually plentiful, especially
on the more silty flats. Seeing that this species spread up
along the river, its fine seeds were probably carried in the
plumage and adhering to the feet of the numerous sea-birds
nesting on the river-flats during the summer and autumn
months. On the 20th April, 1900, my late son, Walter
Valentine, discovered a few flowermg plants of Stachys annua.
This species is mentioned by Bentham as having been only
once found in a field in Kent, England, which had been sown
with seed obtained from abroad. I subxxiitted fresh specimens
of the plant to Mr. G. M. Thomson, Mr. T. F. Cheeseman,
and Mr. J. B. Armstrong, and these botanists referred to its
naturalisation on the Canterbury Plains of New Zealand as
an interesting fact in the artificial distribution of plants.
The species is very rare, and occurs in one locality only,
where I found five plants in bloom in April last.

For many years it has been the custom of a number of
residents of Ashburton to cart garden - rubbish, including
offcast plants and dried seed-bearing stems of plants, and
deposit them on the open river-bed. From this source arose
several species of plants now abundantly naturalised on the
river-flats. I have also observed new-comers appear on the
sites where straw and hay had been deposited that had been
imported in packing-cases. These were plants that generally
compose some of the undergrowth of English cornfields
and the chief vegetation of English meadows. They com-
prised Carduus ianceolatus, Gapsclla bursa-iMstoris, Papaver
rhccas, Lejnchnm rudcrale, Siiene inflata, Senecio vulgaris,
Chrysanthemum, seyetuvi, Sonclms arvensis, Polygonum avicu-
lare, Lolium i^crcnne, Bromus mollis, Cynosurus cristatus,
Holctis mollis, and Avcna fatua. The latter plant has proved
a great nuisance in fields of oats for many years past.

•"Plant Acclimatisation" (G. U. Thomson), Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. XXX., p. 313.

Smith. — Plants naturalised in the County of Ashhurton. 207

From numerous inquiries instituted among the early
settlers I have ascertained that every crop they sowed, be
it cereal or fodder, new plants appeared on cheir farms. Some
species would gi'ow vigorously for a few years, and in a few
more years they would decrease and disappear. It is gene-
rally difficult or impossible, from the vague descriptions the
old settlers give of these plants, to identify them accurately.
But probably they remained so long as the rich virgin soil
retained certain plant-food necessary to sustain them, and
when the land became impoverished by repeated and un-
scrupulous cropping without restoring the exhausted elements
of the soil they were replaced by more vigorous species better
adapted to the changed conditions. Nine years ago Scandix
pecten-veneris was very abundant and intrusive, and covered
acres of good land in some localities ; but it is now compara-
tively rare. Many other species of exotic plants have also
become less numerous within the same period. Warm sea-
sons or continuous periods of dry, warm weather are more
favourable to the development of some introduced plants than
to others. During the drought and hot weather experienced
on the Canterbury Plains in the years 1895-97 Solanum ni-
grum, Datura stramonium, and Atropa belladonna became very
abundant and aggressive on rich swampy lands and along the
banks of water-races in several districts in the county. These
dry years were succeeded by a wet and chilly period lasting to
the present time, and these plants have consequently become
rare. It would have been regrettable if these heat-loving but
dangerous plants had become numerous in this extensive
farming district. My observations on many species of natural-
ised plants during the last fifteen years has convinced me
that their comparative habits in all seasons is a safe guide in
tracing the source of their original home.

It may be of interest to botanists of the future to give brief
notes on the condition of the naturalised flora of the county
at the beginning of the twentieth century. Of the 368 species
included in the following list — specimens of all having been
collected in the county — 95 per cent, belong to the Scandi-
navian flora; Australia is represented by 3 species. North
Africa 1, South Africa 1, Asia 3, South America 3, and North
America by 10 species.

The three Australian species are well dispersed over the
hilly region of the county. Vittadinia australis and AccBJia
ovma are abundant on the hills and in the warmer inland
valleys. The latter grows vigorously, and is becoming a great
nuisance to sheep-owners by its burrs or seed-pods entangling
in the wool. Cotula australis inhabits the warm valleys of the
Gawler Downs, on the upper Hinds Kiver.

The North African Gytisus albidus constituted for a de-

208 Transactions. — Botany.

cade the chief undergrowth of the belt of trees extending
along the railway-line for a considerable distance between
Ashburton and Chertsey. Small areas of the white broom
exist at present on the banks of the Ashburton Eiver sea-
w^ards of the town. The South African Hibiscus trionum I
have thrice found in different localities, but it is nowhere
numerous.

The Asiatic representatives include Bidens pilosa, Nicandra
2)hysaloides, and Triticum sativum. The two former were
first discovered by Mr. Herring on the Afford Estate. The
latter occurs in several localities.

The South American natives, Oxalis rosea, Sisyrinchium
striatum, and Solanum tuberosum, occur on the river-bed as
garden escapes.

The North American species, Barbarea prcecox, Limnantlms
douglasii, Lupimis arbor eus, Gallomia coccinea, Mivmthis luteus,
M. moschcetus, ^nothera stricta, M. biennis, Ribes sangtcviea,
and Pijius insignis, are widely distributed over the county.
Mimuhcs luteus grows luxuriantly in many creeks and swamps,
while M. moschatus, the favourite musk, flourishes in large
masses on the moist sandy and swampy flats. The two
species of ^Enothera are abundant on the Eakaia Eiver flats,
and annually produce a great display of their lemon-coloured
flowers, which may be seen in pa^ssing over the river in the
railway-train during the summer months. The seeds falling
from the ripe cones of Pinus insignis grow freely, and they
have grown into dense masses in some of the older planta-
tions. The seed of Btbes sanguinea is carried by birds, and
germinates from their excreta under trees where the birds
roost. With the exception of Pinus insignis, the other species
in this list are probably descendants from garden escapes
many years ago.

The list of British and European species naturalised in
the county include all the more valuable pasture-plants, com-
prising many grasses and clovers now forming the chief
pastoral vegetation of the plains and up to several thousand
feet on the subalpine ranges. In addition to many objec-
tionable and injurious plants, they grow freely among the
tussocks and snow-grasses (Danthonia) on the upland country.
This class of mixed vegetation has added greatly to the value
of pastoral runs during the last fifteen years, by enabling the
owners to depasture larger flocks on them. Twenty years
ago the common spear thistle {Carduus lanceolatus) invaded
tlie hilly region of tlie county and caused great annoyance
and loss to fiock-owners, but it gradually decreased and be-
came much less aggressive.

Unquestionably many species of naturalised plants occur-
ring plentifully all over the county were early introductions.

Smith. — Plants naturalised in the County of Ashburton. 209

HypochcBris radicata spread with great rapidity, and hore-
hound {Marrubium vulgare) became established in large masses
on every hill, knoll, and sunny slope where the flocks of sheep
camped for the night, and around sheep farms and sheds
where the flocks are shorn annually. Its prickly capsules
are adapted for clinging to the wool of sheep and the fur of
hares and rabbits — all having thus assisted to distribute them
over the county.

The great impetus given to sheep-farming by the frozen-
meat industry and the high prices ruling for cereals, together
with the use of improved farming -implements and vastly
improved methods of tillage, by utilising every available space
of land, has greatly reduced the vast numbers of the less
useful and injurious species of naturalised plants formerly
abundant on many large areas of the plains. On the swampy
parts and on the margins of the numerous water - races
traversing the plains BanuJiculus sceleratus grows luxuriantly
in great profusion. In old pastures B. repens became very
plentiful, especially on moist rich land ; but it is now much
reduced by frequent cultivation of the land for cropping.
Fapaver rhoeas is less plentiful in cornfields than formerly,
and P. argemone has made no progress during the last ten
years. The latter only occurs in four districts in the county,
and is a very objectionable plant in any pastoral country.

Many crucifers were early arrivals with the foul seed
imported in the early days, and many species have spread
and become naturalised throughout the county. Brassica
campestris and B. sinapistrum have long been great scourges,
and have in certain years taken almost complete possession
of large cultivated areas. As already noted by Mr. Thomson,'''
the water-cress {Nasturtium officinale) grows in all the slow-
flowing creeks and springs on the river-bed, and attains to
proportions never previously observed in Europe.

The Garyophyllece are largely represented. Silene inflata,
S. anglica, S. qui7^quev^dnera, Lychnis vespertina, Spergula
arvensis, and Arenaria serpyllifolia flourish in conspicuous
masses on both cultivated and uncultivated land. The
fleshy rooted deep-rooting S. inflata and L. vespertina, when
well established, cause hard work to plough-horses and
expense to farmers in cropping their lands. S. quinque-
vulnera grows abundantly, and frequently produces large
spikes of finely developed flowers with varying shades of
colour.

The naturalised leguminous plants include some of the
most aggressive. The gorse {Ulex europceus) and broom
{Cytistcs scopariiLs) occupy many thousand acres of the

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxx., p. 313.
14— Trans.

210 Transactions. — Botany.

river-beds and by-roads of the plains, where their growth
attains to great dimensions. In some districts they form
extensive and impenetrable masses, and have proved good
rabbit-warrens. The seed is carried by every water-race and
every freshet and flood in the rivers and distributed over the
country, and generally grows freely wherever it is deposited.
When buried in the silt-beds deposited by the water-races the
seed retams its vitality for an indefinite period. Medicago
denticulata, the medick-burr, is less aggressive than formerly,
though still unpleasantly plentiful. Trifolium arvense holds
almost complete possession of dry, sandy, and stony situa-
tions, and covers many hundreds of acres of such areas in many
parts of the county. It forms the chief vegetation growing
on the stony slopes and terraces along the sea-coast during
summer and autumn. An extensive area of poor land
occupied with T. arvense in full bloom exhibits or assumes a
marked feature of a desert vegetation. Lottis corniculatus
flourishes in neat masses generally on poor land, but it is not
plentiful, and disperses slowly.

The Rosacea comprise ten or more species. Bubals
fruticosus, Bosa rnbigmosa, B. canina, Fragaria vesca, and
CratcBgus oxyacantha have long been naturalised and widely
dispersed by the agency of birds. The wild strawberry
{F. vesca) is confined to the neighbourhood of the bush and
moist warm valleys of the fore hills, and grows in extensive
masses. Primus avium{7) is also dispersing freely in old bush
districts, and is doubtless the true species mentioned by
De Candolle,''' which does not produce suckers.

The stonecrop {Sedum acre) is the only representative of
its order occurring in the county. It occurs in large patches
on farms, and the means whereby it is distributed are not
easily elucidated. I believe it to have been sown among
unclean seed many years ago, and to have escaped notice
until it grew into conspicuous masses during recent years.

The gooseberry (Bibes grossularia) has been distributed
extensively by birds. The plants form miniature jungles in
many old plantations where the introduced birds roost during
the night.

In the Umbelliferea the fennel [Foeniculum vulgare), the
hemlock (Conitmi maculatum), and the wild carrot [Daucus
carota) are the most regrettable introductions. The two
former exist only in a few districts, while the latter covers
many acres, and grows dense and strong, especially on ne-
glected old roads and old pastures, and spreads rapidly.

Composites are largely represented, and comprise several
almost valueless aud some destructive species. From the year

• " Origin of Cultivated Plants."

Smith. — Plants naturalised in the County of Ashhurton. 211

1880 to 1895, when the ruHng prices for cereals and sheep were
low, farmers remained somewhat inert, permitting their farms
to be overrun with objectionable plants. During these years
I observed the ox-eye daisy (C leucanthetmmi) , C. segetnm,
Antkemis arvensis, Achillea millifolmm, Convolvulus arvenais,
Carduus arvensis, Onopordimn acanthium, Crepis virens,
Bumex acetosella, and Taraxacum dens-leonis taking absolute
possession of large and valuable paddocks that had been only
once or twice ploughed. Needless to say, the cost of clearing
the paddocks of these exotic plants within recent years has
been prodigious. In wet seasons the daisy [Bellis perenms)
blooms freely on the moist river-flats, but it fails to disperse
and grow on drier land. Senecio jacobcea, which has taken pos-
session of many square miles in Southland, occurs in isolated
small patciies near the hills, but it is rare on the open plains.

The introduced species of Conuolvuhis and the other allied
plants listed are widely dispersed, and have proved destructive
to cereal and clover crops. In 1893-94 the clover dodder
{Cuscuta europcBo) destroyed great quantities of red-clover
(Trifolium pratense) , but it has not been so destructive since
those years. The great bind-weed (Calystegia sepiwn) has
proved a great nuisance in some districts on good land, where
it roots deeply and is difficult to eradicate. The common
Convolvulus arvensis is the most widely dispersed species, and
grows freely on almost any soil.

In the BoraginecB, Echium vulgare and Lithospermum
arvense are the more widely distributed. The former, though
producing tall well - developed spikes of ultramarine -blue
flowers, is an objectionable plant to agriculturists. Never-
theless, a large group of these plants in full bloom is attractive
and beautiful. The small-flowered Myosotis arvensis is abund-
ant in many parts of the county, and grows freely in waste
places, but more so on the moist margins of water-races or
near swampy ground, where it produces neat spikes of its
familiar flowers. M. sylvatica occurs in shady parts of the
half-cleared bush at Mount Somers, but it is not yet
abundant.

The Scrophulariacea comprise some old garden favourites
which were early comers. Their occurrence on the ranges
and in the inland valleys in the early years of settlement prove
conclusively that they were not garden escapes. The hoary
mullein {Verhascum thapsus) ascends to 5,000 ft. on the lower
alps, and grows vigorously in large masses on the shingle
slopes and sides of the valleys, producing a striking contrast
to the stunted shrubby subalpine plants. The seed has un-
doubtedly been carried up the ranges in the wool of merino
sheep. These animals, feeding among the plants in the
autumn, when the seed is ripe, would shake it from the tall

212 Transactions. — Botany.

seed-stems into their wool, and thus freely distribute it.
When crossing the Ashburton moraine en route to the upper
Eangitata in February last I observed V. blattaria and V.
l)hainiceum growing among the tussocks and snow-grass.
The foxglove (Digitalis 'purpurea) grows abundantly in some
of the valleys, where its seed is probably distributed like that
of Verbascum. Veronica agrestis, serpyllifolia, arvensis, bux-
baumii are plentiful on waste places. The two additional
species in the list are not anywhere numerous, and occur,
when met with, in old pastures. Bartsia viscosa is one of
the commonest of plants on the vast river-beds, where it fre-
quently attains to 2 ft. in height, and produces large and well-
developed spikes of its handsome yellow flowers.

The labiates include some rare and interesting and also
some very aggressive plants. The spearmint [Mentha viridis)
occurs in large masses on the sandy river-flats, and frequently
overgrows damp ditches and water-races crossing the plains.
M. y^degium is common on the margins of slow-fiowing
streams and stagnant lakes, and, like the spearmint, attains
to height and vigour unknown in English gardens. Prunella
vulgaris, Melissa officinalis, Teucrium scorodonis, Stachys
arvensis, S. germanica, and Lamium album occur commonly
in old pastures and among the general vegetation of the great
river-flats.

The plantains are everywhere abundant. Plantago major
displays greater vigour when growing on the cool shady side
of plantations and on the margins of slow-flowing creeks.
The other species occur largely in pastures and by damp
hedgerows. P. media is seen at its best on slightly swampy
but good land, where it grows in dense masses.

The species and varieties of Chenopodium are among the
most worthless of naturalised plants. C, album and zirbicum
have, for thirty years, proved an unmitigated nuisance and
expense to farmers in the county. They were the first
English weeds to overrun the newly ploughed fields, where
they grew and dispersed with great rapidity. Before the
introduction of the modern seed-cleaning machinei'y it was
almost impossible to keep the sacks of grain free from the
weeds infesting the fields, and the two plants under notice
were the worst of all. Like these plants, other tall-growing
weeds were cut and bound up in the sheaves, and their seeds
were thus freely distributed over farms. Sheep also greatly
assisted by carrying the seed over the country in their wool.

From numerous inquiries among the very old colonists
resident in the county 1 have ascertained that docks (liumex
crispus, B. obtusifolius) grew in masses in moist depressions
in the Wakanui district before a plough had turned over a
foot of the rich virgin land. Forty-four years ago there were

Smith. — Plants naturalised in the County of Ashhurton. 213

few or no fences on the plains, and merino sheep roamed free
over the great expanse of tussocks. Every freshet in the
natural water-channels where they grew would also rapidly
distribute the seeds of these and other aggressive plants. Mr.
John Cochrane informs me that he observed docks attain a
height of 7 ft. in these channels in 1860 ; and the year follow-
ing he observed the first thistles {Garduus lanceolatus) in
Wakanui, and two years later they were plentiful on good
land on the tussock plains. At that time they grew annually
3 or 4 acres of tobacco, which they cut three times in a
season for sheep-dipping purposes. After the tussocks were
burned they also sowed seed on the burned areas, which
generally produced " more bad plants than good ones." The
second year after ploughing the land sorrel {Bumex acetosella)
spread over it, and soon took possession if not rigorously
checked. Since tilling operations commenced about forty
years ago sorrel has been a very aggressive and destructive
pest. Polygonum aviculare, the so-called wire- weed, and the
var. Driandri, are abundant everywhere. P. mimes, persicaria,
convolvulus, and lapathifolmm attain to great perfection on
the moist silty river-flats, and display a wealth of flowers
during the autumn months.

"When Mr. Cochrane arrived at the Wakanui sheep-station
in 1860 nettles {Urtica dioica, U. urens) were growing about
the sheep-yards erected a few years previously. They exist
at present in a few hedgerows, but are not troublesome.

In wet seasons the seeds of Betida alba, Populus alba,
Salix fragilis, S. caprea, and Quercus robur v. pedimculata
produce seedlings in masses under old trees. The acorns of
the oak have been carried by water-races and other streams
crossing the plains and deposited in the silt, on which they
grow into good-sized trees in a few years.

In the Coniferce, Pinus insignis, P. pinaster, and C^ipressiis
macrocarpa cast fertile seed and became naturalised fifteen
years ago. There are other interesting aspects of the naturali-
sation of conifers that may be noted. Plants raised from
seed of G. 7nacrocarpa grown in the county lack the vigour and
grow weaker, more narrow, and more upright than do those
grown from imported seed. Notwithstanding that several
species of Abies, Picea, and other conifers produce fertile
cones and cast seed, I have not up to the present time
observed any of them to grow and naturalise under the parent
tree.

The banks of the north and south branches of the Ash-
burton Eiver for many miles are overgrown with the weeping
willow {Salix babylonica). The Wakanui Creek, from its
intake to the sea, a distance of eleven miles, is also shaded
by magnificent willows, all self -planted. During gales of

214 Transactiona. — Botany.

winds small twigs and limbs are broken from the older trees
and float to and lodge on the banks, where they readily root
and grow into large trees in a few years. When travelling
through Wakanui across the open plain the irregular paie-
green line of high beautiful willows produces an admirable
contrast to the small plantations of sombre evergreen pines
around the settlers' homes. From its artificial mode of dis-
persal and propagation I have not included this willow in my
list of naturalised plants. The basket-willow (S. rubra) and
the golden willow (S. vitellina) propagate likewise, bus they
are not so numerous as is the weeping willow.

As previously stated, several species of naturalised plants
displayed great vigour and spread rapidly for a few years
after their introduction, when their vigour declined and their
numbers diminished and became rare or disappeared from
large areas where formerly they were abundant. The dis-
appearance of a large number of species is due to severe
climatic conditions occurring at intervals of several years on
the Canterbury Plains. The protracted drought between 1895
and 1898 very materially checked the progress and reduced
the numbers of many species of naturalised plants in the
county. Previous to those years large masses of buckwheat
(Fagopyrum esculcntum, Moench.) grew annually along the
railway banks and sides, but I have not observed a single
plant since the close of the drought. Several other species
that were killed off certain areas by the drought have not up
to the present time been able tore-establish themselves in the
same numbers as formerly.

During the last five years of more or less cool wet weather
at all seasons Centaurea nigra and Onopordon acanthiuvi have
dispersed rapidly. In the autumn, when the seed is ripe, the
plants are visited by large flocks of goldfinches, who attack
ihe flower-heads and scatter the seed in all directions.
Echium vulgare, which is fertilised by humble-bees, is also in-
creasing rapidly. Diplotaxis muralis and a tall-growing
handsome-flowered Nasturtium which I have been unable to
identify were first collected four years ago, but they now
occur in several districts. Two plants of the teasel thistle
{Dipsacus sylvestris) were sent to me last year from Waterton,
but I have not collected it nor heard of its occurrence else-
where in the county. The present great demand for all
classes of arable land, and the extensive ploughing by im-
proved methods proceeding annually, together with the use of
strong artificial manures and vastly increasing flocks, will
rapidly check and diminish the numbers of both native and
naturalised plants excepting on waste places. A sketch of
their introduction and progress in a given area during the last
half-century will enable botanists of the future to note and

Smith. — Plants natttralised in the County of Ashhurton. 215

compare their numbers and development, which should be of
great interest half a century hence. When the first colonists
arrived the seasons continued for thirty years much more
equable and genial than they have been during the remaining
period. The land was rich and fresh, which enabled the
newly introduced plants to attain to vigour and development
probably never attained by previous generations of the
species. During the last ten years many species have not dis-
played such vigour as formerly, such being probably due to
the partial exhaustion of the soil, the modification of the
climate under the changed vegetation, and the irruption of
other species.

In recording these notes it is incumbent upon me to state
that I have been for years greatly indebted to Mr. G. M. Thom-
son, F.L.S., for valued assistance in identifying many of the
species for me. The late Professor T. Kirk, P.L.S., also very
generously assisted in the identification of many species of
grasses in the list. The late Mr. J. F. Armstrong and his son,
Mr. J. B. Armstrong, likewise assisted in identifying and
naming species submitted to them at different times after I
began to study the naturalised plants some years ago. Mr.
G. W. Leadley and Mr. C. Reid, former presidents of the
Ashburton Agricultural and Pastoral Association, when in
office did valuable service by urging the farmers of the county
to collect exotic plants occurring on their farms and bring
them to the rooms of the association. By this means I pro-
cured several interesting species which I had not previously
collected. Of the deceased botanists I cherish thoughts of
their kindness, while to those gentlemen who have assisted as
stated I would here express sincere thanks.

Following is the list of plants collected : —

Ranunculace^.
Ranunculus acris, L., Britain.

„ sceleratus, L., Britain.

„ repens, L., Britain.

„ bulbosus, L., Britam.

„ arvensis, L., Britain.

„ parviflorus, L., Britain.

Aconitum napellus, L., Britain.
Aquilegia vulgaris, L., Britain.
Delphinium ajacis, Rcichenhach, Europe.

Papavekace^.
Papaver rhoeas, L., Britain.

„ hybridum, L., Britain.

„ argemone.
Glaucium luteum, L., Britain.
Chilidonium majus, L., Britain.

216 Transactions. — Botany.

Cruoifer^.

Cheiranthus cheiri, L., Britain.
Nasturtium paiustre, D.G., Britain.
„ officinale, L., Britain.

SJ).

Diplotaxis muralis.

Sisymbrium officinale, L., Britain.

Barbarea praecox, Br., North America.

vulgaris, Br., Britain.
Brassica oleracea, L., Britain.

„ napus, L., Britain.

„ alba, Boiss., Britain.

„ rapa, L., Britain.

„ sinapistrum, Boiss., Britain.

„ campestris, L., Britain.
Sinapis nigra, L., Britain.

„ arvensis, L., Britain.
Alyssum maritinum, L., Europe.

„ orientale, Ard., Europe.

„ calycinum, L., Europe.
Arabis hirsuta, Br., Britain.
Cardamine hirsuta, L., Britain.
Draba verna, L., Britain.
Cochlearia armoracea, L., Britain.
Eaphanus sativus, L., Britain.
Capsella bursa-pastoris, L., Britain.
Senebiera coronopus, Poiret, Britain.

„ didyma, Persoon, Britain.
Lepidium ruderale, L., Britain.

„ campestre, Br., Britain.
Iberis amara, L., Britain.

FUMARIACE53.

Fumaria officinalis, L., Britain.
Corydalis iutea, D.C., Britain.

Resedace^.
Reseda alba, L., Britain.

ViOLACEiE.

Viola tricolor, L., Britain.
„ odorata, L., Britain.

Caryophylle^.
Dianthus barbatus, L., Europe.

„ armaria, L., Britain.

„ prolifer, L., Britain.
Saponaria ol'ficinalis, L., Britain.
Silene inflata, Smith, Britain,

"Smith. — Plants naturalised in the Cotcnty of Ashhurton. 217

Silene nutans, L., Britain.

„ anglica, L., Britain.

„ quinquevulnera, L., Britain.

„ noctiflora, L., Britain.
Lychnis diurna, Sibthorpe, Britain.

„ vesper tina, Sibthorpe, Britain.

„ githago, Lamarck, Britain,
flos-cuculi, L., Britain.
Sagina procumbens, L., Britain.
Gypsophylla tuberosa, Boisier, Britain.
Stellaria media, Withering ton, Britain.

,, holostea, L., Britain.

„ graminea, L., Britain.

Cerastium vulgatum, L., Britain.
„ arvense, L., Britain.

„ triviale. Link, Britain.

Polycarpon tetraphyllum, L., Britain.
Spergula arvensis, L., Britain.
Arenaria serpyllifolia, L., Britain.
Spergularia rubra, Persoon, Britain.

Hypericine^.
Hypericum androsaemum, L., Britain.
„ perforatum, L.

„ calycinura, L., Britain.

„ montanum, L., Britain.

LlNE^.

Linum usitatissimum, L., Britain.
„ catharticum, L., Britain.

Malvace^.
Hibiscus trionum, L., South Africa.
Lavatera arborea, L., Britain.
Malva moschseta, L., Britain,
rotundifolia, L., Britain.
sylvestris, L., Britain.
„ verticillata, Britain.
Althea officinahs, L., Britain.

Geraniace^.
Geranium dissectum, L , Britain.

robertianum, L., Britain.
„ lucidum, L., Britain.

„ molle, L., Britain.

Erodium cicutarium, L. Rentier, Britain.

„ moschatum, L. Beritier, Britain.
Oxahs corniculata, L., Britain.

„ rosea, Jacqnin, South America.
Limnanthus douglasii. North America.

218 Tr ansae twns. — Bo tany .

Leguminos^. !

Cytisus scoparius, L., Britain.

„ albidus, L., North Africa. '

Ulex europaeus, L., Britain.
Medicago sativa, L., Britain. ,

„ lupulina, L., Britain. i

„ denticulata, Wilderioio, Britain. !

Melilotus alba, Lamarck, Britain. i

„ officinalis, L., Britain. i

Trifolium incarnatum, L., Britain. i

„ medium, L., Britain. \

„ arvense, L., Britain. i

„ hybridum, L., Britain.

„ ochroleucum, L., Britain.

„ pratense, L., Britain.

„ glomeratum, L., Britain.

„ repens, L., Britain.

„ procumbens, L., Britain.

„ minus, Sm., Britain.
Latbyrus nissolia, L., Britain.

„ pratensis, L., Britain.
Lotus corniculatus, L., Britain.
Onobrychus sativa, Lamarck, Britain.
Vicia hirsuta, Koch, Britain.

„ tetrasperma, MomcJi., Britain.
„ lutea, L., Britain.
„ sativa, L., Britain.
Lupinus arboreus, Sims, North America.

„ luteus, L., Em'ope.
Viburnum vulgaris, L., Europe.

EosACE.a;.
Agrimonia eupatoria, L., Britain.
Potentilla anserina, L., Britain.
Rubus fruticosus, L., Britain.

„ idacus, L., Britain.
Rosa canina, L., Britain. i

„ rubiginosa, L., Britain. ;

Prunus avium (?), L., Britain. I

Fragaria vesca, L., Britain.

Crataegas oxyacantha, L., Britain. '

Acaena ovina, Citnn., Australia. j

Onograre^. j

^nothera biennis, North .America. ,

„ striata, North America. '

LVTHRACE.E.

Lythrura hyssopifoliuni, L., Britain. ,

Smith. — Plants naturalised in the County of Ashhurton. 21f>

PORTULACE^.

Portulaca oleracea, L., Europe.

Crassudace^.
Sedum acre, L., Britain.

ElBESIACE^.

Eibes grossularia, L., Britain.

„ sanguinea, Purch, North America.

Umbelliper^.

Hydrocotyle vulgaris, L., Britain.
Apium graveolens, L., Britain.
Petroselinum sativum, Hojfnau, Britain.
Fceniculum vulgaris, Gcertner, Britain.
Pastinacea sativa, L., Britain.
Scandix pecten-veneris, L., Britain.
Daucus carota, L., Britain.
Conium maculatum, L., Britain.

Capripoliace^.
Sambucus nigra, L., Britain.

EUBIACEJ^-.

Gallium aparine, L., Britain. -1

„ palustre, L., Britain. '

Sherardia arvensis, L., Britain. •

Valeriane^.
Centranthus ruber, D.C., Europe. .

Composite. |

Conyza ambigua, D.C., Europe.

Petasites vulgaris, Europe.

Erigeron canadensis, L., Britain.

Vittadinia australis, A. Rich., Australia. ,

Bellis perennis, L., Britain. I

Chrysanthemum segetum, L., Britain. i

„ leucanthemum, L., Britain. ,

„ parthenium, Persoon, Britain. j

Matricaria chamomilla, L., Britain. * I

Anthemis arvensis, L., Britain. j

Calendula officinalis, L., Europe. '

Achillea millefolium, L., Britain.

Tanacetum vulgare, L., Britain.

Artemisia absinthium, L., Britain.

Gnaphalium luteo-album, L., Britain. j

germanicum, Wildenow, Britam I

Senecio vulgaris, L., Britain. i

I
(

^

220 . Transactions. — Botany. ,

Senecio sylvaiicus, L., Britain. :

jacobaea, L., Britain.
Bidens pilosa, L., Western Asia. j

Arctium lappa, L., Europe.
Cotula australis, Hooker, Australia.
Carduus marianus, L., Britain. ;

„ lanceolata, L., Britain. i

„ arvensis, Curtis, Britain. 1

„ pycnocephalus, Jacquin, Britain. ,

Onopordium acanthium, i., Britain.
Centaurea nigra, L., Britain.

„ cyanus, L., Britain.

„ calcitrapa, L., Britain.

„ solstitialis, L., Britain.

Tragopogon pratense, L., Britain.

Picris hieracioides, L., Britain. \

Leontouon hirtus, L., Britain.

„ autumnalis, ly., Britain. !

Hypochoeris glabra, L., Britain.

„ radicata, L., Britain.

Sonchus arvensis, L., Britain.

„ oleraceus, L., Britain. '

„ asper, Hoffman, Britain.
Taraxacum dens-leonis, Desfontaine, Britain. ;

Crepis virens, L., Britain. i

Cichorium intybus, L., Britain. j

Lapsana communis, L., Britain. '

CAMPANULACE.aE. j

Campanula hybrida, L., Britain. j

Pkimulace^:. i

I

Primula vulgaris, L., Britain. \

polyanthus, L., Britain. \

Anagallis arvensis, L., Britain. ,

„ cerulea, L., Britain. i

Jasmine.^.
Fraxinus excelsior, L., Britain. \

ApocYNACE.aE. ;

Vinca major, L., Britain. .]

„ minor, L., Britain. i

Gentiane.'e. ;

Erythraea centaurium, Persoon, ]3ritain.

Smith. — Plants naturalised in the County of Ashhiirton. 221 \

i

POLYMONIACE^. !

Gilia eerulea. I

Collomia cocciaea, Lehman, North America.

CONVOLVULACE^. 1

GoDvolvulus arvensis, L., Britain. I

„ sepium, R. Br., Britain. |

„ V. sylvatica, Europe. j

Cuscuta trifolii, Babington, Britain. j
„ europtea, L., Britain.

BORAGINE^.

Echium vulgare, L., Britain. - i

violaceum, L., Britain. ]

Lithospernium arvense, L., Britain. j

Anchusa officinalis, L., Britain. '

Myosotis palustris, Withering ton, Britain.

„ sylvatica, Hoffman, Britain.

„ arvensis, Roth, Britain.
Lycopsis arvensis, L., Britain. i

Borago officinalis, L., Britain. ;

Cynoglossum furcatum. Wall, Europe. '

I

SOLANACE^. ;

Solanum nigrum, L., Britain. •

„ tuberosum, L., South America. \

Nicandra physaloides, Gcertner, Western Asia.
Datura stramonium, L., Britain.
Atropa belladonna, L., Britain.
Lycium barbatum, L., Britain.

SCKOPHULARIACE.E .

Verbascum thapsus, L., Europe.
„ blattaria, L., Europe.

„ phoeniceum, L., Europe.

Linaria vulgaris, Moenchner, Europe.
„ elatine, Desfontaine, Europe.
„ purpurea, Miller, Europe.
„ cymbalaria. Miller, Britain.
Scrophularia aquatica, L., Britain.
Mimulus luteus, Wildenotv, North America.

„ moschatus, Douglas, North America.
Digitalis purpurea, L., Britain.
Veronica agrestis, L., Britain.
„ serpyllifolia, L., Britain.
„ buxbaumii, Tenare, Britain.
„ arvensis, L., Britain.
„ officinalis, L., Britain.
Bartsia viscosa, L., Britain.

222 Transactions. — Botany.

Labiat^}.

Mentha viridis, L., Britain.

pulegium, L., Britain.
Prunella vulgaris, L., Britain.
Mellisa officinalis, L., Britain.
Marrubiumv ulgare, L., Britain.
Stachys arvensis, L., Britain.

„ germanica, L., Britain.

„ annua.
Lamium purpureum, L., Britain.

album, L., Britain.
Teucrium scorodonis, L., Britain.

Verbenace^.
Verbena officinalis, L., Britain.

Plantagine^.

Plantago major, L., Britain.
„ media, L., Britain.

„ lanceolata, L., Britain.

„ coronopus, L., Britain.

CHENOPODIACE.a;.

Chenopodium album, L., Britain.
„ V. glabrum, Britain.

„ V. viride, Britain.

rubrum, L., Britain,
urbicum, L., Britain.
Atriplex patula, L., Britain.
„ varieties.

POLYGONE^.

Eumex crispus, L., Britain.
„ obtusifolius, L., Britain.
„ pulcher, L., Britain.
„ acetosa. L., Britain.
„ acetosella, L., Britain.
Polygonum aviculare, L., Britain.
„ V. dryandri, Britain.

„ minus, Hiulson, Britain.

„ persicaria, L., Britain.

„ convolvulus, L., Britain,

lapathifolium, L., Britain.

EUPHOKBIACE.E.

Euphorbia peplus, L., Britain,
lathyris, L., Britain.
„ helioscopia, L., Britain.

Mercurialis annua, L., Britain.

Smith. — Plants naturalised in the County of Ashburton. 223

Uktice^.

Urtica urens, L., Britain.
„ dioica, L., Britain.

ACERACE^.

Acer campestre.

Amentace^.

Salix fragilis, L., Britain.
Betula alba, L., Bi'itain.
Populus alba, L., Britain.
Quercus robur, L., Britain.

„ V. pedunculata, L., Britain.

CONIFERJE.

Pinus insignis.

„ pinaster, Europe.

Typhace^. i

Sparganium simplex, Hudson, Britain,

Iride^. j

Sisyrinchium striatum, Cavanilles, South America. j

LlLIACE^. ,

Asparagus officinalis, L., Europe. j

JUNCACE^.

J uncus bufonius, Britain. <

Gramine^.

Millmm effusum, L., Britain. .,

Digitaria sanguinale, Scopoli, Britain. i

Sclavia verticillata, Palisot, Britain.

„ glauca, Palisot, Britain.
Anthoxanthum odoratum, L., Britain. ;

Phalaris canariensis, L., Britain.
Phleum pratense, L., Britain. \

„ arenarium, L., Britain. i

Alopecurus agrestis, h., Britain. j

„ pratensis, L., Britain.

„ geniculatus, h., Britain.

Lagurus ovatus, L., Britain.
Polypogon monspeliensis, Desf., Britain.

„ littoralis, Svi., Britain. ,

Agrostis alba, L., Britain. j

„ V. stolonifera, Britain. [

„ V. vulgaris, Britain. i

224 Transactions. — Botany.

Agrostis canina, L., Britain. '

Psamma arenaria, Palisot, Europe. ■

Aira caryophyllea, L., Britain. !

„ flexuosa, L., Britain. ]

Avena pubescens, L., Britain.
„ elatior, L., Britain.

„ fatua, L., Britain. j

Trisetum flavescens, Palisot, Europe. i

Archenatlierum avenaceum, Palisot, Britain. !

„ V. bulbosum, Britain. 1

Helens mollis, L., Britain.

„ lanatus, L., Britain. i

Cynodon dactylon, Persoon, Britain.
Nardus stricta, L., Britain.
Elymus arenarius, L., Britain.

Hordeum murinum, L., Britain. '

„ sativum, Htulson, Britain. \

Triticum repens, L., Britain. <

„ sativum, L., Asia. i

„ caninum, Hudson, Britain.
„ junceum(?), L., Britain.
Lolium perenne, L., Britain.

„ temulentum, L., Britain.
Brachypodium sylvaticum, Palisot, Britain.. '

Bromus sterilis, L., Britain. '

„ mollis, L., Britain. 1

„ racemosus, L., Britain.
„ arvensis, L.. Britain.

„ matritensis, L., Britain. i

„ erectus, Hudson, Britain. I

„ secalinus(?) Hudson, Britain. ' <

Festuca ovina, L., Britain. i

„ V. rubra, Britain.

V. duriuscula, Britain. j

„ elatior, Britain. I

„ V. pratensis, Britain. I

„ V. loliacea, Britain. i

Dactylis glomerata, L., Britain. ■

Melica nutans, L., Britain. j

Cynosurus cristatus, L., Britain.

Briza media, L., Britain. !

„ minor, L., Britain. j

„ maxima, L., Europe. j

Poaprocumbens, Curtis, Brit&in. '

„ annua, L., Britain.

„ rigida, L., Britain.

„ pratensis, -Z/., Britain. t

„ nemoralis, L., Britain. «

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 225

Poa trivialis, L., Britain.
Glyceria aquatica, Sm., Britain.

„ fluitans, B. Br., Britain.

„ maritima, S??t., Britain.

Since the foregoing was written I have collected the under-
noted species, some of which have been identified by Professor
Cheeseman, F.L.S., and Mr. G. M. Thomson, P.L.S. Pyrus
aucuparia was inadvertently omitted from the above list.

Salsola kali. /^ ^'^^-^A/

Silene armeria. /^'' /

Dipsacus sylvestris. ^ ' A

Lepidium draba. I -w

Cynara cardunculus. juj i L i

Hieracium subaudum. - -fiiki

Crepis taraxifolia.

Art. XXVI. — A Botanical Excursion during Midivinter to
the Southern Islands of Neio Zealand.

By L. Cockayne, Ph.D.

[R:iacl before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th November,

1903.]

Plates XI. -XXIV.

Contents.
Introduction.

I. The Auckland Islands —

General remarks. — Geology. — Climate. — The plant-formations:
(1) Sand-dunes; (2) coastal rocks; (.3) the forest-formations
— (a) the rata forest, (b) the Olearia lyallii forest ; (4) low-
land tussock ; (5) Pleurophijllum meadow ; (6) subalpine
meadow ; (7) subalpine scrub.
II. Campbell Island —

General remarks. — Climate. — Geology. — The plant-formations:

(1) Stony shore ; (2) Draco nhyllum scrub ; (3) lower tus-
sock meadow ; (4) subalpine tussock meadow ; (5) the Rost-
kovia formation ; (6) subalpine rocks.

III. The Antipodes Islands —

General remarks. — The plant-formations : (1) Maritime rocks ;

(2) tussock meadow— (a) maritime tussock slopes, (b) flat
tussock meadow, (c) inland tussock slopes ; (.3) scrub ;
(4) bog: (5) inland rocks ; (6 and 7) stream and swamp.

IV. The Bounty Islands.

Y. Effect of Animals upon the Vegetation of the Southern Islands —
(1) Indigenous animals ; (2) introduced animals— (a) the Snares,
(6) the Auckland Islands, (c) Antipodes Island, (d) Campbell
Island .
VI. History of the Flora of the Southern Islands.
VII. List of the Indigenous Spermaphytes and Pteridophytes of the
Southern Islands.
VIII. Table showing Distribution of Floral Elements.
IX. Bibliography.

15— Trans.

226 Transactionn . — Botany.

Inteoduction.

The Southern Islands of New Zealand consist of several
groups of small islands — namely, the Snares, Auckland
Islands, Campbell Island, Macquarie Island, Antipodes
Islands, and Bounty Islands — lying in the South Pacific
Ocean between the parallels of 54° 44' and 47° 43' south
latitude and 159° 49' and 179° east longitude. The distance
and direction of each of these groups from the South Cape of
Stewart Island is respectively: The Snares, 60 miles S.W. ;
the Auckland Group, 190 miles S. by W. ; Campbell Island,
330 miles S. by E. ; Macquarie Island, 570 miles S.W. by S. ;
the Antipodes Islands, 490 miles E.S.E. ; the Bountv Islands,
490 miles E.

As is well known, these Southern Islands of New Zealand
form a part of that ring of small islands which stretch right
round the globe between the parallels of 45° and 65^ south
latitude, frequently at very great distances from one another,
but which nevertheless have certain Fuegian"^' species of plants
in common. Of these latter, the Southern Islands of New
Zealand possess by far the smallest share, their floi'a as a
whole being very closely allied to that of New Zealand. This
latter extremely important fact w^as discovered by Sir Joseph
Hooker, who on that account separated the islands lying to
the south of New Zealand from the other so-called " Antarctic
islands," and devoted the first volume of his magnificent
" Flora Antarctica" (46) to their botany. This work, published
in 1847, was the outcome of collections and observations uiade
by the distinguished author himself, assisted by Mr. Lyall.
during the stay of about one month in Auckland and Campbell
Islands (19th November to 17th December, 1840) of the
Antarctic expedition commanded by Sir James Eoss (91).
Prior to this — in the previous year, indeed — the Auckland
Islands had been visited by two other scientific expeditions —
the French Antarctic expedition under Admiral D'Urville and
the American Wilkes expedition. Of these two, the French was
by far the most important from the botanical point of view :
the collections were large, although not nearly equal in extent
to those of Hooker ; while, on the other hand, the American
expedition did little botanically. Plad this latter, as originally
intended, been accompanied by Asa Gray the botanical results
would doubtless have been very different, but owing to the
many delays hindering the expedition setting forth the great
American botanist finally declined to accompany it (25).

The botanical collections of the French expedition were made
in part by MM. Hombron and Jacquinot and in part by the

• For explanation of the term "Puegian," see "History of the
Flora," further on.

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 227

admiral himself. In all 269 species were collected, of which
twenty-one were spermaphytes or pteridophytes. These were
published in 1852 as a part of the great work " Voyage
au Pole Sud," a splendid folio volume (44), containing figures
of the different species and names given by Hombron and
Jacquinot, but without descriptions. The text was published
separately, Tom. I., in 1845, containing descriptions of the
MuscinccB and Thallophyta by M. C. Montagne (78), and
Tom. II., in 1852, containing descriptions of the vascular plants
by M. J. Decaisne (26). This latter author changed some of
Hombron and Jacquinot's names, as they were not in accord-
ance with the rules for botanical nomenclature. Between the
publication of the " Flora Antarctica " and the " Handbook of
the New Zealand Flora " a few additions to the flora of the
Auckland Group were made by General Bolton, and such
appear in the Handbook.

In November, 1880, Dr. J. H. Scott paid a visit to
Macquarie Island, the flora of which was known only from a
small collection of plants, seven in number, sent many years
previously to Sir W. Hooker by Mr. Fraser, of Sydney. Scott
published his results in a very valuable paper (93) which
appeared in the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute"
for 1883, from which a good idea of the physiognomy of the
vegetation may be obtained. His collection numbered 16
spermaphytes, 3 pteridophytes, 8 musci, 7 lichens, and 6
fungi — 40 species in all. " I was there in November," he
writes (93, p. 487), " and in these latitudes spring is but little
advanced in that month. I therefore found comparatively
few plants in flower. This, of course, has added much to the
difiiculty of identifying my specimens, and, combined with the
tliick weather, has helped to make my collection smaller than
it might have been under more favourable circumstances."

In December, 1883, Mr. J. Buchanan visited Campbell
Island in order to procure a collection of living plants for the
various botanical gardens of New Zealand and an herbarium
collection for the Colonial Museum, Wellington. He pub-
lished his results in a short paper, two pages only, in the
"Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," 1884 (9), pub-
lishing a new species of Pleurophyl'Mvi (P. hookeri) in the
same volume (10). The former of these papers also contains
some interesting drawings of the coast of Campbell Island.

In the summer of 1890 Mr. T. Kirk visited the whole of
the Southern Islands, excepting Macquarie Island, and was in
consequence able to publish an account of the botany of the
Snares and Antipodes Islands for the first time — a much-
needed and most valuable work. He also dealt with the botany
of the Auckland Group and Campbell Island, and summed up
what was known regarding the flora of Macquarie Island.

228 Transactions. — Botany.

His papers on the different islands appeared in various publi-
cations mentioned in the bibliography ; but they are all vir-
tually the same, and appear all together in the Report of the
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science for
1891 (56). Mr. F. R. Chapman, now Mr. Justice Chapman,
visited the islands at the same time as Kirk, and his paper
entitled " The Outlying Islands south of New Zealand,"
though published amongst the miscellaneous papers in the
" Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," 1891, is a very
valuable contribution to botany (16).

Mr. H. J. Matthews, now Chief Government Forester, in
1895 made a very extensive collection of living plants from
the various islands, and, I understand, succeeded in sending
a large number to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in ex-
cellent condition. Moreover, he has cultivated for many years
a large percentage of the Southern Islands' plants with suc-
cess, a matter by no means easy.

Macquarie Island was examined botanically a second time
by Mr. A. Hamilton in the summer of 1894. He added four-
teen species to the list of Macquarie Island plants, bringing
up the number of spermaphytes and pteridophytes to thirty
species, if those which are doubtful in Scott's list be
eliminated. According to Hamilton (39) the island is entirely
without trees : " there is not a shrub or plant large enough to
make a penholder." "The large Poa tussocks are the great
feature of the low levels, and on the hill-tops the special
feature is the Azorella, forming bright-green closely growing
convex masses of stems and leaves." Coprosma repens and
PolypocUum australc pwnila grow on the Azorella cushions.
Between the tussock-belt and the Azorella is a zone of Stil-
bocarpa jJolaris and Pleurophyllum hookeri.

What is known about the geology of the islands is the
outcome of collections made by Mr. H. Armstrong in 1868
and Mr. J. H. Baker in 1865, of a lengthy stay on Campbell
Island by the French Transit of Venus Expedition in 1874,
and of a visit paid to the various islands by Sir James Hector
during a trip of the " Hinemoa " in 1895.

Besides scientific expeditions, even from the time of their
discovery, the various islands have been visited by whaling-
ships, by sealing expeditions, and by vessels sent for the
purpose of looking for castaways. This latter has arisen from
the number of disastrous wrecks which have taken place in
the Southern Islands, especially in the Auckland Group. Of
these, one especially concerns us here, that of the " Grafton,"
details of which are given below when treating of Auckland
Island. This wreck led to the brig " Amherst " being sent to ex-
amine all the islands for castaways in 1868, and in his report (2)
Mr. H. Armstrong published for t)ie first time some informa-

Cockayne.— Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 229

tion regarding the plants of the Snares and Antipodes Islands,
using certain Maori or colonial names for the plants. Amongst
others, he stated that there was abundance of the " McQuarrie
cabbage " — " of fine growth, the leaves measuring two feet in
diameter." Now, the above name is also given to Myosotidium
nobile, of Chatham Island, and this has led to a curious
mistake, for it was concluded that this latter plant was the
one in question. Hence arose the statement that Myosotidium
occurred both on the Snares and Chatham Island, a
somewhat remarkable distribution had it been so. Kirk,"
e.g., described Myosotidium as abundant on the Snares, and
this most pardonable error has been copied into all works
on general plant -geography. In 1865 the Victorian Go-
vernment s.s. "Victoria," commanded by Captain Norman,
visited the Auckland, Campbell, and Antipodes Islands, land-
ing various domestic animals and planting certain trees,
details regarding which are given further on. Finally, pro-
vision-depots and boat-sheds were erected for the use of
castaways by the New Zealand Government. In connection
with these depots the " Hinemoa " or some other boat visits
all the islands, excepting Macquarie, twice a year, this latter,
although biologically, yet not politically belonging to New
Zealand. The depots were built at different times. Captain
Bollons writes to me, " Provisions were left in various places
in cases as early as 1865, but the present boat-sheds and depots
date from 1887." In connection with these depots cattle,
sheep, and goats have been landed from time to time, and
seeds of exotic plants sown, both most important matters for
the indigenous vegetation. More important still was the En-
derby Settlement in the year 1850, which lasted for three
years, during which time three hundred people resided in the
north of Auckland Island and on Enderby Island. Then
many domestic animals were introduced, portions of the forest
were cleared, grasses were sown, and gardens made. But by
far the most important event, so far as the plant-life is con-
cerned, has been the establishing a sheep-run on Campbell
Island in 1896, the effect of which upon the vegetation is de-
scribed at some length further on.

Up to the time of my visit all the botanical observations in
the Southern Islands had been made in spring or summer. It
was therefore with very great pleasure that I joined the
" Hinemoa " at Lyttelton in the middle of June, 1903, for the
purpose of making a winter botanical excursion to the islands,
the winter aspect of the vegetation as a whole being undp-
scribed and, so far as the endemic plants were concerned, un-
kuov/n.

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. x., p. 410. 1878.

230 Transactions. — Botany.

Unfortunate!}', although we waited some days at Port
Pegasus, in Stewart Island, for favourahle weather, the sea at
the Snares was ahogether too rough to allow a landing to
be attempted ; but, with the exception of Macquarie Island,
I visited portions of all the other islands. Interesting as a
visit in midwinter is, the days are so short, the number of
places to be visited by the steamer so many, and the time
which can be spared for the excursion as a whole so limited,
that in nearly every instance only a quite cursory examination
of the plant-formations and of their members was possible. All
the work, moreover, under such circumstances had to be done
in feverish haste, for in a given number of all-too-short hours,
or even minutes in some instances, notes had to be written,
perhaps with numbed fingers or in a driving mist, photoiiraphs
hastily taken, plants both for drying and cultivation collected,
while in many places the country to be traversed was of
extreme difficulty. If under such circumstances errors creep
into one's work, or if many important observations are
neglected, it is perhaps not to be wondered at. In some
instances, chiefly with regard to grasses, it has been impos-
sible to identify my specimens. On Campbell Island, owing
to the density of the scrub. I found it quite impossible to
make any headway burdened with a heavy bag of plants.
Night was coming on, and to my intense regret I had to throw
away nearly the whole of the plants collected on Lyall's
Pyramid. Much of the work in this paper is preliminary and
provisional, but it may perhaps lead to a more thorough
treatment before long of the vegetation of this, the most
interesting region in the New Zealand biological area. The
plant-formations are the edaphic formations of Schimper, but
their limits as defined by me are far from satisfactory. In
some few instances I have distinguished the smaller groups in
a formation under the term "plant-association," meaning
by this a small collection of two or more plants which usually
occui- associated together, and which I agree with Kearney*
and Ganongf in considering a distinct ecological conception.

In what follows, the term " New Zealand biological
region " includes the Kermadec Islands, the North and South
Islands of New Zealand and their adjacent small islands,
Stewart Island, the Chatham Islands, and the Southern
Islands , while by " New Zealand " is meant the Nortii and
South Islands of New Zealand, Stewart Island, and the
adjacent small islands.

• " Report on a Botanical Survey of the Dismal Swamp Region,"
Contr. from the Nat. Herb., vol. v.. No. 0, p. 359. Washington, 1901.

t " The Vegetation of the Bay of Fundy Salt and Diked Marshes,"
Bot. Gaz., vo . xxxvi., p. 301. 1903.

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 231

Before concluding this introduction I must offer my most
sincere thanks to the Hon. W. Hall-Jones, M.H.R., Minister
of Marine, for affording me facilities to visit the Southern
Islands. Also, I must express my great obligation to the
following for most valuable assistance in many ways : Pro-
fessor Charles Chilton, D.Sc. ; Mr. George Laurenson,
M.H.R. ; Mr. R. Speight, M.A., B.Sc. ; Mr. D. Petrie, M.A. ;
Mr. H. Woods; Mr. W. Joss; and Mr. J. Gordon. Finally,
I am bound to express my gratitude to Captain J. Bollons, of
the Government s.s. " Hinemoa," who did all in his power
to assist my work, and who, in addition, has given me much
valuable information regarding the Southern Islands.

I. The Auckland Islands.

GENERAL EEMARKS.

The Auckland Islands lie between the parallels of about
50° 30' and 50° 55' south latitude and the meridians of
165° 55' and 166° 20' east longitude (90, p. 405). They were
discovered by Captain Abraham Bristow on the 18th August,
1806, during a whaling voyage in the ship "Ocean," a vessel
belonging to Mr. Samuel Enderby. The group was named
by its discoverer after Lord Auckland. In 1807 Captain
Bristow visited the islands for a second time, and on that
occasion took formal possession of the group.

Since its discovery, the Auckland Island Group has been
repeatedly visited by sealers and whalers, the former having
lived for months at a time on the main island, and made
tracks across the mountains to the "seal-rookeries." During
the years 1839-40 three scientific expeditions visited the
northern part of the group, the botanical results of which
have been already dealt with. In the year 1850 the Messrs.
Enderby made the Auckland Islands the headquarters of the
Southern Whale-fishery Company (31), the islands " having
been granted by Her Majesty's Government " [so runs the
prospectus of the company] " to Mr. Enderby and two of his
brothers." Accordingly Mr. C. Enderby formed a settlement,
consisting of three hundred Europeans and Maoris, in the
neighbourhood of Port Ross ; but the company was not suc-
cessful, and after three years the settlement was abandoned.
Shortly before the Enderby Settlement a number of Maoris
from Chatham Island had taken up their abode in the north
of Auckland Island, but these also did not stay long. During
the Enderby Settlement a considerable piece of forest was
cleared. This clearing is referred to later on.

Since the Auckland Islands lie in the direct route of
sailing-vessels to Cape Horn it is not surprising that several
disastrous shipwrecks have taken place. These led to the

232 Transactions. — Botany.

New Zealand Government erecting depots for castaways in
several parts of the group, and boat - sheds on some of the
smaller islands. Thus, there are now provision - depots and
boat-sheds at Port Eoss, in the north of the main island ;
at the head of Norman Inlet ; and at Camp Cove, Carnley
Harbour; while on Enderby Island, Eose Island, and Ewing
Island are boat-sheds, boats, and a small quantity of food.
At the beginning of January, 1863, the " Grafton," a small
schooner of 75 tons (83, p. 37), engaged in sealing, was
wrecked, as stated in the introduction, in Carnley Harbour.
The officers and crew, five in all, landed safely, and lived
in the south of Auckland Island for more than a year and
a half. Finally they managed to patch up the dingey, and
in this frail craft Captain Musgrave, Mr. F. E. Eaynal, the
mate, and one of the crew reached Stewart Island. The
remainder of the crew, two in number, were subsequently
rescued by the "Flying Scud," the cost of the rescue ex-
pedition being met by public subscription from the people
of Invercargill (83, p. 98). Both Musgrave (83) and' Eay-
nal (87) wrote an account of their sojourn on the island,
and Musgrave's is of distinct scientific value, since he kept,
with more or less regularity, a record of the climate. The
botanical history of the Auckland Islands has been dealt
with in the introduction, so no more need be said on that
head.

PHYSIOGKAPHY.

The Auckland Islands consist of one large island, Auck-
land Island, and several smaller ones separated from the mam
island by more or less narrow channels. The entire group is
some twenty-seven miles in length by fifteen miles in breadth.
The shape and relative size of the various islands may be seen
from the accompanying map (PI. XXIII.), and an excellent idea
of the coast-line is afi'orded by the sketches of headlands and
harbours of the Auckland Islands made to accompany a map
by officers of H.M.S. "Blanche" in 1870, and reproduced
on a smaller scale in plates Nos. 47-49 accompanying Chap-
man's paper (16). Auckland Island, Adams Island, and Dis-
appointment Island are extremely hilly ; indeed, Adams Island
consists entirely of a ridge 609m. in height, its southern clil3's
rising abruptly out of the sea, but its northern side consisting
of long spurs sloping towards Carnley Harbour. The hills of
Auckland Island vary from 280m., the height of the Hooker
Hills in the north, to summits reaching to457m. or more in the
south. Seen from the sea, on the north and eastern sides are
long grassy slopes of no great steepness, very similar in ap-
pearance to those of Banks Peninsula, in the South Island of
New Zealand. In the south the hills are rather more abrupt.
\T?he whole of the western side of the main island consists of

\

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southtrn Islands. 233

a precipitous wall of cliffs varying from 60m. to 243m. in
height, and which can be climbed with extreme diftJculty, ac-
cording to Mr. W. Joss, in one or two places. The eastern
coast, on the contrary, is deeply cut into by numerous mlets,
resembling the west coast sounds of the South Island of New
Zealand in miniature. Norman's Inlet, the most southerly
of any size, and the largest, penetrates into the island for a
distance of about six miles. Port Boss, in the north, and the
North Arm of Carnley Harbour, in the south, also extend for
about a similar distance inland. This irregularity of the
eastern seaboard is of considerable phytogeographical import-
ance, since it leads to an extensive coast-line, and to many
stations differing considerably with regard to exposure to sun
and wind. The numerous gullies which lie between the spurs
of the hills or seam the hillside contain streams of consider-
able size if the small extent of land-surface of the island be
considered. Enderby Island, Ewiug Island, and Rose Island
are flat or undulating, but they also have many coastal cliffs.
Disappointment Island is high land clad with meadow and
low forest or scrub. It has never been visited botanically.

GEOLOGY.

The followmg is extracted from a paper by Sir James
Hector entitled "Note on the Geology of the Outlying
Islands of New Zealand," (41) which contains the results of
his observations made during the visit to the Southern Islands
in 1895 mentioned in my introduction : " Auckland Island is
clearly connected with the Snares by a ridge or plateau, the
soundings ranging from 86 fathoms to 196 fathoms only. So
far as seen Auckland Island is altogether volcanic, and closely
resembles the rock-structure of Banks Peninsula." "Along
the east coast there is a succession of harbours or mlets like
those in Banks Peninsula, the steep shores of which are
formed of successive sheets of basaltic lava often columnar
and varying from 10 ft. to 80 ft. in thickness. These are
separated by brightly coloured layers of volcanic tufa or ashes
containing blocks of all sizes." "Disappointment Island is
probably a • neck ' or ' dyke ' through which some of the
igneous rocks have been extruded." " The south side of
xA.dams Island is the most exposed part of the Aucklands, and
presents cliffs composed, as exposed in sections, of horizontal
layers of basalt and tufa to a height of 1,900 ft., some of the
cliffs being 1,400 ft. sheer down. The lava-sheets vary in
thickness from 10 ft. to 80 ft., and there is evidence of not less
than seventy distinct outpourings still preserved above the
sea-level. Soundings three miles off shore from the South
Cape gave 95 fathoms (575 ft.). The average dip of the lava-
flows to the eastward is 7°. The width of the island in this

234 Transactions. — Botany.

section is ten miles and the height of the western cliffs
1,000 ft. ; so that by adopting the usually accepted curve for
volcanic deposits we have the following result : Auckland
Island is the remnant of a great volcanic cone that was
12,000 ft. in height and 50 miles in diameter in early Tertiary
times, the chief centre having been about eight miles west
of Disappointment Island. Four-fifths of the original mass
has been removed by the denuding force of the westerly
waves."

CLIMATE.

" The temperature is very equable," writes Mr. C. Enderby,
" the snow never lying more than three days on the ground,
except on the summit of the hills. The winds are violent and
of long duration ; the gales are mostly from the north-west,
although I experienced two from the eastwa.rd unusually
strong. They mostly commence at north with a falling baro-
meter, veer gradually to west aiad west-south-west, and at times
blow most violently. When the barometer begins to rise the
gale ceases at south or south-south-west." Captain Benjamin
Morrell, writing in 1830, states (90), " The climate is mild,
temperate, and salubrious. In the month of July, the dead
of winter, the weather is mild as respects cold, the ther-
mometer never being lower than 38° Fahr. in the valleys ;
and the trees at the same time retain their verdure, as if it
were midsummer. In December and January the ther-
mometer was 78° Fahr." Hooker thus writes of the climate
(46, p. 2), " The climate is rainy and very st(3rmy, so that on
the windward side the plants are stunted and checked, and
resemble those of a higher southern latitude or of an elevation
of several hundred feet above that which the same species
inhabit on the sheltered parts." Some extracts from Mus-
grave's journal (83) give some idea of the climate in the
south of Auckland Island : " Sunday, 14th February, 1864. —
During the first part of the past week we had very heavy and
almost constant rain ; wind moderate." " This is a dread-
ful place for rain ; but still we appear to have got to a place
where it falls least." " There is one place where it scarcely
ever ceases raining ; this is caused by the form of the land
in that particular place (which wc have named Eainy Corner),
which is backed by a very high mountain, which bursts the
low clouds as they pass over it." " Sunday, 6th March,
1864. — The first part of the past week was very fine, but
since Wednesday we have had continual drizzhng rain, with
light westerly winds, until midnight last night, when it came
on to blow a very heavy gale, and continued ever since, with
frequent showers." " Sunday, 20th Marcli, 1864. — During the
last week we have had notliing but a succession of westerly
gales, which only cease for a few hours and then blow £igain

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursioyi to Southern Islands. 235

with great fury ; and it has also rained almost constantly until
yesterday at noon. Since then we have had frequent falls of
hail and snow." " Sunday, 3rd July, 1864. — Blowing a strong
gale at W.N.W." "It has been stormy during the whole
of the past week. On Tuesday and Wednesday a con-
siderable quantity of snow fell — all the ground was covered ;
but since midnight of Wednesday we have had a heavy gale
from the W.N.W., with much rain, which still continues."
" Sunday, 7th August, 1864. — During the whole of the last
week the weather has been very bad ; it has been blowing a
very heavy gale from between west and north-west, with
either hail, rain, or snow continually falling. From noon
yesterday till 3 o'clock this morning the gale was at its
height ; it blew a hurricane, and was the heaviest I have ever
seen while on shore. Our house is elevated about 30 ft. above
the mean tide-level, and is about 50 yards from the water,
and during the height of the hurricane the spray was fre-
quently dashed against it in heavy showers. Had it not been
well built, and securely, it. would inevitably have been blown
down." " Sunday, 21st August, 1864. — During the greater
part of the past week the weather has been very fine."
" Sunday, 26th March, 1865. ^The sea booms and the wind
howls. These are sounds which have been almost constantly
ringing in my ears for the last fifteen months, for during the
whole of this time I dare venture to say they have not been
hushed for more than a fortnight together."

From Mr. W. Joss, who has spent at different times many
months sealing on x'Vuckland Island, I have been able to learn
the following regarding the climate of spring, summer, and
autumn : The rainfall is not very great, nor are the separate
downpours heavy, but there are a very great number of days
on which rain falls — indeed, generally speaking, it rains more
or less every day. Should it rain in the morning it will most
likely be fine in the afternoon, and vice versa. During the
summer mouths there is perhaps one day in each week on
which no rain falls. The rain is usually accompanied by
wind. There is no frost at sea-level during spring, summer,
or autumn. In the sunshine it is hot, but a perfectly clear
sky is a very rare event.

During my short visit to the Auckland Islands it rained
slightly every day, the rain accompanied by squalls of wind.
There was a slight frost at sea-level, and a small amount of
snow fell. On the hills, both in the north and south of the
group, were patches of snow, but Captain J. BoUons informed
me that he had never seen more snow on the hills in tlie
neighbourhood of Port Boss during any winter visit of the
" Hinemoa " than was then present.

From the above details regarding the climate of the Auck-

236 Transactions. — Botany.

land Islands, and from the aspect of the vegetation and the
species of which it is composed, I think the following may
fairly be concluded : (1.) There are a great nmnber of rainy
days. (2.) The moisture, which can easily permeate the
peaty soil, will not readily evaporate owing to the almost
constant cloudy skies, these also tending to keep the air
full of moisture. (3.) There are very frequent winds, some-
times of great violence, accompanied by rain or sleet.
(4.) The winter climate is extremely mild, much milder,
indeed, than that of certain parts of the South Island of
New Zealand at sea-level, as, e.g., the Canterbury Plains.
Of course, when in winter a south-westerly wind accom-
panied by sleet is blowing one feels bitterly cold, and under
such circumstances an observer is apt to overestimate the
coldness of the climate.

THE PLANT-FOEMATIONS.

With regard to the plant-formations of the Auckland Is-
lands, and, indeed, those of the other Southern Islands visited
by me, I can only speak in quite general terms. The small
extent of country which I was able to examine in a very
limited time made it quite impossible to separate the vege-
tation as a whole into its component formations, or to pro-
perly limit or define those which were so hastily examined.
Therefore most certainly only a part of the plant-formations
are here dealt with, and these mav in some instances in-
elude more than one formation, or, on the other hand, be
too narrow in their application. There must certainly be a
number of formations which I never saw at all, such as sub-
alpine rocks, subalpine bogs, running-water formations, Sec,
while the open country, both of the high and low lands, most
likely contains more than one formation. The formations
here dealt with are: (1) Sand-dunes; (2) coastal rocks;
(3) forest, divided into (a) rata forest, (b) Olcaria lyallii
forest ; (4) lowland tussock ; (5) Pleurophyllum meadow ;
(6) subalpine meadow ; (7) subalpine scrub.

1. Sand-dunes.

Nothing is said regarding the sand-dunes either by Hooker
or Kirk. The former author certainly speaks of (46) Pratia
arcnaria as "creeping over the open sandy shores of En-
derby Island " ; but this information was supplied by Lieu-
tenant H. Oakely, so probably Hooker himself did not visit
Enderby Island, the only locality in the group, so Captain
J. Bollons informs me, where sand-dunes occur. These are
situated on the south coast of Enderby Island, and in front
of them is a somewhat extensive sandy beach (PI. XL),

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 237

the rendezvous of numerous sea-lions. At the time of my
visit there were perhaps forty of these large animals on
the beach, while others were encountered on the dunes.
The heavy bodies of these creatures dragged over the ground
must have some effect on the vegetation, especially as
they are wont to roll about on the sand. At the present
time the sand-dune formation cannot be considered quite
a primitive one, since already cattle, and perhaps rabbits,
have loosened the sand, so that dunes originally stable are
now moving inland, and have already invaded the forest
zone, destroying some of its outermost members. This fact
is the more interesting because, as will be seen from what
follows, the dune-plants are none of them true sand-binding
plants, such as Scirpiis frondosus of New Zealand or EhjmiLs
arenarius of the Northern Hemisphere, the extreme moisture
of the climate, in conjunction with the short periods of sun-
shine, keeping the sand sufficiently moist on the surface to
promote in many places the growth of a turfy covering, which
is quite sufficient to keep the sand from drifting, in the ab-
sence of introduced herbivorous mammals. Even where the
dunes are quite bai'e the climatic conditions probably would
suffice to keep them stable. All the same, the absence of
such a widely spread sand-binding plant as Scirpus frondosus,
which extends even to Chatham Island, is a matter for con-
siderable surprise.

The dunes are traversed by deep gullies, down which
small streams of water flow, the drainage from some swampy
ground between them and the "rata forest." Such gullies
furnish plant-stations having considerable shade and mois-
ture. On the summit of the dunes are great numbers of
small stones, said to be part of the excreta of the sea-lions.
Musgrave (83, p. 148) refers also to such stones, and states
that he found a deposit of them in peaty soil Gift, below the
surface of the ground.

The dune vegetation varies from an open to a quite close
formation, this latter appearing as a green sward, even when
viewed from some distance (see the dark patches in PL XII.).
The open portion of the formation appears, of course, in those
places most exposed to sun and wind, and has for its plant-
members a species of moss of a dense habit of growth, speci-
mens of which I unfortunately failed to procure, stunted Tillaa
moschata, Bammcuhis acatdis, and Humex neglectus. As all
these spermaphytes are also quite common at various places
on the New Zealand coast a detailed description of their life-
forms is unnecessary ; suffice it to say that Bumex neglectus
and Ranunculus acaulis have both creeping underground
stems, those of the former of considerable dimensions, by
which they can easily spread in the sandy ground, while the

238 Transactions. — Botamj.

succulent Tillcea moschata roots readily from the axils of its
leaves. Where svich a portion of the formation has been dis-
turbed by grazing animals, and its vegetation more or less
destroyed, Rumex neglectus is in many places taking entire
possession, and a pure formation of this plant, foreign to the
primitive vegetation, may in such places occupy the ground for
some time to come, thanks to its power of rtipid increase by
means of stout underground stems.

On the shady side of the gullies, and extending thence on
to the summit of the dunes, is a close turf of the moss before
mentioned associated with the endemic Ejnlobmm conferti-
folncm, Pratia areiiaria—a. species very common in Chatham
Island, but probably not found in New Zealand proper —
Lagenophora forsteri, and Ranunculus acaulis. The leaves of
the Pratia were more or less withered, but the other mem-
bers of this formation were quite green, especially the moss
species, which is the dominant plant, and gives the dis-
tinct green colour to the formation, as stated above. Of
the above species the only one to be spoken of here is
Epilohiuvi confcrtifoliitm. This is a creeping -plant which
frequently forms rather dense patches on the surface of
the ground. It is by no means confined to the dunes,
but occurs in the forest, the meadows, and probably in
other stations. A New Zealand mountain Ejnlobiuvi is fre-
quently referred to this species, but Mr. D. Petrie has more
than once informed me that he considers the two as quite
distinct, and with this I most certainly agree. The old
shoots are prostrate and dorsi -ventral, the leaves being
inserted on their flanks ; but the young shoots are raised
slightly from the ground, and here the leaves are in a spiral.
The creeping stem is green, and + 1-75 mm. in diameter.
The leaves are slightly fleshy, bright-green in colour, and
provided with a short but rather stout petiole. The leaf-
blade is + 12 mm. x + 6 mm., and has a rounded apex and
a slightly toothed margin. The young shoots in spring grow
closely together. Roots ± 4-6 cm. in length are given off
here and there from the prostrate stem. Seeds germinate
very readily in cultivation. The flowers are bright-pink in
colour, and the peduncles are extremely short. Plants
brought from the Southern Islands came into bloom on the
Canterbury College rockery early in November. Altiiough
growing on a sand-dune, the short roots are sufliciently long
both to anchor the plant and reach the water. Whether
the distichous arrangement of the leaves is hereditary or
whether it is merely a non- hereditary light relation only
experiment can show. The colour of the flowers is an un-
common one amongst New Zealand plants, and is dealt with
further on.

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 239

2. Coastal Rocks.

Here is included both the flat rocky shore and the basaltic
cliffs, which latter are frequently perpendicular, but contain
many ledges, crevices, and hollows, on or in which peat, so
easily and quickly formed from decaying vegetation in the
climate of all these islands, can lodge. This plant-formation
of the rocks is a most important one in the Auckland Group,
since by far the greater part of the coast-line consists of
cliffs, which must offer the most varied situations for plant-
life. On this account a detailed account of the distribution
of their plant-inhabitaiits with regard to the various ecolo-
gical factors would be of considerable phytogeographical
interest. My observations, however, were confined to a very
rapid examination of a few coastal rocks at Ewing Island
and Eose Island. I also walked for some short distance
along the stony shore of the north coast of Adams Island,
and spent a few minutes on the summit of those rocks at its
western corner where the narrow strait connects Carnley
Harbour with the Southern Ocean. Thus, since it was
impossible, under the circumstances, to obtain any true
conception of a typical rock-formation, and also as the com-
position and physiognomy of this formation will probably
vary to some extent in various parts of the group, it seems
best to deal with each locality separately.

On the flat rocky shore of Ewing Island, raised but little
above high-water mark, and very frequently drenched by the
sea-spray, the endemic Gotula lanata, its thick stems creeping
over the rock and rooting in places from the nodes, is very
abundant. Growing in a similar position, and rooting into
the chinks of the rock, are the large, green, hard cushions
of Colohanthus mnscoides. Close beside this latter, and fre-
quently growing on its surface, is the reddish-coloured Tillcaa
moschata. Scattered about here and there are the soft green
tufts of Scirpus attcklandiciis, while flattened close to the rock
are the green rosettes of a species of Plantago, probably en-
demic, and which was referred by Hooker first to P. carnosa
and finally to P. brownii. Eising from the flat rocks of the
shore are perpendicular basaltic cliS's, on the summit of which,
growing in the ever-present peat of these islands, are large
green bushes of Veronica ellij^tica, or in another part of Ewing
Island the magnificent Olearia lyallii crowns the cliffs ; but
neither of these plants belong to the formation now under
discussion, although perhaps the Veronica may grow on the
coastal cliffs in some part or other of the group, since such
are a very common station for this plant in the South Island
of New Zealand. Where the rock is wettest — and these rocks
often fairly drip with water — the curious indigenous grass Poa
ramosissima is very abundant, the pale-green of its leaves

240 Transactions. — Botany.

giving a distinct colour to the formation. On the peat-
covered ledges of rock the halophytic grass Festuca scojjaria,
also common on coastal cliffs in the South Island of New
Zealand, grows abundantly and luxuriantly. Here, too, the
xerophytic ferns Lomaria dura and Asplenium ohtiisattnn form
dense and large masses, their rhizomes, roots, and decaying
fronds being very efficient soil-producers. Finally, in many
places Gotula lanata trails its stems down the rock-faces.

The cliffs of Eose Island, where we landed from the
" Hinemoa's " oil-launch, are almost perpendicular, and are
still wetter than those mentioned above. Here Poa ramosis-
sima clothes them so densely as to make a close formation,
a most uncommon event for the vegetation of rocks. The
masses of this grass measui'ed quite 20 cm. through to the
wet peat in which it was rooted. Here, too, Festuca scoparia
helps to make the close mass of vegetation, its leaves hang-
ing downwards for more than l-5m., their tips almost dipping
into the sea at high-water. On the wet ledges not covered
with grasses are Callitriche antarctica and tufts of Scirpus
a^icklandicus . My notes do not mention the customary mari-
time ferns, but it may be taken for granted that they are pre-
sent, and also probably Gotula lanata ; indeed, the cliffs here
have the same vegetation as those treated of above, but owing
to their greater moisture their vegetation is more luxuriant.

The stony beach of Adams Island, facing the Western Arm
of Carnley Harbour, abuts on the PleuropJiylhim meadow, no
forest or scrub zone in many places separating the two forma-
tions. In consequence of this, and perhaps also because it is
not much exposed to sea-spray, some of the characteristic
meadow-plants, notably the very fine umbellifer Ligusticuvi
latifolium, grows amongst the stones of the beach. Here also
Cot7cla lanata and the closely related Gotula pkiviosa are
abundant. V

On the summit of the rocks at the western corner of
Adams Island, at perhaps 50m. or so above sea-level, is
Plantago sp. and the very common New Zealand halophyte
Samolus repens. At times during heavy weather the plants of
these rocks must be drenched with sea-spray. Mr. E. Lukins
describes how he found " large pieces of kelp, seaweed, broken
shells, and starfish" on these cliffs, "all thrown up by the
force of the huge seas "(75). This must be the station where
Kirk collected S. reijens, and if it occurs nowhere else in the
Auckland Group or in the Southern Islands it is a most
interesting and instructive example of local distribution,
similar in character to examples of other species of sperma-
phytes in Chatham Island, which I have pointed out may
be considered relics of a former vegetation much richer in
species (23, p. 316).

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to ISotuhern Islands. 241

Besides the various species of plants enumerated above
as belonging to the coastal-rock formation, the following are
mentioned in the "Flora Antarctica": Myosotis capitata,
growing " on gravelly banks near the margins of woods close
to higii-water mark"; Gentiana ceriyia, "near the sea on
rocky islets in Rendezvous Harbour " ; Urtica austraiis, " on
the pebbly beach above high- water mark " ; and Urtica
aucklandica, " on the sea-beach." Of these plants, Urtica
austraiis is a very common plant near the sea on the shores
of the large lagoon in Chatham Island (23, p. 273), and also
it occurs abundantly at certain spots on the gravelly shore of
Dog Island and Centre Island, in Foveaux Strait; while Gen-
tiana cerina is closely related ecologically to G. saxosa, a
most abundant plant of the coastal turf in the neighbour-
hood of Foveaux Strait.

Regarding the life-forms of the plants of the formation
under consideration, only those which are endemic need any
detailed description here, while of these those belonging more
strictly to the meadow, or to a zone between meadow and
shore, will be treated of further on. To the first category
belong Cotula lanata (GompositcB), Colohanthus muscoides
(CaryophyllacecB), Plantago sp. ( PlantaginacecB), Poa ramosis-
sviiia (GraminacecB), and Urtica aucklandica (UrticacecB).

Cotula lanata has pale-green or sometimes brown prostrate
stems, which creep along the ground or hang down the face
of vertical cliffs. They are + 12 mm. in diameter, but are
usually rather wider in the horizontal than in the vertical
direction, thick, fleshy, and with a smooth surface. The
extremities of the stems are ascending, bending upwards and
bringing into the light the terminal leaf-rosettes, which con-
sist of a few spreading pale-green pinnatifid leaves. The
stems are marked at intervals of + 6 cm. with old leaf-scars,
and from some of the nodes roots pass downwards into the
rock-crevices, thus firmly anchoring the plant to the sub-
stratum. Shorter or longer lateral branches are frequently
given ofl" from the main stem. The leaves are fieshy and vary
somewhat in colour, those innermost and not fully developed
being of a darker green than the larger and more external
ones. In shape they are obovate, the blades deeply pinnatifid,
+ 15 mm. long x + 12 mm. broad, and the segments are
toothed on the upper margin. Such teeth, + 2 mm. long,
are bent at an angle, frequently almost at a right angle, to the
plane of the leaf, thus making one-third. of the assimilating
surface vertical or nearly so, while the remaining two-thirds
is horizontal. The fleshy pale-coloured petiole is nearly twice
as long as the lamina, and possesses a broad sheathing
base + 5 mm. long, furnished with a membranous margin.
The petiole and midrib are covered, especially in young leaves,

16— Trans.

242 Transactions. — Botany.

with cottony hairs loosely interwoven. Thus, the sheath-
ing petioles and the persistent remains of the leaf-sheath
and leaves of the preceding year form an efficient protection
for the delicate bud. Early in spring new shoots are put
forth from near the apex of the branches at the same time
that the flower makes its appearance, such shoots in three
weeks in cultivation attaining a length of + 3 cm. The
leaves close to the end of the shoot are arranged spirally, but
the remainder are brought into two ranks through twisting
of the leaf-sheaf, the leaf-surface thus becommg horizontal.
This dorsi-ventral habit seems hereditary, a stem which had
been planted so as to be vertical at a height of 5'4em. from
the ground put forth in spring three dorsi-ventral shoots,
which stretched out in the air parallel to the ground and at
right angles to the vertical stem. The internodes of young
shoots are densely covered with loose white cottony tomentum.
The flower-heads are 7 mm. in diameter, the florets yellow
in colour and densely packed together ; the peduncles are
+ 1-3 cm. long, and tomentose.

Colobanthus muscoides is an extremely dense cushion
plant, more or less circular in outline, with a convex upper
surface. The shoots are packed as closely together as those
of the -'vegetable sheep" {Raoulia mammillarts) , so that the
plant as a whole can be quite easily removed from the ground,
and when dry makes an interesting museum object. These
dense cushions are bright-green in colour, and vary consider-
ably in size, a lai'ge one measuring 54 cm. in diameter. The
leaves are linear in shape, quite glabrous, + 6 mm. in length
X 1 mm. in breadth, and fleshy. They form little rosettes of
about six leaves each at the extremity of each shoot. Below —
that is, within the cushion — the old leaves are all in a greater
or less advanced stage of decay, and form a dense, yellow,
sticky, peaty mass ± 10 cm. in depth, through which the
shoot-axes penetrate, giving off at the under-surface of the
cushion a large number of fine roots. The peaty mass
absorbs water like a sponge, and in the wet climate must
nearly always be saturated with moisture.

The endemic species of Plantago forms rather hard green
round rosettes, often pressed closely together and flattened
close to the surface of the rock. These rosettes measure
i 4 cm. in diameter. The leaves are fleshy, rather stifl", and
bright-green in colour. Those of tne periphery are the
longest, those more internal being shorter, but broader in
proportion to their length. The epidermis is strongly cuti-
cularised on the upper surface. There is a dense palisade
parenchyma, and a rather close, round-celled spongy paren-
chyma. Numerous resin-passages are present. The root-
stock is short and thick, and gives off several long deeply

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to SotUhern Islands. 243

descending roots. Sometimes the rosettes are so close to-
gether as to be mixed up with one another, and in such
cases the rosette-form is not evident.

Poa ra.mosissima is, as Hooker pointed out, " a grass of
remarkable habit." The long wiry decumbent stems, 1mm.
or more in diameter, are often quite naked below, but above
are covered with the membranous leaf-sheaths of the pre-
ceding year + 4-5 cm. long. Above a great number of leafy
branches are given off. The leaves are very numerous ; the
leaf-blade + 5 mm. long, + 2 mm. broad, pale-green, flat, soft,
and flaccid.

Urtica aucklandica was not observed by me. According
to Hooker it is a rare plant. It is described in the Hand-
book as " herbaceous, robust, softly downy all over, except
the upper surface of the leaves, where there are a few sting-
ing hairs. The leaves are broadly ovate-cordate, coarsely
serrate or toothed, rather coriaceous or rigid. Petioles stout,
\m. to 1 in. long."

3. The For est- formations.
As in the case of the formations already described, I can
make no definite statements as to the limits of the forest. It
seems best here, then, to give some details regarding each of
the pieces of forest visited by me. There are two very dis-
tinct types of forest. The first, and by far the most common,
is that in which Metrosideros lucida is the dominant tree.
The second, which is extremely local, consists of Olearia
lyallii. For the former formation I propose the name " rata
forest," and for the latter " Olearia lyallii forest."

(a.) The Rata Forest.
This formation forms a belt of evergreen trees and shrubs
extending round a considerable portion of the coast of the
various islands, its distribution depending probably upon the
nature of the soil, exposure to wind, and altitude of the land.
Thus, the rata forest is most luxuriant at the heads of shel-
tered inlets, while in places exposed to the full violence of the
frequent gales it is altogether wanting, and at a certain alti-
tude, averaging possibly 120m., it gives place to formations of
scrub or meadow. Where high cliffs form the coast-line the
forest is absent, and where there is excessive moisture in the
ground a tussock formation may occur side by side with the
forest, as in certain parts of Enderby and Ewing Islands.
Regarding the distribution of the forest. Chapman states
(15, p. 501), "The north coast is almost without wood; this
may be due to lack of shelter. The west coast is too steep
for trees; so is the external part of the south coast."* I

* This evidently refers to Adams Island.

244 Transactions. — Botany.

had an opportunity of examining the forest in the following
places : Enderby Island, where I almost passed through the
belt into the tussock beyond ; Ewing Island ; near the depot
at Port Eoss, in the north of Auckland Island ; at the head
of Musgrave Inlet ; at Camp Cove, Carnley Harbour, where I
ascended right through the forest-belt on to the subalpine
meadow.

On Enderby Island there is a considerable quantity of
rata forest and scrub, which forms a somewhat narrow belt
on the east and south sides, the whole of the west side of the
island, according to Captain J. Bollons, being a tussock for-
mation. This forest-zone consists of Metrosideros lucida and
Dracophyllum longifolimn, with an undergrowth of Suttonia
divaricata, Coprosvia fcetidissima, and the semi-arborescent
fern Aspidium vestitum. Proceeding through the forest to
the north, the Metrosideros becomes less in quantity and
more stunted, while Casdnia vauvilliersii makes its appear-
ance, this shrub finally becoming dominant. It seems from
this that we have here to do with two formations — viz., the
true rata forest and a scrub in which Cassinia vauvilliersii
is the leading plant— but I have not sufficient data to make
any statement on this head. My notes say nothing about the
height of the Metrosideros trees ; probably they are some 5m.
tall. The view within the forest is amazing in the extreme,^
and to give a lifelike and vivid word-picture of the appearance
of the trees is quite beyond my powers of description. The
trunks of the ratas are frequently prostrate from their bases
for more than half their length. Fi-om such prosti'ate trunks
are given off many naked branches much twisted and gnarled.
The ultimate branchlets are erect, and form with the foliage
a dense flattened head to the tree, whose spread is altogether
out of proportion to its height. Such spreading branches
may measure + 60 cm. in diameter. In this forest Draco-
phyllum longifohuvi is common, and is frequently furnished
below with many "reversion-shoots," having much broader
leaves than those of the adult and similar to those of juvenile
plants. Viewed from a slight eminence, the roof of the
forest presents a dense green appearance, and one tlms view-
ing it from above would think the whole formed a thick, low,
shrubby growtii such as the heaths of northern moorlands.
Through the rata-foliage the Dracophyllum puts forth its
erect, straight, needle-like leaves for a short distance. The
undergrowth consists of shrubs of Coprosma foitidissiina and
the very densely growing Suttonia dicaricata (76), while the fern
Aspidium vestitum spreads out abundantly its arching dark-
green fronds of Im. or more in length. The floor of the forest
here, as in all parts of the Auckland Islands, consists of wet-
tish peat. In many places it is bare, perhaps owing to the

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 245

sea-lions lying down upon it and wallowing in the mud, for
the comparatively wide tracks of these animals are very nu-
merous. Indeed, but for such tracks, in many places churned
up into thick mud, progress through this dense forest would
be far more difficult. Where the forest-i3oor is not bare
numerous I'ounded patches of mosses and liverworts are
present, also seedlings of the various trees and shrubs are
very common, while Neriera depressa, its stems creeping on
the ground, and the species of Uncinia formerly known as
U. hookeri, but now referred by Kiikenthal to U. riparia as
var. psetidorupestris, are abundant. Here and there are a few
plants of Urtica australis and stunted Stilhocarpa polaris.
Epilohium linncBoides and Stellaria decipiens are also frequent.
As one penetrates further into this forest towards the north
the shrubs increase in number, Cassinia vauvilliersii ap-
pears, and progress through the dense shrubby growths be-
comes extremely difficult.

The rata forest on Ewing Island is very similar to that
just described ; but, if possible, the curious twisted branches
of the rata in that portion of the forest visited by me were
even more striking. Some of these branches extend for a
long distance at right angles to the main stem, others are
given off at all kinds of angles and twisted on their axes,
the whole mass of branches making a most bewildering net-
work. Here, too, the forest-floor is frequently quite bare, no
doubt owing to the great numbers of sea-lions, which for-
midable-looking creatures were constantly encountered.

In Erebus Cove, Port Eoss, stands the depot for cast-
aways. It was in this neighbourhood that for three years
Enderby had his headquarters, and during that period cut
down several acres of the forest. In this same locality, so
Captain J. Bollons informs me, the early whalers also cut
dow^n a considerable number of trees, filling their vessels
with wood before proceeding to Campbell Island, where
true forests are wanting. Where this extensive clearing
was made there is now a dense growth of evergreen shrubs,
forming a most beautiful shrubberv of various hues of green.
An account of the constituents of this new formation is given
further on, when dealing with the effect of introduced ani-
mals, &c., on the vegetation.

The most luxuriant forest that I had an opportunity to
examine is that at the head of Norman's Inlet, but, unfor-
tunately, only a few minutes were available, it being late in
the afternoon when we landed. The position of this forest
possibly affords the maximum amount of slielter to be found
on Auckland Island, and in consequence the trees are taller
than in the more exposed forests, and the interior hygfo-
phytic vegetation richer both in quantity and species. A

246 Transactions. — Botany.

stream of considerable size from the adjacent rugged moun-
tain also adds its quota to the moisture of the atmosphere.
The remarkable broad-leaved form of Polypodiuvi australe —
P. rigichmi, Homb. and Jacq. — is here abundant. The plants
collected by me seem to match those figured in " Voyage
au Pole Sud " (45, pi. ii., Monocot. Vase). The fronds
measure + 14-5 cm. x + 2 cm., are given off from a stout
rhizome + 4 mm. in diameter, and form tufts on the tree-
trunks. This plant is very different in appearance from the
typical species, also abundant in the same forest, nor did I
notice any "intermediate forms." In this forest Mr. W.
Joss made a most interesting discovery — viz., one plant of
the common New Zealand tree-fern Hemitelia smithii, tree-
ferns, if we except Aspidmm vestitum, not having been pre-
viously observed in any of the Southern Islands. This
important discovery extends the range of tree-ferns very
much further to the south than was previously known." Un-
fortunately, I had no time to pay the plant a visit, so only
saw the specimens which Mr. Joss had just collected. The
general character of this part of the rata forest is very similar
to ihat next to be dealt with, so to avoid needless repetition
no more need be said here.

Passing into Carnley Harbour at first a dense belt of forest
clothes either shore, extending up the steep mountain-slopes
for perhaps 150m. ; but after the Western Arm is reached the
upper meadow comes lower, until finally it descends to sea-
level, alternate bands of forest and meadow clothing the slopes.
Such grassy spurs offer a most excellent opportunity for reach-
ing the higher ground of Adams Island, doing away with the
laborious climb through the forest necessary in most parts of
Auckland Island before the subalpine region can be reached.
I had no opportunity to examine the xAdams Island forest, but
several hours in the neighbourhood of Camp Cove aflbrded
me facilities to examine the forest in the south of Auckland
Island.

At Camp Cove the trees come right down to the edge
of the water, into which the leaves of DracopJt.yUtim longi-
folmm almost dip. Here Mctrosideros liicida, as usual the
dominant plant, grows with spreading gnarled branches,
but hardly to the same degree as in the more wind-swept
forest of Ewing Island. The accompanying photograph
(PI. XIII.) gives, however, only a poor idea of the interior of a
rata forest, since in order to get near and distant objects into
focus a rather open part of the forest had to be selected.
Mixed with the rata is Panax simplex and Dracophylhmi

• Mr. W. Hotting Hemsley, F.R.S., has kindiv informed me that the
previously recorded limit of iiee-femH was tiiac of Alsopliilti prumnta, at
about 47^ S., in Port Otway, Patagonia.

Cockayne. — Butaaical Excursion to Houtliern Inlands. 2i7

longifolmm. The forest-roof, as before described, is of ex-
treme density, and it is situated some 4-5m. above the sur-
face of the ground. Such a dense covering, combined with
the great amount of moisture in the atmosphere, aifords
very strong hygrophytic conditions within the forest, with tlie
result that plants of the most marked hygrophytic structure
abound, and grow with great luxuriance. The forest floor is
extremely uneven. Large mounds, formed in part of decayed
vegetation, consisting principally of mosses and liverworts, are
very common. Such mounds, the forest-floor in general, and
the many fallen and dead tree-trunks are densely covered with
liverworts, mosses, and filmy ferns, the two former frequently
forming great cushions. These same plants are also epiphytic
on the tree-trunks and stout spreading branches of the rata,
forming finally, in many cases, deep masses of soil, in which
seedling trees and shrubs grow with vigour. Hymenophylknn
multifidiwo and several other filmy ferns form sheets on the
bark of the trees, while Polypodium bUlardieri, one of the most
characteristic plants of this forest, climbs over their trunks,
and also ramifies over large areas of the forest-floor. Fre-
quently this latter is quite occupied by an extremely dense and
deep undergrowth of Aspidvum vestdum, or, nearer the shore,
there is much Asplenium ohtusatuvi and Lomaria dura. In
other places the ferns may be replaced almost altogether by a
still denser undergrowth of Suttonia divaricata, so close that
the shrubs touch one another. In such places as this, but for
the seals' tracks and what I took to be pigs' tracks higher up,
but which may also be made by seals, progress through the
forest would be much more difficult.

If we consider the climatic and edaphic conditions to which
the rata formation is subjected we find them extremely di-
verse. There is on the one hand the almost constant wind,
which very frequently assumes the character of a furious gale
— a strongly marked xerophytic factor. There is also a very
wet, badly drained, peaty soil — a soil, indeed, probably to
some extent physiologically dry — a second xerophytic factor.
But on the other hand is a climatic condition diametrically
opposite to the above, one strongly hygrophytic indeed —
namely, an extremely moist and equable climate, which fa-
vours forest-growth exceedingly, and would be an ideal rain-
forest climate (92, p. 505) were the mean summer temperature
not so low. 'The physiognomy and interior contents of the
forest is the resultant of these opposing factors. Thus, there
is every indication of the mechanical action of the wind on
the trees causing the flat dense roof of foliage and gnarled
trunks and branches ; but the moist climate at the same time
encourages the spread of the forest as a whole, and the
luxuriant lateral growth of the branches, which is out of all

248 Transactions. — Botany.

proportion to the height of the trees. Moreover, the dense
loot of the forest assists in keeping its interior cahn, and here
the hygrophytic factors can exercise full sway, so that the
vegetation within the forest is of the most extreme hygrophytic
character, and its constituents the filmy ferns, liverworts, &c.,
such as can endure only for a very limited period dry air or
exposure to direct sunlight. The light factor, indeed, is a very
important one so far as many of these forest plants are con-
cerned. Feeble light is of as much importance in the cultiva-
tion of certain liverworts and filmy ferns as is moist air, and
the letting-in of more light into a New Zealand rain-forest
when timber is being removed has perhaps the most to do
with the death of a large percentage of the hygrophytes.

This rata forest of the Auckland Islands is by no means
altogether an endemic plant-formation. Very similar forests
are found in certain parts of the South Island of New Zealand
and in Stewart Island, but they contain more arborescent
components — notably, Weinmannia racemosa is a frequent
member ; nor is the general physiognomy the same. This
interesting fact — the occurrence of a very similar formation
in two regions so distant — is discussed when dealing with the
history of the vegetation.

Since all the plants of this formation, if we except the
fern Polypodium rigidum, occur in New Zealand proper but
little need be said here as to the life -forms of most of
them. The general aspect of Metrosideros lucida has been
sufficiently described above ; its lanceolate, thick, coriaceous,
shining green leaves furnished with numerous oil-glands, their
blades + 3-6 cm. x ±1-6 cm., growing closely together, are
quite able to withstand the most violent winds so long as the
atmosphere is charged with moisture. On the dry Canterbury
Plain the hot north-west winds do not allow this tree to be
brought into cultivation, whereas in Dunedin, where this wind
is unknown or extremely modified, the rata flourishes in
gardens, though noD a member of tiie forest of that locality.
The narrow semi- vertical needle -like leaf-blades of Draco-
■phyllum loncjifoliuvi have their transpiring surfcice still more
reduced by the concavity of the upper (inner) surface, and are,
moreover, confined to the extremities of the ultimate branch-
lets. Like Dracojjhyllum arhorcum of Chatham Island (22,
p. 294), Drac. longi/oliiim has juvenile leaves broader than
those of the adult, and it also frequently puts forth "rever-
sion-shoots," as mentioned above. Such shoots have leaves
much broader and longer than those of the adult, and they
closely resemble the juvenile leaves. In the juvenile leaves
the position with regard to light is different from that of the
adult leaf, the surface of the former being almost horizontal,
while the latter is semi-vertical. There are also differences

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 249

in size and colour, juvenile leaves being nearly twice as broarl
and 1'5 times as long as adult leaves ; while, as to colour,
the juvenile leaves are reddish-brown and the adult are green.
Panax simplex is a plant which exhibits a still more
remarkable hetei'ophylly, which, as I stated some years ago
(21, p. 355), is not yet understood. Since that time I have
been collecting material, and hope to publish my results
shortly. As, however, I collected some special evidence on
this matter on Auckland Island it may be briefly discussed
here. According to Kirk Panax simplex has two quite dis-
tinct primary juvenile forms through one or other of which it
must pass before it assumes its second later juvenile form and
its final adult form. One of the primary juvenile forms has
simple leaves and the other has compound leaves, these being,
according to Kirk (66, p. 217), "five-foliate on slender pe-
duncles ; leaflets petiolulate, linear lobed or pinnatipartite."
In his " Forest Flora " Kirk gives figures of the various forms
(65, pi. cvi., cvii.). Now, the point which chiefly concerns us
here is that Hooker stated that only the entire-leaved seedling
form was found on Auckland Island, while Kirk affirms, " It
[the entire-leaved form] is the prevalent form on Stewart
Island, but the lobulate form occurs there also" (65, p. 211).
Taking for granted that the fact of the occurrence of these
forms as here stated was correct, I wrote some time ago
(22, 355), " Different environment, as will be shown later on,
has a most marked effect on the same forms in many plants ;
hence this case, granted that the facts are as stated, may be
merely a case of different development under different condi-
tions." In the accompanying plate may be seen figures of
various forms, which certainly throw a new light on our
knowledge of this important biological matter. Fig. 1, PI. XL,
shows that the form witii deeply cut leaves also occurs in
Auckland Island, the seedling in question being collected by
me in the forest at Norman's Inlet. Fig. 3 shows a 5-foliate
and rather deeply cut leaf, which occurs, moreover, on the
same shoot with a ternate leaf (fig. 4). Turning to plants
collected by me at Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, in the
" rata-pine forest," fig. 5 shows the simple-leaved form and
tig. 6 the cnt-leaved compound-leaf form on the same plant.
This latter, at any rate, shows that the entire-leaved seedling
and the compound deeply cut- leaved seedling are not distinct
from one another. The subject has now reached the stage
when experimental treatment is demanded. Probably moist
air has something to do with the stimulating an hereditary
tendency to produce compound trifoliate deeply cut leaves ;
but, as I said above, I hope to have some definite statements
to make shortly on this matter. The adult form of P. simplex
has simplex, oblong-lanceolate, coriaceous leaves, the laminae

250 Transactions. — Botany.

measuring 6'5cm. x 2'25cm., or frequently they are of some-
what lesser dimensions.

Coprosma fatidissima varies very considerably in the form
and size of its leaves ; so much so, in fact, that Hooker made
two species out of the various forms of the Auckland Islands,
the one Cojj. fcetidissima and the other Cuj). afflms. This
latter is distmguished from the type by its larger and longer
leaves, the apex of which is acuminate. Later on Hooker
merged both forms into one species. Amongst my specimens
are none which match the figure in the " Flora Antarctica,"
but, generally speaking, the leaves are larger than those of
specimens collected in such a moist habitat as the forest near
Preservation Inlet. Seedlings of forms which in the adult
have leaves with tiieir laminae 5-9 cm. x 2-1 cm. have large
leaves at quite an early age, a plant 8 cm. tall having the
lowest leaves 2-5 cm. x l'6cm.,and the uppermost 3'5cm. x
2 cm. ; indeed, such seedlings have larger leaves than the
average adult leaves of plants at Preservation Inlet. Leaves
from rapidly growing suckers are of still greater dimensions,
measuring 7 cm. x 3 cm.

Suttonia divaricata belongs to that class of shi-ubs which
I have elsewhere designated as xerophytic,''' and which bear
especially the impress of exposure to strong dry winds and
a dry soil. Such shrubs are very frequent in New Zea-
land, and belong to very different genera, or even natural
orders, yet so much resemble one another that some botanical
knowledge is required to discriminate betw'een them. Some
lianes, too, assume a similar habit of growth in the open,
and are frequently associated with the plants in question in
such stations as stony debris on dry hillsides or on river-
terraces. These plants are distinguished by the possession
of thin, wiry, interlacing, frequently divaricating branches,
the whole forming a dense mass so strong as to almost sup-
port the weight of a man, and which can be reclined on as on
a wnre-wove mattress. The leaves are of small size, more or
less coriaceous, and in some cases few in number. Amongst
the commonest plants of this class are several species of
Copros^na (Enbiacece), Aristotelia fruticosa (Tiliacece), Pitto-
spornm rigidnm ( Pittosporacece), Panax anovialum (Ara-
liacecB), species of Hymcnanthera (Violaccce), Corokia coton-
easter (Cornacece), the plant under discussion — Suttonia
divaricata (Myrsinaccce), and amongst lianes species of
Ruhus {liosacecB), MuJdcnheckia complcxa (Polyqonacece),
and Clematis afolinta (Ranuiiculacea). Siittonia divaricata
possesses in a marked degree the habit mentioned above.
The ultimate branchlets at the outside of the plant are

• Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxiii., p. 279. 1901.

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Inlands. 251

straight and stiff, + 3 mm. in diameter, and given off from
the more internal and thicker branches at right angles, and
sometimes at a lesser angle. The main trunk, according to
Hooker, is 10 in. or 12 in. in diameter (46). The leaves are
numerous, som6what coriaceous, and their laminae measure
about 11mm. x 10mm. The figures in the "Flora Antarc-
tica" and "Das Pflanzenreich " (77, fig. 56, p. 334) furnish
some idea of the appearance of a small branch of this shrub,
but give little notion of the aspect of the plant as a whole.
Contrary to the majority of the above-mentioned xerophytic
shrubs. S. divaricata usually occurs in the rainy regions of
the New Zealand biological area. Such a structure as that
described above seems quite unsuited for moist forest regions,
and its presence and that of other xerophytic plants can, it
seems to me, be only explained on those historical grounds
which Dr. L. Diels was che first to suggest. These were
that during the great rise of the land, which according to
Hutton led to the remarkable extension of the glaciers of
New Zealand (53), a steppe or semi-desert climate would
exist on the new tableland and plain in the east of New
Zealand, and that the plants of that region would require
to be modified in accordance with the changed conditions
of their existence — from a rain-forest climate to a semi-
desert climate — or perish. In accordance with this view,
as the land receded to its former sixiall area some of the
plants would be left in outlying stations no longer con-
nected with New Zealand proper, such as Chatham Islands
and the Southern Islands ; others would find a congenial
habitat in the extreme xerophytic stations of limited area
still remaining in the east and centre of the North and
South Islands ; finally, others would get mixed up with the
western vegetation at a time of a further sinking of the
land, when some of the passes over the Southern Alps
would be about 305m. lower than at the present time. But
this matter is too important to discuss in the limited
space here available ; I can only refer the reader to Diels's
original paper (27) and to some further remarks on the
subject published by me elsewhere (23). One matter of
interest in this connection lies in the fact that Suttonia
divaricata shows the rigid divaricating habit of growth
in seedlings at quite an early age. Thus, a seedling 6"4 cm.
tall has a rigid stem 2 mm. in (iiameter ; near the first leaves
one short, straight branch is put forth from the main stem
at an angle and in a manner similar to that of the adult ;
also, the leaves are equal in size and similar to adult-leaves,
except that some of them are more or less toothed or slightly
lobed on the margin. So far as I have observed up to the
present, it is exceptional for a New Zealand xerophytic shrub

252 Transactions. — Botany.

to have leaves similar to the adult ; on the contrary, these
plants offer instructive examples of what Goebel calls hetero-
blastic development, thus giving a clue from the study of the
development of seedlings to the phylogeny of the species.

As for the remainder of the forest-plants which have not
yet been described, little can be said here. They are mainly
such as occur in the rain-forests of New Zealand, and are
mostly typical hygrophytes. Many of these, however, lead an
epiphytic life, and are provided — amongst the liverworts more
especially — with many remarkable adaptations towards that
mode of existence.

(b.) The Olearia lyallii Forest.

This is a forest-formation of remarkably local distribution.
It is not found at all in New Zealand proper, but occurs
only on the Snares, on Ewing Island, and perhaps to a very
limited extent in one or two places on Auckland Island itself
And yet where it does occur it grows with great luxuri-
ance ; seedlings of all sizes are abundant. Nor does there
seem any reason why it should not be the dominant forest of
the Southern Islands. We have here possibly one of those
cases where a very slight difference in adaptation to environ-
ment, not to be estimated in the present state of knowledge,
has led to one formation becoming dominant and another
remaining stationary in a limited area; or, what is perhaps
likely here, a former primeval forest adapted to slightly
different conditions has been ousted by a newer formation
as the conditions changed.

" Viewed from the sea," to quote from my note-book,
" Ewing Island has a decidedly attractive appearance." This
is owing to the fine natural shrubbery of Olearia lyalli which
fi'inges the shore, its huge leaves exposing their silvery under-
surface as blown by the frequent wind, and contrasting tinely
with the green of the upper surface. Alternating witli the
Olearia are pale-green clumps of Veronica elliptica, while in
front of it are in places dense tall tussocks of some species of
grass, more than l-5m. in height, with " trunks " similar to
those of the " niggorhead." In front of the tussock again is
a rather dense growth of the bright-green grass Poa foliosa.
Near the depot the beach is stony, consisting in part of
boulders strewn with seaweeds and in part of solid rock worn
down to sea-level, backed up by low rocky faces dripping with
water, and their summits crowned with Veronica or Olearia.

The individual trees of the formation are some 61m.
to 9-lm. tall, some being erect, while others have the lower
part of the trunk prostrate. Such trunks are ±50cm. in
diameter. From very near the base the main trunk branches
into three or four secondary trunks covered with a rough

Cockayne. — Botanical, Excursion to Southern Islands. 253

bark. The ultimate branches divide into several short
branches radiating upwards and outwards after the manner
of Olearia chathamica of Chatham Island (2,3, p. 298),
0. operina of the west coast sounds, or Rhododendron jjonti-
cuvi, so common in gardens, finally giving off from near their
extremities numerous large leaves, which form a dense mass.
These leaves are thick and coriaceous, their laminae + 20'5 cm.
X + 13-5 cm., and provided with a short stout petiole ex-
panded and sheathing at the base. The upper surface is
dark-green, varnished and quite glabrous except at the mar-
gins and on the broad midrib. The under-surface is densely
clothed with flannelly tomentum quite white in colour. This
tomentum is rather more than half the thickness of the leaf-
substance proper. The midrib on the under-surface of the
leaf is excessively stout, measuring at the base 9 mm. x 4 mm.
The young leaf, just when it is unfolded from the bud, is white
and soft like a piece of flannel, being extremely tomentose
on both surfaces. The ultimate shoot-axes are 1-5 cm. in
diameter, and densely covered with white tomentum similar
to that of the leaf. Shade-leaves are rather larger than sun-
leaves, and have the veins less prominent. A cross-section of
the leaf shows a large-celled epidermis on the upper surface,
having the outer wall but little thicker than the inner walls.
There is a dense palisade parenchyma with water tissue
extending in places into it from the epidermis. Eound the
vascular bundle is a stereome sheath which extends to the
upper epidermis, while on its under-surface is a large-celled
water tissue. On the under-surface are a number of glandular
hairs.

In the forest of Bwing Island trees with prostrate trunks
are very much more common than those whose trunks are
erect. As a rule, indeed, more than half the trunk is pros-
trate upon the ground. Kirk thus describes Olearia lyalln as
it grows on the Snares (56, p. 215), "When growing in level
situations it is erect, with open spreading branches, but when
growing on slopes exposed to the wind it is often inclined or
with a prostrate trunk, the roots partly torn out of the soil ;
and the branches, rooting at the tips, give rise to new trunks,
which in their turn are brought to the ground and repeat the
process." As for the plants on Ewing Island, Kirk writes
(56, p. 219), " Most of thein are erect and well grown, but a
few exhibit the inclined position so frequent on the Snares."
Chapman thus describes the behaviour of 0. lyallii on the
Snares: "When this" [0. lyallii] "grows a certain height
it falls down with the weight of the leaves and the pressure
of the wind and takes root where it touches ground ; then it
grows upwards again, and after a while it falls again, tearing
its oldest roots up and rooting itself a third time : thus the

254 Transactions. — Botany.

trunk is almost gifted with the power of locomotion "
(16, p. 494). I have given the above quotations partly be-
cause they differ somewhat from my account and partly
because this prostrate habit seems to me a matter requiring
further investigation as to its causes. That it may at the
present time be frequently caused by the wind no one can
deny, but there is no reason on that account why the pros-
trate habit should not be, in part at any rate, hereditary.
The behaviour of seedlings may furnish a clue. In the m-
terior of the forest beneath the dense leafy canopy the air
is comparatively still, when without a gale is blowing. Of
the quite young seedlings growing in the ground which I
examined, and of which only a few leaves were developed,
most had their steins prostrate on the ground for more than
half their length. In one instance, in an older plant. 30 cm.
was erect and 15 cm. was prostrate. On the other hand, a
number of young seedlings growing closely together on the
trunk of a tussock were orthotropous, but in this case density
of growth or their relation to gravity may have caused the
difference. At any rate, it is an interesting matter requiring
further investigation, for it bears directly on the inheritance of
acquired characters.

The floor of the Olearia lyallii forest consists of coarse
peat covered with numerous fallen leaves in various stages
of decay. For the most part it is quite bare, owing probably
to the incursions of the numerous sea-lions. There is no
undergrowth of shrubs, consequently the forest is much more
open than is the rata forest. Growing on the forest-floor are
many rather distant patches of young Olearia plants, while in
other places are Asplenium obtusatum and Lomaria dura. The
young plants of 0. lyallii early on develop quite large leaves ;
e.g., a plant 30 cm. tall had leaves measuring 13 cm. x 8 cm.

Ecologically and floristically the formation under con-
sideration is related to the 0. chathamica formation of Chat-
ham Island, the 0. colensoi formation of Stewart Island, and
the 0. 02}eri)ia -\- Senecio rotundifolms formation of the west
coast sounds, though all three must be designated scrub, and
not forest. Like the above formations, and situated like them
in a rain-forest climate, the 0. lyallii formation is distinctly
xerophytic ; but the mild moist atmosphere has caused produc-
tion of excessive leaf-surface, just as in the rata forest there
is great lateral growth of the Metrosidcros. Occupying only a
narrow zone on the sheltered side of the island, the 0. lyallii
gives place to the rata forest, which certainly seems on that
account the better able of the two to withstand the wind,
while in its turn on Enderby Island rata gives place on the
windward side to Cassinia scrub, and this in its turn to tus-
sock.

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 255

4. Loivland Tussock.

This formation I was only able to examine in two locali-
ties— namely, near the landing-place on Ewing Island and
between the dunes and the rata forest on Enderby Island ;
of its distribution on Auckland and Adams Island I know
nothing.

The surface of the ground is very wet peat, in many
places being actual swamp. Where this occurs the forma-
tion varies as to its members, and Carex to a large extent
takes the place of the grass tussock. The tussock which
gives the distinguishing character to the formation as a
whole is some species of grass which I had no means of
identifying. Ecologically it is remarkable for having con-
structed large "trunks," on the top of which the grass-plant
grows, while its long filiform leaves, which are at first erect,
finally arch over and droop downwards on all sides of the
"trunk" in great shock-headed masses. Such trunks are
more than l-5m. tall, frequently irregular in shape, and
consist of decayed and decaying stems, roots, and leaf-bases ;
while beneath the green living leaves, which, arching, droop
downwards on all sides of the "trunk" to the ground and
quite surround it, is a thick layer consisting externally of
recently dead leaves, but internally of quite decayed leaves,
which surround the " trunk " proper as with a mantle. Such
tussocks burn very readily when dry in the summer, according
to Captain Bollons, for the most recently dead leaves are
frequently quite dry, even when the outside of the tussock
is in its normal wet condition. These trunks absorb water
like a sponge, and in this manner the living grass above will
get a direct water-supply of rain-water, and so be quite inde-
pendent of the more or less acid water of the boggy ground
or of the actual swamp. Similar "trunks" ai'e a frequent
feature of the New Zealand landscape, and are formed by
Carex secta. As the ground becomes more swampy Carex
trifida appears, taking the place of the tussock-grass.

Between the tussock and the actual sea- shore is a zone of
Poa foliosa. Probably in this formation are included two
quite distinct from one another, a grass-tussock and a Carex
bog, but the time v^as too limited to do more than take the
above brief notes. A very similar formation seems to be
present on Enderby Island, but I have no details, except such
as are shown in a photograph, from which it is evident that
the tussocks there are of great size. All that part of Enderby
Island fully exposed to the wind is occupied by a tussock
formation.

5. Pleurophyllum Meadoiu.

Beyond learning that a certain number of most striking
and beautiful herbaceous plants grow in company with one

256 Trauaactions. — Botany.

another there, there is little to be found in the writings of
those botanists who treat of the Southern Islands, as to the
extent, limits, altitude, or edapbic conditions of the plant-
formation which these plants constitute, or whether, indeed,
such plants do form a distinct society. From the writings of
Sir Joseph Hooker it seems clear that at the northern end of
Auckland Island — that part alone of the group where his
botanical explorations were made— a considerable altitude
must be reached before the above-mentioned striking plants
are encountered in any number, while he distinctly points out
that on Campbell Island, owing to their occurrence at a lower
altitude, they form a more striking feature of the landscape.
Thus, Hooker writes, " Beyond the wooded region some of
the same plants " [the forest trees] " in a dwarf state mingled
with others compose a broad shrubby belt, which ascends
the hills to an altitude of 800 ft. or 900 ft., gradually opening
out into grassy slopes, and succeeded by the alpine vegeta-
tion. It is especially towards the summits of the hills that
the most striking plants are found, vying in brightness
of colour with the arctic flora, and unrivalled in beauty by
those of any other antarctic country."

On Adams Island, as mentioned before, strips of treeless
hillside reaching to the edge of the water alternate with
strips of rata forest. Now, it is just on these treeless pieces
of hillside that the formation under consideration appears
in that part of the Auckland Group, and so rich in striking
flowers is the piece of land at the western extremity of
Carnley Harbour that it has received the name of "Fan-child's
Garden," a tribute to the memory of the late John Fairchild,
who, as captain of the " Hinemoa," did much to advance the
knowledge of New Zealand natural history.

The following are the most important members of the
I'leurophylktm formation : Pleurophyllum speciosum, Pleur.
criniferum, Cchmsia vernicosa, Cotula j^lumosa, Cot. propivqita
(CompositcB) ; Ligusticum (Acipliylla) latifolmm, Lig. (Aciph.)
antipodum (Umbelliferce) ; Nerteradepressa (Bubiacece) ; Epi-
Lobiuvi confer tifolium (OnagracecB) ; Stitbocarpa polaris (Ara-
liacece) ; Acceua sangmsorbce var. antarctica (Rosacea) ; Myo-
sotis capitata (BoraginacccB) ; Gentiana concinna, Gent, ccrina
(Geatianacece) ; Bulbinella rossii (Lilincece) ; Scirpus atick-
landicun (Gyperacece) ; Aspidium vestitum, Aspleninm obtusa-
titm (Filices) ; various mosses, liverworts, and lichens. In
the gullies is a good deal of Veronica elliptica.

Between the PieicrophyUuni, meadow and the stony beach
comes a zone of Poa, foliosa, the before-mentioned tussock-
grass with great "trunks," Carex trifida, and alternating with
these, or in close proximity to them, Stilbocarpa polaris and
Ligusticum latifolium. Probably the Pleurophyllum forma-

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 257

tion contains some of the smaller grasses, but in midwinter
identification of these was impossible.

The soil of this formation consists of a great depth of peat,
which at the time of my visit was very wet and sticky, but
certainly not so wet as I had expected. The ground, in fact,
is neither bog nor even semi-bog, but merely a very moist
peaty slope. The forming of peat, even while a plant is
alive, is a common-enough occurrence amongst New Zealand
cushion-plants. Kirk shows, for instance, how the dense
lower leaves on Baoulia goyeni of Stewart Island become
changed into peat while the upper leaves are performing their
usual functions (62, p. 215). In Fuegia also the leaves of
living plants are rapidly converted into peat. Darwin writes
regarding Astelia puvala (23a, p. 286), " Fresh leaves are
always succeeding one to the other round the central tap-
root ; the lower ones soon decay, and in tracing a root down-
wards in the peat the leaves yet holding their place can be
observed passing through every stage of decomposition till
the whole becomes blended in one confused mass." In the
Southern Islands such peat-forming is very plamly to be seen,
especially in winter, in certain of the plants, which die down
to the ground. Then the leaves of the past year lie rotting
upon the surface of the soil, while their bases form great
decayed masses many centimeters m thickness round the
leaf-bases of the young leaves of Pleurophylkcm criniferum or
P. hooker I. In these sheaths of decaying leaves considerable
numbers of earthworms are found, and they appear also to be
fairly numerous in the peat itself. This will lead to a greater
amount of oxygen in the soil than is usually present in peat, .
and probably there is a considerably less percentage of humic
acids ; but I have no data on this head. All that can be said
is that, notwithstanding the soil is altogether peat, it must be
very much more favourable for plant-life than is the peat of
an ordinary bog, or even a dry heath.

Since my visit took place in the depth of winter I my-
self can say nothing regarding the magnificent display of
flowers which this spot and the formation in general, if it
be indeed a true formation, exhibits during the summer
season. However, Chapman gives a most vivid picture of
Fairchild's Garden, which is here quoted almost in its entirety :
" This place " (16, p. 505) " will now be known by the name
we gave it — Fairchild's Garden. It extends from the strait at
the north-west end of the island along the shore to the first
piece of bush, and thence up to and over the summit of the
hill — in all perhaps 400 acres — one of the most wonderful
natural gardens the extratropical world can show. No doubt
other parts of Adams Island and other places in the group are
equally beautiful, but the day we spent here can never be for-

17— Trans.

258 Transactions. — Botanij.

gotten. A peaked rock ovex'head is 700 ft. above the sea ; the
summit rocks are 1,100 ft. by the aneroid. The whole of the
ground up to these and beyond them is Hterally packed with
beautiful fiow^ering herbaceous plants. Near the shore the
Ligiisticums , L. latifolium and L. anttjjodimi, grow in splendid
profusion, their stout rhizomes and huge rigid leaves stopping
the progress of pedestrians. Along the shore were masses of
golden lily (Anthericum rossii) in seed. Here, too, grew sweet-
scented Gotula lanata and its handsome congener G. liluviosa,
both of which are worth cultivating. Over the whole country
Pleuroj)hyllmn sjjeciostim sends up, among huge ribbed leaves
2 ft. long, its spikes of beautiful lilac or purple flowers. These
spikes are usually four or five, sometimes eight or ten, in
number. The regular imbricating of the large ribbed leaves,
so strong as to push aside the rank grasses, renders these
plants singularly beautiful. They form deep cups of crisp
foliage, which gives way with a crash as you set foot on
it." "The next species, Pleurophyllum crinifcrmn, was also
plentiful. Its leaves are even larger, and, although not so
handsome, make it a fine plant, especially as its tall white
flower-stalk, sometimes 3 ft. high, covered with button-like
brown rayless flower-heads 1 in. across, is a very striking ob-
ject." "Here, too, we met in immense quantities the most
beautiful of all the Celmisias, C. vernicosa, a little plant
with leaves here seldom more than 2 in. long, gleaming like
polished nephrite new from the lapidaries' hands, arranged in
the most perfect rosettes."

In the middle of winter the Pleurophyllum meadow pre-
sents a very different aspect, owing perhaps not so much to the
absence of flowers as to the winter habit of some of the more
important plants. Thus, the huge leaves of Pleurophyllum
criniferum are altogether wanting, P. speciosum only forms
comparatively small rosettes — one's feet do not then " crash
through the horizontal leaves as though walking on thin
ice " (56, p. 220) — while Bulbinella is hardly visible at all, the
winter buds hidden by the brown bases of the old decayed
leaves just protruding above the surface of the ground. To be
sure, the great rounded leaves of Stilhocar2M polaris and the
large dark-green leathery pinnate leaves of Ligiisticum lati-
Jolmvi still form as dense masses of greenery as in summer,
but here the absence of the inflorescence — as large as the head
of a man, according to Hooker (46, p. 16) — must make a
striking difl'erencc between the winter and the summer aspect ;
but as these plants appear frequently to form an association
mixed with little other vegetation of a striking appearance
they exercise much influence on the winter physiognomy of the
meadow as a whole. Everywhere the ground is dotted with
the bright-green winter rosettes of Pleurophyllum speciosum

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 259

pressed closely against the ground, or numbers of such occur
in close proximity. Such rosettes seem to vary considerably
in size according to their position witli regard to wind
and light, those of shady gullies being much larger than
those on the hillside. A rosette in the open may be + 25 cm.
in diameter, made up of quite a few leaves, hugging the
soil, pressed closely above one another and arching down-
wards so that their upper surface is convex, a kind of cup
being thus formed, with the highest part of its arching leaves
as its binm. During rain this cup quickly fills with water,
which soaks rapidly through the leaf-bases, bringing fresh
rain-water to the roots. The leaves also become thoroughly
wetted, their numerous hairs helping to hold the moisture,
and it is probable that these also assist in the supply of pure
water through their power of absorbing such, as suggested by
Diels (27, p. 291). Very frequent all over the formation are
large colonies of Bulbinelia rossii, the green tips of the winter
buds just visible above the dark-coloured peat, or the buds are
completely hidden by the brown leaf-bases of the previous
vear's leaves. Such colonies mav be several square metres in
extent. Trailing over the surface of the ground very abund-
antly are the long shoots of Acceria sanguisorbcB antarctica,
with its characteristic pale-green leaves almost or quite
glabrous on the upper surface. The small-leaved bright-
green Nertcra depressa, another creeping-plant, is also very
abundant. Here and there are grass-like tufts of Scirpus
ajccklaiidicus and the silvery-leaved Helichrysum prostratum,
and very frequently associated with these are the shining green
winter rosettes of Gentiana cerina. The feathery leaves of
Cotula plumosa are especially noticeable, its thick green stems
straggling over large patches of ground. Near the sea
Lomaria dura is a frequent member of the formation.

Turning now to the life-forms of the endemic members
of the Pleurophyllum meadow, the most striking feature, and
that which distinguishes it especially from the subalpine and
alpine meadows of the New Zealand Alps, is the very large
leaf-surface possessed by some of the most characteristic
plants. Similar leaf-development is seen, however, in some
other parts of the New Zealand biological area. In Stewart
Island and some of the adjacent islands is Aralia lyallii, and
in the Chatham Islands the magnificent Myosotidium nobile,
now almost extinct in the wild state (23, p. 302). In Ker-
guelen Island also Pringlea antiscorbutica may be instanced
as a parallel development under similar conditions.

Pleurophylhmi speciosum has large leaves pressed close to
the ground, and forming, according to Kirk, " a flat rosette
3ft. to 4ft. in diameter" (56, p. 220). This position of the
leaves must be of great advanta.ge in enabling the plant to

260 Transactions. — Botany.

resist the wind, and at the same time it prevents the encroach-
ment of other plants. The winter roseites, as shown above,
are much smaller— 25 cm., or about 10 in., in diameter. The
leaves have white sheathing bases, which in the largest — i.e.,
the outermost — measure + 6 cm. long x ± 7 cm. in breadth,
and are densely clothed with long silky hairs pressed closely
against the surface. The lamina of such a leaf measures
14 cm. X 14 cm. On its under-surface are about twenty-five
very prominent, stout, firm ribs forming the boundaries of
channels + 3mm. in breadth, filled with a loose tomentum.
These channels gradually narrow towards the leaf-base, and
are widest above, measuring in one leaf measured 9 mm.
The upper surface of the leaf is much channelled with
parallel channels, triangular in cross -section and + 9 mm.
wide from ridge to ridge. On the ridges are many trans-
parent moniliform hairs which stretcii over the channels.
The general aspect of the leaf, so far as its ridges and chan-
nels are concerned, is that of the corrugated iron so much
used in roofing in New Zealand, and this corrugated ap-
pearance must be still more strikmg in adult leaves. Within
the excellent jDi'otection afforded by the leaf -sheaths an^
the bright pale-yellow leaves of the young bud. A cross-
section of the leaf shows a thin-walled epidermis, with the
outer wall hardlv thicker than the inner ones. Beneath this
is a one- or, in places, a two-layered large-celled water tissue.
The palisade parenchyma consists of rather short, oblong
cells, and the spongy parenchyma is extremely loose, the
intercellular spaces being of very large size. The roots are
large and fleshy, but my notes say nothing as to their direc-
tion in the soil.

As for Pleurophyllum criniferuiu, I did not note it at all
on either Auckland or Campbell Island, owing to its habit of
dying completely to the ground in winter, the tips of the buds
alone just projecting above the surface ; nor was it until dig-
ging in the bogs of Antipodes Island that I met with this,
to all accounts, very common plant. The young bud is
closely surrounded by a very thick covering of old leaf-bases
in various stages of decay. Kirk describes the adult plant as
of a very different habit from P. speciosiim : " The leaves are
usually petioled, and from lift, to 3ft. in length, suberect
and spreading, forming a ring round the erect scapes" (56,
p. 220). In texture they are " membranous, but firm, white
with thin tomentum beneath " (58, p. 434). Hooker speaks
of this plant "a»so bulky that an ordinary specimen weighs
many pounds" (46, p. 33), and from this latter it may be
seen how great a peat-maker this species must be.

BulhincUa rossii, which in sunmier has numerous thick,
spreading, broad leaves 40 cm. long x 35 cm. broad, in winter,

Cockayne. — Botanical Exciirsion to Southern Islands. 261

as before stated, exhibits merely the tips of the buds, which
reach above the surface of the ground to a height of + 3-5 cm.
Such buds, from certain examples measured, are about 11 cm.
in length x 2-26 cm. in diameter. They are somewhat conical
in shape, and quite sharp at the apex, thus easily piercing the
soil. Above they are pale-green, but gradually toning (iown
to yellowish-green or very pale-yellow at the base. The leaves
of the bud are fleshy and imbricate closely, thus protecting
the interior of the bud, while the bud itself is protected by a
thick covering of the dead bases of the old leaves, consisting
mainly of the vascular bundles. The rhizome measures pro-
bably 2 cm. or so in thickness, and is concealed by the dense
masses of thick and fleshy yellow roots, which usually radiate
outwards and downwards from the base of the bud.

Stilbocarpa polaris is a noble plant, somewhat after the
manner of the Chilian Gunnera chilensis. The large rhi-
zome, measuring + 8 cm. x + 7 'cm., creeps on the surface
of the ground. Usually about six fully developed leaves
are given oflF from an ascending portion of the stem. These
leaves are + 6 cm. broad at the sheathing base, which is
furnished with a very large stipule + 18 cm. long x 10 cm.
wide at the apex — its widest part. Such stipules in part
enclose the interior bud, against which they are pressed
tightly by their concave inner surface, and play a most im-
portant part in its protection. The petiole, + 54 cm. long,
is thick, but hollow. The leaf-blade is orbicular reniform.
It is + 19 cm. in length, measuring from sinus to apex, and
+ 29 cm. broad. These leaf-blades are more or less in the
form of a funnel, through the lobes of the reniform base being
bent inwards, and so convey any water which falls on them
to the roots of the plant. The leaves on both surfaces and
the petioles are furnished with many pale hairs 10 mm. in
length, which seem to vary considerably in number in various
individuals. Drops of water frequently accumulate on these
hairs, but whether tliey can absorb such, as seems to me
likely, can only be ascertained by experiment. These hairs
remain unchanged in number in plants cultivated under con-
ditions quite different to those of their natural habitat, judg-
ing from a plant I have had in cultivation several years in the
neighbourhood of New Brighton, on a sandhill at the back of
a wall, sheltered from the north-west, and about Im. from a
small stream of water. The leaf-anatomy of Stilbocarpa is of
some interest. The epidermis on the under-surface of the
leaf is attached only to the veins, thus leading to numerous
spaces full of air between epidermis and spongy paren-
chyma. At first there seems to be an almost colourless
tissue of rounded cells between the epidermis and pali-
sade, but evi'iently these become ruptured and the above-

262 Transactions. — Botany.

mentioned air-spaces are formed. The lower epidermis
contains large numbers of stomata. Tlie upper epidermis
consists of a single row of large rectangular cells which
are slightly cuticularised. The assimilating portion of the
leaf consists of about six rows of palisade parenchyma,
each C3ll about twice as long as broad, succeeded by the
smaller and rounder cells of the spongy parenchyma, the
lowermost of which project into the above-mentioned air-
spaces somewhat after the manner of the assimilating tissue
in the air-cavities of Marchantia.

Ligusticum lalifolium has leaves + 60 cm. in length, with
a very thick stalk + 2-5 cm. in diameter. The blade is dark-
green m colour, very coriaceous, ovate in outline, and bi-
pinnately divided into rather broad segments, which are
3- to 5-lobed, each lobe terminating in a needle-like sharp
point. These lateral segments are not flat, but bent inwards,
thus bringing the tw^o surfaces into proximity, and the upper
half into a vertical position with regard to the light. There
are fine Ligusticums in both the subalpine region of New
Zealand and the moist coastal regions of the South Island,
but, as is the case with these Southern Island plants, they
nearly always exceed their largest New Zealand representa-
tives in luxuriance of growth. The leaf-anatomy much
resembles that of L. antipoduvi, described below, but the
stereome of the under-surface is replaced by water tissue,
and the spongy parenchyma m the middle of the leaf does
not seem quite so open as in the allied species. A specimen
which I have had in cultivation for some years side by side
with Stilbocarpa 'polaris, as mentioned above, has decidedly
thinner leaves than those of plants recently collected on
Auckland Island.

Lujusticuiu antipoduvi is a rather smaller plant than Lig.
latifoliu7n, and the leaf-blade is cut into a great number of
narrow linear needle-like segments, the ultimate ones being
i 2 cm. long. The leaves of this plant are in part dealt
with when treating of the subalpine rocks of Campbell Island.
There is a thick cuticle on both surfaces. Next to the epi-
dermis is a ring of stereome, which stretches into the interior
of the leaf, alternating with broad layers of palisade paren-
chyma. The arrangement on the under-surface is much tlie
same, but the green tissue is composed of rounded cells.
In the centre of the leaf is spongy parenchyma with large
intercellular spaces. There are a number of resin-passages.
Stomata occur on both surfaces, and they are sunken.

Myosotis capitata, although not endemic in the Southern
Islands, is by no means a common plant in New Zealand. In
winter it presents semi-rosettes of rather thick, soft, dark-
green leaves ± 5-3 cm. x ± 6 mm., covered on the upper

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 263

surface with bristly white hairs. The stems, 4:6 mm. in
diameter, are prostrate, but with the extremities ascending
and forming roundish tufts ± 16 cm. in diameter and 6 cm.
from the surface of the ground. The leaves are semi-patent,
and frequently recurved at their extremities, and dense enough
for one rosette to touch the next. A cross-section of a
leaf shows that it is dorsi-ventral, with a non-cuticularised
epidermis and large intercellular spaces in the spongy paren-
chyma.

Genttaiia cerina has in winter rather dense rosettes,
crowded together, of dark-green imbricating leaves, the four
or five outer leaves much larger than those crowded in-
ternally. Each rosette is about 3"7 cm. in diameter. Such
a plant may measure 10 cm. x 8 cm. In spring the rosettes
open out and the new branches spread out radially, with their
tips ascending.

Gotula plumosa, which is also found in Kerguelen Land,
has stout creeping stems 9 mm. in diameter, by which it
spreads over the surface of the ground. They are green
on the upper but paler on the under surface, and strongly
marked with old leaf-scars, the internodes being 4: 1-5 cm.
long. Rather stout, cord-like roots, furnished with fili-
form lateral rootlets, are given oiif from the nodes. Such
creeping stems may be quite without leaves for long dis-
tances, and serve both as storage and assimilating organs ;
in a collected plant 25 cm. were quite bare, but no mea-
surements were taken from growing plants. The leaves
in winter are in rosettes at the ends of the creeping stems.
The very young leaves in the centre of each rosette are
protected by a covering of long silky hairs. The leaves
have broad sheathing bases, fleshv in the centre and mem-
branous at the margin, tightly overlapping one another, and
this further protects the bud. In each winter rosette there
are only a few fully developed leaves. These are pinnate,
with the pinnae much divided, the whole leaf having a feathery
appearance, as the specific name implies. The upper side of
the leaflet-axis is furnished with about 7 segments — there are,
in fact, segments from base to apex ; but the lower side has
segments only near the apex. The segments also are only
divided on their outer side. By this arrangement the various
portions of the lamina hardly overlap at all. There is also a
gradual transition from pinnae without any lower segments to
those with 2-3 segments on the lower side, the two nearest
the base having no lower segments. Such a leaf as the above
measures 14-2 cm. ; the lamina 7"5 cm. x 4-3 cm.; the pinnae
1-8 cm. X 10 mm. The sheath is 3*5 cm. long x 5*5 cm. wide
(when spread out). The remainder of the petiole is stout,
almost flat on the upper and rounded on the under surface.

264 Transactions. — Botany.

tapering slightly from below upwards, and 2o mm. thick x
5 cm. broad towards its centre. The leaves are pale-green in
colour. On the blade and sheath are a few straggling hairs.
Numerous roots are given off from the leafy portion of the
plant, but only a few from the naked creeping stems, and
these roots will function especially as holdfasts. Cotula pro-
pinqjia is intermediate between the above and Cot. lanata, so
need not be further dealt with here.

Cetmisia vcrnicona has the leaves in densely crowded
rosettes 3-1 cm. in diameter in one case measured; but they
must very frequently be much larger than this, for the leaves,
according to Hooker (47, p. 136), may reach the length of
4 in. (10"lcm.). Below are the remains of many dead leaves.
The leaves are bright-green, highly polished and shining,
extremely coriaceous, and with margins recurved. The
rosettes frequently form large patches. Veronica benthami
is described in the part relating to Campbell Island. The
remaining plants (spermaphytes and pteridophytes) of this
formation are more or less common in New Zealand, and
need not be dealt with here.

Perhaps that which is most noticeable about the Plcnro-
vhylkim meadow when comparing it with related ecological
formations in New Zealand — as, for instance, a western sub-
alpine meadow in the South Island — is the very different colour-
ing of the flowers. In the subalpine meadow is the dazzling
white of Ranuncuhis lyallii or the various species of Gelmibia,
the yellow-throated but otherwise white Ourisia macrocarpa,
white gentians, white Ligusticums, the yellow-, white-, or cream-
coloured Senecio scorzoncrioides, and amongst the slirubs are
white-flowered Olearias and Veronica.s (these sometimes with
a shade of lilac) and yellow Senecios ; in short, with hardly an
exception, all amongst flowers in any way conspicuous are
white or yellow.* In the Pleurophyllum meadow, on the con-
trary, are : P. tspexiostim, with disc-florets purple anci ray-
florets purplish-white ; P. crinifcrnm, with flower-heads deep-
brown ; Li(j. iatifolium, with large umbels of reddish flowers;
Lig. antiiioduvi of similar colour to its ally ; Gelmisia verni-
cosa, with rays white and disc-florets deep-purple ; BuLhinelia
rossw, orange-coloured ; Veronicabenthami,diee'p-h\\\e ; Gcntiana
carina, white with stripes of briglit-red ; Myosotis capilata,
violet-blue fading to purple ; Epilol'invi confertifolium, pink.
Moreover — and this is a very significant fact — with the excep-
tion of the Myosotis, a rare plant in New Zealand, the whole of
the above are endemic, and they are also the dominant plants

• The alpine flora of Australia, as evidenced by the plants of Mount
Kosciusco, have, according to Mr. J. H. Maiden, "an enormous pre-
ponderance of white flowers," while yellow flowers come next in num-
ber (75a, p. 29).

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 265

of the formation. Certainly there are some yellow flowers ;
e.g., Cotiila plumosa and perhaps Bulhinella rossii should be
here included. The gentian is described by Kirk as occasion-
ally white. Helichrj/S2cm prostratum is also found in New
Zealand, and it has white flower-heads. The flowers of Stil-
bocarpa polaris I have not seen in the living state ; they are
described by Kirk as " one-quarter of an inch in diameter,
yellow, waxy, shining, with purple centres" (66, p. 215). The
remaining plants have all small and inconspicuous flowers.

Thus, the difference so far as colour is concerned between
a Pleurophyllum meadow and an allied formation in New Zea-
land proper is most marked. As to how such differences have
come about is discussed under another head.

7. Suhalpine Meadoio.

The portion of subalpine meadow visited by me was that
just above the forest-line at Camp Cove, in the south- of Auck-
land Island. Here the ground is at a gentle slope, and much
cut up by gullies, which are full of scrub. The soil, as else-
where in the Southern Islands, consists of peat, always more
or less saturated with water, and in places so wet that such
might be designated semi-bog. This differs considerably in
its plant-members from the drier part of the nieadow. The
dominant meadow-plant is the large coarse-leaved tussock-
grass Danthoma bronwides, w'hich gives a feature to the
landscape, as pointed out by Kirk (56, p. 221), similar to that
afforded by its relative, DantJionia raoulii, of the Canterbury
mountains. The meadow-scenery, in fact, to quote a very
familiar instance, much resembles that on either side of the
West Coast Eoad, in Canterbury, between Parapet Eock and
the road-crossing at Cave Creek. Dotted about all over the
meadow are bushes of Dracoj^hylhwi longifolium of about the
height of an average man, the xerophytic structure, stiff
needle-like leaves arranged semi-vertically and confined to the
ends of the shoots, enabling this forest-plant to hold its own
in the open in the full blast of the subalpine wind. Cassinia
vauvilliersii is also plentiful, in its case the small tomentose
leaves and strong stiff branches being in harmony with its
environment. Coprosma cuneata is also plentiful, and it, in
aiidition to small leaves of xerophytic form, creeps close to
the ground, and in consequence receives much shelter from
the tussocks and erect shrubs. On the surface of the ground
large patches of various species of moss are abundant, and on
the stems of the shrubs are various lichens.

The semi-bog, which forms a distinct plant-association,
can at once be distinguished from the rest of the meadow by
the presence of the large, round, bright-green, dense cushions
of Phyllachne clavigera, a bog xerophyte of the typical form

266 Transactions. — Botany.

of many other antarctic cushion-plants. Coprosma repens
covers the wet ground with its rather succulent prostrate
stems and small green leaves, and the needle-leaved Cyathodes
empetrifolia is very common. Growing associated with the
above are patches of Astelia linearis subulata, the short, stiff,
vertical, green portion of the leaf rising above the ground for
about 11 mm. This plant spreads into large colonies by
means of its long wiry stems, which creep just beneath the
surface of the ground. These stems are covered thickly with
old decayed leaf-sheaths, and with these and the roots form
extremely dense mats 3 cm. or more in depth. The stem
proper is marked with old leaf-scars, and measures only
1-5 cm. or less in diameter. Just before issuing from the
ground the stem branches into two or three leafy shoots, each
furnished with 2-3 green leaves. Such leafy shoots, being
quite close, form a rather dense turf. The leaves are ± 2-1 cm.
long, and consist of a pale-coloured sheathing base, which is
rather longer than the vertical oi- semi-vertical shining green
subulate lamina. There are a few hairs on the sheath and
occasionally at the base of the lamina, otherwise the green
portion of the leaf is quite glabrous. The assimilating tissue
consists of round cells close together, except on the upper
surface, where this tissue is broken into by a rather broad
layer of large-celled water tissue reaching to the centre of the
leaf. The epidermis is moderately cuticularised, and the
stomata are just below the cuticle. This plant differs very
considerably from the type, which is altogether larger in all its
parts and has leaf laminae, linear, 5-4 cm. long x 5 mm. broad,
coriaceous, so bent upwards as to make a channel on the upper
surface of the leaf, and the midrib and edge of leaf covered
with adpressed brown chaffy hairs. The rhizome is also
much stouter and more densely clothed with decayed leaves.
Mixed up with the above-mentioned plants are various mosses,
liverworts, and lichens, which find a suitable habitat on the
wet soil, very conspicuous being the beautiful white masses of
Cladonia retipora ov an allied species. Growing tlirough
the carpet of Cop. repens or forming large patches to itself is
the filmy fern HymenopJii/Uuvc muitifidum, a striking testi-
mony to the constant moisture of the atmosphere. Grow-
ing in this situation it has altogether a difi'erent habit to
that which it bears as a forest plant. From the slender
wiry rhizome creeping amongst the mosses or turf pass up-
wards numerous erect very dark-brown wiry stipes from
2-9 cm. to 5 mm. in length. The dark-green leaves, which
look almost black from the dark colour of the midribs, arch
downwards parallel with the erect stipes, and may bury their
apical portion or even more amongst the accompanying
mosses. The pinnao likewise are curved vertically downwards,

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 267

aud the segments, crowded together and with their edges more
or less recurved, reiiuce the leaf-surface into a very small com-
pass indeed compared with the normal form, which has its
pinnae expanded horizontally. Plants of this form cultivated
m the moist chamber of the Canterbury College Biological
School have their new fronds not in the least degree curled
up and of a bright-green, contrasting strongly with the almost
black curled fronds. Such young fronds are at first erect,
with their pinnae plagiotropous, but finally the stipes bend
so as to bring the whole surface of the frond into a horizontal
position/'' There are other plants belonging both to the wet
and dry parrs of the subalpine meadow, but my notes only
mention the above, for they were taken most hastily. Amongst
some of the important plants omitted are Drosera stenopetala,
Astelia linearis (the type), Juncus scheuzerioides, Gaimardia
ciliata, Oreobolus jmmilio, Lycopodiian fastigiatum, L. variiim
polaris, and Schizcea aiistralis.

8. Siihaipine Scrub.
The difference in species between the formation of the
open meadow and that of the more sheltered gullies and
depressions is very instructive, for in the latter position occur
those constituents of the forest which have a less marked
xerophytic structure than those which can exist as plants of
the meadow, and which in the latter situations certainly be-
come more stunted, but otherwise are of perfect vigour. Thus,
in the gullies are found some of the arborescent forest-plants,
small trees no longer, but now dense shrubs, forming, so far as
form goes, a typical " subalpine scrub," such as might occur
above the forest-line of a New Zealand mountain. Metro-
sideros lucida and Panax simplex are both present, but now
no taller than the accompanying Suttonia divaricata. Here,
too, is the prostrate Gop)rosma cuneata, and most likely Cop.
ciliata and Cop. parviflora. Scrub such as this is even more
difficult to penetrate than is the western subalpine scrub of
a South Island mountain, and in consequence, as it was late
in the afternoon when I reached the subalpine meadow, and
as these gullies full of scrub had constantly to be ci'ossed, I
had no time to see the vegetation of a mountain-summit in
the Auckland Islands, the place p)ar excellence where any
novelties might be expected to occur.

II. Campbell Island.

GENEEAL REMARKS.

Campbell Island lies in latitude 52° 33' S. and longitude
169° 09' E., and is distant 145 miles south-east of Auckland

* By March, 1904, the new fronds of the early leaved form were
identical with tho-fe of the type.

268 TransactioJis. — Botany.

Island and 330 miles south by east fronn the South Cape of
Stewart Island. It was discovered in 1810 by Frederick
Hazelburgh, master of the brig "Perseverance," who de-
scribed the island as being thirty miles in circumference,
and the country mountainous (90, p. 417).

The general configuration of the island can be seen from
the accompanying map. Although the mountains ai-e not
quite so high as those of the Auckland Islands, they are some-
what steeper and moi'e rocky. The coast-line for the most
part consists of abrupt cliff's not unlike those near the en-
trance of Akaroa Harbour, and it is described by Hooker as,
"Iron-bound as that of St. Helena, the rocks assuming even
a wilder and more fantastic form." Buchanan's drawings
(9, pi. xxxviii.) give some idea of the island as seen from
the sea.

The " Hinemoa " stayed the whole of two days, so I was
enabled to see a good deal of certain parts of the island,
ascending the first day to the summit of Mount Honey,
568m., the highest point on the island, and on the second
day crossing over Lyall's Pyramid from Perseverance Har-
bour to North-east Harbour. My notes are therefore con-
fined to the country in the east of Campbell Island, much of
which, as may be seen further on, is no longer in its primitive
condition, owing to fires and the grazing of sheep for some
seven years past.

CLIMATE.

From Mr. Gordon, manager of the sheep-run on Campbell
Island, I have received very many valuable details respecting
the climate. This, on the whole, seems very similar to that
of Auckland Island. There is the same lack of sunshine and
similar frequent gales accompanied by driving rain and sleet,
especially in spring and autumn. The driest period, if we
can speak at all of such in these Southern Islands, is from
November to May. Sunshine is most frequent during the
summer months, but even when bright at sea-level there is
generally more or less fog on the higher peaks. The snowfall
at sea-level is very sUght, Mr. Gordon having noted 76 mm. as
the heaviest fall during a period of seven years. Such snow
comes in blasts from tlie south-west, while these gales are
frequently accompanied by hail. During five winters the
thermometer at sea-level only registered 2" Fahr. of frost.
In what I designate the " subalpine region " the frost is cer-
tainly much stronger than the above. Although on the day
when I climbed Mount Honey there was no frost at sea-level,
above a certain altitude the ground was frozen so hard that I
could not dig up the plants in order to examine their subter-
ranean organs ; but there was no general covering of snow,
only a few patches here and there. Such frost without a pro-

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 269

tective covering of snow subjects these plants to comparatively
severe conditions — much more severe, in fact, than any to
which the plants of lower levels are exposed. x\s for rain,
really heavy rain — according to Mr. Gordon — is not very fre-
quent ; usually it is a fine drizzle. In short, there must be a
great number of rainy days, but no excessive annual rainfall.

GEOLOGY.

x\ccording to Hector (40, p. 737), Campbell Island is a
volcanic mass, but has the peculiar feature of having, slightly
above sea-level, the original rock-formation on which it is
founded. On the north and south it presents fantastic peaks
and precipices carved out of rocks of the same character as
those which form Otago Peninsula. Towards the southern
end it is traversed by Perseverance Harbour east and west,
which is by a moderately high saddle connected with West
Harbour. On the north and south of this rift are frowning
clifi's and peaks of basaltic lava-sheets ; but at the sea-level
there is an exposure, both on the east and west coasts of the
island, of the Upper Cretaceous rocks, with chalk flints and
fossil wood, such as is found in New Zealand in the Upper
Amuri series. • These have been brought to the surface-level
together with the volcanic outburst, as thej' are injected and
interstratified with dykes and tufa rocks of the same kind.
The wonderful mystery of the occurrence of fossilised dicotyle-
donous wood in the far south latitude of Campbell Island is
therefore thrown entirely out of the distribution of plant-life
in Tertiary times, and must be referred to the Cretaceous
epoch. At an altitude of 800 ft. clear evidence of the existence
of a true corrie and moraine of the first order was obtained,
but it is purely local, and is the only evidence of former glacier-
action observed.

According to Filhol (35a, p. 261), Campbell Island is
formed of a band of limestone and lavas. " The limestone
band is jammed between two coral dykes, the overflow from
which has partly covered it. This layer, the thickness of
which is about 70 metres, has evidently been formed in a very
deep sea. Fossils are absolutely wanting in it, and micro-
graphic sections have only enabled me to note the presence of
G-lobigerina. This limestone, which is of a yellowish colour, is
not met with again in any part of New Zealand. Its upper
surface at those parts where it is not covered by the lava is
not overlaid by any terrestrial deposit." " it is perfectly certain
that the geological age of the island, constituted as we now
see it, corresponds to the epoch of the appearance of the
volcanic eruptions." "The limestone which the eruptions of
Campbell Island have brought up, or which perhaps by its
fracture has formed a passage for the lava, must have been

270 Transactions. — Botany.

formed during Post-pliocene periods — that is to say, in the
epoch during which New Zealand possessed its last great
geographical extension. Tt was not, therefore, before the
very end of the Pliocene that Campbell Island as it now ex-
ists appeared above the surface of the sea." This account
of Filhol's differs very materially from that of Hector; as to
which is the more correct I can offer no opinion.

THE PLANT-FOEM.\TIONS.

The plant-formations consist, so far as I was able to ascer-
tain, of the following: (1) Stony shore; (2) scrub; (3) lower
tussock meadow ; (4) subalpine tussock meadow ; (5) Rost-
kovia formation ; (6) subalpine rocks. There are doubtless
also lowland swamps, maritime-cliff vegetation, running-water
vegetation, while possibly certain combinations of plants
which I did not meet with may constitute formations or asso-
ciations. Indeed, here as elsewhere for these Southern Islands
my account and classification of the plant-formations is but
provisional. Most of the life-forms of the endemic members
of the formations have been dealt with in the part of this
paper referring to Auckland Island, but one or two more
common in Campbell Island than in the Auckland Group,
as well as those endemic to the island under consideration,
are dealt with when describing the formations of which they
form a part.

1. Stony Shore.

An extremely rapid examination was made of the stony
shore along the south of North-east Harbour. Here Ligusti-
cum latifolium comes right on to the stones of the beach,
accompanied by Stilbocarpa polaris, which does not approach
so near to the water's edge. Creeping over the stones is
Cotnla lanata, and growing here and there amongst tliem is
a small grass, in general appearance not unlike DantJionia
australis (11, pi. xxxi.), but which I cannot identify until a
specimen in cultivation flowers. Wherever rocks are present
are the cushions of Colohanthus vmscoides. Altogether, this
formation is very similar to that of the stony sea-shore of
Auckland Island.

2. Dracophyllum Scrub.

There is no arborescent growth to vvliich one can with
truth apply the term "forest" on Campbell Island. The
scrub may vary considerably ni height according to the
degree of shelter it receives, but everywhere there are only
shrubs, and not low trees with bare trunk and spreading
crown beneath which one can walk, as in the forests of
Auckland Island. Most probably the absence of forest de-
pends upon the slightly stronger winds and much less shelter

CocKA\NE. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 271

to be found than in Auckland Island, dependent upon the
configuration of the ground and to some degree upon the
smaller size of the island. On Antipodes Island, as will be
seen further on, the scrub attains still snjaller dimensions,
and has almost reached the vanishing-point, while on Mac-
quarie Island there is no scrub at all (39). These islands, then,
as a whole, afford an instruQtive example of how arborescent
plant-formations even in a rain-forest climate may be inhibited
by frequent and violent winds and their place taken by
meadow growths, which, notwithstanding the wind, are so
stimulated by the moisture as to be of very great luxuriance.

The arborescent constituents of the scrub are the following:
Dracophylluin longifoliuni, Dracojjhylluvi sp. (not identified)
( Ericacea) ; Coprosma cuneata. Cop. ciliata, Cop. parviflora
(Ruhiacece) ; Suttonia divaricata (Myrsi)iacecs). From this it
appears that this formation is closely allied to the subalpine
scrub of the Auckland Islands.

Seen at a distance, as from the deck of a ship in either of
the harbours, the Dracophi/lhcm scrub of Campbell Island pre-
sents an even surface, and puts one in mind of the Leptosper-
mum scrub so common on poor soil in many parts of New
Zealand. It occurs on both sides of Perseverance Harbour,
especially near the entrance and on the north side, where,
however, it has been much burned. The long comparatively
flat valley leading inland from the head of North-east Harbour
is filled in many places with scrub, which ascends thence to a
considerable height up the slopes on both sides of this valley.
Generally speaking, the shrubs grow closely together, and are
of the most extremely dense habit of growth. There is no-
thing in my experience of quite a number of dense forest and
scrub growths in New Zealand more difficult for one to pene-
trate than this Dracophylluvi scrub of Campbell Island. In
many places one has to crawl beneath the stiff masses of
branches, but in other cases this is quite impossible, and one
has to scramble over the tops of the shrubs. Happily, here
and there open spaces occur, especially in the neighbourhood
of watercourses, where there are dense masses of herbaceous
plants, and such spots afford breathing-places.

The dominant constituent of the scrub is the unidentified
species of DracojjJtyllum mentioned above." It varies con-
siderably in height, averaging perhaps l-5m., but is fre-
quently of lower growth. It possesses numerous densely
growing, strong, erect, rather brittle branches covered with
almost black bark. These branches are again much branched,
and furnished near their extremities with a close mass of
short leaves. The secondary branches pass from the main
stem' at an acute angle, curving slightly inwards. The ulti-

* Perhaps a form of Dracophylluin scopariuin, Hook. f.

272 Transactio7is. — Botany.

mate branchlets pass upwards from the stem at a very acute
angle, thus bi'inging the leaves into an almost vertical position.
The leaves are short and narrow, + 14cm. in length x 1mm.
in breadth, concave and pubescent on the upper surface and
convex on the under-surface. They are so densely crowded
together as frequently to touch one another. Where this
scrub was tallest a stem measurgd 8 cm. or 9 cm. in diameter
at 90 cm. from the ground. Mixed with the Dracopliyllum
is Suttonia divaricata, but the amount present of this dense
shrub varies in different places. Where the scrub is tallest
there is mixed with it a small proportion of Dracophyllmn
longifolnini. Where the scrub becomes more open Coprosma
cuneata is a constituent, knee-deep, and so, much more luxuri-
ant than on the wind-swept hillside ; also, there are large
patches of Lomaria procera. The leaves of Dracopliylhnu
longifoliuvi are much more spreading than those of its vertical-
leaved ally, and the two species can easily be distinguished
from one another at some distance avvay. The scrub fre-
quently merges into the Danthonia meadow, and the two for-
mations thus become intermingled, or occasionally the large
grass may be a constituent of the scrub proper. In the
former case we have probably a line of tension between scrui)
and tussock meadow. Such mixture of tussock and scrui)
was especially noticeable on the north side of Lyall's
Pyramid, and is described at some length further on.

The floor of the scrub varies both in the density and
character of its plant-covering accortiing to the openness of
the scrub and the moisture-content of the soil. Where the
scrub is extremely dense there is little on the ground beyond
a carpet of dead Dracophyllnvi leaves, sometimes 15 cm. in
depth. If the bushes are a little furtiier apart Aspidiuvi ves-
tituvi makes its appearance, m company with Lomaria pro-
cera, and seedlings of the different shrubs are common. With
still greater openness of the scrub Lomaria pirocera becomes
taller and more abundant, growing in company with stunted
Coprosmas and small plants of Dracophyllum sp. Here, too,
rather tall clumps of Lycopodium variicm are a conspicuous
feature, while where the ground is unoccupied by other vege-
tation is a carpet of mosses, liverworts, and lichens. Very
frequently some of these mosses or liverworts form mounds, on
which grows abundantly the filmy fern HymcnopJiyllum multi-
fidum ; or mosses, liverworts, and ferns may be mixed up witli
the prostrate branches of Coprosma cuneata. In this part of
the formation Epilobium linnaoides is always present to a
greater or lesser extent.

Sometimes the various Coprosmas and Suttonia divaricata
are more abundant than the Dracophyllum, and in sheltered
places attain a height of l-7m.

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursioti to Southern Islands. 273

The conditions of life for the plants of the floor of this for-
mation are quite different from those to which the scrub as
a whole is exposed, and which regulate its distribution and
define its components. Where one sits down within the
shelter of the scrub the air is quite still, while the wind can
be heard plainly whisthng overhead.

That comparatively open spaces exist within the domains
of the scrub was pointed out above when speaking of its
density. Such aie occasionally met with on the southern
slopes of Lyall's Pyramid, and increase in number as North-
east Harbour is neared. Here are associated together many
of those fine herbaceous plants which were described when
treating of the PlcuropJiylbim meadow of the Auckland
Islands, and probably this association of plants is a forma-
tion distinct from the scrub, owing its existence to greater
moisture in the ground and protection from the scrub. In
such situations the great leaves of Ligusticum latifolhmn,
with their stout petioles, are more than knee-deep. Where
the ground becomes a little wetter still is Pleurophyllum
speciosuni, its leaves larger and less decayed than in the
meadow formation. These same plants, and, most of all,
Stilbocarpa polaris, follow the many watercourses which
cut into the hillside, and grow luxuriantly in the running
water. On the banks of such streams the small butter-
cup, Banunculus subscaposics , is abundant. This plant so
far has only been found in Campbell Island. According to
Hooker it is quite rare (46, p. 5), for during the Eoss expedi-
tion only one specimen was discovered. Hooker subsequently
referred an allied New Zealand buttercup to this species
(48, p. 7), but Kirk very rightly separated this latter from
E. subscaposiis in the " Students' Flora," giving it the name
of B.foliosus (66, p. 14). I collected a number of living plants
of R. suhscaposus, and two are now growing well on the Can-
terbury College rockery, one of which bloomed on the 25th
October. The leaves of B. subscaposus are somewhat cordate
in outline, trifoliate, with leaflets cuneate at the base and
three-lobed above. Both petiole and lamina on both surfaces
are densely covered with appressed whitish''' hairs. The
petiole is stout, and 2-2 cm. to 3"8cm. long in the plants
examined; the lamina is 2 cm. x 1-8 cm. The petals are
yellow, with a broad band of brown, which is most noticeable
at the back of the petal.

The transition between tussock meadow and scrub, men-
tioned above, and which may be designated " tussock scrub,"
consists of tussocks of Danthonia bromoides ± l'6m. tall and

* In the " Flora Antarctica " the hairs are described as of a tawny-
yellow colour.

18— Trans.

274 Transactions. — Botany.

large bushes of Coprosmas mixed with Aspidiiwi vestituvi ;
but these two latter are not so tall as the tussock. At dis-
tances of about every i2rn. the ground is cut by deep gullies
having running streams in their bottoms, their sides covered
with scrub and their bottoms filled with a dense mass of
Ligusticum latifolium, L. antipodum, and Stilhocarpa polaris.
The Danthonia tussock has been already described. As for
the Coprosmas, they consist within of dense masses of bare
interlacing twiggy branches. On the periphery alone of such
bushes is the actual green part of the plant, and this leafy
zone only penetrates into the plant for perhaps 7 cm. at most.
Looking from the north side of Lyall's Pyramid at the slopes
bounding the opposite side of the fiat valley tilled with tussock
and tussock scrub, they are seen to be curiously marked below
by brown tussock meadow on the ridges, while very irregular-
shaped masses of scrub or tussock scrub define the main and
tributary gullies. Above all this is an even formation of sub-
alpine tussock meadow. Passing through the tussock scrub,
and keeping at a uniform height on the hillside, crossing in
the meanwhile gully after gully full of vegetation as described
above, wetter ground than the average is here and there en-
countered. Such contains a different assemblage of plants to
the tussock scrub proper, and should really be described under
another head, but for convenience' sake it is dealt with here.
It is especially instructive in showing how a change in the
water-content, even in a region where all the normal soil is
fairly saturated with water, will at once bring about a marked
change in the vegetation. On such a spot, which was spe-
cially examined, the Danthonia tussock, although still present,
was much reduced in size ; Pleurophyllum speciosicvi and
Pleur. Jtookeri were very plentiful ; Lomaria procera carpeted
the ground in many places and gave a character to the whole.
The common Dracophyllum was dotted about, but here again
a characteristic plant of another formation was much reduced
in size, the plants bemg less than 30 cm. in height ; in other
places the carpet consisted of a small Jwicus {J. scheuzeri-
oides ?), liverworts, mosses, Coprosma repens, Helichrysum
prostratum, Ligusticum antipodum, tufts ol Lycopodiinn varium
or Lycopodiuni fastigiatum rising up here and there ; while
everywhere Coprosma bushes, these much stunted, were scat-
tered about. Large breadths of Hymcnojyhyllum viultifiduvi
and hummocks of mosses and liverworts about 30 cm. in height
were abundant, while the ever-present lichens, both foliaceous
and fruticose, gave colour, their whites, yellows, and browns
contrasting finely with the many luies of green. In some
places water trickled over and in others stones cropped out of
the wet peaty ground. Finally, there were many large clumps
of Buibinella rossii.

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 275

3. Loiver Tussock Meadoiv.

Buchanan writes (9, p. 398), "The whole coast-line is
rugged in the extreme, although inland large flat areas may
be seen apparently covered by grasses and indicating rich
pasture. This appearance, however, on closer examination, is
found to be deceptive, as but few grasses exist, and a coarse
wet cyperaeeous pasture prevails, which would prove worth-
less for feed except for cattle of a hardy breed that would
stand the rigours of the climate. Tiiere is no doubt, however,
that on the lower levels, where soil can accumulate, a rich
though coarse vegetation exists ; but the land is so spongy and
wet that the finer grasses cannot thrive. The extreme wet-
ness of the soil is shown by the fact that wherever a plant is
dug out with a knife the hole immediately fills with water,
and an indication is thus obtained of the treatment such
plants should receive when it is attempted to grow them in a
drier climate."

However true the above may be as regards certain por-
tions of the island, it certainly does not in the least apply to
the parts visited by me, and extending from sea-level to the
tops of two of the hills, one the highest on the island. It
may be that there are low-lying tracts occupied chiefly by
Carex, but so far as my investigations went, except where
there was scrub, grasses and not cyperaeeous plants abound,
and the tussocks which densely clothe the mountains from
summit to base are of grass and not of sedge, while small
grasses of various kinds are by no means uncommon. More-
over, such tussocks are at the present time feeding 4,500
sheep, and this on at most only one-half of the island. As
for the wet nature of the ground, it certainly does contain a
great deal of moisture, but even in the middle of winter water
cannot be generally wrung out of the peat ; nor did any hole
made by me in digging for plants fill with water, as, e.g., in the
bogs of Chatham Island.

The lower tussock meadow forms a more or less distinct
zone on the hillsides from the sea-level to a height perhaps
of 150m., where it is succeeded by a second zone of meadow,
to which I have given the name "subalpine tussock meadow,"
above which comes a third but narrow zone where Bostkovia
gracilis is the characteristic plant, while above and through
this latter is the final zone, that of the rock-plants.

In no place where I was able to examine the lower tus-
sock meadow was it in its virgin condition. Everywhere on
Mount Honey, where at one time this formation must have
been typical, have sheep grazed for some years, and their
effect has been so marked that it is dealt with under another
heading. But even now it is not hard to form a very fair

'276 Transaction^. — Botany.

idea of what the virgin formation was like, for although many
plants are destroyed their remnants remain. Some few places
still approximate to the primeval condition, and — most im-
portant of all — introduced plants have not as yet appeared in
any quantity, and so increased enormously the difficulty of
determining the character of the virgin formation.

The dominant plant is a tussock-grass with long narrow
filiform leaves, probably a species of Poa — perhaps, indeed,
identical with the meadow tussock of Antipodes Island,
referred by Kirk to Poa anceps. My specimens, collected in
midwinter, were too poor for identification; even Mr. D.
Petrie, whose knowledge of the New Zealand grasses is so
thorough, could make no definite statement as to the species.'''
By Mr. Gordon, of Campbell Island, it is called " silver-
tussock," and that name will serve admirably for the present.

With the silver- tussock is mixed occasionally a little
Danthonia bromoides, and everywhere in the open spaces
between the tussocks are the great colonies of Bidbinella
rossii which attracted the attention of Hooker so that he
wrote (46, p. 73), "It" [Bulbmella] "covered the swampy
sides of the hills in such profusion as to be distinctly visible
at a full mile from shore." Similarlv, the allied but smaller
B. hookeri clothes many hillsides in the lower mountain
region of the South Island with sheets of yellow. In these
same open places Pleurophyllum speciosum was very frequent,
while the dark-green Aspidiicm ve.stiium, the brown-coloured
Lomaria j^f'ocera, and prostrate bushes of Coprosma ciliata
were common. These bushes ai-e in some places flattened
close to the ground; in other places, where the shelter is
greater, they may be about l-9m. long x 90 cm. wide x 90 cm.
tall. Their surface is sometimes flat, as if cut by shears, or at
other times marked by long longitudinal ridges. They form
extremely dense, large, flattened, pale-green hummocks, with
bare, much-interlacing, rather thick, twisted branches beneath,
looking not unlike stems of lianes ; but the dense green sur-
face, composed of quite small leaves, is at most 9 cm. or
10 cm. in depth. In some cases reversion-shoots are given off
from the base of the plant, in the slielter and dim light of its
interior, having very much larger leaves than those of the
adult, and being almost identical with those of seedlings. In
one seedling examined the stem was densely pilose ; leaves
ovate-oblong with rounded or cuneate base, pale -green,
ciliated, a few hairs sometimes on the upper surface of the
lamina, but always on the midrib. Petiole densely hairy,

• Since writing this Mr. Petrie informs me that the Antipodes Island
tussock was the one lie had referred to I'oa chatliamica, but that he, and
probably Mr. Gheeseman also, now considers it to be a new and unnamed
species.

Cockayne. — Botanicai Excurbion to Soutitern Islands. 277

3mm. long; lamina 1-6 cm. x I'lcm., veins distinct. No
pits, so common in Goprosma,* were noticed on the back of
the leaf.

With the bushes of Coprosma ciliata, Aspidium vestitum
is frequently mixed. Here and there, growing through the
bushes or mixed with the tussock, were the rather shaggy
naked stems of Veroyiica hcnthami, a shrub confined to the
Campbell and Auckland Islands. These stems are marked
with many old leaf-scars, but above are quite green. The
leaves are crowded together at the extremities of the branches ;
they are thick, rather soft, narrow obovate-oblong in shape,
dark-green, and their margins are edged with a pale-coloured
toment/um. In size they are about 3'5 cm. x 1-4 cm. With
regard to the light, the surfaces of the lower and larger leaves
are horizontal or frequently arch downwards somewhat. The
structure is that of a typical dorsi-ventral leaf. Nearer the
apex of the shoot the leaves are smaller than those below,
broader in proportion to their length, and loosely imbricating.
The flowers are in racemes, which lengthen considerably
during flowering, each flower subtended by a very large
green leaf-like bract. The petals are a most clear violet-blue
marked by very narrow lines of a still deeper blue.

Where the ground becomes wetter the character of the
formation changes. There the surface is carpeted with the
brown fronds of Lomaria procera, amongst and over which
trailed the silvery-leaved Helichrysuin prostratum. Through
the Lomaria grow tussocks of Garex appressa.

The following extract from my notebook affords some idea
of a general view of a piece of lowland meadow : " Large
breadths of Lomaria procera mixed with stunted Garex
appressa, low bushes 16 cm. tall of Goprosma parviflora,
little conical cypress-like shrubs of Dracophyllujii scoparium
30 cm. to 60 cm. tall dotted here and there, yellow tussock
waving in the breeze everywhere except where Lomaria
procera is abundant." These little Dracophyllum shrubs
have naked dark-coloured stems for half or less than half
their height.

From the above it may be seen that there are two dis-
tinct associations of plants included under my term " lowland
tussock meadow," more or less sharply separated from one
another by the amount of moisture in the ground : on the
drier ground silver-tussock is dominant, and on the wetter a
fern — Garex association. All the same, many of the meadow
plants are common to both associations, and appear to thrive
equally well either in the drier or moister ground. It must

* Greensill, N. A. R. : " Structure of Leaf of certain Species of
Coprosma." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxv., pp. 342, 355. 1903.

278 Transactions. — Botany.

be borne in mind that the term -'dry" is here merely com-
parative.

The soil of the formation as a whole consists of spon<iy
peat, which is elastic underfoot. The surface is at first
gently sloping, but becomes steeper as one proceeds up the
mountain-side. Except within the gullies, and these in con-
sequence tilled with scrub, all the hillsides of Campbell Island
must be much wind-swept; indeed, it seems evident that
wind is here, as on the uplands of Auckland Island, the de-
termining factor as to whether arborescent or grassy growth
shall predominate.

4. Subalpine Tussock Meadow.

The presence of this formation, aiid also those next to be
considered, probably depends upon the greater severity of the
climate, arising from frosts being much more severe and of
very much longer duration than at a lower level, the fre-
quency of such frost unaccompanied by snow, the greater
exposure to winds — these at times must be of the most ex-
treme severity — and, finally, the smaller amount of sunshine
and the almost constant presence of mist. The soil of this
formation is similar to that of the lower tussock meadow.

The dominant plant, as in the subalpine meadow of Auck-
land Island, is Danthonia hromoides, in many places growing
very thickly. Between the tussocks are large quantities of
Pleurophyllum hookeri, in winter its leaves projecting above
the ground to a height of rb 7 cm., and the leaf-blaiies of
the previous year, 17 cm. x 7 em., forming a decaymg mass
spread out radially round the plant. Creeping over the sur-
face of the ground are in many places considerable breadtiis
of Coprosma repens, while HelicJirysmu prostratum, Nertera
deprcssa, Stcllaria decipiens, Epilohiuvi linnceoides, Epilohium
confer tif oil I t7n, and Lycopodium fastigiatum are common. As
in the lowland tussock, Aspidimn restitum and bushes of
Coprosiiuts give an additional character to the pliysiogiiomy
of the formation. Where the ground is wettest Sphagnum
appears, and in conjunction with this bog-moss are a number
of other plants, some of which are truly bog-plants, while
others are prominent members of very difi'erent formations.
Of the above plants the most strikmg are tlie large, bright-
green, hard cushions of Phyllachne clavigera, patches of Hy-
meno2)hyllHm miUtifiduvi with curled-up fronds, as previously
described for the subalpine meadow of .Vuckland Island, Co-
proHina repens, nmch-stunted Coprosma bushes, Pleurophylliivi.
hookeri, Plenrop. speciosum, Epilobmm confcrtifoliinn, large
patches of Bulhinclla rossii, and very many lichens.

Of these plants the only one which needs detailed treat-
ment here is Pleurophyllum hookeri, which is by far tlie most

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 279

common representative of that genus in the subalpine region
of Campbell Island. This species was originally described,
and also figured, by Buchanan in 1884 (10, p. 395) ; later on
Kirk gave it the MS. name of P. gilliesianmn, and still later
described it under the name of P. hookeriamwi, J. Buch. (58),
a slip which he corrected in the " Students' Flora," where
the plant is described as P. hookeri. According to Kirk
(58, p. 435) the adult-leaves are 6 in. to 10 in. long by 3 in.
to 4 in. broad, white on both surfaces with silky, lax, or
close tomentum, and, appressed to the ground, form a rosette.
From each plant from one to three scapes are given off, 15 in.
to 24 in. tall, which bear — from Kirk's plate of this species
— -some 20 hemispherical or almost globose heads f in. in
diameter. The ray-florets are few or wanting, and are of a
deep lurid-red or reddish-purple.

In winter a clump of Pleurop. hookeri may occupy a space
of + 46 cm. X + 30 cm.. and consists of a number of short
rosettes (buds) surrounded by the dead leaf- blades of the pre-
vious year, as stated further back. The leaves of the largest
rosettes are semi-erect, or those with very short leaf-apices
quite erect, and densely imbricate, especially at the base, the
plant in this condition reminding one rather of the habit of
Celiiiisia verbascifolia than of a Pleuropiiyllum. Surrounding
these living leaves is a dense mass of old decayed leaf-bases
sopping with water. Stripping otf these dead leaves, in one
particular instance the column of living leaf-bases measured
2-26 cm. in diameter, but with the sheath of dead leaves the
diameter of the whole was 6 cm. In another case measured
the dead and living leaf -bases taken together were 23 cm. in
circumference. The winter leaves are broadest at the base —
3'5 cm. ; but the margins remain almost parallel for most of
the length of the leaf, finally converging into an acute point
3"3 cm. long at 5-5 cm. from the apex. The sheathing bases
are extremely silky, with long hairs pressed upwards against
the surface of the sheath. Such hairs are + 2-3 cm. long,
very silvery and glistening, especially those which cover with
a thick loose mass the back of the sheath. The leaf as a
whole is rather flaccid, and coloured pale-green where exposed
to the light. The margin and adjoining portion of the sheath
is membranous, but elsewhere, and especially towards the
centre, it is fleshy. The rootstock is + 2-4 cm. in diameter.
The roots are numerous, thick, and fleshy. Seen from a dis-
tance the rosettes are of a whitish-green colour.

5. The Eostkovia Formation.
At a certain altitude on a Campbell Island mountain the
formation now to be descx"ibed forms a very distinct zone,
which is especially noticeable since its physiognomy differs

280 Transactions. — Botany.

altogether from that of the tussock meadow, owiug its
characteristic stamp to the numerous yellowish-brown (in
winter) tufts of Rostkovia gracilis, 28 cm. in height, which
form considerable patches, but not appearing as tall as they
really are owing to their waving in tlie vvind. Growing side
by side with the Bostkovia in large quantities is PlcHrophyUum
hookeri, and this, when in flower during the summer, will
doubtless be the most striking feature of the formation. Large
green cushions of Phyllachne clavigera are everj-where abund-
ant, some of them of great size — e.g., 66 cm. x 40 cm. and
20 cm. high — the extremities of the shoots rooting in the de-
cayed leaves now turned into peat, and which make up the
chief bulk of the cushions. Each main shoot of this interesting
plant branches near its extremity, giving off several short
shoots 1 5 cm. in length, the upper 6 cm. of which are densely
clothed with very small imbricating green leaves. These
final shoots are all pressed tightly together, and make appa-
rently a solid convex mass. The leaves are very thick and
coriaceous, expanded at the base, convex on the under (outer)
surface, but slightly concave on the lower half of the upper
(inner) surface, but flat on its upper half. They are not quite
erect, but the globose tips point slightly outwards. This
plant, then, is of that typical bog xerophytic form, as pointed
out before, common to many New Zealand, Fuegian, and
Andean plants, and which reaches its climax in the vegetable
sheep of New Zealand, which, however, are not bog-plants,
but denizens of sunny alpine rocks.

Other common members of the Rostkovia formation are
Luzula crifiita, Helichrysum prostratum, a species of Carda-
7nine spoken of further on, one or two small grasses, Poly-
jjodiicm australe pumila, Rammctdus sitbscapostis, Ahrotanella
■ro&'idaris , Ilymenophylluvi midtifidum (the mountain form),
while everywhere are mosses, lichens, and, most of all, liver-
worts.

The Rostkovia formation usually occurs among the stony
debris at the bases of the cliifs near the summits of the hills.
This debris, the result of that weathering which has formed
the steep faces of the cliffs, is for the most part mixed to no
small extent with the peat which has accumulated from the
decay of many generations of plants. Here and there large
rocks are lying on the ground covered with crustaceous
lichens, white and yellow. In other places are patches of
Sphagnum, and water oozes frequently out of the ground and
trickles over its surface.

Where the stony debris has little or no peat mixeii with it
spermaphytes are almost absent, but there are numerous
lichens and mosses. In such situations, however, here and
there are the bright-green rosettes of a species of Cardamine

Cockayne.— i:foto/itca/ Excursion to Southern Islands. 281

6'5cm. in diameter. The leaves are dark-green, pinnate,
with three leaflets on each side, thick and fleshy, the petiole
deeply channelled and broadening gradually to the base.
The largest leaflets measure 5 mm, x 6 mm. The outer-
most leaves are flattened against the stones, the remainder
spreading upwards and outwards at about an angle of 45°
from the vertical. The buds appearing on cultivated plants
at the end of October are sheltered by the innermost leaves.
A transverse section of a leaf shows a thin-walled epidermis
on both surfaces, having also equally abundant stomata both
on the upper and under surface, a two-layered palisade, and
an open spongy parenchyma. This structure is remarkably
hygrophytic for a plant whose characteristic station is stony
debris, and it eloquently testifies to the abundant moisture of
the atmosphere. The closeness, also, with which the plant
hugs the soil will protect it much from the action of the wind,
and the water of the stony substratum will be quite difi'erent
in its humus-acid content from that of the wet peat.

6. Subalpine Bocks.

The sunjmits of the hills of Campbell Island are very
rocky. The final peak of Mount Honey is composed entirely
of rocks, much weathered, as may be well imagined in a
situation so exposed. The summit of the ridge of Lyall's
Pyramid consists for a large part of steep rocky faces ; in fact,
in many places such may be called clifi's. In these rocks are
frequently hollows, small gullies, ledges, irregularities, and
crevices, in or on which are often considerable quantities of
peat ; in fact, peat is always present wherever it is possible
for such to lodge. In many cases the rocks drip with water,
or sometimes thev are drv ; but even where this is the case
the rock, owing to the excessive moisture of the climate,
offers by no means an unfavourable station for certain forms
of plant-life. In a dry climate rock-vegetation may be scanty
or perhaps altogether wanting in places, but there are hardly
any spots entirely unsuitable for plants.

The rock-plants proper are few in number. Leaving out
of the question certain njosses, liverworts, and lichens, they
are : Ligusticuvi anti2:iochi7n (Umbelliferce) ; Colobanthns subu-
latus (Caryo'phyllacea) ; Abrotanella rosularis, Abrotanella
spathulata (Comjjositce) ; Hymenophyllum muUifidum (subal-
pine form) ; Polypodiiim austr pnmila (Filices) ; one or two
small unidentified species of grass {Graminacece) . This is a
very small list, while the whole of the species, moreover,
occur in other formations, and in the case of the Ligusticum
and Hyinenophyllum in great profusion.

An exact account of the distribution of the vegetation o

282 Transactions. — Botany.

the subalpine rocks of Campbell Island with regard to the
physical conditions afforded would be an interesting study,
but here only a few details can be given regarding certain
specified spots.

On the face of a pi-ecipitous rock facing north-west, not
far from the summit of Mount Honey, at an altitude of about
538m., the vegetation consists of lichens, mosses, small
cushions of Colohanthus siibulatjcs, and stiff rosettes of Abrota-
nclla rosnlaris. In the chinks of the rock grows the curious
Uttle fern Polypodimn australe 'pumila and Ligusticum antipo-
dum, here very much smaller and with stiffer and more coria-
ceous leaves than when occurring at a lower level as a
meadow-plant.

On the dry wind-swept rocks of the actual summit of
Mount Honey, at an altitude of 568m., are various species of
lichens, some mosses. Poly 2}odium australe j)umila, Ligusticum
autipodum, Phyllachne clavigera — here a rock-plant, just as
the closely related bog-plant Phyllachie colensoi frequently
is in the Southern Alps — a small unidentified grass, and
Luzula crinita.

On Lyall's Pyramid, at an altitude of about 153m., facing
south, a rock dripping with water is covered densely with
mosses, liverworts, Hymnnophyllum multifidum (or perhaps
here it was H. villosum) to a depth of 9-3 cm., and through
this grows the small Polypiodium and Ligusticum anti-
podnm. This has the bases of the leaves densely sheathed
with old leaf-bases. The leaves arch upwai'ds and outwards
radially, with the result that many of the stiff needle-like
pinnae are almost vertical and others horizontal. Each
primary leaflet finally arches downwards. In a position such
as this the conditions, although on a rock, are not very differ-
ent from those of a bog, except that the water will be dis-
tinctly more pure.

A rich vegetation occurs in the hollows between the rocks
where there is plenty of soil and moisture. Here, as described
above, is a dense carpet of mosses, kc, through which are
growing Rostkovia gracilis, prostrate Goprosvia cuneata, Ligus-
ticum autipodum, Helichrysum prostratum. Banunculus sub-
scaposus, Cclmisia vernicosa, Celmisia chapmanni.

In wet sheltered hollows of the cliff's on the north side of
Lyall's Pyramid Ligusticum autipodum is very abundant, its
leaves usually pressed closely against the rock.

Steep rock-faces are covered for large breadths by the sub-
alpine form of Hyvioiop. tnultijlduiu and a species of Gladonia,
but where the rock offers a flat surface and peat can form
in which moisture can lodge Ligusticum antipodum forms
an almost close formation, mixed with Phyllachne clavigera,
stunted Goprosma cuneata, Goyrosma rcpens, and a small grass.

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Sotithern. Islands. 2SS

the whole growing thi'ough a most dense and thick carpet of
mosses, &c.

But the richest rock-vegetation of all is found in those
sheltered hollows large enough for peat to have accumulated
in abundance. In such spots is a rich vegetation of the large
herbaceous plants common to the Southern Islands. Pleuro-
phylluiii speciosum and Pleur. hookeri are abundant ; Veronica
benthanii and Celmista cJiapmanni both grow most luxuriantly;
Bammculus pinguis and Azorella reniformis are moi'e or less
plentiful. But I had no time to take a list of all the plants of
such a station, which, so far as I can recollect, contained re-
presentatives of most of the herbaceous plants of the island.
And it is easy to see how such a station as this is very favour-
able for plants, since the very conditions are here present
which experience has found essential for the cultivation of
<lifticult alpme plants — viz., shelter, a porous soil, abundance
of pure water, perfect drainage — conditions which are more
acceptable possibly to Plcurophyllum, &c., than those offered
in some of its usual habitats.

Before leaving this formation something must be said re-
garding the life-forms of the rock-plants endemic to Camp-
bell Island, or those which have not yet been dealt with.

Abrotanella rosularis has wiry stems, creeping at first, but
finally erect, covered more or less with old dead leaves. The
terminal leafy portion of the shoots measures 1"3 cm., and
consists of spreading imbricating leaves, the uppermost of
which form a stiff dark-green rosette about 1-3 cm. in diameter,
the individual leaves so spreading outwards as to iiave their
upper surface horizontal. The individual leaves are linear or
linear-lanceolate, sheathing at the base, which is frequently
purplish - rose - coloured, coriaceous, concave on the upper
surface. Hooker describes the plant as ''a small, densely
tufted, moss-like plant.'' The leaf-anatomy presents certain
xerophytic features. There is a thick cuticle on the upper
surface provided with slightly sunken stomata, a dense
palisade parenchyma, frequent resin-passages, and a certain
number of mucilage-cells. On the other hand, the stomata
of the under-surface are not sunken, and there is an abund-
ant spongy parenchyma.

PolyjJodium australe pumila is a most abundant plant ou
the subalpine rocks. The very small fronds are given off at
close intervals from the rhizome, which is densely covered
witli brown scales. These fronds are very thick and coria-
ceous, small but somewhat variable in size ; the blade
measured m certain specimens 7 mm. x 4 mm., 7 mm.
X 2 mm.. 5 mm. x 1*5 mm., and is frequently more or less
buried in mosses or livei'worts, which accentuates its small
size; the stipes measured from 5mm. to 1-5 mm. Grown ia

284 Ti-ansactions. — Botany.

moist air the plant is rapidly developing rather larger leaves,
which are narrower in proportion to their length. Such mea-
sure 11mm. X 3 mm., and stipes 4 mm. long, but probably
such fronds have not attained their full size. However, judg-
ing from the experiment as it proceeds, it seems unlikely that
fronds will be developed to match the typical form of P.
australe.

Cehnisia chapmanni forms large rosettes of glossy dark-
green leaves, reaching a size of 14 cm. in diameter and 12 cm.
m height. The more external leaves radiate outwards, at
the same time arching downwards, while the short not fully
developed internal leaves are vertical. The leaves are not
nearly so varnished as those of Cel. vernicosa; they are thick
and coriaceous, + 8-8 cm. x + 9 mm., and have a short, thick,
fieshy base. The dead leaves remain attached to the plant,
rapidly rotting and turning into peat. The epidermis of both
surfaces is strongly cuticularised ; extremely strong bands of
stereome surround the vascular bundles ; the spongy paren-
chyma consists of large cells containing a great number of oil-
globules. The stomata on the under-surface are sunken.

Colohanthiis subulatus forms small, convex, round, dense,
soft cushions ± 5 cm. in diameter. At the ends of each
shoot ai-e 6-8 stout green leaves ±_ 7 mm. in length, the base
membranous and sheathing and the apex acicular. The
upper surface is channelled. Below the terminal green leaves
the shoot-axis is clothed with the old leaves of previous years.

III. The Antipodes Islands.

GENERAL REMARKS.

The Antipodes Islands are situated in latitude 49° 41'
south and longitude 178° 43' east (90), and consist of one
island much larger than the remainder, named Antipodes
Island, and some seven much smaller islands and rocks, of
which Bollons Island is the only one of any importance.
The group is 490 miles east-south-east from the South Cape of
Stewart Island, and 400 miles east-north-east from Campbell
Island.

Antipodes Island, according to Captain Fairchild, is about
two miles and one-third in length from east to west, and one
mile and one-third in breadth from north to south. The
highest point is Mount Galloway, 402iii., but a large pan of
the island is at a considerable lieight above sea-level. From
the base of Mount Galloway in an easterly direction lies a
considerable tract of flat land sloping very gently towards the
sea. The " Hinemoa " sailed right round the island, and so
its aspect as viewed from the sea could be noted. The coast-
line is precipitous and rocky, the rocks black in colour or
marked with many broad patches of a white crustaceous

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to SotUhern Islands. 28o'

lichen, which at a close view gives the steep rock-faces the
appearance of having been painted white. Above the cliffs,
when they are not very high, or where the coast is not rocky,
stretch upwards steep slopes densely covered with brownish-
yellow tussock. These slopes are shallowly seamed by very
steep gullies filled with patches of Aspidiwn vestitum and
Coprosnia scrub, which at a distance look like black bands
stretching through the tussock.

BoUons Island is an extremely precipitous island rising out
of the sea to a height of 140m. . A landing can only be effected
in the very finest w^eather. Captain Bolions, who has once
landed on the island, tells me that it is clothed in places with
tussock and small scrub similar in appearance to that on
Antipodes Island. There are many petrel-burrows and sea-
hawk rookeries.

Regarding the geology of the group. Hector writes (40,
p. 737), " Antipodes Island is the result of four distinct
centres pouring out scoria and basaltic lavas with enormous
deposits of volcanic breccia, which proves the great local
violence of the eruptions. The erosion of the coast-line has
been very slight considering the friable nature of the rock,
so that the eruptions must have occurred in a very late geo-
logical time, coincident probably with that of the Auckland
peninsula." Kirk (56, p. 228) describes the main island as
being " somewhat the shape of a ham." "The eastern ex-
tremity, corresponding to the shank of the ham, appears to
have been formed by a narrow lava-stream." " The island is
simply the crater of an extinct volcano, and would be roughly
circular in shape were it not for the lava-stream which has
been already mentioned." "The crateriform portion of the
island is surrounded by low rounded hills on three sides. It
is not quite certain whether the wliole island is volcanic.
Some distance from the landing-place I noticed what appeared
to be a mass of finely bedded sandstone, but could not get
near enough to determine its precise nature. Most of the
rocks observed were basaltic." Captain F. W. Hutton, who
visited Antipodes Island in January, 1891, informs me that
he considers it the remains of a submarine volcano, and that
probably the island has never formed a part of the mainland
of New Zealand at the time when the problematical island-
continent included what is now the Kermadec Group in the
north, and perhaps New Norfolk, the Chatham Islands in
the east, and the remainder of the Southern Islands in the
south — Macquarie Island perhaps excepted.

With regard to the climate of Antipodes Island, I should
imagine that it is very similar to that of the other Southern
Islands — cloudy skies, frequent showers, a mild temperature
in winter but a cool summer, aad, finally, furious gales and

286 Transactions. — Botany.

squalls with hail oi- sleet, of which winds the nature of the
arborescent plants bears abundant evidence. During my all-
too-short visit it drizzled at intervals, with the wind blowing
in squalls, between which occasionally the sun would peep
out for a few minutes.

Although sealers and whaling-ships had frequently visited
the Antipodes Islands, and H.M.S. "Victoria" had called
there in November, 186-5, it was not until Kirk published an
account of their plants that anything definite was known
regarding the botany of the group. But prior to this import-
ant publication Some general facts were known about the
vegetation, for Captain J. Fairchild had reported, as a result
of his visit in 1886, that the whole island was covered with
a coarse grass, and that no bushes or wood of any kind was
found (90), meaning by this latter that there were no trees or
large shrubs.

Reischek, the ornithologist (89, p. 386), who visited Anti-
podes Island in January, 1888, states regarding the vegetation
that it " consists of tussock-grass with some cotton-plants,
aniseed, and veronicas intermixed with it, and that there is
no bush whatever. The tussock-grass all grows in humps,
except on the tops of the hills, where there is shorter." The
"cotton-plants and aniseed" would be Ple-urcphyUum and
Ligusticitm, while probably the "veronica" would be Co-
prosma, though there is no reason why V. benthami might not
be eventually found on the island.

Kirk's account is quite short, occupying only four ))ages
octavo, and includes a list of the plants which he had collected
or noted — viz., forty-one species of spermaphytes, of which
two are introduced plants, and twelve species of ptei'idophytes.
Two endemic species new to science were discovered — Senecio
antijyoda, a quite remarkable plant, and Gcntiana niitipoda,
which is related to the other gentians of the Southern Islands.
It is impossible to say how much of the island Kirk examined,
but, judging from his remarks and bearing in mind the diflB-
cult nature of the ground owing to the closeness of the large
tussocks, he could hardly have penetrated to any great dis-
tance from the landing-place.

Chapman, however, who visited the island on the same
day as Kirk, reached the summit of Mount Galloway, and
describes it as "clear ground, matted with Pleurophylhrni
and low-growing Ligusticnm. Owing to fog we failed to see a
clear lake* said to exist there. There was a good deal of flat
ground up there, which was literally alive with albatroses."

Owing to the short time at my disposal, I was only able to

* This lake was reported by Mr. W. Dougall as covering an area of
13 or 14 acres (14, p. 200).

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to SoiUhem Islands. 287

examine the vegetation of the fiat ground extending from the
base of Mount Galloway northwards, the ridge forming the
south-eastern boundary of this flat ground, the slopes on both
sides of this ridge, the gully tbi-ough which the northern
stream flows, and the tussock slopes and rocks on tbe northern
side of the island near the landing-place. It Vvill be seen
from this that the whole western side of the island and the
greater part of the southern side is still botanieally unex-
plored, and this comprises somewhat about one-half of the
island, small as it is. All the same, I think there will hardly
be any other plant-formations of any importance than those
described below, unless it be a swamp formation in the west,
at that point marked " Swampy " in Fairchild's map (33): and
perhaps the actual summit of Mount Galloway may have a
different combination of plants to the meadow formation de-
scribed below. During a long summer's day, if the weather
kept fine, it would be easy for an active man to travel over the
greater part of tbe island, especially if he had an assistant to
carry some of the impedimenta. The lake on the summit of
Mount Galloway requires a careful examination for water-
plants.

THE PLANT-FORMATIONS.

Speaking generally, the vegetation of Antipodes Island,
when viewed from an eminence, seems to consist of dense
masses of tussock-grasses, so tbat one might at first glance be
apt to consider the whole plant covering as but one formation,
which might be designated "tussock meadow," or some such
name. But on a closer examination it is clearly to be seen
that the plant covering is by no means a uniform one, and
that different conditions of water-content in the soil, of shelter
from the constant fierce winds, of proximity to the sea or to
" bird-rookeries " have led to the differentiation of sufiBciently
well-marked plant formations and associations, some of which
are separated from one another by sharp boundaries and do
not mingle to any extent, although they have many species in
common ; that is to say, such formations present themselves
as distinct groups of the vegetation rather from the manner in
which their members are combined than from these being dif-
ferent species. Thus we have here an instructive example of
how from the same materials several distinct combinations
can be made by slightly different surroundings, the poverty of
the flora emphasizing the selective power of the habitat.

The plant-formations which I noted as forming more or
less distinct societies are the following : (1) Maritime rocks ;
(2) tussock meadow, divided into three sub-formations —
(a) maritime tussock slopes, (b) flat tussock meadow, (c) in-
land tussock slopes ; (3) scrub ; (4) bog ; (5) inland rocks
(6 and 7) stream and swamp.

288 Transactions. — Botany.

1. Maritime Bocks.

The surface of the rock may be quite flat or more or
less vertical. On the flat rocks, in the crevices, or on the
ledges are frequently considerable accumulations of peat.
As to moisture, although the surface of the rock must vary
considerably in this respect, it seems probable, considering
the wet climate, that even the vertical faces of the rocks
will usually be covered with moisture. Ecologically this
formation is the same as tliat already described for the
Auckland Islands under the heading " Coastal Eocks," but
floristically, so far as is at present known, there are some
considerable differences, for here the well-known New Zea-
land Apiimi australe occurs, while the grass which gives such
a character to the Auckland Island clifl's — Poa raviosissima —
and also the rosettes of the Plantago, are absent.

The closeness of the formation depends upon the steep-
ness of the rocks. Where they are quite vertical their
vegetation — lichens and mosses excepted — occupies only
the crevices or ledges ; but where they are flat or the ledges
large a more or less dense covering occurs, which, if present
in sufficient quantity, might quite well be considered a dis-
tinct formation, closely related ecologically to what I may
designate " coastal turf," and which is a frequent formation
in certain parts of the south coast of the South Island of
New Zealand and of tlie small islands in Foveaux Strait.

The following, copied almost verbatim from notes taken on
the spot, gives some specific exanq^les of the maritime-rock
plant-formation : " Growing just above high-water mark on
the flat rocks is Tillcea moschata, mixed with small tufts of
Festuca scoparia. Over steep faces large green masses of
Tillcea hang downwards, mixed with a small form of Apium
australe. In crevices of the bare rock are round cushions
of Golobanthus muscoides of a vivid green. In a sheltered
nook on a flat rock, with a high perpendicular rock behind,
is a dense mass of Scirpus aucklandicus l-35m. x 60 cm. in
area, and growing through it Tillcea, Apium, and Festuca ;
while just at the junction of this combination of plants and
the bare rock are several small cushions of Golobantlms.
Such masses of Scirpus, Tillcea, und Ajjiuvt are about 15 cm.
deep." The driest of the perpendicular rocks or cliffs are
covered densely with a white crustaceous lichen. Where the
cliffs are quite glistening with moisture a dark-green shining
moss grows upon their steep faces, forming cushions after the
manner of and in company with Colobanthus muscoides. Such
moss-cushions are wringing wet. On tlie flat summit of a low
cliff creep the stout green stems of Gotula plumosa, with a
carpet of Tillcea moscliata on the seaward side. Behind tlais
first zone of coastal-turf or rock plants, which clothe the rocks

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 289

and cliffs or fill their hollows, comes a second zone, consisting
for the most part of Poa foliosa, mixed with a variable amount
of Carex trifida. This same zone, which merges into the mari-
time tussock slope, occupies the flat summit of the cliffs, down
the precipitous faces of which the long, green, flat leaves of
the grass hang in thick masses.

2. Tussock Meadow.

The tussock meadow is by no means a uniform forma-
tion, but varies so much in composition and physiognomy
according to the position in which it grov7s that it is here
subdivided into three sub-formations ; indeed, I am not sure
but that these latter should be considered as distinct plant-
formations.

(a.) Maritime Tussock Slopes.

From the steeply sloping bank of soft, wet, and spongy
peat rises up a dense mass of tussocks about I'Sra. in height
grovping upon thick trunks so very closely together that it is
not easy to walk between them. These tussocks consist
chiefly of a species of grass which I could not identify, and is
possibly the same as the " silver-tussock " of Campbell Island.
Kirk mentions Poa anceps as occurring en Antipodes Island,
and it may be that this is the grass referred to. At any rate,
it is by far the commonest grass on the island, and it is the
characteristic plant of the tussock meadow as a whole. Mixed
with this tussock are others, but occurring to a much smaller
extent, of Poa foliosa and Carex trifida. Where these tus-
socks grow closely there is room for no other spermaphytes,
unless they grow on the summit of the tussocks' " trunks" ;
but where they are a little further apart, so that spaces clear
from tussock occur, there is a varying amount — in some
places, indeed, a great abundance — of Lig^csticum antipoditm.

(b.) Flat Tussock Meadow.

Perhaps this should rather be classed as a 'heath, for
ecologically it seems much more to resemble this latter than
it does a meadow. The badly drained soil, poor in nourish-
ment, the abundance of lichens and lycopods, the stunted
bushes of Coprosma, and the semi-xerophytic ferns certainly
point to its classification as a heath ; but, on the other hand,
the presence of a grass as the dominant plant seems to mark
the society as a meadow.

Taking a general view of the meadow, and casting the eye
for some distance over its flat expanse, yellow tussocks 50 cm.
or so apart are seen waving in the breeze, and alternating
with the very dark, almost black, spreading fronds of Aspi-
dium vestitum, so that it appears at first glance as if only
these two species were present, as it is, indeed, they alone

19— Trans.

290 Transactions. — Botany.

which stamp the physiognomy of the meadow. Where the
tussock and fern are not so dense Ligiisticum antipodum
occurs in such quantity as to add bright-green patches of
colour in an equal proportion with the yellow grass or dark
fern. But if the eye be cast not so far afield, then the pale-
green of the Accena, climbing amongst the tussock or fern, and
the withered brown fronds of Pteris iyicisa add other features
to the general picture.

The soil of the meadow consists on the surface of rather
loose brown peat, so soft that a stout stick can be thrust
deeply into it. Water cannot be wrung out of the surface-
soil, but this can be quickly kneaded into the consistency of
porridge. The surface is very uneven, the dead trunks of
grass or fern forming mounds on which many plants grow,
while between the living tussocks are numerous slight de-
pressions and deeper hollows. Everywhere the ground is
occupied by vegetation, which, although not rich in species,
consists of many individuals.

Amongst the most frequent plants are the following :
Foliaceous and fruticose lichens, mosses of several species,
liverworts, Lomafia alpina, Pratia arenaria, AccBua sanguisorbcs
antarctica, Luzula crinita, Gentiana antipoda, Epilohium
linncsoides, Hypolejns millefolium, Epilohium sp. — the E.
alsinoides of Kirk's list (56, p. 230) — Stellaria decipiens angiis-
tata (66, p. 57), Lycopodium fastigiatiim, Lycopodium varium,
Aspleiiium bulbiferum — a form with thick leaves — Hymeno-
phyllum imdtifidum, Helichrysum prostratum, Coprosma repens,
and Coprosma cuncata.

The carpet of small plants clothing the peaty ground is
not a uniform one. Notes taken in various parts of the meadow
show that sometimes one plant and sometmies another is the
leading one for the particular station ; for instance, in some
places the thick-leaved form of Asplenium bulbiferum is
abundant, in othei's is much Hymenopliyllum, vudtifidnm, with
its fronds curled up and arching downwards until partly
buried amongst the mosses or liverworts which grow in its
company.

In the shelter of a grass-tussock Lycopodium varium
i 25 cm. tall is frequent ; below it is erect and furnished
with many yellowish-green imbricating leaves, while above its
brownish spikes arch downwards. Ligusticum antipoduvi, as
well as the tussock and Aspidium, also plays its part as a
shelter- plant, its leaves spreading out radially, with their
surface more or less horizontal, such plants averaging about
78 cm. in diauieter and 22 cm, in height.

One or two quotations from my notebook may assist in
giving a picture of the floor of the meadow : " Here on ground
where the tussocks and fern are more distant, growing in the

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 291

hollows, are large quantities of Gentiana antipoda, numerous
fruticose lichens of various species, Coprosma repens, Accena,
Luzula crinita, many fine foliaceous lichens, and large patches
of the filmy fern, this latter sometimes 8 cm. tall." " Here
is tussock growing, mixed with Asjndium vestitum and Luzula
crinita. In the hollow neat" by are mosses, lichens, hepaticas,
Accena, Pratia arenaria, and Lomaria alpina." " Here is a
large plant of Ligusticum antipodum not nearly so tall as
the tussock, and so in partial shelter. On one side of this
two tussocks, on the other side one half-dead tussock with
lichens and L^iziila and Hyvienophyllum growing on its trunk
and Aspidiian growing through it, while the neighbouring
hollow is filled with Hymenophyllum and lichens growing
together. In parts of the meadow the tussock and Aspidium
become much smaller or are almost altogether absent, and
here Lomaria procera takes its place, its arching fronds al-
most parallel to the ground, raised but a few inches above
its surface, their pinnae bent a little upwards, the surface of
the frond thus becoming semi-horizontal.

The summer aspect of the meadow must be very different
from that described above. The tender green of the two
abundant ferns, Pteris mcisa and Hypolepis millefolium, will
then add a feature quite wanting in winter, while the differ-
ence will be still more marked when the great umbels of
Ligusticum antipodum are in full bloom.

The only endemic plant to be dealt with here is Gentiana
antipoda. This has a short root-stock + 5 mm. in diameter,
which is usually at first decumbent, but finally erect for
+ 7 mm. ; from this pass decumbent branches, except at
apex, + 2-7 cm. x 2*5 mm. in diameter, closely covered with
leaves, except near base. The leaves are vertical in their
lower but spreading somewhat in their apical half. The
vertical part and back of leaf is pale yellowish-green, but the
more spreading part is bright-green. They are ± 5'4 cm.
X +8-5 mm., slightly fleshy, and linear-spathulate or ligu-
late in shape. The margins are slightly recurved ; the upper
green part of the leaf is flat atid the lower pale part is
channelled. The root is of considerable length, and runs
more or less horizontally in the soil. A seedling plant
1-35 cm. tall had a root l-Q cm. long.

A cross-section of a leaf shows a strong cuticle furnished
with conical protruberances equalling the thickness of the
cuticle. There is a palisade 5 or 6 cells deep of rather short,
broad, rounded, oblong cells about Ih times as long as broad.
The spongy parenchyma is loose, having many intercellular
spaces. Kirk (69, p. 341) describes two forms of this species
under the names ptallida and rubra. The former is stated to
have yellow stems and white flowers, and the latter red stems

292 Transactions. — Botany.

with wiiite flowers vertically streaked with red. He also
describes the plant as perennial, but I think that most pro-
bably it is a biennial. Mr. H. J. Matthews, who cultivated
this plant, agrees with me in this conclusion.

(c.) Inland Tussock Slopes.

In many respects this sub-formation is similar to that last
described, but it contains very much more Stilhocarpaijolaris ;
and, in addition, the following plants, which, if they occur at
all on the flat meadow^, are very rare : Urtica australis, Poa
foliosa, Senecio antijjoda, Curex apj^ressa, and rather large
bushes of a species of Coprosma — perhaps C. ciliata. Unfortu-
nately, I neglected to bring away specimens of this latter
plant, but it did not seem the same to me as C. ciliata of
Auckland and Campbell Islands. The ordinary grass-tussock
and Asindium vestitum are much larger than are the same
species in the flat meadow, owing probably to the better
drainage of the slope. The soil is, generally speaking, drier
than that of sub-formation (h), and shallow gullies change the
conditions with regard to wind, in consequence of which a
transition between "scrub" and "tussock slope" is there
present. In certain places the ground is more or less bare,
where the giant petrel has its "rookeries," and in consequence
the soil must be much enriched with its manure.

As one painfully toils up the hillside huge plants of
Aspidinm vestitum l-5m. tall, with stout trunks and spreading
fronds, are encountered grow^ing in company with tussocks
(equally large of Poa foliosa and Gar ex appressa, amongst
which are dotted large flat-topped bushes of the Coprosma,
mentioned above or small colonies of the large-leaved nettle
Urtica australis. The " trunks " of these tussocks are of great
size, and when the plant dies large mounds of peat remain.
Seen at a distance the Aspidium makes large black-coloured
blotches on the hillside. Frequently fern, tussock, and scrub
give place to great masses of IStilbocarpa p)olaris, its large
rhizome creeping on the surface of the ground, and the large
leaves, quite close together, raised aloft on their exceedingly
stout petioles, the whole mass of leaves and leaf-stalks form-
ing dense thickets. One colony of this remarkable plant mea-
sured 11m. X 3m., but those met with further on, of which
no measurements were taken, were of nmch larger size. With
the Stilhocarpa are mixed few other plants, the rhizomes oc-
cupying the ground and the leaves excluding the light. The
Coprosma bushes are of equal height to the fern and tussock
of grass or sedge. The leafy top is about l-8m. in diameter
and almost semi-globular in shape, its ultimate twigs ex-
tremely dense and leafy for a depth of 16 cm. The leaves
are very numerous, but quite small and narrow — about 7 mm.

Cockayne. — Botanical Exmirsion to Southern Islands. 293

long X 1-9 mm. broad. This combination of Pea foliosa,
Aspidium vestitum, Coprosvia ciliata, Urtica australis, and
Stilbocarpa polar is appears to form a distinct association, its
presence depending upon the greater amount of shelter that
ic receives. This protection from wind is also much increased
for its internal members when such an association becomes
established, the tussocks themselves affording much shelter.
Eight on the summit and most exposed part of a ridge, seated
on the ground under the lee of a tussock, the storm could be
heard raging overhead, but where I sat was quite calm.

Where the hillside is less sheltered the vegetation consists
of the common meadow-tussock, Aspidium vestitum, and Pteris
incisa, with the ever-present Ac(2na climbing m thick masses
over the grass and fern. Here both fern and tussock, although
still of considerable size, are of much smaller dimensions than
in the association described above, and this part of the sub-
formation is but a continuation of the fiat meadow.

The bare ground manured by the giant petrel (Ossifraga
gigantea) is occupied by another association of which the
endemic Senecio antipoda is the dominant plant. Growing in
its company are very thick masses of Accsna, which is fre-
quently mixed with Pteris incisa. SteUccria decipiens angus-
tata is also common. Senecio antipoda much more resembles
the common European groundsel in outward appearance than
do any others of the herbaceous section of this genus in New
Zealand. It is a very curious fact that, both here and in
Chatham Island (23, p. 268), in situations frequented by cer-
tain sea-birds there should be an endemic species peculiar to
such stations. So far as Gotula featherstonii of Chatham
Island is concerned, its growing in ground near the holes of
mutton-birds is recognised by the settlers who live in its vi-
cinity, and from them it has received the name of the " mut-
ton-bird plant." I do not see why rich heavily manured soil
should not be just as much a factor in determining the life-
form of a plant as illumination, moisture in the air, wind, or
any other ecological factor, and to find two plants each of
distinctly luxuriant growth growing under very similar con-
ditions is suggestive, to say the least.

Senecio antipoda is a stout herbaceous plant of upright
growth. It has a rather thick main stem, hollow m old
plants, which gives off numerous lateral branches from its
upper portion, and these are furnished above with many
usually large, spreading, membranous, green leaves. These
when fully grown are broadly spathulate in outline, the upper
and expanded half of the leaf being deeply pinnatifid, while
the segments are again deeply cut, especially on their lower
margin. Such expanded portions of the leaves measure
9 5cm. X 77 cm. The lower half of the leaf is entire or

294 Transactions. — Botany.

toothed — this might be called a winged petiole — and has the
margins almost parallel ; in the leaf in question it measured
6cm. X l'9cm. The leaves vary much in size according to
the size of the plant, as also somewhat in shape. The upper
surface of the leaf is green and almost glabrous in adult-leaves,
but the under-surface is more or less tomentose with loose
cobwebby hairs, the tomentum being much more abundant m
young than in old leaves. The margins are recurved, and
on the under-surface of the leaf is a prominent midrib, which
gradually broadens towards the l:)ase, and which may attain
to a thickness of 5-5 mm. The tomentum plays an important
part in protecting the bud during winter. The leaves round
the growing point are tightly pressed together, and remain
quite vertical until of a considerable size — 6'8cm. x 4-6 cm.
in one case measured. These young leaves are tomentose on
the upper surface of the broad midrib, and especially towards
their base, which tomentum, becoming entangled with that of
the under-surface of the contiguous leaf, binds all the leaves
round the growing point into a firm weather-resisting mass
not easily penetrated by moisture.

3. Scrub.

On the sheltered sides of the hills the scrub becomes
somewhat higher and more abundant than that mixed with
the herbaceous plants of the tussock slopes. Such scrub
occurs, so far as I could see, in every sheltered guliy on all
the hills of the island, and not merely, as stated by Kirk,
on Mount Galloway (56, p. 228). Seen from the summit of
the ridge on the east side of the island, the scrub is of a
dark-green colour, and descends in long broad lines down the
hillside. Only a few minutes were available for examination
of this formation, but where I entered it, it consisted of
Co'prosma plants, l-om. tall, growing very closely together
and possessing long thin trunks about 3 cm. m diameter at
most, so far as I can recollect, and dividing into two or three
vertical branches, which give off numerous dense twigs, these
forn)ing a flat leafy crown about 16 cm. or less in breadth and
perhaps 8 cm. in depth. Certain lichens and mosses grow on
the stems, which are otherwise bare, and where the shrubs
are not close together there is some Epilobium linnceoides
and Lagcnojihora forsteri on the ground. This is a most in-
complete account of this interesting formation, the only
representative on Antipodes Island of the forests of the Auck-
land Group or the extensive scrub of Campbell Island.

4. Bog.

Towards the centre of the flat meadow occur many almost
circular patches where the soil is much wetter than that of

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 295

the meadow, and where genuine bog-conditions prevail. Such
patches can be recognised at a glance (see PI. XX.) by the
difference of their vegetation, which has a physiognomy of
its own, quite distinct from that of the meadow which sur-
rounds them, and from which the bogs are divided by quite a
sharp hne. If a number of such bogs be examined it will
be found that, though they do not all contain their members in
exactly the same proportion, there is a most striking simi-
larity between them all, separated though they are by large
patches of meadow.

That which at first glance most distinguishes the bog from
the meadow is the large amount of Carex ternaria in the bog,
the almost complete absence of tussock-grass, and the pre-
sence of Pleurophylluvi cnniferum, which, with its very large
leaves and striking flowers, must in summer much more em-
phasize the distinct character of this formation. Certain of
the other plants also are much more abundant in the bog
than m the meadow, although frequent enough in this latter.
These are Ligustic2im antijwdum, Coprosma rcpens, Coprosma
cuneata, Stilbocarpa polaris, Hymenophyllimi viultifidum.

The soil of the bog is peat quite saturated with water, so
that water can be readily wrung out of it, and if a small hole
be made in the ground it quickly tills with water. Sometimes
the centre of the bog may be occupied by a pool of dark peaty
water.

Perhaps the most characteristic plant is Garex ternaria.
At the time of my visit its brown leaves lay prostrate upon
the ground, green only at their bases. Here and there Mar-
chantia sp. covers the wettest ground, in company with a small
moss and a leafy liverwort. Many plants of Ligusiicwm
antijiodum, either dotted about or in clumps, grow amongst
the Carex. Such isolated plants have their leaves spreading
out radiall}^ and are 40 cm. tall. The surface of the bog
consists of little elevations and hollows. In the hollows
grow Luzula crinita of robust growth, Marchantia sp., many
lichens, tufts of Gentiana antipoda. Considerable patches
of ground are frequently occupied by Hymenophyllum multi-
fidum, the fronds curled up and of a reddish-brown colour.
In other places a dense green carpet of Goyrosma repens
covers the ground, or mixed with it may be lichens and the
filmy fern. In most of the bogs Aspidium vestitum is pre-
sent, and occasionally in the driest parts are a few plants
of the tussock. Here and there the apices of the leaves of
Pleurophyllum crinlferuvi just protrude from the ground.
Goprosma cuneata of very dwarf stature is quite plentiful in
some places. It creeps close to the ground, and its small
leaves are in winter quite brown. Uncinia riparia pseudo-
rupestris is common in some places.

296 Transactiotis. — Botany.

5. Inland Rocks.

These I had only an opportunity of examining in two
places, so can say httle on this head. A sloping rock near
the summit of the ridge on its eastern side was covered with
a beautiful white-coloured species of Cladonia. Through this
grew a few small plants of Cojnosvia ciliatai^?) about 30 cm.
tall, Lycopodium fastigiatuvi, and Lycopod. varium, Hymeno-
2)hyllum multifidum, Helichrysum prostratn7n, Lomaria al-
pina, a little stunted Ligusticnm antipodum, and Aspidiiim
vestitum, the whole of these, including the lichen, being also
plants of the meadow.

On the face of a dry vertical cliff were white crustaceous
lichens, some fruticose lichens, a few mosses, a plant or two
of Colobcmthus muscoides, while on ledges where peat had
been formed a tuft or two of the common tussock-grass.

6 and 7. Stream and Sivamp.

For convenience' sake, these two formations are taken
together, since I had only an opportunity to examine very
rapidly the stream flowing down a gully from the meadow
and the swampy ground in its vicinity. The only plant noted
in the stream was Gallitriche antarctica. Carex appreasa
tussock comes to the edge of the water, even extending into
It, and filling up the hollow of the gully with great tussocks.
Where the ground is a little drier very large grass-tussocks
are mixed with the sedge. The ground, so far as I can re-
member, was very wet, and the tussocks grew much too
densely to permit more lowly plants to grow. But my
examination was of the very briefest, the allotted time on
shore having almost expired. On the map an extensive
swamp is marked as existing in the south of the island.
Captain J. BoUons tells me he has crossed over this, and that
the vegetation consists of large tussocks and of Aspidiiim ves-
tittmi, on the top of which you must walk to make any pro-
gress and to escape the knee-deep water.

IV. The Bounty Islands.

The Bounty Islands, according to Fairchild, are situated in
47° 43' south latitude and 179° 05' east longitude. "The
group consists of about twenty islets and rocks ranging from
10ft. to 290 ft. in height, and occupying a space about three
miles east and west and two miles north and south " (90).
They lie 490 miles east of the South-west Cape of Stewart
Island.

Landing on the main island, where the depot is situated,
is a matter of some dil'liculty ; nor is walking on the smooth
surface of the granite, of which rock all this group is composed.

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 297

by any means easy. This glass-iike smoothness is occasioned
by the polishing action of the miUions of penguins which at
present occupy the rocks during the breeding season, and
of the fur-seals, which formerly were extremely abundant.
These animals, happily, although at one time nearly extinct,
are distinctly on the increase, more than sixty being observed
during the " Hinemoa's " visit. In summer I understand
the rocks are thickly covered everywhere with the excrement
of the birds, but at the time of my visit this was nearly
all washed away by the abundant rain and sea-spray, which
passes at times over the highest island. But in the hollows
and under the stones guano was still present, and here
Mr. Jennings, of the Otago Museum, and myself had the
great pleasure of discovering a peculiar fauna rich in indivi-
duals ; indeed, in some places the guano beneath the stones
was fairly alive with amphipods, beetles, spiders, and small
flies, w^hile larger flies were in great numbers on the bare
warm rocks.

As for plant-life, the rocks between the ebb and flow are
densely covered with the indiarubber-like masses of a species
of Durvillcea of a much yellower colour than that so fre-
quent in the other islands or on the coast of New Zealand
proper. The zone of Macrocystis, which so frequently occurs
beyond the zone of Durvillaa where the plant is not exposed
to the danger of buffeting on the rocks, is here absent. On
the granite of the island is no permanent soil of any kind
except the before-mentioned guano, nor are there any land-
plants at all, excepting an alga clothing the rocks and giving
them a greenish hue in places. The specimens of this plant
which I collected were unfortunately lost, so I cannot state
to what genus it may be referred.

Probably these islands are a remnant of a much larger
land-area, and the alga not the forerunner of a more extensive
future vegetation, but the last survivor of one long passed
away. With regard to the spiders, some remarks are made
further on when dealing with the history of the vegetation of
the Southern Islands.

V. Effect of Animals upon the Vegetation of the
Southern Islands.

1. Indigenous Animals.
Before the advent of the white man, and even now in many
places, vast numbers of sea-birds and seals lived on the
Southern Islands for longer or shorter periods every year.
The time of my visit was unfavourable for observing the birds,
since these for the most part come on land only during the
breeding season. I therefore can say little as to how they

298 Transactions . — Botany.

affect the plant covering. From the writings of Kirk and
Chapman, especially from the latter, something may be learned
as to their effect on the vegetation of the Snares. Thus. Kirk
writes (56, p. 214), " The island is the abode of numberless
penguins, petrels, and other sea-birds, and exhibits numerous
mdications of their influence on the vegetation." "Two or
three swamp-plants exist under ditKculties, being constantly
flattened under the broad feet of these birds" [penguins],
" which abound everywhere." Chapman writes (16, p. 495),
" Wherever a rookery is formed the timber or scrub dies, and
we often found places where the penguins had taken up new
ground, killing a piece of scrub alongside a rookery." The
above quotation shows very plainly how great an effect the pen-
guins can have on the plant covering. On the Bounty Islands,
where the penguins stand close together in millions, there is no
vegetation of any kind, excepting a fresh-water alga which
grows upon the rocks. Captain Bollons tells me that they
also occupy the cliffs of Antipodes Island in countless numbers,
and that small rookeries, where the birds are much scattered,
are found at the edge of the forest of the Auckland Group or
near the scrub on Campbell Island. The nmtton-bird makes
holes in the ground, where it rears its young, and such holes
must assist very materially in draining the land, while at the
same time there will be a good deal of manure on both its
surface and in the holes. Chapman describes the whole of
the ground of the chief island of the Snares Group as being
honeycombed witii mutton-bird holes: "The traveller con-
stantly breaks the surface and drops into these tunnels, but
the depth is not great." Where the giant petrels {Ossifraga
gigantca) congregate on Antipodes Island the ground becomes
more or less bare, and a quite different association of plants
occurs there to what occupies the unmanured slope. As was
mentioned in dealing with Antipodes Island, it is here alone
that the endemic Senecio antiyoda, a species differing much from
any other New Zealand one, occurs, and I suggested that the
rich soil caused by the bii'ds' manui'e had played an important
part in its evolution. ''

Various species of albatros breed on the different Southern
Islands, and in some parts are extremely numerous. I had
an opportunity on both Campbell and Antipodes Islands of
seeing the young birds on the nest, and on the latter island
was enabled to take some notes as to what plants take pos-
session of the ground wliich gets laid bare round the nests.

* Moseley shows (79) how a sort of mutual-benefit alliance has sprung
up between the penguins and the tussock on Tristan d'Acunba — how the
manure benefits the grass and the shelter of the gniss the birds. I sus-
pect something of the same with the Poa foliosa zone of the Southern
Islands.

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursioii to Southern Islands. 299

The nests are built out of peat mixed with short pieces of
grass. On Bounty Island, where there is neither soil nor grass,
guano and the old quill-feathers of the penguin are made use
of. They are quite hard and solid, about 60 cm. in diameter,
25 cm tall, and the upper surface is very slightly hollowed.
On this the albatros lays her one large egg, hatches it out, and
the young bird remains on the nest for many months, finally,
when fully fledged, walking about just in the neighbour-
hood of the nest until the following season, when the old bird
returns to lay another egg. Then the young bird makes its
way to the sea, and first of all takes to the water in this
manner. I saw young albatroses both on Antipodes and
Campbell Island in July ; they were still covered with lovely
white down, through which the quill-feathers of the wing were
plainly visible when the wind ruffled the down. Bound about
such nests all the vegetation is finally destroyed for some dis-
tance, and it is a most common sight to see old nests
surrounded by a ring of quite bare ground, while in other
cases a new vegetation has arisen. I took a few notes in
order to see what plants under these natural conditions
repopulated the ground — as opposed to vegetation being de-
stroyed by introduced animals.

Such old nests may be 39 cm. in diameter and 23 cm. tall,
the upper surface, where the young bird has been for many
mouths seated, slightly hollowed. Growing in the centre of
the nest is Stellaria decipiens minor, with small plants of
Luzula crinita growing through it. Climbing over the nest
and extending into the hollow portion is Acmna, which also
occupies the formerly bare space round the nest where the
old bird has alighted and the young one takes exercise before
leavmg the nest for the ocean. Large tufts of Luzula grow on
the ground through the Acana, together with two small plants
of Senecio antipoda. On the ground, otherwise quite bare, are
Marchantia sp. and another liverwort. Surrounding the ring
of ground laid bare by the albatros are grass-tussock, Aspi-
dium, and Ligusticum. Another nest examined was bare in
its centre, but elsewhere were similar plants to those enu-
merated and one small plant of tussock-grass. A third bare
spot showed rather more tussock. So far as I remember, in
all the nests and bare spaces examined Ac(zna and Stellaria
were the first plants to make their appearance.

The young aloatroses also must play a notable part in
the distribution of Accziia, and may be accountable for the
great abundance of this plant all over Antipodes Island. For
this idea I am indebted to Chapman's paper, in which, writ-
ing of the summit of Mount Galloway, it states, " There was
a good deal of flat ground up there which was literally alive
with albatroses. Young black birds were very common ;

300 Transaction-'i. — Botany.

often their breasts were covered with down, and this was
niatced with piripiri seeds {Acana). The albatroses were
building nests everywhere." Such young albatroses, on
their way to the water (for they do not fly from the neigh-
bourhood of their nest, but walk to the sea), would certainly
assist very materially in spreading the fruits of Accena, or the
down coming off with the attached fruit could easily be blown
for considerable distances by the furious gales.

The fur-seals will have but little effect on the vegetation
although they originally existed in very great numbers, hun-
dreds of thousands having been killed for the sake of their
skins. At the present time they are all but extinct in many
places, though on the Bounty Islands they are again becoming
more numerous, thanks to their being strictly protected by the
New Zealand Government. Their rookeries are situated on
the more inaccessible rocks at the bases of precipitous cliffs,
where they are exposed to the full fury of sea and storm.

The sea-lions play a more important part with regard to
the vegetation. These animals frequent the more sheltered
stony or sandy beaches. Especially are they fond of the
sandy shore of Enderby Island, from which they move on to
the sandhills and into the neighbouring meadow or forest.
On the sandhills and also on the floor of the forest they roll
and w^allow about, and as at one time they were present in
very great numbers they must have exercised considerable
influence in keeping the forest-floor bare, as I have stated when
treating above of the Olearia lyallii forest. On the sandhills
also they would to some small extent loosen the sand, and
may have caused sand-drifting, but probably only to a very
limited extent.

2. Introduced Animals.

In contradistinction to the effect produced by the indi-
genous animals of any region upon its vegetation, which is,
of course, strictly a natural one, to which the vegetation as
a whole must have become accustomed, and in response to
which the plants in certain cases may have developed special
adaptations, the effect of certain introduced animals, includ-
ing man himself, on the vegetation of a region wliere such
have previously been unknown leads to an artificial state of
affairs for a time, which has a most profound bearing on the
distribution of the various species making up the vegetation.
Excepting man himself, of all animals, wliere previously none
have existed, herbivorous mammals work the greatest change.
When in addition to animals foreign plants appear and come
into competition with those proper to the region, and, most
of all, when man, by the aid of Are in the first place, and after-
wards by agriculture and other means, seeks to " reclaim " a
virgin waste, then the equilibrium between the plant-fornia-

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 301

tions is upset altogether, and a new flora and new plant-
formations arise. This must have taken place to a greater
or lesser extent in all civilised and semi-civilised lands, and
their floras and formations must be very different indeed to
what, they were in the dim past before man appeared upon
the scene. At the present time it seems to me that remote
regions, especially isolate(i islands such as those of the New
Zealand biological area, are almost the only places where the
general laws that govern such vegetation -modifications can
be found out, for the gradual changes from purely virgin for-
mations to final "reclamation" can be observed and the
factors bringing this about noted. But, so far as the New
Zealand biological area is concerned, such investigations must
be con(iucted at once, since year by year the actual virgin
formations decrease rapidly in area. Of all places, Campbell
Island offers the most favourable conditions for such studies,
since all the facts with regard to animals and settlement by
man are available, a settlement which has existed for only
seven years. In what follows some notes dealing with the
matter in hand, kindly furnished by Captain Bollons at my
request, have been freely made use of.

(a.) The Snares.
These islands have been frequently visited by parties of
sealers, who lived there for some months at a time. Beyond
cutting down some of the trees and making a few tracks here
and there they have had little effect on the vegetation. Where
the Olearia lyallii trees were felled there is now, according to
Kirk (56, p. 215), a dense growth of Veronica elliptica mixed
with tussock. According to Captain Bollons, goats — perhaps
the most destructive of all quadrupeds — were introduced in
1890 ; but these have most likely died, none having been seen
since 1900. The following plants, according to Kirk, are
naturalised, but nothing is said as to their frequency or their
stations : Dactylis glomerata, Holcus lanatus, Poa annua.
Lohum 'perenne. The above and the following New Zealand
plants Kirk considers to have been introduced by the sealers :
Sonchus as2Jer, Jxincus bufonius, Hierochloe redolens, Deyeuxia
forsteri.

(b.) The Auckland Islands.

Captain A. Bristow, in 1807, landed pigs on Auckland
Island. Both Hooker and Bnderby reported them as very
numerous, and Captain Bollons considers that there are still
great numbers of them.

During the Eoss expedition a ram and two ewes, pigs,
poultry, and rabbits were landed on Auckland Island, and
seeds of cabbage, turnip, mustard, cress, and other seeds were
sown. Gooseberry, currant, raspberry and strawberry plants

302 Transactions. — Botany.

were distributed over various parts of the island by Hooker.
Eabbits were also landed on Enderby Island. Near the
Observatory the forest was set on fire, with the result that
the v^hole country " appeared in a blaze of fire at night " (91,
p. 151, et seq.).

Enderby introduced cattle and sheep in 1850, but the
whole of tnese were killed by the early sealers. Captain
Norman, in 1865, landed four goats, three females and one
male, on the soiith side of Terror Cove, but none of these have
been seen since that date.

On Enderby Island cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats were
landed by C. Enderby in 1850. In 1865 Captain Norman
placed a few goats and rabbits on the island, " which at once
took to the English grass " (90). In 1894 cattle and sheep
were brought by the " Hinemoa." Probably there are about
ten head of cattle at the present time.

Eabbits were put on Eose Island by Enderby, who
writes, " I had rabbits in the first instance on a small piece
of detached land between Auckland and Eose Island, but
they multiplied so rapidly that there was not sufficient food
for them," so he removed some of them to Eose Island, where,
as on Enderby Island also, there are considerable numbers at
the present time. There are also about fifteen head of cattle
on Eose Island ; some have been placed there in 1894.

Two or three goats were landed on Ewing Island in 1895,
but none have been seen recently. On Ocean Island, a very
small island m the Auckland Group, goats are numerous at the
present time, but I have no details as to how they got there.

On Adams Island Captain Norman landed six Muscovy
ducks. Here, also, sheep were landed in 1891, but none have
been seen since 1896.

As to the efi'ect of the above-mentioned animals on the
vegetation of the Auckland Islands, that of the pigs might be
expected to have made its mark. Hooker writes (46, p. 32)
of Pleuro2)hyllum criniferum " forming the larger proportion
of the food of the hogs which now run wild upon the islands
of Lord Auckland's Group. It is, indeed, so abundant in the
marshy spots on tliese latter islands that these animals fre-
quently live entirely amongst it, especially when it grows
near the margins of woods, where they form broad tracks or
runs through the patches, grubbing up the roots to a great
extent, and by trampling down the soft stems and leaves use
them as warm and soft forms to litter in." According to
Mr. McCormick, who was surgeon on the " Erebus," the pigs
fed on Stilbocarpa jjolaris. Tlie rabbits also, confined to two
small islands, must have destroyed a considerable amount of
vegetation, and have changed to some extent the percentage
of the smaller grasses and other herbaceous plants on which

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 303

they may feed. As for the cattle, Captain Bollons considers
that they have ah'eady brought about considerable changes in
the swampy ground of Enderby Island by consohdatiug it ;
and in deahng with the sand-dunes I have shown how these
animals have ah'eady changed stable into unstable dunes, in
which work the rabbits also may play some part.

At the time of the Enderby Settlement, as before pointed
out, a considerable piece of the forest in the north of Auck-
land Island was cleared. This cleared ground is now com-
pletely reoccupied by a new formation diff'ermg in some
important characters from the original rata forest. This
new formation consists of a dense growth of evergreen
shrubs, and with these is mixed a considerable pei'centage
of Phormium tenax. This latter plant is not indigenous
to the group, ""' it having been introduced by the sealers,
who made use of the leaves for making sandals in which
to chase the fur-seals over the extremely slippery rocks.
That Phormium tenax, a most characteristic New Zealand
plant, should be on the increase, and more than holding its
own with the secondary arborescent growth, is a matter of
interest distinctly bearing on the question of former land-
connection with New Zealand proper ; but it must be borne
in mind that such secondary growth as that under consi-
deration is the result of changes brought about by man, and
the spread of Phormium under such circumstances is no proof
that it would increase if introduced into a primitive formation.
The new formation consists of Metrosideros lucida, Panax
simplex, Coprosma foetidissima, Dracophyllum longifolittm, and
Phormium tenax, the whole forming a most beautiful natural
shrubbery of various hues of green. Unfortunately, there w'as
no time to examine the undergrowth, or to take notes as to
the relative quantity of the various components.

Eegarding the introduced plants of the Auckland Group I
can say but Httle. So far as I could judge at a season most
unfavourable for such investigations, the vegetation of the
flat ground between the sand-dunes and the forest on
Enderby Island is largely modified, and contains a number
of introduced grasses and other plants growing mixed with
some of the more lowly indigenous herbs. It would be in
this locality that the goats and rabbits which took so kindly
to the English grass were landed in 1865 by Captain Norman.
During this last-named expedition certain exotic plants were
planted in various localities. Thus, oak, ash, and pine trees

* Mr. W. Joss tells me that lie remembers when there were only
three plants of P. tenax in this locality. On the occasion of our visit he
landed at this spot purposely to gather some Phonniinn leaves, remember-
ing well that the plants were there, although he had not been to the
group for many years.

304: Tra7isaction!<. — Botany.

were planted, and seeds of lettuce, turnip, carrot, parsnip,
pumpkin, and other vegetables were sown, on the south side
of Terror Cove, while on Adams Island several young trees
were planted and seed sown at the head of Garnley Har-
bour (90). Phormium tcnax, as I have pointed out above,
is an introduced plant, and it is distinctly on the increase ;
if it finally spreads on to the wet open ground it may con-
siderably modify the Pleurophyllum formation. It should
also be able to thrive on the sand-dunes, and everywhere,
indeed, except in the subalpine region. Finally, I may add
that the question of the effect of introduced animals, &c., on
the vegetation of the Auckland Group, owing to the many
animals that have roamed there for some time, and the length
of time that introduced plants have had a footing in some part
or other of the group, is a matter of considerable complexity,
and cannot be grappled with except by a long residence in the
group. Generally speaking, however, I think it safe to con-
clude that almost all the forest and scrub formations and by
far the largest part of the remainder are, to all intents and
purposes, in their virgin condition.

(c.) Antipodes Island.

Here the conditions are very much more simple than
in the Auckland Islands, for it was not until the year 1887
that any exotic animals were introduced. Since then, and up
to the last visit of the " Hinemoa," in July, 1903, cattle,
sheep, and goats have been landed on several occasions,
but such invariably died after three or four years. At the
present time there are on the island only the three heifers
which were landed in July last. It is very easy to see how
such tussock slopes and swamps as those I have described are
most unfavourable for the well-being of domestic animals.
Sheep, thickly clothed with wool through not being shorn, if
they once fall down in such tussock meadows can never rise
again, and must perish. Cattle certainly may get on better,
and might make tracks through the tussocks ; but wliether
they could thrive exposed to the furious gales in the more
open lands of the interior is questionable. It seems highly
probable that the peculiar vegetation, aided by the climate,
might quite well prove the victor in the struggle with
any introduced domestic animals left uncared-for on the
islaird. Were the place to be turned into a sheep-run,
where the sheep were annually shorn and the tussock burnt
off, then, indeed, the face of nature might be changed, and
one of the most wonderful natural museums in the world be
destroyed, which would, indeed, be a scientific calamity in no
wise to be compensated by the trivial and problematical gain
that could be acquired by sheep-farming on Antipodes Island.

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 305

(d.) Campbell Island,

Here sheep-farming is an accomplished fact. My notes,
in consequence, afford some clue as to the effect that sheep
and fires have on an absolutely virgin vegetation, which has
existed for ages without having been exposed to either of
these factors. Unfortunately, I was unable to make any
list of the introduced plants; but the presence of these hardly
affects my results, since there are iew, if any, introduced
plants at the higher levels where my notes were taken. At
the time of the visit of Captain Norman six oaks, six elms,
and one ash-tree were planted. Three pigs, some game and
guinea fowls were at the same time landed at the head of
Perseverance Harbour. The pigs and, 1 presume, none of the
other animals have been seen there for the past twenty
years. In 1890, according to Captain Bollons, sheep and
goats were landed ; the sheep died off, but probably two or
three goats remain. In 1896 the sheep-farming was com-
menced. Only a few sheep were brought at first, but these
have been frequently added to ; they have also increased by
natural means, and now there are about 4,500 on the island.
Burning has also been largely resorted to in order to get rid
of the scrub and make travelling more easy both for the sheep
and the shepherds.

Now, it is obvious that at first the sheep would be con-
fined to comparatively small areas, and that a small number
would affect the vegetation to an equal degree as quite a large
number would if these latter were equally distributed over the
whole island. Even now the 4,500 sheep do not roam over
more than half the surface of the island, and still less than
that if we take into account the scrub, gullies filled with scrub,
patches without new vegetation where burning or overstocking
has taken place, debris -sloipes, and rocks. Consequently the
sheep exert almost a maximum influence upon the plant-
formations. There are certain plants of which the sheep are
especially fond. These are Danthonia hromoides, Pleuro-
phylkim speciosum, Ligasticum latlfolium, and Stilhocarpa
polaris. Pleurophyllum liookeri is eaten to some extent; and
so, of course, are the various small grasses and the " silver-
tussock.'' Celmisia verincosa, Cel. chapmanni, and Bulhinella
rossii are not touched.'''

The lower tussock meadow formerly contained vast quanti-
ties of Pleurophyllum speciosum. This the sheep devour most
greedily, eating right down into the plant almost to the root-
stock. On the slopes of Mount Honey were hundreds of
plants, the leaf-rosettes eaten quite away, the remains of the
dead plant looking not unlike the nest of a bird. In some

* From information supplied by Mr. J. Gordon.
20— Trans.

306 Transactions. — Botany.

instances, perhaps, such plants are not killed outright, and
may recover. In course of time in all the formations where
sheep can feed this magnificent plant will be destroyed, and,
so far as Campbell Island is concerned, it will only be found
in rocky hollows of the cliffs where a sufficient amount of peat
can accumulate.

It is the subalpine tussock meadow and the tussock scrub
that are undergoing the greatest changes. In the former, as
pointed out before, the noble grass Danthoma hromoidcs forms
great tussocks as large as the largest snow-grass tussocks of
the Canterbury mountains. These are eaten right down to
their base in one year, if the meadow is heavily stocked, and
nothing remains but great roundish decayed mounds, the
bases of the leaves projecting upwards, the whole 30 cm. or
more in height. Such heaps, at a distance of 90 cm. or so
apart, meet the eye all over the hillside. Between these
dead tussocks on the south side of Lyall's Pyramid occur
the foUownng plants : Phyllachne clavigera, various species
of lichens, Luzula crinita, Coprosma repens, a few young
grasses belonging to species I could not identify at the
time, Ilymenophyllum nmltifiduvi, Plcurophyllum speciostmi,
(this mostly quite killed), Pleurophyllum liookeri (a good deal
eaten), Ep>ilobium confertifoliuvi,, Bulbinella rossii (in large
quantity). On the dead rotten hummocks of Danthonia,
Phyllachne, some mosses, and Cojyrosma rej^ens were growing,
and on the ground near by Stellaria dccijyiens had become
very abundant. Here, then, a distinctly changed formation is
in process of evolution in lohich the tico most striking plants,
which stamp) the physiognomy of the original formation, luill be
altogether absent, while some of the smaller plants, kept in
check by these dominant larger ones, will increase considerably
in numJjcrs. The next phase in tire history of the changed
formation will be when introduced plants put in an appearance
and contend with the present survivors for possession of the
ground, and it is certain from New Zealand experience that
many of these will be equally or better in harmony with their
new surroundings than are the endemic species.

In some parts of the subalpine region the new formation is
somewhat different from that just described, in so much that
very large quantities of a small indigenous grass are occupying
the ground. According to Mr. Gordon, the manager of the
Campbell Island sheep-run, tliis grass is not destroyed by the
sheep, although they feed upon it. If this is so, another
meadow formation is in process of evolution, depending pro-
bably upon the amount of moisture in the soil. This grass
was especially noticeable on the ground below the cliti's on the
north side of Lyall's Pyramid.

In certain places the " tussock scrub " has been burned,

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 307

and, of course, sheep also can range, and have most probably
ranged, over it. Such spots are specially instructive, because
these burnt and unburnt portions of the formation can be ob-
served side by side. An account has been given, when deal-
ing vvith Campbell Island, of this vn-gm formation, so no
more need be said on this head. The burning would, in the
first instance, destroy all the plants and parts of plants which
were above the surface of the ground. Some would be killed
outright, and others spring up again from their underground
parts. At the time of my visit the former tussocks were
indicated by rotten dead masses of leaves, &c. The Gojnosma
bushes were a mass of dead interlacing branches, v^hich
showed most admn'ably the manner of growth of those shrubs.
The floor of the formation beneath such dense bushes had for-
merly been quite bare, there being neither space nor light
enough for plant-life. Now the floor beneath such Goprosvia
skeletons is most densely covered with the pale bluish-green
Acana ; but frequently this is mixed with Epilohmvi limicBO-
ides and Stellaria decipiens. Such new growth is usually of
extreme closeness. In the new formation Aspidium vestitum
is abundant, having come up again from its rootstock after
being burnt to the ground. On the ground between the Go-
prosma skeletons and the Aspidium is much Acana, while
Epilohium linnceoides and Stellaria decipiens are exceedingly
abundant. In this case, again, the plants tohich give the stamp
to the physiognomy of the original formation are no longer
p)rescnt, lohile certain plants present in no great abundance
before, arid which have corne tq) from seed, are noio dominant,
the Aca,na especially being on the point of becoming a "weed"
in the eyes of the farmer. This changing of indigenous plants
into weeds by disturbing the balance of nature is well shown
in Chatham Island, where, even in ground constantly grazed
by sheep, Accena novce-zealandice is extremely abundant (23,
p. 306), while the frequent burning of bog-vegetation has
finally led to the common bracken — Pteris esculenta — occupy-
ing large areas where formerly it hardly existed, and hinder-
ing the growth of grasses available for stock (23, p. 307).

Where the Dracophyllum scrub of the lower levels has
been burned Accena also is making great headway, though
here also Aspidiimi vestitum remains. Most probably such
burning of scrub will in time transform the whole scrub
formation of the island, except in deep gullies, into meadow of
some kind or other.

From the above it is very easy to see that Campbell Island
will be a very different place in a few years' time, so far as its
plant-formations and plant inhabitants are concerned, if the
island continues to be a sheep-run. Possibly none of these
latter will be altogether destroyed, unless it be Danthonia

308 Transactions. — Botany.

hrovwides, but some of the most common meadow-plants will
be found only on rocky crevices or in the bottoms of unburnt
gullies, while other plants formerly kept in check by the
vegetation-conditions of the island will have increased to a
remarkable extent, some actually becoming "weeds," unless
their spread is again checked by some foreign species which
may get into the flora. At any rate, after a time equilibrium
will be once more restored, and formations apparently natural
come into being in harmony with the new biotic surroundings.
Under such a condition of affairs sonie of the then rarest plants
icill have formerly been tlie most common, and some of the com-
monest have been comparatively rare, and have been confined
originally to quite different stations. Thus, originally common
meadow-plants may be only rare and local on rocks, and
small rare and local rock-grasses may be the chief meadow-
grasses. Such facts as "these seem to me to have a distinct
bearing on plant-distribution in the civilised countries of the
Old World.

VI. History of the Flora of the Southern Islands.

To deal at all exhaustively with the history of the flora of
the Southern Islands would necessitate going into the origin
of the whole New Zealand flora, an undertakmg altogether
too great for a paper such as this. All that can be attempted
here is to give some details regarding the elements of which
the flora is composed, and to make some remarks as to its
possible origin, specially referring to any matter contained in
what has gone before that sheds light on this subject.

The elements of the flora are three — an endemic, a
Fuegian, and a New Zealand, this latter itself a complex, but
here treated as a single element. Only the spermaphytes are
here considered. The presence of pteridophytes easily spread
by wind is of no very great importance in any discussion
regarding the presence of identical forms on laud-areas
separated by wide stretches of ocean.

The total number of spermaphytes, counting both species
and well-marked varieties, is 138, of which 54, or 39 per cent.,
are endemic; 26, or 188 per cent., Fuegian; 7, or 5 per
cent., Fuegian which do not extend to New Zealand ; and 58,
or 43*1 per cent.. New Zealand, excluding the New Zea-
land - Fuegian element, consisting of 19 species. After some
hesitation I have included two species which extend to the
Chatham Islands amongst the endemic plants.

If we now consider the endemic element, it may be divided
into two classes — viz., those species found in only one island
of the group and those occurring on more than one. Of the
former there are 25 species, which are thus distributed :
Auckland Islands, 10; Campbell Island, 7; Antipodes Is-

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion- to Southern Islands. 309

lands, 3 ; Macquarie Island, 3 ; Snares Islands, 2. Eegard-
ing the 29 species found on more than one island, 1 {Golo-
banthus muscoides) is found on all the islands ; 2 (Lzizula
crinita and Stilbocarpa polaris) occur on Auckland, Campbell,
Antipodes, and Macquarie ; 2 on Auckland, Campbell, and
Macquarie {Pleuroijhyllum hookeri and Stellaria decipiens) ;
1 on Auckland and Antipodes {Pratia arenaria — also very
common m Chatham Island) (23, p. 305) ; 1 on Snares and
Auckland {Olearia lyallii) ; 1 on Auckland and Chatham (Poa
chathamica''') ; 6 on Auckland, Campbell, and Antipodes
{Accetia sanguisorbcs antarctica, Ejiiiobiuin confer tifoliicm,
Ligusticum antijjodum, Pleurophyllnm crinifenim, Coprosjna
ciiiata, Poa sp. — the common tussock-grass forming large
"trunks"); and 15 on Auckland and Campbell Islands.
This distribution of the endemic species shows Auckland
and Campbell Islands to be the headquarters of the flora,
which, on account of the size of the former and of the num-
ber of plant- stations provided by the configuration of the
latter, might be expected.

The endemic species are in many cases very closely related
to New Zealand ones ; indeed, regarding some of them it is a
question whether they are not either identical with or at best
forms of existing New Zealand species, as, e.g., Epilobnim
confertifnlium, Pratia arenaria, Azorella reniformis, Coprosma
ciliata, Plantago sp. (the P. brotonii(?) of th' Aucklands),
Ranunculus subscaijosus, Aralia lyallii robusta, Acana
sanguisorbcB antarctica, Astelia linearis subulata, Gardavnne
depressa stellata, &c. But, notwithstanding this, the endemic
element is very clearly defined through the presence of two
endemic genera — Pleitrophyllum and Stilbocarpa — and such
species as Ligusticum latifolium, Lig. antipodum, Celmisia ver-
nicosa. Gel. chapynanni, Senecio antipoda, Veronica benthami,
ColobantJms muscoides, Gotula lanata, and Bidbmella rossii.

If we turn now to the 58 New Zealand species, 51 are
endemic and the remaining 7 Australian. A summary of
the stations in which they and the New Zealand - Fuegian
species are found in New Zealand proper is not without
interest. For this purpose I have roughly classed these
stations under three heads — coastal, forest, alpine and sub-
alpine. Under the term " forest " is included not only the
plants of the forest proper, but those which are found in

* It is doubtful whether this grass occurs in Auckland or Antipodes.
Moreover, Petrie, who recorded its occurrence in the Southern Islands,
shows that it differs from the Chatham Island plant in certain particu-
lars; but he adds (85, p. 395), "It is clearly a form of the present
species " [F. cliathamica] , " and presents only such subvarietal differences
as might be expected frora the difference of habitat combined with long
isolation."

310 Transactionc. — Botany.

the forest region, even if meadow-plants. Tiiis classitication
is quite a rough one, for many plants are fouud in all kinds
of stations and at all kinds of altitudes. Placing the New
Zealand species after {a) and the New Zealand - Fuegian
after {h), the figures are: Coastal — (ci) 12, {h) 8 = 20 ;
forest— (a) 18, {h) 2 = 20 ; alpine and subalpine — (a) 28,
(h) 9 = 37. Thus, the mountain-plants are considerably in
excess of either of the other classes ; and this is more accen-
tuated when it is pointed out that the forest - plants are
in large measure plants of a forest which ascends to the
lower subalpine region, or is found usually, when at a
lower altitude, under such conditions as will permit the
growth of alpine plants at a low level — e.g., Stewart Island,
west coast of South Island, &c. Generally speaking, these
alpine plants are not amongst those most characteristic of
subalpine and alpine plant-formations. Certain genera, such
as Raoulia, Gcmltheria, Euphrasia, Ourisia, Pimelea, Fors-
tera, Gunnera, Wahlenbergid , and Coriaria, are altogether
wanting ; and of the numerous species of Celmisia, Otcoria,
Veronica, and Senecio none of the mountain forms extend to
the Southern Islands, where, however, they are represented
by one or two Southern Islands" endemic or New Zealand
coastal species. Of the more common mountain-plants com-
mon to New Zealand and the Soutliern Islands, it is an in-
teresting fact that they are frequently plants of New Zealand
alpine bogs, in certain places, however, in the south of the
South Island and in Stewart Island occurring also in bogs at
sea- level. Amongst these are Gainiardia ciliata and Gaim.
jjallida, Drosera stcvopetala, Orcoholus j^wmlio, Scir2JUs auck-
landicns, Cyathodes evipctrifoha, Ehrharta thomsoni, Garex
ternana (also frequent in lowland stations), and Juncus
scheuzerioides (see also Diels, 27, pp. 254:, 257). Some of
the alpine plants belong to the subalpine scrub— c.(/., Go-
proama cuneata, Draco2)hyllum longifoLiun, Drac. tirvilleanum*
Myrsine divaricata, Cassinia vanviUieysii. Coprosnia repens
is a very common subalpine meadow-plant, while Helichry-
suvi prostratum is by no means widespread, but its close
ally H. beilidioides is everywhere on the mountains.

Having now briefly considered the elements of tlie flora,
we are led to inquire how did they reach a number of very
small islands not merely far away from any centre of dis-
tribution, but distant from one another some hundreds of
miles ; and, above all, how comes it that this group of islands
has nearly 19 per cent, of its flora composed of species —
twenty-six in ininiber — which occur in the southern part of

• This is if we accept Kirk's ideutification of the species of Draco-
2'hyllum most common in the scrub of Campbell Island.

Cockayne. — Botanical E.ratrsion to Southern Islands. 311

South America, distant about half the circumference of the
globe ? Two explanations have been suggested : one that
seeds of these Fuegian plants were brought by winds, by
birds, by ocean currents, on icebergs, &c. ; the other chat
changes more or less great in the configuration of the lands
of the Southern Hemisphere have taken place, bringing dif-
ferent points eitlier into direct land-connnunication or very
much nearer than they are at present. Correlated with this
latter view is the belief that a milder climate may have existed
in the Southern Hemisphere than is now the case.*

As to the first hypothesis, I may point out that introduced
land-birds have been blown from New Zealand to Auckland
Island and to Chatham Island, and that in consequence
certain European birds are now naturalised on these two
islands. The smoke of bush-fires reaches Chatham Island
during certain winds from New^ Zealand. Dr. P. iVIarshall
has recently shown (76) how a storm of dust has reached
New' Zealand from Australia, and how during such an occur-
rence small seeds could reach New Zealand from Australia.
Certain islands are supposed to have been colonised with
plants entirely by such methods as the above, the Azores
and Bermudas being cases in pomt. As for the latter group,
Trelease considers(lOl'i) that most of the existing species have
been introduced largely by human agency since the discovery
of the islands.

As for the currents, Captain Bollons writes to me : "The
current, generally speaking, is a set to the eastward, some-
times at the rate of one and a half knots per hour. Have not
noticed anything m the shape of driftvvood or flotsam of any
kind which could be taken as coming from other lands."
So far as Chatham Island is concerned, logs from New Zea-
land have been frequently cast up on its shores.

Sea-birds, as shown previously, are enormously abundant
on these islands. Some of these make their nests in the
ground, and so, as Moseley has shown, may get their feathers
covered with vegetable mould, which in some cases will con-
tain seeds. The fruits of Accsna, as shown above, adhere in
large numbers to the feathers of the albatros. Whether
such sea-birds visit anv other islands than the one on which
they breed I do not think is known ; nor are any facts available
as to how much exposure to salt-water the seeds of the plants
under consideration could tolerate. As to whether sea-birds
will eat the fruits of berry-bearing plants, for instance, there
is, so far as I know, only the testimony of Dr. Guppy (37),
which refers merely to one case.

* This is now confirmed by Mr. Ferrar'e splendid discovery of fossil
plants on the Antarciic Contuieut, during the recent British Antarctic
Expedition.

312 Transactions . — Botany.

Generally speaking, the consensus of opinion amongst
botanists is against seeds being brought in appreciable quanti-
ties over wide stretches of ocean, and I do not think that any
one at the present time claims that all the ancestors of the
New Zealand flora arrived in this manner.

As tovs'hether the Southern Islands got their New Zealand
element by wind-carriage, water-carriage, bu'd-carriago, tkc,
I will only make one or two remarks. The seeds of New
Zealand plants as a whole do not germinate very readily ;
nor will the majority germinate at all unless the conditions
be very favourable. Seeds of introduced plants in New Zea-
land, even those of most aggressive species, rarely produce
plants that come to maturity in undisturbed ground in moun-
tain regions where introduced animals, including man, have
never been. Even on the lowlands it is the ground that has
been disturbed that they seize upon, and it is under artificial
conditions that they exterminate indigenous plants. Plants
from a liower-garden, even when they seed freely and produce
young plants in the garden itself, rarely invade the suiround-
ing country by means of seedlings. So far as I have observed,
it is only plants with certain special adaptations which become
naturalised in special positions and there become dominant.

The presence in the Auckland Islands of a New Zealand
rata forest — i.e., not of a number of separated species, but of
a distinct plant-formation such as one might encounter in
many parts of the South Island — is a matter bearing directly
upon the question of former land-connection between the
southern parts of the New Zealand biological area. This
rata forest, wanting some few of its usual constituents, in-
deed, but otherwise, excepting for its peculiar physiognomy,
which is in harmony with the climatic conditions, is a true
New Zealand rata forest, a combination of Metrosideros
luctda, Panax sivq^lex, Dracophyllum Unicjifoliuvi, Goprosma
fcetidissivia, Suttonia divaricata, beneath the shade of which
are the ferns, mosses, liverworts, and lichens which one
would expect to be there. Were the tree Weinmannni race-
7)wsa present nothing would be wanting. The presence of
such a forest some hundreds of miles from New Zealand is
to me a most striking fact. It is quite conceivable how seeds
or fruits of many plants might be brought by wind, by birds,
or other agencies, but that such should consist in large mea-
sure of the plants of some special formation, and that they
should arrange themselves in almost exactly the same manner
as they did in the land of their nativity, is a matter much
more difficult to believe than that New Zealand has extended
to the south far beyond its present limits, and that on such
land a previously existing forest has slowly moved southwards.
This brings us at once to the question of what evidence there

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 313

is regarding former extension of New Zealand, and while on
this topic the question of former antarctic land-areas occupied
by plants may be briefly discussed. To approach this ditticult
question we must turn to the geological history of New Zea-
land. Captain Hutton's most recent utterance on the sub-
ject may be taken as summing up what is believed to be
known on this head Here there is no need to go into
Hutton's arguments; only some of his conclusions need
be stated: "In the middle of the Jurassic period came a
violent upheaval." "The new land, which we may now call
New Zealand, for it has never since been entirely covered by
the sea, extended in a westerly direction to at least twice its
present breadth, and to the north it joined New Caledonia
and New Guinea, which at that time probably formed part of
a South Pacific continent.''' Plants and animals — including
snails, worms, and nisects, but no birds — came trooping down
from the north to form the basis of our flora and fauna."
" In the Upper Cretaceous the land subsided, and New
Zealand was reduced to comparatively small limits." " A
little before the commencement of the Tertiary era the rocks
were folded once more, the land rose again, and again it
stretched far away to the north, but was not again united to
New Guinea or to northern x\ustralia. A second invasion
from the north followed, and quantities of plants of all de-
scriptions, accompanied by animals — among which were many
land-birds — migrated to New Zealand, and it is the descend-
ants of this Eocene invasion which form the greater part of
the present fauna and flora." " In the older Pliocene came
the last great upheaval. All the islands were joined together,
and the land stretched away to the east and south so as to in-
clude the Chatham and Auckland Islands, as well, perhaps, as
Campbell and Macquarie Islands, while to the north it cer-
tainly extended to the Kermadecs and much further. Pro-
bably at this time more land existed in the Antarctic Ocean,
for New Zealand added to its flora and fauna many antarctic
plants and marine animals. But this land could not have
connected New Zealand with either Patagonia or South
Africa, for if it had done so we should certainly have had
more immigrants, includmg land-birds and probably mammals"
(52, pp. 181, 182).

Wallace, although far from agreeing with Hutton in all
his conclusions, also believes in a much greater extension
of New Zealand, and seeks to show how the basis of its flora
came from Australia (102, p. 506) during a period — probably

* The recent discovery of species of Corynocarinis , supposed to be
endemic in New Zealaiid, in New Caledonia and New Hebrides is of
great interest in this connection (43«).

314 Transactions. — Botany.

the early Tertiary — when that continent, although connected
with New Zealand, was itself divided into an eastern and a
western half by a wide strait (102, p. 196), New Zealand having
previously possessed "a scanty vegetation of nuxed antarctic
and Polynesian origin " [I.e., p. 499). By the above means New
Zealand would get the thirty-two tropical genera common to
it and Australia, and probably " thirty-two more genera,
which, though chiefly developed in temperate Australia,
extend into the tropical or subtropical portions of it, and
may well have reached New Zealand by the same route"
{I.e., p. 501). The ninety-six species common to New
Zealand and Australia at a much more recent period in
some manner or other crossed the sea. at least six hundred
miles broad, between New Zealand and Australia. The
Fuegian plants, many of which belong to northern genera,
the New Zealand genera Pachycladon and Notothlaspi,
" said to have affinities with arctic plants," and Stilbocarpa,
with its "nearest allies in the Himalayan and Chinese
Aralias" {I.e., p. 519), came from South America (the arctic
and northern elements by way of the Andes during the
glacial periods), some settling (iown in Tierra del Fuego and
Soiithern Chile ; others passed over the five hundred miles to
the South Shetlands, and thence by way of the antarctic
continent or group of laige islands to Adelie Land, and thence
to Young Island. From here they travelled across the sea
750 miles to Macquarie Island, and thence across another
expanse of sea to New Zealand or Tasmania, these lands at
this time having a considerable extension to the soutli.

Dr. H. O. Forbes advocates actual land-connection between
the New Zealand biological area, the antarctic continent.
South America, South Africa, &c., but unfortunately only the
short notice of his views m Nature and certain letters he wrote
in that journal are available here (36).

With regai'd to direct land-connection between New Zea-
land and South America, the presence of genera of animals
which could not tolerate sea travel is of the highest import-
ance. Such, for instance, are earthworms. Regarding the
genus Microscole.v , of which a species, JSI. huttoui, occurring in
Chatham Island, was recently described by Dr. W.B. Denliam,
that author writes (6, p. 143), " The existence of this genus
here in New Zealand, with four distinct species, goes very far
towards supporting a land-connection with South America,
and points perhaps rather to a connection with the northern
part of the southern continent than with the extreme south."
Another worm is Acantliodrllus viacquaricnsis, Bonhani, of
Macquarie Island, which " has closer affinities with the species
occurring in Patagonia, the Island of South Georgia, and the
Falkland Isles than with those of New Zealand " (I.e., p. 132) ;

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 315

while as for Notiodrilus aucklandictcs , Benham, of the Auck-
land Islands (7) Lhe same may be said, it in addition having
aiiinities with South iVfrican species."

Spiders, again, are animals which could not travel by
means of the sea or be blown for long distances by wind.
On the Bounty Islands, which consist entirely of granite, and
therefore are of great age, as pointed out before, are many
spiders. Specimens of these, collected by me in July last,
were sent to Mr. H. R. Hogg, who thus writes regarding them
to Professor C. Chilton, to whom I gave the spechuens, " The
spiders you sent from Bounty Island are most interesting.
Their nearest congeners are from the south of South America,
and although they are typical of a well-defined family, the
Cybocina, I have had to make a new genus for them." " They
would seem to add another link to the connection of South
America with .Australia."

D]-. H. Woodward, in a recent paper, sums up the evi-
dence, geological, zoological, and botanical, in favour of a
former antarctic continent containing an abundant fauna and
flora, and concludes that "a summary of the flora charac-
teristic of the Soutliern Hemisphere fully confirms the con-
clusions derived from a study of the fauna, and establishes
beyond a doubt tlie former existence of extensive land-con-
nections between the southern continents and islands in
Tertiary times which have since disappeared beneath the
ocean"- (105, p. 429).

Now, all the above does not put us much beyond Hooker's
classical theory of a much greater extent of laiid in the
Southern Hemisphere to account for that most wonderful
fact, the exact similarity of the flora of all the antarctic
islands from Cape Horn to Kerguelen Land, a similarity so
great that Alboff includes in his term " Fuegian flora" the
plants of all the land on the western side of the Andes from
and including the Chronos Archipelago and the numerous
isles along the coast, the greater part of the north side of the
Strait of Magellan, Tierra del Fuego (excepting its northern
flat portion), the Falklands, and the other islands at about the
same latitude up to and including Kerguelen Land (1).

I have pointed out above how the presence of the rata
forest in the Auckland Islands supports Hutton's theory of a
great southern extension of land during the Pliocene period.
On the other hand, the Pleurophy limit, meadow may be the
last remnant of a former much more extensive southern
meadow formation. PletLro2)hyllum, an endemic genus in the

" During my excursion I collected a number of earthworms, of which
probably one from Antipodes and two species from Campbell Island may
be of some interest. These are now in Professor W. B. Benham's hands
for identification.

316 Transactions. — Botany.

Southern Islands, and occurring in the wliole of them except
the Snares, is. according to Bentham (4a, p. 407), closely related
to the Andine section Orithropium of Engeron, as is also
Celviisia. If, with Bentham and the " Pflanzen-Familien,"
we consider all the southern species of Ligiisticum to belong
to Aciphylla, then this may also be, perhaps, called an
" antarctic genus," although most closely related to the
northern Ligusticimi. Acayia, Epilobium, Uncinia, and Vero-
nica may also well have belonged to this problematical
ancient plant-formation. The presence of Stilhocarpa and
Bnlbinella present more difficulties. The former, as stated
above, is allied to the Chinese araliads, so it either did not
belong to the above suggested ancient antarctic plant-forma-
tion, or its ancestors in other parts of the Fuegian region have
long since died out, these coming, as Wallace suggests, from
the north dui'ing the glacial period. As for the presence of the
South African genus Bulhinclla, it is one of those remarkable
South African relationships such as Peripatns amongst animals.

The bright colours of the flowers of this formation — blue,
red, purple — have already been alluded to. Captain Hutton
has shown that such in this case is hardly correlated with
the visits of insects (536). It seems to me most probable
that these colours originated through the greater amount
of sunlight to which the plants would be exposed during the
long summer days of a higher latitude.'' On this head Schim-
per writes (92, p. 716), " Die in den meisten Eeiseberichte er-
wiihnte Farben-intensittit der arctischen Bliithen wirdgewdlm-
lich und wohl mit Eecht, als ein Wirkung der andauernden
Beleuchtung aufgefasst."

On the Snares, Ewing Island, and in one or two places
on Auckland Island is an Olearia lyallii forest. This is ap-
parently just as much in harmony witli its surroundings as
is the dominant rata forest ; but I think there can be little
doubt, from what has been said in treating of the forest-for-
mations of the Auckland Islands, that this Olearia forest was
once more extensive, but has been gradually driven into smaller
and smaller compass by the encroaching rata forest. In my
opinion, the O. lyallii] forest is the ancient forest of the
Southern Islands, perhaps, indeed, that of a part of the pro-
blematical antarctic continent; but it could not withstand the
more vigorous Pliocene invader. The genus Olearia is ex-
ceedingly common in New Zealand, there being at least
thirty -four species. According to Bentham (4a, p. 405),

• On the other hand, their luxuriant prrowth docs not point to
evolution in a rigorous climate.

t According to this view O. lyallii and many of the endemic plants
are examples of "relict endcmism," and not of ''initial endcmism," to
use the term suggested by Shull (94).

Cockayne. — Boianical Excursion to Southern Islands. 317

Olearia is closely allied to "the antarctic or subantarctic
genus Ghilotrichmvi, a genus of three species, one of the
numerous connecting-links between the Australian and ex-
tra-tropical or Andine South American floras. This genus
is closely allied as well to Olearia of the former as to
Diplostephium of the latter region." Olearia lyallii belongs
to a distinct division of the genus confined to the New
Zealand area, distinguished by their large solitary heads,
usually solitary on terminal peduncles, but in one species with
simple 3-8-flowered racemes. Kn-k has called this section of
the genus the macrocephalous Olearias. Besides the flower-
heads, the foliage is very distinct. With one exception, the
xerophytic 0. msignis, they all occur in the very wettest
regions of the South Island or on the Chatham Islands,
Stewart Island, and the Southern Islands. 0. lyallii is very
closely allied to 0. colensoi of Stewart Island and the western
subalpine scrub in the South Island.

The extraordinary plasticity of many New Zealand plants,
shown by the great changes in leaf-form which can be quickly
brought about by culture under conditions different to what
tiaey experience in nature, and the striking heterophylly ex-
hibited in a state of nature by a great number of plants, points
distinctly to the species being by no means in harmony with
their present surroundings. Discana toumatou cultivated in
moist air no longer produces spines, but in their place are
drooping leafy shoots. Many species belonging to the genera
Baoulia, Veronica, and Carviichaelia, all most characteristic
New Zealand genera, will revert to the seedling form by culti-
vation in moist air or feeble light (see PI. XXII.) , or under the
same conditions the seedlings in some cases will never assume
the adult form. The case of New Zealand xerophytic shrubs
as affording evidence of the Pliocene land -extension has
already been cited.

As for further evidence regarding land - connection with
South America, no more need be said except to point out the
great resemblance between the flora of Kerguelen Land and
that of Macquarie Island. In this latter island no fewer than
nine out of twenty-seven species are Fuegian, and if we omit
the endemic species of Kerguelen Land, including Poa cookii
as such, six out of the remaining fifteen species occur on
Macquarie Island, amongst which is the wonderful Azorella
selago, which does not extend to any of the other islands.

Whether all the Southern Islands have formed a part of
New Zealand during its one, or it may be more, southern
extensions is a debatable point. Filhol (35a), from geological
evidence collected on the island during a stay of a consider-
able period, claims that Campbell Island has always re-
mained isolated. Hector, on the contrary, considers that

318

Tra72 "iactions. — Botany.

some part has been above sea-level since before the volcanic
outburst to wliicli almost all the present island is due. So
far as the botanical evidence is concerned, the many species
these islands have in common points distinctly to connec-
tion.

x\s for Antipodes Island, Hutton suggests that this has
never been united to the other Southern Islands. Here,
again, I think the botanical evidence is in favour of land-
connection, for the prevailing north-west wind would be just
as likely to colonise it with plants from New Zealand as the
south-west with plants from others of the Southern Islands.

The Bounty Islands are perhaps the last remnant of a
portion of greater New Zealand, and its scanty algal flora
not the commencement of a land flora on a new-born land
just issuing from the waters, but the last survivors of such
a vegetation as that which has been described for these
Southern Islands.

VII. List op the Indigenous Speemaphytes and Ptebido-

PHYTES OF THE SOUTHERN ISLANDS.

In the following the various elements which make up the
flora of the Southern Islands are thus indicated : A = endemic
in the Southern Islands ; B = occurring also in New Zealand ;
C = Fuegian, using this term in the wide sense proposed bv
Alboff (1).

m

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a
—

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RANUNCULACE.aB.

Ranunctdus innrjuis, Hook, f . A . .

..

1

1

li. acaulis, Banks and Sol. B

1

R. subscaposus, Hook. f. A

i

R. auchlandiciis, A. Gray. A

, ,

i"

1?

,[

..

For the Campbell Island habitat see Kirk (57,

p. 387). Probably he confused R. subscaposus

with this species, for he only gives Auckland

Island as habitat in " Students' Flora."

R. hectori, Kirk. A

1

• •

I am bv no means sure that this is distinct from

R. auchlandiciis.

R. crassipes, Hook, f . C . .

• •

• •

• •

1

Crucipeb/E.

Cardamine Im'siila, h., ViiT. stibcarnosa. B

..

1

1

C. corymbosa, Hook. f. B

1

1

C. depressa, Hook. f. B . .

1

C. depressa var. stcllata. A

, ,

1

Lepidium oleraceiiin, Forst. B ..

1

For Auckland Island habitat see Kirk (59, p. 379)

1

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southevji Islands. 319

•a

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a

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13

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at

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3

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Caryophyllace^.

Stellaria deciviens, Hook. f. A

S. decipiens var. angustata, T. Kirk. A

Colobanthus billardieri, Fenzl. B, C

G. suhulatus, Hook. f. B, C

C. imiscoides, Hook. i. A..

PORTDLACE^.

Montia foiitana, Ij. B, C.

Occurs in north and south temperate regions.

C.

GERANIACE.Si.

Geranium microvhyllum. Hook. f. B

Subalpine region, Campbell Island, L.

R0SACE.E.

Geum sericeiirn, Kirk. A ..
Allied to a Fuegian species

Acana smiguisor-bce, Vahl. B

A. sanguisorbcs var. antarctica, var. nov.

This is the common Accena of the Southern Islands,
and seems to me quite distinct from any form
found in New Zealand. It was most likely re-
ferred to var. pilosa by Kirk, to which form, or,
as I consider it, species, it bears some resem-
blance. The leaves are pale-green, but not
whitish -green as those of .4. sanguisorbce var.
pilosa, glabrous on upper surface, but with
many adpressed hairs on under-surface. Scape
almost glabrous, short and hardly raised above
the foliage, + 2-3 cm. long. (In the var. pilosa
the scapes are raised high above the foliage.)
Head ± 8-5 mm. in diameter ; calyx-lobes bright-
green (in the var. pilosa they are more or less
reddish), calyx-tube not densely pilose ; stamens
not exserted, but it may be that this variety is in
part dioecious.

A. sanguisorbce antarctica can be distinguished
at a glance from A. saiigicisorbcB pilosa by the
general aspect, which is chiefly brought about
by the colour of the leaves, the length of the
scapes, the colour of the calyx-lobes, and the
length of the stamens.

A. adscendens, Ysihl. C ..

This is stated to occur in New Zealand, but Mac-
quarie Island specimens which I have examined
seem to me very difierent to the New Zealand
plant, with which I am well acquainted.

Crassdlace^.
Tillcea moschata, D.C. B, C

1 1
1

320

Transactions. — Botany.

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Droserace;e.

Drosera stenopetala, Hook. f. B . .

••

1

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Haloragidace^.

C allitriche antarctica, 'Engelm. C

I

1

1

1

1

Myrtace^.

Metrosideros hicida, A. Rich. B . .

..

1

1?

..

...

Ml-. Gordon, who knows this plant quite well,

states that he has not seen it in Campbell

Island.

Onagrace.^;.

Epilobium linna;oides. Hook. f. B

, ,

1

1

1

1

E. confer tifolium, Hook. i. A

. ,

1

1

1?

Kirk refers certain New Zealand forms to this

species, but Mr. D. Petrie, with whom I fully

atree, considers that E. confertifolium does not

occur in New Zealand proper. The flowers are

bright-pink.

E. nerterioides, A. Cunn. B

. ,

1

, ,

1

E. alsinoides, A. Cunn. B

, ,

, ,

, ,

1

I am not sure that Kirk's identification is correct.

E. nuvumdar if olmm, R. Gnnn. B

, .

, ,

, ,

1

Probably this is E. nerterioides.

Umbellifer^.

Azorella selago, Hook. f. C

, ,

..

1

A. re?!i/o?mis, Ben ih. and Hook. A

, ,

i

i

, ,

Ligusticiun latifolium, Hook. f. A

, .

1

1

, ,

L. antipoduvi, Hook. f. A

1

1

1

L. acutifoliiLin, Kirk. A . .

1

Apium australe, Tbouars. B, C . .

1

• •

i

Araliace^e.

Panax simplex, Porst. f. B

1

Stilbocarpa iwlaris, A. Gray. A . .

1

1

1

1

Aralia lyallii, Kirk (Arinstg.), var. robusta, Kirk. A

1

1 consider this a distinct species, so far as I can

judge from the description and my knowledge of

A. Lyallii.

RUBIACEiE.

Coprosnia fwtidissima, Forst. B ..

1

1?

According to Mr. Campbell this does not occur in

Campbell Island.

C. cuneata, Hook. i. 13 ..

1

1

1

C. ci^iato, Hook. f. A ..

1

1

1?

I am not sure but that a ciliateleaved Coprosma

from Westland should bo referred to this species.

I am not at all certain as to what species the

Antipodes Island Coprosina should be referred.

C. repcns, Hook. f. B

^ ,

1

1

1

1

Nertera depressa, Banks and Sol. B, C

1

1

1 .,

Cockayne. — Botanical Exctirsion to Southern Islands. 321

-B

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COMPOSITiE.

B

B

Lagenophora forsteri, D.C.
Olearia lyallii, Hook. f. A
Celmisia vernicosa, Hook. f. A . .
C. cha'pmanni, Kirk. A . .

C. verbascifolia, Hook. f. (Campbell Island, Rathouis)
The occurrence of this on Campbell Island seems

most unlikely. Mr. Gordon has never seen

it.
Gnaphalmm luteo-alhum, L. (cosmopolitan). B
Ahrotanella spathulata, Hook. f. A
A. rosulata, Hook, f . A . .
IIelichr7js2ivi 2:>rostratuvi, Hook, f
Cotula phimosa, Hook. f. C
C. propinqiia, Hook. f. A
C. lanata, Hook. f. A
G. australis, Hook. f. B . .

For occurrence of this on Campbell Island see

Buchanan (9, p. 399).
Pleurophyllum speciosum, Hook. f. A
P. crinifemm, Hook. f. A
P. hookeri, Buchanan. A
Senecio steicartia, J. B. Armstg. B

This does not occur either on the actual mainland

of New Zealand or on Stewart Island, but on

some small islands in close vicinity to this

latter.
S. antipoda, Kirk. A
Cassinia ratcrilliersii, Hook. f. B

Mr. Gordon says he has not observed this on

Campbell Island, and I certainly did not meet

with it.
Erechtites sp. B

Enderby Island, L. C.
5o9ic7ms as2?e'",* Hill (cosmopolitan). B ..

If S. asper littoralis, Kirk, is the plant which

grows on the Snares, then it is the form, or

perhaps species, which is confined to New

Zealand.

Stylidiaceje.
Phyllachne davigera (F.MueW.), Hook. i. A

CAMPANUIiACE.S; .

Pratia arenaria, Hook, f . A

Also common in Chatham Island.

1
1

1?

1?

* This and Cotula dioica have been collected on the shore of Auckland Island
by Dr. E. Koettlitz during the recent visit of the " Discovery." Cotula dioica is an
addition to the flora of the Southern Islands, but it is not included in my per-
centages, &c.

21— Trans.

322

Transactions. — Botany.

W^

OD

ID

a

'©

ID

QQ

d

^

O

3

3

&

&

c

s

o

a

*-n

u

a

3

t

a

c8

OB

<

o

<

§

Ericace^.

Dracophyllum longifolium, R. Br. B

, ,

1

1

..

, ,

A var. " retortum" is figured in (45). Possibly

D. arboretim, Cockayne, of Chatham Island, is a

form of this species.

D. scovarium, Hook. f. A

. .

, ,

1

, ,

, ,

D. [w-wZZeanww, A. Rich.(?)]. B(?)

, ,

, ,

1

, ,

, ,

Cyathodes empetrifoUa, Hook, f . B

••

1

1

■ •

Myrsinace^.

Suttonia divaricata, Hook, f . B . .

■•

1

1

••

• •

Primulace^e.

Samolus repens, Pers. B, C

••

1

• •

• •

Gentianace^.

The species are here given as in Kirk (69).

{jrentiana carina. Hook, f., form a, suberecta, Kirk. A

1

G. cerina, form /3, carina, Kirk. A

1

G. cerina, form y, concinna, Kirk, A

1

G. antarctica, Kirk. A . .

1

G. antarctica var. imhricata, Kirk. A

1

G. antipoda, Kirk. A . .

i"

Kirk makes some interesting ecological remarks

regarding the variation of G. cerina according

to station, and the above three forms are

dependent on their station. Experimental

work is required on this head, a not too easy

matter, since these gentians are difficult to

cultivate.

BoRAGINACE/E.

Myosotis capitata, Hook, f. B

1

1?

M. capitata albiflora. B . .

i"

M. antarctica, Hook. f. B(?)

1

The flowers are coloured blue in " Flora Antarc-

tica." The series of forms referred to this

species in New Zealand have white flowers.

Perhaps the Southern Islands plant is a dis-

tinct variety or species.

SCROPHULARIACE^ .

Veronica elliptica,'FoTsi. B, C

1

1

1

[F. orfora. Hook, f.]

1

• •

".*

This, I think, is at most a form of V. elliptica.

V. bcnthami, Hook, f . A . .

• •

1

1

. .

< *

Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southerti Islands. 323

QD

a

J2

odes,
aarie.

03

3

B

■t

a

13

ca

a

ca

m

«!

o

<

S

PDANTAGINACE.E .

Plantago aucklandica, Hook. f. A

1

F. [/jroaynu, Rafiii.(?)]. A

1

This is the P. carnosa figured in the " Flora

Antarctica." When growing it bears no re-

semblance whatever to the plant known as P.

broivnii in the Southern Alps. It much more

resembles a species of Plantago very common in

coastal situations in the neighbourhood of

Foveaux Strait, which is probably P. hamil-

tonii, Kirk. The Auckland Island species cer-

tainly seems to me distinct from any New Zea-

land species.

POLYGONACE^.

Humex neglectzis, Kirk. B

••

1

• •

■■

••

Urticacb^.

Urtica aucklandica, Hook, f . A . .

1

■U. anstralis, Hook. f. B . .

1

1

This species is not found on the New Zealand

mainland. It occurs, however, on Dog Island

and Centre Island, in Foveaux Strait, and it

very probably occurs on some one or other of

the beaches of Stewart Island. It is common

in Chatham Island.

Orchidacb-e.

The time of the year being quite unfavourable for

obtaining these plants, none were seen by me.

This list is merely compiled from Hooker,

Kirk, &c.

Corysanthes rotitndifolia, Hook. f. B

1

1?

C. macrantha, Hook, f . B

Caladenia lyallii, Hook. f. B

C. bifolia, Hook. f. B . .

i

Chiloglottis cornuta. Hook. t. B ..

1

l'

Lyperanthiis antarcticus, Hook. f. B

Thelymitra longifolia, Forst. B . .

T. uniflora, Hook. f. B . .

Prasophyllum colensoi, Hook. f. B

••

• •

1

LlLIACE.aE.

■

Bulbinella rossii, Benth. and Hook. (Hook. f.). A . .

1

1

Aslelia linearis, Hook. f. B

1

1

A. linearis subulata. Hook. i. A ..

1

1

Probably a species.

324

Transactions. — Botany.

JUNCACEiE.

J7incics antarcticns, Hook, f . B

J. scheuzcrioides, Gaud. B, C

J. bufonnis, L. (cosmopolitan). B, C

J. 2)lanifolms, R, Br. B ..

Rostkovia gracilis, Phil. C

R. spliccnocarpa, Desv. B, C

Luzicla crinita, Hook. f. A

Restiace^.

Gaimardia ciliata, Hook. f. B.
G. pallida, Hook, f . B . .

CYPEEACE.E.

B, C

Scirpus aucklandicus (Hook, f.), Boeck. B, C
S. cermnts, Vahl. (cosmopolitan). B, C
S. antarcticus, L. B, C . .
Orcobolus ywniUo, R. Br
Carex ternaria, Forst. f. B
C. trifida, Cav. B, C

C. appressa, R. Br. B
Uncinia riparia, R. Br. , var. fseiidorupestris, Kiiken. B

According to a communication from Pastor G.
Kiikenthal, who is investigating the genus
Carex for " Das Pflanzenreich," the synonyms
of this variety are " U. rupestris, Boott., non
Raoul, and U. hookeri, Boott. Kiikenthal also
writes, " The true U. rupestris, Raoul, is not in
the Kew Herbarium. I think that it is identical
with U. nervosa, Boott.

GRAMINACE.(E.

Ehrharta thomsoni, Petrie. B

Hierochloe redolens, R. Br. B, C . .

H. brunonis. Hook. f. A . .

Deycuxia forstcri, Kunth. B

Agrostia antarctica, \iook. i. C ..

A. subulatd, Hook. i. A ..

I)eschamp)sia ccnspitosa, Beauv. (cosmopolitan).

D. chapmaimi, Petrie. A
D. hookeri. Kirk. B
D. gracillivia. Kirk. A ..
D. 2}enicillata, Kirk. A ..
Trisettnn subspicatum, Beauv. B, C

Northern arctic regions.
Danthonia bromoides. Hook. f. B
D. aiistralis, Buch. B . .
FestKca sco2)a7-ia. Hook. I. B
F. contracta. Kirk. A . .

1?

1
1

B, C

.

m

0)

"B

.a

O

a

0<

a

■43

ofl

a

o

<

<A

I

Cockayne. — Botanical Excicrsion to Southern Islands. 325

d

^

CO

a

<l;

«

m

(S

J-i

o

M

a

a

crt

o

3

4=

3

a

ce

C

m

<!

O

<

3

Poa foliosa, Hook, f . B . .

Not found on the actual mainland, the so-called
var. j3 having been made by Hackel into a
species under the name Poa novcB-zelandice (38).

P. raviosissima. Hook. f. A

P. hamiltonii, Kirk. A . .

P. hreviglumis , Hook. f. A

P. incrassata, Petrie. A . .

P. chathaviica, Petrie. A

P. [o?iceps, Forst.C?)] A(?)

Pteridophyta. B.

Hemitelia sniWiii, Hook. B

Hyvienophi/llii.ni tunbridgeiise, Sm.. B

H. minimum, A. Rich. B

jS. bivalve, Swartz. B

H. muUifidum, Sw. B

H. j)olyanthos, Sw. B

H. viUosuvi, Col. B

H. dilatatuvi, Sw. B

H. demissum, Sw. B

H. flabellatum, Labill. B

H. javanicum, Spgr. B . .

Pteris esculenta, Forst. B, C

I did not observe this species.
P. incisa, Thunb. B, C . .
Lomaria procera, Spgl. B, C
L. discolor, Willd. B
L. dura, Moore. B
L. alpina, Spgl. C
L. fliivlatilis. B

Forest south of Auckland Island, L. C.
Asplenium molirioides. C
A. obtusatum, Forst. B, C
4. scZeropMt?;^, Homb. and Jacq. A
A. biclbifemm, Forst., vskv. B(?)
A. flaccidum, Forst. B ..
Aspidiicm vestitiiin. B, C
A. cjistotegia, Hook. B ..
Polypodium (Grammitis) australe, Mett. B, C
P. australe rigida, Homb. and Jacq. A
P. australe pumila, Armstg. B . .
P. grammitidis, R. Br. B, C
P. rugulostim, Labill. B . .
P. (Phymotodes) billardieri, R. Br. B
Schizcea aus trails, Gaud. B, C
Hypolepis millefolium. B
TodcBa superba. Col. B . .

Lycopodmm variuin, R. Br., var. polaris, Kirk. B
L. fastigiatum, B,. 3r. B, C
L. scariosum, Forst. B, C
T7nesipteris forsteri, Findlich. B ..

1

1?

1?

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1?

1
1
1
1

1?

1?

326

Transactions. — Botany.

VIII. Table showing Percentage of the Different
Floral Elements for each of the Southern
Islands.

Explanation of Abbreviations nsed. — End. = found only in one island ;
End. S.I. = found in more than one island; Fueg. =Fuegian, includ-
ing those species found also in New Zealand ; Fueg. S.I. — Fuegian which
do not extend to New Zealand ; N.Z. = New Zealand, but excluding the
New Zealand -Fuegian species.

Islands.

End.

End

<D

Q£

cS

EO

-iJ

m

S)

<t

o

C)

o

a

U

a

a

o

a

CO

FL|

03

S.I.

Fueg.

Fueg. S.I.

eS

a

u
u
<s

o

CO

p.

02

tic
d

a

m
u
u
o

o

to

Cao

a
o

N.Z.

a

OS

BO

a

O

<»

Total.

<D

02

Auckland
Campbell
Antipodes
Macquarie
Snares . .

10

10

29

29

15

15

3

3

46

46

7

8-6

27

83-3

16

19-9

4

4'9

81

38-2

3

7

10

23-2

11

25-6

3

7

19

44

3

11

5

18-5

9

33-3

6

22-2

10

37

2

9-5

2

9-5

10

47-6

1

4-7

7

33-5

100
81
43
27
21

IX. Bibliography.
[The numbers correspond with the references in the paper.]

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328 Transactions. — Botany.

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Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to Southern Islands. 329

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O

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330 Transactions. — Botany.

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Cockayne. — Botanical Excursion to So^ithern Islands. 331

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89. Reischek, A. : " Notes on the Islands to the south of New

Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxi., p. 378; 1889.
90 Richards, G. H., and Evans, F. J. : " The New Zealand
Pilot," 6th ed. London, 1891.

91. Ross, Sir J. C. : "Voyage of Discovery and Research in

the Southern and Antarctic Regions." London, 1847.

92. Schimper, A. F. W. : " Pflanzen-Geographie auf Physio-

logischer Grundlage." Jena, 1898.

93. Scott, J. H. : " Macquarie Island." Trans. N.Z. Inst.,

vol. XV., p. 484; 1883.

94. Shull, G. H. : "Geographic Distribution of Isoetes saccha-

rata." Bot. Gaz., vol. xxxvi., p. 187; 1903.

95. Thomson, G. M. : "The Ferns and Fern x\llies of New

Zealand." Dunedin, 1882.

96. " On the Fertilisation, &c., of New Zealand Flower-
ing Plants." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xiii., p. 241 ;
1881.

97. " On the Origin of the New Zealand Flora," being a

Presidential Address to the Otago Institute. Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. xiv., p. 485; 1882.

98. " On some Aspects of Acclimatisation in New Zea-
land." Rep. of Third Meeting of Austral. Assoc, for
Adv. of Science, p. 194 ; 1891.

99. " Plant-acclimatisation in New Zealand." Trans.

N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxiii., p. 313; 1901.

100. " The Stability of the Native Flora." Conference

of N.Z. Fruit-growers and Horticulturists, p. 103.
Wellington, 1901.

101. Thun, C. : " Aus den Tiefen des Weltmeeres." Jena,

1900.
101a. Trelease, W. : "Botanical Observations on the Azores."
Reprint from 8th Ann. Rep. of Missouri Bot. Garden.
9th Sept., 1897.

102. Wallace, A. R. : "Island Life," 2nd ed. London, 1892.

103. Warming, E. : " Lehrbuch der okologischen Pfianzen-

geographie." Zweite Auflage der Deutschen Ausgabe.
Bearbeitet von P. Graebuer. Berlin, 1902.

332 Transactions. — Botany.

104. Wilkes, C. : " Narrative of tlie United States Exploring

Expedition during the Years 1838-39-40-41-42."
Philadelphia, 1845. Account of Auckland Island,
pp. 351-53; and Macquarie Island, p. 354.

105. Woodward, H. : "The Distribution of Life in Antarctic

Lands," Presidential address to the Norfolk and
Norwich Naturalists' Society. Geolog. Mag., vol. x.,
No. IX. ; 1903.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XI.-XXIV.
[All the photographs were taken by the author.]

Plate XI.

1. Juvenile leaf of Panax simplex, from plant collected at Norman's Inlet,

Auckland Island.
•3. Five-foliate leaf of Panax simplex, from juvenile plant collected at

Norman's Inlet, Auckland Island.

4. Ternate leaf of Panax sinq^lex, from same shoot as No. 3.

5. Simple leaf from same shoot as 6— Stewart Island juvenile plant of

P. sunplex, collected at Port Pegasus.

6. Cut-leaved juvenile form of P. simplex, larger but similar to 1, Port

Pegasus, Stewart Island.

[The above figures merely show the outlines of the leaves.]

Plate XI L
Sand-dunes and sandy shore of Enderby Island. The dark patches on the
dunes show the close vegetation. Portion of rata forest in left-hand
top corner.

Plate XIII.
Interior of rata forest, Auckland Island. The fern is Aspidium vestitum.

Plate XIV.
Olearia lyallii forest above cliffs of Ewing Island.

Plate XV.

Olearia lyallii forest coming to near high-water mark, Ewing Island.
D' Urvilhea utilis washed up on to the shore. Grass-tussock in left-
hand bottom corner.

Plate XVI.

Exterior of low rata forest — almost scrub — on Enderby Island. Suttonia
divaricata in right-hand bottom corner.

Plate XVII.

General view of forest as in Plate XVI., in front of which is grass-tussock

Im. or more tall. North end of Auckland Island in background.

Plate XVIII.
ArisloteUa fruticosa, a New Zealand xerophytic shrub, growing at out-
skirts of a beech forest, Canterbury, South Island.

Plate XIX.

Cliffs of Antipodes Island near the boat-landing. Maritime tussock slope
on left.

Williams. — Abnormal Grozvth of Phormium colensoi. 333

Plate XX.
Flat tussock meadow of Antipodes Island. Bog in centre. Inland tussock
slope on right.

Plate XXI.
Aralia lyallii growing near shore, Ruapuke Island, Foveaux Strait.

Plate XXII.

Veronica lycopodioides after culture for some months in moist air and
feeble light. To illustrate " plasticity " of certain New Zealand
plants.

Plate XXIII.

Map of Auckland Islands, Antipodes Islands, and Bounty Islands. (In the
map of the Auckland Islands " Musgrave Inlet " should read " Nor-
man Inlet," and vice versa.)

Plate XXIV.
Map of Campbell Island.

Art. XXVII. — Abnormal Grotvth of a Plant of Phormium

colensoi. *

By the Eight Eev. W. L. Williams, D.D., Bishop of

Waiapu.

Plate XXV.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 6th July, 1903.]

In the month of February, 1896, having occasion to walk
round the rocks at Blackhead, my attention was attracted
by a plant of Phor^nium colensoi, growing a little above high-
water mark, which was then in seed, the seed-capsules being
accompanied with numerous persistent bracts, which were
then quite dry. A specimen of this was brought away and
sent to the late Professor Kirk. A few seeds which dropped
from this specimen were sown, and one of the plants raised
from that seed is the subject of this paper.

On this plant in the spring of 1900 one scape appeared,
which did not grow to a height of more than about 3 ft. One
or two abortive flowers were produced, but instead of more
flowers a cluster of buds appeared, each of which produced a
number of leaves from 12 in. to 15 in. long. These buds were
afterwards cut off and planted, but none of them took root.
In 1901 four scapes shot up, the growth of each of which was
arrested at the height of about 'd>^it., no flowers being pro-
duced, but each scape being crowned with a large cluster of
leafy buds, like the scape of the previous year, the leaves being
now from 18 in. to 2 ft. long. In 1902 four scapes again ap-
peared, three of which are about 7 ft. high. These all pro-
duced flowers and seeds in the normal way, though the flowers

334 Transactions. — Botany.

developed irregularly as to time, some of the seeds having
ripened early in May, while at the present time (23rd June,
1903) there are capsules which are not yet fully ripe. In the
course of the summer the upper portions of these scapes
began to be clothed with leaves, which are now from 6 in. to
12 in. long. The growths of 1901 are still fresh and vigorous,
one of them having produced, in the early summer, a scape
about 18 in. long, which bore a few flowers and ripened seed.

Since the above was written a succession of flowers has
been produced upon some of the upper brauchlets during the
months of August and September.

Art. XXVIII. — On Abnormal Develojmients in Neiv Zealand
Ferns ; loith a List of Papers by various Authors on the
Ferns of New Zealand.

By A. Hamilton.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 13th October, 1903.1
Plates XXVI., XXVII.
About ten years ago I was gathering specimens near the
junction of Morison's Creek with the Leith Stream, and I
noticed that the commonest fern in that particular part,
Lomaria flnviatilis, showed several remarkable variations at
the tips of the fronds, in the form of division and ci'esting.
A few specimens were collected for my collection of dried
ferns. A few months ago, however, I made a fresh visit to
that locality, as I found that the City Corporation were in-
tending to make this particular area the intake for an addi-
tional water-supply for Dunedin. I closely examined the
area over which the crested fronds were found, and discovered
a large proportion of the plants were growing on about a
quarter of an acre. A large proportion of this space is covered
by cuttings for a road up the creek and a road leading to
higher ground. The face of these cuttings has received the
spores of several species of ferns mainly belonging to the
genus Lomaria — L. fluviatilis, L. discolor, L. lanceolata, and
L. ])rocera — with a few Aspleniiim and Pteris. The southerly
exposure of the area was evidently favourable to the growth
of fern-life, and there was sufficient moisture to insure quick
growth. I endeavoured to obtain specimens of small young
plants with crested fronds, but was not successful, except in
the case of a stray plant of Lomaria lanceolata. In fully
adult plants of L. fluviatilis, probably from ten to twenty
years old, judging by the size of the root-stocks and the re-

Hamilton. — Abnormal Developments in N.Z. Ferns. 335

mains of old fronds, it was easy to find many unusual and
beautiful forms of cresting at the tips of the barren fronds.

I took four large plants of L. fluviatilis and examined
those fronds that were still green, with the following re-
sults : —

Plant a. — Average length of frond, 30 in. It had twelve
barren fronds, ten of which were crested, and six fertile
fronds, three of which were crested.

Plant b. — Average length of fronds, 15 in. The plant had
eight barren fronds in sufticiently good condition to measure,
and six of these were crested. The relatively small number
of fronds is accounted for by the cattle having eaten off the
tops of many, and having otherwise broken down the plants
so that the condition of the apex could not be observed.

Plant c. — Average length of frond, 19 in. There wei-e
seven barren fronds, and of these all were crested. Two fertile
fronds were so far perished that it was impossible to say
whether thev had been normal or not.

Plant d. — A large plant from a very wet situation, the
average length of fronds 30 in. It had thirty-three barren
fronds, of which twenty-four were crested, and sixteen fertile
ones, apparently all normal.

I cut this plant up carefully to see if the root-stock could
be separated into separate heads carrying crested and non-
crested forms separately, but found it only composed of three
heads, each carrying crested and non-crested fronds.

These results only show, of course, the proportion of ab-
normal fronds on the growth of the last season, or possibly
two seasons. The dried and rotten fronds of previous years
could not be examined as the tips perish so readily.

A specimen of the form of cresting is shown on Plate XXVI.
I have no doubt that such a natural sport could be perpetu-
ated and improved upon by cultivation, as the sporiferous
fronds have been found divided and crested. I have given
several plants to a gentleman who takes an interest in the
•culture of New Zealand ferns, and he will, I hope, be able to
perpetuate, if not improve, the variety. Since finding this
form at Morison's Creek I have come across equally good
specimens in deep creeks nearer the Waitati Saddle, in the
Water of Leith, though not in such profusion.

In thinking over the matter of variation in fronds I re-
membered noticing an unusual number of abnormalities in the
fronds of the common Lomaria proccra, which covers a large
portion of the southern slopes of Signal Hill, and which
seems to spring up after every scrub-fire, like the Pteris on
the hills in the North. On the 3rd September I went out
for two hours one afternoon on the hillside with the view of

336 Transactions. — Botany.

gathering all the unusual forms that I could see. At that
time of year nearly all the fronds of the past season are
withered and frosted, and it is only under the high manuka
or under the shelter of some rock or bush that fronds fit
for examination can be found.

I have tabulated the result of my foraging, and I find that
I picked eighty fronds which did not appear to be normal. A
very great proportion of all the fronds are what I shall call
dejMuperate — that is, the margin of the pinnaB is highly irre-
gular, instead of conforming to the shape of the pinnae of the
normal fronds. This is not peculiar to Signal Hill ; the same
obtains on nearly all high ground around Dunedin, and re-
quires to be exactly described by an experienced botanical
physiologist. Of these I picked a few here and there for
future study. I should say that fully 70 percent, of the fronds
of Lomaria procera are thus affected.

Another class of abnormal fronds is the case in which the
main stipe is divided below the lowest pinna, and has prac-
tically two barren fronds on a single stipe. Another class, or
perhaps a subdivision of the last, is where the stipe is divided
nearer the apex, giving a partly double frond.

The next variation is where the terminal pmna is divided
once or many times ; and, finally, where one or more of the
lateral pinnae are divided.

Of the eighty fronds brought home there were : Depau-
perate, 11 (only a few of the most curious were picked) ;
stipe forked below commencement of pinnae, 15 ; stipe forked
nearer the apex, 12 ; apical pinna divided or forked more than
once, 19 ; fronds having one lateral pinna forked, 35 ; fronds
having two lateral pinnte forked, 5 ; fronds having three
lateral pinnae forked, 2 ; fronds having four lateral pinnae
forked, 1.

It is evident from the above facts that a careful search
will reward the diligent searcher with further varieties ; and
the experience of English fern-growers -has proved that when
once a natural sport has been obtained it produces spores
from which an unending series of forms can be cultivated.
Mr. Field, a veteran collector and observer of New Zealand
ferns, has written in the Transactions on the variations in the
manner of growth of several species of ferns in the North
Island,''' and points out that what is taken as a species may
vary much in general habit in different localities.

Curiously enough, Mr. Field, although he has had more
than half a century in the New Zealand bush in the North

* Field, H. C. : " On the Growth of Perns; and on a New Fern now
first reported." Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxvii,, 446, 450.

Hamilton. — Abnormal Developments in N.Z. Ferns. 337

Island, has stated"^' that he has never seen any variation
such as I have recorded above. /Although my modest ex-
perience of New Zealand ferns in the bush only dates
back to 1877, I have had the good fortune to come across
abnormal varieties in many genera and of many species. I
am referring now to abnormal varieties in the pinnae, and
not to such varieties as are recognised by the species-maker
as a rule.

There is, however, one well-marked variety, discovered
by me in the Whanakino Ci^eek, in the ranges at the back
of the Hawke's Bay Pi-ovincial District, which has received
a name and description from the late Eev. W. Colenso. It
is a form of Polypodium pennigeru^n var. hamiltoniamim, Col.,
which has remamed constant under cultivation for years.

A variety of Lamar ia, described by the late T. H. Potts
as Loviaria dui)licata,\ is only a form of Lomaria procera in
which the stipe is persistently divided.

A form of a rather uncommon fern, Asp)lenium umbrosum,
was described by the late Thomas Kirk,]: from Takaka,
Nelson, where it was found by Mr. J. McKenna Campbell,
as var. tenuifolhtm. It is mentioned that the plant has a
pleasant fragrance, a peculiarity which it shares v^ith a
Doodia and with Polypodium pustulatuvi, in New Zealand.
There are many species in various parts of the world which
are fragrant, and retain their odour for a long time in the
dried state. One species, Polypodium pihymatodes, is used
largely in the Polynesian Islands for scenting the cocoanut-
oil used for the human body. The odour of all these ferns
is apparently due to oil-glands in the substance of the fronds.
In England many of the Lastreas are scented.

It is not often that sports are observed in tree-ferns,
but Mr. H. Matthews, the Government Forester, informs
me that some years ago he sent to Kew Gardens a fine
specimen of Dicksonia squarrosa which had all the pinnae
forked or crested. This plant came from the Catlin's Eiver
district.

Other species which I have found in a crested condition in
the North Island are : Adiantum cunninghaniii, Hk. Of this I
obtained two crested plants on the limestone rocks at the
gorge of the river at Puketapu. These plants were grown in
Mr. H. S. Tiff'en's fernery, and when I last saw them were
quite constant.

* Journ. of Botany, xxi., 1883, p. 140.

t Potts, T. H. : " Notes on a Lomaria collected in the Malvern Dis-
trict (L. dvplicata).'" Trans. N.Z. Inst., ix., 491 ; 1876.

J T. Kirk: "On a Remarkable Variety of Aspl. tunbrosum,3. Sm."^
Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxiii., 424-425 ; 1890.

22— Trans.

338 Transactions. — Botany.

Cheilanthes tenuifolia or sieheri : This is an extremely
variable fern in the neighbourhood of Petane, Hawke's Bay,
and I have found many divided and otiierwise irregular
fronds. At one time or another I have found abnormal
fronds of nearly all the common Lomarias, especially L. pro-
cera, L. discolor, and L. alpina.

In Aspleninm I have gathered A. trichomanes beautifully
crested on the rocks near Peiane, and near Waipawa, in a
small patch of bush, a very curious form of A. fiabellifoliuvi.
Mr. A. C. Purdie had a well- crested form of A. falcatum, origin-
ally found on Quarantine Island, near Port Chalmers, and I
have seen other plants in cultivation in Dunedin. I have
not gathered many abnormal fronds of Aspidium, though this
is a group in which many sports may be looked for. I have
specimens of A. aculeatum vv^ith divided fronds, and have seen
a very remarkable form said to have been obtained on Saddle
Hill, in the Taieri district of Otago, which carried young
plants on the under-surface of every frond about 6 in. from
the tip, the fronds being about 3 ft. long. On the Waitati
Saddle I have seen plants of this fern which showed a bend
or weakness in the otherwise normal frond at just about the
same position on the frond. The plant was cultivated for
years by the late Mr. A. C. Purdie, but has, I am afraid,
passed out of existence."

One of the most striking forms that I have seen was
brought to me by Mr. C. W. Adams from the Catlin's River
Bush. It was a large mass of Polypodium billardieri much
crested. I had this plant in cultivation for some years, but
one very severe winter it died out. I have seen a similar
form in a nurseryman's collection in Christchurch.

Polypodium teiiellum also sports into crested forms, one of
which I gathered at Tongoio.

In the neighbourhood of Dunedin the Leptopteris hymeno-
phylloides is usually much more lanceolate in form of frond
than in the North, and appears to be affected by some
fungoid(?) disease which thickens the pinnules irregularly,
making them crisp and brittle and markedly dissimilar to the
other pinnules, quite spoiling the feathery appearance of the
frond.

* Since writing the above note I have seen other plants of this
variety. In the frond now before me, from a small plant with fronds
averaging about 12 in., the young bulbils are aggregated in a bunch 1 in.
from the apex of the frond. Some of the bulbils have aborted, but two
have developed fronds J in. in length, and two of these carry fully de-
veloped sporangia on every pinnule. The frond only dovelopes these
ijulbils in the autumn. The main bunch of bulbils is at the base of a
pinna on the right side of the main rhachis, but eich of the two lower
pinnae on the other side have a less developed bulbil at a point where they
form the rhachis.

Hamilton. — Abnormal Developments in, N.Z. Ferns. 339

In view of the number of crested, divided, and otherwise
■abnormal ferns which I have seen, it was somewhat of a sur-
prise to me to find that Mr. Field, in a note in the " Journal of
Botany,"* says, " I have never met with a crested New Zea-
land fern, and only once or twice with a depauperate one,
while variations in colour are common." I think if special
search were made for crested forms it is quite possible that
some of great interest and beauty may be found, and if cul-
tivated with skill there are endless possibilities in the future,
as it is now a well-established fact that crested ferns rarely
revert to their normal state when raised from spores, although
occasionally a further distinct form will present itself.

For nearly forty years a small group of English fern-
growers have been workmg at the task of raising plants from
spores of plants found wild under natural conditions, and a
large numoer of facts have been gatherel which wait a
master hand for deductions. Although so much was done by
Darwin in his researches on annuals and plants under domesti-
cation, in which he brings together a vast host of facts derived
from the vegetable and animal kingdom, the record anent
ferns, which in some respects present unique powers of varia-
tion, is summed up in a solitary short remark about the power
of spores taken from abnormal fronds to reproduce the abnor-
mal character. Those who wish to take up some branch of
botanical study will find a wealth of material at hand, either
in a scientific study of the behaviour of the prothalli under
various conditions in the living state, or by the microscopical
investigation of the anatomy of the leaf-stalk and the disposi-
tions of the stelae. This latter character has been investigated
lately in the hope of finding more absolute characters for the
discrimination of genera. Much interesting detail will also be
found m the structure of the filmy ferns.

The quest for naturally crested or divided ferns for cultiva-
tion will add to the enjoyment of many a walk or scramble
in the bush, and careful selection of plants raised from natural
sports will amply reward the care and trouble required to pro-
duce good results in this as in everything else.

Search should also be made for examples of apospory.
I have not yet seen an example in New Zealand ferns, but
in an Annual Report of the Colonial Museum there is an
entry which may be a record of this: "1754. — Feb. 24,
1887. — Fern, AspUnium ohtusatum, supposed to be a new
variety ; proliferous on the upper surface. Sent by Miss
Marchant."

* Field, H. C. : "Variation in New Zealand Ferns." "Journal of
Botany," xxi., 140, 141 ; 1883,

340

Transactions . — Bo tany .

[NoTE.^ — In the following list "Trans." means the "Transactions
of the New Zealand Institute."]

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Armstrong, J. B. .
Baker,J.G.,F.K.S.

Buchanan,
F.L.S.

John,

Cheeseman, T. F.,
F.L.S.

Colenso, Eev.
F.E.S.

W.

On a Natural Arrangement of
the New Zealand Ferns

A Summary of New Ferns which
have been discovered or de-
scribed since 1874

On the Root- stock of Marattia
fraxinea

On a Remarkable Branching Spe-
cimen of Hemitclla smithii

On the Flowers, Plants, and
Ferns of the Chatham Islands

Description of a New Species of
Hymeiiovhylbim

Description of a New Species of
Polypodium

Notice of the Discovery of As-
2}lenium japonicum, a Fern
new to the New Zealand
Flora

A Descriptinn of some New
Ferns lately discovered in New
Zealand

Description of Two New Zealand
Ferns believed to be new to
Science

The Ferns of Scinde Island

On some New and Undescribed
New Zealand Ferns

A Description of Four New
Ferns from our New Zealand
Forests

On a Large Number of Ferns
noticed in a Small Area in the
New Zealand Forests, in the
Seventy-mile Bush, between
NorFCWood and Dannevirke,
in the Province of Hawke's
Bay

A few Observations on the Tree-
ferns of New Zealand, with
Particular Reference to their
Peculiar I'lpiphytes, their Ha-
bits, and their Mode of (Irowth

On Newly Discovered and Im-
perfectly Known Ferns of New
Zealand, with Critical Obser-
vations

Description of Three Newly Dis-
covered New Zealand Ferns

A Description of a few Lately
Discovered Rare Indigenous
Ferns

Trans, xiii. 360 ; 1880.

Ann. of Botany, 181;
1891.

Journ. Linn. Soc. xvi. 2.

Trans, ix. 527-529 ;

1876.
Trans, xix. 217, pi. xii.

and xiii. ; 1886.
Trans, vii. 333 ; 1874.

viii. 330 ; 1875.

„ X. 356 ; 1877.

xxii. 448 ; 1889.

The Tasmanian Journal,
i. 375 ; 1842.

Trans, xi. 429 ; 1878.

xiii. 370 ; 1880.
xiii. 376; 1880.

XV. .304 ; 1882.

XV. 311 ; 1882,

xix. 252; 1886.

XX. IBS ; 1887.

xxiv. 394 ; 1891.
XXV. 319 ; 1892.

Hamilton. — Abnormal Developments in N.Z. Ferns. 341

Author.

Colenso,
F.R.S.

Rev. W.

Enys, John

Field, H. C.

Hamilton, A.

Hector, Sir James
Kingsley, R. I. . .
Kirk, Thos., F.L.S.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

A Description of Two New Ferns
and One New Lycopodium
lately detected in our New
Zealand Forests

A Description of Two New
Ferns, a New Lycopodium,
and a New Moss, &c.

Description of Three New Ferns,
believed to be undescribed,
discovered more than Fifty
Years ago in the Northern
District of New Zealand

A Description of some New In-
digenous New Zealand Forest
Ferns

A Description of some Newly
Discovered New Zealand
Ferns

On Recent Changes in the No-
menclature of New Zealand
Ferns

On the Occurrence of Botry-
chiuvi lunaria, Swb. (Moon-
wort), in New Zealand

Notes on New Zealand Ferns . .

Variation in New Zealand Ferns

On the Growth of Ferns ; and
on a New Fern now first re-
ported

On Curious Forms of New Zea-
land Ferns

Notes on Hybrid Ferns

Notes on some New Zealand
Ferns

Notes on a Branched Specimen
of a Tree - fern, Hemitelia
smithii

Corrected List of New Zealand
Ferns

On a Remarkable Variety of
Lomaria lanceolata

Notice of a Remarkable Arbor-
escent Fern on Ngo7igotaha

On the Specific Characters of
Dicksonia antarctica, Br., and
D. lanata, Col.

On the New Zealand Forms of
Cheilanthes

On Neplirodium pentangnlarum

On Hymenophyllum armstrongi

Description of a New Species of

Hymenophyllum
On Lindsaya viridis, Col.

Trans, xxvii. 399 ; 1894.

xxviii. 615 ; 1895.
xxviii. 618 ; 1895.

xxix. 414 ; 1896.
xxxi. 263 ; 1898.
iii. 213 ; 1870.
xvi. 363 ; 1883.

N.Z. Journ. of Sc. i. 128.
Journ. of Botany, xxi.

140; 1883.
Trans, xxvii. 446 ; 1894.

XXX. 434; 1897.

XXXV. ; 1902.
xxii. 493 ; 1889.

xxviii. 622 ; 1895.

iii. (at end of vol.) ;

1871.
XXV. .306 ; 1892.

V. 347 ; 1872.

V. .345 ; 1872.

vi. 247 ; 1873.

Proc. N.Z. Inst. x. 531;

1877.
Proc. N.Z. Inst. x. .5.32 ;

1877.
Trans, x. 394 ; 1877.

X. 396 ; 1877.

342

Transactions. — Botany.

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Kirk,Thos.,F.L.S.

On Nephrodium decompositum,
Br., and N. glabelhivi, A.
Cunn.

Trans, x. 398 ; 1877.

On Hymeiiophyllum villosum,

X. 395 ; 1877.

Col.

Description of a New Species of

xi. 457, pi. xix. ;

Hyvienophyllum

1878.

On the Ferns and Fern Allies of

xvii. 225; 1884.

Stewart Island

On a Remarkable Variety of

xxiii. 424 ; 1890.

Aspleniiim nmbrosiim, J. Sm.

Potts, T. H.

Habits of Filices observed about

Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.)

the Malvern Hills, near the

XV. 423 ; 1876.

Gorge of the Rakaia River,

Canterbury, New Zealand

Notes on Ferns

Trans, x. 358; 1877.

Notes on a Loviaria collected in

„ ix. 491 ; 1876.

the Malvern District

Ralph, T. S.

On the Arborescent Ferns of
New Zealand

Proc. Linn. Soc. iii. 163.

Thomson, P.

Notes on Rare Ferns . .

Proc. N.Z. Inst. vii. 540;
1874.

Art. XXIX. — List of Papers and Notices on Botanical Subjects
in the " Transactions of the Neto Zealand Institute " and
other Publications.

By .\. Hamilton.
[Laid before the Otago Institute, 13th October, 1903.]

[Note. — In the following list "Trans." means the "Transactions of the
New Zealand Institute."]

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Anon. . .

Plants injured by Frost at the

Proc.

N.Z. Inst.viii. 411;

Hutt

187

5.

Deciduous Trees : as to the De-

Proc.

N.Z.Inst, viii. 412;

sirability of their being planted

187

5.

in the Botanical (iardetis

Report of a Committee of the

Trans, iv. 292 ; 1871.

Philosophical Institute of

Canterbury on Native and In-

troduced Grasses, with Appen-

dices

Adams, J.

On the Botany of the Thames
Goldfields

"

xvi. 385 ; 1883.

On the Botany of Te Aroha

„

xvii. 275 ; 1884.

Mountain

Hamilton. — Papers and Notices on Botanical Sicbjects. 343

Author.

Title.

Name

, &c., of Publication.

Adams, J.

On the Botany of Te Moehau,
Cape Colville

Trans

. xxi. 32 ; 1888.

On the Botany of Hikurangi

,^

XXX. 414 ; 1897.

Mountain

Adams, T. W. . .

On Damage done to Forest Trees
by the Drought of 1897-98

"

xxxi. 434 ; 1899.

Aghard, J.

On some AlgcB from Chatham
Islands

"

iii. 213 ; 1870.

List of the Alncp of the Chatham

„

vi. 208 ; 1873.

Islands collected by H. H.

Travers. (Communicated by

Baron P. von Mueller)

Alexander, Cath . .

Observations on the Glands in

xix. 314, pi. XX. ;

the Leaf and Stem of Alyo-

1886.

porum IcBtum, Forst.

Archer, William . .

On the Value of Hairs as a Cha-

Proc.

Linn. Soc. v. 17 ;

racter in determining the

1861.

Limits of Subordinate Groups

of Species, considered in con-

nection with the Genus Eu

rybia, Cass., and Olearia,

Monch., of Composites

Armstrong, J. F. . .

On the Vegetation of the Neigh-
bourhood of Christchurch, in-
cluding Riccarton, Dry Bush,
&c , with Introductory Re-
marks on the Distribution of
Plants in the Province of Can-
terbury by J. Haast

Trans

. ii. 118; 1869.

On the Naturalised Plants of the

„

iv. 284; 1871.

Province of Canterbury

On some New Species of New

„

iv. 290 ; 1871.

Zealand Plants

A Short Sketch of the Flora of

„

xii. 325 ; 1879.

the Province of Canterbury,

with Catalogue of Species

A Synopsis of the New Zealand

^^

xiii. 344 ; 1880.

Species of Veronica, L., with

Notes on some New Species

A Natural Arrangement of the

^^

xiii. 359 ; 1880.

New Zealand Ferns, founded

on the System of Smith's

" Historia Filicum," with Cri-

tical Notes on certain Species

Description of New Plants

„

xiv. 359 ; 1881.

On the Genus Corallospartium

„

xiii. 333 ; 1880.

Description of some New and

^,

xiii. 335 ; 1880.

Rare New Zealand Plants

On the Occurrence of the IMorel,

//

xiii. 343 ; 1880.

Morchf'lla esculeiita, in New

Zealand

,

Fertihsation of Red-clover in

N.Z.

Journ. of Sc. i. 500;

New Zealand

1882.

Accena huttoni

N.Z.

Journ. of Sc.ii. 122;

1883.

344

Traiisactiois . — Botany.

Author.

Aston, B. C,

Atkins, W.
Baber, J.

Bagnall, L. J.

Baker, J. G.
Batchelor, T. C.

Benham, W. B.
Bentham, G.

Berggren, S.

Blundell, H.

Boodle, L, A,

Title.

List of Plants supplementary to
the Dunedin Field Club's Cata-
logue of Dunedin Plants

Notes on the Growth of Trees on
Clay Soils

On the Rate of Growth of
Native Trees ui der Cultiva-
tion

On the Growth of Transplanted
Trees

The Medicinal Properties of
some New Zealand Plants

Rate of Growth of Transplanted
Trees

Notes on the Occurrence of
Kauri-gum at the Kahikatea
Forest at Turua

Kahikatea as a Building Timber

A Summary of New Ferns which
have been discovered or de-
scribed since 1874

On the Varieties of the Mul-
berry-tree as Food for the Silk-
worm : Part I

On the Varieties of Food for and
the Management of the Silk-
worm : Part II.

Note on Cordyceps sinclairii,
Berk.

Notes on the Cotnpositce. (Table
17, Coin})ositm of the New Zea-
land Group)

Remarks on Hipntiae collected
by Captain Hutton and Mr.
Kirk

On the Development of AzoUa
rubra

New New Zealat d Plants

Translation of Professor Berg-
gren's Paper communicated
to a Swedish Society of Na-
turalists on Carices

On the Occurrence of Hcouato-
coccus sanguineus on the Wool
of a Dead Sheep

Some Rt marks on Dr. Curl's
" Notes on some Grasses and
Fodder Plants suitable for In-
troduction into New Zea-
land." (Abstract)

On the Anatomy of the Hijvteno-

plu/Uactcc
On the Anatomy of the Glei-
chcniacecB

Name, <fec., of Publication.

Trans, xxxi. 747 ; 1898.

xii. 447 ; 1879.
V. 451 ; 1872.

„ xviii. 311 ; 1885.
xix. 319 ; 1886.
XX. 186; 1887.
xxix. 412 ; 1896.

„ xix. 577 ; 1886.
Ann. of Botany, 181 ;
April, 1891.

Trans, iv. 424; 1871.

iv. 426; 1871.

xxxii. 4, pi. i. ;
1899.
Proc. Linn. Soc. xiii. 567 ;
1873.

Trans, vi. 447 ; 1873.

„ X. 522 ; 1876.

xiii. 290; 1800.
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. i. 415;
1883: and ii. 430; 1885.

Trans, vii. 369, pi. xxiv. ;

1874.

Trans, xi. 528 ; 1878.

Ann. of Bot. xiv. 458 ;

1900.
Ann. of Bot. xv. 730,

pi. xxxviii. and xxxix. ;

1901.

Hamilton. — Papers and Notices on Botanical Subjects. 345

Author.

Title.

Name (fee, of Publication.

Boodle, L. A.

Brewer, H. M.
Brown, F. D.
Brown, Robert

On the Anatomy of the Schiza-
cacece

Further Observations on Schizea

Plants introduced into New
Zealand

On a Puka {Meryta sinelairii)
gnawed by Rats

On a New Composite Plant

Description of a New Rosaceous
Plant

Notes on the New Zealand Spe-
cies of the Genus Andrencce,
together with a Description of
some New Species

Notes on a Proposed New Genus
of New Zealand Mosses, to-
gether with a Description of
Three New Species

Notes on New Zealand Mosses,
Genus Pottia

Musci : Notes on the Genus
Gyvuiostomuvi, with Descrip-
tion of New Species

Notes on some New Species
of New Zealand Musci, Genus
Phnscum

Notes on some New Zealand
Mosses, Genus Grimmia

Notes on the Genus Orthotri-
chiim

Notes on New Z-aland Musci,
a new Genus

On the Dlcranunis of New Zea-
land

New Zealand ]\Iusci : Notes on
the Genus Dicranum, with
Description of New Species,
including some Doubtful Spe-
cies of Bliiidia

Notes on the New Zealand
Musci, and Description of New
Species

Further Notes on the New Zea-
land Musci, Genus Tncho-
stomum, with Description of
some New Species

New Zealand iMusci : Notes on
a New Species of Moss be-
longing to the Genus Seligera

New Zealand Musci : Notes on
the Genus 'I'ortitla, with De-
scription of New Species

New Zealand Musci : Notes on
the Genus Streptopogon, with
Description of New Species

Ann. of Bot. xv. 359;

1901.
Ann. of Bot. 511 ; 1903.
Proc. Linn. Soc. 80;

1875.
Trans, xxvi. 667 ; 1893.

XV. 259 ; 1882.
„ xvi. 382; 1883.

XXV. 276 ; 1892.

XXV. 285 ; 1892.

xxvi. 288 ; 1893.

xxvi. 296, pi. xxxi.
xxxviii. ; 1893.

xxvi. 302 ; 1893.

xxvi. 409, pi. xxix.

xxxiv. ; 1894.
xxvi. 422, pi. XXXV.

xlii. ; 1894.
xxviii. 531 ; 1895.

xxviii. 754 ; 1895.

xxix. 451 ; 1896.

xxix. 465, pi. xxix.
xliii. ; 1896.

xxix. 478 ; 1896.

XXX. 398, pi. XXXV.
xli. ; 1897.

XXX. 399 ; 1897.

XXX. 409 ; 1897.

346

Transact ions. — Bo tany .

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Brown, Robert

Buchanan, J.

Buchanan, J., and
T. Kirk

Buchanan, J.

New Zealand

New Zealand
Proposed New

New Zealand

New Zealand Musci : Notes on
the Genus Dendia

Notes on New Zealand Musci,
and Description of Two New
Species

Notes on the New Zealand
Musci

Notes on the New Zealand
Musci, and Description of
New Species

Notes on the
Musci

Notes on the
Musci : On a
Genus

Notes on the
Musci

On the Musci of the Calcareous
Districts of New Zealand , with
Description of New Species

Notes on the Botany of Mount
Egmont and Neighbourhood,
made in February, 1867

Notes on the Botany of the Pro-
vince of Marlborough, made
during a Visit there in the
Montlis of November, Decem-
ber, and January, 1866-67

On Variation in the New Zea-
land Flora

Sketch of the Botany of Otago

On some New Species of New
Zealand Plants

On some New Species and Varie-
ties of Now Zealand Plants

List of Plants found in the
Northern District of the Pro-
vince of Auckland

On some New Species of New
Zealand Plants

Notice of a New Species of
Senecio ( S. hector i)

List of Plants foun'l on Miramar
Peninsula, Wellington Har-
bour

Notes on the P'lora o\ the Pro-
vince of Wellington, with a
List of tiie Plants collected
therein

On some New Species of New
Zealatid Plants

On the Durability of New Zea-
land Timber, with Suggestions
for its Preservation

Trans, xxx. 411 ; 1897.
XXX. 412 ; 1897.

xxxi. 437, pi. xxxviii.

xliv. ; 1898.
xxxi. 442 ; 1898.

xxxii. 137, pi. xiv.

xvi. ; 1899.
xxxii. 148 ; 1899.

xxxiii. 330, pi.
xiii. ; 1900.
„ XXXV. 323, pi.
xxxv.-xl. ; 1902.

Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. x.
57 ; 1867.

Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. x.
63 : 1867.

Trans, i. (n.e.) 443 ; 1868.

i. (n.e.) 181, pi. v. ;

1868.
i. (n.e.) 88; 1868.

iii. 208; 1870.

ii. 239 ; 1869.

iv. 224, pi. xiii.-

xvi. ; ls71.
v. 348 ; 1872.

v. 849 ; 1872.

vi. 210 ; 1873.

vi. 241, pi. xxii. •,.

1873.
vi. 390 ; 1873.

Hamilton. — Papers and Notices on Botanical, Subjects. 347

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Buchanan, J.

On the Flowering Plants and
Perns of the Chatham Islands

Revised Description of Two Spe-
cies of New Zealand Panax

On GnaphaUum (Helichrysum)
fasciculafuvi, sp. n.

On the Root-stock of Marratia
fraxinea

On the Botany of Kawau Island.

Also Critical Notes on certain

Species doubtfullv indigenous

to Kawau by T. Kirk
On charring Timber as a Pro-
tection from the Teredo
On the Durability of Matai

Timber
On a Means of selecting the

most Durable Timber
Description of a New Species of

Celmisia
Notes on some New Zealand

Plants
Alpine Plants
On the Alpine Flora of New

Zealand
On some Plants new to New

Zealand, and Description of

a New Species
Additions to the Flora of New

Zealand
Notes on New Species of Plants

Botanical Notes

Campbell Island Flora

On some Botanical Criticisms
bv Mr. Kirk in the Trans.
N.Z. Inst.

On the Coniferous Plants in the
Botanical Gardens, Welling-
ton

Description of a New Species of
Erigeron

On Cyttaria purdiei

Notes on the Coniferous Trees
grown in the Colonial Botani-
cal Gardens, Wellington

On some New Native Plants . .

On a Remarkable Branching
Specimen of Hemitelia sviithii
Botanical Notes

Trans, vii. 333, pi. xii.-
XV. ; 1874.
ix. 529, pi. XX. and
xxi. ; 1876.
„ ix. 529, pi. xix. ;
1876.
Trans, ix. 527, pi. xviii. ;
1876 : Proc. Linn. Soc.
Lond. xvi. 2, pi. i.
Trans, ix. 503 ; 1876.

ix. 183 ; 1876.

ix. 182 ; 1876.

X. 190 ; 1877.

xi. 427, pi. xviii. ;
1878.
„ xii. 380 ; 1879.

xiii. 434 ; 1880.
xiv. 342, pi. xxiv.-

XXXV. ; 1881.
xiv. .356 ; 1881.

XV. 339 ; 1882.

xvi. 394, pi. xxxiv.-

xxxvii. ; 1883.
xvi. 397.
xvi. 398 ; 1883.
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. i. 182 ;
1883.

Trans, xviii. 414 ; 1885.

Trans, xvii. 287, pi. xv. ;

1884.
Trans, xviii. 317, pi. xi. ;

1885.
Twentieth Ann. Rep. Col.

Mus. and Lsb. 1886,

and Sixteenth Rep. Col.

Bot. Gard. 1884-85
Trans, xix. 213, pi. xiv.-

xviii. ; 1886.
Trans, xix. 217, pi. xii.-

xiii. ; 1886.
Trans, xx. 255, pi. xii. and

xiii. ; 1887.

348

Transactions. — Botany.

Author.

Title.

Name, <fec., of Publication.

Buller, Sir W.

Carse, H.

Chapman, F. R.

Cheeseman, T. F.

On a New Insectivorous Plant
in New Zealand

Note on the Vegetable Caterpil-
lar [Uordicevs rohertsii)

On the Occurrence of Panax
arboreuvi as an Epiphyte on
the Tree-fern Stems in the
Mauku District

On the Flora of the Mauku
District

Description of a New Species of
Celmisia

On a New Species of Celviisia. .

On the Cultivation of the Auck-
land Island Anthericimi

On the Botany of the Titirangi
District of the Province of
Auckland

On the Fertilisation of the New
Zealand Species of Pterostylis

On Pterostylis squamata in New
Zealand

Description of a New Species of
Seneciu

On the Fertilisation of Acian-
thus and Cyrtostylis

Description of a New Species of
Hymenophyllum

On the Fertilisation of Selliera

Notes on the Fertilisation of
Glossostigma

Description of a New Species of
Polypodium

On the Occurrence of the Aus-
tralian Genus I'oranthera in
New Zealand

Notice of the Occurrence of
Juncus tenuis, Willd., in New
Zealand

Notice of the Occurrence of the
Genus Kyllinga in New Zea-
land

On the Botany of Pirongia
Mountain

On the Occurrence of the Genus
SporadantJiits in New Zea-
land

On the Fertilisation of Thely-
mitra

Description of a New Species of
Lorantlius

On some Recent Additions to
the Flora of New Zonland

Contributions to the Flora of
the Nelson Provincial District

Trans, xxv. 302 ; 1892.

xxvi. 155, pi. vii. ;

1893.
xxxiv. 359; 1901.

xsxiv. 362 ; 1901.

xxii. 444 ; 1889.

xxiii. 407 ; 1890.
xxvi. 679; 1893.

iv. 270; 1871.

v. 352, pi. XX.

1872.
vii. 352 ; 1874.

vii. 848 ; 1874.

vii. 349 ; 1874.

viii. 330 ; 1875.

ix. 542 ; 1876.
X. 353 ; 1877.

x. 356; 1877.

xi. 432; 1878.

xi. 433 ; 1878.

xi. 434 ; 1878.

xii. 317; 1879.
xii. 324 ; 1879.

xiii. 291 ; 1880.
xiii. 296; 1880.
xiv. 299 ; 1881.
xiv. 301 ; 1881.

Hamilton. — Papers and Notices on Botanical Subjects. 349

Author.

Title.

Name

, &c., of Publication.

Cheeseman, T. F.

The Naturalised Plants of the
Auckland Provincial District

Trans

. XV. 268 ; 1882.

On some Recent Additions to

ff

XV. 298 ; 1882.

the Flora of New Zealand

Notes on the Fertilisation of

N.Z.

Journ. of Sc. i. 173 ;

Knightia

1882.

On some hitherto Unrecorded

N.Z.

Journ. of Sc. i. 202;

Plant-stations

1882.

Notice of the Discovery of Rha-

Trans

. xvi. 408; 1883.

godia in New Zealand

Additions to the New Zealand

xvi. 409; 1883.

Flora

A Revision of the New Zealand

xvi. 414 ; 1883.

Species of Carex

New Species of Plants

„

xvii. 235 ; 1884.

Notes on the Fertilisation of

xvii. 455 ; 1884.

certain New Zealand Plants

Description of Three New

xviii. 315 ; 1885.

Species of Coprosma

On the New Zealand Species of

„

xix. 218 ; 1886.

Copiosma

Notes on the Three Kings

„

XX. 141 ; 1887.

Islands

On the Flora of the Kermadec

„

XX. 151; 1887.

Islands

Notice of the Discovery of Asple-

„

xxii. 448 ; 1889.

nium japonicum, a Fern new

to the New Zealand Flora

Further Notes on the Three

„

xxiii. 408 ; 1890.

Kings Islands

On some Recent Additions to

^^

xxiv. 409 ; 1891.

the New Zealand Flora

Additional Notes on the Genus

^^

xxiv. 413; 1891.

Carex

On some Recent Additions to

„

xxviii. 534 ; 1895.

the New Zealand Flora

On the Flora of the North Cape

^^

xxix. 333 ; 1896.

District

Notice of the Establishment of

„

xxix.386, pi. xxiii. ;

Vallisneria spiralis in Lake

1896.

Takapuna, together with some

Remarks on its Life-history

On some Plants new to the New

„

xxix. 390 ; 1896.

Zealand Flora

On the Occurrence of Ottelia in

xxxi. 350 ; 1898.

New Zealand

Description of a New Species of

„

xxxi. 351 ; 1898.

•

Corysantlies

Notes on the Cultivated Food-

//

xxxiii. 306; 1900.

plants of the Polynesians,

with Special Reference to

the Ti Pore {Cor dy line ter-

minalis)

Some Recent Additions to the

'/

xxxiii. 312 ; 1900.

New Zealand Flora

350

Transactions . — Botany.

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Cockayne, L.

Colenso, W.

An Inquiry into the Seedling
Forms of New Zealand Pha-
cerogams and their Develop-
ment

Note on the Occurrence of the
Genera Gwiiiera and Myosotis
in the Chatham Islands

The Improvement of Wild Flow-
ers by Artificial Selection

An Inquiry into the Seedling
Forms of New Zealand Pha-
nerogams and their Develop-
ment

On the Burning and Reproduc-
tion of Subalpine Scrub and
its Associated Plants, with
Special Reference to Arthur's
Pass District

Description of New Species of
Astelia, Veronica, and Cel-
misia

On Ligustictcni trifoliatiim,
Hk. f.

On Veronica arvistrongii

On the Freezing of New Zealand
Alpine Plants : Notes of an
Experiment conducted in the
Freezing-chamber, Lxttelton

An Inquiry into the Seedling
Forms of New Zealand Pha-
nerogams and their Develop-
ment

A Sketch of the Plant-geography
of the Waimakariri River
Basin, considered chiefly from
an Ecological Point of View

A Short Account of the Plant
Covering of Chatham Island

On some Recent Changes in the
Nomenclature of the New
Zealand Myrsinaccct

On the Geographical and Eco-
nomic Botany of the North
Island of New Zealand

Description of some New Ferns
lately discovered in New Zea-
land

Description of Two New Zea-
land Ferns believed to be new
to Science

A Memorandum of my First Jour-
ney to the Ruahine Mountain-
range, and of the Flora of that
Region, Part I. (Title only)

Trans, xxxiii. 265 ; 1900.

xxxiii. 298 ; 1900.

xxix. 62.3 ; 1895.

xxxi. 354, pi. XXX.
xxxiv. ; 1898.

xxxi. 398, pi. XXXV.
xxxvii. ; 1898.

xxxi. 419 ; 1898.

xxxi. 424 ; 1898.

xxxi. 782, pi. xxviii.
and xxix. ; 1898.
XXX. 485 ; 1897.

xxxii. 83, pi. viii.
and ix. ; 1899.

xxxii. 95, pi. X.
xiii. ; 1899.

xxxiv. 243, pl.xvi.

xix.(a) ; 1901.
XXXV. 355 ; 1902.

i. (n.e.) 233 ; 1868.

Tasmanian Journal, i.
375; 1842.

Trans, xi. ^29 ; 1878.

xi. 5G7 ; 1878.

Hamilton. — Papers and Notices on Botanical Subjects. 351

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Colenso, W.

A Memorandum of my First Jour-
ney to the Jluahiiie Mountain-
range, and of the Flora of
that Region, Part II. (Title
only)

A few Remarks on a Cavern
near Cook's Well at Tolaga
Bay, and on a Tree [Sapota
costata) found there

A Description of a few New
Plants from our New Zealand
Forests, with Dried Speci-
mens of the same

Description of a New Species of
Metzgeria; also a Brief Notice
of Bceumyces hcteromorphus,
Nyl., in New Zealand

The Ferns of Scinde Island

On some New and Undescribed
New Zealand Ferns

On the Vegetable Food of the
Ancient New-Zealanders be-
fore Cook's Visit

A Description of a few New
Plants from our New Zealand
Forests

A Description of Four New
Ferns from our New Zealand
Forests

On a Large Number of Ferns
noticed in a Small Area in the
New Zealand Forest, in the
Seventy-mile Bush, between
Norsewood and Dannevirke,
in the Provincial District of
Hawke's Bay

Description of a few New Indi-
genous Plants

A Further Contribution towards
making known the Botany of
New Zealand

Description of some Newly Dis-
covered and Rare Indigenous
Plants ; being a Further Con-
tribution towards making
known the Botany of New
Zealand

A List of Fungi recently dis-
covered in New Zealand

A Description of some Newly
Discovered Cryptogamic
Plants ; being a Further Con-
tribution towards making
known the Botany of New
Zealand

Trans, xi. 570 ; 1878.

xii. 147 ; 1879.

xii. 359 ; 1879.

xiii. 368 ; 1880.

xiii. 370; 1880.
xiii. 376 ; 1880.

xiii. 8; 1880.
xiv. 329 ; 1881.
XV. 304 ; 1882.
XV. 311 ; 1882.

XV. 320 ; 1882.
xvi. 325 ; 1883.

xvii. 237 ; 1884.

xvil. 265 ; 1884.
xviii. 219 ; 1885.

352

T ra nuictioiu. — Bot a n y .

Author.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Colenso, W.

Description of some Newly
Discovered and Rare Indi-
genous Plants ; being a Fur-
ther Contribution towards
making known the Botany of
New Zealand

some British
lately noticed,
Recent Intro-
with

A Brief List of
Plants (Weeds)
apparently of
duction into the Colony
a few Notes thereon

On Clianthus 'puniceus, Sol.

A Few Observations on the Tree-
ferns of New Zealand, with
Particular Reference to their
Peculiar Epiphytes, their
Habits, and Mode of Growth

A Description of some Newly
Discovered and Rare Indi-
genous Phrenogamic Plants ;
being a Further Contribution
towards making known the
Bot.iny of New Zealand

A Description of some Newly
Discovered Cryptogamic
Plants ; being a Further Con-
tribution towards making
known the Botany of New
Zealand

An Enumeration of Fungi re-
cently discovered in New-
Zealand, with Brief Notes on
the Species Nova?

On New Phrenogamic Plants of
New Zealand

On Newly Discovered and Im-
perfectly Known Ferns of New
Zealand, with Critical Obser-
vations

On New Indigenous Cryptogams,
of the Orders Lycopodiacece,
Musci, and Hepaticce

A Description of a Species of
Orohanche (supposed to be
new) parasitical on a Plant of
Hydrocotyle

A Description of some Newly
Discovered Cryptogamic
Plants ; being a Further Con-
tribution towards making
known the Botany of New
Zealand

A Description of some Newly
Discovered Indigenous Crypto-
gamic Plants

Trans, xviii. 256 ; 1885.

xviii. 287 ; 1885.

xviii. 291 ; 1885.
xix. 252, pi. xix. ;
1886.

xix. 259 ; 1886.

xix. 271 ; 1886.

xix. 301 ; 1886.

XX. 188 ; 1887.
XX. 212 ; 1887.

XX. 234 ; 1887.
.xxi. 41 ; 1888.

xxi. SO; 1888.

xxii, 449 ; 1889.

Hamilton. — Papers and Notices on Botanical Subjects. 353

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Colenso, W.

A Description of some Newly
Discovered Phfenogamic
Plants, &c.

A Description of some Newly Dis-
covered Indigenous Plants, &c.

An Enumeration of Fungi re-
cently discovered in New Zea-
land

A Description of some Newly Dis-
covered Indigenous Plants, &c.

Description of Three Newly Dis-
covered New Zealand Ferns

A List of New Species of Hepa-
ticce novcc-zelaiidici' , named by
F. Stephani, Leipsic

Plain and Practical Thoughts
and Notes on New Zealand
Botany

Phsenogams : A Description of
some Newly Discovered Indi-
genous Plants ; &c.

List of Fungi recently detected
and collected in the Bush
District, County of Hawke's
Bay ; &c. ,

Memorandum of a few New
Species of Hepatica' lately
detected in the Seventy-mile
Bush, as determined by Dr.
Stephani, of Berlin

Bush Jottings : No. 2 (Botanical)

Cryptogams : A Description of a
few Lately Discovered Rare
Indigenous Ferns ; also, a
Notice of a Fine and Peculiar
Fungus {IlcBodictyon, Tulasne)

Phaenogams : A Description of
a few Newly Discovered Indi-
genous Plants ; &c.

A List of Fungi recently col-
lected in the Bush District,
County of Waipawa ; &c.

Notes, Remarks, and Reminis-
cences of Two Peculiar Intro-
duced and Naturalised South
American Plants

On Four Notable Plants

Notes and Reminiscences of
Early Crossings of the Ro-
mantically Situated Lake
Waikaremoana, County of
Hawke's Bay, of its Neigh-
bouring Country, and of its
Peculiar Botany ; performed
in the Years 1840-41

Trans, xxii. 459 ; 1889.

xxiii. 381 ; 1890.
xxiii. 391 ; 1890.

xxiv. 387 ; 1891.
xxiv. .394 ; 1891.
xxiv. 398 ; 1891.

„ xxiv. 400; 1891.

„ XXV. 324 ; 1892.

XXV. 338 ; 1892.

„ XXV. 341 ; 1892.

XXV. 307 ; 1892.
XXV. 319 ; 1892.

xxvi. 313 ; 1893.

„ xxvi. 320 ; 1893.

xxvi. 320; 1893.

„ xxvi. 333 ; 1893.
„ xxvii. 359 ; 1894.

23— Trans.

354

Transactions. — Botany.

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

XJolenao, W.

Crawford, J. C.

Phsenogams : A Description of
a few more Newly Discovered
Indigenous Plants ; &c.

A Description of Two New
Ferns and One New Lycopod,
lately detected in our New
Zealand Forests

An Account of the Finding of
Two Australian Plants hither-
to unnoticed in New Zealand

Phsenogams : A Description of a
few more Newly Discovered
Indigenous Plants ; &c.

New Zealand Cryptogams : A
List of a few additional Crypto-
gamic Plants, of the Orders
Hepatici^ and Ftmgi, recently
detected in New Zealand

Cryptogams : A Description of
Twii New Ferns, a New Lyco-
podium, and a New Moss, &c.

Description of Three Ferns, be-
lieved to be undescribed, dis-
covered more than Fifty Years
ago in the Northern District
of New Zealand

A Description of some New In-
digenous New Zealand Forest
Ferns

Curious Articles of Vegetable
Food, and the Modes of Cook-
ing in use by the IMaoris.
(Title only)

A Description of some Newly
Discovered New Zealand
Perns

Phsenogams : A Description of a
few more Newly Discovered
Indigenous Plants ; &c.

On Irrigation as applied to the
Growth of New Zealand Flax

On dusting Vines and Fruit-
trees affected with Blight
with Flour of Sulphur

On Hedges and Hedge Plants . .

On New Zealand Coffee

Some Remarks on the Plant
called Prickly Comfroy (Sym-
•pliytum asperrimum) . (Ab-
stract)

Further Remarks, with Descrip-
tion of ^Idde of storing it and
other Forage-plants

On Suitable Hedge Plants for
New Zealand

Trans, xxvii. 383 ; 1894.
xxvii. 399 ; 1894.

„ xxvii. 401 ; 1894.
„ xxviii. 591 ; 1895.
„ xxviii. 614; 1895.

xxviii. 615 ; 1895.
xxviii. 618 ; 1895.

„ xxix. 414; 1896.
xxix. 633 ; 1896.

„ xxxi. 263 ; 1898.

xxxi. 266 ; 1898.

„ xi. 129; 1869.
„ xi. 396; 1869.

„ ix. 203 ; 1876.
„ ix. 545; 1876.
, X. 523 ; 1877.

X. 528 ; 1877.

1

XV. 524 ; 1882.

i

<

ii

Hamilton. — Papers and Notices on Botanical Subjects. 355

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., ol Publication.

Crawford, J. C.
Curl, S. M.

Easterfield, T. H.,
and B. C. Aston

Easterfield, T. H.
Enys, J.

Field, H. C.

Finlayson, A. C.

Fitton,C.

On harvesting Crop independ-
entl}' of the Weather

On Ensilage

On a few of the Grasses and
other Herbage Plants that
might be advantageously in-
troduced into Cultivation in
New Zealand

On Grasses . .

Further Observations on cer-
tain Grasses and Fodder-
plants

Pituri, a New Vegetable Pro-
duct that deserves Further In-
vestigation

On the Cultivation of Beet for
the Manufacture of Sugar

On Grasses and Fodder-
plants

On Introduce i Trees and Plants
of Economic Value to New
Zealand

On the Growth of the Sugar-
beet in New Zealand

Studies on the Chemistry of
the New Zealand Flora,
Pare I.

Ditto, Part II., Karaka-nut

Remarks on the Wliau (EnteUa)

On Recent Changes in the No-
menclature of New Zealand
Ferns

On the Occurrence of the Fern
Botrychiuvi luna^ia, Swb.
(Moonwort), in New Zealand

Notes on Lorantlms fieldii,
Buch.

On the Growth of Ferns ; and
on a New Fern now just re-
ported

On Gordiceps robertsii

On Curious Forms of New
Zealand Ferns

Note on Hybrid Ferns

Variation in New Zealand
Ferns

Notes on New Zealand Ferns . .

The Stem - structure of some
Leafless Plants of New Zea-
land, with Especial Reference
to their Assimilatory Tissue

Notes on the Vegetable Cater-
pillar

Trans, xv. 524 ; 1882.

„ XV. 524 ; 1882.
„ ix. 531 ; 1876.

X. 345 ; 1877.
xi. 403 ; 1878.

xi. 411 ; 1878.

xii. 431 ; 1879.
xii. 382 ; 1879.
xiii. 427 ; 1880.

xiii. 142 ; 1880.
xxxiii. 345 ; 1900.

xxxiv. 495, 566 ;

1901.
xxxiv. 565; 1901.
iii. 213 ; 1870.

xvi. 363 ; 1883.

xvii. 288 ; 1884.
xxvii. 446 ; 1894.

xxviii. 623 ; 1895.
XXX. 434 ; 1897.

XXXV. ; 1902.
Journ. of Botany, xxi.

140; 1883.
N.Z. Journ. of So. i. 128 ;

1882.
Trans, xxxv. 360 ; 1902.

xxix. 608 ; 1896.

356

Transactions. — Botany.

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Gardiner, Walter

On the Glands of Coprosma

Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond. ;

baueriana

A'^an/re, 3rd June, 1884;
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. xi.
172, 1884.

Gillies, J. B.

Notes on the Growth of certain
Trees on Scoria Soil near
Mount Eden, Auckland

Trans, xii. 357 ; 1879.

Notes on Sorghum Experi-

xiv. 373 ; 1881.

ments

Further Notes on Sorghum Ex-

„ XV. 261 ; 1882.

periments

On the Growth of the Cork-oak

XV. 267 ; 1882.

in Auckland

Sorghum Experiments, 1882-83

xvi. 612 ; 1883.

Gorrie, W.

On New Zealand Plants culti-
vated in Scotland

xiii. 428 ; 1880.

Govett, K. H.

A Bird-killing Tree . .

„ xvi. 364 ; 1883.

Greensill, N. A. \\.

Structure of Leaf of certain

XXXV. 342, pi. xli-

Species of Coprosma

xliv. ; 1902.

Goyen, P.

Occurrence of Celmisia ramu-

N.Z. Journ. of So. i. 182;

losa

1882.

Hackel, E.

On New Species of Grasses from

New Zealand

Trans, xxxv. 377 ; 1902.

Hackett, —
Hall, J. W.

Hall, K. M., and
A. Vaughan-Jen-
nings

Hamilton, A.

On Forest Culture . . . . I

Kemarks on New Zealand Trees

planted at Parawai, Thames,

at and subsequent to the

Year 1873
Notes on the Structure of

Tmesipteris '

List of Plants collected in the
District of Okarito, West-
land

Dactylanthus taylori

Hamilton, W. S. ..

Notes on the so-called Vegetable

Caterpillar of New Zealand
Notes on some New Zealand

Perns
On the Forests of New Zealand
Note on a Branched Specimen

of a Tree-fern (Hemitelia

smithii)
List of the Described Genera

and Species of New Zealand

Flowering Plants
On Native Spring Flowers
Notes on the Occurrence and

Habits of some of our New

Zealand Plants

xvi. 576 ; 1883.
xxxiv. 388 ; 1891.

Proc. Roy. Irish Acad.

iii. vol. ii. 1, pi. i.-v. ;

1891.
Trans, xi. 435 ; 1878.

N.Z. Journ. of Sc. i.

464 ; 1882.
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. ii,

127; 1883.
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. iii.

170; 1891.
Trans, xviii. 209 ; 1885.

xxii. 493 ; 1889.

xxviii. 147 ; 1895.
xxviii. 622 ; 1895.

xxxi. 737; 1898.

xxxi. 743 ; 1898.
xvii. 290; 1884.

\

Hamilton.— Papers and Notices on Botanical Subjects. 357

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Hemsley, W. Bot-
ting

Hill, H.

Haszard, H. D. M.

Haultain, Colonel
Hay, D

Heaphy, Major . .
Hector, J.

Hooker, Sir W. J.
Hooker, J. D.
Hunt, R. R.
Hutton, F. W. . ,

On the Genus Corynocarpus,

Forst., with Descriptions of

Two New Species
Flora of the Kermadec Islands
The Vegetable Caterpillar (Cordi-

ceps Tobertsii)
Notes on the Growth of the

Indigenous and other Trees

in New Zealand
On the Growth of Phormium

tenax
On the Cultivation of Native

Trees
On Trees suitable for Streets

and Avenues
On the New Zealand Flax

(PJiormiiiin tenax)
On the Geographical Botany of

New Zealand
Corrected List of New Zealand

Ferns
On Ergot in Rye-grass
Notice of a New Species of

Pomaderris (P. tainui)
Remarks on Cork grown at the

Hutt
On the Suitability of New Zea-
land White-pine when creo-

soted for Railway-sleepers
On a Remarkable Lycovodium
On a New Species of Thuja ; and

on Podocarpus totara, of New

Zealand
On the Botany of Raoul Island,

one of the Kermadec Group,

in the South Pacific Ocean
Remarks on Dr. Curl's Paper

on the Growth of Sugar-beet

in New Zealand
On the Structure of the Leaf of

Phormium tenax
On Microscopic Characters of

the Fibres of New Zealand

Hemp as distinguished from

those of Manila or Sisal
Observations on the Different

Modifications in the Capsules

of Mosses, with Reference to

the Dispersal of their Spores
On a Fungus-penetrating Nostoc
The Origin of the Fauna and

Flora of New Zealand

Ann. of Bot. xvii. 743, pi.
xxxvi. ; 1903.

Nature, xxxviii., 991.
Trans, xxxiv. 396, pi. xxi. ;
1891.
xxxiv. 386 ; 1891.

V. 357 ; 1872.

v. 452; 1872.

vii. 519 ; 1874.

ii. 116 ; 1869.

i. (n.e.) 157 ; 1868.

iii. (end of vol.) ;

1871.
vii. 488 ; 1874.
xi. 428; 1878.

XV. 528; 1882.

xvii. 447 ; 1884.

xxxiii. .554 ; 1900.
Lond. Journ. of Bot. i.
570; 1842.

Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.)
i. 125 ; 1851.

Trans, xiii. 441 ; 1880.

ii. Ill ; 1869.
iv. 370; 1871.

vii. .342 ; 1874.

X. 5.59 ; 1876.

N.Z. Journ. of Sc.

ii. 1 and 249; 1883,

1884: Ann. and Mag.

Nat. Hist. sec. v. vol.

i xiii. 425.

358

Transactions. — Botany.

Author.

Title.

Name,

&c., of Publication.

Inglis, John

On New Species of New Zealand

Trans.

xiv. 357, pi. xxii. ;

Diatoms

1881

,

Notes on some of the Diato-

Trans.

XV. 340, pi. xxix. ;

maceous Deposits of New

1882

,

Zealand

Jennings-Vaughan,

Notes on the Structure of Tmesi-

Proc.

R. Irish Acad. ser.

A., and K. Hall

vteris

iii. vol. ii. 1, pi. i.-v. ;

1891

Kingsley, R. I. . .

Botanical Notes from the Ta
kaka District

Trans.

XXV. 304 ; 1892.

On a Remarkable Variation in

,,

XXV. 306 ; 1892.

Lomaria lanceolata

On the Presence of some Noxi-

«

xxvi. 407.

ous Weeds in Nelson District

Botanical Notes : Plants new to

„

XX vi. 407 ; 1893.

Nelson District, &c., from

West VVanganui

Botanical Notes

^,

xxviii. 537 ; 1895.

Notes on the Wangapeka Valley,

„

XXX. 442 ; 1897.

Nelson

Kirk, T., and F. W.

Description of Arid Island, Hau-

,,

i.(n.e.) 108; 1868.

Hutton

raki Gulf

Kirk, T.

On the Botany oi Great Barrier
I^land

"

i, (n.e.)88; 1868.

Catalogue of Plants found on

,^

i. (n.e.)99; 1868.

the South and South • east

Coasts of Little Barrier Island

Catalogue of Naturalised Plants

„

i. (n.e.)lOO; 1868.

observed at Kororarika, Bay

of Islands

Notes on the Plants observed

„

i. (n.e.) 84; 1868.

during a Visit to the North of

Auckland

On the Occurrence of Orobanche,

//

ii. 106; 1869.

a Genus new to the Flora of

New Zealand

An Account of the Puka {Meryta

„

ii. 100 ; 1869.

sinclairii)

On Grasses and other Plants

,,

ii. 102 ; 1869.

adapted for Pasturage in the

Province of Auckland, espe-

cially with regard to Indi-

genous Kinds

On the Botanv of the Thames

„

ii. 89 ; 1869.

Goldrtdd

On the Naturalised Plants of

^^

ii. 131 ; 1869.

New Zealand, especially with

regard to those occurring in

the Province of Auckland

On Epticris intrpurcscnis, Br., in

„

ii. 107; 1809.

New Zealand, with Remarks

on Epacris panciflora, A. Rich.

Notes on the Botany of certain

„

iii. 142 ; 1870.

Places in the VVnikato Dis-

trict, April and ]\Iay, 1870

Hamilton. — Papers and Notices on Botanical Subjects. 359

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Kirk, T.

On the Flora of the Isthmus of
Auckland and the Takapuna
District

Trans, iii. 148

; 1870.

On the Occurrence of Littoral

iii. 147

; 1870.

Plants in the Waikato Dis-

trict

On the Discovery of Isoetes and

ii. 107;

1869.

other Genera of Rhizocarpce,

new to the Flora of New Zea-

land

Notes on certain New Zealand

iii. 163

, 1870.

Plants not included in the

" Handbook of the New Zea-

land Flora"

An Account of an Undescribed

iii. 161

1870.

Pittosponiin and Loranthus

in the Herbarium of the Colo-

nial Museum, Wellington

On the Botany of the Northern

iii. 166

; 1870.

Part of the Province of Auck-

land

Description of New Plants

iii. 177

1870.

On the Habits of the Rata [Me-

iv. 267

1871.

tros'deros robusta)

On the New Zealand Species of

iv. 260 ;

1871.

Pittosporum, with Descrip-

tions of New Species

Notes on the Local Distribution

iv. 256 ;

1871.

of certain Plants common to

the British Isles and New Zea-

land

A Comparison of the Indigenous

iv. 247

1871.

FUra of the British Isles and

New Zealand

Notes on the New Z3aland As-

iv. 241

1871.

teliads, with Descriptions of

New Species

On the Nativity in New Zealand

iv. 238

1871.

of Polygonum aviculare, L.

On the Flora of the Isthmus of

iv. 228;

1871.

Auckland and the Takapuna

District

Notice of a Remarkable Arbores-

V. 347 ;

1872.

cent Fern on Ngongotaha

Notes on the Flora of the Lakes

V. 322 ;

1872.

District of the North Island

On the Specific Characters of

V. 345 ;

1872.

Dicksonia antarctica, Br., and

D. lanata, Col.

Notes on the Naturalised Plants

V. 320 ;

1872..

of the Chatham Islands

Further Notes on the Nativity

V. 315 ;

1872

of Polygonum aviculare in

New Zealand, in reply to

Mr. Travers

360

Transactions. — Botany.

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Kirk, T.

On the Botan}' and Conchology

of Great Omaha
On the Chief Features of the

Vegetation of the District

between Maketu and Lake

Taupo
Notice of an Undescribed Spe-
cies of Cordyline
On the New Zealand Forms of

Cheilanthes
Description of a New Species of

Isoetes
On tlie Occurrence of Juncus

lamprocarpus, Ehr., in New

Zealand
On the Occurrence of Lepilcsna

preissii. MuelL.and Carexchlo-

rantha, Br., in New Zealand
Remarks on a Paper by G. M.

Thomson on the Naturalised

Plants of Otago
Notes on Panax linear c
On a Remarkable Instance of

Double Parasitism in Loran-

thacecj;
Description of a New Species of

Rumex
Note on the Economic Pro-
perties of certain Native

Grasses
Description of Two New Species

of Veronica
Description of New Plants

Description of a New Species of
Pillularia

On Nephrodium yentangularum

On ]Tii)nenophylhun annstrongii

Description of a New Species of
HymenopJiijlluDi

On lAndsaya viridis, Colenso . .

On Nei>hrodium decovipositum,
Br., and N. qlaheilum, A.
Gunn.

On the Botany of Bluff Hill . .

Contribution to the Botany of
Otago

Notes on Three Dried Speci-
mens of Matai (Podacarpus
spicata)

On the Naturalised Plants of
Port Nicholson and the .Ad-
jacent District

On the New Zealand Species of
Phyllocladus

Trans, v. 363 ; 1872.

V. 428 ; 1872.

vi. 244 ; 1873.
vi. 247 ; 1873.

vii. 377, pi. XXV.

1874.
vii. 378 ; 1874.

vii. 508 ; 1874.

vii. 539 ; 1874.

ix. 492 ; 1876.
viii. 329 ; 1875.

ix. 493 ; 1876.
ix. 494 ; 187G.

ix. 502 ; 1876.

ix. 547, pi. XXX. ;

1876.
ix. 547, pi. xxix. ;

1876.
X. 531 ; 1877.
X. 532 ; 1877.
X. 394, pi. xxi. ;

1877.
X. 396 ; 1877.
x. 398; 1897.

X. 400; 1877.
X. 406 ; 1877.

X. 417; 1877.
X. 302 ; 1877.
X. 378 ; 1877.

Hamilton. — Papers and Noticen on Botanical Subjects. 361

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Kirk, T.

A Revised Arrangement of the
New Zealand Species of Da-
crydiuvi, with Description of
New Species

Notice of the Occurrence of a
Variety of Zosteraiiatm, Roth.,
in New Zealand

Notice of the Occurrence of
Juncus glaucus, L., in New
Zealand

Notice of the Discovery of M0110-
clea forsteri, Hook., in New
Zealand

Description of New Plants

On HyvtenophyUum villostivi,
Col.

Notes on Mr. Hamilton's Col-
lection of Okarito Plants

Notes on the Botany of Wai-
keke, Rangitoto, and other
Islands in the Hauraki Gulf

On the Export of Fungus from
New Zealand

Description of a New Species of
Lycopodium

Description of a New Species of
Hymenophylhim

Notes and Suggestions on the
Utilisation of certain Neg-
lected New Zealand Timbers

Description of New Plants

Anniversary Address: On the Re-
lationship between the Floras
of New Zealand and Australia

Description of New Flowering
Plants

Description of a New Clado
phora

Notice of the Occurrence of
Lagenojihora emp)hysopiis and
other Unrecorded Plants in
New Zealand

Description of New Plants

Remarks on New Zealand Olives

On the Occurrence of Triodia in
New Zealand

A Revision of the New Zealand
Lepidia, with a Description of
New Species

Notes on Plants recently added
to the New Zealand Flora

Notes on Plants from Campbell
Island

On the Neglected Forest - pro-
ducts of New Zealand

Trans, x. .383, pi. xviii.
XX. ; 1877.

X. 392 ; 1877.

X. 393; 1877.

X. 418 ; 1877.

X. 419 ; 1877.
X. 395 ; 1877.

xi. 4.39 ; 1878.

xi. 444 ; 1878.

xi. 454 ; 1878.

xi. 456, pi. xix.

1878.
xi. 457, pi. xix.

1878.
xi. 458; 1878.

xi. 463 ; 1878.
xi. 539 ; 1878.

xii. 393 ; 1879.
xii. 397 ; 1879.
xii. 397 ; 1879.

xiii. 384 ; 1880.
xiii. 437 ; 1880.
xiii. 437 ; 1880.

xiii. 437 ; 1880.

xiii. 437 ; 1880.
xiii. 437 ; 1880.
xiii. 1.30 ; 1880.

362

Transactions. — Botany.

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Kirk, T.

On the New Zealand Olives

Trans, xiv. 375 ; 1881.

Notice of the Occurrence of

xiv. 378 ; 1881.

Triodia and Atropis in New

Zealand, with Description of

New Species

A Revision of the New Zealand

xiv. 379 ; 1881.

Lepidia, with Description of

New Species

Notes on Plants from Campbell

xiv. 387 ; 1881.

Island

Description of a New Species of

XV. 359 ; 1882.

Senecio

Notes on Botrychimii lunar in..

xvi. 366 ; 1883.

Botanical Notes

xvi. 367 ; 1883.

Notes on the Occurrence of

xvi. 369 ; 1883.

Rhagodia at Port Nicholson

Description of a New Pine

xvi. 370, pi. xxvi. ;
1883.

Description of New Plants col-

xvi. 371, pi. xxvii. ;

lected on Stewart Islnnd

1883.

Notice of the Discovery of Am-

xvi.374,pl.xxviii.;

pliibrotnns in New Zealand,

1883.

with Description of New Species

On Lycopodium variurii, R. Br.,

xvi. 370, pi. xxix.-

and //. billardicri, Spreii^'.,

xxxi. ; 1883.

with Description of a New

Form

Notes on Carmichaelia. with

xvi. 378, pi. xxxii.-

Descriptions of New Species

xxxiii. ; 1883.

On the Flowering Plants of

xvii. 213; 1884.

Stewart Island

On the Ferns and Fern Allies of

xvii. 228 ; 1884.

Stewart Island

On the Punui of Stewart Island

xvii. 293, pi. xvii.;

{Aralid lyalUi, n. sp.)

1884.

Description of a Species of

xvii. 297, pi. xvi. ;

Fagus

1884.

Notes on the New Zealat d

xvii. 298 ; 1884.

Beeches

Additional Contributions to the

xviii. 318; 1885.

Flora of the Nelson District

Notes on Recent Additions to

xix. 285 ; 1886.

the Now Zealand Flora

On Trimorphism in the New

xix. 394; 1886.

Zealand Kuclmta

On the Naturalised Dodders and

XX. 182 ; 1887.

Broom-rapes of New Zealand

On the Occurrence of a Variety

xxii.445,pl.xxxil.;

of Mitrasacuir Dunitana, Hk. f.,

1889.

in New Zealand

Description of a New Species of

xxii. 446; 1889.

Cheuopodium

On the Macrocephalous Olearias

xxiii. 448 ; 1890.

of New Zealand, with a De-

scription of a New Species

Hamilton. — Papers and Notices on Botanicai Subjects. 363

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Kirk, T.

Notes on certain Species of

Carex in New Zealand
On a Remarkable Variety of

Asplcninm innbromivi, J. Sm.
On the Botany of the Snares . .
On Pleurophylhnn, Hk. f.
On the Botany of Antipodes

Island
Description of New Species of

Centroleins, Labil.
Remarks on the Henus Abro-

tanella, Cass., with Descrip-
tion of New Species
Description of New Plants from

the Vicinity of Port NicViol-

son
Notice of the Occurrence of

Australian Orchids in New

Zealand
On a New Mistletoe . .

On Heterostyled Trimorphic
Flowers in New Zealand
Fuchsias, with Notes on the
Distinctive Characters of the
Speci-s

Description of a New Species of
Pbuclea

Description of New Cyperaceous
Plants chiefly from the Nel-
son Provincial District

Remarks on the New Zealand
Sow thistles, with Description
of a New Species

On the Preparation and Pre-
servation of Botanical Speci-
mens

On New Forms of Cebnisia,
Cass.

A Revision of the New Zealand
Geutians

On the New Zealand Species of
Guiinera

Description of New or Remark-
able Plants from the Upper
Waimakariri

Description of New Grasses
from Macquarie Island

A Revision of the New Zealand
Species of Colobantnus, Bart.

Notes on MS. Descriptions of
Collections made during
Captain Cook's First Voyage

Notes on DactylantJms taylori,
Hk. f.

Trans, xxiii. 448 ; 1890.

xxiii. 424 ; 1890.

xxiii. 426; 1890.
xxiii. 431; 1890.
xxiii. 436 ; 1890.

xxiii. 441 ; 1890.

xxiii. 418; 1890.

Trans, xxiii. 423, "pi.
XXX vi. ; 1890.

Trans, xxiii. 425; 1890.

Trans, xxiii. 429^ pi.

xxxvii. ; 1890.
Trans, xxv. 261, pi. xix. ;

1892.

Trans, xxvi. 2.59 ; 1893.
xxvi. 260 ; 1893.

xxvi. 263 ; 1893.

Trans, xxvii. 27 ; pi.
x.\vi.(a) ; 1894.

Trans, xxvii. 327 ; 1894.

Trans, xxvii. 330, ' pi.

xxvii. ; 1894.
Trans, xxvii. 341 ; 1894.

xxvii. 349 ; 1894.

xxvii. 353 ; 1894.

Trans, xxvii. 354, pi.

xxvii. ; 1894.
Trans, xxviii. 491 ; 1895.

xxviii. 493 ; 1895.

364

Transactions. — Botany.

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Kirk, T.

Kirk, H. B.

Kirk, T. W.
Knight, Charles

On Zannichellia and Lepilcena

in New Zealand
On the Products of a Ballast-
heap
Notice of the Occurrence of an

Undescribed Palm-lily on the

Auckland Peninsula
A Revision of the New Zealand

Species of Hymenanthera, R.

Br.
Notes on certain Veronicas, and

Descriptions of New Species
Remarks on Aristotelia racemosa
Remarks on Drawings of New

Zealand Veronicas
Note on Double-flowered

Columbines
Description of a New Species of

GraminecB
Remarks on ParatropMs hetero-

phylla
On Carmichaelia, Corallospar-

tium, Huttonella, and Noto-

spartium
Notes on the Botany of the

East Cape District
On the History of Botany in

Otago
Description of a New Species of

Drimys
Remarks on Gtmnera ^' ovata,"

Petrie, and G. flavida. Col.,

in reply to Mr. Petrie
Notes on Recent Additions to

the New Zealand Flora

Mr. Buchanan's Criticisms

Botrychium lunaria, Sw.
Glossogync l<cnnedyi . .

New Introduced Plants

Notice of the Discovery of Cal-
ceolaria repens, Hk. f., and
other Plants in the Welling-
ton District

On the Occurrence of Xanthiwn
strumosum, L., in New Zea-
land

A Description of some New
Species of Gymnostomum

Description of some New Zea-
land Lichens

Trans, xxviii. 498 ; 1895.
xxviii. 501 ; 1895.
xxviii. 508 ; 1895.

xxviii. 510; 1895.

xxviii. 515 ; 1895.

xxviii. 735 ; 1895.
xxviii. 735 ; 1895.

xxviii. 738 ; 1895.

xxix. 497, pi. xliv. ;

1896.
xxix. 498, pi. xlv.

and xlvi. ; 1896.
xxix. 501 ; 1896.

xxix. 509 ; 1896.
xxix. 532 ; 1896.
XXX. 379 ; 1897.
XXX. 380 ; 1897.

Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot.

xix. 285 ; 1882 : and

N.Z. Journ. of Sc. i.

382
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. i. 266;

1882
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. i. 335.
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. ii. 28 ;

1883.
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. ii. 29;

1883
Trans, xi. 466 ; 1878.

xxvi. 310 ; 1893.

vii. 354, pi. xxviii. ;

1874.
vii. 356, pi. xxiii. ;

1874.

Hamilton. — Papers and Notices on Botanical Subjects. 365

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Knight, Charles

Koelber, D.
Kunze, Gustav

Laing, R. M.

Lecoy, A.

Lee, Clem. W. . .

Levin, W. H.

Leighton, W. A. . .

Lindsay, W. Lau-
der

Low, E.

Description of a New Species of

Fabronia
On the Lichen Flora of New

Zealand
Contributions to the Licheno-

graphia of New Zealand
Description of a New Species of

Tliysanothecium
On the Lichenographia of New

Zealand
On the Lichenographia of New

Zealand
Reliquiis Hochstetterianus
Phylloglossum, Gen. Nov. ex

Ord. Novo
On the Classification of the

Algcg
Observations on the Ficordece of

Banks Peninsula
Note on Splachnidium rugosum,

Grev.
On Lessonia variegata, J. Agh.
The Algcc of New Zealand ;
their Characteristics and Dis-
tribution
Notes on several Species of De-

lesseria
On some New Zealand Sea-
weeds
Revised List of New Zealand

Seaweeds, Part I.
A List of the Seaweeds of Nor-
folk Island
Revised List of New Zealand

Seaweeds, Part II.
The Forest Question in New

Zealand
Notes on a Plant {Glossostigma
elatinoides) from beside the
Maungapouri Stream,
Otaki
On a Lichen of the Genus Le-

canoa
Additions to the Lichens of

New Zealand
List of Fungi collected in Otago,

New Zealand
Observations of New Zealand

Lichens
Notes on New Zealand Stictce

On the DiatornacecB of New

Zealand
On the Vegetative Organs of

Haastia pulvinaris

Trans, viii. 312, pi. x. ;
1875.
viii. 313, pi. xi. ;

1875.
xii. 367, pi. xii.
and xiii. ; 1879.
xiii. 385, pi. xvii. ;

1880.
XV. 346, pi. xxxv.-

xxxviii. ; 1882.
xvi. 400, pi. xxxix.-

xli. ; 1883.
1862.
Bot. Zeitung i. col. 721 ;

1843.
Trans, xvii. 299 ; 1885.

xvii. 303, pi. X. and

x.(rt) ; 1885.
XXV. 288 ; 1892.

xxvi. 304 ; 1893.
xxvii. 297 ; 1894.

xxix. 446, pi. xxvi.
andxxviii. ; 1896.
XXX. 568 ; 1897.

xxxii. 57, pi. V.-

vii. ; 1899.
xxxiii. 299 ; 1900.

xxxiv. 327; 1901.

xii. 1 ; 1879.

xxi. 108 ; 1888.

xiv. 540 ; 1881.

Proc. Linn. Soc. x. 30,

pi. iv. ; 1867.
Proc. Linn. Soc. ix. pt. ii. ;

1865.
Trans. Linn. Soc. xxv.

pt. iii. 88 ; 1866.
Trans. Linn. Soc. xxv.

pt. iii. 88 ; 1866.
Trans. Linn. Soc. ix. 129 ;

1865.
Trans, xxxi. 150, pi. xvii.~

xix.(a); 1899.

366

Tratisactioiis. — Botany.

Author.

Title.

Ludlam, A.
Mackay, T.

Mair, W. G.

Mair, G.
Maskell, W. M.

Mason, T.

Massee, G.

Matthews, H. T.

McArthur, D.
Meeson, J.

Mettenius
Mitten, W.

Mollet, T. A.
Monro, Sir David

On the Cultivation and Ac-
climatisation of Trees and
Plants

On the American Blight on
Apple-trees

On the Cultivation of the Sugar-
beet in New Zealand

On the Occurrence of the Clover-
dodder [Ciiscuta trifolia) in
the Waikato District

On a Marine Plant called by
the Maoris " Totaramoana "

Contribution towards a List of
the New Zealand DesmidiacecB

On the New Zealand Desmi-
diacecs : Additions to Cata-
logue and Notes on various
Species

On a New Variety of Desmid . .

On the Honeydew of Coccidce,
and the Fungus accompany-
ing these Insects

On Tree-blights

Further Notes of the Desvii-
diecE of New Zealand

On the so-called Vegetable
Caterpillar and other Fungi
that attack Insects

List of Plants injured by Frost
at Taita, near Wellington

An Accouiit of the Plants grow-
ing at " The Gums," Taita

An Account of the Plants grow-
ing at "The Gums," Taita,
in Addition to List published
in 18DG

The Fungus Flora of New Zea-
land

On the Condition of Forestry in
New Zealand

On the Importance of Forestry

On a New Species of Dodder . .

On the Relation between Rain-
fall and Forest

Ueber I'liyllogloasum . .

Description of some New Musci
from New Zealand and other
I'arts of the Southern Hemi-
sphere, &(i.

On the Structure of Ilormosira
billardieri

On the Leading Features of the
Geographical Botany of the
Provinces of Nelson and
Marlborough

Name, &c., of Publication.

Trans, i. (n.e.) 285 ; 1868.

f

iv. 429; 1871.
V. 485 ; 1872.
V. 450 ; 1872.

X. 554; 1876.

xiii. 297, pi. xi.

and xii. ; 1880.
XV. 237, pi. xxiv.

and XXV. ; 1882.

xviii. 325 ; 1885.
xix. 41, pi. i. ;
1886.

xix. 592 ; 1886.
xxii. 3, pi. i.-vi. ;

1889.
xxvi. 664 ; 1894.

xvii. 447; 1884.
xxix. 393 ; 1896.
XXXV. 374 ; 1902.

xxxi. 282, pi. xxii.-

XX iv. ; 1898.
xxxiii. 576 ; 1900.

XV. 461 ; 1882.
XX. 474; 1887.
Rep.of the A.A.A.S. 310;

1891.
Bot. Zeitung.
Proc. Linn. Soc. iv. 64 ;
1860.

Trans, xiii. 318, pi. xiii.
and xiv. ; 1880.
i. (n.e.) 161; 1868.

Hamilton. — Papers and Notices on Botanical Subjects. 367

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Moore, T. 0.
Mueller, H. von . .

Mueller, J.

Naylor-Beckett, T.
W.

Nottidge, T.
Nordstedt

Nylander, W.

Park, Archibald . .

Parker, T.J.
Peppercorne, F. S.
Petrie, D.

On Flowers in Relation to Insects
Preliminary Note on ]\Ir. H.

Travers's Recent Collections

of Plants from the Chatham

Islands
On a New Lepyrodia. .
Note on Sporadantlms, a New

Genus of Plants from the

Chatham Islands
Plurality of Cotyledons in Per-

soonia
Hybridism of New Zealand

Plants
Gonsp. Syst. Lich. Nov. - Ze-

landiee
Lichenes Colensoani a Rev. Co-

lenso in N.Z. septentrionali

prope Napier lecti, et nu-

perius missi, in Herb. Reg.

Kewensi servati
Description of New Species of

Musci
On some Little - known New

Zealand Mosses
On Pour New Species of New

Zealand Mosses
On some Little - known New

Zealand Mosses
On New Zealand Mosses

On New Zealand Mosses

Some Recent Additions to the |
Mo.-^s Flora of New Zealand j

On the Structure and Colour of
the Fibre of P horviiuui tenax

Fresh-water Algcs collected by
S. Berggren in New Zealand
and Australia (Stockholm)

Lichenes Novte-zelandise quos
ibi legit, annos 1861, Dr.
Lauder Lindsay

On Animal and Vegetable Para-
sites associated with the Pro-
duction of Neoplasms in
Cattle a'-id Sheep

Remarks on a Section of Macro-
ci/stis

Influence of Forests on Climate
and Rainfall

Description of a New Species of
Coprosma

Notice of the Occurrence of
hiparophylluni gunnii, Lob.,
in New Zealand

Trans, xxxi. 44.3 ; 1899.
V. 309 ; 1872.

vi. 384 ; 1873.
vi. 389; 1873.

N.Z. Journ.of Sc. i. 115;

1882.
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. ii. 20 ;

1883.
Bull, de I'Herbier Bois-

sier, ii. App. 1 ; 1894.
Proc. Linn. Soc. xxxii.

197; 1895.

Trans, xxv. 289, pl. xxxiv.-
xliv. ; 1892.
xxv. 297 ; 1892.

xxvi.274, pl. XXV.-

XXX. ; 1893.
xxvi. 277 ; 1893.

xxvi. 403, pl.

xxviii. ; 1893.
xxix. 441, pl. xxiv.

and xxv ; 1896.
xxxi. 426 ; 1898.

ii. 108 ; 1869.

1888.

Proc. Linn. Soc. 2 ; 1865 :
Trans. Linn. Soc. ix.
244 ; 1865.

Trans, xxviii. 451 ; 1895.

xiv. 562 ; 1881.
xii. 24 ; 1879.
xi. 426 ; 1878.
xii. 354 ; 1879.

368

Transactions .—Botany .

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Petrie, D.

Notice of the Occurrence of a

, Trans, xii. 355 ; 1879.

Species of Hemvphues in New

Zealand

Description of a New Species of

„

xii. 356, pi. X. ;

Ehrharta

1879.

A Visit to Stewart Island, wiih

„

xiii. 323 ; 1880.

Notes on its Flora

Description of a New Species of

xiii. 332 ; 1880.

Carpx

De.-cription of New Plants

„

xiv. 362; 1881.

Description of Two New Species

„

XV. 358 ; 1882.

of Carex

Description of a Variety of Cel-

„

XV. 359 ; 1882,

misia ses>;ikflora, Hk. f.

Notice of Olearia liectori, Hk. f.

,^

xvi. 393 ; 1883.

.

Description of New Species of

,,

xvii. 269 ; 1884.

Native Plants

Description of Three New Spe-

„

xvii. 271 ; 1884.

cies of Uncinia

Description of a New Species of

,,

xvii. 272; 1884.

Carmichaelia, with Notes on

the Species native to Otago

Description of New Species of

^^

xviii. 296 ; 1885.

Native Plants

Description of a New Species of

„

xviii. 428; 1885.

Actcna

The Rapid Increase of Erechtites

N.Z.

Journ. of Sc. ii.

prcnanthoides, D.C

454 ; 1885.

Is Stipa setacea Indigenous to

N.Z.

Journ. of Sc. i. 335 ;

New Zealand?

1884.

A New New Zealand Flora

N.Z.

Journ. of Sc. ii. 562;

1885.

Notes on Olearia hectori

N.Z.

Journ. of Sc. ii. 37 ;

1884.

Plants suitable for Cultivation

N.Z.

Journ. of Sc. ii. 77 ;

ill New Zealand

1884.

New Species of New Zealand

N.Z.

Journ. of Sc. ii. 242,

Plants

352, 504, 526 ; 1884.

List of New Plant stations

N.Z.

Journ. of Sc. ii. 391;

1884.

Occurrence of Zoysia pungens

N.Z.

Journ. of Sc. ii. 454;

in Central Otago

■ 1885.

Descriptions of New Native

Trans, xix. 323 ; 1886.

Plants

Descriptions of New Native

^^

xix. 325 ; 1886.

Plants

Description of a New Species of

//

XX. 185 ; 1887.

Uncinia, Persoon

Descriptions of New Zealand

„

xxi. 523; 1888.

Plants

Descriptions of New Native

„

xxii. 439 ; 1889.

Plants

Descriptions of New Native

ft

xxiii. 398 ; 1890.

Plants, with Notes on some

Knosvn Species

Hamilton. — Papers and Notices on Botanical Subjects. 369

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Petrie, D.

Pharazyn, R.
Pond, J. A.

Potts, T. H., and

W. Gray
Potts, T. H.

Powell, LI.

Prideaux, E. B. R.
Purchas, A. G. . .

Ralph, T. S.

Rowe, T. W.

Description of a New Genus and
of New Species of Native Plants

On a Genus of Boraginece new
to New Zealand

Descriptions of New Native
Plants

Descriptions of New Native
Plants

Descriptions of Three New
Native Plants

List of the Flowering-plants in-
digenous to Otago, with Indi-
cations of their Distribution
and Range in Altitude

Supplement to List of Flowering
Plants of Otago

Note on Gunnera ovata, Petrie

Descriptions of New Native
Plants

A Modern Chapter in Vegetable
Physiology

Description of a New Native
Species of Coprosiiia

Botanical Notes

Descriptions of New Native
Plants

Descriptions of New Native
Plants, and Notes

On the Pollination of Rhabdo-
thamnufi solaiidri

Notes on St. John Nursery Gar-
dens, Wanganui

On the Sugar-values of Beet-
roots grown in the Waikato
District

On the Cultivation of some
Native Trees and Shrubs

Notes on Ferns

Notes on a Loniaria collected in
the Malvern District

Habits of Filices observed about
the Malvern Hills, near the
Gorge of the Rakaia River,
New Zealand

On Wolffia, the Smallest Flower-
ing Plant known

Investigations into Kauri-resin

On the Preparation of New Zea-
land Flax

On the Arborescent Perns of
New Zealand

Observations on the Develop-
ment of the Flower of Coriaria
rusci/oUa, L.

Trans, xxv. 269, pi. xx. ;
1892.
xxv. 559 ; 1892.

xxvi. 405 ; 1893.

xxvi. 266 ; 1893.

xxviii. 538 ; 1895.

xxviii. 540 ; 1895.

xxix. 421 ; 1896.

xxix. 422 ; 1896.
xxix. 425 ; 1896.

xxix. 427 ; 1896.

XXX. 433; 1897.

xxxi. 352, pi. XXV.-

xxvii. ; 1898.
xxxiii. 328 ; 1900.

xxxiv. 390 ; 1901.

XXXV. 321 ; 1902.

iv. 367; 1871.

„ xiv. 365 ; 1881.

iii. 181 ; 1870.

X. 358 ; 1877.
ix. 491 ; 1876.

Journ. Linn. Soc. Lond.
(Bot.) XV. 423 ; 1876.

Trans, vii. 527 ; 1874.

„ xxxiii. 368 ; 19G0.
„ i. (n.e.) 472.

Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond.

iii. 163.
Trans, xix. 317, pi. xxi. ;

1886.

24— Trans.

370

Transactions. — Botany.

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Rutland, J.

'.Salmon, E. S.
Seward, —

Skey, W.

Smith, J. Crosbie

Smith, J. A.

Smith, S. Percy .
Spencer, W. J. .

Stewart, James .
Stephani, F.

Stirton, J.

Sturm, P. W.
Tennant, J.

The Fall of the Leaf . .
Ne&odaphne tawa, The Timber

of
On the Regrowth of the Totara
On a New Zealand Isotachis

new to Science
The Anatomy of Todea

On Extract of Towai-bark

Notes on the Presence in cer-
tain Fibres of a certain Sub-
stance susceptible of some
Striking Calorific Changes
when chemically treated (see
Rep. of Flax Commissioners,
1870-71, p. '.)2)

Some Seaweeds from Dunedin

On a New Marine Alga, Nito-
■phyllum viicrophylla

Notes on some New Species of
Marine Algce

On certain New Zealand and
Australian Barks useful for
Tanning Purposes

Note on a Branched Nikau Tree

On the Fresh - water Algcc of
New Zealand

Notes on Fresh-water Algcs

On Mottled Kauri

ARevisionof Col' nso's Hepaticce,
with Descriptions of New
Species collected by him

Additions to the Lichen Flora
of New Zealand

Descriptions of some New Zea-
land Lichens collected by
John Buchanan in the Pro-
vince of Wellington

Description of a New Lichen,
Ste7eocauloiL buchanani

On New Australian and New
Zealand Lichens

On New Classification of the
Genus Pyxine

On New Lichens from Australia
and New Zealand

On the lieneficial Raising of
Trees suited for Timber and
Firewood

Notice of a Catalogue of Flower-
ing Plants found near Dunedin

On some New Zealand Fresh-
water Alga^

Trans, xxi. 110; 1888.
N.Z. Journ.of Sc. ii.llO;

1884.
Trans, xxxiii. .324 ; 1900.
Trans, xxxiv. 325, pi. xx. ;

1901.
Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond.

(Bot.) ser. ii. vol. vi.

237, pi. V. ; 1903.
Trans, i. (n.e.) 431 ; 1867.
iv. 370 ; 1871.

XXX. 581 ; 1897.
XXX. 582 ; 1897.

xxxi. 439 ; 1898.

xi. 570 ; 1878.

X. 357, pi. XV. ;

1877.
xiv. 287, pi. xxiii. ;

1881.
XV. 302 ; 1882.
vii. 376 ; 1874.
Journ. Linn. Soc. (Bot.)
263, pi. xxvi.-xxviii. ;
1892.
Proc. Linn. Soc. xiv. 458;

1875.
Trans, vi. 235 ; 1878.

vii. 368, pi. XXV. ;

1874.
XXX. 382; 1897.

XXX. 393 ; 1897.

xxxii. 70 ; 1899.

xi. 568 ; 1878.

xxviii. 757; 1895.
XXX. 581 ; 1897.

Hamilton. — Papers and Notices on Botanical Subjects. 371

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Tennant, J.

Thomas, A. P. W.
Thomas, R.
Thomson, G. M.

Thomson, P.
Travers, H. H. .

Travers, W. T. L.

On Nitrogenous Nodules from
the Roots of Leguminous
Plants

List of Fresh-water Algce col-
lected

On the Prothallium of Phyllo-
glossum

The Affinities of Tmesipteris
with the Sphanophyllates

On some Naturalised Plants of
Otago

Note on some Otago Plants

Notes on Cleistogamic Flowers
of ihe Genus Viola

On the Means of Fertilisation
among some New Zealand
Orchids

On the Fertilisation of New
Zealand Flowering Plants

Note on Donatio, novce-zea-
landia, Hk. f.

Notes on the Cleistogamic
Flowers of Melicope
simplex

On the Occurrence of Pterostylis
aphylla, Lind., in New Zea-
land

On Mimulus radicans

On Adenochilus gracilis, Hk. f.

In Presidential Address, Otago
Institute : Geographical Dis-
tribution of Plants

Endosmotic Movements in
Nitella

Botanical Evolution

Introduced Plants of Otago

The Forthcoming Flora of New

Zealand
The Forster Herbarium

On some Peculiar Attachment
Discs developed in some
Species of Loranthus

Plant-acclimatisation in New
Zealand

Notes on Rare Ferns

Notes on the Chatham Islands

On the Utilisation of the Phor-
miuni tenax

Trans, xxxi. 738 ; 1898,

xxxi. 748 ; 1898.

xxxiv. 402 ; 1891.

Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond.

Ixix. 343.
Trans, vii. 370 ; 1874.

ix. 538 ; 1876,
xi. 415; 1878.

xi. 418 ; 1878,

xiii. 241, pi. X.

1880.
xiii. 289 ; 18S0.

xxiii. 416; 1891.

N.Z. Journ. of Sc. i. 40

1882.

N.Z. Journ. of Sc. i. 42

18S2.
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. i. 71

1882.
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. i. 79

1883.

N.Z. Journ. of Sc. i. 333

1883.
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. ii. 361

409, 457 ; 1884.
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. ii. 573

1885.
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. iii. 49

1891.
N.Z. Journ. of Sc. ii.

578 ; 1885 : and Nature,

Sept. 24, 1885.
Trans, xxxi. 736 ; 1896,

xxxiii. 313 ; 1900.

vii. 540 ; 1874.
Proc. Linn. Soc, Lond.

ix. 1.35.
Trans, i. (n.e.) 114; 1868,

372

Transactions. — Botany.

Author.

Title.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Travers, W. T. L.

Vaughan-Gwynne,
D. T.

Urquhart, A. T.

Walker, Campbell

Walsh, P.

Webb, J. S.

Williams, G. W. . ,

Wojeikof, A.

Remarks on the Comparison of
the General Features of the
Flora of the Provinces of Nel-
son and Marlborough with
that of Canterbury

On the Origin in New Zealand
of Polygonum aviculare, L.

On the spread of Casainia lepto-
phylla

Notes on the Difference in Food-
plants now used by Civilised
Man as compared with those
used in Prehistoric Times

Observations on the Anatomy
of Solenostenic Ferns, Part I.

Ditto, Part II.

Notes on Epacris microphylla
in New Zealand

On the Natural Spread of the
Eucalyptus in the Karaka
District

State Forestry, its Aims and
Objects

The Climatic and Financial As-
pect of Forest-conservancy as
applicable to New Zealand

On an Abnormal Growth of
New Zealand Flax

On the Disappearance of the
New Zealand Bush

On the Future of the New Zea-
land Bush

On the Occurrence of Cordyline
terminalis in New Zealand

On the Natural-history Col-
lections in the Otago Museum
(Herbarium)

Notes on Plants collected near
Invercargill

Remarks on Forest Planting and
Conservation with reference
to Particular Localities in
the Wellington District.
(Abstract)

The Result of the Destruction
of Forests upon the River
Wolga at Astrachan

Trans, i. (n.e.) 174 ; 1868.

„ V. 310 ; 1872.

vi. 248 ; 1873.
xviii. 30 ; 1885,

Ann. of Bot. xv. ; 1901.

Ann. of Bot. xvii. 689, pi.

xxxiii.-xxxv. ; 1903.
Trans, xiv. 364 ; 1881.

xvi. 383 ; 1883.

ix. 187 ; 1876.

Trans, ix. (Appendix) 27 ;

1876: and C.-3, App.

Journ. H. of R., 1877.
Trans, xiv. 374 ; 1881.

xxix. 490 ; 1896.

„ xxxi. 471 ; 1898.

xxxiii. 301 ; 1900.

iii. 203 ; 1870.

„ V. 360 ; 1872.
„ xii. 428 ; 1879.

„ iv. 874 ; 1871.

IV. — GEOLOGY.

Art. XXX. — On the Subdivision of the Loiver Mesozoic

Jrlocks of Nero Zealand.

By Professor James Park, F.G.S., Director Otago Univer-
sity School of Mines.

\^Read before the Otago Institute, 11th August, 1903.]

Plates XXVIII. to XXXI.

Introduction.

An examination of the Trias in Nelson, Southland, and
alpine Canterbury has led me to the conclusion that the
subdivision and correlation of the horizons of this formation
present a much more difficult problem than hitherto supposed.
Not only do the rocks occur in many disconnected basins, but
even in what appears to have been a continuous basin the
strata have been so wasted by denudation or disturbed that
it is often impossible upon stratigraphical grounds to corre-
late group with group except within a very limited area. To
these difficulties there is added a wonderful uniformity of life
throughout the system ; and, although the assemblages of life
in claystone and sandstone often possess distinctive forms,
there is evidence in some places that repetitions of similar
conditions of deposition had been attended with a reappear-
ance of the life characteristic of those conditions.

The minor subdivisions of a formation are only of local
value when the limits of characteristic life and stratigraphical
connection can be seen to coincide. It is evident that a classi-
fication is of little value that follows too closely the great sub-
divisions as they occur in Europe, subdivisions, perchance,
grouped on the mere presence of a few genera whose asso-
ciation in a particular horizon may have been the result of
peculiar local conditions prevailing at the time of deposition.

It has been shown, both by geologists and palaeontologists
alike, that there is a singular lack of homotaxial parallelism
between the marine and terrestrial organisms of Australasia
and Europe, which, moreover, seems to become more marked
and significant as we advance through the Mesozoic and Ter-
tiary periods up to the present time. For example, there is a
greater characteristic relationship between the Secondary flora
•of Australia and the Carboniferous of Europe than there is

374 Transactions. — Geology.

between the known Carboniferous floras of these respective
regions ; or, to quote a more strilcing illustration, the Miocene
floras of New Zealand and Tasmania, consisting principally of
oaks, elms, beeches, alders, laurels, &c., show a closer rela-
tionship to the existing vegetation of Europe than to the
present floras of these islands.

As would naturally be expected, the marine faunas show a
closer parallelism than the floras, a fact probably due to the
greater facilities for rapid difl'usion possessed by marine in-
habitants in a continuous sea compared with the slower difl'u-
sion of terrestrial organisms checked by physical obstructions,
such as wide stretches of sea and mountain-chains.

The true explanation of this seeming lack of parallelism of
life in geologic time is at present a subject for much conjec-
ture and speculation, and doubtless possesses a significance
which is not now very obvious to us.

The theory which is thought to satisfy our present know-
ledge of the facts is that which supposes that the Southern
Hemisphere was the cradle of organic life, from which life
gradually difl'used itself northward by a process of slow migra-
tion, difi'erentiated in its progress by accidents of climate and
changes in the distribution of land and water.

Attractive as such a theory must be to southern geologists,
I am inclined for my own part, after a perusal of recent dis-
coveries in arctic Europe and America, to favour the existence
of two independent and widely separated centres of distribu-
tion, from which migration slowly radiated into the far-distant
regions where types of two distinct ages appear to commingle.

The notorious likeness existing between the marine faunas
of the diflerent geological periods in the Southern Hemisphere
with the faunas of the corresponding periods in the Northern
Hemisphere, from the Cambrian, when the first assem-
blage of life suddenly burst upon the geological horizon — life
that in many respects was complex and comparatively highly
organized, whose appearance was unexpected and perplexing
because there were no known probable ancestors — from then
upward to the close of the Tertiary, this likeness may be held
to support the bipolar theory of distribution.

The rate of dispersion, as pointed out by Huxley, Wallace,
and other writers, is governed by two dominant factors, of
which the position of the centre of origin of each organic unit
is one, and the distribution of land and water at the time of
dispersion the other. Moreover, in a mixed fauna the powers
of migration would not be equal, nor the ability to withstand
varying climatic and other adverse conditions. Hence the
rate of advance would be unequal ; but of this we have no
certain evidence. On the contrary, it is probable that the
faunas of the difi"erent geological periods were similar and

Park. — The Loiver Mesozoic Bocks of Neiv Zealand. 375

universal throughout the globe in the Palaeozoic and Second-
ary epochs, and that differentiation began with the dawn of
present life in the early Eocene. But this contention brings
•us no nearer the solution of the problem of dispersion, and
throws no light on the perplexing difficulties which surround
the processes of migration.

Furthermore, it is well known to palaeontologists that at
certain geological epochs, apparently throughout the world,
there was a sudden appearance of animals and plants
belonging to orders, and even sub-orders, that were not
represented by any probable ancestors in older strata. For
example, there was the sudden and almost, if not quite,
simultaneous appearance in the Upper Cretaceous of acan-
thopterygian fishes and dicotyledonous angiospermous plants,
now the common existing types throughout the globe.

Dispersion to the remoter parts from the centre of origin,
or even to the meeting-points from two or more centres of
migration, would occupy countless ages measured by our
telluric standard of time. A thousand years is but a fraction
of a geologic day ; and a migration starting at the dawn of
a new day would probably reach the remotest regions before
the advent of the coming day.

Considering the question of distribution over wide areas
from a biological standpoint, it seems unlikely that all species
originated in one particular hemisphere. On the contrary, it
is probable that some species originated in the Northern
Hemisphere and other species in the Southern.

If we entertain the unicentral theory of origin we must
suppose that migration progressed in a succession of great
waves ; that each wave encountered no insuperable bai'rier to
its forward movement ; that each wave maintained its distinc-
tive characteristics notwithstanding the diverse life, latitude,
and climate encountered in travelling from one hemisphere to
the other; and, further, that each wave was endowed with a
migratory instinct that impelled it forward through uncon-
genial latitudes until it finally arrived at its natural habitat.
The problem of the distribution of life is surrounded with
many difficulties. Existing conditions are doubtless a reflec-
tion of the past, and until we are able to explain the present
there seems little hope of unravelling the more tangled pro-
blems of geologic time.

There is considerable evidence in favour of the belief that
there existed a synchronous parallelism of life in both hemi-
spheres— that is, in corresponding biological provinces and
bathymetrical horizons — up till later geological times, when
the extreme differentiations of modern types became the
dominant inhabitants of the globe.

It is, at any rate, certain that the continuous succession of

376 Transactions. — Geology.

fossiliferous marine formations in both hemispheres through-
out the geological record does not leave much room for
chronological divergence ; and in applying European time-
names against the place-names of our New Zealand formar
tions we are pursuing a course that seems to be in no way
inconsistent with the facts that are known relating to the
distribution of life in the different geological formations.

Present Classifications.

At the present time we have two classifications of the
Lower Mesozoic and Upper Palaeozoic rocks of New Zealand
— namely, that formulated in 1878 by Mr. S. Herbert Cox,
F.G.S., late Government Assistant Geologist,* and that by
Captain Hutton in 1899. f

In his classification of 1873 Hutton placed the Maitai
series in the Lower Jurassic period ; but in his classification
of 1899, in deference to the opinion of the Director of the
Geological Survey, he transferred it to the Permo-carboni-
ferous.:j: I have shown in another paper that the Maitai
series must be referred back to the Jurassic system, where it
was originally placed by Captain Hutton m 1875.

Mr. Cox, in his excellent geological survey of the Hokonui
Mountains, in Southland, in 1877 (in which he was assisted
by Mr. McKay), subdivided the Lower Mesozoic rocks into
seventy-three horizons, which he subsequently gathered into
seven groups or series of beds, as follows : —

Upper Oolite ... ... ... Mataura series.

Middle Oolite ... ... ... Putataka series.

Lower Oolite ... ... ... Flag Hill series.

Lias ... ... ... ... Bastion series.

Upper Trias (Rhaetic) ... ... Otapiri series.

Middle Trias ... ... ... Wau'oa series.

Permian ... ... ... Kaihiku series.

In Captain Hutton's classification of 1899 the Lower
Mesozoic rocks are grouped as follows : —

Hokonui System —

Mataura series ... ... Lower Jurassic.

Wairoa series ... .. Triassic.

Taking the Jurassic rocks first, it is apparent that the
"Mataura series" of Cox and the "Mataura series" of
Hutton differ very widely in their meaning. In Captain
Hutton's table the Mataura series includes tiie whole of the
Jurassic rocks, and in this respect is the same as the Mataura

• Reps. Geol. Expl., 1877-78, p. 28.

t Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1899, vol. xxxii., p. 183.

J Hutton, I.e., p. 183.

Pabk. — The Lower Mesozoic Rocks of Nc7v Zealand. 377

series of Dr. Lindsay, and of Sir James Hector up till 1873.
On the other hand, the Mataura series of Mr. Cox includes
only the higher beds of the Jurassic system.

The same divergence is also seen in respect to the Wairoa
series of Hutton and Cox. With Captain Hutton the Wairoa
series includes all the Triassic and Permian of Cox and
Hector, while the Wairoa series of Cox embraces only the
beds of the Middle Trias.

In 1886, acting under the instructions of the Director of
the Geological Survey, I revised the work of Cox in the Hoko-
nui Hills, and discovered that his Mataura and Flag Hill
series referred to the same group of beds.* His Putataka
series I was unable to locate as a separate group.

At the time of my examination of the Hokonuis in 1886
I was convinced that Mr. Cox had attempted a subdivision
that could not be maintained, not only because of the over-
lapping of his own groups, but also for the reason that his
groups were not sufficiently defined either on stratigraphical
or palseontological grounds to be of service for correlative pur-
poses.

An examination of the Nelson Trias having shown the
subsequent date of the Maitai formation, the way seemed
clear for a rearrangement of the Lower Mesozoic and Upper
Palaeozoic formations on a broader and safer basis than that
■employed by Cox in 1878. With that object in view I have
made a special examination of the typical sections of the Trias
at Nugget Point, North Otago, Upper Rangitata, and Nelson,
so as to gather sufficient data to enable me to arrange the
different beds in distinctive groups of correlative value.

After a study of the characteristic features of each locality,
I have finally selected the Shaw Bay section at Nugget Point,
on account of its stratigraphical clearness and numerous
marine zones, as the most typical for the subdivision of the
Trias and associated beds.

The classifications of Captain Hutton, Mr. Cox, and of the
author are shown below in tabulated form : —

Hutton, 1899. Cox, 1878. Park, 1903.

(Mataura series
Mataura series ) Putataka series
(Jurassic) 1 Flag Hill series
1 Bastion series

/ 2. Shaw Bay series —
(Otapiri series .. (a) Athyris or Clavigejuheds.

Wairoa series Wairoa series .. ! {b. ) MyMus^ndMouotis heds.

(Triassic) Oreti series .." & STr^'u!.

Kaihiku series .. I (f.) Halobia beds

(e.) apiriferina beds.
^ (/.) Nugget Point plant beds.

* Park, Reps, Geol. Expl., 1886-87, p. 146.

■• 1. Mataura series.

378 Transactions. — Geology.

Nugget Point District, Otago.

From the promontory on which Nugget Point Lighthouse
stands southward to False Island, at the mouth of Catlin's
Eiver, in a distance of nearly four miles, there is exposed
along the coast-line a thickness of over 18,000 ft. of strata,,
forming a continuous succession of beds dipping to the south-
west at angles that are always very high. South of Catlin's
Eiver the higher beds occur in gently undulating folds, and
in this manner pass southward toward Waikawa.

This great assemblage of beds consists of claystones,
sandstones, greywacke, and conglomerates, occurring some-
times in thin alternating layers, sometimes in thick beds.
Organic remains are not wanting, but are seldom abundant.
Plant-remains, generally broken and fragmentary, are scat-
tered from the base to the summit, and in the higher beds at
Catlin's large masses of silicified driftwood are not uncom-
mon. Marine shells occur at wide intervals, but are never
plentiful except in a few of the lower zones in Shaw Bay,
which is now locally known as Roaring Bay.

The character of the sediments and contained fossils
clearly indicate that fluvio - marine or estuarine conditions
prevailed during the deposition of these beds ; and the abund-
ance of granite and related rocks in the lower conglomerates
tends to show that the area of erosion whose dissection pro-
vided the materials lay to the south-west, probably in the
direction of Stewart Island.

The fossils and continuous succession of stratified sedi-
ments prove that deposition extended unintern;ptedly from
Upper Palaeozoic to Jurassic times.

The lower beds at the north end of Shaw Bay are intruded
by a narrow dyke of porphyrite, and excepting this the whole
system is singularly free from evidences of contemporary
volcanic activity.

The rocks exposed on tlie coast-line between Nugget Point
and the south head of Shaw Bay, embracing a thickness of
nearly 5,000 ft. of strata, belong to the Trias and Upper
Falaiozoic periods, and the remaining 13,000 ft., lying between
the south head of Shaw Bay and Catlin's River, to the
Jurassic.

In 1873 Mr. McKay reported the existence in this district
of a " Productns formation, "'■• and my first object was to lo-
cate this formation, with the view of ascertaining its relation
to the Trias. I made a careful examination of the so-called
Productics beds, and was unable to discover any fossils that

•

* Reps. Geol. Expl., 187'2-73, pp. 63-65.

Park. — The Lower Mesozoic Rocks of Neiv Zealand. 379'

could be referred to the genus Productus. I was therefore
compelled to conclude that an error had been made in the de-
termination of the genus.

Before discussing the classification of the Lower Mesozoic
rocks in its wider aspect, I shall first detail the sequence
and fossil contents of the different beds as we find tliem ex-
posed at Shaw Bay and Catlin's River and in the typical
Trias sections at Nelson and Upper Rangitata, in order that
the facts upon which my subdivisions are based may be placed
on record. In my examination of the Nugget Point and Cat-
lin's River sections I was accompanied by Mr. A. Hamilton,
Director of the Colonial Museum, to whom I was indebted for
much valuable assistance in the collection and identification
of the fossils.

Previous Geological Examinations. — The Nugget Point
district, so far as I can gather, was first geologically examined
in 1869 by Dr. W. Lauder Lmdsay, who classified the rocks
in Shaw — that is, Roaiing — Bay as Triassic. Mr. McKay,
in 1873, made extensive collections of fossils here for the
New Zealand Geological Department, but in his report he
does not refer the rocks to any particular age. However,
the Dn-ector of the Department, in referring to Mr. McKay's
collections in the Sixth Annual Report of the New Zealand
Institute, considered that the fossils indicated a range from
Jurassic to Upper Carboniferous.'"' The next examination of
this district was made in the summer of 1874 by Captain
Hutton, P.R.S., who grouped the Shaw Bay beds with his
Putataka formation of Lower Jurassic age.f Since that date
no further geological examination has been made of this
district till the present year, covering an interval of twenty-
nine years.

Kaka Point to Hay's Gap.

The Trias rocks are well exposed at Kaka Point and many
places on the beach before Hay's Gap is reached, but the
outcrops are small and so isolated by stretches of sand that
no contmuous section can be obtained. For that reason no
time was spent in making observations where so much
obscurity existed, and where the results could not be other
than doubtful and possibly conflicting.

From the beds of Wiltshire Beach McKay collected what
he calls a " spirifer," but from his description it was pro-
bably a species of Sjnriferina which I found there associated
with Halobia, Bhynchonella, &c.j

* Trans, and Proc. N.Z. Inst., 1875, p. .564.
t " Geology of Otago," 1875, p. 43.
+ L.c, p. 69.

380 Transactions. — Geology.

In the clay stones forming the first hne of low reefs on
the beach south of Campbell's Creek I identified Halobia
and Sjnriferina, which would indicate a repetition of the Wilt-
shire beds in that direction.

Hay's Gap to Nugget Point.

The distance between these points is about two miles, the
direction from Hay's Gap for the first mile being almost due
south (true meridian), and thence, for the second mile, south-
east.

At Hay's Gap the Trias rocks consist of sandstones and
claystones, in places alternating in thin laminae, often highly
indurated, jointed and seamed with veins of iron-peroxide.
Their strike is E.-W., and the dip south at an angle of 58°.
Some 5 chains south of the Gap the strike changes to a
direction between E. and E.N.E., with a nearly S.S.E. dip at
an angle of 49° ; at 6 chains south the strike is about
E.S.E.-W.N.W., and the dip nearly S.S.W. at an angle of
78°; while at a distance of 7| chains the strike is exactly
between E. and E.S.E., with the dip still southerly at an
angle of 57°.

Thus in a distance of less than 170 yards the strike has
changed through an arc of about 30°. The nipping of the
beds caused by this sudden change of strike has resulted in a
steepening of the dip towards the centre of the nip. Pro-
ceeding southward, the strike bends still more to the south-
ward, and at a distance of half a mile from the Gap is
N.W.-S.E., and the dip S.W. at an angle of 42°.

Towards the Nuggets the sandstones become coarse in
texture, and in places assume the character of greywacke.
They form high rocky points and numerous isolated flat reefs
on the beach below high-water mark, separated by stretches
of sand.

Immediately north of "Boat-landing" the strike varies
between N.W." and W.N.W., while the dip is still southerly
at angles generally about 65°.

At the point where the road leading to the lighthouse
leaves the beach— that is, about 300 yards south-east of Boat-
landing — the strata are intruded by a dyke of augite porphy-
rite which is well exposed in the south side of the road-
cutting.

This dyke is of especial interest, as it is the only igneous
rock found associated with the Trias formation in this
district. It runs almost parallel with the bedding-planes of
the enclosing rocks, and can be traced across the saddle into
Shaw Bay, a distance of 50 chains. Near Boat-landing it is
about 9 ft. thick, but in two places on the ridge dividing Boat-

Park. — The Loioer Mesozoic Bocks of Neiv Zealand. 381

landing from Shaw Bay it bulges out into great lentil-shaped
masses resembling the " laccolites " of Gilbert.

The actual line of contact between the porphyrite and
sandstone is clearly exposed in the road-cuttings, and, so far
as can be determined, the latter seems to have suffered very
little alteration, the only noticeable difference being a some-
what greater degree of induration than elsewhere.

At the north head of Roaring Bay the dyke throws out
ramifying branches into the enclosing sandstone.

The porphyrite is granitoid in texture, and weathers to a
soft crumbling yellowish earthy brown rock of a dark greyish-
green or blue colour, in which the large well-developed
phenocrysts of plagioclase become conspicuous when parti-
ally kaolinised. It is tough, but not hard, and ought to form
a building-stone of superior quality.

In polarised light, the rock is seen to be composed prin-
cipally of plagioclase, almost to the exclusion of the augite.
The latter surrounds the feldspars like a cementing medium,
filling the interspaces and consequently occurring mostly as
narrow irregular aggregates.

The plagioclase is generally kaolinised, opaque, and turbid.
The augite is mostly altered to greenish serpeutinous matter
and secondary magnetite.

At the point where the road leading to the lighthouse
leaves the beach, near Boat-landing, there is a bed of clay-
stone a few feet below the dyke which contains a considerable
number of marine forms m a fair state of preservation,
occurring principally as casts. Aiiiong the genera identified
here were Spiriferma {Psioidea of Hector), Spiriferina (two
sp.), Epithyris, Bhynchonella, and Pleurotomaria. Besides
these, fragments of a bivalve shell resembling Modiolopbis
were not uncommon.

This fossiliferous horizon is of especial value, as its con-
tents establish the Triassic or Permo-triassic age of the for-
mation, and enable the position of the associated beds to be
correlated with the Nelson and Southland Lower Trias or
Permian beds.

In the sandstones and underlying the Spiriferina beds
there is a thin stratum of indurated sandstone crowded in a
few places with casts of single valves of a thin bivalve shell.
On the surface of rounded boulders, when worn at right
angles to the plane of deposition, the casts are seen in section.
The profile of the single valves gives a concave appearance
somewhat resembling the ventral valve of a Productus, and
the resemblance to that genus becomes more deceptive when
two valves happen to fit into each other.

The casts are those of a very thin gibbose conchiferous
shell from 0-5 in. to 0-75 in. high and about the same width.

•382 Transactions. — Geology.

The remains are too fragmentary even for generic identifi-
cation.

The Sinriferina beds are underlain in descending order by
sandstones, often coarse and gritty, and sandstones and clay-
stones alternating in thin laminae. The latter form the'
"Nuggets" and the promontory on which the lighthouse
stands. Here the beds strike W.N.W. - E.S.E., and dip
S.S.W. at very high angles, at places becoming nearly vertical.

On the islet, in the centre of the Nugget group of rocks,
the strata are sharply folded and pinched.

In the road-cutting leading to the lighthouse, at a point
about 15 chains beyond the keeper's house, the strike of the
beds is between E. and E.S.E., and the dip about S.S.W. at
■an angle of 70°. Here the sandstones are interbedded with
beds of soft shaly claystone containing numerous plant-
remains, but too broken and fragmentary to be identified.
The plant beds are about 850 ft. below Spiriferina beds.

Sliatv Bay Section.

From the head of Shaw Bay to the headland separating
that bay from Sandy Bay, a distance of half a mile, the strike
of the beds is W.N.W. - E.S.E. almost without variation,
and the dip continuously S.S.W. at very high angles, gene-
rally between 75° and 85°.

The coast-line trends almost at right angles to the strike

of the beds, and, the angle of dip being high, bed succeeds

bed with wonderful regularity, appearing in the sea-cliffs

which enclose the bay as clearly defined as books standing

■on a shelf.

There is exposed along this line of section a thickness of
fully 2,500 ft. of strata in one continuous sequence, forming
the most complete assemblage of Lower Mesozoic rocks in
New Zealand, singularly free from faults or complicated fold-
ings that might cause obscurity or lead to doubtful interpre-
tation. Furthermore, the fossiliferous zones are numerous,
and so distinctive as to be easily recognised.

Beginning at the north end of Shaw Bay, the beds ex-
posed along this line of section and their approximate thick-
ness are as follows in ascending order : —

1. Thin laminated claystones and sandstones with plant-

remains, probably 200 ft. thick.

2. Indurated sandstones and greywacke, 150 ft.

3. Spiriferina beds — dark- blue claystones, 100 ft.

4. Porphyrite dyke.

5. Greywacke.

6. Halobia beds about 210 ft. thick — crumbling claystones

containing Halobia loinmclt, Wissm., lietzia, Ejnthi/-
ris. Seen in road-cutting descending to the bay.

Park. — TJie Loiver Mesozoic Bocks of Neiv Zealand. 383

7. Sandstones and claystones, 250 ft., not exposed on

beach.

8. Breccia-conglomerate, angle of dip 77°, 20 ft.

9. Highly indurated claystones, 55 ft.

10. Hard greywacke, 15 ft.

11. Thinly laminated claystones and sandstones, 24 ft.

12. Breccia-conglomerate, slaty and granitic, 27 ft.

13. Gritty sandstone, 15 ft.

14. Indurated sandstones with occasional beds of clay-

stone, 200 ft., nearly vertical.

15. Granitic conglomerate, 10 in. thick ; angle of dip 86°.

16. Indurated claystone, 50 ft.

17. Trigonia bed — claystones, 10 ft. Contains an ammo-

noid shell, Trigonia, Pleurotomaria, Terehratula,
Pentacrimis, &c.

18. Sandstones and claystones with subordinate beds of

grittv sandstone, 450 ft.

19. Oyster and Mytilus bed, 29 ft. ; angle of dip 78°.

20. Coarse sandstones, 600 ft.

21. Athyris beds, 10ft. — sandstones containing Athyris

{Clavigera of Hector), Sjnriferma (BaHtelligera of
Hector).

22. Plant beds — sandstones and claystones.

The Athyris beds are standing nearly vertical or incline
slightly to the N.N.E. for a few yards. Around the rocky
headland the dip resumes its normal S.S.W. dip at very high
angles, and from this point to the south side of Sandy Bay the
dip is continuously in that direction, exposing a thickness of
probably not less than 8,000 ft. of strata.

There are three zones of Athyris separated by beds of
barren sandstone, the sequence in ascending order being as
follows : —

1. Dark-blue indurated clavstones.

2. Bed of granitic conglomerate, 4 in. thick.

3. Athyris bed, 40 in., richly fossiliferous.

4. Sandstone, 4 ft.

5. Athyris bed, 2 ft.

6. Sandstone, 4 ft.

7. Athyris bed, 18 in.

8. Indurated sandstones.

The upper Athyris bed (No. 7) is a coarse gritty, some-
times pebbly, sandstone containing shells of Athyris of at
least two different species in such abundance that the rock is
in places moderately calcareous. At this rocky headland the
strata are nearly vertical, and, the overlaying thin layer of
conglomerate and claystones having been worn down by

384 Transactions. — Geology.

denudation, the lower fossiliferous Athyris bed (No. 3) stands
up like the wall of a house, presenting an even surface 70 ft.
high and 100 ft. long thickly incrusted with shells of Athyris
which have weathered out of the matrix.

By far the greater proportion of the forms are impunc-
tate Athyris, but the large Spirifcnna (EastelUgera), possess-
ing fine comb-like dentition along the hinge-line, is not un-
common.

In the middle and upper fossiliferous zones Athyris are
sparingly scattered in a sandstone matrix.

The Athyris beds form the natural close of the Trias for-
mation. On stratigraphical and palseontological grounds they
may be safely correlated with the Athyris beds forming the
close of the Trias at the Wairoa Goi'ge and Eighty-eight
Valley iu Nelson, where the sequence of fossiliferous horizons
shows a remarkable correspondence with that of Shaw Bay.

It is impossible in such widely separated districts to
correlate bed with bed, but a comparison of the sequence
clearly demonstrates a general harmony in the order of
succession of the different zones.

In Eighty-eight Valley the sequence of the Trias, as indi-
cated by the fossiliferous zones, is as follows : —

1. Athyris beds.

2. My tikis beds.

3. Trigonia and Spirtgera beds, with Mytihis.

4. Halohia and Spiriferina beds.

5. Plant beds.

The Athyris is a very unusual form, and is of great zonal
value. It has been identified at the close of the Trias
throughout New Zealand. Its distinctive characters are
referred to in my paper on the Jurassic age of the Maitai
formation, which appears in another part of this volume.

Monotis salinaria var. richmondiana, Zitt., which is so
abundant in some parts of the Trias of Nelson and Southland,
generally occurs in a horizon above the Trigonia beds.

In his report of 1873 Mr. McKay mentions tliat the upper
conglomerate divides an Ammonite bed into two parts. The
Ammonite bed is described as being " very rich in chambered
shells of various genera"; but, unfortunately, we were unable
to find any of the genera reported by McKay, and succeeded in
discovering only one fragment of an anmionoid shell among
the beach debris. Dr. Marsliall, who visited this place witli a
party of his students in July, was more successful. He dis-
covered a number of Ammonites, but they were all broken and
fragmentary.

The great assemblage of sandstones, claystones, and slaty

Paek. — The Loiver Mesozoic Rocks of Neiv Zealand. 385

shales which conformably follow the Athyris beds in the
direction of Sandy Bay have been referred by Captain Hutton
to the Matavu-a formation, and I have elsewhere shown that
this formation is the equivalent of the Maitai rocks which
overlie the Trias of Nelson conformably.

On the occasion of my visit to Nugget Point the coast-line
was followed as far south as the south headland of Sandy
Bay, and in that distance the dip was observed to be south-
wards at angles seldom under 75°.

Catlin's River District.

From the south head of Sandy Bay to the centre of False
Island the dip of the beds is to the S.S.W. at varying high
angles, which are not often under 70° or 75°. In this dis-
tance the thickness of strata exposed along the coast-line is
probably not less than 13,000 ft.

At False Island the higher beds form a syncline, and pro-
ceeding southward from Catlin's Heads the same beds form a
series of gently undulating anticlines and synclines, thereby
preventing the exposure or repetition of the lower Triassic
beds.

The beds consist of alternations of claystone, often shalv,
sandstone, greywacke, and conglomerates.

Three distinct fossiliferous horizons were found between
Cannibal Bay and Sandy Bay, all previously described by
McKay.

In the first bay south of Sandy Bay, marked " Boat-
landing Bay " on the survey map, McKay collected a number
of fossils, but he did not mention any of the genera repre-
sented in his collection. In the same beds at Glenoniaru
quarry reserve, which is two miles inland, we collected, in
indurated sandy claystones, a small species of Ammonites,
Pinna, Area, Panoiocea, and Pholodomya.

This is apparently the lowest fossiliferous horizon of the
Jurassic system, and it is of interest to note that it lies about
7,500 ft. above the Athyris bed at the top of the Trias in Shaw
Bay. The intervening beds are principally claystones, grey
sandstones, or greywacke devoid of organic remains, except a
few scattered plant-remains.

In Tuck's Bay — that is the bay between Boat-landing Bay
and Cannibal Bay — the rocks are principally sandstones, often
coarse and pebbly. At the quarry reserve near the saddle
overlooking Tuck's Bay we collected a number of Inoceranms
haasti, Inoceravms labiatus, Schloth., and a small Pecten,
which were found in the hard greenish-blue sandstone in
which the road is excavated at that place.

This horizon is about 2,000 ft. above the lower Ammonite
horizon.

25— Tranp,

386 Transactions. — Geology.

From the quarry reserve southward the rocks are princi-
pally coarse sandstones, which extend almost to Cannibal
Bay, when they are overlain by dark-blue indurated claystones,
which strike between E. and E.N.E., and dip about S.S.W. at
an angle of 82°. These claystones form the north side of
Cannibal Bay. In them we found Trigonia, Ostrea, Anomia,
Inoceravms, Pkoladomya, and a Venus. Besides these, Mr.
McKay reports the occurrence of Ammonites and Belemnites
at this place, but they must be scarce, as we were unable to
find any trace of them.

Between the north end of Cannibal Bay and False Island
the rocks are obscured by sand. The lowest rocks on north
end of False Island are conglomerates, followed by coarse
pebbly sandstones, and these in turn by sandstones and clay-
stones.

About the centre of the island the dip changes to the north-
ward, whereby the sandstones and conglomerates are repeated
on the south side of the island. The southern end of the
island is traversed by a fault which repeats the conglomerate
and brings into view some underlying sandstones. The thick-
ness of the conglomerate is about 145 ft.

From the mouth of Catlin's Kiver southward to Jack's
Island the Cannibal Bay beds form the sea-cliffs, lying hori-
zontal or occurring in gently undulating folds.

In the indurated dark-blue claystones at the north of
Makura Bay were found Ammonites novo-zealandicus, Hauer,
Inoceramus haasti, Pholadomya, a Venus, and a number of
imperfect casts of conchiferous bivalves.

A number of indistinct bivalves occur in the sandstone
cliffs opposite the south end of Jack's Island ; and in the flat
shelving rocks in Catlin's River, immediately opposite Pouna-
wea Township, were found a considerable number of indistinct
casts imbedded in a soft yellowish-brown sandstone.

The Tkias of Nelson.

The Trias formation in Nelson is clearly exposed in three
typical sections — namely, the section from Waimea Plains
across Mount Ileslington to the Wairoa Gorge ; that from
Wakefield to Sellen's run; and that along the course of
Well's Creek, at Eighty-eight Valley, a few miles west of
Wakefield. These sections are separated by intervals of a
few miles, and as each crosses the same basin the sequence
of rocks exposed in each is practically the same.

The clearest and most complete section is exposed in
Well's Creek, where the sequence is as follows in descend-
ing order : —

Park. — TJie Loiver Mesozoic Bocks of New Zealand. 387

0. Glavigera (Athyris) bed, calcareous pebbly sandstone.

1. Claystones.

2. Upper granite conglomerate.

3. Mytiius sandstone and claystone.

4. Spirigera sandstone.

5. Mytiius sandstone.

6. Spirigera and Trigonia sandstones.

7. Lower granite conglomerate.

8. Halobia claystones.

9. Spiriferina claystones and sandstones.

10. Plane beds, with Tceniopteris, Asplenium, &c.

The parallelism of the facies existing between the Nelson
and Nugget Point sections is remarkable when we remember
the distance which separates these places.

The details of the Nftlson sections are given in my paper
" On the Jurassic Age of the Maitai Formation," and need not
be repeated here.

Mount Potts District, Upper Eangitata.

The Permo-trias and succeeding Jurassic rocks, extending
from Mount Somers across the Harper Range westward to
the Southern x\lps, occur in a series of sharp folds. The core
of the western anticlinal fold is well exposed in Tank Gully, a
deep chasm excavated on the western flanks of Mount Potts,
situated in the upper Eangitata. Here are seen the lowest
beds of the Permo-trias, which consist of black carbonaceous
slaty shales and sandstones containing a number of well-pre-
served plant-remains.

A collection of this fossil tlora made by Sir Julius von
Haast was submitted to the European palseobotanist Baron
von Ettingshausen, who distinguished six different genera, of
which the species were, he stated, mostly analogous to Tri-
assic ones.*

The outcrop of the plant beds is very small, not much ex
ceeding an acre in extent. It is situated in the higher part
of Tank Gully, along the bottom of which it stretches for a
distance of about 150 yards. The lower end of the outcrop is
about 3,150 ft. above sea-level, and the upper part perhaps
200 ft. higher. The thickness of beds exposed is about 110 ft.

The plant beds are deeply involved in the core of a sharp
anticline, and from their yielding character are much crushed
and slickensided. They are surmounted by thousands of feet
of sandstone and claystone, which along the axis of the anti-
cline are also greatly bent and crushed.

Where the strata did not bend they have been subjected to
lateral shearing stress, the effects of which can still be traced

• Trans, and Proc. N.Z. Inst., 1890, vol. xxiii., p. 241.

388 Transactions. — Geology.

in some of the high precipitous rock-faces. A notable ex-
ample is seen on the south-west side of Tank Gully, where
the strata forming the summit of the ridge have been sheared
along a nearly horizontal thrust-plane for some 17 ft., thus
displacing them relatively to the strata below to that amount.

The strike of the beds on the north side of Tank Gully is
N.E.-S.W., and the dip N.W. at very high angles, which are
seldom under 80°. On the south side the strike is the same,
and the dip S.E. at angles varying from 60° to 75°.

Mr. McKay, in 1877, examined this locality and noted the
N.W. and N.E. dips, but he apparently failed to recognise
the anticlinal arrangement of the beds.* In a section across
Tank Gully he shows the dips correctly ; but he marks the
beds on the N.W. side of the anticline as Trias and those on
the N.E. side as Carboniferous (Eimutaka series), and extends
the latter in his sketch so as to pass unconformably below the
former. It is noteworthy, however, that his description of
the strata in Tank Gully does not correspond with his
section.

The plant beds are succeeded by a series of greyish and
greenish sandstones, slaty shales, and claystones. The shales
and sandstones alternate both in thin iamiuEe and in thick
beds. The greenish sandstones are generally highly indurated,
and weather to a greyish colour on exposed surfaces. They
are of all degrees of texture from fine-grained, which predomi-
nate, to coarse and gritty. They occasionally become pebbly,,
and pass into thin beds of sandstone conglomerate. In a
few places the finer-grained sandstones are brecciated with
small angular fragments of black claystone scattered spar-
ingly through a thickness of a few feet.

The sandstones and claystones between Tank Gully and
Eocky Gully are interbedded with a few beds of red slaty
shale and a bed of pale-green aphanitic sandstone, which is
often streaked with thin interlacing veins of white quartz.

Sir Julius von Haast, in 1861, examined the upper Eangi-
tata,f and on that occasion discovered the fossiliferous beds in
Eocky Gully. He subsequently revisited the same locality, in
1812,1 and made a collection of marine shells and saurian
bones, the latter including a number of vertebrae, one of
which was referred by Sir James Hector to the genus
Ichthyosatirus.% At the same time a collection of plant-
remains was made at Tank Gully.

In his collection from Eocky Gully Sir Julius von Haast
reported the occurrence of OrtJiis, Productus, Atrypa, and

♦ Reps. Geol. Expl., 1877-78, p. 94.

t Von Haast, " Geology of Canterbury and Westlaud," 1878, p. '268.

* Reps. Geol. Expl., 187'2-73, p. 1.

§ Trans, N.Z. Inst., vol. vi., p. 334,

Park. — The Loioer Mesozoic Rocks of Neio Zealand. 389

Eiiomjihalus, all Palaeozoic genera, which led him to place his
Mount Toi'lesse formation, of which these beds formed a part,
in the Carboniferous period.-'- These genera have never been
identified in other collections made at Kocky Gully, and we
can only conclude that the forms to which these names were
applied belonged to other genera.

The Eocky Gully marine beds are about 2,000 ft. higher in
the series than the plant beds, being separated from the latter
by the sandstones, shales, and claystones just described. The
conformable relations of the Eocky Gully Spiriferina beds to
Tank Gully plant beds seems to admit of little doubt, and is a
point upon which Sir Julius von Haast and Mr. McKay were
both agreed.

The fossils occur in indurated claystones and sandstones,
which are interbedded with a pebbly bone bed varying from
2ft. to 4ft. thick. The bone bed contains a large number of
broken shells and rolled fragments of bone. The sandstones,
on each side of the bone bed, contain a few fossils, mostly
Brachiopoda, scattered through a thickness of sevei-al feet.

A more varied assemblage of marine shells occurs in a bed
of black claystone underlying the sandstone zone. This clay-
stone has been subjected to great lateral thrust, with the
result that the contained fossils are often flattened and dis-
torted ; while the stress has induced in the rock itself a
tendency to break on exposed surfaces into long prisraoidal
pencils, an effect which adds considerably to the difficulty of
securing perfect unbroken shells. In places the fossiliferous
sandstones and claystones are slightly calcareous.

I collected from the lower horizon Halohia{7), Mega-
■lodon(?), Nuculaiia, Athyris, Bhynchonella, and Spiriferina,
three sp. ; and from the upper or bone-bed horizon Ortho-
ceras, Pleurotoviaria, Ttirbo, Pentacrinus, several bivalves not
determined, and some fragments of saurian bones. Two small
vertebrae were noted, but not collected, in a cavity in a large
boulder. They were exposed in elevation so as to show the
full size of the disc, which in the case of one was f in. in
diameter, and of the other ^^g- in. less. They were flat or
nearly so.

From Eocky Gully the section was followed up the Clyde
Valley to the foot of Mount Goethe, on the main alpine divide,
a distance of nine miles as the crow flies.

The rocks consist of a great succession of sandstones,
greywacke, shales, and claystones. The sandstones are pale-
grey, greenish-gi-ey, and yellowish-green in colour, and vary
in texture from fine-grained to coarse, gritty, and pebbly,
in places passing into conglomerate. They are siliceous, and

* Reps. Geol. Expl., 1872-73, p. 6.

390 Transactions. — Geology.

argillaceous, and frequently feldspathic, the latter passing into-
greywacke. They are mostly hard, being seldom soft, except
where crushed, much jointed and shattered. Veins of quartz
are common in the sandstones, especially in the yellowish-
green variety.

The shales and claystones are present in endless variety,
ranging in colour from pale-grey to yellowish-grey and green,
from dark-green to black, and from chocolate-colour to red
and purple. They are argillaceous and occasionally siliceous,
but, like the sandstones, rarely calcareous. They are gene-
rally much jointed, and, when interlaminated with bands of
the harder and more unyielding sandstone, are often crushed
into a crumbling and drossy material presenting shining and
slickensided surfaces, which led Sir Julius von Haast to de-
scribe them as " serpentinous." Some thin bands of slaty
shale are silky in lustre and quite fissile.

These rocks dip at high angles in one continuous succes-
sion of beds to the north-west, thereby exposing between
Mount Potts and Mount Goethe a thickness of not less
than 40,000 ft. of strata.

The strike of the strata, from Rocky Gully to the junction
of the Clyde and Lawrence Rivers, and thence up the Clyde
for a mile and a half, is uniformly N.E.-S.W., and the dip
N.W. The angle of dip varies from 65° to 70° at Rocky
Gully to 83° at the river-junction, and in the Clyde for the
first two miles from 85° to nearly vertical.

The strike, about a mile and a half above the junction,
trends more towards the north, gradually bending from N.E.
to N.N.E. until it is about N.-S. two miles above the Law-
rence. From Maiden Flat Creek to Mount Goethe the strike
IS N.N.E.-S.S.W., and the dip W.N.W. at angles varying
from 55° to 85°, the flatter angle being observed near Maiden
Flat Creek.

The most careful search failed to discover organic remains
in this magnificent pile of clastic rocks, excepting some
obscure markings in the bands of black silky slate, which
might be referred to annelid trails. No less remarkable than
the absence of organic remains was the absence of limestones
or calcareous beds, a circumstance commented upon by Sir
Julius von Haast, who examined the same rocks in the
Rakaia Valley and neighbourhood of Mount Cook.

The Jurassic and Triassic formations of New Zealand are
everywhere connected in one continuous stratigraphical suc-
cession, and where the Upper Trias are fossiliferous, as at
Nugget Point and Nelson, it is not difficult to establish a limit
to the one and a beginning to the other. But in the Moimt
Potts section the Permian alone are fossiliferous, and it
becomes a matter of dilliculty to determine where the Trias

Park. — The Lower Mesozoic Rocks of Neio Zealand. 391

shall end and the Jurassic begin. And, after all, it is not
a matter of very great importance whether we classify this
great pile of strata as wholly Triassic or partly Triassic and
partly Jurassic. The stratigraphical relations of the different
beds must always remain the same wherever they are placed
in the geological scale. On the other hand, the well-defined
limitations of the Trias in Otago and Nelson leave little doubt
that the Clyde River beds should be correlated v^^ith the
Mataura and Maitai formations of Jurassic age.

Triassic Marine Rocks.

The position of the marine zones associated with the
Triassic beds at Nelson, Hokonui Hills, and Nugget Point
have now been accurately determined. The character and
thickness of the sediments separating the zones were neces-
sarily governed by the local conditions prevailing at the time
of deposition, and therefore are found to vary greatly in the
different basins; but the succession and relative position of
tiie zones are always the same, clearly indicating that the
different basins were connected by a continuous sea.

The zones contain a number of characteristic forms of
fossils, and many of the species have been determined. Where
the species have not been determined the genera of the
Brachiopoda are often sufficiently distinctive for correlative
purposes.

The prevalence of Brachiopoda in the lower and higher
marine zones is conspicuous in all the Triassic basins through-
out New Zealand.

Jurassic Marine Rocks.

The marine zones associated with the Jurassic beds of
New Zealand are few in number and seldom rich in fossil
forms. Characteristic fossils are rare, and the majority of
the species have not yet been determined.

In his survey of the Hokonui Hills, in 1878, Mr. Cox sub-
divided the Jurassic rocks into four different groups or series
of beds, but a subsequent examination which I made of his
sections showed that his groups contained no characteristic
marine zones, while in some cases they were found to overlap
each other. Groups that cannot be identified in their typical
localities are necessarily valueless for purposes of correla-
tion.

The brachiopods which are so abundant in the Upper
Trias in Nelson and Nugget Point basins are sparingly repre-
sented in the overlying marine zones of the Jurassic ; and
gasteropods are equally rare.

As late as 1899, Captain Hutton attempted no subdivision
of the Jurassic rocks, and in the absence of sufficient data I

392 Transactions. — Geology.

do not now propose to do so, but shall refer these rocks to my
Mataura series, which is the same as Hutton's Mataura series
of 1899.-

HoKONui System — Huttonj (Syk., Eangitata System —

Pabk).

The vast assemblage of sedimentary strata just described
comprises wholly, or in part, the Mount Torlesse formation of
Von Haast. The rocks, unfortunately, in Mount Torlesse
contain none of the fossiliferous horizons present in Nelson,
upper Eangitata, or Nugget Point, with the exception of some
indistinct plant-remains and a calcareous flattened tubular
body which has been doubtfully referred to an annelid. In
the absence of shell beds it is impossible to fix the posi-
tion of the plant and annelid beds in relation to known hori-
zons elsewhere. The Mount Torlesse plant beds may be con-
temporary with the Mount Potts plant beds, but in the ab-
sence of satisfactory evidence this correlation may be called
in question at any time.

The Mount Torlesse formation, according to Yon Haast,
has a thickness of at least 25,000 h. I It was placed by him
up till 1865 in the Silurian period, but in 1878 he referred
it to a time ranging from Paleozoic to Lower Mesozoic.§ The
Carboniferous age of the lower beds was apparently based on
the supposed identification of Orthis, Productus, and other
Palaeozoic genera in the Mount Potts Sj)iriferina beds at
Rocky Gully. II

The assemblage of strata exposed in the uj^per Eangitata
attains a thickness not less than 40,000 ft. It possesses, too,
well-marked fossiliferous groups of beds which are absent in
the Mount Torlesse district. I am therefore reluctantly com-
pelled to set aside Von Haast's formation-name, chiefly for
the reason that the strata at Mount Torlesse do not afford the
data necessary for their subdivision into groups and series of
beds.

The main object of my investigations in the past three
years has been to determine the succession and stratigraphical

* Hiitton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1899, vol. xxxii., p. 183.

t When I placed this paper before the Institute I included the
Mataura, Shaw's Bay, and Kaihiku .series in my Eangitata syscem. The
name Rangitata seemed to me at that time to be more suitable than
either the name IMount Torlesse or Ilokonui ; but on further considera-
tion I have decided to adopt Captain Hutton's name Hokonui, using it
in a somewhat more extended sense than originally intended by its
author. The Hokonui system will now include all the rocks that are
fctraligraphically connected from the I'ermian to the Jurassic.

I Haast, "ijeology of Canterbury and Westland," 1879, p. 279.
§ L.c, p. 279.

II L.c, p. 272.

system.

Park. — The Loicer Mesozoic Bocks of New Zealand. 393

relations of the Trias and associated rocks, and to establish a
classification that shall be a safe standa,rd for the correlation
and grouping of strata throughout the colony belonging to the
Lower Mesozoic and Upper Palaeozoic periods. The nomen-
clature I have adopted is as follows: —

Jurassic ... 1. Mataura series.
Triassic ... 2. Shaw's Bay series.

{a.) Glavigera beds.
-p, , . (b.) Mytikts probleviaticus and

Hokonui^ ]\2onof.is salinaria beds.

(c.) Trigonia beds.
(d.) Halobia lommeli beds.
(c.) Spirifervna beds.
(/.) Nugget Point plant beds.

This classification is an extension of that formulated by
Captain Hutton in 1899, and a modification of that adopted
by the Geological Survey in 1878.

The boundary between the Oreti and Kaihiku series of the
Geological Survey is not very well defined, and in some places
these series seem to cover the same set of beds. In other
places, as in Nelson, the Wairoa series includes beds that are
elsewhere included in the Oreti and Kaihiku series ; and the
Clavigera beds that in the Hokonui disti-ict constitute the
Otapiri series have in Nelson been referred by the Geologi-
cal Survey to the Kaihiku series.'''

The Wairoa series, as defined by Sir James Hector in his
" Outhne of New Zealand Geology," 1886, pp. 72-74, ap-
parently includes all the beds that are elsewhere considered
to constitute the Oreti and Kaihiku series of the Geological
Survey.

(f.) Nugget Point Plant Beds. — These are the lowest beds
exposed at Nugget Point and Eighty-eight Valley, and they
are correlated with the Mount Potts plant beds, which are
also the lowest rocks exposed in the upper Eangitata. At the
two former places they underlie the Spiriferina (Psioidea)
beds ; and at Mount Potts the Tank Gully plant beds appear
to underlie the shell beds at Rocky Gully.

At Nugget Point the plant-remains are broken and indis-
tinct; at Hunt's farm, in Eighty-eight Valley, they are
broken, but distinguishable ; while at Tank Gully tlae beds con-
tain a varied and well-preserved flora. As I have just men-
tioned, the Tank Gully beds seem clearly enough to underlie
the shell beds at Rocky Gully. They ai-e readily accessible,
easily found, and occur in such a position that their outcrop
cannot be obscured or obliterated by cultivation or the con-

* Reps. Geol. ExpL, 1878-79, p. 117.

394 Transactions. — Geology.

structions of man. It was, moreover, from this place that
Sir Juhus von Haast obtained the collection of plant-remains
sent to Europe for identification.

The place has therefore claims to be considered a typical
locality, and, but for the doubt that still remains as to the age
of the Mount Potts shell beds at Eocky Gully, I should have
preferred to designate this group of beds the " Mount Potis
plant beds," instead of " Nugget Point plant beds."

The Nugget Point beds form the long narrow promontory
on which the lighthouse stands, and the outlying rocky islets.
They are followed conformably by the Spirlferina beds. The
dip of the beds is to seaward, and consequently the lowest
beds of the series are not seen. The thickness exposed to
view at low water is about 350 ft.

Sir James Hector identified among the plant-remains
collected by Mr. McKay at Hunt's farm, in Eighty-eight
Valley, Glossojjteris, Zamites, and Bhacop)iyUum.'''

Among the plant-remains from Tank Gully, Mount Potts,
Baron Von Ettingshausen determined Taniopteris psendo-
vittata, Asplenium hochstetteri, Palissya podocarpiodes, Baiera
australis, and others, all more or less related to European
Triassic forms. f

The form from Mount Potts identified by Sir James
Hector as Glossopteris was determined by Ettingshausen
to be Tceniopteris, and probably the Nelson Glossopteris
also belongs to that genus.

(e.) Spiriferina Beds. — These embrace the lowest marine
beds of the Hokonui system. Among the fossil shells found
in them at Nelson, Nugget Point, and Hokonui Hills are
Spiriferina, three sp., including the new sub-genus Psioidea,\
created by Sir James Hector to embrace a small distinctive
form resembling Spiriferina cristata, Schloth.; and Epitiiyris,
Rhynchonella, and Pletorotomaria.

The long-winged species of Spiriferina found in these beds
at Nugget Point, Hokonui, and Mount Potts have been re-
ferred by the Geological Survey to the genus Trigonotreta of
Konig.§

(d.) Halobia lommeli Beds. — The principal forms in this
liorizon are Halobia lommeli, Wissm., Nuculana, Retzia,
Ejnthyris, and rsioidea.

The evidence as to the age of the Mount Potts beds is,
unfortunately, not very satisfactory; l)ut the presence of Halo-
bia lommeli, of bones supposed to belong to Ichthyosaurus,
and the apparent absence of true Spirifera seem to correlate

* Hector, " Outline of New Zealaud Geology," 1886, p. 74.

t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxiii., p. 237.

J Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xi., p. 537.

§ Hector, " Outline of New Zealand Geology," 1886, p. 75.

Pakk. — The Lower Mesozoic Bocks of New Zealand. 395

these beds with the Halobia and Spiriferina beds of Nelson,
Nugget Point, and Southland.

Sir Julius von Haast collected from the Mount Potts beds
m 1861 and in 1872, and in both his report of 1872* and
" Geology of Canterbury and Westland," 1879, p. 272, enu-
merates the "following genera and probably species" which
he says were identified by the late Professor McCoy : Orthis
apinigera, Spirifera lineata, S. lata, S. oviforviis, S. duodecimo-
costata, Prodncta, Atrypa, E^iomp)hala, Murchisonia, Ortho-
ceras, and Encrinites, forms which characterize the Carboni-
ferous coalfields of New South Wales.

In 1877 Mr. McKay made a large collection of fossils at
Rocky Gully, t but, curiously enough, his collection contained,
he said, no Orthis, Productus, Atrypa, or Euomphahis ; and
Sir James Hector, in commenting on the age of the Mount
Potts beds, says that Mr. McKay's collection contained no
true Spirifera, the spirifer-like forms being all Spiriferina.\

The fossils collected by myself at Rocky Gully in the early
part of this year seemed to agree with the identifications of
the Geological Survey rather than with those of Professor
McCoy.

The saurian remains seem to make the matter no clearer.
From the bone bed with the shell beds Von Haast collected a
number of saurian bones, some of which he thought resembled
" the vertebrae of ganocephalous reptiles of the Cai'boniferous
period ;§ as, for instance, those of Denroerpeton, Hylonomus,
&c." Among these vertebrae Sir James Hector found one
which he thought belonged to an Ichthyosaunis, which he
named I. australis.\\

Sir Julius von Haast, however, subsequently challenged
this identification, saying, " I fail to see any resemblance
between the vertebrae and those of Ichthyosaurus."^

Mr. McKay, in his " Report relative to the Collection of
Fossils from the Mount Potts Spirifer Beds," in 1878, says,
" Among the additions contained in this new collection vsere
portions of ribs and a vertebral centrum, evidently reptilian in
character, which, closely resembling the vertebrae of Ichthyo-
saurus in general outline, was described as I. austraiis by
Dr. Hector, who at the same time referred the beds to the
Triassic period."''"''

Again in 1890, when discussing the relative age of the

* Reps. Geol. ExpL, 1872-73. p. 6.

t Reps. Geol. Expl , 1877-78, p. 94.

J Reps. Geol. Expl., 1885, p. xxvi.

§ Haast, " Geology of Canterbury and Westland," 1879, p. 272.

II Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. vi., p. 331.

11 Haast, " Geology of Canterbury and Westland," 1879, p. 272.

** Reps. Geol. Expl., 1877-78, p. 105.

396 Transactions. — Geology.

Mount Potts and Clent Hills beds, the Director of the Geolo-
gical Survey says, " The Mount Potts beds, besides an abund-
ance of Brachiopoda, abound in reptilian remains, the true
character of which has not yet been exactly determined, but
from the nature of the vertebrae it would appear that these
remains have some affinity to the genus Ichthyosaums."'-^'
Then follow some details of the saurian remains found by
Mr. McKay in 1877. The Director continues, " The vertebrae
are much restricted in length, and the ribs flattened and
hatchet-shaped, but not divided at the articulation. Some of
the vertebrge are of enormous size, as much as 15 in. in dia-
meter. One fine specimen not yet collected shows a con-
vected series of sixteen vertebrte and thirty-two ribs of the
character described. The centra of the vertebrse are ii-in. in
diameter, and the ribs are 3ft. Gin. in length."

The above conveys the impression that Sir James Hector
entertained some doubts of his previous identification of Ich-
thyosaurus. In 1879 he so far modifies his opinion as to
refer the remains to the genus Eosatirus of Marsh. f

So far as I could judge from the fragments of bone I saw
and collected, I was of the opinion that at least two different
genera of saurians were represented in the Eocky Gully bone
bed.

The Mount Potts plant beds, which are acknowledged by
Sir Julius von Haast and Mi-. McKay to underlie the shell
and bone beds at Eocky Gully, contain a flora which Ettings-
hausen described as being Triassic and Professor McCoy as
Jurassic. I

On the other hand. Professor McCoy is credited with hav-
ing referred the exuvia of the shell beds, which appear to
overlie the plant beds, to the Upper Devonian or Lower
Carboniferous period. §

It should be mentioned, however, that Professor McCoy,
in a memorandum to Sir James Hector dated the 12th
August, 1885, distinctly denies that he had " heard of saurian
bones mingled with Cai-boniferous shells in Mount Potts beds
in New Zealand, and had not determined them." He admits,
however, that he did make determinations of Carboniferous
limestone Mollnsca and Echhwdermata submitted to him by
Dr. Von Haast from Fossil Creek, Clyde, Eangitata, Southern
Alps, and says that he has " no reason to doubt the age sug-
gested for those beds as above." ||

That a saurian-bone bed does occur at the close of the

• Reps. Geol. Expl., 1890-91, p. 147.
t Reps. Geol. Expl., 1878-79, p. 11.
\ Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xvii., p. 333.
§ Loc. cit., p. 333.
II Reps. Geol. Expl., 1885, p. xxi.

Park. — The Lower Mesozoic Bocks of Neiv Zealand. 397

Eocky Gully fossiliferous shell beds is beyond all doubt, and,
with respect to the diverse opinions and evidence quoted
above, we can only conclude that a misunderstanding arose
between Sir Julius von Haast and Professor McCoy in the
transmission and description of the fossils.

Briefly, we find that the plant beds are held to be Triassic
or Jurassic ; while the overlying marine beds, on the shell
determinations of Professor McCoy, are Carboniferous, or, ac-
cording to the saurian determinations of Sir James Hector,
Triassic.

(c.) Trigonia Beds. — In most places these are characterized
by the presence of Trigonia, Estheria mimita, Edmondia, Am-
monites (sp. not determined), a nautiloid shell, Murchisonia,
Comdaria, and Spirigera (Athyris) wreyi, Zittel.

These beds are well developed in Well's Creek, Eighty-
Valley and Mount Heslington sections. In the Shaw's Bay
eight Valley, and on southern slopes of Mount Heslington,
Nelson, in Shaw Bay, and many parts of Hokonui Hills.

(d.) Mytilus problematicus and Monotis salinaria Beds. —
These beds generally consist of a compact mass of Mytilus or
Monotis, to the exclusion of all other forms.

The Mytilus beds attain a great thickness in Eighty-eight
section the My tikis bed is composed principally of a con-
fused mass of oyster-shells. At Nelson the cast of a large
Gryphaea is occasionally found in the Mytilus beds.

Monotis salinaria, Zittel, is present at Mount Heslington,
French Pass, Okuku (in Canterbury), and many parts of Hoko-
nuis. It IS absent in the Shaw's Bay section. In the Hokonui
sections Monotis seems to take the place of the Mytilus, so
abundant in the Nelson Trias ; and throughout that region
the Monotis beds follow the Trigonia beds, as do the Mytilus
beds in Nelson and southern Otago.

(a.) Clavigera Beds. — These beds everywhere form the
close of the Trias. At Shaw's Bay they contain only two
distinct shell-forms — namely, an Athyris-Wke form and Spiri-
ferina.

The Athyris is rather an unusual form. It is smooth, bi-
sulcate, has a long slightly curved hinge-line, and possesses
the habit of a spirifer rather than that of an Athyris. It cor-
responds closely with the Clavigera of Hector, which is a sub-
genus of Athyris created to include this unusual form.*

The Spiriferina possesses a straight hinge-line with comb-
like dentition, and is the sub-genus Rastelligera of Hector. f

In Well's Creek, Nelson, the Athyris horizon contains
several species of Spiriferina (including Rastelligera, which is

* Trans. N.Z. lust., vol. xi., 1878, p. 537.
t Loc. cit., p. 537.

398 Transactions. — Geology.

always a characteristic form), Athyris [Clavigera of Hector),
Patella, Pentacrinus, fragments of saurian bones, and corals.

The Clavigera beds correspond approximately with the
Otapiri series of the Geological Survey.

Contemporary Eruptive Eocks.

At Nugget Point a dyke of augite porphyrite is intruded
between the Spiriferina and Halobia beds. It has already
been referred to in that portion of my paper dealing with
Nugget Point district. Elsewhere the Shaw's Bay series
seems to be free from igneous intrusions, although it should
be noted that in north Otago and upper Rangitata they contain
massive beds of greywacke.

Nomenclature.

The name "Shaw's Bay series" was first applied to the
Trias of Nelson and Southland by Dr. Lauder Lindsay as
far back as 1857. Afterwards, in 1873, Sir James Hector
set Lindsay's name aside, substituting the name " Wairoa
series," which at that time embraced the whole of the Trias.'''
Subsequently, in 1877, the name " Wairoa series " was re-
stricted to the Upper Trias, as follows : — \
ry ■ \{a.) Wairoa series.
\{b.) Te Anau series.

In this sense the name was used up till 1878, when Mr.
Cox subdivided the Trias into " Upper Wairoa series " and
'• Lower Wairoa series," which together now embraced the
whole of the Trias. In this new classification, however,
the Clavigera (Otapiri) beds were referred to the Lias and the
Kaihiku beds to the Permo-carboniferous.J

In the Geological Survey classification of 1879 the Wairoa
series is placed m the Middle Trias, with the Otapiri series
above and the Oreti series below, as follows : — §

" X.— Trias.
" (a.) Otapiri series.
" (6.) Wairoa series.
" (c.) Oreti series."

In the classification of 1880 the Wairoa series appears in
the Lower Trias, || and in tliat of 1881 again in the Middle
Trias, between the Otapiri and Oreti series. If In the last

♦ Reps. Geol. Expl., 1876-77, p. v.

t Loc. cit., p. V.

J Reps. Geol. Expl., 1877-78, p. 37.

I Heps. Geol. Expl., 1878-7'J, p. 10.

II Keps. Geol. Expl., 1879-80, p. iv.
If Reps. Geol. Expl., 1883-84, p. xiv.

Paek. — The Loicer Mesozoic Rocks of New Zealand. 399

classification of the Geological Survey Sir James Hector once
again referred it to the Lower Trias.*

Captain Hutton, in his latest classification of New Zealand
formations, includes the whole of the Trias and Permian rocks
of the Geological Survey in his Wairoa series, which is tlius
the equivalent of the Shaw's Bay series of Lindsay.

The Wairoa series of Captain Hutton has a very different
meaning to the present Wairoa series of the Geological
Survey, and therefore to avoid the confusion that might arise
from the use of that name I have thought it advisable to
discard it for Lindsay's original name, " Shaw's Bay series,"
which not only possesses the right of priority, but can claim
to take its name from a place where the development of the
Trias is as perfect as anywhere in New Zealand, and free from
faulting, folding, and tectonic disturbance that might lead to
doubtful interpretations of the succession and relations of the
different marine horizons.

Age.

The marine beds at the base of the Nugget Point section,
embracing the Spiriferina beds (the Froductus formation of
McKay), have since 1878 been referred by the Geological
Survey to the Permian Kaihiku series, but no stratigraphical
or palaeontological evidence has been adduced to support; this
view. On the contrary, it has been shown that the Kaihiku
series always forms a part of the Triassic succession of
strata ; and Sir James Hector, when discussing the age of the
Kaihiku series, says, " The occurrence of these saurian
remains " [Eosatirns of March] , " together with the survival of
many Permian forms into the Wairoa, and even the Otapiri,
series, and the absence of true spirifers, Produchis, and other
usual Palaeozoic elements of a Permian fauna, would seem to
connect the Kaihiku series rather with the Mesozoic than the
Palaeozoic formations of New Zealand."!

In Nelson, Otago, and Southland the Sj^itiferina beds are
followed by the Halohia (Daonella) lomvieli beds, and in the
European alpine Trias this is one of the distinctive forms of
the lowest division of the Upper Trias.

In 1869 Mojsisovics arranged the Trias of North and
South Tyrol Alps so as to place the nodular limestone with
Halohia lomvieli at the base of his Noric division, but we have
it on the authority of Zittel that the stratigraphical researches
of Hauer, Eichthofen, and Giimbel had shown that this ar-
rangement arose from a series of stratigraphical blunders on
the part of Mojsisovics.

* Reps. Geol. Expl., 1890-91, p. 121,

t Reps. Geol. Expl., 1878-79, pp. 11 and 12.

400 Transactions. — Geology.

So far as I can discover, there is no authentic reeoi'd of
Halohia lovimcli from the Lower Trias of Europe, and, if we
assume that a homotaxial parallelism existed between the
Trias of the Pacific and Europe, ic is evident that the Halohia
beds of New Zealand must be referred to the lower part of the
Middle Trias.

I have shown in a paper " On the Jurassic Age of the
Maitai Series" that the Clavigera (Athyris) beds in Well's
Creek, referred in 1879 by Mr. McKay to the Permian, were
the closing beds of the Trias, and occupied the same position
as the Clavigera beds at Shaw's Bay and Otapiri.

The theory of inversion of the whole Triassic system in
Nelson, by means of which Mr. McKay sought to establish
the inferior position of the Maitai series, brought many diffi-
culties with it, and rendered it impossible to correlate the
Nelson marine horizons with the succession so clearly esta-
blished in Southland and southern Otago.

The many attempts to reconcile the inverted succession in
Nelson with the normal succession elsewhere were unsatis-
factory even to the Geological Survey, judging from the fre-
quent rearrangement of the groups subsequent to 1878 ; and,
naturally, the blending of the two resulted only in confusion.

The persistence of Clavigera, Bastelligera, and other
brachiopods possessing an Upper Palaeozoic facies right up
to the base of the Jurassic must always impress the New
Zealand Trias with Palaeozoic aftinities, and tend to correlate
it with the Alpine Trias of Europe rather than the beds of the
great German Triassic basin. Palaeontology will doubtless pro-
vide general systematic types, which will assist arrangement
into smaller divisions, and afford a safe basis for correlations
with distant lands.

Mataura Series.

(Syn., Mataura Series, Lindsay, Hector, and Hutton ; Puta-
taka Formation, Hutton ; Mataura, Pulataka, Flag Hill,
and Bastion Series, Cox ; and Catlin's River, Hector.)
The Putataka formation of Hutton included this forma-
tion and a portion of the Shaw's Bay formation, and also the
original Mataura series of Lindsay and Hector. The Ma-
taura series of the latter was, in 1878, subdivided by the
Geological Survey into five series, as follows : — *

I (a.) Mataura series.
Jurassic j (6.) Putataka series,
((c.) Flag Hill series.

J ■ . \{a.) Catlin's River series (Hector),
ijiassici j^ j Bastion series.

♦ Eepp. Geol. Surv., 1877-78, p. vii.

Park. — The Louver Mesozoic Bocks of New Zealand. 401

The Catlin's Eiver series of Hector was interpolated in
Cox's classification, being placed sometimes above and some-
times below the Bastion series.

In my revision of the classification adopted by Cox in 1878
for the formations in Southland, I showed that the Mataura
series and Flag Hill series referred to the same group of beds,"'''
and, after an examination of Catlin's district, I am of the
opinion that the beds included in the Catlin's Eiver series of
Hector will be found to belong to the Mataura series of Cox's
classification.

The beds included in the Mataura series from the south
headland of Shaw Bay to False Island exhibit a thickness of
not less than 13,000 ft. In the upper Eangitata their thickness
probably exceeds 30,000 ft. In these localities they are devoid
of all trace of organic remains, excepting doubtful worm-trails
in the Clyde Valley beds, and indistinct plant-remains and
three thin marine zones between Sandy Bay and Cannibal
Bay. The lithological character of the beds tends to show
that thev were of estuarine origin. The most characteristic
genus in the Cannibal Bay beds is Inoceravms, which occurs
in the two highest zones.

The beds grouped in this series in Nelson contain an
Inoceramus zone about 100 ft. above the Triassic limestone,
also a band of fissile slaty shale crowded with supposed worm-
trails. The total thickness of the strata exposed on the flanks
of Dun Mountain is about 25,000 ft.

In the Geological Survey classification the strata included
in the Mataura series are subdivided, as we have seen, into
five different groups or series. Three, and probably more, of
these series overlap each other, and until more definite infor-
mation is available I think it would be unwise to perpetuate a
multiplication of place-names that at present have no mean-
ing, and are useless for purposes of correlation.

Belationship to Underlying Strata.
In 1886 I showed that the Mataura series and Flag Hill
series of Cox referred to the same group of beds.t At the
same time I showed that the Mataura plant beds at Mataura
Falls followed the Upper Trias granite-conglomerate (2 ft.) and
sandstones of Ship Cove conformably, and were underlain by
a marine horizon containing Belcmnites, Ostrea, Pecten, Phola-
domya, &c. In dark-blue slaty shales overlying the shell bed I
found what I then identified as Pecopteris grandis, probably
the Pecopteris 2)roxima of Ettinghausen ; Asplenites, probably
Aspleniura hochstetteri, Ettings. ; two species of Taniopteris,

* Reps. Geol. Expl., 1886-87, p. 146.
f hoc. cit., p. 146.

26— Trans.

402 Transactions. — Geology.

probably T. pseudo-simpl&x and T. lomariopsis, Ettings. ; and a
species of Taxitesr'

The conformable relation of the Mataura Falls beds to the
Trias is clearly seen in the section from Mataura to Gore.

The conformable relations of the Mataura series (syu.,
Matai series) of Sandy Bay and Catlin's beds to the Trias of
Nugget Point have already been described.

Age of Mataura Series.

Baron Von Ettingshausen, who examined a collection of
plants from the Mataura Falls beds, stated that "the species
bear more or less the facies of those of the Triassic flora,"! a
•conclusion quite in harmony with the stratigraphical evidence,
which shows that the plant beds follow the Upper Trias. The
boundary between the two formations is quite arbitrary, and
might easily be fixed so as to place the plant beds in the Trias.

On the other hand, the presence of Inoceramus, Beleinnites,
and Ammonites in the Mataura beds, and Inoceramus in the
Maitai and Dun Mountain beds, clearly establishes a relation-
ship to the Jurassic rather than to the Triassic period.

No attempt has been made to subdivide the Jurassic and
Trias rocks into minute groups of beds. This is a work
that can only be successfully accomplished when the fossils
have been determined by a palaeontologist. Minute subdivi-
sion vv'hich is not supported by accurate detail and clear
definition is certain to be abandoned, and this has been the
history of many attempts at subdivision in New Zealand
where the facts were not sufliciently ascertained or supported
by accurate data.

To avoid confusion in the literature of the subject I have
■discarded many of the old names, some of which were used
by different authors with different meanings. The local
names adopted by me refer to places where the rocks thus
■designated are typically developed, and where their relation-
ship to the associated formations is clearly defined.

Distribution of Mataura Series.
In my paper on the Jurassic age of the Maitai series I
showed that the rocks of that series, as typically developed
in Nelson, overlaid the Trias conformably, and contained tlie
Secondary genus Inoceramus in abundance. On these grounds
I contended that the Maitai rocks could not be Carboniferous,
but must be subsequent to the Trias ; and I therefore referred
tliem back to the Jurassic period, where they were originally
placed by Captain Hutton in 1875. The evidence seems
conclusive tliat the Maitai and Mataura rocks are contem-

• Eeps. Gcol. Expl., 1886-87, p. 146.
t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxiii., p. 42.

Park. — Tlie Lower Mesozoic Bocks of New Zealand. 403

porary formations, and must therefore be grouped together
under one name, which for reasons already specified must
preferably be the place-name Mataura.

It is probable that all the rocks hitherto referred to the
Carboniferous bj^ the Geological Survey are Jurassic or Juro-
triassic, with perhaps the exception of the gold-bearing rocks
at Eeefton, concerning the age of which no definite informa-
tion is available, and certain aphanitic sandstones, breccias,
:and slates in the mountains west and north of Lake Wakatipu.

The Jurassic Mataura series, now comprising the Maitai
series, has a wide distribution in both Islands, and is in most
places so intimately associated with the Trias in the formation
of the great tectonic features of our mountain-chains that the
limits of the Trias may broadly be said to define the distrilju-
tion of the Jurassic.

In Southland the Mataura series occupies a wide tract
•of country, which extends south of a line drawn from the
Mataura Falls to the south head of Roaring Bay, near Nug-
get Point. Again, passing northward into Canterbury, the
enormous thickness and disposition of the Jurassic rocks in
the upper Rangitata seems to justify the conclusion of Von
Haast, expressed in 1873, that the great mass of the Canter-
bury Alps, extending from Mount Cook to the sources of the
Eakaia, was composed of rocks of Jurassic age.

In some parts of Nelson, and more particularly in the
vicinity of Dun Mountain range, the limits of the Jurassic
and Triassic rocks are fairly well defined ; but elsewhere in
Nelson, and in the North Island generally, it is impossible
with our present information to define tlie respective limits of
the two systems, excepting in a few isolated patches, as at
Kawhia, Raglan, and Waikato Heads.

The Mataura series is the important member of the great
Hokonui system of Juro-permian age.

General Distribution of Hokonui System.

This vast assemblage of sedimentary strata comprises a
stratigraphical system ranging in time from Permian to
Jurassic in one unbroken succession. It is the principal
mountain-builder in New Zealand, and in its vastness, in the
character of its sediments, age, and tectonic importance, bears
a marked resemblance to the celebrated Gondwana system in
India. Its nearest equivalent is the great Juro-permian
svstem of New Guinea.

In the North Island of New Zealand it forms the Tararua,
Rimutaka, Ruahine, and Kaimanawa Mountains, extending
in one almost unbroken chain from East Cape to Cook Strait.
Outlying patches occur at Coromandel, Tuhua, Kawhia,
Waikato Heads, and north of Auckland.

404 Transactions. — Geology.

From the French Pass it stretches to Nelson, where it
forms all the massive mountains lying between Golden Bay
and Marlborough. It occupies the Kaikoura, St. Arnaud, and
Spencer Mountains ; and thence, spreading southward, forms
the greater part of the Southern Alps, as well as the great
subsidiary ranges that descend eastward toward the Canter-
bury Plains. From South Canterbury rocks belonging to
this system cross into North Otago, whence they stretch
westward to the main divide. In Southland they occupy the
greater part of the land-surface, and sweep round the south
end of Otago to Nugget Point and lower Clutha.

[Note. — Since the above was written collections of fossils
from the Trias in Nelson and Permian at Mount Potts, made
by. me early in the year, have been sent to Professor G.
Boehm of Freiburg University for determination, to whom
also were sent at the same time collections of shells from the
Jurassic and Triassic rocks at Nugget Point and Catlin's
Eiver made by Mr. A. Hamilton and myself. — The Author.]

REFERENCE TO PLATES XXVIII. -XXXI.

Plate XXVIII. — Geological Sketch-plan and Section of Coast-line

BETWEEN Nugget Point and Catlin's River.

Plate XXIX. — Section from South Head, Shaw's Bay, to Nugget

Point.

10. Claystones and sandstones.

11. Greywacke.

12. Indurated claystones.

13. Breccia conglomerate.

14. Claystones and sandstones.

15. Halobia claystone.

16. Dyke of porphyrite.

17. Greywacke.

18. Black Spirifcrina claystones.

19. Claystone plant beds.

1. Claystones and sandstones.

2. Athyris sandstones.

3. Coarse sandstones.

4. Oyster and Mytilus bed.

5. Banded claystones and sand-

stones.

6. Trigonia beds.

7. Granite conglomerate.

8. Sandstones with claystone

bands.

9. Breccia conglomerate.

A. Track to Roaring Bay.

B. Nugget Point Lighthouse.

Plate XXX. — Section from Mount Cook Range to Potts River.

[1. Sandstones with beds of claystone.

Jurassic J 2. Sandstones, greywacke, and slaty claystone.

(3. Sandstones and slaty shales.

m ■ • j 4. Possiliferous claystones and conglomerate,
inassic jg_ ^^^j^ (^j^jiy pj^j^^ ^^^^

2a. Inoceramus, Pentacrinus.

Plate XXXI.

Upper Figure. — Section on South Side of Tank Gully.

(a.) Thin-bedded shales and sandstones.
(6.) Grey sandstones.

Lower Figure. — Section across Tank Gully,
(a.) Sandstones.
(b.) Black Carbonaceous shales with fossil fern-leaves.

Park. — Age and Relations of New Zealand Coalfields. 405

Art. XXXI. — O71 the Age and Relations of the Neiv Zealand

Coalfields.

By Professor James Park, F.G.S., Director Otago Uni-
versity Sclaool of Mines.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 3rd December, 1903.]

The geology of the coalfields is a subject of great nidustrial
importance, and for this reason is generally the first problem
to engage the attention of the geologist in a new country.
Moreover, it is obvious that no reliable advice can be given by
any one as to the search for coal until the coal-bearing forma-
tions have been determined, and the relations and distinctive
features of the different members of eacli ascertained bv care-
ful investigation in the field. At the present time there is no
general agreement as to the age of the coalfields of New
Zealand, excluding from our present consideration the thm
seams of bituminous coal found at Otapiri, Wyndham, and
Waikawa, in Southland, and on the West Coast south of
Waikato, in the North Island, which are acknowledged to be
Jurassic ; also the lignites of Kaipara, Manukau Harbour,
central Otago, and Southland, which are believed to be Plio-
cene or later.

The valuable coalfields of Auckland, Mokau, west coast
of South Island, Canterbury, and Otago are held by the
Geological Survey to be of one age, and to belong to the
Cretaceo-tertiary period. The late Ferdinand von Hoch-
stetter,''' Sir Julius von Haast,f and Captain Hutton have
maintained that there are two or more coal-bearing forma-
tions in New Zealand.

Captain Hutton, in a paper " On the Eelative Ages of the
New Zealand Coalfields," gives an able summary of the views
held by himself and the Geological Survey. | He discusses
the correlation of the Amuri limestone and hydraulic lime-
stone of north Auckland, and, after reviewing the evidence
bearing on the stratigraphical position of the latter and its
relation to the Oamaru series, arrives at the conclusion that
the correlation cannot be sustained. And it seems to me he
could form no other conclusion from the conflicting evi-
dence presented to him. In the Geological Survey Eeports
the hydraulic limestone is generally stated to overlie the
Whangarei limestone, the supposed equivalent of the Oamaru
stone, whereas the Amuri limestone always underlies that

• " Geology of New Zealand," 1867, pp. 58 and 59.
t " On the Character and Age of the New Zealand Coalfields," Rep.
Brit. Assoc, 1886, p. 643.

I Trans. N.Z, Inst., 1889, vol. xxii., p. 377.

406 Transactions. — Geology.

horizon in North Canterbury and elsewhere. As the Amurf
limestone could not both underlie and overlie the same forma-
tion, Captain Hutton naturally concluded that the hydraulic
limestone had no connection with the Amuri limestone of the
South Island.

In 1899 I revisited the north Auckland coalfields, and,
after a careful re-examination of the old sections and many
new, formed the opinion that the Geological Survey was-
right in correlating the hydraulic limestone with the x\muri
limestone, but wrong in placing the hydraulic limestone above
the Whangarei limestone.

In 1874 Sir James Hector placed the "grey and chalk
marls " [hydraulic limestone] of the Kaipara district at the
top of the Cretaceo-tertiary series, in which he also included
the underlying greensands and Inocerarmis clays, in the fol-
lowing order : — '■^-

[■4. Grey and chalk marls.
Cretaceo-tertiary j 5. Greensands and coal grits.
(6. Inoceramus clays, &c.

Mr. Cox, in his report on the Kaipara district in 1880, also
refers the hydraulic limestone and underlying glauconitic
greensands to the Cretaceo-tertiary period. I He discusses
the stratigraphical position of the hydraulic limestone, and,,
when speaking of the large boulders incrusted with cone-in-
cone limestone at Batley, says, on page 21, " If these cone-in
cone beds are interstratified with the chalk marls and hy-
draulic limestones, as they appear to be, it would give a certain
amount of evidence in favour of the whole series being older
than I have considered it " — that is, than Cretaceo-tertiary.
On page 19 he gives a section near Captain Colbeck's, at
Pahi, in which the Whangarei limestone and what he calls
"Miocene greensands" are shown lying unconformably on
the hydraulic limestone.

Mr. McKay, in 1883, in his report " On the Geology of the
Coal-bearing Area between Whangarei and Hokianga,":^
places the Amiu'i [hydraulic] limestone and chalk marls below
the Ototara and Weka Pass stone [Oamaru stone] , and it is
noteworthy that, while Mr. Cox shows the Whangarei lime-
stone at Colbeck's resting in a narrow gutter excavated in the
hydraulic limestone, Mr. McKay states that the hydraidic
limestone is underlain conformably by the Whangarei lime-
stone (page 115), which obviously, according to this view,
could not be the equivalent of the Oamaru stone.

In his report on Waitemata and Eodney Counties § in the

♦ Repti. Geol. Expl., 1874, p. vi.
t Reps. Geol. Expl., 1879-80, p. 18.
\ Reps. Geol. Expl., 1883-84, p. 113.
^ Loc. cit., p. 106.

Park. — Age and Relations of Nciu Zealand Coalfields. 407

same year Mr. McKay shows that the upper Waiteniata beds
rest unconformably on the hydrauUc hmestone at Mahu-
rangi, in this agreeing with the opinion expressed by Mr. Cox
in 1880 (Geol. Eeps. , 1879-80, p. 29). At the end of his report
Mr. McKay gives a tabulated statement of the strata passed
through in four boreholes put down in that year by the
Kawakawa Coal-mining Company in the search for coal, ac-
cording to which borehole No. 2 is supposed to have passed
through 234 ft. 2 in. of what is termed " Amuri limestone,
chalk marls, and chalk with flints, Nl.d."

In my report on the Kaipara district in 1885 I included
the hydraulic limestone in the Cretaceo-tertiary series, and
placed it above the Pahi greensands, from which I made a
large collection of marine shells having a facies closely
resembling the fauna of the Waihao greensands in South
Canterbury.* On this occasion I distinguished two horizons
of greensand — namely, coal greensands, containing the Ter-
tiary fauna just referred to, and glauconitic greensands
(page 169), which I said appeared to occur at the base of the
Cretaceo-tertiary series, and were interbedded with a cone-in-
cone limestone and a calcareous sandstone, in which I found
remains of Inoceramus. In this report I described how the
Komiti beds (Mount Brown series) lay unconformably on the
chalky marls and hydraulic limestone.

In my report on the Kaipara district in 18871 I again
described the hydraulic limestone as overlying the coal green-
sands, but underlying the Whangarei limestone ; but when
discussing the relations of the hydraulic limestone to the
associated beds I stated that "the relation of the hydraulic
limestone and underlying marly greensands is not so satis-
factory as might be desired" (p. 229).

Mr. McKay, in 1888, examined the Pahi and Paparoa
sections, and, while agreeing with me that the hydraulic
limestone overlies the coal, continues as follows : " Mr. Park
believes that in the sections at Paparoa and Pahi there is
an unconformity between the beds v^ith Inoceramus and the
white clays under the Whangarei limestone, . . . but I
must say I could not convince myself of the existence of such
unconformity."];

Mr. McKay still places the hydraulic limestone above the
Whangarei limestone, § but is apparently doubtful of this, as
on page 54 he says, " The lower beds, supposed " [by the
author] " to be unconformable, are well developed between

* Reps. Geol. ExpL, 1885, p. 168.
t Reps. Geol. ExpL, 1886-87, p. 222.
I Reps. Geol. ExpL, 1887-88, p. 54.
§ Loc. cit., p. 43.

408 Traiuactions. — Geology.

Mauiigaturoto and Colbeck's estate, and appear in that direc-
tion perfectly conformable to the hydraulic limestone ; and
all over the west of the Bay of Islands County and in the
Hokianga district 1 judged the relations of the hydraulic
limestone to the Inoceranms beds to be a relationship showing
the stratigraphical conformity of the higher and lower beds
mentioned."

Mr. McKay, in 1890, in his report " On the Prospects of
Coal at Pakaraka, Bay of Islands, Auckland," again affirms
his belief that the hydraulic limestone overlies the Whangarei
limestone. Speaking of the section at Ngahikunga, he says,
"The limestone" [Whangarei] "is overlain by the firestcne
and hydraulic limestone division of the Cretaceo-tertiary
series."*

In the same year Mr. McKay, reporting on the geology of
the district around Whangaroa Harbour, states that in the
north branch of the Kaeo River the hydraulic limestone forms
"the highest member of the" [Cretaceo-tertiary] "series,"!
and is, he continues, overlain, apparently conformably, by the
Kaeo greensands, that had always been regarded by the Geo-
logical Survey as the equivalent of the Kawakawa greensands
forming the roof of the coal. As the hydraulic limestone was
still supposed to overlie the coal greensands, the Kaeo green-
sands, since they followed the hydraulic limestone, were now
correlated with a horizon in harmony with that theory.

In 1892 Sir James Hector illustrates his Progress Report
with vertical sections of the boreholes put down by the Kawa-
kawa Coal Company in 1883, and shows, as did Mr. McKay,
the " Amuri limestone, chalk, chalk with tiints, VI. c/," over-
lying the Whangai'ei limestone.]:

Mr. McKay, in his report "On the Hikurangi Coalfield"
in 1892, shows the hvdraulic limestone as the closing member
of the Cretaceo-tertiary series, and, as in former reports, k is
shown overlying the Whangarei limestone conformably. i

The succession of beds on the south side of Parengarenga
Harbour, in the North Cape district, is stated by Mr. McKay
to be, in descending order — hydraulic limestone, firestones
interbedded with greensand, shales and sandstone with cal-
careous concretions, often covered with a layer of cone-in-cone
limestone, and containing fragments of Inoccravius.\\ This
section, it will be seen, is almost identical with that at Batley,
on the Kaipara.

Sir James Hector, m his Progress Report for 1903,

• Reps. Geol. Expl., 1890-91, p. 62.

t Loc. cit., pp. 68 and 69.

J Reps. Geol. Expl., 1892-93, p. xii.

§ Loc. cit., p. 57.

II Loc. cit., p. 86.

Park. — Age and Relations of New Zealand Coalfields. 409

page xii., commenting on Mr. McKay's work in the North
Cape district, uses the following significant words. He says,
" No fossils have yet been found in this stratum " [hydraulic
limestones] " where it overlies the formations next to be men-
tioned " [i.e., Whangarei limestone and coal greensands] "in
the Kawakawa Basin by which their age can be decided.
They" [hydraulic limestones] "have been referred to the
horizon of the Amuri limestone. If they are the same lime-
stone as that mentioned by Mr. McKay as occurring at the
sources of the Waitangi and Kaeo Eivers, and which is asso-
ciated stratigraphically with sandstones and shale containing
Ammonites and Inoceramus, this identification would be justi-
fied. Unfortunately, wherever these forms are found the
downward sequence does not develop the greensands with coal
as at Kawakawa. On the contrary, greensands decomposing
to rusty sands, and containing such forms as characterize the
cover of the coal at Kawakawa and Hikurangi, and also on
the west coast of the South Island, are reported by Mr.
McKay to rest on the hydraulic limestone of the Kaeo
locality."

Eeviewing the foregoing, we find that Sir James Hector,
Mr. Cox, and Mr. McKay have always maintained (a) that
the hydraulic limestone overlies the Whangarei limestone
which was acknowledged to overlie the coal-measures of
Kawakawa and Hikurangi ; (b) that the hydraulic limestone
was the equivalent of the Amuri limestone in the South
Island ; and (c) that the Pahi and Kawakawa coal greensands
containing a Tertiary fauna were the equivalent of the green-
sands with Inoceramus underlying the hydraulic limestone.

The Amuri limestone is held by the Geological Survey to
underlie the Gamaru (Weka Pass) stone conformably ; there-
fore with the hydraulic limestone above the Whangarei lime-
stone, and its equivalent the Amuri limestone below the
Oamaru stone, it was found impossible to correlate the
Whangarei limestone with the Gamaru stone.

The views expressed by myself were [a) that the hy-
draulic limestone underlaid the Whangarei limestone, (6) that
the latter was the equivalent of the Gamaru stone, (c) that the
hydraulic limestone was the equivalent of the Amuri lime-
stone, and {d) that the hydraulic limestone overlaid the coal
greensands.

It should be noted, however, that every one, myself in-
cluded, expressed some doubt as to the true relations of the
hydraulic limestone ; and it may be mentioned that the many
discordant views on this important question were principally
due to the obscurity of the sections, caused by the disturbed
condition of the strata and the difficulty of obtaining a con-
tinuous or complete succession of the beds on account of the

410 Tran&actions. — Geologj/.

land being deeply intersected by numerous tidal rivers and
ramifying arms of the sea.

The evidence of the Kawakawa boreholes, supplied by
Mr. McKay, seemed perfectly conclusive that the hydraulic
limestone was superior to the coal-measures ; but I found, on
making inquiries from Mr. T. P. Moody, under whose super-
vision the boreholes were put down, that no hydraulic lime-
stone was actually cut in the boreholes. The beds in No. 2
borehole, referred by Mr. McKay to the Amuri-limestone:
group of the Cretaceo-tertiary, were as follows : —

Ft. in.
Blue clay .. ... ... ... 30 0

Chocolate-coloured clay ... 10 0

Soft clays, no core ... ... ... 194 2

234 2

It is obvious from the above that Mr. McKay did not base-
bis opinion regarding the superior position of the hydraulic
limestone upon the identification of that rock in the material
cut in the borehole, but correlated the above clays with the
Amuri limestone, apparently because these clays occupied
the position relatively to the Whangarei limestone which
the hydraulic limestone was supposed to occupy.*

After an exhaustive inquiry in 1899 as to the position of
the hydraulic limestone, I found (a) that the hydraulic lime-
stone is conformable to the glauconitic greensands and cone-
in-cone beds at Batley and elsewhere, and belongs to the same
sti-atigraphical system ; {h) that the Geological Survey was
right m correlating the hydraulic limestone with the Amuri
limestone, but (c) was wrong in placing the hydraulic lime-
stone above the Whangarei limestone ; {d) that I was right in
correlating the Whangarei limestone with the Oamaru stone;
(e) that I was right in placing the liydraulic limestone below
the Whangarei limestone, (/) but wrong in identifying the
white clays interstratified with shelly limestone in the Pahi
section with the hydraulic limestone ; (g) that the green-
sands at Pahi containing a Tertiary fauna occur at the base
of the Lower Tertiary series, and are probably the equivalent
of the greensands forming the roof of the coal at Kawakawa
and Hikurangi ; and {h) that the Komiti beds, referred by
me doubtfully to the Pareora series, probably form the lowest
horizon of the Lower Tertiary series— or, in other words, that
the Komiti beds form the lower beds of the Pahi greensaud
series.

The stratigraphical connection of the hydraulic limestone
to the Inocerainus greensands was practically admitted by

• Eeps. Geol. Expl., 1883-84, p. 133.

I'ahk.— Age and Relations of Neiv Zealand Coalfields. 411

Mr. McKay in 1887 when he wrote, " And all over the west
of the Bay of Islands County and in the Hokianga district I
judged the relations of the hydraulic limestone to the Ino-
cerainns beds to be a relationship showing the stratigraphical
conformity of the higher and lower beds mentioned."'''

The succession of formations determined, by me in 1899'
was as follows, in descending order : —

Miocene : Komiti beds, Pareora series('?) —

(a.) Foraminiferal limestone,

{b.) Volcanic tuffs, with lignite.

(c.) Volcanic breccias.

[d.) Ferruginous sandstones.

(c.) Crassatella beds.

(/.) Sandy clays, with Pecten zittelli.
Oligocene : Oamaru series —

(a.) Whangarei limestones.

(b.) Calcareous sandstones.

[d.) Marly greensands, with Tertiary marine fauna.

[e.) Coal-seams and fireclay.

(/.) Grits and conglomerates.
Cretaceous : Waipara series —

(ft.) Grey chalky claystones.

(b.) Hydraulic limestone.

(c.) Glauconitic greensands.

(d.) Calcareous flaky sandstone and shaly clays, with
Septaria often incrusted with a layer of cone-
in-eone limestone.
Trias —

Slaty shales and sandstones forming basement rock of
country.

It is not a little singular that in places outside the North
Auckland district the stratigraphical connection of the hy-
draulic limestone and Inoceramus shaly clays with cone-in-
cone limestone has never been called in question.

In his first report on East Cape district! Mr. McKay
considers them conformable; and in his reports "On the
Country between Cape Kidnappers and. Cape Turnagain,"J
and " On the Southern Part of the East Wairarapa District, "§
they are shown to belong to the same series, and are placed,
in the younger Secondary period.

A re-examination of the country north of Napier in 1886-
did not lead Mr. McKay to change his opinion on this-

* Reps. Geol. Expl., 1887-88, p. 54.
t Reps. Geol. Expl., 1872-73, p. 136.

I Reps. Geol. Expl., 187i-76, p. 44, and see sections on sheet facing
page 50.

§ Reps. Geol. Expl., 1878-79, p. 72, and sections on sheet facing p. 88.

412 Transactions. — Geology.

question/'^ And, further, when discussing the geology of Wai-
apu Valley he refers to the rocks representing the Amuri lime-
stone as belonging to the " Cretaceous" period.!

In December of 1874 I made a collection of Tertiary
marine shells from certain sandy clays in the lower part of
the Maungapakeha Valley. These clays rested unconformably
on soft shaly claystones containing fragments of a fibrous shell
which, I have no doubt, belonged to the genus Inoceravius.
On a subsequent visit to this district I found that the Ino-
cerarmis beds were associated with grey chalky clays, which
are now known throughout the North Island as hvdraulic
limestone.

In 1888, in my report " On the Probable Discovery of Oil
and Coal in Wairarapa North County," | after speaking of the
occurrence of hydraulic limestone on Ika Farm, I state that
" this limestone is associated with the younger members of
the Upper Secondary rocks"; and in the argillaceous mem-
bers of these rocks I found that fragments of Inoceramus were
not uncommon.

In the South Island the conformable relations of the
Amuri limestone to the underlying Secondary beds have been
acknowledged by every one, but different opinions are enter-
tained by the Geological Survey and Captain Hutton as to
the interpretation of the sections at Waipara and Weka
Pass.

The chief point of contention is concerning the relations
of the Weka Pass stone (Oamaru stone) to the Anmri lime-
stone.

In South Canterbury and North Otago the Oamaru series
consists of the following members in descending order : —
(a.) Oamaru stone.
{h.) Marly and sandy clays.

(c.) Marly greensands, often with calcareous concre-
tions.
(d.) Quartz grits, fireclays, and coal.

At Waipara and Weka Pass the Weka Pass stone, which
has always been acknowledged to be the equivalent of the
Oamaru stone, rests directly upon the Amuri hmestone. The
Weka Pass stone forms a sloping plane deeply dissected by
streams, and in following round the contours of the valleys
is always found resting on a level or nearly level surface of
Amuri limestone, thereby presenting at many places the ap-
pearance of complete stratigraphical conformity.

Since 1873 Captain Hutton has consistently maintained

• Reps. Geol. ExpL, 188G-87, p. 218.

t Loc. cit., p. 218.

J Reps. Geol. Expl., 1887-88, p. 24.

Park. — Age and Belations of New Zealand Coalfields. 413

that the Weka Pass stone was unconformable to the Amuri
hmestone and its associated saurian beds."^'

After his first examination of Weka Pass district, in 1867,
Sir James Hector referred the Amuri limestone and saurian
grseusands to the younger Secondary period,! but since about
1872 he has referred the Weka Pass stone, and all the beds
below it down to the base of the Waipara saurian series, to
the Cretaceo-tertiary series.

Thus, according to the Geological Survey the Weka Pass
stone in North Canterbury is underlain conformably by beds
containing a purely Secondary fauna, and in South Canter-
bury by beds containing only a Tertiary fauna. Placed side
by side the sequence at each place is as follows : —

Cretaceo-tertiary Series of Geological Survey.

North Canterbury,
(a.) Oamaru (Weka Pass) stone.
(b.) Amuri limestone,
(c.) Greensands, &c., with saurians.

{d.) Quartz grits and lignite.

South Canterbury. I
(a.) Oamaru stone.
(b.) Marly, sandy clays,
(c.) Marly greensands, with Tertiary

fauna.
(d.) Quartz grits and coal.

The apparent stratigraphical continuity of the sequence at
Weka Pass and Waipara has been a puzzle and stumbling-
block to all geologists who have examined these places, ex-
cepting, perhaps. Captain Hutton. It is well known, how-
ever, that in many sections in the south-east of England
Eocene beds appear to rest conformably on the chalk — that
is, the bedding-planes of the younger beds are conformable
to the surface of the chalk, which in many places presents
an even or gently undulating plane.

The palaeontological evidence of unconformity at Waipara
between the Weka Pass stone and the Amuri series is con-
clusive, and I am of the opinion that the absence of the
usual Tertiary members below the Weka Pass stone is due
to diffei'ential movements of the land as between North and
South Canterbury after the close of the Cretaceous period.
The Geological Survey, still adhering to the belief that the
Oamaru series contains in some places a Tertiary fauna and
in others a Secondary fauna, includes all the valuable coal-
fields of New Zealand in oue formation — namely, the Cre-
taceo-tertiary series.

Up till the beginning of the present year I had not ex-
amined the Shag Point coalfield, and, in deference to the
opinion of the Geological Survey, had always referred the

* Reps. Geol. ExpL, 1873-74, p. 30.

t Reps. Geol. ExpL, 1868-69, pp. xi. and xii.

+ As at Kakahu and Waiho, or Ngapara, in North Otago.

414 Transactions. — Geology.

coalfields of New Zealand to one geological period. '■■ Early
in this year I examined Shag Valley, Horse Range, and Shag
Point coalfield, and found that the Oamaru series rested
unconformably on the Shag Point coal series of Cretaceous
age in the noanner shown first by Sir James Hector in his large
geological section of Otago, prepared in November, 1864, and
now in possession of the Otago University School of Mines;
and afterwards by Captain Hutton, in 1875. f

The late Sir Julius von Haast also identified the uncon-
formity between the Oamaru series and the Secondary coal-
measures, but he fell into an error in placing the unconformity
below, instead of above, the Moeraki Septaria beds.]:

The geology of Shag Valley disproves the Cretaceo-tertiary
theory of the Geological Survey in the most convincing
manner. Here the Tertiary coal-measures of the Oamaru
series and Secondary measures of the Waipara series exist
side by side, the younger abutting against the older with a
degree of unconformity not often seen among the younger
stratified formations in New Zealand.

The Tertiary coal-measures in the Shag Valley consist of
the following members, as shown by various prospecting-works
and outcrops : — -

Oamaru series —

(a.) Oamaru stone.

(b.) Blue sandy clays (foraminiferous).
(c.) Marly greensands, with Teiiiary fauna.
(d.) Quartz grits and conglomerates, with coal (South
Palmerston coalfield).

The greatest thickness of this series obtained in the Shag
Valley was 780 ft.

The succession of the Secondary coal-measures at Shag
Point is as follows : —

"Waipara series —

(a.) Shaly clays and sandstones, with septarian boulders
incrusted with cone-in-cone limestone and con-
taining saurian remains.

(b.) Greensands (glauconitic).

(c.) Ferruginous sandstones, grits, and conglomerates,
w'ith younger Secondary fossils.

(d.) Quartz grits, with coal-seams (Shag Point coal-
field).

(e.) Horse Range conglomerates.

• Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxi., 1888, p. 325; and Proc. Inst. Min.
and Met., London, vol. viii., 1899, p. 146.

t Hutton; "Geology of Otago," 1875, p. 44.
J Reps. Geol. Expl., 1872-73, p. 24.

Park. — Age and Belations of Neiv Zealand Coalfields. 415

In the line of section from Shag Point Coal-mine across
Puke-iwi-tahi the thickness of the series is about 2,200 ft., of
which the Horse Eange conglomerates comprise probably
about 1,500 ft.

In his paper " On the Relative Ages of New Zealand Coal-
fields " Captain Hutton states that in his opinion the coalfields
■of the colony may be grouped according to their age into four
series, as follows :— *

4. Pareora series, including coalfields of (a) Mokau, {b)
Waihao, (c) Waitaki, ((/) Pomahaka, {e) Dunstan(?).

3. Oamaru series, including coalfields of (a) Bay of Islands,
{b) Whaugarei, (c) Drury and Lower Waikato, {d)
Nelson and Motupipi, (e) Kakahu, (/) Green Island
and Saddle Hill, {g) Tokomairiro and Kaitangata,
(//) Nightcaps, (i) Orepuki.

2. Waipara series, including coalfields of (a) Malvern Hills,
(b) Mount Somers, (c) Shag Point, (d) Mount Hamil-
ton.

]. Amuri series, including coalfields of (a) Pakawau, [b)
Wangapeka, (c) Westport, {d) Greymouth, (e) Reef-
ton.

Captain Hutton considers that the Mokau coalfield belongs
to the Pareora series. But is it so? On the other hand, he
places the Lower Waikato coals in the Oamaru series. I
am satisfied that whatever is the age of the Waikato coals is
also the age of the Mokau coal.

Near Huntly and Taupiri the coal passes below marly
greensands containing a marine fauna that seems the same as
that overlying the coal at the Bay of Islands and Hikurangi.
The greensands are followed by sandy clays, generally fora-
miniferous, and these are in turn overlain by calcareous sand-
stones, which pass insensibly into a hard limestone towards
the south and west. The limestone contains Scalaria lyratx,
a Lima, Pecten hochstetteri, and Meoma craufiordi, which
are characteristic of the Oamaru stone elsewhere. In 1885 I
traced it from the Waikato River at Taupiri westward to
Raglan and southward to Waipa, Kawhia, Te Kuiti, Upper
and Lower Mokau. In the Raglan district it is a yellowish-
brown sandy limestone resembling the Weka Pass and Ocotara
stone, but proceeding south it passes into a hard shelly lime-
stone. It should be noted, however, that the stratigraphical
succession of the underlying beds down to the coal at the
base of the series is everywhere remarkably uniform.

This series, which I now refer to the Oamaru series, is
everywhere in this region, as follows : —

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxii., 1889, p. 387.

416 Transactions. — Geology.

{a.) Limestone ( = Oamaru stone).

(b.) Sandy and marly clays (foraminiferous).

(c.) Marly greensands (fossiliferous).

(d.) Grits, conglomerates, and. coal.

Captain Hutton also includes the Waihao and Waitaki coals
in the Pareora series, and this at once raises the question. Is
there a Pareora series in South Canterbury or Otago ? On this
point there seems to be no very definite information.

Sir Julius von Haast, in his " Geology of Canterbury and
Westland," 1875, page 319, like Captain Hutton, includes the
Waihao and Waitaki fossiliferous beds in the Pareora series.

In 1880 Mr. McKay and the author made a collection of
fossils from certain sands and sandy clays at Mount Harris,
Waihao, including most of the forms which were at that time
believed to be characteristic of the Pareora series, such as
CucuUaea aftemcata, Dcntalium soliduni, Dentali^im gigan-
teum, Natica solida, Tiirritella gigantca, Dosinia sub-rosea,
Pcchmculns laticostatus, and Limopsis zealandica.

At Elephant Hill these supposed Pareora beds rest on
marly greensands, and, as these marly greensands form the
cover of the coal, Mr. McKay placed an unconformity be-
tween them and the supposed Pareoras — that is, he placed
the marly greensands below the Waihao (Oamaru) limestone
and the supposed Pareoras above.''' But this course was
apparently followed to conform to a theoretical view, since the
supposed Pareora beds wherever tiiey occur in this district, or
even in North Otago, are always found resting on the coal
greensands, and never, so far as my recent investigations go,
on the Waihao or Oamaru limestone.

I agree with Mr. McKay in placing the marly greensands
below the Waihoa limestone, but I am of the opinion that the
supposed Pareora sands and sandy clays are conformable to
and form the upper horizon of the greensands, and that both
underlie the Waihao limestone.

In March of this year Mr. A. Hamilton and the author
made a collection of fossils at Wharekuri, in the Waitaki
Valley, from certain sands and sandy clays which contained
most of the forms supposed to be typical of the Pareora series,
besides many corals, mcluding some fine examples of Trocho-
cyathus viantclli. It was from these beds that Mr. McKay, in
1880 and 1881, collected the remains of Kekenodon onomata.
Hector.

The sandy beds lay conformably on marly greensands, from
which we collected a large and beautifully preserved example
of Aturia ziczac. The greensands, as pointed out by Mr.

• Reps. Geol. Expl., 1881, p. G7.

Fauk.— Age and Relations of Neiu Zealand Coalfields. 417

McKay, pass downwards into greysands and quartz grits and
conglomerates, which in turn rest on the basement rocks.*

The sandy Kekenodon beds and underlying green sands,
itc, therefore foi'm the base of the Tertiary beds in the old
Waitaki Fiord, and, pToceeding westward, they pass under a
yellowish-brown limestone, which Mr. McKay calls the Ote-
kaike limestone.

I think that there can be no doubt that this limestone is
the horizontal equivalent of the Ngapara (Oamaru) limestone.
But, without laying any stress upon the exact correlation of
the limestones, we have in the Wharekuri Basin a section of
the Oamaru series exactly parallel with that at Waihao Kiver ;
and there is little to wonder at in this parallelism if these beds,
as seems to me likely, were deposited on the floor of the same
continuous sea.

The position of the sandy beds at Wharekuri, containing,
as we find, most, if not all, of the forms hitherto supposed to
be typical of the Pareora series, at once raises a question as
to the relations of the Awamoa and other supposed Pareoras
in North Otago to the Oamaru stone. But, quite apart from
the position of the Pareora beds in South Canterbury and
North Otago, I am agreed with Mr. McKay that the coal at
Waihao, Waitaki, and west of Oamaru occurs below the
Oamaru stone.

In 1866 Sir James Hector distinguished two coal-bearing
formations on the west coast of the South Island, an upper
or pitch-coal series, and a lower or bituminous-coal series.
This subdivision has been pretty generally acknowledged by
every one from that time up to the present date, but diverse
opinions have been expressed as to the relations of the two
series.

The coalfields of New Zealand, in my opinion, may be
grouped according to their age into two divisions, as follows : —

Oamaru series —

(a.) Kawakawa, Bay of Islands.

(b.) Hikurangi, Whangarei.

(c.) Ngunguru, north of Whangarei.

[d.) Taupiri and Huntly, Lower Waikato.

(e.) Waipa-Hikurangi, Upper Waikato.

(/.) King-country and Upper Wanganui.

(g.) Mokau, Upper and Lower.

(h.) West Wanganui, Collingwood.

{i.) Inangahua, Bulier County.

(j.) Kakahu.. South Canterbury.

{k.) Waihao, South (Canterbury.

(/.) Waitaki, North Otago.

*Rep.?. Geol. Expl., 1881, p. 67.
27— Trans.

418 Transactions. — Geology.

(m.) Ngapara, North Otago.

(w.) Waikouaiti, North Otago.

(o.) Saddle Hill and Green Island, near Dunedin.

(p.) Kaitangata, South Otago.

(q.) Forest Hill, Winton, Southland.

Waipara series —

(a.) Pakawau, Collingwood.
(b.) Mokihinui, West Coast,
(c.) Westport, West Coast.
(d.) Greyniouth. West Coast.
(e.) Malvern Hills, Canterbury,
(/.) Shag Point, North Otago.

[Note. — Since this paper was written the author has
•obtained evidence in North Otago and South Canterbury
which confirms his conclusion that the Pareora beds underlie
the Oamaru stone, and therefore belong to the Oamaru series.]

Art. XXXII. — On tJie Geology of North Head, Waikouaiti,
and its Relation to the Geological History of Dunedin.

By Professor James Park, F.G.S., Director Otago Uni-
versity School of Mines.

[Read before the Otago Institicte, 13th October, 1903.]
Plate XXXII.

The hill forming Waikouaiti North Head, locally known as
Mount Cronin, is terminated on its south side — that is, on
the side facing the inlet — by a sharply defined escarpment of
great height. At the foot of this escarpment there is an
immense talus which descends by a series of steep wave-like
undulations towards the sea, and terminates against the shore-
line in a sea-wall of irregular height, broken at intervals by
breaches over which it is possible to gain the rolling surface of
the talus downs above.

The talus is principally composed of large and small masses
of sandstone that have slipped down from the cliffs above. It
seems to owe its origin to a series of landslips in places so
extensive that masses of rocks many hundreds of scjuare yards
in superficial area have settled down in such a manner as to
retain their original position relatively to the horizon.

The fallen masses of sandstone forming the cliffs at the
end of the sandy beach are so disposed that the original
planes of deposition are nearly horizontal, thereby giving the
impression, at first examination, that they are in situ, a decep-

s

Park.— 0/i the Geology of North Head, Waikouaiti. 419

tion not readily dispelled until the face of the rocky escarp-
ment above is carefully examined. Proceeding, however,
along the sea-rim of the talus from the end of the sandy
beach the masses of rock forming the sea-wall are found to
lie tumbled in all directions. These circumstances may be
explained on the reasonable assumption that, the line of slid-
ing being necessarily more or less parallel to the face of the
escarpment, the descent of the moving masses on the slippery
surface of the underlying blue clays next the inlet would be
uniform and gradual, whereas at the north-east end of the
escarpment, where the supporting clays would be subject to
.undercutting by the sea, the overhanging sandstone would be
liable to break away in large blocks whenever the unsupported
weisfht of the mass became greater than the transverse
strength of the material.

Mount Cronin, when viewed from the railway-line on the
south side of Waikouaiti Inlet, is seen to be dome shaped,
and to surmount the surrounding country by several hundred
feet.

General Geological Structure.

A general view of Mount Cronin shows that it is composed
of a series of marine sandy beds now consolidated into soft
sandstones. These sandstones rest confoimably on marme
blue clay, and are overlain unconformably by gravel and silt
beds, which in their turn are crowned by a flow of basalt.

The basalt occupies the summit of the hill, and there can
be little doubt that this commanding eminence owes its pre-
sent existence to this hard cap, which has protected the
underlying loosely compacted gravels and silts from destruc-
tion by the ever-active agencies of subaerial denudation.

Omitting the sand-dunes, slope deposits, and other recent
accumulations, we have thus in this interesting section three
distinct formations — one marine, one fresh- water or terres-
trial, and one volcanic. The peculiar association of these
formations and their relations to each other throw a strong
light on the geological history of Dunedin, and enables us to
read aright sections heretofore involved in obscurity.

Classification of Eock-formations.

To facilitate description the rock-formations occurring at
Mount Cronin may be classified as follows : —

Sand-dunes and talus deposits Eecent.

Mount Cronin basalt ... New^er Pliocene.

Waikouaiti leaf beds ... Older Pliocene.

Waikouaiti sandstone ■■■) r\

TP ■ -c 1 Oamaru series.

i oraminiferous clays . . , i

420 Transactions.^Geology.

FORAMINIFEROUS ClAYS.

These clays form the basement rock of this place. They
are exposed at the north end of Waikouaiti Beach, where
they occur as a flat gently shelving plane lying below high-
water mark. A few chains around the rocky beach they rise-
in two places into the sea-cliif, a height of some 30 ft., forming
small exposures in the face of the sandstone talus by which
they are surmounted and surrounded.

In most places the clays are somewhat sandy, and where
exposed to the weather are friable and crumbling and of a
pale-blue colour. At all the points where I examined them
they were found to contain a large assemblage of Foramini-
fcra, among which many genera were represented, embracing
forms possessing elaborate and beautiful shell-structures.
Besides Foraminifcra, I found some fragments of minute,
obscure bivalves, but the only genus I was able to identify
was a small Pecten.

At the first cliff-exposure after leaving the end of the
sandy beach the clays contain irregular bands of dark-green
glauconitic sandstone varying from 1 in. to 4 in. or 5 in. thick,
except at the top of the outcrop, where there is a deposit
of greensand the actual extent of which is obscured by the
talus. The strike of the glauconitic veins exposed at the top-
of high-water mark is east-and-west, and the dip south at an
angle of 62°. Small nests, streaks, and spangles of iron-
pyrites, some of which look like replacements of organic
remains, are not infrequent in the clays and glauconitic sand-
stone.

The clays are so obscured by the talus that their relation-
ship to the overlying sandstones cannot be ascertained at this
place. Mr. McKay, in his report on eastern Otago,* men-
tioned the occurrence of calcareous sandstones at Cornish
Head, but seemed to be unaware of the presence of the
blue clays. In his map, however, he shows a strip of what
he calls " marly clays " running from Waikouaiti Township
northward through the saddle leading to Pleasant River. He
does not appear to be clear as to the position of these clays,
as, speaking of them (page 6), he says, " These are the pro-
bable equivalents of the Maheno marls that on the left bank
of the Kakanui are seen resting on the Waireka tufas, and at
the same place replace or pass under the Ototara limestone."
In White Bluff, he continues, " they are overlain by a volcanic
breccia." Again, on page 237 of the same report, Mr.
McKay says, " These beds as they underlie the calcareous
sandstones " [Ototara stone] , " already described, are sup-
posed to form part of the sequence affected by the fault along

♦ Reps. Geol. Expl., 1886-87, pp. 6-8.

Paek. — On the Geology of North Head, Waikouaiti. 421

"Woolshed Creek." He further mentions, on the same page,
that in tlie clays in the guUies south-east of Janet's Peak
Pccten zittelli, Hutton. Leda, and Foraviinifera are not rare.

We have already seen that in the flat ledges on the beach
near Cornish Head the foraminiferous clays are associated
with veins of glauconitic material which strike east-and-
west and dip south at high angles, whereas the overlying
sandstones have only a slight inclination to the southward
at angles rarely exceeding 12°.

If it be held that the glauconitic veins coincide with the
original bedding-planes of the clays, then we must conclude
that a stratigraphical unconformity of a very marked character
separates the clays and overlying sandstones. But the evi-
dence obtainable elsewhere does not support this view. At
Pleasant Eiver and near Palmerston the calcareous sand-
stones (Ototara stone) are underlain conformably by green-
sands and blue foraminiferous clays that seem to be the
stratigraphical equivalents of the Waikouaiti clays.

At Whare Plat, in Silverstream Valley, calcareous sand-
stones are underlaid conformably by greensands and blue
sandy clays, the latter containing a large number of Foraruini-
fera, among which 1 recognised several of the genera found
in the clays at Waikouaiti Beach.

Among the Foraviinifera from the blue clays at the end of
Waikouaiti Beach I distinguished, with the kind assistance of
Mr. A. Hamilton, the following genera: Nodosaria, four sp.,
Gristeliaria, Frondiculari'i, liotalina, Vaginulina, Dentdina.

These protozoans have such a wide range in time that
they throw no light upon this question. The deep surface-
clays between Waikouaiti and Palmerston make it impossible
to trace a direct stratigraphical connection between the fora-
miniferous clays at these places, and consequently the re-
lations existing between the blue clays and calcareous sand-
stones at Waikouaiti must still remam an open question. I
am, however, of the opinion that these rocks belong to the
same stratigraphical succession, and believe that subsequent
investigation will confirm this view.

Waikouaiti Sandstones,
These consist of a series of soft yellowish - brown sand-
stones, which show a thickness of 360 ft. in vertical section
in the great escarpment of Mount Cronin facing Waikouaiti
Inlet. They are streaked at intervals with harder layers of
a slightly more ferruginous or calcareous material, w^hich
weathers out in the face of the cliff in irregular honeycombed
ledges often resembling aggregations of fucoid stems. In the
upper horizons there are fossiliferous layers of a more cal-

422 Transactions. — Geology.

caveous character, which form low rocky ledges on the grassy
slopes on the north side of the hill.

The whole series is of marine origin, and contains five dis-
tinct fossiliferous zones, which enable the beds to be divided
into two well-niai'ked groups. The lower group, correspond-
ing to the Oamaru stone, comprises a thickness of some 220 ft.
It contains four fossiliferous zones, at the following elevations:
At a height of 165 ft., Waldheimia; 230 ft., Meovia craiofordi.
Pecten hochstetteri ; 270ft., Waldheimia ; 295 fi., Waldheimia.

In the lower zone Waldheimias (Magellania, Bayle) are
scattered sparingly through a thickness of some 10 ft., in
the third zone through -Ift., and in the upper through 2ft.
Fossils are generally more abundant in the upper than in the
lower zones.

The upper group of beds contains a number of forms which
are common in the upper part of the Hutchison Quarry or
Mount Brown beds of the Oamaru sei'ies. Among the mol-
lusca collected were recognised Cardita, Venus, Limujjsis,
Nncula, Struthiolaria ; and, among the corals, Flabelluni ra-
dians. Besides these, there were found the casts of many
minute univalves and bivalves too indistinct to be identified.

Waikouaiti Leaf-bed Series.

This series consists of a succession of silts, sands, and
gravels about 45 ft. thick resting unconformably on a slightly
denuded surface of the marine sandstones. The sediments
of this series, from their fiuviatile or lacustrine origin, are
subject to great variation in thickness, and this is especially
noticeable in the case of the gravel and sand beds, which
present the arrangement of current-bedding characteristic of
deposits of this kind. On the west side of the cliff, under
the trig, station, they consist of the following members in
descending order : —

Ft.

1. Sands and silts, with ferruginous concretions 7

2. Gravels ... ... ... ... 2-6

3. Griiiy sands ... ... ... ... 8

4. Coarse gravels ... ... ... ... 7

The leaf-bed series, at the seaward end of the escarpment,
consists of the following sequence, which naturally shows a
close correspondence with that below the trig, station : —

Ft.

1. Sands and grits ... ... ... 12

2. Grit-bed ... .. ... ... 3

3. Grey silts and sands ... ... ... 8

4. Coarse gravels... ... ... ... 18

6. Leaf bed — fine grey silts ... ... 6

Park. — On the Geology of North Head, Waikouaiti. 423

The leaf bed thins out toward the westward, and dis-
appears altogether some yards before a point below the trig,
is reached. The material composing this bed consists of
excessively fine grey pumice sand or silt, in which occur
numerous inclusions of grey pumice, occurring in rounded
fragments, seldom exceeding 2 in. in diameter, but generally
under lin. This is interesting as the first discovery of
bedded pumice in any part of the South Island of New Zea-
land.

The leaf-impressions are numerous and not well preserved.
They include what appear to be representatives of beech,
myrtle, oak, elm, and some ferns. The leaf bed is the lowest
member of the series, and is overlain by a bed of coarse
gravel of variable thickness, which can be traced continuously
from one end of the escarpment to the other. The gravels
consist principally of pebbles and boulders of basanite and
phonolite.

The basanite is blackish-green in colour, fine-grained in
texture, and shows conspicuous crystals and grains of nephe-
line. When examined in polarised light it is found to be
principally an aggregate of plagioclase, augite, olivine, and
nepheline. The base is greyish-blue in colour, not abundant,
and crowded with small laths and microlites of feldspar. The
augite and olivine occur in large well-developed phenocrysts.
The olivine is generally much altered and serpentinised. The
nepheline occurs in large gra.ins and in crystals often imper-
fectly developed. A little sanidine, biotite, apatite, and mag-
netite are present. In many places the rock is tinged red
with iron-peroxide, evidently due to the oxidation of mag-
netite.

About 15 yards south of the trig, station the leaf-bed
series and the underlying sandstones are traversed by a
fault which hades to the south at an angle of about 45". The
vertical displacement of the beds caused by this fault is
about 40 ft.

Two minor faults with a displacement under 10 ft. can be
traced indistinctly on the seaward side of the escarpment,
near the outer rim of the basalt-flow.

Basalt-flow.
The summit of the hill is occupied by a flow of basalt
which is probably a remnant of the flow which crowns the
summits of Mount Eoyal, Mount Mackenzie, Mount Watkins,
Derdan Hill, and other prominent elevations in the neighbour-
hood. These isolated patches are all that now remain of the
basalt plateau that formerly extended from the Shag Valley
southward to Waitati, and from the schistose mountains on.
the west eastward to the sea.

424 Transactions. — Geology.

The basalt is fine in texture. Under the microscope it is
seen to consist principally of plagioclase, augite, and olivine.
The base is bluish-grey in colour, but not abundant. It is
crowded with microlites of feldspar and augite, and thickly
dusted with grains of magnetite. The feldspars occur as long
narrow laths. The phenocrysts show orientation in one
genei'al du-ection, which doubtless indicates the original plane
of fluxion. A little sanidine and apatite are present.

The existence of this outlier of basalt proves that the
sculpturing of the present contours has taken place since the
close of the Pliocene— that is, after volcanic activity had
ceased in this part of Otago.

Genekal Conclusions.

The Tertiary marine sandstones, leaf-bed series, and over-
lying flow of basalt are exposed in vertical section in a face of
steep escarpment nearly 200 yards long and 400 ft. high.
The face is bare or covered only with a scanty vegetation,
thereby enabling the actual junction of the different forma-
tions to be examined at many points of contact.

The geological relations are so clear that the Waikouaiti
section thus becomes of almost classic value when considered
in connection with the sequence of events that constitute the
geological history of the neighbourhood of Dunedin and the
region round about Mount Cargill and Waitati.

Unconformity of Dunedin Volcanic Bocks to Oamarii Series.
— Within the watershed of the Waitaii, Silverstream, and
Kaikorai Streams the great pile of volcanic ejecta wliich forms
the hills around l^unedin is found resting upon different mem-
bers of the Oamaru series, of which the Waikouaiti sandstone
forms a part.

An examination of the geological structure of tlie neigh-
bourhood of Dunedin shows that the Caversham sandstone
had been elevated and in some places highly denuded before
the commencement of volcanic activity in that region. The
unconformity between the marine series and volcanic rocks
is so well marked as to indicate a considerable lapse of time
between the formation of the one and the eruption of the
other.

Unconformahle lielations of Leaf-bed Series to Oamaru
Series. — No one seems to doubt that the Waikouaiti sand-
stone is the horizontal equivalent of the Caversham sand-
stone. When, tlierefore, we find terrestrial beds composed of
material derived from volcanic rocks that lie unconformably
ujjon the Caversham sandstone near Dunedin resting upon
equivalent marine beds at Waikouaiti, we can only conclude
that even a greater unconformity in time exists between the
terrestrial beds and marine series at Waikouaiti than between

Pakk. — On the Geology of North Head, Waikouaiti. 425

the parent volcanic rocks and marine sandstones near Dun-
edin.

Source of Basanite and Phonolite in Gravels. — The gravels
underlying the basalt-flow at Mount Cronin are, as we have
seen, principally composed of basanite and phonolite.

In his excellent paper on the lithology of Dunedin, Pro-
fessor Ulrich pointed out that the great mass of the volcanic
material in that region belonged to the phonolite group of
rocks, in which nepheline forms an essential component ;
while some, he said, through accession of plagioclase, and
either absence or presence of olivine, graduate respectively
towards tephrite and basanite/'' Since no basanite or phono-
lite is known in the neighbourhood of Waikouaiti, we may
conclude that the Mount Cronin gravels were derived from
the erosion of the basanites and phonolites described by
Professor Ulrich at Mount Cargill and Purakanui.

Age of Volcanic Rocks around Dunedin. — I have just
shown that the materials forming the gravel and sand beds
at Mount Cronin a^'e principally volcanic, and in all proba-
bility derived from the denudation of the volcanic area lying
between Waitati and Dunedin. Before, therefore, discussing
the age of the leaf beds it will be necessary, in the first
place, to consider the probable age of the volcanic rocks m
that area.

The volcanic rocks around Dunedin rest on a deeply
eroded surface of the Caversham sandstone and underlying
quartz sands and grits.

The Oamaru series, to which these rocks belong, is con-
sidered by Captain Hutton to be of Oligocene age ; but the
proportion of fossils belonging to living species in that for-
mation would indicate, from European standards, rather a
Miocene age. If, however, we accept the Oligocene age of
Captain Hutton, it is evident that the earliest volcanic out-
bursts could not have connnenced until some time in the
Miocene period, for we find that the Caversham sandstone,
one of the higher members of the Oamaru series, was
deposited, consolidated, elevated, and partly denuded before
the first outbursts began.

There is no evidence of contemporary volcanic activity
during the deposition of the Oamaru series anywhere south
•of Palmerston. There is, we know, abundant evidence that
volcanic outbursts took place during the deposition of the
middle members of the Oamaru series in the Oamaru basin.
But these outbursts were purely local, and there is nothing
to show that they reached north of the Waitaki or south of
the Shag Eiver. At any rate, south of Palmerston the

• Proc. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Science, vol. iii., 1891, p. 14.5.

426 Transactions. — Geology

marine Tertiary series is quite free from volcanic material.
It cannot therefore be said that the eruptions around Dun-
edin were a recrudescence of Oligocene activity.

It is pretty clear that volcanic activity commenced in the
Dunedin area after the Caversham sandstone had been sub-
ject to subaerial erosion, and for that reason I am disposed
to place the first outbursts in the later period of the
Miocene, or in the beginning of the Pliocene.

Age oj Waikoumti Leaf Beds. — I have already shown
that the materials composing the leaf-bed series at Mount
Cronin were in all probability derived from the south, prin-
cipally from the watershed formed by Mount Cargill range.
If the pile of volcanic ejectamenta forming that watershed
and neighbourhood was the result of Miocene eruptions, and
suffered subaerial erosion sufficiently prolonged to yield the
materials to form fluviatile or lacustrine beds at a place over
twenty miles distant, it is evident that the said beds cannot
be older than Pliocene. This conclusion is drawn from the
fact that the leaf beds are composed of materials derived and
transported by fluviatile action from a region where the parent
rocks rest on a higlily denuded surface of a marine formation
of Oligocene or Lower Miocene age.

So far the fossil flora of these beds has not been submitted
to a palaeobotanist ; but, in any case, such determinations,
except they are supported by other data, must always l)e
regarded with suspicion.

For the present, therefore, until better evidence is forth-
coming, I am inclined to place the leaf beds in the older Plio-
cene— that is, contemporary with the Wanganui older marine
series, and about synchronous with the lacustrine beds of
central Otago.

Bearing of Waikouaiti Section on Geological History of
Dunedin. — From this section we learn that the piles of vol-
canic rocks around Dunedin were the result of at least two
distinct periods of volcanic activity. And the presence of
pumice, phonolite, and l)asanite in the leaf-bed series would
tend to indicate tliat the earlier eruptions were of an acidic
or semi-basic type.

The materials composing the gravels of the leaf-bed series
were, as we have seen, apparently derived from the erosion of
the ejecta of the earlier eruptions, and we can only explain
their presence by assuming that these earlier outbursts were
succeeded by a period of volcanic quiescence during which the
newly ejected rocks were subjected to subaerial denudation.

The basic eruptions of the second period of activity
smothered the newly formed gravels in the protecting cap of
basalt which now crowns Mount Cronin and the higher hills-
m the neighbourhood.

Park. — On the Geology of North Head, Waikouaiti. 427

It is not assumed that the ejecta of each era was the result
of one stupendous outburst. On the contrary, the alternation
of fragmental matter and solid lava so often seen in the district
around Dunedin seems to justify the conclusion that in each
era there were alternating periods of quiescence and more or
less paroxysmal activity, each distinguished by some pecu-
liarity in the composition of its lavas and fragmental material.

The conclusion that a cessation of volcanic activity occurred
after the earlier outbursts does not depend alone upon the
evidence furnished by the section at Waikouaiti North Head.
At several places within the Dunedin area there is seen a
series of aqueous deposits both underlain and overlain by
volcanic rocks.

This sedimentary series consists of well-rounded gravels,
sands, and silts containing in places leaf-impressions, and in
others such an excess of carbonaceous matter as to pass mto
impure coal and oil-shale.

At the oil-shale outcrops between Burns's and Williams's
Streams, at the source of the Waitati, the succession of rocks
in descending order is as follows : —

1. Basic lava-How of great thickness.
/2. Oil-shale graduating into carbona-

Ft.

Probably
lacustrine

ceous sandstone ... .. 18

3. Volcanic tuff partially stratified ... 12

4. Impure brown coal ... ... 3

5. Volcanic tuff ... ... ... 12-15

Marine ... 6. Caversham sandstone.

The tuff underlying the oil-shale contains numerous frag-
ments of grey vesicular material resembling the pumice in the
leaf bed at Mount Cronin.

In the Kaikorai Valley the Caversham sandstone is over-
lain by a series of beds of lacustrine origin, consisting of fine
grey silts, sands, clays, and gravels composed principally of
volcanic material. The lacustrine beds are overlain by a great
pile of volcanic rocks.

The grey silts contain a large number of finely preserved
leaf-impressions, and in a collection of these made in 1901
Dr. Marshall identified species of oak, elm, birch or beech,
Magnolia, Piper, and Metrosiderosr'

The Kaikorai section has a striking resemblance to that at
Waikouaiti North Head, and there seems to be no reason to
doubt that the leaf-bed series at Mount Cronin is the hori-
zontal equivalent of the Kaikorai leaf beds.

In all that has been written about the geology of Dunedin
it is singular that the significance of the section exposed at Te

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxiv., 1901, p. 586.

428 Transactions. — Geology.

Maau Hill, locally known as Tanna Hill, situated near the
University Mining School, has heen entirely overlooked. Here
we have a succession of rocks almost identical with that at
Waikouaiti North Head and at Kaikorai Valley.

A few yards below Union Street Bridge, in the steep bank of
the Leith, is seen a bed of grey silts containing a few imperfect
leaf-impressions, numerous broken plant-remains, and a few
larger pieces of carbonised driftwood. The silts are not con-
tinuous for more than 25 yards, and, so far as they are
exposed, they thin out in both directions against a coarse
tuif-like sandstone. They exhibit characteristic current-bed-
ding. Overlying the plant bed there is a deposit of gravels
and sands composed principally of volcanic material. The
gravels in their turn are capped by the flow of rudely columnar
basalt which forms this well-known eminence. A deposit of
volcanic-ash rock rests on the undulating surface of the basalt.
In the bed of the stream, under the bridge, the plant silts are
seen resting on coarse volcanic breccia or agglomerate.

The succession in this important and interesting section is
therefore as follows : —

1. Surface clays and soil.

2. Volcanic ash from 8 ft. to 15 ft. thick.

3. Basalt-flow, about 25 ft.

4. Gravels, about 18 ft.

5. Grey plant silts, 5 ft. to 7 ft. thick, resting at ends

agamst tuff-like sandstone of variable thickness.

6. Coarse volcanic breccia.

At Waikouaiti, Kaikorai, and Waitati the plant-bed series
rests directly on the Caversham sandstone, and at Te Manu
Hill on fragmentary volcanic ejecta. The lesson to be de-
rived from this is that Dunedin was situated within the
theatre of volcanic activity during the period of the earlier
■outbursts.

Te Manu Hill is a place of great geological value, and I
trust that the exigencies of the Univeisity will not require
its removal, but that it will be reserved for all time as a geo-
logical witness of the past history of Dunedin. Its destruction
would be an irreparable loss to geologic science, and cause
the obliteration of a geological record that could never be re-
placed.='= Apart also from its geologic and scenic value, Te

• Mr. A. Hamilton informed me, after this paper was prepared, that
no interest had previously been attached to Te Manu Hill by geologists
because it was believed that the gravel and silt beds were of comparatively
recent date, and abutted against the basalt instead of underlying it. In
order to put this question beyond idl doubt I caused a pit to be sunk in
the floor of the old quarry facing the IMining School, and trenches to be
dug at the foot of ihe clil! on the l.eith Street side of the hill. In all
places the gravels were found below the basalt-fiow, as described above.
—J. P.

Pakk. — On the Geology of North Head, Waikouaiti. 429'

Manii Hill is an ideal site for the University astronomical
observatory.

Diiratiou of Volcanic Cessation. — The means to determine
this are only comparative. The leaf beds at Waikouaiti and
Kaikorai and the shale-beds ac Waitati rest directly on the
Caversham sandstone, from which we gather that the earlier
eruptions did not reach these areas.

On the other hand, the fine silts, muds, and ash at these
places clearly indicate that showers of finer ejecta at times
fell in the lake- basin in which these deposits were forming,
and doubtless also on the surrounding country. The gravel-
beds which close the leaf-bed series, moreover, prove that
iluviatile forces were active agents of ei'osion immediately
prior to the beginning of the second and final era of volcanic
activity, which culminated in the emission of the lavas over-
lying the gravels.

The plant-remains in the muds and silts inform us that a
varied forest vegetation grew on the shores of the Pliocene
lake ; while the oil-shale at Waitati may be held to indicate
the existence of a rich and long-continued growth of fresh-
water gelatinous algae or related forms.

At Te Manu Hill, near the Mining School, the silt and
gravel series rests on a surface of coarse volcanic breccia, a
circumstance which clearly indicates that the eastern shores
of the Pliocene lake reached to the area affected by the earlier
volcanic eruptions.

The gravels and tuffs which close the leaf-bed series seem
to have suffered little or no erosion prior to the renewal of
volcanic activity. They were apparently overwhelmed sud-
denly by stupendous outbursts, more violent and widespread
than those of the earlier period of eruption. We may there-
fore conclude that the period of cessation was approximately
equivalent to the time required for the deposition of the inter-
calate leaf-bed series.

After the period of cessation volcanic activity commenced
anew, culminating in the more basic outbursts in newer
Pliocene times.

Direction of Drainage in Pliocene Times. — A study of the
section at Mount Cronin affords some interesting information
respecting the conformation of the land during the interval of
volcanic cessation.

Professor Ulrich showed that the volcanic rocks around
Dunedin graduated from trachytoid phonolites to basanite.'''
The preponderance of phonolite and basanite in the Mount
Cronin gravels is therefore highly instructive. It shows, in

* Trans. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Science, vol. iii., 1891, p. 145.

430 Transactions. — Geology.

the first place, the southern origin of the leaf-bed material ;
and, as this material is obviously water-borne, it establishes
the former existence of a drainage system running from south
to north — that is, from Dunedin towards Waikouaiti, in a
direction more or less parallel with the general trend of the
present coast-line.

Again, the physical conditions and distribution of the ma-
terials in the different members of the leaf-bed series tend
to show that this drainage system comprised a river with one
or more shallow lakes along its course.

This ancient watershed required for its outer or eastern
rim the existence of a land-area to seaward of the present
coast-line, and it just suggests itself that this rim was pro-
bably formed of volcanic ejecta piled up during the earlier
period of eruption. At any rate, there is evidence that the
earlier eruptions did not extend so far south, west, or north
as the later outbursts, but were centred in the neighbourhood
of Port Chalmers, Purakanui, and Mount Cargill.

The geological history of volcanic activity around Dunedin
in Tertiary times bears a peculiar likeness to that of the
Hauraki goldtields of Auckland. After a study of tlie latter
extending over seven years, I wrote in 1897 as follows :
" After the pent-up forces had spent themselves in the first
great paroxysm there was a period of rest, during vvhich
vegetation established itself on the muds and ashes washed
into the low ground by the streams draining the slopes of the
newly formed volcanoes. The land, however, was in a con-
tinued state of tremor, and the oscillations were too frequent
to permit the continued growth and accumulation of sufficient
vegetation to form workable seams of coal. The cessation of
volcanic activity was of short duration. The plutonic forces
burst out with renewed energy. The forests were devastated
and utterly destroyed, and covered with hundreds of feet of
ashes and solid lava of semi-basic character."*

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XXXII.
Section, Waikouaiti North Hkad.

1. Talus deposit.

2. Basalt-flow.

.3. Gravels and sands.

4. Grey sandstone.

5. Calcareous sandstone.

6. Blue clays, foraminiferous.

Section of Summit of Mount Cronin.

2. Basalt-flow.

.3a. Grey sands and silts.

36. Coarse grits.

3c. Grey silts and sands.

3<i. Coarse gravels.
8/. Sandy grits.
4. Grey sandstone.

• Park, " The Geology of the Hauraki Goldtields," 1897, p. 43.

Pabk. — On the Jurassic Age. of the Maitai Series. 431

Art. XXXIII. — On tJie Jurassic Age of the Maitai Series.

By Professor James Park, F.G.S., Director Otago Univer-
sity School of Mines.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 9th June, 1903.]
Plates XXXIII. and XXXIV.
EocKS belonging to this formation are widely distributed in
New Zealand, and play an important part in the structure of
the mountain-ranges in both Islands. In the neighbourhood
of Nelson, where they are typically developed, they consist of
a great assemblage of greenish-grey sandstones, blue, green,
red, and grey slaty shales, and limestones, with a few subordi-
nate beds of red and green slaty breccia. The blue or green
shales often alternate with thin laminae of grey shale or sand-
stone.

The average general bearing is N. 20° E. (true bearing).
The arrangement of the strata is displayed to great advantage
in the valleys of the Matai, Brook Street, and Eoding Streams,
which descend from the Dun Mountain region at nearly right
angles to the trend of the series. The beds are seen in all
three lines of section to be arranged in a great synclinal fold.

The strata on the western side of the syncline — that is,
immediately behind the Town of Nelson — are associated witii
massive sheets and numerous ramifying dykes of a chloritic
basalt, "'^ and on the eastern side by a remakable development
of altered ultra-basic rocks, principally peridotite and serpen-
tine, the latter often traversed by veins of bronzite, hyper-
sthene, and other pyroxenes.

The eruption of these igneous rocks was probably con-
temporary with, or at least not much later than, the deposi-
tion of the beds with which they were associated.

Age of Maitai Sekies.

The late Dr. Von Hochstetter, who examined these rocks
in 1859, referred them to the Lower Trias, t placing them
conformably under his Richmond sandstone, the equivalent of
the Wairoa series of Sir James Hector. He described them
as containing no fossils, and apparently ascribed them to the
Triassic period, from their association with the Eichmond
sandstone, in which he found Monotis salinaria var. rich-
mondiana, Zittel, a typical Trias form in Europe.

Sir James Hector, in the Catalogue of the Colonial
Museum, 1870, in his " Synopsis of the Arrangement of the
Eormations represented by the Collections of Fossils," also

* Huttoii, Proc. Boy. Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 152.
t Hochstetter's "New Zealand," 1867, page 57.

432 TrnJimctions. — Geology.

placed the Maitai series at the base of the Trias, between
the Wairoa and Kaihiku series.

The kite Mr. E. H. Davis, in his very excellent report on
the geology of Nelson District, referred to the Maitai series as
TriassiC'' In the limestones at the base of the series he found
Inoceramiis and corals ; and in the slates above the lime-
stone numerous annnelid trails, Inoceramiis in gi'eat numbers,
a cast of a cephalopod, and casts of fossils not determined.

Captain Hutton, F.R.S., in his " Eeport on the North-east
Portion of the South Island," in 1873, reversed the relative
positions of the Maitai and Wairoa formations : thus, while
the Wairoa series is still retained in the Trias, the Maitai
series, on palseontological and stratigraphical grounds, is placed
In the Jurassic system.!

In the same year Sir James Hector examined the sections
exposed in the Wairoa Gorge, and in his Progress Report
states that in his opinion the Wairoa formation — that is, the
Richmond sandstone of Hochstetter — rests unconformablv
upon the Maitai formation, and accordingly reverses the order
of superposition proposed by Captain Hutton. He still retains
the Wairoa formation in the Trias, and now relegates the
Maitai formation to the Upper Palaeozoic, placing it below his
Te Anau series.];

In his classification of 1877 the Maitai formation is placed
by Sir James Hector in the Periro-carboniferous period in
association with the Nuggets and Mount Potts beds;§ and
in his classification of 1878 it is pushed down into the
Carboniferous. II

Mr. A. McKay, F.G.S., in the year 1878, examined the
lines of section detailed so minutely by Mr. Davis in 1869, and
at the same time extended his observations to the neighbour-
hood of the Wairoa Gorge and Mount Heslington. In his
report he adopts the classification of the Director of the Geo-
logical Survey for tlie Wairoa and Maitai formations, but,
unhke previous observers, places the Maitai limestone at the
top instead of at the base of that series, and supports this
view by stating that he considers the Maitai formation to be
overturned.

In the following year Mr. McKay made a further examina-
tion of the Wairoa and INIount Heslington districts, and,
besides making large collections of fossils from the Maitai and
Wairoa formations at dil'feient points, discovered what he

• Heps. Geol. ExpL, 1869-71, p. 103.
t Reps. Geol. Expl., 1873-74, p. 34.

I Geological Map, Hector, 1873 ; and Reps. Geol. Expl., 187(3-77, p. 1.
§ Reps. Geol. Expl., 1876-77, p. v.

II Repa. Geol. Expl., 1877-78, p 198.

Paek. — On the Jtorassic Age of the Maitai Series. 433

believed to be an outcrop of fossiliferous Permian rocks in
Eighty-eight Valley district, near Wakefield.

Among the fossils collected from the limestone at Sellen's
and Wairoa Gorge he says that Dr. Hector identified " Spiri-
fera hisulcata and Productus hrancliythcBms among the Bra-
chiopoda, and the genera Cathophyllum and Cathocmms
among the corals."''' On this occasion he places the limestone
at the base of the Maitai series, instead of at the top, as he
did in 1878.

In the summer of last year I made an examination of the
sections of the Wairoa and Maitai formations exposed in the
Maitai Valley, along the Dun Mountain tram-line, at Wairoa
Gorge, Mount Heslington, and Eighty-eight Valley, at the
same time making collections of fossils at all available places.

In the Wairoa Gorge I observed that the dip and strike of
the two formations were the same at every point of exposure.
I further noted that the dip of the higher Mytilus beds,
granitic conglomerate, and associated strata was such as to
carry the Wairoa series conformably below the limestone at
the base of the Maitai formation.

So far as I could determine after an examination of many
sections, the two formations seemed to form a continuous
sequence, the Wairoa series occupying the inferior position,
as reported by Captain Hutton in 1873.

The result of my observations at the Wairoa Gorge
induced me to examine the sections of the Trias in Eighty-
eight Valley, more especially those exposed in the vicinity
of Well's Greek, where Mr. McKay reported the discovery of
supposed Permian (Kaihiku) beds in 1878. A detailed ex-
amination of the very clear section exposed along the right
bank of Well's Creek showed that the supposed Permian beds
occurred at the top and not at the base of the Wairoa series,
as reported by Mr. McKay, and this discovery led me to
conclude that there was possibly some association between
the Wairoa limestone and the so-called Kaihiku beds, which
in places are richly fossiliferous and often highly calcareous.

In November of this year I again re-examined these
sections, and also extended my observations to the sections
exposed at Sellen's run and Eoding Eiver. The result of
my work on this occasion was to fully confirm my former
conclusions — namely, that

(a.) The Wairoa series lies conformably below the Maitai
formation.

(b.) The supposed Permian strata in Eighty-eight Valley
are probably the equivalent of the Maitai limestone.

* Reps. Geol. ExpL, lft78-79, p. 117.
28— Trans.

434 Transactions. — Geology.

We have already seen that Captain Hutton, in his report
on the north-east portion of South Island in 1873, placed the
Maitai formation above the Wairoa series, classifying the
former as Jurassic and the latter as Triassic.

In his Progress Eeport for the year 1873 the Director of
the Geological Survey states that, after an examinaton of the
sections relied on by Captain Hutton, he had arrived at the
conclusion that the relative positions of these formations as
reported by Captain Hutton must be reversed, "as the section
up the gorge of the Wairoa Kiver shows the latter " [Wairoa]
"formation, with its characteristic fossils (Monotis salinaria
and Mytilus 'prohleviaticus) , to rest unconformably on the
' Maitai ' formation.'"'' Unfortunately, he omitted to furnish
details of the section showing this unconformity, and in the
absence of specific data it is impossible to review the evidence
on which he based his conclusion.

In his reports of 1877 and 1878 Mr. McKay adheres to the
classification of Dr. Hector. He examined the typical sec-
tions exposed in the Maitai Valley, Brook Street Valley,
Eoding Elver, Wairoa Gorge, Sellen's, and Eighty -eight
Valley, and, although in no case do his descriptions possess
the elaborate exactness of those of Mr. Davis, I found that
his field observations were everywhere carefully noted and
faithfully recorded. On the other hand, in his discussion on
the relative positions of the Wairoa and Maitai formations
his conclusions seem curiously at variance with the recorded
facts, while some of his sections are obviously constructed
to represent his views rather than the facts observed in the
field.

Proceeding from the Waimea Plain through the Wairca
Gorge, and thence along the course of the Eoding Eiver,
there is exposed a clear section of the Wairoa and Maitai
formations in which the dip is continuously to the east-
south-east in one unbroken sequence, at angles generally
between 65° and 75°, representing in a distance of a mile
and a half a thickness of not less than 7,000 ft. of strata.
In this section the Trias beds appear first, and are clearly
seen to dip under the Maitai limestone.

At a point just above the first bend in the Eoding Eiver
the beds dip west-north-west at an angle of 75°, and thence,
following up the river, tlie whole sequence of tlie Maitai
formation is repeated down to the limestone and associated
conglomerates, beyond which appear the eruptive rocks of
the serpentine belt. This synclinal arrangement of the over-
lying Maitai formation is also observed in the Maitai Eiver
and Brook Street Valley sections.

♦ Reps. Geol. Expl., 1873-74, p. ix.

Park. — On the Jurassic Age of the Maitai Series. 435

The Trias formation consists of a great series of clay-
stones, coarse and fine sandstones, and granitic conglomerates,
containing a number of well-marked fossiliferous horizons,
to which reference will be made later when describing tlie
section in Eighty-eight Valley.

A careful examination of the pebbles and boulders forming
the conglomerates shows that they consist principally of
diontes, granite, and a great variety of acidic, eruptive, and
quartzose material, all of which have been apparently derived
from the granitic masses in the Mount Arthur district, lying
to the north-west of this, where these rocks occur in situ,
associated with rocks of Silurian age.

It is a significant fact, and one quite in harmony with
the stratigraphical evidence, that the ultra-basic eruptive
rocks which occupy so conspicuous a place in the Maitai
formation are quite absent from the Trias conglomerates.

The Maitai formation and its colossal pile of basic erup-
tives form a long chain of broken uplands, on the lower
flanks of which the Wairoa beds form a corresponding chain
of foot-hills. Hence, if the Maitai rocks were antecedent
with the Wairoas resting on their denuded surfaces, as con-
tended by Sir James Hector and Mr. McKay, fragments of
the basic eruptives should be largely represented among the
coarser sediments of the Wairoa beds ; but they are entirely
absent, as, indeed, could not be otherwise from tbeir sub-
sequent date.

The Maitai rocks have generally been described as slates
of various colours. This is a somewhat loose use of the
term " slate." The rocks are not really slates, but bluish-grey
claystones, which often occur in thin laminae of different
shades of colour. When these thin laminae alternate with
each other, as is often the case, the rock gets a slaty or
flaggy appearance. In places the claystones are slaty and
somewhat fissile, with a silky lustre where they have been
much crushed. In the lower part of the formation there
are thick beds of grey sandstone and greywacke, generally
much shattered and jointed, and often streaked with white
veins of a hydrated mineral which was determined by the
late Mr. W. Skey to be stilbite. Thin veins of grey and
brown flinty quartz occur in the harder sandstones in several
places.

Beds of red and green slaty claystones and breccias occur
interbedded in the formation. They are quite subordinate in
extent to the claystones and sandstones, but wherever they
occur they are very prominent from their conspicuous colour.

Mr. McKay, referring to the Wairoa section, says, " In the
lower part of the Eoding Eiver, near its junction with the
Wairoa, the junction between these beds is strictly analagous

436 Transactions. — Geology.

to that made between the Wairoa and Maitai rocks behind
Eichmond, ah-eady described."* And on the preceding page,
after describing the Eichmond section, which lies a few miles
further north, he says, " Perhaps, upon the whole, it may be
said that this section does not favour the theory which aims
at showing the Wairoa formation to be the younger of the
two."f

Mr. McKay seems unwilling to admit the inferior position
of the Wairoa formation no matter how clearly indicated by
the stratigraphical evidence, and to get over the difficulty
argues that the Trias rocks must be arranged as an "inverted
syncline," basing this last supposition on the repetition of the
My tikis inoblematicus beds, which he considers must be due
to the complete inversion of one side of the supposed syncline.
He mentions, however, that the Mytilus bed was the only one
which seemed to be repeated, and in this he admits a serious
difficultv. An examination of the Mount Heslingtont and
Eighty-eight Valley sections shows that the repetition of the
Mytihcs bed is due not to inversion, but to the simple circum-
stance that there are two distinct horizons of Mytihis, one
near the middle of the Trias, and one below the upper granitic
conglomerate lying below the Maitai limestone.

In the section at Sellen's run, a few miles south of the
Wairoa Gorge, the Trias and Maitai rocks dip east-south-east
at high angles, the former again occupying the inferior
position. Writing of this section, Mr. McKay says, " On the
ridge east of the limestone at Sutton's " [Sellen's] " these
beds" [Wairoa beds] " again dip as though they would pass
under the Maitai series," § and in this instance his diagram-
matic section along this line correctly shows the Trias rocks
dipping conformably below the Maitai limestone as they are
actually seen to do.

The Trias rocks in the section on the north-east side of
Well's Creek, in Eighty-eight Valley district, a few miles
south of Sellen's line of section, are again seen to dip con-
formably below the Maitai formation. Here the whole series
is clearly exposed in a regular sequence, dipping to the south-
south-oast at angles varying from 50" to 75° or 80°, the in-
clination of the beds beconiiug steeper in ascending order to
the eastward.

Speaking of this section, Mr. Mackay says, "Along their
junction with the Maitai series the l)eds " [Wairoa beds]
" are much crushed and highly indurated, but a short distance

* Eeps. Gcol. Expl., 1877-78, p. 156.
f L.c, p. 155.

I Mr. McKay, in his reports, erroneously speaks of this hill as Mount
Wellington.

§ Keps. Geol. Expl., 1877-78, p. 157.

Park. — On the Jurassic Age of the Maitai Series. 437

"to the north-west of the boundary-line the strike and dip of
the beds are regular in such a direction that the beds appear
to pass under the older beds" [Maitai beds] "lying to the east-
ward."* For "older beds" he should have written "sup-
posed older beds."

Here again Mr. McKay attempts to explain away the very
plain stratigraphical evidence in the following words : —

" It is highly probable that what are now the higher beds,
as seen in the section along the banks of the creek, are in
reality the lower beds, and that they are now in an over-
turned position."! Thus, while correctly noting and recording
the stratigraphical evidence, which shows the mferior position
of the Wairoa formation in all the sections examined, in order
to support the theory that the Maitai formation is older than
the Wairoa formation he assumes that the combined strata
of both formations, representing a thickness of 7,000 ft. or
8,000 ft., have been completely overturned ; and, having thus
overturned the formations, argues that the Maitai formation,
which everywhere admittedly occupies the superior strati
graphical position, is Carboniferous, and the inferior or under
lying formation Triassic.

The gritty, pebbly, calcareous sandstones and claystones
immediately overlying the upper granitic conglomerate in
Well's Creek section are seen to dip under the Maitai rocks.
They contain a large assemblage of fossils, mostly brachiopods,
and, although they occur at the top of the Trias series, they
become by the process of inversion the bottom beds, and have
been referred by Mr. McKay to the Permian. Disregarding,
however, this supposititious inversion of the formations, and
reading the sections as they appear, the sequence of the
Trias rocks in the different sections is found to be approxi-
mately the same as would naturally be expected in lines of
section across the same basin of deposition.

In the Wairoa section the beds m descending order are as
follows : —

0. Fossiliferous limestone (Maitai — i.e., Wairoa — lime-

stone).

1. Claystones.

2. Upper granite conglomerate.

3. Mytilus sandstones and claystones.

4. Spirigcra sandstones.

5. Mytilus sandstones.

6. Monotis sandstones.

7. Spirigera and Trigonia sandstones.

8. Lower granite conglomerate.

* Reps. Geol. ExpL, 1878-79, p. 118.
t L.c, p. 118.

438 Transactions. — Geology.

9. Halohia claystones.
10. Spiriferina claystones.

In Sellen's section the sequence is : —

0. Fossiliferous limestone (Maitai limestone).

1. Claystones.

2. Upper granitic conglomerate and grit-stone.

3. Claystones (no Mytilus seen).

4. Sandstone and claystone, with Mytilus at base.

5. Lower granite conglomerate.

6. Claystones, with Halobia.

7. Sandstones and claystones, with Halobia, Rhyn-

chonella, Syiriferina, and corals.

8. Plant beds.

One of the clearest sections of the Trias rocks is exposed
in Well's Creek, where the sequence is as follows : —

0. Fossiliferous calcareous gritty sandstone.

1. Claystones.

2. Upper granite conglomerate.

3. Mytilus sandstones and claystones.

4. Spirigera sandstones.

5. Mytilus sandstones.

6. Spirigera sandstones.

7. Lower granite conglomerate.

8. Halobia claystones.

9. Spiriferina claystones and sandstones.
10. Plant beds.

In the Wairoa and Sellen's sections the Trias formation
is closed with a limestone (the Maitai limestone of Hector),
from which I collected Spiriferina (two sp.), AiJiyris, Bliyn-
chonella, Pleurotoviaria, Inoccramus, Pcntacrinns, and corals
(three sp.).

In many places the limestone is argillaceous, gritty, and
pebbly. It has been broken and shattered into small angular
fragments, which have been recemented by white veins of cal-
cite. Fossils are not at all common, and where found are dif-
ficult to exti-act in a complete state on account of the jointed
and veined condition of the material. Of the different forms
present Inoceravms was found to be the most abundant.

Among the collections made by Mr. McKay Sir James
Hector is said to have identified the Carboniferous forms
Spirifera bisulcata, Productus branchy tJuerus, and the genera
Cathophyllum and Cathocrinu^ among the corals.* Consider-
ing the imperfect character of most of the specimens and
their association with Inoceravms, a good deal of doubt must
necessarily attach to these determinations.

The large brachiopod identified as Spirifera bisulcata seems

• Reps. Geol. ExpL, 1878-7'J, p. 1 17.

Pakk. — On the Jtirassic Age of the Maitai Series. 439

to be related to the peculiar form of Athyris called Clavigera,
by the Geological Survey. Should it, however, on examina-
tion, prove to be a true Spirifer, it would show that this genus
persisted in New Zealand up to the close of the Trias.

A calcareous, pebbly, and gritty sandstone in Eighty-eight
Valley closes the Trias sequence, and occupies the same
relative position to the upper granite conglomerate that the
limestone (Maitai) does to the same conglomerate in the
Wairoa sections. From it I collected Spiriferina (two sp.),
one of these the Rastelligera of Hector, Athyris (two sp.),
Epithyris, Bhynchonella, Pleurotomaria{7) , Patella, branching
corals, Pentacriirtts, and fragments of saurian remains, which
may probably be referred to Ichthyosaurus.

Among the Athyris {S2)irigeraoi D'Orbigny) in this horizon
there are two very unusual forms. They have a long straight
hinge-line, and a distinct area. They are smooth, gibbose,
mipunctate, and possess a gentle mesial sinus in each valve,
the sulcation being more distinct in the ventral valve than
in the dorsal. The ventral valve is provided with strong pro-
minent hinge-teeth, one on each side of the deep triangular
notch which in Spirifera is closed by pseudo-deltidium.

The two species differ widely in external form. One
species has rounded cardinal angles resembling those of
Athyris expansa, Phillips, or some of the straight -hinged
Terebratula, such as Terehratula (Megerlia) siiessi, E. Desl., of
the English Lias ; the other, sharp cardinal angles like some
species of Argiope.

The section of the Trias rocks at Eoaring Bay, near Nugget
Point, in Otago, supplies the most complete confirmation of
the reading of the section in Eighty-eight Valley. Along
the coast-line there is exposed a thickness of over 2,500 ft. of
strata in one continuous sequence, representing the whole of
the Trias formation from the base of the Spiriferina beds to
the summit of the Athyris beds. The different horizons repre-
sented in this section are as follows, in descending order : —

1. Athyris beds — coarse pebbly calcareous sandstones.

2. Coarse sandstones.

3. Mytilus and oyster bed.

4. Claystones.

5. Trigoyiia and Spiriferina beds.

6. Granite conglomerate.

7. Sandstones, with beds of claystone.

8. Breccia conglomerate.

9. Claystones.

10. Breccia conglomerate.

11. Claystones [Halobia lomelli beds).

12. Porphyrite dyke.

13. Spiriferina beds — claystones.

440 Transaction^. — Geology.

The general facies of the Trias in Nelson and southern
Otago exhibits a harmony that seems remarkable considering
the great distance which separates the localities. Near the
base of the formation in each place occur claystones with Ha-
lohia and Spiriferina, and in both places the Trias formation
is closed by an Athyris horizon, followed conformably by a
great series of claystones and sandstones. In Otago the for-
mation conformably overlying the Trias series is known as
the Mataura formation, to which a Jurassic age has been
ascribed by Sir James Hector and Captain Hutton.

The natural inference to be drawn from the stratigraphical
evidence is that the Maitai formation of Nelson must be cor-
related with the Mataura series of Hutton.

The Athyris bed at the top of the series contains thou-
sands of finely preserved Athyris and a few Spiriferina (Bas-
telligera of Hector). The Proditctus of the so-called Productus
formation of Mr. McKay at Nugget Point''' was found on ex-
amination to be a Sjnriferina.

As there is no reason to believe that the Trias formation
in both Otago and Nelson has been overturned, we must
conclude, from the stratigraphical and palaeontological evi-
dence, that the so-called Permian beds of Mr. McKay in
Eighty-eight Valley occur at the top of the formation, and
are the horizontal equivalents of the limestone m the Wairoa
Gorge.

The characteristic fossil of the Maitai formation in Nelson
is Inoceramus, which has been found in many places in tiie
lower horizons of that formation on both sides of the great
synclinal fold. This form occurs sparingly in the limestone
at the base of the formation {i.e., top of the Trias), but is
found in great abundance in slaty claystones about 100 ft.
above the Maitai limestone in the Maitai Valley and Dun
Mountain sections.

I will now review the palosontological evidence bearing on
the correlation of the highest fossiliferous zone m Well's
Creek with the highest zone in the Shaw Bay section. I
have already shown that stratigraphically they both occupy
the same relation to the underlying Mi/tilus beds.

Among the Brachiopoda from Well's Creek there are two
very characteristic genera — namely, a Spiriferina with singu-
lar comb-like dentition along the hinge-line, and an unusual
form of Athyris, represented by two species the general
features of which have already been described. The Spiri-
ferina is the Rastelligera of Hector, while the Athyris is
probably the Glavigera of the same author. f

• Reps. Geol. Expl., 1873-74, p. 03.

t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xi., 1878, p. 538.

Park. — On the Jurasdc Age of the Maitai Series. 441

The Athyris bed at the close of the Trias at Shaw Bay
contains both Bastelligera and Clavigera, the latter in great
abundance and in a fine state of preservation. The two
species of Clavigera (Athyris) which occur in Well's Greek
horizon are both represented at Shaw Bay.

The sub-genera Bastelligera and Clavigera are so dis-
tinctive in structure and widely distributed that they are of
'the highest value for the identification of Trias rocks wher-
ever they occur in New Zealand. In my examination of
the Trias in Nelson, Nugget Point, and Hokonui Hills I
found them only in the highest fossiliferous horizon.

The Director of the Geological Survey, in his " Outlines of
New Zealand Geology," 1886, states that Bastelligera occurs
in the Otapiri and Wairoa series — that is, in both the Upper
and Middle Trias. If this is the case Bastelligera has no
zonal value. But I can find no reference in the Geological
Reports to its occurrence below the Otapiri series except
at Weil's Creek, where the theory of inversion of the Triassic
system suggested by Mr. McKay makes the Clavigera beds of
the Otapiri series appear to be at the base of the Trias.

The genus Clavigera, so far as I have been able to dis-
cover, occurs only in the highest marine horizon of the Trias,
and, having a definite age-limit, it assumes a zonal value.
Hence its occurrence in a group of beds in Shaw Bay, in
Otago, and in Well's Creek, in Nelson, tends to indicate the
correlative age of these distant beds. But the Shaw Bay
Clavigera beds overlie the Mytilus beds, therefore the Clavi-
gera beds in Well's Creek should also overlie the Mytilus beds,
and I have already shown that they do so.

Thus in both districts the stratigraphical and palseonto-
logical evidence clearly proves the superior position of Mr.
McKay's so-called Permian beds in Well's Creek, and sup-
ports the correlation of the conformably overlying Maitai
formation in Nelson with the conformably overlying Mataura
formation in southern Otago.

An examination of the geological structui-e of the region
between Nugget Point, Waikawa, and Mataura has confirmed
me in the belief that the Mataura and Maitai formations of
Sir James Hector represent the same series of beds. Both
formations follow the Upper Trias conformably, and both
consist of a great succession of slaty shales and sandstones
singularly free from organic remains. The Maitai rocks con-
tain Inoceramus , annelid-markings, and indistinct plant-re-
mains ; the Mataura series Inoceramus, annelid-markings, and
plant-remains.

As the Carboniferous age of the Maitai formation can
no longer be maintained, and since the term "Maitai" has
grown almost synonymous with " Carboniferous," to avoid

442 Transactions. — Geology.

confusion it would, I think, be preferable to drop the term
"Maitai" and adopt the name " Mataura " for all rocks of
Jurassic age throughout the colony.

Captain Hutton, in his report of 1873, referred the Maitai
formation to the Jurassic system ; and now, after a lapse of
thirty years, it is necessary for me to bring it back to the
position then assigned to it. The Carboniferous age of the
Maitai rocks imposed many insoluble problems on the geology
of New Zealand. The removal of the Maitai formation to
its natural position in the Jurassic now paves the way for a
systematic subdivision of the Lower Mesozoic rocks of New
Zealand.

Conditions of Deposition of the Nelson Trias.

The presence of plant-remains and of Mytilns in the finer
sediments, and of Patella and saurian bones in the coarser
sandstones and conglomerates, points to a prevalence of
shallow-water conditions of deposition from the beginning to
the end of the Trias period in the Nelson basin.*

Myukcs is essentially a littoral shell. In some horizons it
occurs in millions, and in a condition of preservation that
clearly shows that the shells were buried in the sediments
accumulating around the places where ttieir owners had lived.
It is therefore certain that the old marine littoral of the
Palseozoic land-surface on the shores of which these Mytilus
deposits formed was where these fossils now abound — that is,
along the southern boundary of the Waimea Plain.

The shallow-water character of the fossil shells and the
alternating marine muds and river-detritus indicate that the
local conditions of deposition were fluvio-marine, or, at any
rate, of such a nature that during abnormal floods , or through
the formation of shoals causing a diversion of the ordinary
currents, river-detritus became mixed with or spread over the
finer marine sediments.

Having shown that the southern limit of the present
Waimea Plain at one time coincided with the nortbern limit of
the Nelson Triassic basin, our inquiry naturally leads us to an
investigation of the character of tlie old Palieozoic land-surface
whose erosion yielded the material for the Trias formed on its
shores.

We have already found that the coarser sandstones and
conglomerates are principally composed of ciiorites, granites,
felsites, and quartzose material, none of which occurs in situ
as a land-surface in the vicinity of Nelson. The nearest
granite-area lies to the north-west along the flanks of Mount
Arthur range and lower course of the Motueka River. In that

• An interesting petrological description by Dr. Marshall of material
from the upper granite conglomerate will be found in Article XXXVI.

Park. — On the Jurassic Age of the Mailai Series. 443

region the granite and a great variety of related crystalline
rocks are associated with Silurian slates, schists, quartzite,
and limestone, which are in places richly fossiliferous.

We must therefore conclude that an extension of the
Mount Arthur system, with its associated granites, formed the
old littoral of the Nelson basm, and now forms the floor of the
Waimea Plain, Moutere gravel hills, and Motueka Valley.

The open Triassic sea extended southward into Marl-
borough, and in that direction the pelagic sediments would
be finer and organic remains rarer than along the shores of
the Nelson basin.

General Conclusions.

Summarising the results recorded in the preceding pages,
we find (a) that the Trias rocks everywhere dip below the
Maitai formation ; (6) that the Maitai formation is principally
characterized by the presence of the Secondary genus Inocera-
vins ; and (c) that the Trias contains such characteristic
Lower Mesozoic forms as Halohia lommeli and Monotis sali-
naria.

The stratigraphical evidence alone seems amply conclusive
of the subsequent date of the Maitais ; but, setting this aside,
it seems impossible for any student of geology to seriously
maintain a Carboniferous age for a formation characterized by
such a truly Mesozoic genus as Inoceramus.

The Maitai formation, although typically developed in the
neighbourhood of Nelson, is one of the most important rock-
formations in New Zealand — its importance lying in the fact
that it is one of our principal mountain-builders.

Having shown it to be of subsequent date to the Trias
has a wider significance than its local relationships might in-
dicate. The Maitai formation possesses the closest strati-
graphical connection with the Trias not only in Nelson, but
throughout New Zealand. Where one is present the other is
seldom, perhaps never, absent. The two formations form one
great stratigraphical system, and are so closely associated
in the structural features of the country that a definition of
the geographical limits of the one must always include that of
the other.

Eocks belonging to the Jurassic system, in association
with those of the Trias, form the greater portion of the Tara-
rua, Euahine, and Kaimanawa Mountains in the North
Island ; while outlying patches occur in the Upper Mokau, at
Kawhia, Eaglan, Waikato Heads, Kaipara, and Eodney dis-
tricts, in the Province of Auckland. And we have no reason
to assume a greater age for the slaty shales, sandstones, and
greywackes which form the floor of the Hauraki Peninsula.

In the South Island this great Juro-triassic or Juro-

444 Transactions. — Geology.

permian system composes the broken mountain-chain dividing
Nelson from Marlborough, and its western and southern con-
tinuation the St. Arnaud and Spencer Mountains, the Kai-
kouras, and the greater part of the Southern Alps and
subsidiary ranges in Canterbury, which are everywhere dis-
tinguished by great slopes of moving shingle.

Prom Canterbury it stretches into Otago, where it forms a
portion of the Kurow Mountains and the high rugged chains
which extend southward to central Otago and westward to
the sources of the Ahuriri Eiver, reaching even to the main
divide.

This system also comprises the rocks forming the Hoko-
nui, Takitimu, and Longwood Ranges; and occupies the
area lying between the lower Clutha and Waikawa. The
shales, sandstones, and limestones of the Blue Mountains,
bounding the north side of the Shag Valley, are in all proba-
bility an extension of this system from the direction of
Mount Ida.

From the foregoing it will be seen that practically all the
rocks throughout New Zealand to which a Carboniferous age
had previously been ascribed are now included in the Juro-
triassic system of Nelson and Nugget Point, in Otago.

There is, however, still some doubt as to the geological
position of the gold-bearing rocks at Reefton, which consist of
slaty shales and sandstones, often much crushed, folded, and
altered. In Murray Creek, and elsewhere in the Inangahua
Valley, the Reefton rocks rest unconformably on a highly
denuded surface of grey quartzites, slates, and limestone.
The slates and limestone contain a rich marine fauna, in-
cluding Orthis, Stro'pJioinena, Trilobites, and other Lower
PalcBozoic genera. Mr. Cox referred these rocks to the Lower
Devonian or Upper Silurian, but Sir James Hector, in his
classification of 1887, '■' placed them in the Upper Devonian.!

The Baton series, like the Reefton series, consists of a
great thickness of grey quartzite and slates passing into lime-
stone. The slates contain a large assemblage of marine
genera, including a number that appear to be identical with
forms found in the Reefton slates. In the above classifica-
tion the Baton series is referred to the Upper Silurian; but,
whether the Reefton rocks are Devonian or Silurian, they
afford no clue to the age of the gold-bearing series.

In a paper on the Permo-carboniferous rocks of North
Otago I have described the discovery of Permo-carboniferous
fossils in the upper part of Hector's Kakanui (Walter and

• Reps. Geol. Expl., 1874-76, p. 63.

tKeps. GgoI. Expl., 1886-87, Appendix, p. 25G.

Park. — 0)i the Jurassic Aye of the Maitai Series. 445

Cecil Peak series) formation, thus clearly disproving the De-
vonian age hitherto ascribed to those rocks.

By correlatnig the Eeefton quartzite series with the Mount
Arthur system, which seems the only reasonable and con-
sistent course to follow, we are left without a representative
of Devonian age in New Zealand ; and the Maitai formation
having been shown to be Jurassic, and not Carboniferous, it
seems probable that New Zealand is also without a formation
truly representative of the Carboniferous period of Europe.

With respect to the age of the Eeefton gold-bearing for-
mation, there now remain two courses open to us. We can
either consider it an entirely distinct formation and refer it
to the Devonian or Carboniferous, or we can refer it to the
Mount Mary series in North Otago, to which I have ascribed
a Permo-carboniferous age.

The Eeefton rocks were first correlated with the Maitai
formation of supposed Carboniferous by Mr. Cox as far back
as 1875.''= They were described by him as resting uncon-
formably on fossiliferous rocks which were referred to the
Lower Devonian or Upper Silurian. It seemed, therefore, but
natural to refer them to the Carboniferous, and in doing so
Mr. Cox had doubtless in his mind the marked unconformity
which existed between them and the underlying formation —
an unconformity noticed by Sir James Hector in 1873. f

Mr. McKay, in his report on Inangahua County m 1882,
followed Mr. Cox in correlating the Eeefton gold-bearing
rocks with the Maitai formation ; but when we examine the
grounds upon which this conclusion was based we find the
evidence not altogether satisfactory or conclusive. Discuss-
ing the age of these rocks, he says, "There is but little re-
semblance between the Eeefton auriferous series and the
Permian or Trias rocks of New Zealand, and, as shown, not
much with the Te Anau formation as developed nearest to
Eeefton ; so that, in a word, the auriferous series of Eeefton
can be the equivalent of no other than the Maitai forma-
tion.";[

Although I have shown the Maitai formation to be
Jurassic, it does not necessarily follow that the Eeefton gold-
bearing rocks are not Carboniferous, as originally indicated by
Mr. Cox. On the other hand, there is nothing to justify the
conclusion that they are a separate formation ; and until
something more definite is known about them I will refer
them to the Mount Mary formation of Permo-carboniferous
age.

* Eeps. Geol. ExpL, 1874-76, p. 77.
t Reps. Geol. ExpL, 1872-74, p. 87.
I Reps. Geol. Expl., 1882, p. 132.

446 Transactions. — Geology.

Besides the Reefton rocks, I think it more than probable
that the aphanitic sandstones, breccias, and slates described
by Mr. McKay as extending from south of the Greenstone, on
the west side of Lake Wakatipu, northward to Lake Harris,
and ascribed by him to the Maitai and Te Anau series, in
reality belong to the Mount Mary formation.''' I also think
that the continuation of the same rocks northward to Cascade
River, behind Big Bay, described by me as Maitai or Te Anau,
should now be included in the Mount Mary formation. f

Generally speaking, it may be said that all the rocks
ascribed by the Geological Survey to the Carboniferous system
are Jurassic or Triassic, excepting perhaps the gold-bearing
rocks at Reefton and the so-called Maitais in the mountainous
country lying west and north of Lake Wakatipu.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES XXXIII. AND XXXIV.

Plate XXXIII. — Section along Well's Creek, Eighty-eight

Valley.

1. Halobia and Sjpirifcrina beds.

2. Claystones.

3. Lower granite conglomerate.

4. Gritty sandstone, with Spirigera, &c.

5. Mytilus sandstone.

6. Claystones and sandstones.

7. Claystones, with Mytilus.

8. Pentacrinus and corals in grits and claystones.

9. Upper granite conglomerate.

10. Athyris calcareous pebbly sandstone.

11. Maitai sandstones and claystones.

12. Pliocene gravels, Waimea Downs.
F. Fault.

Plate XXXIV.— Section from Waimea Plains to Wairoa Gorge and

Upper Roding River.

A. Waimea Plain.

B. Mount Heslington.

C. Wairoa Gorge.

1. Lower Tertiaries.

2. Serpentine belt.

3. Ealobia and Spiriferina beds.

4. Lower granite conglomerate.

5. Upper conglomerate.

6. Maitai limestone.

7. Maitai shales and sandstones.

•Reps. Geol. Expl., 1879-80, pp. 140-42.
tReps. Geol. Expl., 1886-87, p. 132.

Park. — On the Discovery of Permo-carhoniferous Rocks. 447

Art. XXXIV. — On the Discovery of Pervio-carhoniferous
Bocks at Moicnt Mary, North Otago.

By Professor James Paek, F.G.S., Director Obago Uni-
versity School of Mines.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 13th October, 1903.]
Plates XXXV. and XXXVI.
In connection with my examination of the Lower Mesozoic
rocks of New Zealand I deemed it of the highest importance
to discover, if it were possible, the source of certain fossiliferous
boulders found in the terrace drifts on the south side of the
Waitaki Eiver by Mr. A. McKay in the course of his geologi-
cal survey of Waitaki County in the summer of 1880."-^'

Mr. McKay made a collection of fossils from the boulders.
The fossils, he considered, indicated a Lower Trias or Per-
mian age. He traced the boulders up the course of the Awa-
hokomo to the foot of the Kurow Mountains, which he found
were composed at that place of phyllites and altered sand-
stone, at that time believed to belong to the Kakanui or
Walter and Cecil Peak series of supposed Devonian age.

On reaching the " Kurow schists" Mr. McKay desisted in
the search, conceiving that the fossiliferous boulders could
not have been derived from that formation, and subsequently,
wrhen discussing the probable source of the fossiliferous
boulders, hazarded the opinion that they had been trans-
ported from some part of South Canterbury by the agency of
glacier-ice. f

Thus the matter stood from 1880 till the present year.
Early in March of this year I visited the Waitaki Valley,
making my headquarters at Kurow. I searched the river-
terraces between Kurow and Awahokomo, and also the lower
courses of the Big and Little Awakino.

I found, as reported by Mr. McKay, that the greatest
number of fossiliferous boulders occurred in the bed of the
Awahokomo, and subsequently I confined my search to the
course of the stream. Boulders containing fossils were fairly
abundant in the first three miles — that is, up to the point where
the stream cuts into the schistose rocks. Beyond that point,
as found by Mr. McKay, fossiliferous boulders seemed to be
absent, and for a time I was uncertain which course to pursue.
After a time I decided to continue up the bed of the stream.
Por some distance I met with no success, but after proceed-
ing less than half a mile I began to again find traces of fos-
siliferous boulders, but only at wide intervals. The traces

• Reps. Geol. ExpL, 1881, p. 77.
tL.c, p. 77.

448 Transactions. — Geology.

occurred so sparingly that I was compelled to search all
the side branches of the main stream lest I should pass the
parent rock to the right or left. This work occupied much
time, but satisfied me that I was on the right track in follow-
ing up the main stream.

I had now reached back to the flanks of Mount Mary.
The descent of the stream was rapid, and, instead of a wide
boulder-strewn bed, the course of the stream was a narrow
rock -cut channel. The elevation was over 3,000 ft., and
I was now convinced that I had reached a position beyond
all possible influence of ancient glacier-ice from South Canter-
bury. Huge masses of fossiliferous rock occurred in the chan-
nel at intervals, and at the big waterfall, at 4,000 ft. above
the sea, I found indistinct traces of fossils in highly indurated
greenish-grey altered sandstones. Blocks of fossiliferous rock
were now more plentiful, and, having the basin at the source
of the stream immediately above me, I was at last satisfied
that the fossiliferous outcrop was not far distant.

The evening was now approaching, and, being alone and
far from m.y headquarters, I was compelled to retrace my steps
without visiting the main outcrop, which I afterwards found
was within view of the waterfall.

Three weeks later I again visited the Waitaki, on this
occasion accompanied by Mr. A. Hamilton, who was greatly
interested in the discovery.

We directed our way at once to the big waterfall near the
source of the Awahokomo, and, after a stiff scramble, at a
height of 5,160 ft. reached the main outcrop from which the
fossiliferous boulders had been shed.

The outcrop lies on the left or west side of the basin at the
source of the stream, at some 500 ft. below the summit of the
range. Fossils wore found in three zones in a thickness of
50 ft. of strata. The two lower zones are altered slaty shales
and the upper a bed of conglomerate. In the two lower zones
fossils are very abundant and generally well preserved. The
Athyris, Sjnrifera, and Sjnnferina are especially large and
fine, although many spechiiens are much crushed and dis-
torted.

The fossiliferous rocks are distinctly altered and closely
associated with altered sandstones, and with slates which are
almost identical with the slates at Otepopo. They follow the
phyllites, quartzites, and altered rocks of the " Kurovv schists "
in a direct stratigraphical succession.

The strike of the strata from the foot of the range to the
summit is N.W.-S.E., and the dip S.W. Excepting in one
or two places, where the strata exhibit minor folds or corru-
gations, the general strike and dip are remarkably uniform
throughout, and in the rock-cut course of the Awahokomo the

Park. — On the Discovery of Perino-carboniferous Bocks. 449

succession and relationship of the different rocks are seen
to great advantage.

At the foot of the mountains the dip of the rocks is very-
high, but ascending the Awahokomo it gradually decreases,
and at the foot of Mount Mary is as low as 35°. Ascending
Mount Mary the dip gradually increases, and at the fossilifer-
ous outcrop is about 60"^.

The total thickness of strata exposed in this section is not
less than 10,000 ft. The lowest rocks are pale-grey and blue
phyllites, generally much crushed and often drossy. The
phyllites are followed by thin-bedded quartzite and altered
claystone and a great thickness of pale-green altered grey-
wacke and breccia, the former occurring sometimes in thin
and somer.imes in thick bands, and frequently seamed with
a network of small quartz veins.

Above the upper forks of the Awahokomo blue silky slates
are interlaminated with thin layers of quartz, which vary
from a mere thread to 4 in. thick.

Above an altitude of 3,000 ft. altered argillaceous rocks
become less abundant. At 3,200 ft. there is a consider-
able development of thin-banded siliceous sandstone, almost
quartzite, and dark-blue claystone, occurring in thin laminae
varying from 1 in. to 2 in. thick.

From this onward to the summit of Mount Mary the
bands of sandstone, greywacke, and breccia become more
massive and less altered, and here we meet a few narrow
bands of red and green slaty shale which are often streaked
with jasperoid segregations. The pale-green aphanitic sand-
stones and greywacke, which are so prominent in the lower
part of the succession, are now absent. The sandstone bands
are coarse and gritty, but the argillaceous beds, lying between
two bands of sandstone or greywacke, are still considerably
altered.

The rocks just described are highly altered and schistose
near the bottom of the series, and become gradually less and
less altered in passing upward towards the top of the
sequence. This is partly, but not altogether, explained by the
circumstance that the more easily altered argillaceous strata
predominate in the lower part, and the more siliceous and
consequently less easily altered rocks in the middle and
upper parts.

The rocks in the immediate neighbourhood of the main
fossiliferous outcrop are as follows in ascending order : —

(a.) Grey indurated sandstones, often coarse and gritty.
(6.) Blue fissile slates, like slates at Otepopo.
(c.) Slaty and flaggy claystones slightly micaceous, con-
29— Trans.

450 Transactions. — Geology.

taining two zones of fossils about 20 fc. apart, the
lower 6 ft. thick and the upper 3 ft. thick.

(d.) Bed of pebbly conglomerate and sandstone varying
from 3 ft. to 6 ft. thick, and separated from the
upper fossiliferous zone by several feet of flaggy
claystone.

{e.) Gvej indurated sandstones, and flaggy claystones.

Fossils are very abundant in the two lower zones, and,
although many are flattened and deformed through the altera-
tion which the rocks have suffered, distinct and well-preserved
casts are numerous, and easily broken out.

Among the genera identified in a small collection were
Spirifera (two sp.), Spiriferina (two sp.), Athyris, Epithyris,
Bhynchonella, Edmondia{7), Allerlsma('?), Schizodus, Ostrea,
Turbo, Patella, Pleura tomaria, and a nautiloid shell.

Captain Hutton examined the collection in Dunedin, and
subsequently, after looking over the Permo-carboniferous
fossils of New South Wales in the Canterbury Museum, in-
formed me that he was pretty sure the Mount Mary collec-
tion included Sjniifera vespertilio, G. Sow., Sptrifera sub-
radiata, Sow., Eurydesnia, Morris, and Platychisma — forms
characteristic of the Permo-carboniferous of New South
Wales.-

Mr. W. S. Dun, of Sydney Museum, to whom a small
collection of these fossils was sent, in a letter to Mr. A.
Hamilton confirmed the identification of the spirifers made
by Captain Hutton.

A collection of these fossils is now in the hands of Pro-
fessor Boehm, of Frieburg, for identification and description.
His determinations will be awaited with much interest by
students of New Zealand geology.

Subdivision and Cokrelation.

The grey phyllites, banded quartzites, aphanitic sand-
stones, and greywacke at the base of the succession com-
prise the " Kurow schists " of McKay, which were rightly
referred by that geologist to the Kakaiiui series of Hector.
It has generally been admitted that tlie Kakanui series of
Hector is the equivalent of the Kakanui (Tuamarina) for-
mation of Huttonf and the Waihao formation of Haast.|

The rocks forming the upper part of the succession cor-
respond closely to the description given of the Kaikoura
formation of Hutton§ and tlie Te Anau series of Hector,

• Hutton, Letter to author, 29th April, 1903.

t Hutton, " Geology of Otago," 1875, p. 32.

J Haast, " Geology'of Canlorbury and Westlaud," 1879, p. 2G0.

§ Hutton, " Gaol jgy of Otago," 1875, p. 35.

Park. — On the Discovery of Per mo -carboniferous Rocks. 451

and they occupy the same relative position with respect to
the " Kurow schists" that the Te Anau series does to the
Ivakanui series.

In his " Outhnes of New Zealand Geology " Sir James
Hector recognised the close association of the Te Anau and
Kakanui series, and referred them to the Devonian period, as
under :• — '■'■'•

" XIII. Devonian.

" (a.) Te Anau series.
" (b.) Kakanui series."

In the latest classification of the Geological Survey,! dated
the 30th June, 1887, the Kakanui series disappears from the
table of formations, and is apparently, but without explana-
tion, included in "XIII. Lower Devonian — -Eeefton beds,"
which had no existence in the classification of the pi'evious
year ("Outlines of New Zealand Geology," p. 40).

Briefly summarising the foregoing, we find that the highly
altered phyllites and quartzites of the lower flanks of the
Kurow Mountains are succeeded conformably by the less
altered Mount Mary fossiliferous slates and sandstones. The
former are included in the Kakanui series of Hector and
Button, and the latter in the Kaikoura formation of Hutton
and Te Anau series of Hector.

I am inclined to agree with the early opinion of Hector
.and Hutton that the " Kurow schists," notwithstanding that
they pass insensibly into the Mount Mary series, are suffi-
ciently distinctive to be separated from the upper series.

For the lower and more altered group of Kurow rocks I
propose to revive the old " Kakatiui series" of Hector, in
which they were originally included. For the upper and
less altered group I do not think there is a more appropriate
name than Mount Mary series.

The Mount Mary series undoubtedly includes the Te Anau
series of the Geological Survey, of supposed Devonian age,
but there are several reasons why the name " Te Anau"
should be abandoned. In the first place, we have it on the
authority of Mr. McKay that the rocks typical of the Te
Anau series do not occur at Lake Te Anau ; and, further, the
Te Anau series has always been difficult to distinguish from
rocks supposed to belong to the Maitai series of the Geo-
logical Survey.

On the other hand, the rocks at Mount Mary are fos-
siliferous, and perhaps this is the best reason for attaching
the name of that mountain to the new series. The proposed
subdivisions of this succession of rocks are as follows : —

* Hector, " Outlines of New Zealand Geology," 1886, p. 40.
t Keps. Geol. Expl., 1886-87, Appendix, p. 256.

452 Transactions. — Geology.

Permo-carboniferous —
Mount Mary series.

(Syn. : Te Anau series, Hector ; Kaikoura formation
Hutton ; Lower part Mount Torlesse formation, Haast.)

Carboniferous —

Kakanui series.

(Syn. : Kakanui series, Hector and Hutton ; Tuamarina
formation, Hutton; and Waihao formation, Haast.)

Eelations to Adjoining Rock-formations.

The Waitaki River, between the Kui-ow and Awahokorao,
runs along the axis of an anticUne of ciaystones and sand-
stones, in which Mr. McKay discovered numerous remains
of Inoceramus , inckiding an almost perfect example found
near the mouth of the Hakataramea.*

Mr. McKay shows these rocks to be unconformable to the
altered Kurow rocks, and refers them to the Maitai series of
the Geological Survey, of supposed Carboniferous age.

As the "Kurow schists" have been shown to be asso-
ciated with rocks of Permo-carboniferous age, it necessarily
follows that the Waitaki Valley rocks, which overlie these
unconformably, must be of subsequent date ; and the pre-
sence of the Secondary genus Inoceramus clearly indicates
that they must be referred to the Jurassic system, a position
quite in harmony with my conclusion respecting the Jurassic
age of the Maitai series in Nelson.

The Mount Mary series fills a gap in the New Zealand
geological record, and, furthermore, furnishes for the first time
reliable data by means of which the age of the Kurow
phyllites can be ascertained.

The classification which my investigation of the Lower
Mesozoic and Upper PaltEozoic rocks in the past three years
has led me to adopt is as follows : —

Jurassic — Mataura series.

Triassic — Shaw Bay series —

{a.) Athyris (or Clavigcra) beds.

(b.) Mytilus and Monotis beds.

(c.) Trigonia beds.

(d.) Halobia iovimeli beds.

(e.) Spiriferina beds.

(/.) Nugget Point plant beds.

Permo-carboniferous — Mount Mary series.
Carboniferous — Kakanui series.

• Reps. Geol. Expl., 1881, p. 78.

MuLGAN. — Tiic Northern Wairoa. 453

EXPLANATION OP PLATES XXXV. AND XXXVI.

Plate XXXV. — Section prom Waitaki River to Mount Mary.

Reference.

[a.) Claystones and sandstones.

[b.) Sandstone conglomerate.

(c.) Phyllites.

(d.) Banded phyllite and quartzite.

(e.) Altered sandstones, &c.

(/.) Sandstones, gritstones, &c.

(g.) Slates and flaggy sandstones.

(i.) Grey sandstones, and flaggy claystones.

Plate XXXVL — Plan of Part of Waitaki Valley, showing Posi-
tion OF Mount Mary.

Abt. XXXV. — The Northern Wairoa.

By E. K. MuLGAN, M.A.
\_Read before the Auckland Institute, 21st September, 1903.]
The Northern Wairoa is in several respects a wonderful river.
Eising in a narrow peninsula, it is wliolly confined to a rela-
tively small extent of country. The entire catchment-area,
indeed, does not measure more than fifty miles by forty
miles, and yet this gathering-ground is able to furnish suffi-
cient water to supply a river which is navigable for the largest
ships for upwards of fifty miles, and for smaller craft for
nearly double that distance. Can any other river in New
Zealand show a similar record ? Throughout the lower part
of its course the fall is so slight that the influence of the
tide is felt beyond the " Junction " (i.e., junction of Mangakahia
and Wairua Elvers), a distance of more than a hundred miles
from the Kaipara Heads.

The term " Northern Wairoa " is used in the title of this
paper in a somewhat wider sense thaii that in which it is
generally employed, this name properly belonging to that
portion of the river between the Kaipara Heads and the
" Junction."

The streams forming its head-waters are known as the
Mangakahia and Wairua (the latter in its upper reaches re-
ceiving the name of the Waiotu), both of which drain the
northern slopes of the basin, the former to the west and
the latter to the east. The two streams gradually converge,
and finally meet at what is known as the "Junction." Other
tributaries are the Kaihu and Tangowahine, flowing south, and
the Mangonui, draining the basin to the south-east.

The stream known in its lower course as the Wairua rises
a few miles to the east of Kawakawa, and not far from the
upper waters of the Bay of Islands. From here it flows in a

454 Transactions. — Geology.

southerly direction, keeping well to the east of the peninsula,,
and receiving on its way the Whakapara and Mangahahuru
Streams, both of which come from the east, and drain the
country almost to the seaboard.

The Mangakahia rises on the southern slopes of the water-
shed separating the Hokianga and Kaipara basins, and, gather-
ing supplies from the northern and eastern slopes of Tutamoe,
skirts the Tangowahine range, receives further down the
Hikurangi from the north, and finally unites with the Wairtia
at the Junction.

The Kaihu, which drains the basin to the west, is worthy
of note in that it receives supplies from streams some of
which rise not far from the source of the Mangakahia, and
others almost at the coast. The Kaihu itself , moreover, keeps
parallel to the coast until it reaches the Wairoa at Manga-
whare.

The Mangonui rises on the western slopes of the hills to
the west of Waipu, and, flowing north-west, is joined by another
large stream, the Tauraroa. From here its course is first
west and then north until the Wairoa is reached.

It will be seen from this that the catchment-area prac-
tically includes the whole of the land from coast to coast,
and stretches from a line joining the mouth of the Ho-
kianga Harbour and the upper waters of the Bay of Islands
as far south as the Kaipara Harbour. That is to say, bear-
ing in mind the configuration of the country, the river-basin
comprises the maximum area available. These singular con-
ditions have been made possible by the distribution of the
high land. It usually happens that the highest land of a
country occurs in the centre, and the lower levels are found
near the coast. In the case of the Wairoa basin these con-
ditions, although not entirely reversed, yet are considerably
modified. The greater part of the land is high ; indeed,
nearly the whole of the central portion of the basin con-
sists of broken, bush-clad ranges, some of which reach an
elevation of from 1,500 ft. to 2,000 ft. (Tutamoe, the highest.
peak north of Auckland, has an elevation of 2,576 ft.). These
ranges, whose general trend is from north to south, are cut
across in many places by narrow valleys, and Hanked on
either side by low hills running parallel to the seaboard.
Thus, the whole of the rainfall on this portion of the pen-
insula, instead of being carried to the sea by a number of
different streams, is collected to furnish the supply for a single
river.

The size and configuration of the catchment-area would
not in themselves accovmt for the volume of water discharged
by the river. A more important factor than either is the rain-
fall, which in this particular case must reach phenomenal

MuLGAN. — The Northern Wairoa. 455

proportions, seeing that the area over which it is distributed
is so small in extent. In point of fact, the rainfall across that
portion of the Auckland Peninsula is exceptionally great.
The prevailing westerly winds, after their passage over the
Tasman Sea, reach the relatively high land heavily laden with
moisture, where the inevitable lowering of temperature brings
about a constant precipitation of rain. I was unable to ob-
tain reliable statistics touching the rainfall, but several well-
known facts pointed to its great abundance. When the sur-
veyors and parties were cutting the track for the road througli
the Awatuna and Marlborough Settlements they found the
ground very damp and soft, and the tree-trunks covered with
moss and hchen. The ground was frequently buried to a
depth of several feet in moss, and was everywhere saturated
with moisture. The men employed on the work suffered
much from the wet and damp, some of them being obliged
to give up their employment in consequence. Then, again,
the settlers experience great difficulty in burning off the bush.
"It will not burn," they say — a statement to which the
half-burnt logs and ill-cleared land bear ample witness. One
cannot help noticing the readiness with which the scrub
(chiefly makomako — Anstotelia racemosa) comes up in the
clearings, and the small extent of land which is really freed
from bush, as also the extreme moistness of the land itself.
It seems unnatural to find soft boggy soil at such a high
elevation— to find it, in fact, on hilltops.

That there is very considerable rainfall cannot be doubted,
and this, added to the size and configuration of the catchment-
area, accounts for the dimensions of the river, which at first
sight would appear out of all proportion to the conditions
under which it exists.

The fall of the river from the Junction to the sea is very
slight— only a few feet — for the effects of the tide are felt
considerably beyond that point. This implies that the velo-
city of the stream itself is small, hence we would expect to
find, as is actually the case, a wide flat-bottomed valley filled
with detritus.

From the Junction to the sea the Wairoa has lost the
power of vertical erosion. The banks of the river, however,
are soft, and the load of sand and mud carried by the water is
very great, conditions highly favourable for lateral erosion,
hence one is not surprised to find that the river has cut for
Itself a very winding channel. It is well to remember, in
considering the work done by rivers, that running water is
only the motive power, and that the instrument which really
does the work is the sand and mud carried along by the water.
A perfectly clear stream running over a bed of sand and
pebbles which do not move is doing no work at all; it is only

456 Transactions. — Geology.

when its waters are loaded with sediment that it becomes
such a powerful agent of erosion.

In the course of the Wairoa from the Junction seawards
a number of very interesting loops occur, any one of which
would furnish a profitable subject for investigation, and well
repay the trouble spent in unravelling its liistory. Take, for
instance, that large loop below the junction of the Mongonui
Stream. In this case the river, flowing north-west, was
deflected at Te Pango by an elevation which, although slight,
was sufficient to give direction to the current. Meantime its
waters spread out over the low ground on what is now its left
bank, where, the current being checked, deposition took place,
gradually bringing the depressed area up to its present level.
This area, which must have been a large one, grew towards
the north, and in so doing gradually pushed the river-bed in
the same direction, until the process was arrested by the low
range of hills along the right bank, and the river was con-
fined to its present channel. The net result has been the
formation of a large flat nearly circular in shape with a
series of low hills )-unning across its narrow end.

The power of the stream to erode laterally is well seen
in several places, notably at Dargaville. Here the line of
greatest velocity has impinged against the right bank, cutting
into it for a considerable distance. One is surprised at first
that it has not gone further and cut back as far as the high
ground behind Mangawhare. But the fact is that the process
of erosion here has not been long in operation. It was not
until the growth of the opposite bank — to be explained further
on — forced the current into its present course that the banks
on the Dargaville side began to disappear. Tlie presence
of the Kaihu Stream no doubt brought about at an earlier
time the deposits of the Dargaville and Mangawhare flats.

Erosion and deposition are both going on ; indeed, in a
river of the kind wliere the fall is not great this is inevitable.
At Dargaville, for instance, if the right bank is disappeai-ing,
the left bank is gradually being pushed out into the stream.
The erosion on the Dargaville side is now arrested to a large
extent by heaps of stones placed at intervals along the bank.
The effect of this has been to narrow the channel, and hence
to increase the velocity and erosive power of the current, with
the result that a sandbank of considerable size, nearly
opposite Mangawhare, has lately disappeared. The appear-
ance of the banks, too, is very characteristic. A deep channel
runs pretty close to the right bank, where, moreover, the
ground is hard and presents a vertical face to the water even
at high tide. The left bank, on the other hand, consists of
a low shelving deposit of mud.

One of the first things that strikes an observer is the

MuLGAN. — The Northern Wairoa. 457

extreme turbidity of the water, a turbidity, moreover, from
which it is never free. The load of mud carried is very
great — indeed, it is difficult to conceive of its being increased
to any large extent. The particles of which the mud consists
are extremely small, so much so that a good deal of the
deposit is carried far out into the Kaipara Harbour before
coming to rest on the sea-iioor.

That an immense quantity of detritus has been carried
down by the river is abundantly proved by the deposits of
alluvium along its banks, and the source of supply may no
doubt be looked for in the higher ground of the river-basin,
where the low ranges consist partly of sedimentary and partly
•of volcanic rock. The outcrops of these are much decom-
posed and weathered, and the flanks of the hills are steep,
■conditions favourable for the removal of a disintegrated sur-
face. Much of the country, however, is covered with bush,
which serves to bind together the surface-soil and prevent its
being washed away. It is not surprising, therefore, that the
tributary streams draining the area in question do not show
any noticeable turbidity— indeed, they present the appearance
of clear running brooks — and yet the waters of the Wairoa are
always heavily laden with mud. Clearly, then, the present
supply of detritus carried by the river is not directly derived
from its tributaries, but is largely the result of lateral erosion.
Some of it is carried down and spread out on the harbour-
floor, but much of it is washed backwards and forwards by the
tide and current before being finally deposited where the banks
are growing.

So free from suspended mipurities are most of the tribu-
tary streams that the question arises, Would a supply of
material such as now finds its way into the river be sufficient
to furnish the deposits of alluvium found in the valley ; in
other words, have conditions become greatly modified since
the deposits were laid down ? There do not seem to be any
strong reasons for supposing that they have, for the drainage-
area is large enough to furnish all necessary supplies if only
time were allowed and the river-valley where the deposits
occur is relatively small. Still, there may have been a time
when deposit, owing to altered conditions, was more rapid
than now — vv'hen, for instance, a good deal of the country
at present bush-clad was comparatively bare, and when in
consequence the weathered surface was readily and easily
swept away. The country may then have stood at a much
higher level, which in itself would account for a more scanty
vegetation, and the reduction in height may have been
brought about partly by erosive agencies and partly by
depression. To reach a period when such conditions pre-
vailed one would have to go back a considerable time, if

458 Transactions. — Geology.

we may judge from the growth of some of the larger of the
forest-trees, which indicate an age of between two and three
thousand years— perhaps more.

The left bank of the river near its mouth consists of an
immense tract of fiat land, containing several thousand acres,
and known as the Tokatoka Swamp, the whole of which,
no doubt, has been carried down and deposited by the river.
The swamp is on the north-eastern side of the Kaipara
Harbour, and the prevailing winds are south-westerly. The
effect of these has been to cause the water, with its load of
mud, to spread out towards the opposite shores. In this way
the north-eastern side was gradually filled up and converted
into land. The process of deposit has by no means stopped.
The southern portion of the swamp gradually becomes lower
until it ends in a wide mud-flat covered with mangroves,
where a constant detrital deposit is going on, with the result
that the bank is being pushed out further and further into the
harbour. Owing to the continual deposit the river-channel is
now confined to the shore-line along the western side.

The land of which the swamp consists is extremely fertile,
and has given magnificent returns to those who have been
fortunate enough to secure it. A good deal of work in drain-
ing and surveying has been done by the Government, and
already several blocks have been disposed of by ballot. Some
difficulty was at first experienced in obtaining water, but this
has since been overcome by sinking artesian wells. The
result of the boiings put down are not without interest as
throwing light on the origin of the deposit and the rate at
which it was laid down For the following tables giving
an account of the borings at Eaupo I am indebted to Mr.
E. F. Baff, who personally superintended and directed the
operations. It may be explained that Eaupo is the name
given to that portion of the swamp already settled.

Details of Bokings.

No. 1, at liaiipo. Ft.

50 ft. soft clay or mud (blue) ... ... 50'

45 ft. soft sands and mud ... ... ... ... 95

7 ft. hard clay light-grey in colour ... ... ... lOl^

33ft. sandy clay ... ... ... ... ... 135

19 ft. quicksand. (Dribble of water, drop at a time, rises

2 ft. 6 in. above ground : tried pump — no better) ... 15-4
22 ft. soft sandy mud ... ... ... ... 176

19 ft. grey clay, changing to brown, with woody particles 190
17 ft. sharp sand, ((iood flow of water, which rises 12 ft.
above surface of ground, and at 3 ft. above ground gives
20 gallons per minute, or 28,800 gallons per twenty-
four hours) ... ... ... ... ••• 212

MuLGAN.— r/ie Northern Wairoa. 459

No. 2, about tivo miles and a half from Baiipo.

Ft.
10 ft. clcxy or mud ... ... ... ... ... 10

52 ft. soft sand and shell ... ... ... ... 62

58ft. clay or mud ... ... ... ... ...-120

12 ft. coarse sand. (Water rising near surface) ... 132

18ft. clay (blue) ... ... ... ... ... 150

8ft. sand, same as before ... ... ... ... 158

18ft. soft sandy papa (blue), varies in thickness ... 176

8 ft. hard pure papa. (Stopped sinking. Drew pipes
back to 120 ft. (see * above). Water rises 12 ft. above
ground, gives 3,000 gallons per twenty-four hours^
clean water free from salt) ... ... ... 184

No. 3, about three miles south of Baupo.

10ft. soft clay ... ... ... ... ... la

80 ft. dark quicksand ... ... ... ... 90

6ft. hard clay ... ... ... ... ... 96

17 ft. white sand (sharp) ... ... ... ... 118

56ft. brown and blue clay ... ... ... ... 169

41 ft. fine white sand, with flow at 2 ft. above surface —
good strong flow, gives 14,400 gallons per twenty-four

hours clean and good water ... ... ... 210

At Mangawhare the boring operations, which were carried
on with the same object as those at Eaupo, and which, more-
over, were not successful, in that the supply of water obtained
was insufficient, disclosed the following details : Beginning at
the surface, the pipes passed through 80 ft. soft wet river-mud,.
50 ft. fairly hard argillaceous limestone, 80 ft. calcareous marl
(papa). There were no traces of marine or fresh- water
organisms found in these (Mangawhare) deposits.

The papa rock referred to both here and at Eaupo is an
indurated calcareous marl of presumably Cretaceo-tertiary
age, which outcrops at various places across this portion of
the peninsula. Taking this as the basement rock, we have
in the case of the Tokatoka Swamp a deposit of upwards of
200 ft. of sea-borne and river- borne sediment ; indeed, it is
highly probable that the depth of this deposit in places is not
far short of 300 ft., an immense depth when it is remembered
that it occurs in a relatively small land-locked harbour. The
material passed through in the borings, however, is not
altogether the product of the river. The eastern limit of the
sandstone series forming the land between the river and the
coast no doubt extended at one time as far as the flanks of the
hills to the east of the Kaipara Harbour. The upper members
have been removed by denudation, but the lower beds still
underlie the swamp-deposits. An examination of the tables

460 Transactions. — Geology.

will show this. Near the surface the borings invariably
passed through soft clay or mud, after which the material met
with always contained more or less sand. To attribute to the
agency of the river the whole of the material passed through
in the Tokatoka Swamp borings would be to demand a con-
tinuance of conditions under which a gradual subsidence took
place with sufficient slowness to enable the river to fill up the
depression. This appears to be highly improbable; there is
nothing to warrant the supposition, which, moreover, is not
required to explain existing conditions. The great depth of
river-deposit at Mangawhare (80ft.) is a more difficult matter
to account for, and until further evidence is forthcoming we
may attribute it to some local depression.

It is difficult to arrive at any accurate knowledge as to the
rate at which the deposit was laid down. As affording some
guide to this it may be mentioned that two clubs of black-maire
[Olea cunningliamii) — the kind used by the natives in crush-
ing fern-root — were found about 13 ft. from the surface by
some men whilst cutting a drain. It is not at all likely that
these clubs were buried to that depth by the natives ; it is
much more probable that they were dropped into the waters
of the old swamp or harbour and were gradually covered up.
The wood of which they were made would at once sink to the
bottom. This is very slender evidence to build on, but if it is
to be accepted at all it would go to show that the deposit has
been a rapid one, and that the last 13 ft. have been laid down
within a period which could not have extended over many
generations.

The borings at Mangawhare appear to have gone through
nothing but river-mud before reaching fairly hard argillaceous
limestone, a rock similar to that which outcrops at Aranohue,
Okahu, and other places along the eastern side of the river. The
age of this limestone is considerably greater than that of the
river-deposit, so it may here be taken as the basement rock.
Hence at Mangawhare the depth of alluvium is about 80 ft. ;
and, as no remains of marine organisms are louml, we may
conclude tliat the deposit is of fluviatile origin. This no doubt
applies to all of the material forming alluvial fiats along the
river north of Te Kopuru. It is not improbable ttiat the sea
once flowed over the land now known as the Tatarariki Flat,
and that the high ground from Te Kopuru south at one time
formed part of the western shore-line of the harbour.

; Oil the eastern bank of the river there occur some very
remarkable volcanic outcrops, rising through the sedimentary
rocks at short intervals and extending for several miles in a
line running approximately nortli and south. The first of
these met with is at Maungaraho, evidently the remains of a
huge dyke 720 ft. in height and dipping towards the north-

MuLGAN, — The NonJiern Wairoa. 461

west. Seen from the south it presents a broad surface hke
that of a wall viewed at right angles to its length ; from the
north-east or south-west it has the appearance of a wedge,
bi'oad below and tapering above. About two miles south of
Maungaraho is the Tokatoka Peak, a well-preserved volcanic
neck rising through the shales to a height of 580 ft. The base
is relatively large, but the summit tapers to a point with an
area of a few square yards. In the upper portions well-defined
columnar structure is seen ; but this disappears some little dis-
tance from the top. The rock can be traced to the river,
where it forms a low cone-shaped boss. Between the Peak
and the boss — known as Cemetery Hill — is a well-marked
depression. None of the rock here presents the appearance of
a lava-flow, but rather that of the remains of the upper portion
of a subterranean reservoir. To the east the volcanic rocks
pass under the shale and reappear again about a quarter of a
mile further on. The rock here is much weathered, but lying
on and showing through the surface are a number of boulders
compact and fresh-looking. They consist of a hard close-
grained andesite with large well-defined augite crvstals. A
short distance further on the junction of the shale and volcanic
rock can be seen in an old road-cutting. At this point the
rock is much decomposed, but the remains of the augite cry-
stals can be plainly seen. About a mile to the south of the
Peak the same rocks again outcrop in a low rounded hill,
which is evidently a boss. The rocks here cross the river in
a south-west direction, reappearing in a well-defined conical
hill rising through the river-deposit, known as the " Green
Hill," and consisting of a hard-grained andesite very similar to
the boulders found to the east of the Peak. Much of the rock
at this exposure shows but httle sign of decomposition, and will
in the future furnish valuable material for road-metal. A
httle more than a mile to the south of this spot another similar
outcrop occurs, bare at low tide and a source of much danger
to vessels. In the Tokatoka Swamp itself, about a mile and a
half back from the landing at Eaupo, these rocks agan:i rise to
the surface, where quarrying operations are carried on. The
rock is broken in a steam-crusher and used for ballasting the
railway-line running through the swamp, as well as for spread-
ing on the roads. There is little or no doubt that these out-
crops are connected, and have had their origin in some com-
mon reservoir.

The land between the Wairoa Eiver and the coast con-
sists for the most part of soft sandstone arranged in horizontal
layers, which under the action of the weather crumble into
white sand composed in places almost entirely of silica. At
the coast the rocks are very soft, and are readily acted on by
the atmospheric agents of erosion. Great quantities of the

462 Transactions. — Geology.

looser material are washed down by the rain and spread out
in the form of fans along the beach. The harder portions
then tumble off and are rapidly' broken to pieces and carried
away by the action of tlie waves. The work of ei'osion here
must be rapid, for the prevailing westerly winds at times drive
in the waves with great fury. This strip of land, extending
from the Kaipara Heads to the Maunganui Bluff, and having a
width of about seven miles, appears to have its eastern limit
along the river. It is evidently the remains of a much larger
and higher area which at one time extended westward, and
has gradually been reduced to its present size under the
action of the weather and the sea. In none of the exposures
were any fossils to be seen, but the general appearance of the
rocks, their well-defined stratification, and the presence of a
band of compressed vegetation some 6 ft. or 8 ft. in thickness
outcropping at intervals for miles along the coast remove all
grounds for doubt as to their origin. The whole of this area
is an immense gumfield, and yet there are no kauri-trees to
be seen. The forests which must have covered it have long
since disappeared, and the land is now clothed with a stunted
growth consisting chiefly of fern, Lcptosi^ermum scopnrmm,
Lencojwgon fasciculaiuvi, L. fraseri, Pomaderris eliiptica,
P. filicifolia, and other plants usually found where these
comprise the prevailing vegetation. Tiie kauri seems to thrive
best on rugged, broken country where the elevation is con-
siderable. Any pronounced lowering of the general level
would bring about the destruction of the trees, and this is
apparently what has happened. As the land subsided the
forests died out, leaving behind these extensive deposits of
gum which of late years have become so valuable. These
beds of sandstone no doubt in formei' times had their eastern
extension along the flanks of the hills running north and
south on the left bank of the river, and overlay unconformably
portions of the older shales of which most of these hills con-
sist. The upper portion of this part of the series has now
been completely removed by the river, which in all probability
originally flowed along the junction of the older and younger
rocks, and hence carried away first those portions forming the
eastern extension of the beds.

On the beach at the west coast is found an interesting
and valuable burrowing mollusc, Mesodesma ventricosa, known
locally as the " toheroa." In size it varies greatly, but
some of the larger forms measure as much as 6 m. by ^^m.
Its habitat occurs between high- and low-water mark — at
least, that is where it is found. When the tide is in it
comes to the surface of the sand, and, tiirusting out its
siphons, obtains the necessary nourishment from the sea-
water. As the waves retreat the siphons are withdrawn, and

MuiiGAN.— r/ie Northern Wairoa. 463

the animal again buries itself to a depth of from 12 in. to
15 in. This it accomplishes by thrusting from the ventral
surface of the anterior end of the shell a powerful wedge-like
foot, which it forces into the sand by means of a peculiar
•wriggling movement. k% soon as the foot has penetrated as
far as it can reach it is made to contract and drag the animal
after it. It is surprising how few of these contractions are
required to bury the animal completely, and with what ra-
pidity it disappears. The settlers and natives consider the
toheroa a great delicacy, and, as it is easily obtained, great
numbers are dug up and used as food. At Mangawhare a
tinning-depot has been established, and already a consider-
able output is disposed of. It is said that the animal is con-
fined to a small portion of the coast reaching from the Mure-
wai Caves to the Maunganui Bluff; but further evidence is
necessai-y before accepting this statement, though, from all
•accounts, it has not been found in any quantity elsewhere,
n it be true that its habitat does not extend beyond this
limited range, an extremely interesting subject awaits in-
vestigation, for there seems to be no bar.rier to prevent its
spreading all along the ocean-beaches of the northern portion
•of the Island. Its restricted range may be caused by a food-
supply being confined to the area over which it is found, or
by the sand in which it burrows being in some way specially
fitted for its needs. This last conjecture does not appear to
be a likely one, for the sand on the west coast is constantly
moving. Another peculiarity is that it is found in patches,
these often being sepa>-ated by considerable distances. An
explanation of this may be that the animal lives some dis-
tance from the shore, and only leaves the deeper water at
breeding-time. Living together in great numbers on special
feeding-grounds, the animals may migrate at intervals to shal-
low water, each migration being shared in by a lai'ge number
of individuals.*

The Northern Wairoa has long been the seat of a large
and important timber industry, the immense kauri and
kahikatea forests with which much of the river-basin was
clothed furnishing an accessible and readily mxrketable
supply. The kauri forests on the hills along the river and
in other places easily reached have long since been removed,
and a very few years will see the complete disappearance
of the kauri as a timber - producing tree in the Northern
Wairoa. The rapid removal of the timber may be attributed

* Since this was written I have learnt that the toheroa occurs alone
the coast to the north and soath of the Riglan Ha,rbDur, and to the north
of PoriruaBay; but in none of these plices is it f juad ia such abundance
as on the ocean-beach opposite Dargiville.

464 Transactions. — Geology.

partly to its value and partly to the fact that in nearly all
cases its conveyance to the mills was a matter of compara-
tive ease. The numerous tributaries of the river, many of
them deep, well supplied with a constant flow of water, and
reaching far back from the main stream, furnish the best of
all waterways for the conveyance of logs. When the natural
supply of water is not sufficient to float these they are forced
along by driving-dams or hauled out of the bush, either by
bullocks or steam-engines. Great ingenuity is brought to bear
on the removal of trees from difficult positions — huge logs,
weighing many tons, are hauled from the bottoms or sides of
steep gullies or lowered from the tops of lofty hills. Timber
whose position a few years ago would have rendered it value-
less is now worked with profit; indeed, there are few patches
of kauri sufficiently inaccessible to be beyond the reach of the
axe and the wire rope.

A good deal has been written on the slow growth of the
kauri. The following contribution to the literature of this
subject by a northern settler may be of interest : " In 1896 a
number of trees, measured 7 ft. from the ground, girthed some-
thing under 3ft. 4in. Ten of these trees, measured under
similar conditions in 1901 (five years afterwards), girthed as
follows: 3 ft. 5 m., 3 ft. 6 in., 3 ft. 7 in., 3 ft. 8 in., 3 ft. 10 in.,
3 ft. 11 in., 4 ft., 4 ft. lin., 4 ft. 2 in., 4 ft. 3 in. This would
give an average girth of 3 ft. 10 in., and hence an average in-
crease of girth of 6 in. in five years, slightly over lin. per
annum. These trees were in sheltered positions ; in those
growing on exposed situations there was no perceptible
change."

On the low land bordering the river there is still a great
quantity of kahikatea — a valuable timber for some purposes,
easily obtained and easily worked. An immense kahikatea
forest, estimated to contain between ninety and a hundred
million feet of timber, covers the northern and eastern por-
tions of the Tokatoka Swamp. A mill has been erected and
is now in full operation at Raupo, where many years of work
await the enterprising owners.

Hamilton. — Small Collection of Fosmls from Wharekuri. 465

Akt. XXXVI. — Notes on a Synall Collection of Fossils from
Wharekuri, on the Waitaki Biver, North Otago.

By A. Hamilton.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 13th October, 1903.]
Plates XXXVII. and XXXVIII.
Last Easter I had an opportunity of visiting a portion of the
valley of the Waitaki immediately to the north of Kurow,
in company with Professor Park, and we spent one day at
Wharekuri, as I was anxious to see the locality in which
Mr. McKay discovered a large series of remains oi the huge
whale with the seal-like teeth, '■= called by Sir James Hector
Kekenodon onomata.\ A full description of the small deposit
of calcareous greensands and of the great variety of fossils
found is given on pages 67 and 68 of the Geological Eeport of
1881, and it will be seen from the notes that the locality is
a very important one for collectors.

Crossing the Wharekuri Creek at the bridge, we put up
our horse and trap at the small accommodation-house close
by and walked up the creek to a small coal-mine worked in
a small seam of coal, and a short distance further on the
schistose beds of the older I'ocks forming Mount Mary come
in.

On returning down the bed of the creek, about 12 chains
before reaching the bridge on the main road there is a very
interesting series of small faults, the main fault being nearly
vertical and running N.N.W. by S.S.E. The beds here
exposed on the cliffs on the east bank of the stream are about
10 ft. thick, 30 ft. of which are blue clayey sandstones very
full of fossils, all squeezed and distorted ; and on the down-

FlG. 1.

f h

Section 12 Chains above Bridge over Main Road, Wharekuri.

a. Recent river gravels.

h. Blue clayey sandstones (fossiliferous).

c. Soft yellowish sandstone (not fossiliferous).

/. Fault, about 2 ft. wide.

* Rep. Geol. Surv. N.Z., 1881, p. 73.
t Trans. N.Z. Inst., xiii., p. 436.

.30— Trans.

466

Transactions. — Geology.

NW

throw side of the fault about 30 ft. of soft yellowish sandstone,
not fossiliferous. These are capped by several feet of recent
river-gravels. The fault is 2 ft. wide. (See fig. 1.)

The terrace gravels and silts form the high banks of the
creek down to the junction with the Waitaki, which is here a
line river, carrying a large body of water and subject to high
floods. Just at the junction of the creek the river makes a
sharp turn northwards across the valley, and has swept away
the overlying river- gravels from a projecting pomt of dark-
green clayey sandstone, leaving the surface perfectly bare, and
over the whole surface are small concretions of hardened sand
enclosing a great variety of fossils. As far as I can make out
from Mr. McKay's report,* the remarkable series of bones of

Section across Waitaki River Quarter -mile below Junction of

Wharekuri Stream.

A. Where the Atiiria was found.

a. Terrace gravels and silts, with moa-bones.

b. Dark-green cla\ey sandstones, very fo.^siliferous.

five specimens of Kekenodon onomata must have been obtained
from the upper beds of this point before its recent erosion by
the river. We were not able to find any bones or teeth of
Kekenodon, but we were successful in collecting the fine
specimen of Aturia figured on Plates XXXVII. and XXXVIII.
The difficulty of getting this huge shell out of the hard marly
greensand was very great, as a large trench had to be dug on
all sides. Fortunately, sufficient of the matrix came away
with it to hold the shell together until it reached the Museum,
when Mr. Jennings, the skilful taxidermist, worked it out and
cut it into two halves. The shell still retains the nacreous
appearance. A portion of the thin outer chamber was un-
avoidably broken in the excavation, but the greatest diameter
is still between 15in. and 16 in.

Amongst other fossils was a very iine PleurotoiiLaria oin.
in diameter at the base, at present undescribed, and a con-
siderable number of a Pecten alhed to F. Imtchin.soiii, but
having one side slightly ribbed and the other smooth, like
P. Yahlensis of tlie Australian Tertiaries. Mr. McKay men-
tioned that a large number of the concretions that he col-
lected contained crabs. We only found one, but this is,

Eep. Geol. Surv. N.Z., 1882, p. G8.

Marshall. — Boulders in Triassic Conglomerate, Nelson. 467

fortunately, well preserved, and bears a resemblance to the
Harpaotocarcinus tigured by H. Woodward in the Quarterly
Journal of the Geological Society (xxii., 51), but it is not that
genus.

Crassate.lla australis was plentiful, Trochus chathimensis,
and a number of corals. A few fragments of leaves were
found, and the vertebra of a fish having a centrum 1 in. in
diameter.

Section across Waitaki River Three - quarters of a Mile below

THE JUNCTIOJST OF THE WhAREKURI CrEEK.

a. Recent river gravels.

b. Terrace gravels and silts, wicli moa bones.

c. Sandy shell beds full of fossils.

d. Dark-green sandy beds.

Following down the bed of the river, the section exposed
for a mile or two is a cliff of about 20 ft. of tine sandy
material full of the most delicate and beautiful specimens of
fossils — huge specimens of Dantalimn giganteum, brachio-
pods of several species, Natica, Twrritelia, Limopsis, Lima,
and a number of small species. A very fine collection could
be made here by careful search. The conditions under which
the beds were deposited seem to have been very favourable
to the development of all forms of animal life in land-locked
shallow seas with a mild climate.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXXVII. AND XXXVIII.

Plate XXXVII.
Aturia ziczac.

Plate XXVIII.
Section of Aturia ziczac.

Art. XXXVII. — Boulders in Triassic Conglomerate, Nelson.

By Dr. P. Marshall, Lecturer in Geology, Otago School

of Mines.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 9th June, 2903.]
Plates XXXIX.-XLL
The following descriptions of rock-sections are given in the
hope that they may help in forming an accurate idea of the
age of many of the igneous rocks occurring in the older forma-
tions of the Nelson Province. In many cases the age of

468 Transactions. — Geoloyj.

igneous rocks can be most readily settled by recording their
occurrence or absence as rolled fragments in fossiliferous sedi-
ments. In the present case it is evident that the parent masses
from which these conglomerate fragments were derived must
be older than the Triassic period. The collection was made
by Professor Park from the cont^lomerates occurring at the
base of the Triassic formation in Nelson.

C 275. — Granite. Dark-grey on weathered surface. Mica
plates distinct ; feldspar opaque. Stained with iron-
oxide.

Section : Quartz rather plentiful, with very irregular out-
lines. Water clear, with undulose extinction. Feldspar
partly orthoclase, twinned on the Carlsbad law ; also in rather
greater abundance an albite-oligoclase with extinction angle
of 8°. Albite twinning general. Carlsbad less common.
Zonal structure general, showing progressively lower extinc-
tion angles towards the margin. Decomposition producing
cloudy appearance in centre of crystals, due to development of
very minute epidote crystals and other substances too fine-
grained for recognition. Hornblende in idiomorphic crystals
rare, with pleochroism from dark-green to pale-yellow. Biotite
more frequent, dark-green or pale-yellow, rather decomposed
to a viridite substance. Sphene not abundant, granular. Very
pale-grey. Slightly pleocbroic.

C 276. — Granite. Fine-grained, light-pink. Biotite plates
fairly large.

Quartz plentiful, perfectly clear, without undulose extinc-
tion. Feldspar chiefly microperthite, in places forming a
graphitic intergrowth with quartz. Albite sometimes forming
cores for microperthite. All feldspar rather decomposed and
cloudy. Decomposition products very fine. Occasional small
flakes of brownish-green mica. Small idiomorphic sphene,
and magnetite in very small quantity.

C 277. — Granite. Pink, coarse-grained, with fairly large
biotite plates. Quartz white. Feldspar pink.

Quartz abmidant, perfectly clear, granular. Feldspar
porphyiitic, tlie larger crystals being orthoclase or albite.
Much decomposed into epidote and muscovite. On the
margins of larger grains of quartz and feldspar a granular
intergrowth, tlie nearer portions of mineral matter similar
optically to the crystals; has similar orientation witli them.
Otherwise the structure is microgranitic. A little brownish-
green biotite, magnetite, and two or three minute crystals of
zircon. No sphene visible in the section.

Mabshall. — Boulders in Triassic Conglomerate, Nelson. 469

C 278. — Granite. White, coarse-grained. Quartz white.
Biotite plates not present. Feldspar white.

Quartz clear, in large grains, on the exterior of which there
is often an intergrowth of feldspar. Feldspar chiefly ortho-
clase, rather decomposed, much intergrown with quartz, even
in the interior of large crystals. Cloudy with minute decom-
position products. No ferro-magnesian minerals. A few
irregular grains of sphene, showing distinct pleochroism.

C 279. — Granite. Dull-pink. Porphyritic quartz. Biotite
small.

Section generally similar to C 277, but quartz rather
coarser. In places microgranitic structure, but generally
micrographic. Brown biotite more abundant than in C 277,
and magnetite much pierced by crystals of apatite. No
sphene or zircon visible.

C 280. — Granite. Large white crystals of porphyritic
feldspar in pink fine-grained base.

Section similar to C 275, but coarse-grained. Feldspar
includes orthoclase, albite, and microperthite twinned in the
usual way. Large flakes of brown biotite with apatite
needles. No hornblende. A little magnetite and sphene.

C 28L — Diorite. Dark hornblende in irregular crystals.
Grey feldspar.

Feldspar crystals allotriomorphic, showing twinning on
albite and occasionally on pericline laws. Extinction angle
30°, indicating an acid labradorite Much decomposed into
comparatively large crystals of epidote, muscovite, quartz,
and "garnet." Hornblende plentiful in light-green crystals
pleochroic from green to pale-yellow, occasionally twinned.
Much intruded by various inclusions for the most part origin-
ally feldspar and apatite. Now decomposed like the surround-
ing feldspar. No magnetite or other accessory minerals.

C 282. — Porphyry. Feldspar phenocrysts green. Base
greyish-brown.

Phenocrysts of orthoclase idiomorphic, twinned on Carlsbad
law ; much decomposed, apparently into sericite. Smaller
phenocrysts of epidote, but crystals not optically single, but
aggregates. Form similar to hornblende, from which the
mmeral is derived. Base rather coarsely felsitic, but no trace
of original microlites, so pi'obably originally a glass. Fel-
sitic matter apparently composed of feldspar and a decom-
posed ferro-magnesian mineral. Magnetite in fairly large
.grains not infrequent.

470 Transactions. — Geology.

C 283. — Porphyrite. Feldspar opaque, green. Base dark-
brown.

Felfispar phenocrysts much decomposed, but Carlsbad
twinning still faintly seen. Decomposition pi'oducts mostly
chlorite, epidote, and apparently muscovite, finely divided.
Brown mica fairly abundant. Groundmass glassy, with black
mierolites decomposed into opaque ferritic matter. Flow-
structure distinct. Tdiomorphic crystals of magnetite fairly
abundant. In some cases pierced by apatite needles.

C 284. — Uralite porphyrite. Feldspar opaque ; white, small,
sharp crystals. Base nearly black.

Augite phenocrysts fairly large, partially changed into green
fibrous pleochroic hornblende. Colourless when unchanged.
Feldspar in two generations : Sharply idiomorphic with short
forms, sometimes isometric ; decomposition rather advanced
towards the centre of the crystals ; maximum extinction angle
30° : second generation similar in all details except size to
first generation. No slender mierolites. Feldspar imbedded
in granular green hornblende evidently derived from augite.
Magnetite very abundant.

C 285. — Porphyry. Feldspar generally glassy, with bright
cleavage surfaces. Base dark-brown.

Feldspar in sharp phenocrysts, sometimes much weathered,
but more often quite clear. Twinned on Carlsbad law, and
perhaps occasionally on Baven's, but examples not good.
Occasionally albite lamellation, indicating a plagioclase near
oligoclase. Base for the most part glassy, but secondary
devitrification not uncommon ; many decomposed mierolites
changed into a ferritic substance. Chloritic pseudomorphs
rather frequent. The original mineral usually hornblende,
sometimes biotite. Epidote with chlorite. Secondary quartz
in knots not infrequent. Angular inclusions of a shaly rock
with carbonaceous matter frequent.

C 286. — Porpliyry. Feldspar opaque, greenish. Base
dark-brown.

Feldspar mostly orthoclase, sometimes zoned, when the
exterior border gives straighter extinction than the core. De-
composition into a dusty substance (sericite) general, especi-
ally in the central portions. Flakes and needles of a bright-
green chlorite also frequent. Much chlorite in cleavage
cracks. Some plagioclase, with well-developed albite twinning
apparently oligoclase. Pseudomorphs of clilorite after horn-
blende ratlier common. Base glassy, with well-developed

Hamilton. — A Bibliography of the Dinornithidae. 471

damascened structure. Magnetite grains fairly large, pierced
by apatite needles.

No rocks occurring in situ similar to these have hitherto
been recorded from the Nelson District. It is hoped that
when the geology of the province is studied with the aid
of petrographical investigations these descriptions will be of
some value in determining the age of some of the igneous
rocks.

Akt. XXXVIII. — Second S2ip2)leinent to the " Materials for
a Bibliography of the Dinornithidae."

By A. Hamilton.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 3rd December, 1903.]

Ten years ago I presented to this Institute the first portion of
the working-list of papers on the moa, and the subsequent
year a small first supplement of items which had been acci-
dentally omitted, for several of which I was indebted to the
kindness of friends. This evening I submit another supple-
mentary list, bringing the material for the bibliography up to
date.

As in the previous lists, some papers are included which
treat of the smaller extinct birds, the history of which is
bound up with that of their giant relatives, the moas.

Author.

Title of Paper.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Andrews, C.

Benham, W. B.

On the Extinct Birds of the
Chatham Islands. Part I. :
The Osteology of Diaplior-
apteryx haiokinsi

On the Extinct Birds of the
Chatham Islands. Part II. :
The Osteology of Palceolimnas
chatliamiensis and Nesolim-
nas (n. gen.) dieffenbachi

Note on a Skeleton of DinpJior-
apteiyx hawkinsi, Forbes,
a Large Extinct Rail from
the Chatham Islands

Note on a Nearly Complete
Skeleton of Aptornis dcfosser,
Owen

Notes on the Fourth Skin of
Notornis

Nov. Zool. iii. 73, pi. iii.
1896.

Nov. Zool. iii. 260, pi. ix.
and X. ; 1896.

Geol. Mag. (Dec. iv.) iii.
pi. xii. ; 1896.

Geol. Mag. (Dec. iv.) iii.
pi. X. ; 1896.

Trans, xxxi. 146 ; 1897.

472

Transactions. — Geology.

Author.

Title of Paper.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Benham, W. B.

Coleuso, W.

Chapman, F. R.
De Vis, C. W.
Ewen, C. A.

Hamilton. A.

Hector, Sir James

Henry, R.
Hill, H.

Hut ton, CaptPvin
F. W.

Notes on Certain of the Viscera

of Notornis
Notice of the Discovery of a

Moa-egg Shell
On the Entire Egg of a Moa,

now in the Museum of the

University of Otago
Notes and Observations on M.

A. de Quatrefages' Paper

" On IMoas and Moa-hunters,"

republished in Vol. xxv.,

Trans. N.Z. Inst.
Notice of the Discovery of a

Complete Moa's Egg
The Moa in Australia

On the Discovery of Moa-re-
mains on the Riverton Beach,
Southland

Further Contributions towards
Bibliography of the Dinor-
nithida : Supplement No. 1

On the Feathers of a Small Spe-
cies of Moa (Mcgalapteryx)
found in a Cave at the Head
of the Waikaia River ; with
a Notice of a Moa-hunter's
Camp on the Old Man Range

Notes on a Deposit of Moa-
bones at Macrae's

Notes on a Specimen of Enry-
apteryx from Southland

On Cnemiornis calcitrans and
C. minor

On the Distribution of Notornis,
and General Notes on the
Genus

On a Discovery of Bones of
Dinornis giganteum on the
Surface

Notes on Moa-bones in Gold-
drift

On the Distribution of Moa-
remains in New Zealand

On the Probable Origin of No-
tornis mantelli and its Ex-
tinction in New Zealand

On the Occurrence of ]\Ioa-foot-
prints in the Bed of the
Manawatu River near Pal-
merston North

On the Axial Skeleton in the
Dinornithidcc

On the Occurrence of a Pneu-
matic Foramen in the Femur
of a Moa

Trans, xxxi. 151 ; 1897.
„ xxxi. 738 ; 1897.
„ xxxiv. 149; 1901.

„ xxvii. 498 ; 1894.

xxxii. 438.

N.Z. Journ. Sc. (new is-
sue) i. 97; May, 1891.
Trans, xxviii. 651 ; 1895.

„ xxvii. 228 ; 1894.
xxvii. 2.32 ; 1894.

„ xxix. 629 ; 1896.

XXX. 445 ; 1897.

„ XXX. 581 ; 1897.

,. xxxi. 739, 743;
1898.

.. xxvii. 655 ; 1894.

„ xxix. 607 ; 1896.

xxxiv. 562 ; 1901.
„ xxxii. 53 ; 1899.

„ xxvii. 476; 1894.

„ xxvii. 1.57 ; 1894.
xxvii. 173; 1894.

Hamilton. — A Bibliography of the Dinornithidae. 473

Author.

Title of Paper.

Name, &c., of Publication.

Hutton, Captain
F. W.

Lydekker, R., &c.

Mantell, W. B. D.
McLeod, H.

Meyer, A. B.
Milne-Edwards, A.

Parker, T. J.

Shufcldt, R. W.

Tegetmeier, —
White, Taylor

On a Deposit of Moa-bones at

Kapua
On a Deposit of Moa-bones from

Enfield
The Moas of the North Island

of New Zealand
On the Leg-bones of Meionorjiis

from Glenmark
On Two Moa-skulls in the Can-
terbury Museum
On the Footprint of a Kiwi-like

Bird from Manaroa
On a Moa-bone from Silt at the

Port Hills

On a Complete Skeleton of
Megalapteryx tenuipes in the
Tring Museum

Obituary of . .

On Caves in the Martinborough
District, and Moa-bones found
therein

On the Eggs of the Moa

Sur les Resemblances qui ex-
istent entre la Fauna des lies
Mascareignes et celle de cer-
taines lies de I'Ocean Paci-
fique Australe

The Cranial Osteology Classi-
fication and Phylogeny of the
DinornithidcB

Notes on the Species from En-
field, near Oamaru

Remarks on the Leg-bone of
Megalapteryx

Remarks on a Skeleton of Har-
pagornis

Remarks on a Skeleton of
Harpagornis

On the Affinities of Harpagornis,
in a Letter to Professor T. J.
Parker

Tracheal Rings and Feathers of
Dinornis

The Moa and the Maoris

Notes on the Poua and other
Extinct Birds of the Chat
hams

Have we Remains of a Swim-
ming Swan-like Moa ?

The Bird Moa and its Aliases

Trans, xxvii. 627 ; 1894.

„ xxviii. 645; 1895.

„ xxix. 541 ; 1896.

„ xxix. 557 ; 1896.

„ xxix. 561 ; 1896.

„ xxxi. 486 ; 1896,

„ xxxi. 731 ; 1896.

Dictionary of Birds

"Moa," pt. ii. 575.
Nov. Zool. iv. 188, pi. vi.

Geol. Mag. (Dec. iv.) iii.

239; 1896.
Trans, xxxiv. 562; 1901.

Ibis (ser. 8i iii. 188.
Ann Nat. Sc. (8) i. 117,
pi. xi.-xiii. ; 1895.

Tr. Zool. Soc. L. xiii. 373,
pi. Ivi.-lxii. ; 1893.

Trans, xxvi. 24; 1893.

„ xxvii. 684 ; 1894.

„ xxix. 628 ; 1896.

„ XXX. 574 ; 1897.

„ xxviii. 654 ; 1895.

Bull. B.O.C. xi. 56.

Trans, xxviii. 761 ; 1895.
„ xxix. 633 ; 1896.

XXX. 586; xxxii.

339.
xxvii. 262 ; 1894.

474 Transactions. — Geology

Akt. XXXIX. — Note on Remains of some of the Extinct
Birds of New Zealand found near Nyapara.

By A. Hamilton.

[Read before the Otago Imtitute, 3rd Dtcernber, 1903.]

A SHORT time ago Professor Benharu, the Curator of the
Otago University Museum, brought under my notice some
bird-bones which had been sent to him for identification by
the Eev. Jas. Standring, of Enfiel(i, a small settlement eight
miles mland from Oamaru.

The bones were in a very good state of preservation, and
included bones of the Harpagornis, Cneviiornis, and several
other smaller birds. One small metatarsal was shown to
me as something strange, and at fir.st I thought the bone
was that of one of the hawks. Closer examination, how-
ever, enabled us to identify it as belonging to a bird closely
allied to Corviis corax. There was also a metacarpal of the
same bird.

It then became highly probable that this must be the same
genus, at any rate, as Cornis moriorum, described, or, rather,
named, by Forbes from collections made in the Chatham
Island. On borrowing from Mr. Kinsey, in Christchurch,
who possesses a magnificent skeleton of this very rare bird,
a bone of the Gorviis morioruvi, the identification was
assured.

It is a matter of extreme interest to find this bird in New
Zealand, and, as I have already found another of Mr.
Forbes's species, a Fulica, in the deposit of bird-bones at
Castle Eock, in Southland, '■■ it was of special interest to me.

Professor Benham kintily arranged with Mr. Standring so
that we could visit the locality m which the bones were found,
but, unfortunately, he was prevented from going at the last
moment, so it fell to me to make an examination of the
locality, anci, if possible, to ascertain how the bones came into
the position in which they are found.

Mr. Standring was kind enough to meet me at the Wind-
sor Station, and had arranged that we should be driven by
Mr. McCulloch, the owner of the property on which the bones
are found, lo the place, which is about two miles and a half
from the ternunus of ibo luu; at Ngapara, or about twenty
miles from Oamaru.

The road passes up a valley cut through a succession of
sandy clays and gravels capped with a bed of hmestone.

Mr. McCulloch 's house is situated in the midst of most

• Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxv., p. 88.

Hamilton. — Remains of some of the Extinct Birds. 475'

picturesque masses of this band of limestone which have
broken away from the main body of rock and slid or rolled
towards the centre of the valley. All round the valley and
its branches appear the vertical limestone cliffs, averaging
about 100ft. in height, and are about 800 ft. above sea-
level. The spot where the bone of the crow was found
was first examined, and proved to be very limited in area
and poor in bones, although I commenced by digging up
a fine calvarium of Gnemiornis just below the surface, and
therefore expected great things. We then proceeded to
examine a cave some distance further from the house.
Here we had to descend about 25 ft. through a narrow
crack in the rock parallel with the general direction of the
face of the cliff. These narrow cracks are very numerous,
and if they could be examined to a considerable depth I have
no doubt would yield many treasures. Proceeding a short
distance along the bottom of the fissure, it presently dipped
deeper, and it became necessary to light a candle. The
fissure here expanded into a small cave, with remains of small
stalactites on the roof and a thin layer of stalagmite on the
undisturbed portion of the floor. The centre of the floor had
evidently been dug over, and we were informed that some
sackfuls of bones had been taken out. One or two places near
the walls yielded a good many imperfect moa-bones, mainly
Pachyoruis and a few bones of Cnemiornis. I did not notice
any small-birds' bones. The cave was dry save for some
percolation from above.

On getting oiit of this cave we commenced an examina-
tion of the talus slope at the base of the wall of limestone,
pushing our way through a dense growth of native shrubs and
creepers, with here and there a large broadleaf (Griselinia).
Wherever the ground was exposed we found traces more or
less plentiful of small-bird bones, and here and there remains
of large nioas.

The stiff' bushes of matakouri and a dense growth of hore-
hound rendered a thorough inspection difficult. After having
examined the whole of the area covered by the fallen rocks,
and having walked along the edge of the cliffs on the grassy
plateau above, I think that the following suggestions will be
found to meet the facts of the case.

There is an almost unbroken line of cliffs for nearly three-
quarters of a mile ; below these, at an average distance of a
chain or two, is an irregular line of rocks at all angles, which
have split off' and fallen away from the main mass. Below
these are other rocks which have broken off at an earlier date,
and which have slipped and slid further, but are still roughly
parallel with the main cliff. Between the cliff' and the last
split-off rocks is an irregular sloping mass of soil, stones, and

47()

Transactions . — Geology .

vegetable debris, a foot or more in thickness, resting on the
sandy clay underlying the limestone, and out of which the
valley is excavated.

It is in this talus that the bones are found, sometimes in
numbers near the top, sometimes deeply buried. An ex-
amination of the top of the cliff shows that at various dis-
tances from the edge along the whole line of cliffs are crevices

Diagram of tjik Mode of Occurrknce of thf Bird -bones at

Ngapara.
A. Limestone. B. Sands and clays.

two or three feet in width — sometimes more — and these, I
believe, give the key to the question. It must be recollected
that before the advent of civilisation the country was covered
with dense masses of bushes and trees, and that birds were
numerous, so that open narrow fissures would in many cases
form eflicient traps for ground-birds. Let us suppose that
as soon as a crack opens (owing to the denudation of the
sandy clay underlying the stone) earth, leaves, and a few
birds drop in, together with sticks, leaves, and vegetable
dchru, until the fissure in course of time is full, when the
final slip happens, and the mass of limestone slips two or three
chains down the slope ; the contents of the fissure will gradu-
ally be distributed over the intervening space, a wide part of
the crack contributing more than a narrow part. Vegetation

Speight. — Note on a Dyke at Nugget Point. 477

soon springs up, and assists to preserve the bones. Large
broadleaf-trees moi-e than 2 ft. in diameter are growing over
the bones in some places.

A large number of the bones that I was able to dig up were
broken, which is probably accounted for by the rooting of wild
pigs in former days and by the rooting of domestic pigs at
the present time, as the space between the rocks and the
clilf is utilised as a large pig-paddock.

I dug for bones on the afternoon of one day and the morn-
ing of the next, and altogether brought back about a thousand
specimens, the result of the examination of which is given
below.

I am much indebted to Mr. McCuUoch for his hearty as-
sistance, and to the Rev. Mr. Standring for information con-
cerning the locality.

Corvus moriorum (right and Anas finschii.

left metatarsi). Gnemiornis.

Notornis hccJistetteri. Harpagornis.

Ftdica prisca. Oarpophaga.

Aptornis. Ocydromus.

Apteryx (two sp.).

And bones of a few small birds not yet worked out.

Akt. XL. — Note on a Dyke at Nugget Point.

By R. Speight, M.A., B.Sc.

{Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, -ith November^

1903.]

This dyke is mentioned by Captain Hutton in the " Geology
of Otago," pages 41 and 42, and also by the Geological
Survey in several reports on the district. My attention
was drawn to it during a visit to Nugget Point in January^
1903. On examining hand-specimens subsequently one or
two features of the rock attracted my notice. It belongs to a
division of the syenite group not common in New Zealand—
viz., feldspar porphyry. This is evident from the inspection
of hand-specimens. The porphyritic feldspars constitute the
bulk of the rock, the size of the crystals ranging up to 5 mm.
in length. They show the characteristic shapes due to
pinacoidal cleavages, and from the absence of twin striation
they are most probably to be classed as orthoclase. This
is confirmed by tiame tests. No other porphyritic mineral
could be observed in a macroscopic examination, but a number
of inclusions of foreign material occur. These I took at first
for altered feldspars, but I believe they have been caught up

478 TransacfAons. — Geology.

in the rock as ic passed through underlying beds. They are
usually small, but I observed one a centimetre in length.

The specific gravity of the rock is 2-65. This is rather low
for a syenite, but the small amount of basic mineral present
and the large predominance of orthoclase feldspar accounts
for it.

A partial chemical analysis gave the silica-percentage
as 58. This is also low for a syenite. This may be explained
by the small amount of free silica and the large amount of
altered feldspar present in spite of the comparatively small
amount of ferro-magnesian mineral that occurs.

A microscopic examination shows that the rock is prin-
cipally composed of idiomorphic feldspars in a crystalline
groundmass. The feldspars are much clouded by alteration,
and occasionally occur as binary twins ; others show undulose
extinction and zonal structure. They are mainly orthoclase,
but plagioelase is also present. In sections from the middle
of the dyke quartz is rare, but in sections from the edge it
was observed in small individual crystals, and also replacing
feldspar as a mosaic of small grains. This is perhaps due to
pressure as well as to the alteration of the feldspar.

The ferro-magnesian mineral which, no doubt, occurred
originally in the rock has been replaced by chloritic material
which shows at times a doubtful pleochroism. The small per-
centage of ferro-magnesian mineral is characteristic of feldspar
porphyries. However, on digesting the powdered rock with
hydrochloric acid for twenty-four hours the solution gave,
with ammonia, a decided pi-ecipitate of ferric hydrate. This
must have come partly from the alteration products and from
small crystals of iron-ore forming an original constituent of
the rock. The groundmass is at times hard to determine,
owing to alteration, but it appears to consist of small feld-
spars, which are so completely clouded as to be opaque
between crossed nicols. In the finer portions of the rock the
groundmass is clearly holocrystalline. A larger quantity of
free silica is also present here. The porphyritic crystals, too,
do not exhibit a distinct crystalline outline, but have the form
of allotriomorphic grains.

The inckisions in the rock, which I took at first for altered
feldspars, are most probably fragments of a trachytic or
andesitic lava. They consist of a semi-crystalline groundmass,
and in one I noticed small porphyritic crystals of plagioelase
which had undergone a certain amount of alteration, but not
sufficient to render tlieir determination at all doubtful. No
ferro-magnesian mincjrals occur in them, but I should say
they are most probably fragments of andesitic lava. It is
possible that they have been produced from feldspars by
inetasomatic processes, but I think it hardly likely. .\s vol-

McLeod. — Some Caves and Water-passages. 479

canic rocks of a greater age are known to occur iii other
parts of Southland at no great distance, it is not unHkely
that they underlie the rocks of the Hokonui system at Nugget
Point, and the presence of derived fragments in a dyke pene-
trating them would not be at all improbable.

The date of the intrusion of the dyke can be fixed with
tolerable certainty. It is found in Triassic rocks, so that it
cannot be earlier than that period. Further, I found near it
a derived sedimentary rock which contained a small Monotis.
If the rock was really formed from the dyke it fixes the date
for the close of the Triassic period, or not later than early
Jurassic. There is some difficulty, however, in determining
accurately the origin of the derived sandstone, as the sand-
stones in the immediate neighbourhood are highly feldspathic,
but contain a large proportion of plagioclase. However, I did
not notice this in the derived volcanic sedimentary rock. A
granite intrusion occurs in the neighbourhood at Omaru
Creek (see paper by Captain Hutton, read before the Royal
Society of New South Wales, 1889). This is on the same
line of country, and from the description of the rock there
are marked affinities to the one at Nugget Point. They may
therefore be of the same age.

Abt. XLI. — Some Caves and Water-passages in the Grey-
mouth District.

By H. N. McLeod.
\^Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 1st July, 1903.]

In the following note will be found illustrations of the
action of water in forming caves and underground passages in
two different ways, in the one by percolation from a ridge-top,
and in the other by overflow from flood-waters.

The latter instance is to be found in the vicinity of
Kumara, on the left bank of a stream known as Whisky Creek,
which obtains its name from its flowing by the site of a
raided still. Here, a few chains above the point where the
track crosses the bed, the flood-waters pass into an under-
ground passage, which, after expanding into a vault, branches
into other passages. The outlets to these were not traced, but
without doubt drain into the Eiver Teremakau, which is not
far distant. An entrance was forced through debris which
almost closed the entrance, and a distance of a hundred paces
was traversed, when further progress was barred by the
silting-up of this passage. Return was made to the vault,
and another passage traversed for fifty paces. The descent of
this was not without some difficulty, owing to sudden drops

480 Transactions. — Geology.

and to the slippery nature of the bottom and sides. At this
point a muffled sound of fallmg water was heard, when it was
considered advisable to return, owing to the light of the lamp
failing. Daylight was reached after some trouble. The
passages vary from 4 ft. in diameter to about 10 ft. high and
6 ft. wide, and bear signs of channelling action. Stones
washed from the creek cover the floor in places, but do not
occur in the sides.

Another passage not far distant from the above was also
explored, and was interesting as marking the course of an
earlier bed of the stream. It lies about 30 ft. from the present
bed, and is on a higher level. Its length before narrowing to-
a manhole in size is 50 paces, its depth roughly 8 ft., and
width 5 ft., the bottom overlaid with slippery mud. The
journey to the spot is sufficiently interesting in itself to repay
the trouble of the visit. Leaving Kumara, the Teremakau
Bridge is crossed, evidences of gold-workings being abundant;
then across the Greenstone by suspension bridge. Deep Creek
(four miles), a small canon said to be 70 ft. deep, is crossed.
Thence a mile and a half by bush track, full of interest to the
lover of scenery, brings one to the creek.

Ten minutes' walk from the hotel at Greymouth brings one
to any one of three examples of the effect of w^ater percolating,
gathering into a stream, undermining the overlying strata, and
forming caves or crevices. There are others at hand also, in
one of which the celebrated West Coast chief Tainui, I am
told, is buried; but a description of the chief one will be
sufficient for illustration. This is situated on the far side
of the Eiver Grey from Greymouth, just where the old bridge
terminates. The entrance is about 20 ft. wide by 7 ft. high.
Much care is necessary in looking through this cave, as the
footing is unsafe, and a tumble of 20 ft. into a pool at the
bottom is an experience to be avoided. On the left after
entering is a passage descending to water-level, from which
there proceeded sounds resembling the sharp puffing of a loco-
motive. The main portion extends sixty paces ; after it is a
passage of some length, accessible, however, only to the small
boy. At different places shafts or passage-ways open into
the main cave. These bring water from the hilltop above, if
flax-seeds found on the sides of one tell any tale. Large blocks
of strata have fallen from the roof and in turn been worn
away and carried off as muddy water into the Grey River.

A study of the formation of this cave is specially interest-
ing, enabling, as it does, an opinion to be formed of the action
by which the Grey Kiver evidently broke through the chain of
hills at Greymouth, forsaking the old channel, which, according
to authoritative opinion, discharged its waters at a point seven
miles distant.

v.— CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.

Art. XLII. — On the Regeneration of Cyanide- solutions.

By Godfrey Doveton, M.A.I.M.E.

Communicated by Professor James Park.

[^Read before the Otago Institute, I3th October, 1903.]

Case 1. — The recovery of the cyanide from the inert com-
pound K2ZnCN4, which is formed during the precipitation of
the metals upon zinc-shaving, fihform zinc, &c. — zinc fume,
emulsion, or dust. Thus —

Zn + 4 KCN + 2 H^O = ZnK.CN, + 2 KOH + H^.

To the solution containing the double cyanide of zinc a
certain amount of a caustic alkali is added. Thus, with caustic
potash —

ZnK,Cy, + 4 KHO = Zn(CK,) + 4 KCN + 2 H^O.

The requisite amount of caustic alkali is readily found by
a simple laboratory experiment.

To the solution containing potassium-cyanide and zincate
of potash is now added a certain quantity of alkaline sulphide,
slightly less than actually required to throw down all the zinc
as sulphide. Thus —

Zn(CK)o 4- 4 KCN + 2 H^O -f Na^S = ZnS + 4 KCN
+ 2 KHO + 2 NaOH.

The requisite amount of alkaline sulphide is regularly
found by simple laboratory experiment.

Case 2. — Eecovery of total cyanide, where so desired,
either from foul solutions or weak waste solutions.

A. Determine amount of available KCN.

B. Determine amount of total KCN.

C. Determine amount of protective alkali. If much of C
is present it will be found of advantage to partially neutralise,
to prevent high consumption of zinc salt in the following opera-
tion.

D. To the tank of solution add sufficient zinc salt to pre-
cipitate all the cyanides as zinc-cyanide. Thus, with zinc-
chloride —

2 KCN + ZnCl., = ZnCy^ -f 2 KCl.

31— Trans.

482 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

Also —

KoZnCN + ZnCla = 2 ZnCyo + 2 KCl.
Also, with the copper compound, if any —

ZnClo. + K2Cu,CN4 = ZnCu2CN4 + 2 KCl.

Collect the granular precipitate of ZnCya — and in case of
copper ZnCu2CN4 — by means of filter press, or any other
means of filtration or decantation. Eeject the supernatant
liquor, which will be found to be entirely free from either
available cvanide, total cyanide, copper, and containing per-
haps a doubtful trace of the precious metals.

The Au and Ag are almost entii-ely precipitated on addi-
tion of the ZnCl.j.

And add to it a concentrated solution of caustic alkali,
suflficient to dissolve the cyanide precipitate. Thus —

ZnCy^ + 4 KHO = Zn(OK), + 2 KCN + 2 H,0.

Thus, with copper compound —

ZnCa^CN^ + 4 KHO = Zn(OK)., + KoCa^CN^.

To the highly concentrated solution of potassium-cyanide
and potassic cupro- cyanide (if copper be present in the original
mill solution), also containing zincate of potassium, we now
add the requisite quantity of alkaline sulphide for the purpose
of removing the latter compound, Zn(0K).2, care being taken
to use, as previously directed, a slightly less amount of NajS
than is actuall)' required to remove the whole of the zinc.

It is now desired to recover the cyanide now held up by
the copper in the solution as C2CU2CN4.

Case 3. — The highly concentrated solution of KCN, almost
entirely freed from zincate of potash, but containing a portion
of its cyanide combined in the inert compound K.CuoCN^, is
now subjected to the action of a very weak electric current
in a precipitation-box similar to that used in the Siemens-
Halske process, though from the fact that a highly concen-
trated solution is to be operated upon the box may be much
smaller than ordinarily ; in practice, 100 tons of foul or waste
mill solution can be readily concentrated into 5 tons. A
current of 2-5-3 volts is found most suitable, with a volume
of 0076 amperes per square foot. The negative pole of the
dynamo or batteries, as the case may be, is connected with
the cathodes, wiiich are very thin copper plates, not neces-
sarily pure. The positive pole of plating dynamo or batteries
is connected with the anodes of the box, wiiich are thick zinc
plates.

The electrical action causes the potassic cupro-cyanide to
split up, the copper precipitates readily upon the cathodes,
along with any bullion whicli may be contained in tiie solu-

Easterfield and Aston. — The Chemistry of Bimu-resin. 483

tion, and HON is evolved, which in its turn attacks the zinc
plates, or anodes, and combines therewith to produce addi-
tional double cyanide of zinc and potassium — ZnKoCN4.

Thus, the solution during passage through the box is de-
prived of its copper, the place of the double cyanide of
copper and potassium being taken for an equivalent amount
of the double cyanide of zinc and potassium, from which latter
salt the cyanide may readily be obtained in the available form
of free potassium-cyanide by the method explained previously
in Case I.

Should it be desired to ship the cyanogen product to
•market, it is shipped readily as the simple zinc-cyanide
ZnCy^, the precaution bemg taken to pack it, while damp,
in an-tight cases. When allowed to dry much of it is con-
verted to carbonate. To make the ZnCy^ available for gold-
extraction purposes it is, as previously explained, dissolved
in a caustic alkali, the excess of zmcate of soda or potash
being removed by addition of an alkaline sulphide.

N.B. — It is advantageous, to promote perfect precipitation
•both in the precipitation of the cyanides with zmc salt and in
the precipitation of the zmc as ZnS, and in the electrical
precipitation of the copper and bullion, to cause active cir-
■culation, which is best occasioned by the employment of
compressed au\

In the electrical precipitation-box the distance between
<jathode and anode should be ^ in. Beginning with a thick
plate of zinc and a very thin sheet of copper, you end with a
thin frayed sheet of zinc and a thick plate of copper con-
taining small amounts of bullion.

Art. XLIII. — Studies on the Chemistry of the Netv Zealand

Flora.

By Thomas H. Easterpield, Professor of Chemistry in the
Victoria College, and B. C. Aston, Chemist to the Depart-
ment of Agriculture.

{Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 2nd September,

1903.]

Part III. — Eimu-resin.

The wide distribution of resinous substances in the vegetable
kingdom naturally raises three questions: (1.) What is the
function of resins in the plant-economy ? (2.) What is the
chemical origin of the resins? (3.) Are all the plant-resins
closely related from the chemical standpoint ? It is in the
hope of finding evidence which may help in arriving at an

484 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

answer to these questions that the present investigation has-
been commenced.

The riniu {Dacridium C2ipresstnum) is one of the best
known and most widely used of the New Zealand forest-
trees ; its timber is highly resinous, and the heart-shakes,
which are frequently large, contain an opaque pinkish resin
which may conjpletely fill the cracks or only occur in warty
globules having a concentric structure.

Eimu-resin dissolves for the most part in alcohol, but
leaves a small residue of a red amorphous substance, which
has a bitter and astringent taste. If water be added to the
alcoholic solution until a faint turbidity results, and the solu-
tion be allowed to stand for some hours, the greater part of
the resin separates in the form of almost colourless hexagonal
plates, which can be completely decolourised by recrystallisa-
tion from dilute alcohol. The crystalline compound thus
obtained is strongly acid, and the name " rimuic acid " is
proposed for it.

Eimuic acid is very sparingly soluble in water, benzene,
and light petroleum ; easily soluble in alcohol, ether, and hot
acetic acid. It melts at 192°-193° C, and has the specific
rotation [a] d = — 150°.

Two preparations of the acid were analysed. The analyses
and molecular-weight determinations agree with the formula

Calculated for Pound.

C16H.0O3. I. II.

C = 738 ... 73-8 73-7

H= 7-7 ... 7-9 7-95

0 = 18-5

1000
M.W. = 260 ... 266 and 288 by cryoscopic methods,

264 by titration.

The following salts have been analysed : —

Acid Ammonium Salt — (CieHaoOs).^, NH3, H.2O. — This salt is
sparingly soluble in water ; it is readily obtained by saturating
a solution of ammonia with the acid, filtering at once, and
gently warming the filtrate.

Calculated. Pound.

NH,, + H,0 = 6-7 ... ... 6-3

NH, = 314 ... ... 30

Barium Salt — (CieHi.jO,,)^, Ba, 14 HjO. — This most charac-
teristic crystalline salt separates in well-developed square
plates when a solution of barium-chloride is added to a solu-
tion of the acid m excess of ammonia. Three preparations
gave —

Basterfield and Aston. — The Chemistry of Rimu-resin. 485
Calculated.

Found.

I.

II.

III.

27-7

27-1

27-7

15-8

15-3

15-1

R,0 = 27-7
Ba = 15-1

Silver Salt — CigHigOg, Ag. — An amorphous llocculent pre-
cipitate prepared from a solution of the barium salt.

Calculated. Found.

Ag = 29-4 ... ... 29-0 and 29-7

Benzoyl Bimuic Acid. — This compound was prepared by
shaking the alkaline solution of rimuic acid with excess of
benzoyl-chloride. It is sparingly soluble in cold alcohol ; from
hot alcoholic solutions it separates on rapid cooling as a
transparent jelly, which becomes crystalline on standing.

Calculated for
CisHigO, CeHsCO, CO.H. Found.

C = 75-8 ... ... ... 75 6

H= 6-6 ... ... ... 6-6

Kimuic acid boils at 296°-300° at 21 mm. By continued
heating at 300° it loses water, and is converted into a colour-
less compound which is no longer soluble in alkalis, ether, or
the usual organic solvents, and cannot be distilled without de-
composition. Eimuic acid does not yield an ethereal salt
when treated with absolute alcohol and hydrochloric-acid gas.
It readily forms two crystalline nitro-acids and a sulphonic
acid, which will be described in a later paper.

It is of interest to note that Podocarpus cupressimcm, a
tree occurring in Java, contains as the chief constituent of its
heart-resin an acid (podocarpic acid) which is so similar to
rimuic acid that the two compounds might readily be mistaken
for one another. Upon comparison it becomes clear that the
two acids belong to the same homologous series — CnH,,j_gOH,

CO2H.

Rimuic Acid, Podocarpic Acid,

C16H.20O3. C17H22O3.

M.P. 192-193° C. ... 186-188° C.

[a] J, -150° ... +136°

The acids differ in the number of molecules of water with
which their salts crystallize. The following points of resem-
blance are remarkable : Both yield sparingly soluble acid
ammonium salts which crystallize with one molecule of
water. Both yield anhydrides when heated to 300° C. Both
yield crystalline mono and dinitro derivatives the acid salts
of which are yellow, the normal salts scarlet or crimson.
The dinitro derivatives are peculiarly sensitive to the action
•of light. Both acids, again, dissolve readily in cold con-
centrated sulphuric acid, and yield sulphonic acids the
barium salts of which are sparingly soluble and highly

486 Transactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

crystalline. Upon diluting the crude sulphuric-acid solution;
with water the smell of valeric acid is in each case distinctly
perceptible.

The solution of either of the sulphonic acids when warmed
with very dilute nitric acid gives a yellow precipitate, the
formation of which may be used as a test for nitric acid.

Art. XLIV. — Note on Interaction of Citric and Suljihuric

Acids.

By James Bee.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 4th November, 1903.]

During the preparation of aconitic acid by Hentschel's
method (in which citric acid is heated with a 66-per-cent.
sulphuric acid under a reflux condenser) it was found that
the yield varied very considerably according to the length
of time during which the acids were heated together. If the
reaction were carried on for too short a time unchanged
citric acid was left behind ; if the heating was continued for
twelve hours instead of six very little aconitic acid separated
from the mixture on cooling; and in a third experiment, in
which the materials were heated on a reflux apparatus for
twenty-four hours, no crystallization took place after cooling.

It was found that, on pouring off the black liquid from the
vessel in which the reaction had taken place, a small black
deposit resembling charcoal was left. This turned out to be
undecomposed aconitic acid. Suspended in the dark liquid-
was a flocculent dark-brown precipitate, which was separated
from the liquid by straining through a lai'ge Buchner filter.
From this a little aconitic acid was isolated.

The filtrate was diluted with water and extracted many
times with ether. The united residues were recrystallized
from glacial acetic acid, whereby aconitic acid was separated.
The mother liquors were freed from acetic acid by evaporation
with water, the residue taken to dryness and recrystallized
from chloroform and acetone. By this means a small quan-
tity of an acid which melted at 206° C. (uncorrected) was ob-
tained. Upon combustion it gave numbers agreeing accu-
rately with those of diconic acid, CgHjoOfi.

Calculated for CgHioOe. Found.

C = 50-47 per cent. ... 50-49

H = 4-67 „ ... 4-56

0 = 44-86 „ ... 44-95

Cooper. — An Experiment on the Wave Theory of Light. 487

Diconic acid was prepared by Hergt by heating citric acid
and strong hydrochloric acid in sealed tubes to 190°, and
according to him melted at 199-200° C.

There can be little doubt of the identity of the two sub-
stances, more especially as they agree in the following quali-
tative reactions : (1.) A solution of the ammonium salt of the
acid gave, with ferric chloride, an orange precipitate which
was not dissolved on boiling. (2.) Barium-chloride gave no
precipitate either cold or hot. (3.) Calcium-chloride gave no
precipitate either cold or hot.

Notwithstanding that the yield of diconic acid by this
method is disappointingly small, the observation that it does
result by the action of sulphuric acid at comparatively low
temperatures is not only worthy of note, but suggests that by
suitable variations of the conditions of the reaction the sub-
stance may be prepared in large quantities by some easy
method, instead of the exceedingly tedious process described
by Hergt.

During the investigation certain hitherto unnoticed pecu-
liarities in the silver and barium salts of aconitic acid were
observed : (1.) Silver-aconitate, on being heated, decomposes
with explosive violence. (2.) Ammonium-aconitate : On add-
ing a solution of barium-chloride to a solution of ammonium-
aconitate no precipitate is formed, but on boiling the solution
a crystallice precipitate results. The precipitate does not
dissolve on cooling, but becomes gelatinous. It is insoluble
in a solution of ammonium-benzoate, but soluble in a solu-
tion of ammonium-acetate.

The reaction is very characteristic, taking place even in
dilute solution.

Art. XLV. — A71 Experiment bearing on the Wave Theory of

Light.

By J. S. S. Cooper, M.A., B.Sc.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 9th June, 1903.]
1. Theor"^.
Consider a parallel plate of some transparent medium whose
refractive index varies as the distance of the point from an
initial plane at right angles to the face of the plate. Let
light from a distant source (a plane wave) be incident nor-
mally on this plate. The wave theory indicates that there
will be a deviation.

488

Transactions. — Gheviistry and Physics.

Let the thickness of the slab be t, and let a small element
of the wave-front be AB (fig. 1), measured parallel to the

Rare

03
<

CO

Den

se

Fig. 1.

plate, but at right angles to the initial plane. Let this wave
emerge from the plate at CD, and let its front be now DM,
making an angle 8 with the face of the plate. I^et the refrac-
tive index along CD he. jx, and that along AB be fj}. The plate
is supposed immersed in air of refractive index unity. We
may consider the element DM to be plane.

Let AB = X ;
Then time taken to travel path BD = k^-t ;

Tmie taken to travel path AM = kfj}t -\- A;CM.
Whence BM = /x^ - ^jlH.

Sin 8 =

BM
BD

fit — fj}t

if we neglect internal refractions.

From this it follows tbat, in order that the wave may

remain plane, we must have /*■ = constant (= A).

ax

Then the deviation 8 is given by

Sin 8 = \t.

Or, if 8 is small, 8 varies as t (1.)

2. Experiment. (Fig. 2.)
In order to test this experimentally the prisms were
removed from a spectrometer, whicli was tlien fixed with its

Cooper. — An Experiment on the Wave Theory of Light. 489

graduated circle vertical and its collimator-tube horizontal.
A small glass tank with approximately parallel sides was
now placed at the centre of the circle, and the deviation
it produced was noted. The tank was now half-filled with
gasoline, and carbon-bisulphide was run in underneath by
means of a funnel. In the region where they mix we have
then a liquid slab fulfilling the conditions stated in the first

Slit

ce

Fig. 2. Diagrammatic Plan op Spectrometer.
a a Region of mixture.

sentence of this paper. These liquids mix freely in all pro-
portions without turbidity. The beam now passed through
the mixture-layer, and the deviation was noted. At the same
time a notable dispersion was observed. It then occurred to
the author that these elifects might be produced by prisms
formed by capillary attraction in contact with the glass sides
of the tank. If this were so, the introduction of a glass slip
(a microscope- slide) would make four such prisms instead of
two, thus doubling the deflection. A microscope-slide was
carefully introduced in a vertical position, and the observed
deflection was sensibly diminished. The introduction of
another slab caused a further reduction of the deviation
which was in sensible proportion to the thickness of the
liquid traversed.

On now mixing the liquids thoroughly there was only such
deviation as was accountable by the inclination of the sides of
the tank, and that in a contrary direction to the previous
deviations. There was no prismatic dispersion observable.

Details of One of the Experiments.
Deviation produced by glass sides of empty tank
„ by tank witli gasoline

„ by region of mixture it

7"5mm.)...
with microscope- slip 2 mm.
thickness {t = 5-5 mm.)

m

= - 10'

= - 1'

= + 62'
= + 44'

490 Transactions. — CJiemistry and Physics.

Deviation produced with microscope-slip 1-6 mm. in

thickness {t = 5*9 mm.) ... = + 47'

„ with microscope-shp 1 mm. in

thickness {t = 6-5 mm.) ... = + 49'

„ with twomicroscope-shps, 2mm.

and 16 nmi. in thickness
{t = 3-9 mm.) ... ... = + 36'

„ by thoroughly mixed liquids in

the tank) " ... ... = - 3'

Thickness of liquid layer in tank = 7"5 mm.

On the emission theory such deviation is unaccountable,
if our mcidence be normal. Hence we may regard this as an
experiinentum crncis for the wave theory. I have been unable
to find any previous account of it. The experiments were
made at Canterbury College in August, 1900.

Akt. XLVI. — The Physical Properties of Kauri-gum.

By J. S. S. CooPEE, M.A., B.Sc.

[Read before tlie Otago Instihite, 13th October, 1903.]

[Preliminary Communication.]

The fossil gum from the kauri has many well-known proper-
ties peculiar to itself. It was thought worth while to make it
the subject of a systematic physical investigation. Although
this work is far from finished, it seems best to publish what
iew results have been obtained, and to supplement them at
a later date. The samples used were of good quality, clear-
yellow or milky in appearance, and in some cases of con-
siderable size — up to a pound or so in weight. They were
obtained from Messrs. Heather, Eoberton, and Co., of Auck-
land.

1. General Propekties.

The specific gravity varies with the milkiness — i.e., with
the vesicularity — so that the specific gravity of the pure
substance would appear to be very constant.

Specific giavity of clear sample ... 1-076

„ „ milky sample ... 1-049

„ „ very milky sample 1037

On being heated in the open the gum rapidly decomposes,
and may be destructively distilled into a very large number of
fractions. On heating under pressure in a confined space the
gum may be melted as a whole, and then resolidifies nearly
unchanged, but slightly more dense. During the heating to

Cooper, — The Physical Features of Kauri-gum. 491

quite moderate temperatures the pressure rises rapidly. Mea-
sured by an open mercury manometer this was on one occa-
sion found to be over three atmospheres. If the vessel is now
opened the whole mass froths up violently. A sample of the
gum melted in a sealed tube showed marked surface dichro-
ism, as do many of the fractions obtained by Mr. Prideaux
by fractional distillation. It is intended to follow this part
of the subject up more thoroughly.

The gum is insoluble in water, ether, carbon-bisulphide,
or mineral oil. It is converted by chloroform into a jelly-like,
sticky substance, but not wholly dissolved. On evaporation
it resolidifies in a slightly modified form.

2. Optical Properties.
The refractive index was measured by grinding several
prisms and using the method of minimum deviation. The
results found give 1-54 as a mean value. No trace of double
refraction could be found, even when the gum was compressed
between crossed nicols up to the breaking-point. It will be
interesting to examine the fluorescent dichroic oils for anoma-
lous dispersion.

3. Thermal Properties.

A rough determination of the specific heat by the method
of mixtures gave as a mean result about 0-46.

4. Electric Properties.

The gum is easily electrified by friction, and retains its
charge well. This argues a high insulating-power. An at-
tempt was therefore made to determine the conductivity by
cutting a parallel slab and providing it with tinfoil discs on
either side. With a water battery of 70 cells, and a Despretz
and D'Arsonval galvanometer, no deflection could be observed.
A deflection of a quarter of a scale division could easily have
been detected. This would correspond to a specific resistance
of about 10" ohms per centimetre cube. The specific resist-
ance is thus higher than that of either ebonite or paraffin.
No attempt has yet been made to see how this changes at
higher temperatures.

Surface conduction appears also to be very slight. The
resistance between two plates 7 cm. by 5 cm. separated by a
layer of powdered gum 1 mm. thick was over 9 x 10^ ohms.
This is due most probably to the fact that the gum is
scarcely, if at all, hygroscopic.

It was found impossible at the time to obtain a satis-
factory measure of the specific inductive capacity. The
method used was one due to Borgman and Petrowski,* in

* " Comptes Eendus," vol. cxxviii., p. 420.

492 Tra?isactions. — Chemistry and Physics.

which a spectrum-analysis vacuum-tube is used. A condenser
made of a slab of the kauri-cjum 1-38 cm. thick was compared
with one made of a slab of vulcanite 0-73 cm. thick. Wiih
the utmost care it was found impossible to obtain concordant
results. The value of the specific inductive capacity appears
to lie between 39 and 4-3, if the S.I.C. of the vulcanite in
question be taken as 3'15.

The experiments were begun in 1899, but were mainly
carried out at Canterbury College in 1900.

Art. XLVIL-:— A^o^e on a supposed Heat-effect.

By J. S. S. Cooper, M.A., B.Sc.

[Read before the Otago Institute, 23th October, 1903.]

It is a common belief among blacksmiths that if a bar of iron
with one end red-hot have this hot end plunged into water
the cool end grows suddenly hotter. The effect is common to
all metals, and is very striking if the cooler end be held in the
hand until just uncomfortably hot.

To test if there were any real increase of temperature,
or if it were merely an illusion, a brass bar was taken, -Gem. in
diameter, and one end was turned at a right angle so as
to dip easily in water. 19 cm. from this end a hole was drilled
in the bar, and a copper-german-silver thermo-electric couple
was soldered in. The end of the bar was heated over the
flame of an oil-lamp with a chimney. This proved a steady
source of heat when carefully shielded from draughts. The
heating was continued for half an hour, when the deflection of
the galvanometer was steady. The hot end was then plunged
in cold water (about 7°C.). In about thirty seconds the
deflection began to fall, and continued to do so steadily. This
proves that no real rise in temperature takes place such
as could affect the senses.

The effect observed must therefore be due to tiic continued
advance of the ordinary heat-wave along the bar after cooling
the end, and partly to the unconscious disappointment of the
mind on failing to experience a sudden cooling.

My thanks are due to Professor Shand, of the Otago
University, for his courtesy in allowing me to use his labora-
torv on all occasions.

I.— MISCELLANEOUS— cow^mwecZ.

Art. XLVIII. — Ofi certain Statistics respecting the Trend

of Ejiglish Trade.

By H. W. Segar, M.A., Professor of Mathematics,
University College, Auckland.
{Read before the Auckland Institute, 6th July, 1903.]
There have been many statistics put forward of late as
showing the smallness of the increase in British exports
during some years past as compared with the increases of the
exports of some other nations. That the absolute increase of
the exports of the United Kingdom has been smaller than the
increases of the exports of the United States of America and
of those of Germany is undeniable, as is also the fact that the
percentage of increase has been smaller than the correspond-
ing percentages in the case of many other nations. But, still,
many of the figures put forward, and given the most prominent
place and attention as being apparently the most glaring and
sensational, are very misleading, and give an extremely ex-
aggerated view of the situation. In the course of this paper
we shall examine a few typical illustrations — those, indeed,
which on the surface give the most despondent view of
English commerce of any I have come across. We shall see
that the usual interpretation of them is wholly unwarranted,
and that the attempt to make them a foundation of an
attack on the free-trade policy of England can only be sus-
tained by ignoring facts and circumstances that must be taken
into account if any reasonable use is to be made of the figures.
This is our main object. It is not proposed here to enter
into anything approaching a complete discussion of British
trade statistics, or to consider the general arguments for or
against the continuation of the present fiscal policy of the
United Kingdom.

Now, at least three main principles must be kept in mmd
if even only approximately fair conclusions are to be drawn
from many of the tables of figures one comes across bearing
on this question.

Firstly, we must take account of the fact that until re-
cently general prices have been falling ever since about the
year 1870. The question has been discussed by the author in

494

Transactions. — MisceManeous.

" Eeniarks on New Zealand's Trade and Public Debt "* and
"The Flood of Gold,"! and for some information on the sub-
ject I may refer the reader to this source. Taking the aver-
age over the years 1880-89 and over 1890-99, we find a fall
in prices in the ratio of 77 to 66 as measured by Sauerbeck's
index numbers — i.e., a fall in ihe ratio of 7 to 6, or some 14
or 15 per cent. Accordingly, if the exports of a country had
remained exactly the same in quantity and general exchange-
value from the one period to the other, the nominal value, or
value in the pounds sterling of the time, would appear to indi-
cate a fall of one-seventh, or about 14 per cent. ; and the
greater the exports in the former period the greater would be
the apparent fall.

In Table I. are given the total nominal values of the
special exports of the four leading nations commercially —
namely, the United Kingdom, the United States of America,
Germany, and France — for the decennial periods 1880-89 and
18^0-99. The absolute increases are given in each case.
These are the figures usually given ; but in the table are
added the approximate monetary values that the exports of
the latter period would have had if money had remained of
the same average value it had during the former period, Sauer-
beck's index numbers having been used in the calculation.
These figures represent, in terms of the money of tiie earlier
period, and within the necessary limits of error of the esti-
mates, the true or exchange values of the exports of the later
period as compared with those of the earlier one. The cor-
responding absolute increases are also added.

Table I.
Special Values.

Country.

Exports.

1880-89.

1890-99.

Nominal
Values.

Values in

Money of

18fti0-89.

Absolute Increases.

Millions

Millions

Millions

Millions

Millions

of £.

of £.

of £.

of i-.

01 £.

United Kingdom . .

2,304

2,3G8

'2,763

64

459

United States

1,558

1,987

2,318

429

760

Germany . .

1,545

1,698

1,981

153

436

France

1,353

1,4U5

1 , 639

52

286

• Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1902, vol. xxxv., pp. 117-122.
t Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1902, vol. xxxv., pp. 122-139.

Segar. — Statistics respecting Trend of English Trade. 495

Much has been made of the facts that the apparent increase
of the value of the exports for the United States is nearly
seven times, and those of Germany about two and a half times,
as great as for the United Kingdom. But this is true only of
the nominal values, which, as we have seen, do not give a fair
representation of the real changes. Considering the exchange-
values, we see that the increases are much more nearly equal.
The increase for the United States is just about two-thirds
greater than, that for Germany is actually a little less than,
and that for France is not two- thirds of the increase for the
United Kingdom. There is therefore nothing alarming to be
derived from these figures as thus corrected. The method, of
course, as any method must necessarily be dealing with this
particular subject, is comparatively rough, but the results
obtamed give a far better representation of the true state of
things than the nommal values nakedly presented.

The above change is brought about by the making of the
•correction for the apparent falling-off in exports which is due
merely to the change in the value of money, and, the United
Kingdom having the largest exports, the correction is the
greatest in the case of that country.

Secondly, we should take account of the fact that the popu-
lations of the several countries increase at various rates, and
this must affect their commerce; and, further, any prosperity
the commerce of a country may indicate can only be properly
judged by considering it relatively to the population. The
population of Germany, owing to a higher difference of birth-
rate and death-rate combined with a smaller percentage of
emigration, increases more rapidly than that of England,
both absolutely and relatively ; and the population of the
United States of America, owing to the great amount of
immigration, increases in both respects even more quickly.
Now, comparing the exchange-values of the exports and their
increases in the two periods in Table I., we see that relatively
to the increases in population in the several countries England
shows up better than both Germany and the United States;
but it is France that really surprises us with her large increase
and almost stationary population.

On account of changes in population it is much better,
in comparing the commerce of nations as affecting the
prosperity of their peoples, to take the trade per head ; the
element of population is thus eliminated. Table II. gives the
special exports per head of the countries we have been con-
sidering for the quinquennial periods from 1875 to 1889.
This can only be fairly used in comparing one country with
another in the same period, and not in comparing period with
period, because of the differences in the value of money.

496

Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Table II.
Nominal Values of Special Exports per Head.

Nominal Value of Special Exports per Head.

Period.

United
Kingdom.

France.

Germany.

United

States.

1875-79
1880-84
1885-89
1890-94
1895-99

£ s. d.
6 0 0
6 13 2
6 3 8
6 2 11
5 19 5

£ s. d.
3 14 11
3 13 5
3 9 3
3 11 4
3 14 8

£ s. d.
3 3 0
3 8 8
3 5 6
3 2 9
3 7 2

£ s. d.

2 16 3

3 5 11
2 11 10
2 19 0
2 18 4

These are the figures usually given ; but, to allow of approxi-
mately fair comparisons of period with period to be made,
Table III. gives Sauerbeck's index numbers for the several
periods, and likewise the values hence derived for the exports
per head in the several periods expressed in terms of money
of the same value as that of the first period, 1875-79.

Table III.
Special Exports per Head in Terms of the Money of 1875-79.

m

u

Is

Special Exports per Head in Terms of Money

of 1875-79.

Period.

CO m

a

United
Kingdom.

France.

Germany.

United
States.

£ s. d.

£ s. d.

£ 8. d.

£ P. d.

1875-79 . .

91

6 0 0

3 14 11

3 3 0

2 16 8

1880-84

83

7 6 0

4 0 6

3 15 3

3 12 3

1885-89 . .

70

8 0 9

4 10 0

4 5 2

3 7 5

1890-94

69

8 2 1

4 14 1

4 2 9

3 17 10

1895-99 . .

63

8 12 6

5 7 10

4 17 0

4 4 3

It will be noticed from Table II. that the nominal values of
the exports indicate a rather chequered course of trade for each
country ; but Table III. shows that this is due to the chang-
ing value of money, for the general exchange-values indicate
continued progress in every case, except that in the case of
the United States there was a falling-off in the period of
1885-89. Thus, the exports per head for the United Kingdom,
instead of being a little less in the last period than in the
first, as the nominal values would indicate, were really much
greater, and the increase is greater than for any of the other
countries.

Segar. — Statistics respecting Trend of English Trade. 497

Table IV. is deduced from Table II. It represents the
percentages that the exports of each of the other three
countries bear for each period to the exports per head of the
United Kingdom for the same several pez-iods. The averages of
these are also added. The variations due to the changes in
the value of money as well as those of population are thus
got rid of, and we have a fair way of comparmg the industrial
prosperity of the several peoples as far as such prosperity
can be measured by the mere exports.

Table IV.

The Exports per Head of Population of France, Germany, and the
United States expressed as Percentages of those of the United
Kingdom.

Period.

Percentages.

France.

Germany.

United States.

Average.

1875-79

62

53

47

54

1880-84

55

52

49

52

1885-89

56

53

42

50

1890-94

58

51

48

52

1895-99

64

56

49

56

Examining these results, and comparing the quinquennial
period 1895-99 with that of 1875-79 — twenty-five years pre-
viously— we find that m the case of France the exports per
head were 62 per cent, in the earlier period and 64 per cent,
in the later period of those of England ; in the case of Ger-
many the percentages were 53 and 56 respectively ; and in
the case of the United States they were 47 and 49. The
average percentage of these three countries changed from 54
to 56 in the same time. The close approach of the numbers
for each nation in two periods separated by twenty years is
worthy of remark, and shows that the exports of England,
when reckoned per head of population, bore practically the
same relation to those of the other countries in the recent
period 1895-99 as they did twenty years previously.

Between the two extreme periods there were many fluc-
tuations. In respect to the exports per head, and relatively
to the other nations, France was at her worst in the second
period, 1880-84 ; and in the two following periods the United
States and Germany were at their worst in succession. In
the first and last of the five periods considered the exports per
head of England were depressed relatively to their average
position with respect to those of the other nations. Thus
each country has had its turn in the matter of relative depres-

32— Trans.

498 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

«ion — first the United Kingdom, then France, the United
■States, and Germany in succession, and then the United
Kingdom again. We cannot expect the course of trade to
run smoothly; it is of necessity liable to fluctuations. Hence
follows the advisability of considering the course of trade
grouped in periods of years, so as to minimise the effect of the
more temporary fluctuations. But even then we shall have
fluctuations, and it no more follows from the above statistics
that the condition of English exports in the last period is the
beginning of a permanent change than it did in the case of
the first or in any of the other periods in the case of the
nation whose exports per head were relatively depressed in
that period. It is impossible to draw from these figures any
conclusion that would condemn the free-trade policy of Eng-
land. The mere inconsistency of any such inference would
be conspicuous, for, if the greater advance of the exports per
head of the other countries relatively to those of the United
Kingdom during 1890 is to be put down to British free trade,
to what must we give credit for the very different condition
of things existing from 1875 to 1889, when free trade had
already been in existence for over a generation ?

It would be well to point out, perhaps, that the relative
recent advances of the foreign countries we have been con-
sidering in respect to the exports per head are in no wise
inconsistent with the statement above that, comparing the
exchange-values of the exports and their increases in the
two periods in Table I. relatively to the increases in popula-
tion in the several countries, England shows up better than
both Germany and the United States. For, though these in-
creases are smaller in the case of Germany and tlie United
States relatively to the increases of population, they represent
a higher value per head of the additional population than do
the whole exports of the whole population, and so increase
this latter value.

Thirdly, we should take into account the changes in the
economic circumstances of a nation. How different the com-
merce can be relatively to population and resources, and con-
sistently with the existence of the highest prosperity, is
illustrated by contrasting the foreign trade of the United
States, which is about £5 per head, with that of New Zealand,
which is well over £30 per head. This is partly accounted for
by the higlier protective policy of the United States, but
chiefly by other economic considerations. Changes in the
economic conditions of a nation may, then, possibly tend to
increase or diminisli her commerce without affecting her pro-
sperity. All these conditions must be taken into account
before any change in the volume of commerce can be attri-
buted to any particular influence. The subject is a large one.

Segak. — Statistics respecting Trend of English Trade. 499

and we have time only to barely touch upon it, remembering
that our object is not to interpret the statistics fully, but
rather the negative one of proving that they cannot be claimed
as supplying an argument against the free-trade policy of
England.

It is obvious, first of all, that there must be a limit to the
development of the industries of any nation. We have seen
that the commerce of England has really not ceased to
advance, even relatively to her population. But England has
reached a stage much nearer to this limit than her rivals.
Her freedom of trade, while raising this limit, has also
enabled her to approach it more rapidly. As time passes we
cannot in the nature of things expect her to continue always
to show either the same absolute or the same proportionate
increases in her trade and industry as some of her rivals
may show. Sandow is outdone every day in mere accession
•of strength, both absolute and relative, by growing school-
boys, who can nevertheless never hope to become Sandows.
Whilst the resources of the United Kingdom generally are
nearly fully developed, and some of them suffering from the
first signs of exhaustion, theirs are only now being developed.
They have been kept back by wars, divisions, and uncertain
politics.

Again, the areas and resources of some of England's rivals
in trade being so much larger than those of England, their
industries and commerce must ultimately surpass hers in
mere volume.

That the United States will very soon have a foreign trade
absolutely greater than that of the United Kingdom is beyond
doubt, because of its greater area and resources and its
rapidly growing population, combined with the high indus-
trial character of its people. I believe that Germany will not
be very long in obtaining a trade equal to that of the United
Kingdom in absolute value, for she has a much greater area
with large resources, she has a more rapidly increasing popu-
lation than the United Kingdom, and, like the United King-
dom herself, she has reached the stage of not being able to
grow her own food and retain anything like the present
standard of living, so that economic forces compel her to
devote the labour of her additional population mainly to
manufacture, and to obtain food for her people by the export
of the products. These economic forces at work we cannot
subdue.

We cannot, then, expect that under any commercial policy
whatever England should almost monopolize for ever the
manufacturing industry and the commerce of the world.
Freedom of trade has enabled her, and still enables her, to
utilise her resources to the best advantage, and the com-

500 Transactioyis. — Miscellaneous.

mercial history of the world for the last century is a tribute
to her energy and wisdom. But no commercial policy adds
anything to her resources, puts another pound of coal in her
mines, or adds another acre to her domain. Little country
though she is, her history has been glorious, and her pro-
sperity may remain exceptional relatively to her resources; but
she must, in spite of any wisdom of policy, give way in the
mere magnitude of her activities to countries with far greater
resources. Sandow in strength must acknowledge the supe-
riority of the elephant ; train he ever so wisely, though he
may excel other men he must remain a mere man. We
cannot transcend the limitations of nature.

If other countries gain markets in their colonies and
possessions in which their exports have special preference
they are still further favoured. England has not attempted
to exact such preference in her colonies. This has directly
been an economic loss to her, but a great gain to them. But,
on the other hand, if she had attempted to enforce such a
policy the Empire no doubt would long ago have been dis-
membered, and she would have lost the preference, and with
it the allegiance of the colonies. The complaints that have
frequently been made that after all the spending of all the blood
and treasure in South Africa the country has been open to
the trade of all parts on equal terms sound very strange
coming from an English colony. What right has England to
enforce either preference with or the free admission of her
goods into South Africa that she does not equally possess to
enforce them on New Zealand? Those that raise their voices
in condemnation of the policy of England in South Africa in
this respect would be the first to resent and resist the ap-
plication of any such policy to New Zealand. Still it is un-
doubted that preference to the Mother-country obtained from
a colony or possession is a direct benefit to the Mother-
country. In so far as England's rivals have achieved such a
position of preference by the extension of their possessions
they have gained an advantage in respect to their commerce.

Their advantage has been still further increased in so far
as they have excelled the United Kingdom in the matter of
technical education, in the improvement of and ready adop-
tion of the best of machinery, and in the more economical
apphcation of their labour.

These considerations at least should all be taken mto
account in attempting to interpret how far the statistics of
English trade prove or disprove the wisdom of I'^ngland's
free-trade policy, and I hope I have proved that it is abso-
lutely unjust to draw from tlie figures we have examined
any inference prejudicial to her commercial policy. And if in
the future other nations do exhibit a much greater progress,

Segar. — A Note on Drawing for Competitions. 501

we shall understand, I hope, that the fact will not necessarily
constitute an impeachment of free-trade principles. England
is necessarily becoming relatively smaller in respect to her
resources as compared with the developed resources of the
whole world, and the position her industries and commerce
occupy must change correspondingly. This cannot be pre-
vented. All that can be done is to maintain and provide
education and an enlightened commercial oolicy, and, with
a spirit of enterprise, to take advantage of every opening,
every improvement, and every means of economy, and so
increase the return to labour and capital expended. This
will insure the best possible result under circumstances other-
wise beyond control. How the result is then distributed over
home trade or foreign trade is a mere matter of detail. Of
one thing we may be sure — namely, that, whatever tendencies
may have existed of late in England to lag behind in such
matters, such tendencies must have been aggravated if there
had been in existence any scheme of protection. That in
spite of such tendencies the United Kingdom, which is in
area only a shade bigger than New Zealand, only one-half
the size of France or Germany, and about one-thirtieth of
the United States, should support the population she does,
in the standard of comfort it enjoys, and occupy in the world
to-day still the first place in respect to industry, commerce,
and power are facts which constitute the most eloquent
justification of her commercial policy it is possible to bring
forward. The best advice that can be given to other nations
that would emulate her success is " Go, thou, and do like-
wise."

Art. XLIX. — A Note on Dratving for Competitions.

By H. W. Segar, M.A., Professor of Mathematics, Univer-
sity College, Auckland.
[Read before the Auckland Institute, 6th July, 1903.]
The question was recently put to me, in connection with a
local association of clubs, whether it were possible for seven
•competing clubs to arrange their fixtures, in which each was
to play every other, so that each club should play its matches
at home and away alternatively througliout, thus removing
the objectionable feature of a succession of matches played
■either all at home or all away.

The problem was a somewhat interesting one in arrange-
inents, and the result came out in a form that was obviously

502 Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

extensible to the case of any odd number of clubs. The
arrangement cannot be completely carried out for the case of
an even number of clubs, but a very close approximation to it
can be made.

I have never heard of any rule or system being used in the
arranging of inter-club fixtures. On the other hand, the
common circumstances of the home and away fixtures being
somewhat irregularly distributed, and of a few straggling
fixtures generally remaining at the end of a season, for
which apparently no places could be found on the dates when
the main body of fixtures were played off, indicate the want
of a rule which would enable a better arrangement to be
carried out. It has appeared to me, therefore, advisable to
give publicity to the result referred to above. It is as
follows : —

Let the number of clubs be odd, and represent them by
consecutive integers beginning from unity. Write down
these integers in succession in a column, beginning with unity,
unti^ we have written down the middle integer ; then write
the next integer on the right of it and begin to ascend,
writing down the remaining integers on the right of those
previously written down. The last integer will be written
down in the second row, the first integer remaining alone in
the first row. Then begin a parallel column with the integer
2, and proceed in a similar way, writing down the integers
in succession down the column until the last row is reached,
and then write the next integer on the right and begin to
ascend. The last integer will be written in the third row,,
but in the vacant place in the second row write unity. Then
begin another parallel column with the integer 3, then another
with 4, and so on until columns have been written down be-
ginning with each of the integers used to represent the clubs.
When the last integer has been used, continue in each case
with the consecutive integers, beginning with unity, but never
write a second integer in the first row.

The columns now represent the consecutive rounds, the
numbers written together representing the competing clubs.
Any club will play every other once. The clubs indicated in
the first row have byes in the respective rounds. By sub-
scribing " h " and " a," indicating " at home" and "away"
respectively, alternately to the numbers m each column in the
order in which they were written down, but beginning with
the second in each case, we have the home club indicated for
each match, so that no club shall play two matches in suc-
cession eitlier at home or away.

Table I., following, indicates the result in the case of seven
clubs, and Table II. the general result for (2w + 1) clubs.

Segar. — A Note on Drawing for Competitions. 503

Table I.
Scheme of Matches between Seven Competitors.

First

Second

Third

Fourth

Fifth

Sixth

Seventh

Round.

Round.

Round.

Round.

Round.

Round.

Round.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

2h 7a

3h la

4h 2a

5h 3a

6h 4a

7h 5a

Ih 6a

3a 6h

4a 7h

5a Ih

6a 2h

7a 3b

la 4u

2a 5h

4h 5a

5h 6a

6h 7a

7h la

Ih 2a

2h 3a

*

3h 4a

Thus, e.g., in the first round 1 has a bye, 2 (at home)
plays 7 (away), 3 (away) plays 6 (at home), and 4 (at home)
plays 5 (away).

Table II.

Scheme of Matches

between (2n + 1) Competitors.

First Round.

Second Round.

Third Round.

(2?i + l)th
Round.

1

2h (2u + l)a

3a 2Hb

4h (2n - l)a
5a (2)1 - 2)h

{n + l)(u + 2)

2

3h la

4a (2n + l)b

5b 2Ha

6a (2)^ - l)h

{n + 2)[n + 3)

3

4b 2a

5a Ih

6h {in + l)a

7a 2TOh

()i+-8)'(n + 4)

In + 1
Ih 2))a
2a (2n-l)b
3h (2>l-2)a
4a (2TO-3)b

n (n + 1)

If this rule were adopted the only drawing necessary would
be for the numbers to represent the several clubs, everything
else would then follow.

It has already been mentioned that it is impossible to com-
pletely achieve this arrangement in the case of the number of
clubs being even. The nearest approach that is possible ap-
pears to be as follows : —

Write down columns as in the case above of an odd num-
ber of clubs, taking the odd number which is one less than the
actual number of clubs. Then take the even number repre-
senting the number of clubs and write it at the side of each of
the solitary numbers in the first row, but alternately on the
right and on the left of them consecutively. The several
columns then represent, as before, the competing clubs for the
successive rounds, each club playing every other once. There
are, of course, no byes.

If, further, we subscribe "h" and "a," with the same
meanings as before, to the numbers in each column alter-
nately, descending with the numbers on the left and rising
with those on the right, we get the home club indicated for

504

Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

each match in such a way that each club plays either two
matches at home or two away in succession, but this occurs
not more than once for any club in the whole competition.

Table III., indicating the result for eight clubs, and
Table IV., indicating the general result, the number of clubs
being 2n, will help to make this clear.

Table III.
Scheme of Matches between Eight Competitors.

First
Round.

Second
Round.

Third
Round.

Fourth
Round.

Fifth
Round.

Si.'^th
Round.

Seventh
Round.

Ih 8a
2a 7h
3h 6a
4a 5h

8h 2a
3a Ih
4h 7a
5a 6h

3h 8a

4a 2h
5h la
6a 7h

8h 4a
5a 3h
6h 2a

7a Ih

Oh 8a
6a 4h
7h 3a
la 2h

8h 6a
7a 5h
Ih 4a
2a 3h

7h 8a
la 6h
2h 5a
3a 4h

Table IV.
Scheme of Matches between 2n Competitors.

First
Kound.

Second
Round.

Third
Kound.

Fourth
Round.

(2?i-l)th
Rouud.

lb 2na
2a (2w-l)h
3h (2n-2)a
4a (2»;-3)h

n (n + 1)

27lh 2a
3a Ih

4h (2n-l)a
5a (27)-2)h

'.
(n+l)(n + 2)

3h 27la

4a 2h

5h la

6a (2n-l),,

(u + 2J(n + 3)

2nh 4a
5a 3h

6h 2a
7a Ih

■

(„, f.3J(u + 4)

• •

• •
•

•

(27^-l)h 2,-,.
la (2)1 -2)h
2h (2)i-3)a

3« (2-»-4)h
{n-i) n

Art. L. — A Gomjmrison of the Age-distribution of the Popu-
lations of the Four Chief Provincial Districts of Netv
Zealand.

By H. W. Segar, M.A., Professor of Mathematics, Auck-
land University College.

[^Read before the Auckland Institute, 6th July, 1903.]
Plates XLII.-XLIV.
The census returns of New Zealand give the distribution of
tlie populations of the several provincial districts into the
usual quinquennial age-periods. But the numbers only in
each age-period are given. For the purpose of comparing the
age-distributions of the populations of the provincial districts
these numbers are directly of little service. It is first neces-

Segab. — Comparison of Age-distribution of Population. 505

saiy to convert them into percentages. This I have done,
and the result is exhibited in Table I., which gives, for each
of the four chief provincial districts and for each age-period,
the percentage of the whole population of the district included
in the several age-periods. The like results for the whole
colony are also added.

Table I.

Percentages of Population of New Zealand and Four Chief Provinces
in Quinquennial Age-periods.

Ages.

Percentages.

Auckland.

Wellington.

New Zealand.

Canterbury

Otago.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

11-64
11-03
10-90
10-58

11-67
11-26
10-64
10-56

11-28
11-15
11-09
1101

10-54
10-88
11-39
11-76

10-44
1088
10-98
11-31

20-25
25-30
30-35
35-40

1035
9-02
7-53
602

11-34
9-39
7-86
6-51

10 81
889
7-38
5-88

10-87
8-58
7-08
5-67

10-84
8-78
7-30
5-51

40-i5
45-50
50-55
55-60

5-21
4-29
3-49
3-06

5-31
4-38
3-44
2--59

5 00
4-24
3-50
3 04

4-95
4-34
3-71
3-24

4-78
4-29
3-62
3-33

60-65
65-70
70-75
75-80

2 59
2 09
1-14
0-57

206
1-42
0-76
039

268
2 09
1-11
0-51

2-91
2-08
115
0-51

3-11
2-46
1-30
0-56

80 and over

0-39

0-25

0-34

0-.33

0-.37

This table is illustrated graphically in Plate XLII.

While the age-distribution in the provincial districts re-
semble one another and that for the colony far more neai'ly
than they resemble that of most other countries, still they
have differences which are of interest.

In some ways these differences are more clearly exhibited
by considering the excess or defect, as compared with the
whole colony, of the percentages in the several age-periods for
the several provincial districts. These excesses and defects
are exhibited in Table II. in the form of percentages. The
table gives, for each district and each age-period, the per-
centage of excess or defect of the number of people, actually
included in the age-period, over or below what the number
would be if the same total population of the district had the
same age-distribution as the colony as a whole.

506

Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

Table II.

Percentages of Proportional Excess, relative to the Whole Colony, of
the Population of the Four Chief Provinces of New Zealand in
the Quinquennial Age-periods.

Ages.

rercentages.

Auckland.

Wellington.

Canterbury.

Otago.

0-5

+ 3-2

+ 3-5

-6-6

- 7-4

5-10

- 1-1

+ 10

- 2-4

- 2-4

10-15

- 1-7

- 4-1

+ 2-7

- 1-0

15-20

- 3-9

- 4-1

+ 6-8

+ 2-7

20-25

- 4-3

+ 4-9

+ 0-6

+ 0-3

25-30

+ 1-5

+ 56

- 3 5

- 1-2

30-35

+ 20

+ 6-5

- 4-1

- 1-1

35-40

+ 2-4

+ 10 7

-3-6

- 6-3

40-45

+ 4-2

+ 62

- 10

- 4-4

45-50

+ 1-2

+ 3-3

+ 2-4

+ 1-2

50-55

0-0

- 1-7

+ 60

+ 3-4

55-60

+ 0-1

- 14-8

+ 6-6

+ 9-5

60-65

- 3-4

- 23- 1

+ 8-6

+ 160

65-70

0-0

- 32-1

00

+ 17-7

70-75

+ 2-7

- 31-5

+ 3-6

+ 171

75-80

+ 11-8

- 23-5

00

+ 9-8

80 and over

+ 14-7

- 26-5

- 3-0

+ 8-8

The first noteworthy feature is the excess of young children,
or those in the age-period 0-5, in the northern districts, and
the defect of the same in the southern districts. The percent-
age of excess in Auckland is 3'2, and in Wellington 3'5, while
in Canterhury the deficiency is 66, and in Otago 7*4.

Wellington alone has an excess in the age-period 5-10, but
there is not nearly so great a difference betvveen the several
districts in this age-period as in the previous one.

Both the northern districts are deficient in both the age-
periods 10-15 and 15-20, more particularly Wellington, which
has a deficiency of 4-1 per cent, in both periods, while Canter-
bury lias a considerable excess in the age-period 15-20,
amounting to 6-8 per cent.

The southern districts have but a slight excess in the
next age-period, 20-25, while that of Wellington amounts to
4-9 per cent., Auckland having a deficiency of 4-3 per cent.

For the next five age-periods, including the ages 25-50,
both the northern districts have an excess, which is specially
marked in the case of Wellington, amounting to no less than
107 per cent, for the age-period 35-40, and over 6 per cent.

Segak. — Comparison of Age-distribution of Population. 507

for each of the periods 30-35 and 40-45. The southern dis-
tricts, on the other hand, have hoth a deficiency in each of
the first four of these age-periods, amounting to as much as
63 per cent, in the case of Otago for the age-period 35-40. In
tlie fifth age-period the southern districts have, however, each
an excess, as well as the northern, indicating a deficiency in
the smaller provincial districts which are not considered in
this paper.

From the age-period 50-55 and onwards the excesses in
the southern districts are most marked, but especially in the
case of Otago, amounting in this latter case to as much as
16 per cent, for the age-period 60-65, and over 17 per cent, for
both the periods 65-70 and 70-75. The deficiency in the case
of Wellington is even more marked, amounting to 23-1 per
cent, for the age-period 60-65, 32-1 per cent, for the age-period
65-70, 31-5 per cent, for the age-period 70-75, 23-5 per cent,
for the age-period 75-80, and 26-5 per cent, for the period 80
and over. This deficiency in the aged in Wellington is one of
the most noteworthy features that these tables exhibit, and
the contrast wuth Otago is certainly remarkable. But Wel-
lington is the more recently settled district, and we may ex-
pect the same rule to hold with respect to a district as with
respect to a colony as a whole — that the more recent is the
settlement the smaller is the proportion of the aged.

In these later age-periods Auckland approximates fairly
closely on the whole to the average for the whole colony, ex-
cept in the last two periods of all — namely, those of 75-80
years and 80 years and over ; and in these periods that dis-
trict has a greater excess than any of the other districts,
amounting to 11-8 per cent, for the first of the periods and
14-7 per cent, for the other, as against Otago's 98 per cent.
and 8-8 per cent, respectively, which are the only other ex-
cesses in these age-periods, but are themselves considerable.

Considering the provincial districts separately, we may say
that the chief features of interest with respect to Auckland
are the deficiency of population of the ages 5-25, the excess
of the ages 25-50, and the great excess of the very aged of 75
and over. In the case of Wellington the most noteworthy
features consist of the considerable excess of population of the
ages 20-50 and the great deficiency in population of 50 and
over. Canterbury's population has less conspicuous features,
the main ones being the considerable deficiency in children of
the ages 0-10 and the excess of population of later middle
age. Otago shares with Canterbury both of these features,
but in addition has a considerable excess of old people of all
ages.

Of all these features the most important economically is
the preponderance of population of the most vigorous ages of

508

Transactions. — Miscellaneous,

manhood in the northern districts and the deficiency of the
same in the southern. In economic power the population of
WeUington, we may remark in particular, is far more nearly
equal to that of her sister provinces than mere numbers of
population would indicate, and offers a ereat contrast to Otago
especially, with her deficiency both in children and population
of early and middle manhood. The same contrast exists
to a marked, though not to an equal, extent between the
populations of the two northern districts together as com-
pared with those of the southern districts : the population of
the north excels that of the south beyond the point its mere
excess in numbers might indicate, not only in present eco-
nomic power, but in capacity for future increase.

I have on other occasions pointed out that statistics of
many kinds, applying to different countries or to one country
at difi'erent times, cannot be properly compared unless the
differences in age-distribution of the populations be taken into
account. The same applies to the case of these provincial
districts. It would be absurd, e.g., to draw any inference
from a comparison of the death-rates of Wellington and Otago
Districts without first taking into account the great excess of
the aged in the one district and the still greater deficiency of
the other. Similarly, birth-rates and statistics of health all
must be specially prepared with a view to allowing for differ-
ences in age-distribution before most comparisons are any-
thing better than worthless. Thus far we have not taken the
sexes separately into account.

The Tables III. and IV. give results corresponding exactly
to those of I. and II., but for the male population only.

Table III.

Perckntages of Male Population of New Zealand and Four Chief
Provinces in Quinquennial Age-periods.

Ages.

Percentages.

Auckland.

Wellington.

New Zealand.

Canterbury.

Otago.

0-5

1113

11-42

11-00

10-56

10-22

5-10

10-G3

10-80

10-74

10-88

10-43

10-15

10-44

10-12

10-G9

11-44

10-55

15-20

9-97

9-99

10-55

11-40

10-98

20-25

9-83

10-90

10-22

10-03

10-22

25-80

8-99

9-19

8-73

8-14

8-54

30-35

7-6G

7-94

7-32

6-82

6-98

35-40

G-18

G-KO

5-96

5-50

5-50

Segar. — Comparison of Age-distribution of Population. 509

Table III. — continued.
Percentages of Male Population, &c. — continued.

Ages.

Percentages.

Auckland.

Wellington.

New Zealand.

Canterbury.

Otago.

40-45
45-50
50-55
55-60

5-66
4-65
3-69
3-31

5-71
4-90
3-70

2-85

5-25
4-63
3-71
3-34

5-10
4-72
3-99
3-49

4-92

4-75
3-92
3-67

60-65
65-70
70-75

75-80

3-00
2-41
1-32
0-59

2-36
1-61
0-82
0-40

3-12
2-50
1-32
0-57

3-32
2-40
1-29
0-54

3-60
2-98
1-61
0-64

80 and over

0-39

0-29

0-35

0-34

0-38

This table is illustrated graphically in Plate XLIII.

Table IV.

Percentages of Proportional Excess, relative to the Whole Colony,
of the Male Population of the Four Chief Provinces of New Zea-
land in the Quinquennial Age-periods.

Ages.

Percentages.

Auckland.

Wellington.

Canterbury.

Otago.

0-5

5-10

10-15

15-20

+ 1-2

- 1-0

- 2-3

- 5-5

+ 3-8 ' -40
+ 0-6 , +1-3

- 5-3 +7-0

- 5-3 ' +8-1

- 7-1

- 2-9

- 1-3

+ 4-1

20-25
25-30
30-35
35-40

- 3-8
+ 3-0
+ 4-6
+ 3-7

+ 6-7 -1-9
+ 5-3 -6-8
+ 4-6 -6 8
+ 14-1 -7-7

1

0-0

- 2-2

- 4-9

- 7-7

40-45
45-50
50-55
55 60

+ 7-8
+ 0-4

- 0-5

- 0-9

+ 8-8
-j- 5-8
- 0-3
-14-7

-29
+ 1-9

+ 7-5
4-4-5

- 6-3
+ 2-6

+ 5-7
+ 9-9

60-65
65-70
70-75
75-80

- 3-8

- 3-6
0-0

+ 3-5

-24-4 +6-4
-35-6 -4-0
-37-9 -2-3
-29-8 -5-3

+ 15-4
+ 19-2
+ 22-0
+ 12 3

80 and over

+ 11-4

-17-2 -2-9

+ 8-6

These tables show that the same differences exist in the
main between the male populations of the several districts as

olO

Transactions. — Miscellaneous.

between the general populations, but are, as a rule, more
marked.

The excess of population of the age of young manhood and
middle age in the northern districts is much greater than for
the general population, as is also the corresponding deficiency
in the southern districts, which increases the force of the
remark made above as to the greater economic potentialities
of the population of the north.

The excess in Auckland of male population of old age is
much less than for both sexes combined, and the deficiency in
the Wellington District is substantially greater, so that in
both districts females form a greater percentage of the popula-
tion of old age than of the whole.

Canterbury has a deficiency in males of 65 and over,
although taking both sexes together her population approxi-
mates to the average.

In Otago the excess of old men is rather more marked
than the excess of old people generally.

Tables V. and VI. deal similarly with the female popula-
tion.

Table V.

Percentages of Female Population of New Zealand and Four Chief
Provinces in Quinquennial Age periods.

Percentages.

Ages.

Auckland.

Wellington.

New Zealand.

Canterbury.

Otago.

0-5

12-11

1195

11-60

10-53

10-68

5-10

11-47

11-77

11-57

10-88

11-38

10-15

11-41

11-21

11-50

11-33

11-45

15-20

11-26

11-20

11-56

12-14

11-66

20-25

10-93

11-82

11-44

11-74

11-66

25-30

9-06

9-62

9-07

9-03

9-05

30-35

7-39

7-77

7-44

7-35

7-65

35-40

5-84

0-19

5-79

5-84

5-57

40-45

4-77

4-87

4-73

4-79

4-61

45-50

3-88

3-81

3-82

3 94

3-80

50-55

3-27

3-16

3-27

3-42

3-29

55-60

2-78

2 -.30

2-72

2-97

2-96

60-65

2-12

1-73

2-19

2-48

2-56

65-70

1-74

1-21

1-64

1-74

1-89

70-75

0-95

0-69

0'88

0-99

0-'.)6

75-80

0-54

0-38

0-46

0-47

0-47

80 and over

0-40

0-22

_ 0-32

0-32

0-35

This table is illustrated graphically in Plate XLIV.

Segak. — Comparison of Age-distribution of Population. 511

Table VI.

Percentages of Proportional Excess, relative to the Whole Colony, of
the Female Population of the Four Chief Provinces of New^ Zealand
in the Quinquennial Age-periods.

Ages.

Percentages.

Auckland.

Wellington.

Canterbury.

Otago.

0-5

5-10
10-15
15-20

+ 4-4

- 0-9

- 0-8

- 2-6

+ 3-0
+ 1-7

- 2-5

- 3-1

- 9 2

- 1-6

- 1-5
+ 5-0

- 7-9

- 1-6

- 0-5
+ 0-9

20-25
25-30
30-35
35-40

- 4-5

- 0-1

- 0-7
+ 0-9

+ 3-3
+ 6-1
+ 4-4
+ 69

+ 2-6

- 0-4

- 12
+ 0-9

+ 1-9

- 0-2
+ 28

- 3-8

40-45
45-50
50-55
55-60

+ 0-8

+ 1-6

00

+ 2-2

+ 3-0

- 0-3

- 3-4
-15-4

+ 1-3
+ 3-1
+ 4-6
+ 9-2

- 2-5

- 0-5
+ 0-6
+ 8-8

60-65
65-70

70-75
75-SO

- 3-2
+ 61

+ 80
+ 17-4

-210
-26 2
-21-6
-17-4

+ 13-2
+ 6-1

+ 12-5
+ 2-2

+ 16 9

+ 152
+ 9-1
+ 2 2

80 and over

+ 25-0

-31-3

0-0

+ 9-4

In the case of the female population the differences
between the several districts are again, in the main, similar in
character but less marked, as a rule, than in the case of the
general population. We may note, however, in the case of
Auckland, whereas there is a substantial excess of males of
ages 25-45, the female population of those ages differs little
from the average. Wellington, on the other hand, has a con-
siderable excess of females of these ages, as well as of males.
But Auckland has a considerable excess of females of old-age-
pension ages, 65 and over, beginning with 6"1 per cent, for the
age-period 65-70 and rising to 25 per cent, for the period 80
and over. Wellington is not as deficient in old females as in
old males, but still the deficiency is very great.

Canterbury, while deficient in males of the ages 65 and
over, has a considerable excess of females of those ages.
Otago alone has a smaller percentage of females than of males
in the later age-periods, but still the excess is considerable.

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

33— Trans.

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

THIETY-FIFTH ANNUAL EEPORT.

Meetings of the Board were held on the 21st October and the
8th December, 1902, and the 2nd April and the 3rd July, 1903.

Messrs. Tregear, Mason, and Young retired from the
Board in compliance with the Act, and were renominated by
His Excellency the Governor. The following gentlemen were
elected by the incorporated societies as Governors of the New
Zealand Institute : Hon. C. C. Bowen, Mr. Martin Chapman,
and Mr. S. Percy Smith.

The members now on the roll are — Honorary members, 29;
Auckland Institute, 163 ; Hawke's Bay Philosophical Insti-
tute, 62; Wellington Philosophical Society, 150 ; Philosophical
Institute of Canterbury, 69 ; Otago Institute, 112 ; Nelson
Institute, 17 ; Westland Institute, 66 : making a total of 668.

The volumes of Transactions now on hand are — Vol. I.
(second edition), 215; Vol. V., 4; Vol. VI., 8; Vol. VII.
90; Vol. IX., 90; Vol. X., 120; Vol. XL, 20; Vol. XIL, 25
Vol. XIIL, 25 ; Vol. XIV., 48; Vol. XV., 150; Vol. XVI.
160; Vol. XVIL, 160; Vol. XVIIL, 125 ; Vol. XIX., 150
Vol. XX., 154 ; Vol. XXL, 85 ; Vol. XXIL, 85 ; Vol. XXIII.
160; Vol. XXIV., 165; Vol. XXV., 160; Vol. XXVL, 170
Vol. XXVII. , 168; Vol. XXVIIL, 173; Vol. XXIX., 290
Vol. XXX., 345; Vol. XXXL, 395; Vol. XXXIL, 396 ; Vol.
XXXIIL, 400; Vol. XXXIV., 400; Vol. XXXV., not yet
fully distributed.

The volume just published (XXXV.) contains sixty
articles, also addresses and abstracts which appear in the
Proceedings. It consists of 623 pages and fifty-four plates.
The following is a comparison of the contents of Vol. XXXV.
with those of Vol. XXXIV. :—

Pages.

J-SUJ..

Pages

Miscellaneous

... ...

... 305

156

Zoology . . .

... ...

... 77

96

Botany

... ...

... 64

166

Geology ...

... 16

86

Chemistry and

physics

... 77

44

Proceedings

... • . •

... 29

43

Appendix

...

... 55

54

623

645

516 New Zealatid Institute.

The cost of producing and printing Vol. XXXIV. was
£452 2s. 6d. for 645 pages and forty-two plates, and that for
the present volume (XXXV.) £482 lis. 6d. for 623 pages and
fifty- four plates. Both these volumes were entirely turned
out at the Government Printing Office.

From the Honorary Treasurer's statement of accounts
it appears that the amount received for the year was
£964 Is. 3d., including the balance carried forward, and the
expenditure £604 12s. 8d., leavmg a balance in hand of
£359 8s. 7d.

Museum.

There have been 100 entries as additions to the Museum
since last report, a list of which will be published in due
course. The collections have been regularly cleaned and
arranged.

Library .—Tlh\% is, as far as possible, being kept scientifi-
cally up to date.

Meteokological.

The returns of the principal stations for 1902 have been
supplied as usual to the Registrar-General to be included in
his annual statistics, and the monthly rainfall returns from
180 stations have been regularly supplied to the Gazette.
The monthly returns for vital statistics have been supplied,
and the daily weather exchange by cable is continued between
this colony and Australia.

Colonial Time-ball Observatory.

Mr. Thomas King, the officer in charge, reports as fol-
lows : "The work of the time service has proceeded as usual.
Regular observations for the determination of clock-error have
been taken, and exact time has been distributed throughout
the colony as heretofore. The clocks have maintained very
good rates. The time-ball at Wellington has been dropped
daily (Sundays excepted), and galvanometer signals have been
sent hourly from the Observatory in the manner described in
previous reports. During the stay of the relief ship ' Morn-
ing ' at Lyttelton, prior to her start for the antarctic regions,
signals were frequently transmitted to her by special telegraph-
wire direct from the Observatory to the officers' cabin, and the
vessel was thus enabled to rate her chronometers accurately
for some days before the beginning of her important voyage.
The value llh. 39m. 5'3s. E. has, since the beginning of 1903,
been assumed as the longitude of the Observatory in com-
puting time. This longitude has, of course, been for very
many years recognised as the correct one ; but owing to the
fact that the old value — viz., llh. 39m. 9'3s. E. — was re-
tained on the Admiralty charts it was not deemed wise to

Neiv Zealand Institute.

517

employ the amended longitude for the purposes of the time
service, as the advantage from a navigator's point of view of
having a value in harmony with the one shown on the charts
was obvious. The Admiralty, however, has at last found
it practicable to adopt the true longitude in one or two of its
harbour-charts ; and, although in view of the smallness of the
error involved and of the expense of regraduatirg a large series
of charts the Admiralty has no present intention of amending
the majority of the coastal charts, this partial recognition of
the corrected longitude has opened the way for a reconsidera-
tion of the matter, and, after submission of the point to the
Hydrographer to the Admiralty, the value Uh. 39m. 5-3s. has,
with that official's entire concurrence, been adopted as the one
for use in calculations necessary for tmie-determination. The
wliole question is discussed at length in a paper which I had
the honour of reading before the Wellington Philosophical
Society on the 18th March, 1903 ('On the Longitude of the
Colonial Observatory, &c.'), and I would respectfully ask re-
ference to that paper for details of the subject."

The balance-sheet, duly certified, is appended, and the
schedules and correspondence will be published with the
report in the usual pamphlet form.

James Hector, Manager.

Approved. — Martin Chapman, Chairman. — 3rd Julv, 1903.

New Zealand
Receipts,

year

Balance from last

Vote for 1902-3

Contribution from Wel-
lington Philosophical
Society

Sale of " Maori Art" ..

Sale of Transactions . .

Institute Accounts for 1902-3.

Expendihire.

Printing Vol. XXXV. . .
Expenses of library
Expenses, "Maori Art"
Postages, foreign volumes
Expenses, International

Catalogue . .
Miscellaneous items . .
Balance

&

s.

d.

408

2

11

500

0

0

17

10

0

37

7

4

1

1

0

£964

1

3

£ s.

d.

482 11

6

20 0

0

36 8

&

3 17

6

15 0

0

46 15

Q

359 8

7

£964 1 3

Examined and found correct.

Martin Chapman, Acting-Treasurer.
3rd July, 1903.

COLONIAL TIME-BALL OBSERVATORY.

Mr. Thomas King, the officer in charge, reports as fol-
lows : —

The clocks have kept satisfactory rates throughout the
year, and the instruments are in good order. There are no

518 Neui Zealand Institute.

points calling for special remark in connection with the
regular time service, the duties of which have had attention
as heretofore.

Towards the end of 1903 I had pleasure in co-operating
with Mr. Otto J. Klotz, Government Astronomer of Canada, in
the New Zealand section of tlie very important work which has
been undertaken by the Dominion Government in the shape of
a determination of the longitudes of a number of fundamental
points on the route of the Pacific cable. At the instance of
the Department of the Interior, Ottawa, Mr. Klotz carried a
chain of longitude-work from Greenwich to the Pacific coast
of Canada by means of the telegraph - line, and thence to
Australia and New Zealand over the new Pacific cable. The
station in New Zealand the position of which he sought to fix
in the course of this survey was Doubtless Bay, in the
northern part of the Provincial District of Auckland, a tempo-
rary observatory being erected by him there near the spot at
which the cable comes ashore. It was necessary for his pur-
pose that a meridian distance should be ascertained between his
observing-station and some spot in New Zealand the longitude
of which had already been well determined, and Wellington
Observatory was naturally selected as best fulfilling this re-
quirement. By direction of the Hon. the Postmaster-General,
special telegraphic communication was established between
the observatories at Wellington and Doubtless Bay. Very
full sets of transit observations were simultaneously taken on
suitable nights by Mr. Klotz at Doubtless Bay and by myself
at Wellington, the stars selected being chosen wnth a view
both to the accurate determination of our respective local
sidereal times and to the elimination of our instrumental errors.
The nights on which these observations were secured were
those of the Gtli, 7th, 10th, lltli, 12th, 17th, and 18th De-
cember, the work beginning soon after dark and ending after
midnight. On several of these evenings w'e succeeded in ob-
serving twenty stars per night, of which sixteen were ordinary
"clock stars " and four were circumpolar stars for the deter-
mination of the azimuth and collimation errors of the
transit instruments. The Wellington and Doubtless Bay
clocks were automatically compared on the same nights by
means of the telegraph and chronograph, the clocks being
placed on the main line for several minutes at a time so
as to record at once on both chronographs. Thus the
seconds of the Wellington sidereal clock were simultaneously
pricked off on the Wellington and on the Doubtless Bay
chronographs, and the seconds of the Doubtless Bay sidereal
clock were in like manner recorded on the Doubtless Bay and
Wellington chronographs. By sending the signals in both
directions any error due to wave and armature time on the

New Zealayid Institute. 519

telegraph-line was got rid of. After the completion of the
work Mr. Klotz came to Wellington and conducted with me
at the Observatory a series of observations for the purpose of
ascertaining the difference between our respective personal
equations. He also thoroughly satisfied himself as to the
adjustments of the transit instrument, with the view of taking
into account its several "constants of correction"; and he
similarly tested the striding-level. Details of my transit-
observations and level-readings, with the original chronograph
records and my full " scalings " of the same, and also a report
on the work, were handed to Mr. Klotz in January last, and
will in due course be incorporated in his general report on the
survey. Copies of these documents are attached hereto ; but
presumably they need not be printed, as the Canadian report,
which will cover the whole ground, will be forwarded to the
colony by Mr. Klotz as soon as it is published. In view of the
fact that the use of the siphon recorder in cable- work has
greatly increased the accuracy attainable in transmitting time-
signals for longitude purposes, it will be of interest to see how
Mr. Klotz's final results compare with those obtained in 1886,
when a very elaborate series of determinations was effected by
cable from Greenwich in the opposite direction (namely, east-
wards), across India to Madras, and from that point by inter-
mediate stations to Australia.

On New Year's eve, at the request of the United States
Government, a set of signals was received from the United
States Naval Observatory, Washington, for the purpose of ascer-
tainmg the minimum time in which a signal could be repeated
over a long distance from station to station by cable. Owing
to hasty preparation the test was only partially successful;
but the last signal sent would appear to have reached Wel-
lington Observatory from Washington in about four seconds.
It was transmitted from Washington to Greenwich in l-3s.,
and to Sydney in about 3'5s. Rear- Admiral Chester, Super-
intendent of the United States Naval Observatory, in a
letter addressed to Mr. W. Gray, Secretary of the Post and
Telegraph Department, expresses the opinion that, consider-
ing the short notice given, the cable and telegraph operators
did very well on this occasion. The experiment was an ex-
tremely interesting one, and there is a possibility that Admiral
Chester may propose a repetition of it at some convenient
iuture time.

March, 1904.

I

PROCEEDINGS

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

First Meeting : 8rd June, 1903.
Professor Easterfield, President, in the chair.

New Members. — G. M. Mason, J. Lewis, A. H. Gore,
•C. Freyberg, and W. F. Eobinson.

Before proceeding with liis address, Professor Easterfield
thanked the members for electing him to the position of
President for the ensuing year. He would endeavour to
justify their selection.

The President then read a notice (prepared by Sir James
Hector) of the late W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S., which referred
to his long connection with the Society, and concluded by
moving as follows, members standing during the reading of
the motion : —

That a formal entry of the foregoing notice ba made on the records of
the Society, which sets forth a recognition of the great services which
have been rendered to science by the late W. T. L. Travels, F.L.S.,
and that copies be forwarded, with an expression of sympathy, to his
relatives.

Eeference was also made to the loss sustained by the
death of two prominent members of the Society — viz., Major-
General Schaw and the Hon. Dr. Grace.

Professor Easterfield then delivered his presidential ad-
dress, " A Hundred Years in the History of a Theory," which
was listened to with great attention.

On the motion of Mr. Hogben, a hearty vote of thanks
was given to Professor Easterfield for his address.

Second Meeting : 1st July, 1903.

Professor Easterfield, President, in the chair.

Mr. H. N. McLeod read a paper, illustrated by photo-
graphs, on " Caves and Water-passages in the Greymouth
District."

He had made an exploration, necessarily hasty, of some of these caves,
and described the result of his investigation. Originally, he thought,
these caves were formed by percolation of water from above — a view con-
firmed by the discovery of the seeds of Phormium teiiax clinging to the
sides. This process still went on. Their general trend was downwards,
and they served as overflow-channels carrying the flood-waters by sub-
terranean passages to the Grey River.

524 Proceedings.

Sir James Hector said he knew the caves, which were of interest on-
acciunt of fossil remains recovered from them, including bones of the-
Paleudyptes, an extinct penguin over 7 ft. high. The limestone forma-
tion in which these caves occurred overlaid the great coal-measures of the
Grey district. He described the remarkable fault in the limestone
range, which had developed into a rift 700 ft. deep, through which,
in ancient times, the waters of the Grey had been diverted from theiu'
former channel.

Mr. C. E. Adams exliibited some of the powers of a calcu-
lating-machine by a Eussian inventor, which possessed re-
markable powers of multiplying, dividing, summing up succes-
sive totals, and extracting roots.

Sir James Hector said that twenty-five years ago Mr. Leonard
Stowe, Clerk to the General Assembly, devised and patented a very
similar piece of mechanism. He still possessed the original model.

The President said the machine illustrated what a purely mechanical
operation computation really was. The amount of unnecessary drudgery
saved by a machine such as this to those who had to deal continually
with large figures, besides its freedom from liability to error, made it
exceedingly valuable. It was an interesting fact that many illustrious
mathematicians were deficient in the mechanical skill necessary to com-
pute correctly. He mentioned several great names, including Helmholtz,.
who, as he would insist on doing his own blackboard-work when lecturing,
usually made an error in his first attempt at multiplication, and spent a
good part of the rest of his time in trying to find where it occurred.

The President, Professor Easterfield, exhibited a tool in the-
new " high-speed steel," forwarded by a friend in Sheflield.

He said that the new steel, which promised to bring about vast
industrial changes, as it could do such work as the turning of propeller-
shafts at five times the rate of the best ordinary steel, owed its quality
to the admixture of a small but definite proportion of tungsten, and
possibly of chromium, and also to a difference in manufacture.
Ordinary steel was spoiled if heated beyond a dull red ; the new steel
was heated to whiteness, and cooled simply by a steady blast of cold
air. Water was necessary in grinding ordinary steel ; it must not be
used with the new, which was ground dry on an emery wheel, red-
hot sparks flying off the wnilo. If overheated in working steel tools
became useless ; the new steel tools bad been shown at work lioC
with friction, and swiftly winding off blue shavings from a rotary
shaft. He was pleased to say that this vast improvement had been
brought about by British firms.

Sir James Hector remarked that scheelite and wolfram, the ores
yielding tungsten, were abundant in New Zealand.

Sir James Hector explained a number of natural-history
exhibits, including the rare South Pacific cod, a stray specimen
of whicli is sometimes stranded at Island Bay after a gale ;
and a German owl, only distinguishable from the raorepork of
Australasia by a lighter colour in the plumage of the back.

Sir James Hector said that, with the permission of the
meeting, lie would like to make a few remarks. He said, —

It is thirty-five years since I was first connected with this Society. I
now have to leave. T suppose I shall never have the opportunity of meet-
ing you again. It is a great strain. Bat these things cannot be avoided.
We grow old, and have to leave the field to younger and better men. 1 do.

Wcllingtoii Philosophical Society. 525

'feel it my duty to express my thanks for the kind manner in which you
have alwa\s sustained me in the work I have had to do. It has some-
times been hard and cross-grained, but I have always met with the
greatest kindness and appreciation of such merit as the work I have con-
tributed has possessed. I ask you, sir, to receive my thanks to the
Society.

The President, Professor Easterfield, said: Ladies and Gentlemen,
Sir James Hector has just alluded to his long connection witli this
Society, and has referred to the fact that he is about to leave us. The
Society sincerely hopes that on many future occasions it may have the
privilege of liis presence and assistance. He is about to leave us on a trip
to Canada, but we look forward to only a temporary separation from our
old and trusted friend. I feel sure that we all look forward earnestly to
the time when we shall have him back among us, refreslied by rest and
change of scene, and with his health and old energy restored. The strain
upon him of the Institute and its duties has for some time past been too
severe. I am only expressing the feelings of all present when I say that
we are looking forward with pleasure to the time when we shall welcome
him among us once more.

Third Meeting : 5th August, 1903.
The President, Professor Easterfield, in the chair,

Mr. Martin Chapman proposed, and Mr. Hogben seconded,
That the President be instructed to expend the sum of ten
guineas in a suitable memento in appreciation of the services
of the late Secretary. — Carried.

Papers. — 1. " On the Fallacies of the Metric System,"
pt. i., by E. Coupland Harding.

2. " On the Occurrence of certain Lepidoptera in South-
land," by A. Philpott ; commvinicated by G. V. Hudson,
F.E.S.

Exhibits. — 1. Brown trout, weight 291b. (kindly lent by
-the Superintendent, Tourist Department).

2. Esquimaux camelito or parkee (rain-coat).

3. New Zealand weta (Deinacrida thoracica).

Fourth Meeting : 2nd September, 1903.

The President, Professor Easterfield, in the chair.

Presentation. — In pursuance of a resolution passed at the
last meeting of the Society, the President presented to Mr.
E. B. Gore, the late Secretary of the Society, some handsome
pieces of plate, bearing an inscription indicating that they
are a memento of Mr. Gore's services to the Society from
1873 to 1903. In a letter of thanks Mr. Gore expressed his
appreciation of the gift and the good wishes for his restora-
tion to health, which, he regretted to say, was still very un-
satisfactory.

526 Proceedings.

Papers. — 1. " Notes on an Insect found in some Hot
Springs at Taupo," by J. W. Poynton.

The insect, which is present in large quantities all the year round, is
about half the size of a house-fly, but more slender and shapely, and is
black in colour. It apparently builds natural incubators, and is said to
be an undescribed species. Mr. Poynton suggested a number of ques-
tions for study by competent scientists, including the great possibility cf
the important part these insects and their habits have played and are
playing in the formation of terraces.

In the course of a discussion Professor H. B. Kirk expressed the
opinion that Mr. Poynton's observations were of great scientific and
economic value. If the suggestion as to the formation of terraces was
correct, there was at once presented the possibility of importing these
flies to places where they did not now exist. In regard to insect and
animal life in hot springs, Professor Kirk said there was no doubt that
fish at Rotorua, for instance, went into water quite hot enough to cook
them, and though they were not cooked they grew coarse and ugly.

Professor Easterfield thought the Research Fund might well be
devoted to further investigation of such an important matter as Mr.
Poynton's suggestion.

2. " On Eimu-resin," by Professor Easterfield and B. C.
Aston.

This paper included the results of some preliminary investigations by
the Professor and Mr. B. C. Aston, Chemist to the Agricultural Depart-
ment. The resin, when chewed, has a very bitter taste, and is very much
simpler than the complicated kauri resin. It dissolves very easily in
alcohol ; and if water be cautiously added to the solution a beautiful
crystalline substance comes out, which is an acid, and which has been
given the name of " rimuic acid." This melts at 192° Centigrade. The
resin consists of 75 per cent, of rimuic acid, and the greater part of the
remainder, after the acid has been precipitated, consists of a gum which
up to the present the investigators have not further investigated, while the
pink colouring is a vegetable bitter. Jlost of the pines when their bark
is cut weep resin, but the rimu, he was informed, did not do so, as it
had its resin right in the heart of the wood. The Professor went into a
detailed explanation, and said it appeared that the chemistry of this
resin was not so complicated as it was believed by many to be. He
hoped to go into the subject of kauri-resin when he had disposed of the
rimu.

In the ensuing discussion the speakers emphasized the importance of
the investigations being made.

Mr. Gerald Fitzgerald quoted actual experience to show that the
rimu did not possess the preservative qualities it was supposed to possess ;
but Mr. Poynton held an opposite opinion of the value of the resin as a
preservative, based on his own observations.

Exhibits. — 1. Birds from Soutli Africa.

2. Moa-bones.

3. Bill of hornbill.

Fifth Meeting : 7th October, 1903.
The President, Professor Easterfield, in the chair.
NexD Members. — Eev. D. C. Bates and Mr. M. H. Browne.
Papers. — 1. " On the Fallacies of the Metric System,"
pt. ii., by K. Coupland Harding.

Wellington Philosophical Society. 527

2. "On Adjustment of Triangulation by Least Squares,""
pt. ii., by C. E. Adams, B.Sc.

3. " Notes on Southern Lepidoptera," by Alfred Philpott.

4. " Molecular Association and the Arrangement of Atoms-
in Space," by C. W. Robertson.

Exhibits. — 1. Corean duck.

2. Nails found in gizzard of duck.

3. Cast of diorite tnere (original stolen from Maori House
on the 12ih September, 1903).

•i. Rabbit with peculiar growth of teeth.

5. Green linnets (male and female).

6. New Zealand tree-lizard.

7. Petrological microscope (Mr. Adams).

Sixth Meeting : 4th November, 1903.

The President, Professor Basterfield, in the chair.

Papers. — 1. "Notes on some Curiously Carved Maori
Calabashes," by Dr. Newman (with exhibits).

The exhibits consisted of two fine specimens of calabashes recently
acquired by the writer, one, unfortunately, broken in transit from the
Wairarapa district. Apart from their unusual size, they were remarkable
on account of their being fitted with elaborately decorated collars or
necks, carved out of matai wood. As their use was for the preservation of
birds, &c., in their own fat, they were very greasy, within and without.
The larger, when filled, would weigh nearly a hundredweight. Each
was fully equipped with the original kete (called " kit " by the pakeha),
an open net of phormium leaves gathered into a handle above for con-
venience of carriage.

Dr. Newman explained the use of the hue, or calabash gourd, among
the old natives. Some with carved collars were still to be found in the
Urewera country, but were rare and highly prized. These particular
specimens had been found in an outhouse in the Wairarapa district,
the modern native in contact with civilisation preferring kerosene-tins.
The Maori owner said they had belonged to his grandfather, a chief,
whom he remembered as nearly a century old. All the Museum speci-
mens appeared to have lost the carved collar. It was called by the
Maoris tnki or kohamohamo. The words might be synonymous, or might
refer to difTerent varieties ; they were not in existing dictionaries. Cala-
bashes had been much neglected by collectors. Tliose now before the
meeting were used only by chiefs, and formed the central object at
feasts, containing, as they did, tbe choicest delicacies for the invited
guests. The Maoris said they had brought the seed of the calabash
from "Hawaiki," and that no such large gourds as those of olden time
could now be grown.

The President and other members expressed their indebtedness to
Dr. Newman for his paper, and he, in the course of his reply, added fur-
ther information on the subject.

2. "Notes on Aconitic Acid," by James Bee; communi-
cated by Professor Basterfield.

528 Proceedings.

The writer had been investigating this acid (characteristic of the
aconite plant, or monk's-liood, but which in the arts is obtained from
citric acid), and had discovered some interesting reactions — one almost
unique in chemical experience — which were described. By an accidental
oversight in preparing the acid— boiling a solution for ten hours instead
of five — he found he had obtained an acid of quite different character.
This, submitted to the usual tests, proved to be diconic acid. This dis-
covery, Professor Eascerfield explained, was of importance. Diconic acid,
owing to the tedious process necessary for its production — long boiling
in closed tubes, under pressure, having been necessary — had been little
studied. Mr. Bee had now opened the path for any one who wished to
investigate the subject, as the acid could now be readily prepared in open
vessels, and in any quantity required.

3. " Notes on some New Lepidoptera from Lake Waka-
tipu," by G. V. Hudson, F.E.S. (with exhibits).

Exhibit. — Professor Easterfield exhibited a hot-air engine,
and explained its use.

Seventh Meeting: 17 tk December, 1903.
The President, Professor Easterfield, in the chair.

Governors of Neiv Zealand Instikite. — On the motion of
Mr. G. Hogben, seconded by Mr. A. McKay, Professor Easter-
field and Mr. Martin Chapman were appointed to represent
the Society on the Board of Governors of the New Zealand
Institute.

Paper. — "On Anatomy of Paryphanta fumosa," by
R. Murdoch.

Annual Meeting : 13th April, 1904.
Professor Easterfield, President, in the chair.
Nciu Member. — Alfred Cockayne.

The annual report and balance-sheet was read and
approved.

The receipts were given as £176 14s. 2d., and the expenditure
£103 5s. 2d., leaving a balance in hand of £73 9s.

The Research Fund— a fixed deposit in the bank — now amounts to
£38 15s. 9d., which increases the credit balance to £112 4s. 9d.

Election of Officers for 1904. — President — Professor
Easterfield ; Vice-Presidents — G. Hogben, M. A., and E. Tregear,
F.R.G.S. ; Council—^. C. Harding, G. V. Hudson, F.E.S.,
Professor H. B. Kirk, C. E. Adams, B.Sc, Sir James Hector,
E.R.S., Martin Chapman, and C. T. Richardson.

Papers. — 1. " On the Occurrence of Starch in Timber,"
by Professor Kirk.

2. "On the Constitution of some Resin-acids," by Pro-
fessor Easterfield.

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.

FiBST Meeting : 8th Ju7ie, 1908.
Professor A. P. Thomas, President, in the chair.

New Members. — G. George, H. A. Gordon, and H.
Pycroft.

The President dehvered the anniversary address.

Second Meeting : 227id Jicne, 1908.

Professor A. P. Thomas, President, in the chair.

Mr. J. H. Howell, B.Sc, delivered a popular lecture,
illustrated by numerous experiments, on " The Spectroscope,
and its Use in Scientific Eesearch."

Third Meeting : 6th Juhj, 1908.
Professor A. P. Thomas, President, in the chair.
New Members. — H. Cummings and H. Kronfeld.
Papers. — 1. •' Note on a Branched Cocoanut Palm," by
R. B. Walrond.

The author stated that during the recent parliamentary excursion to
the Cook Islands, which he accompanied, he was informed of a branched
cocoanut-tree growing on the Island of Mangaia. Knowing the interest
which is attached to branched palms, he visited the locality and secured
some photographs of the tree, which he exhibited to the meeting.

2. " On an Abnormal Growth of Phormium colensoi,"
by the Right Rev. W. L. Williams.

3. " A Note on Drawing for Competitions," by Professor
H. W. Segar.

4. " Note on the Veracity of the Age-returns in the Census
of 1901," by Professor H. W. Segar.

5. " A Comparison of the Age-distribution of the Popula-
tion of the Four Chief Provincial Districts," by Professor
H. W. Segar.

6. " On certain Statistics respecting the Trend of English
Trade," by Professor H. W. Segar.

34— Trans.

530 Proceedings.

Fourth Meeting : 20th July, 1903.
Professor A. P. Thomas, President, in the chair.

Neiv Members. — H. C. Clark, W. H. Hamer, W. Henry,
V. J. Larner, J. E. Lundon, and R. Stopford, M.D.

Professor F. D. Brown deUvered a popular lecture, illus-
trated by numerous experiments, on " Eadiation."

Fifth Meeting : 3rd August, 1903.
Professor A. P. Thomas, President, in the chair.
Papers. — 1. " On the Maori Method of preparing and
using Kokoivai," by Archdeacon P. Walsh.

Specimens of the stone slabs and rubbers using in preparing 'kokoivai
were exhibited in illustration of the paper, and presented to the
Museum by the author.

2. "On the Interferometer," by E. V. Miller.

Sixth Meeting : 17th August, 1903.
Professor A. P. Thomas, President, in the chair.
The Rev. H. Anson delivered a popular lecture entitled
" Mr. Gladstone."

Seventh Meeting : 7th September, 1903.

Professor A. P. Thomas, President, in the chair.

New Members. — W. S. Lyell, E. P. Turner, and N. A.
Winter.

Papers.— I. " Maori Medical Lore," by Dr. W. H. Goldie.
2. " Maori Marriage Customs," by Elsdon Best.

Eighth Meeting: 21st September, 1903.

Professor A. P. Thomas, President, in the chair.

Neiv Member. — Dr. Neill.

Mr. E. K. Mulgan delivered a popular lecture, illustrated
with numerous limelight views, on " The Northern Wairoa "

Ninth Meeting : 29th February, 1904.

Dr. Roberton, Vice-President, in the chair.

Neto Member. — J. L. Young.

Paper. — " On the Fossils of the Waitemata and Papakura
Series," by B. Clarke.

Auckland Institute. 631

Abstract of Annual Report.

In accordance with the rules of the society, the Council have now to
present to their members their thirty-sixth annual report on the financial
and general condition of the Institute, and its progress during the past
year.

Members. — Sixteen new members have been elected during the year.
On the other hand, fourteen names have been withdrawn from the roll,
six from death, four from resignation, and four from non-payment of
subscription for more than two consecutive years. There is thus a net
gain of two, the number on the roll at the present time being 165. The
members removed by death are Messrs. A. D. Austin, W. Berry, A.
Buckland, J. Chambers, L. Cussen, and J. Hume, nearly all of whom
have been associated with the Institute for many years.

Finance. — For full information respecting the financial position of
the Institute reference should be made to the balance-sheets appended
to this report, but the following abstract may be useful : The total
income of the Working Account, omitting the balance of £.59 18s. 6d. on
hand at the commencement of the year, has been £872 18s. 7d. This
shows a slight increase on the amount realised last year, which was
£851 14s. 8.1. Examining the separate items, it will be seen that the
Museum Endowment, which now constitutes one of the chief sources of
the revenue of the society, has yielded £344 13s. 4d., the amount for the
previous year being £375 15s. 7d. The invested funds of the Costley
bequest have contributed £357 10s., the sum for 1902-3 beiug £325
13s. 9d. From the members' subscriptions £131 5s. has been received,
showing a reduction of £10 10s. on the amount for last year. The total
expenditure has been £809 7s. lOd., leaving a balance of £123 9s. 3d. in
the Bank of New Zealand. The Council are glad to report that the
invested funds of the society are in a satisfactory state. The total
amount at the present time is £16,226 12s. 5d., showing an increase of
£2,230 6s. 3d. during the year. The addition consists of the Mackechnie
bequest of £2,000 for the endowment of the library, presently to be
alluded to, and a sum of £2.30 derived from the sale of certain portions
of the landed endowment of the Museum.

Meetings. — Nine meetings have been held during the year.

Museum. — With the exception of a short period devoted to cleaning
and rearrangement, the Museum has been open daily to the public
throughout the year during the usual hours — from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. on
week-days, and from 2 to 5 p.m. on Sundays. The attendance of visitors
has been satisfactory. The register kept by the janitor shows that on
Sunday afternoons 13,377 people entered the building, being an average of
2.57 for each Sunday. The greatest attendance was 378 on the 23rd
August ; the smallest 80 on 5th July. On the five chief holidays of the
year — New Year's Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, King's Birthday,
and Boxing Day — the total attendance was 1,181, or an average of 236 for
each day. On ordinary week-days the visitors can only be occasionally
counted ; but the average attendance is certainly not less than 100 per
day. With the number previously given, a calculation on this basis
would make the total attendance to be 45,360. Last year the number was
estimated at 43,956. It is worthy of remark that the average attendance on
Sunday afternoon, when the Museum is only open for three hours, is in
excess of the average for the chief holidays, when the Museum is open for
the whole day.

In the report for the previous year the Council stated that an applica-
tion had been made to the Government for a pound-for-pound subsidy
equivalent to the amout (£1,000) subscribed by the citizens of Auckland
for the purchase of the Mair Collection of Maori Antiquities. During the

532 Proceedings.

recent session of Parliament the matter was again revived, and warmly
advocated by the members for the City of Auckland and the Suburbs, with
the result that the Government consented to place a vote of £1,000 on the
supplementary estimate?. This was agreed to by Parliament, and the
Premier, in a recent interview with the Council, engaged that the money
would be at once made available for defraying the cost of an annexe to
the Maori Hall. Under these circumstances, the Council have arranged
for the erection of a hall 50 ft. square, to occupy the vacant space between
the Statue Hall and the Main Hall. One portion of the building will con-
tain the Maori carved house, Rangitihi, which has been in the possession
of the Museum for some time, but which for want of funds has not yet been
erected ; the remainder will form an exhibition gallery for ethnological
specimens. In structural details the new building will agree with the
Maori Hall, the walls and floor being of brick or concrete, and the
roof of iron and glass. The cost of erection will absorb the whole of the
grant, so that after its completion other arrangements will be required for
putting up the Maori house, and for the show-cases and other fittings
required for the exhibition gallery. But the acquisition of the building
alone will be a distinct advantage, and one upon which the Museum may
be safely congratulated.

The chief additions made to the Museum during the year have been
in the ethnographical department. Special mention may be made of an
interesting series of Moriori stone weapons, purchased from Mr. R.
Shand, late of the Chatham Islands; of some Maori kites, kindly
obtained for the Museum by Mr. Elsdon Best, of Ruatahuna ; of a col-
lection of Australian stone weapons, forwarded in exchange by Jlr.
J. Williamson, of Victoria; and of a set of prehistoric flint implements
from Central Africa, presented by Colonel Seton-Karr. The Council have
frequently mentioned the slow progress made by the zoological side of
the Museum, so that they have some little satisfaction in stating that
there is every prospect of an important addition being made to this
department at no distant date. It will be in the recollection of members
that the late Mrs. Mackechnie bequeathed a sum of £500 to be expended,
at the discretion of her executor, in suitable additions to the Museum.
This gentleman has intimated his desire that the bequest should be ex-
pended in the purchase of stuffed groups of the larger animals, set up in
the best style of taxidermy, and protected by suitable plate-glass cases.
Preliminary inquiries are now being made, and it is hoped that an order
for the first of the groups will soon be taken in hand.

Library. — The Council have but little to report under this head.
Few purchases of books have been made, but a considerable expenditure
has been incurred in binding the arrears of scientific journals=, publica-
tions of societies, &c. The usual exchanges and presentations from
foreign societies have been received, together with the magazines and
periodicals subscribed to by the Institute, a list of which will be found on
another page. The most important donation of books received consists
of forty-eight volumes of books dealing with the history of India,
formerly the property of the late Bishop Cowic, and presented to the
library in remembrance of him by his family. The Mackechnie bequest
of £2,000, the annual interest on which must be applied solely to the
purchase of books, has been duly paid over and invested. In the future
it will provide a regular fund for the augmentation of the library, and
will enable the Council to extend its usefulness in a manner which could
not be attempted with the slender funds to bo spared from the ordinary
revenue of the society.

LiTTLK Barrier Island. — The management of the Little Barrier
Island as a reserve for the preservation of the avifauna of ISlew Zealand
still remains in the hands of the Institute, the Government contributing

Auckland Institute. 533

an annual grant of £200 to cover the necessary expenses. The Curator,
Mr. Shakespear, reports that no attempt has been made to molest the
birds, and that no unauthorised persona have landed on the island. The
Council entertain no doubt that if a resident guardian is maintained on
the island it will long remain a secure home for a considerable portion of
the avifauna of New Zealand.

Election op Officers for 1904. — President — Professor
A. P. Thomas, F.L.S. ; Vice-Presidents — E. Roberton, Esq.,
M.D., and J. Stewart, Esq., M.I.C.E. ; Council — Professor
F. D. Brown, C. Cooper, Esq., H. Haines, Esq., F.R.C.S.,
J. H. Howell, B.Sc, J. Kirker, Esq., E. V. Miller, Esq.,
T. Peacock, Esq., D. Petrie, Esq., J. Reid, Esq., Professor
H. W. Segar, J. H. Upton, Esq. ; Trustees— 'Proiessor F. D.
Brown, T. Peacock, Esq., J. H. Upton, Esq. ; Secretary and
Curator— T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. , F.Z.S. ; Auditor—^.
Gorrie, Esq.

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF
CANTERBUEY.

First Meeting : 6th May, 1903.
Dr. Charles Chilton, President, in the chair.
Neic Members.— Messrs. E. G. Hogg, E. Cuthburt, Rev.
A. C. Carrington, and Dr. Finch.

Address. — The retiring President, Mr. J. B. Mayne, de-
livered his address on " Bacteria and Fermentation," and
illustrated it by diagrams and specimens.

Second Meeting : 3rd Jttne, 1903.
Dr. Chilton, President, in the chair.
Nexv Members. — Messrs. M. G. Wallicli and L. Birks.
Resolution. — The President proposed, and Captain F. W.
Hutton seconded, and it was unanimously resolved, —

That the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, hearing that Sir
James Hector is retiring from his official position as Director of the
Geological Survey and Manager of the New Zealand Institute after thirty-
five years of service, desires to express its appreciation of the skilful
and efficient manner in which he has discharged the many varied duties
of his office during his long term of service. As ^Manager of the New
Zealand Institute and Editor of its Transactions he has had a most
arduous and difficult task to perform, and one calling for a wide know-
ledge on a great variety of subjects, and the thirty-five volumes of the
Transactions form a permanent record of the able manner in which he
has p' rformed the work allotted to him. Tne Institute trusts that he
may still be spared for many years to devote his leisure to the further
advancement of science.

Address. — Mr. E. G. Hogg delivered an adtiress on "The
Falls of Niagara — a Geological Study," illustrating it with a
large number of lantern-slides.

Third Meeting : 1st July, 1903.

Dr. Chilton, President, in the chair.

New Members. — Mrs. A. Anderson and Messrs. J. R.
Charlton, C. Carmichael, and A. Kaye.

Address. — Mr. R. Nairne delivered an address, illustrated
by lantern-slides, on " Horticulture in New Zealand."

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. 535

Fourth Meeting : 5th August, 1903.

Dr. Chilton, President, in the chair.

New Members. — The Eight Rev. Bishop Grimes and
Messrs. W. E. Burley, W. Colbatch, W. R. Haselden, and
W. H. Moyes.

Address. — Mr. A. R. Craddock gave an address, illustrated
by experiments and lantern-slides, on " The Induction of
Electric Currents."

Fifth Meeting : 2nd September, 1903.

Dr. Chilton. President, in the chair.

New Member. — Dr. Hugh Acland.

The President congratulated Dr. L. Cockayne on the
honour which had been conferred upon him by the Ancient
University of Munich.

Address. — Professor W. P. Evans delivered an address,
illustrated by experiments and lantern-slides, on " The Lique-
faction of Gases."

Sixth Meeting : 7th October, 1903.

Dr. Chilton, President, in the chair.

New Members.— Messrs. P. Trolove and C. J. Williams.

Address. — Mr. R. Speight gave an address, illustrated by
diagrams, on " A Chapter in Canterbury Geology."

Seventh Meeting: 4th November, 1903.
Dr. Chilton, President, in the chair.
Papers. — 1. "A Botanical Excursion during Midwinter
to the Southern Islands of New Zealand," by Dr. L.
Cockayne.

2. "Plants naturalised in the County of Ashburton," by
Mr. W. W. Smith.

3. " Note on a Dyke at Nugget Point," by Mr. R. Speight.

4. "A Species of Ixodes parasitic on the Grey Duck," by
Dr. C. Chilton.

5. " Revision of the New Zealand Members of the
Phorocera," by Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S.

6. " On the Occurrence of Gentrolophus in New Zealand,"
by Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S.

536 Proceedings .

7. " Descriptiou of a New Fish," by Captain F. W.
Hutton, F.K.S.

8. " On the Occurrence of the Curlew- Sandpiper in New
Zealand," by Captain F. W. Hutcon, F.R.S.

9. "Two New Flies," by Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S.

10. " On a New Weta from the Chatham Islands," bv
Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S.

11. " Description of a New Blowflv from Campbell
Island," by Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S.'

Exhibits. — The following exhibits were laid before the
meeting: — By Mr. E. G. Hogg: Some symmetrical nodules
from Tasmania. By Mr. T. W. Adams: A branch of
laburnum having both purple and yellow flowers. By Dr.
Coleridge Farr : The trace of the vertical-force magnetograph
during the recent magnetic storm.

Special Meeting : 25th November, 1908.
Dr. Chilton, President, in the chair.

The meeting was called to amend the laws in conformity
with " The New Zealand Institute Act, 1903."

Captain F. W. Hutton, F.R.S., and Dr. Chilton were
elected to represent the Institute on the Board of Governors
of the New Zealand Institute.

Annual Meeting : 25th November, 1903.
Dr. Chilton, President, in the chair.
New Member. — Mr. G. W. Kirkaldy.

Abstract of Annual Rkport.

The Council mot twelve times since the previous annual meeting.

The retirement of Sir James Hector, K.G.M.G., from the position of
Manager of the New Zealand Institute caused the Council to consider
what changes were desirable in the constitution of the New Zealand
Institute. After correspondence with the other institutes, and a deputa-
tion havinf^ waited upon the Colonial Secretary, the Council drafted a
Bill, which, with few amendments, has since become law.

The " Index Faunn> Nova>-Zealaodiu' " is nearing completion, and the
first bound copy was laid on the table.

The library has been kept in a state of ofhcioncy.

The thanks of the Institute are duo to the Hon. C. C. Bowen, who has
represented the Institute on tho Board of Governors of the New Zealand
Institute, and to Mr. G. E. Way, F.I.A.N.Z., for his services as honorary
auditor.

Philosopkical Institute of Caiitcrbiiry. 637

The balance-sheet for the period from the 1st January, 1903, to the
31st October, 1903, shows that £42 10s. has been received for members'
subscriptions, £23 4s. 3d. has been spent in the purchase of books and
periodicals for the library, and £10 lis. 9d. for binding completed volumes.
The credit balance on the 31st October was ±76 14s. 9d., but this includes
£50 from Captain Hutton for the purchase of 100 copies of the '• Index
Fauna- NovtB-Zealandi;e."' The No. 2 Account, "Life Members' Sub
scriptions," shows a credit balance of £82 (Is. 2d., the interest on which at
3^ per cent, accrued on the 21st November, 1903.

The number of members of the Institute is eighty-five and two asso-
ciates, and the average attendance at the meetings of the past year has
been thirty-nine.

Six addresses (enumerated above) and twelve papers have been read
before the Institute during the year. The papers may be classified as —
zoology, 8 papers ; botany, 2 : and geology, 2.

Election of Officers fok 1904. — President — Professor
Charles Chilton, D.Sc. M.A., M.B., etc. ; Vice- Preside7its— Mr.
J. B. Mayne. B.A., and Mr. E. Speight, M.A., B.Sc. ; Honorary
Secretary — Dr. Coleridge Farr, A.M.I.C.E. : Honorary Trea-
surer— Professor Charles Chilton, M.A.,M.B., D.Sc.; Gonncil —
Mr. E. M. Laing. M.A., B.Sc. Captain F. W. Hutton, F.E.S.,
President New Zealand Institute. Dr. W. P. Evans, M.A.,
Dr Cockavne, Mr. E. G. Hogg, M.A., Mr. A. E. Flower,
M.A., B.Sc.

OTAGO INSTITUTE.

First Meeting : 13th May, 1903.

The President, Mr. A. Hamilton, delivered his presidential'
address dealing with the relation of the Government to various
scientific projects, such as the erection of bench-marks around
the coast, hydrographic surveys, magnetic surveys, marine
biological station, sylviculture, &c., and especially with the
proposed Maori Museum, concerning which he had issued a
circular to the members of the House of Representatives detail-
ing the functions and arrangement of such a nmseum. This
valuable address was printed m extenso in the Otago Daily'
Times.

Second Meeting : 9th June, 1903.
Mr. A. Hamilton, President, in the chair.

Professor Benham read a paper on " An Apparently New
Species of R galecus (B. parkeri)," and exhibited an excellent
painted cast of the fish, executed by Mr. B. Jennings, the
taxidermist of the Museum.

Professor Benham exhibited specimens of a new leech
recently obtained at Open Bay Island during a biological
excursion by Messrs. L. Cockayne and Dunlop ; and a paper
entitled " A New Species of Leech {Hirudo antipodum)i
recently discovered in New Zealand " was laid on the table.

Professor Park read a paper, '-The Jurassic Age of the
Maitai Formation," which was subjected to criticism by Dr. P.
Marshall.

Dr. P. Marshall laid on the table a paper on "The Boulders
in Triassic Conglomerate at Nelson," of which he gave an
epitome.

Mr. C. S. S. Cooper read a paper on "A New Experiment
in Light."

Professor Park urged the Council of the Institute to take
steps to induce the Government to erect, at suitable places
along the coast, bench-marks, in order that accurate infor-
mation as to the secular movements by land and sea might
be available for future observers.

The President promised that the Council should proceed in
the matter.

Otago Institute. 539

Third Meeting: 14th July, 1903.
Mr. A. Hamilton, President, in the chair.
Paper. — " Proven9al Troubadours," by Professor T. G. R.

Blunt.

Fourth Meeting: 11th August, 1903.
Mr. A. Hamilton, President, in the chair.

The President exhibited a specimen of Sirex found im-
bedded in some " moulding " imported from America, and
made remarks on its life-history as illustrating the manner in-
which insects may be dispersed from one country to another.

Professor Benham exhibited a fine specimen of Aturia
ziczac var. australis, recently presented to the Museum by
Mr. A. Hamilton, who had obtained it at Wharekuri.

iVmongst other exhibits were specimens of the above
fossil in various conditions of fossilisation, which had been
remounted to show their characteristics ; also, a live lizard,
apparently a new species of Lygosoma, the pouched form of
Geotna, and other recent additions to the Museum.

Professor Benham gave a resume of a paper on " The
Oligociiaeta of the New Zealand Lakes," founded on the
material collected by Mr. Keith Lucas during his recent
biological survey.

Professor Park read a paper on " The Subdivisions of the
New Zealand Trias," which was discussed by the President,.
Dr. Marshall, and Professor Benham.

Fifth Meeting : 8th Sejjtember, 1903.
Mr. A. Hamilton, President, in the chair.

A paper on "The Sparrow Plague and its Remedy " was
read by Mr. A. Bathgate, in which the author advocated the
introduction of certain birds, such as shrikes, which in
America prey upon sparrows.

A discussion ensued, in which members of the Otago Acclimatisation
Society (by invitation) took part, as well as Messrs. G. M. Thomson,
Gilkison, and Benham, all of whom strongly deprecated this method of
meeting the annoyance.

540 Proceedings.

Sixth Meeting : 13th October, 1903.
Mr. George M. Thomson, Vice-President, in the chair.

Mr. C. S. S. Cooper gave an interesting account of the
recent researches by Eutlierford, Curie, and others on
" Eadium and Radio-activity."

Papers. — 1. " On the Physical Properties of Kauri-gum,"
by Mr. Cooper.

2. " A Supposed Heat Effect," by Mr. Cooper.

3. " On the Regeneration or Cyanide-solutions," by Mr.
Doveton ; communicated by Professor Park.

4. " Notes on a Small Collection of Fossils from Whare-
kuri," by Mr. A. Hamilton.

5. " Notes on Old Native Settlements in various Parts of
Murihiku," by Mr. A. Hamilton. (See " Handbook of the
Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science,"
Dunedin, 1904.)

6. "On Abnormal Developments in New Zealand Ferns ;
with a List of Papers by various Authors on the Ferns of New
Zealand," by Mr. A. Hamilton.

7. " List of Papers and Notices on Botanical Subjects in
the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute and other
Publications," by Mr. A. Hamilton.

8. " On the Discovery of a Permo-carboniferous Formation
at Mount Mary, in North Otago," by Professor Park.

9. " On the Geology of the North Head at Waikouaiti," by
Professor Park.

10. "Effect of Temperature on Gold-cyanide Solutions,"
.by Mr. D. B. Waters.

Annual Meeting : 3rd December, 1903.

Mr. A. Hamilton, President, in the chair.

Papers. — 1. "Notes on some Extinct Birds recently found
near Ngapara," by Mr. A. Hamilton.

2. " Moriori Carving on the Trunks of Karaka-trees," by
Mr. A. Hamilton.

3. " Second Supplement to Materials for a Bibliography of
the DinornithidcB," by Mr. A. Hamilton.

4. "The Sipunculids of New Zealand," by Professor Ben-
ihara.

Otago Institute. 541

Annual Report.

Since the last report your Council has met nine times for the transac-
tion of business.

During the year Mr. Justice Chapman and Mr. Chamberlain for-
warded resignations as members of the Council, but, in view of the near
approach of the annual general meeting, it was not considered necessaiy
to fill their places on the committee. Your Council desires to place on
record its high appreciation of the work of Mr. Justice Chapman, who has
been a member of the Council for twenty years.

During the year five members of the Institute have resigned, and five
new members have been elected. The total number of members is 11'2.

The present session has included seven general meetings. At one of
these Professor T. G. R. Blunt, of Canterbury College, read a paper on
" Provenval Troubadours," which was highly appreciated by a large
attendance of members. A paper by Mr. A. Bathgate on " The Sparrow
Plague " also excited general interest ; and the Council wishes to record
its sense of obligation to Mr. James Allen for consenting to deliver a
lecture on " The Cook Islands " as a fitting close to the session.

The Council wishes to draw the attention of members to the forth-
coming meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of
Science, to be held in Dunedin on the 10th January, 1904. It is hoped
that all members of the Institute will co-operate in making the meeting as
successful as possible.

Since the last annual meeting the resignation of Sir James Hector
has necessitated a change in the legislation under which the New Zealand
Institute and its affiliated local institutes were constituted. A Bill has
lately passed through Parliament giving effect to various changes that were
suggested by the Council of the Canterbury Philcsophical Institute and
approved by your Council and other bodies. The most important changes
are— (1) More direct representation of the local institutes on the Board
of Governors of the New Zealand Institute ; (2) the appointment of the
President of the New Zealand Institute and the Editor of the Trans-
actions by the Board of Governors. In accordance with the provisions
of this Bill Your Council has appointed Messrs. G. M. Thomson and
A. Hamilton as our representatives on the Board of Governors.

The important work, the "Index Faunse Novffi-Zealandiae," under-
taken by Captain Hutton and the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury,
is completed. A few advance copies have been received in Christchurch,
and no doubt the work will be ready for distribution shortly.

In regard to the marine-fish hatchery, Mr. George M. Thomson, as
the Institute's representative, reports that work has proceeded satisfac-
torily. A large concrete tank for supplying water to the hatching-house,
&c., has been constructed, an enclosure has been made for two ponds for
breeding fish, and a site cleared for the erection of the building which is
to contain the hatching-house, aquarium-house, and laboratory. This
building and a bouse for the caretaker are now in courfc of erection, and it
is expected that they will be completed by the end of the year. Fittings tor
the laboratory ar d batching-house have been ordered from Europe and
America, and it is intended to open the station during the forthcoming
meeting of the Australasian Association. Your Council has so far paid
over £100 of the i250 promised to this undertakmg.

A list of volumes added to the library was appended.
The balance-sheet, duly audited, was also adopted.

Abstract.

The receipts for the year^ including a balance brought forward of
£51 19s. 2s., amount to £103 19s. ; the expenses were £79 18s. 2d. :
leaving a balance of £34 lis. lid. in the hands of the banker.

542 Proceedings.

Election of Officers for 1904. — President — Dr. Ben-
ham; Vice-Presidents — Dr. T. M. Hocken and Mr. J. C.
Thomson ; Council — Messrs. A. Bathgate, Dr. Colquhoun,
J. S. S. Cooper, Professor Park, G. M. Thomson, D. B.
Waters, and E. Gilkison ; Secretary — Dr. Marshall; Trea-
surer—Mr. W. Fels ; Auditor — Mr. D. Brent.

Professor Benham congratulated Mr. Hamilton on his appointment
to the Directorship of the Colonial Museum, and expressed his indebted-
ness to him for many kindnesses shown to him personally and to the
Museum, as well as regret at the loss which the Institute would sustain
on his departure to Wellington.

Mr. G. M. Thomson and Professor Park also spoke in appreciatory
terms of Mr. Hamilton's services to the Institute as office-bearer and
member of Council.

It had been arranged that Mr. James Allen, M.H.R.,
should give a lecture on " The Cook Islands," but owing to
a mishap with the lantern the lecture had to be interrupted,
and it was delivered to a large audience at a special meeting
on the 8th December.

WESTLAND INSTITUTE.

Annual General Meeting.
The President, Mr. J. B. Lewis, in the chair.

Annual Report.

In presenting this report the Truscees of the Institute have every
confidence that it will meet with the approval of its members, and
although the past year has not been what may be termed a phenomenal
one, still they are satisfied the Institute maintains a steady position, and
that its influence and utility have a fixed and permanent foundation,
requiring only better support from many of the citizens, which it richly
deserves.

A matter of considerable importance in connection with the Institute
has lately arisen, and is still pending — viz., that of obtaining from
Mr. Carnegie a grant for the erection of a suitable building for a public
library and museum.

A good deal of correspondence bearing on the subject has passed
between His Worship the Mayor, the Institute, and the Borough Council,
owing to tlie necessity of certain conditions imposed by Mr. Carnegie
bsing complied with preparatory to that gentleman signifyiog his consent
to the grant, and a conference has lately been held between the members
of the Borough Council and the Trustees of the Institute in order to
accomplish the object in view, with the result that there is every proba-
bility of pending difficulties being overcome.

However, as'^uming the application will be ultimately successful,
such a building as that proposed will not only be a great acquisition to
the town, but a decided boon to the public.

The members' roll now contains sixty-seven names ; but it is to be
regretted that the membership of so worthy an institution has not in-
creased to a greater extent, seeing the many advantages to be obtained
from it by the payment of a small subscription.

During the past year several committee meetings have been held and
were well attended, unremitting attention having been given to all matters
of interest in reference'to the Institute, and during that period the library
has been supplemented by the addition of many new works, fiction and
otherwise.

The reading-room has been well supplied with the leading daily,
local, and other newspapers, and the Trustees desire to record their thanks
for the many donations of newspapers to the Institute from newspaper-
proprietirs.

The Museum, under the continued able management of the indefati-
gable curator, has had every care and attention bestowed upon it, and, as
a place of resort, is even more popular than ever.

The ordinary subsidies from the Government, Borough Council, and
Harbour Board iiave been of material assistance in augmenting the limited
income of the Institute.

544 Proceedings.

Tlie Hon. Treasurer has, in his periodical statements, shown that the
funds of the Institute are in a satisfactory condition, and the balance-
sheet to be presented by him at this meeting will be found to contain the
usual items necessary for properly working the Institute, the expenditure
having been kept within reasonable limits.

Election of Officers for 1904:.— President — Mr. J. K.
McNaughtou ; Vice-President — Dr. Macandrew ; Treasurer —
Mr. Mabin ; Committee — Messrs. Clarke, Dunne, Heinz,
Mahan, Michel, Morton, Park, Beare, Lewis, Solomon, Corner
and Dr. Teichelmann.

HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL
INSTITUTE.

Annual Report.

During the past year seven meetings of the Institute were held,
including the annual business meeting. At the ordinary meetings three
lectures were delivered and six papers read. The Council met five times
during the year. On the whole, the session may be considered a very
successful one.

The change that has taken place in the government of the New Zea-
land Institute is worthy of note. By " The New Zealand Institute Act,
1903," branch institutes are now entitled to direct representation on the
Board of Governors. Your Council, in December last, unanimously
elected Mr. Hill as this branch's representative on the Board, and
Mr. Hill attended the first meeting of the newly constituted Board in
Wellington last month.

Considerable additions have been made to the library during the
year, about forty volumes having been added. Unfortunately, the value
of the Institute's library is not known to the general public, and the
Council feel that if members would bring under the notice of their
friends and others the large number of up-to-date scientific works that
have been added in recent years there would be a considerable increase in
membership.

The only additions to the Museum have been two meres, one taiaha,
and one walking-stick, all deposited by Mr. McCulloch, of Ongaonga.

Three new members were elected during the year, and four old
members resigned.

The balance-sheet shows a fair credit balance, but the expenditure
for the year has been in excess of receipts.

List of Papers read during the Session 1903.
May 4. — The President, Dr. Leahy, dehvered the inaugural
address, his subject being " Meteorology in Eelation to Pubhc
Health."

1. — Lecture by Dr. Kennedy, "The Moon as seen

the Telescope,'
6

illustrated by numerous lantern-

Lectui"e by Mr.
illustrated by

G. Hogben, " A
a large number

Chat about
of lantern -

June
through
slides.

July
Earthquakes,"
slides.

August 3. — Papers: Taylor White, "On a Viviparous
Lizard; F. Hutchinson, jun., " Our Shingle and its Origin " ;
W. Dinwiddle, " The Study of Character."

September 7. — Lecture by Dr. Eeid Mackay, "The America
Cup, and International Yacht-racing," illustrated by 12(>
slides.

September 21. — Paper by H. Hill, " Taupo, Past and
Present — a Geological Eeview," illustrated by lantern-slides.

35— Trans.

NELSON INSTITUTE.

Election of Officers for 1904. — President — D. Grant ;
Vice-President — F. G. Gibbs ; Hon. Secretary and Treasurer
— A. J. Eedgrave ; Librarian — B. Eeeves.

APPENDIX

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

1870.

FiNSGH, Otto, Ph.D., of Bremen,
Leiden, Holland.

Hooker, Sir J. D., G.C.S.I., C.B.,
M.D., F.R.S., Royal Gardens,
Kew.

1873.

Cambridge, The Rev. 0. Pickard,
M.A., C.M.Z.S., Bloxworth Vicar-
age, Wareham, Dorsetshire.

GuNTHER, A., M.D., M.A., Ph.D.,
F.R.S., Litchfield Road, Kew
Gardens, Surrey.

1874.

McLachlan, Robert, F.L.S., 23,
Clarendon Road, Lewisham, S.E.

Newton, Alfred, F.R.S., Magdalen
College, Cambridge, England.

1875.

ScLATER, Philip Lutley, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Zoological Society,

London.

1876.
Berggren, Dr. S., Lund, Sweden.

1877.
Sharp, Dr. D., University Museum, Cambridge.

1883.

Lord Kelvin, P.C, G.C.V.O.,
D.C.L., F.R.S., 13, Eaton Place,
S.W.

Ellery, Robert L. J., F.R.S.
Observatory, Melbourne.

1885.

Sharp, Richard Bowdler, M.A.,
F.L.S., Zoological Museum, Cam-
bridge.

1890.

Wallace, A. R., F.L.S., Broad-
stone, Wimborne, England.

Nordstedt, Professor Otto, Ph.D.,
University of Lund, Sweden.

Liversidge, Professor A., M.A.,
F.R.S. , Sydney.

1891.

Goodale, Professor G. L., M.D., LL.D., Harvard University, Massachu-
setts, U.S.A.

1894.
Dyer, Sir W. T. Thiselton-,
K.C.M.G., C.I.E., LL.D., M.A.,
F.R.S., Royal Gardens, Kew.

Codrington, Rev. R. H., D.D.,
Wadhurst Rectory, Sussex, Eng-
land.

1895.
Mitten, William, F.L.S., care of Linnean Society, London.

550

Ap'pendix.

1896.

Lydekkeb, Richabd, B.A., F.R.S.,
British Museum, South Kensing-
ton.

Langley, S. p., Smithsonian Insti-
tution, Washington, D.C.

Agabdh, Dr. J. G., University of
Lund, Swfcden.

1900.

AvEBURY, Lord, P.O., P.R.S., High

Elms, Farnborough, Kent.
Massee, George, F.L.S., F.R.M.S-.

1901.

Eve, H. W., M.A., 37, Gordon ' Goebel, Dr. Carl, University

Square, London. of Munich.

Howes, G. B., LL.D., F.R.S., Royal
College of Science, South Ken-
sington.

1902.
Professor G. 0. Sars, University of Christiania, Norway.

1903.
Professor Otto J. Klotz, 437, Albert Street, Ottawa, Canada.

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
[* Life members.]

Adams, C. E.
Adams, C. W., Blenheim
Adams, Dr.
Allen, r.
Aston, B. C.
Atkinson, A. R.
Barker, G. H.
Barnes, R. J.
Barraud, W. F.
Barton, W.
Bates, Rev. D. C.
Beethani, (j.
Beetham, W. H.
Bell, E. D.
Bell, H. D.
Best, E., Hadtield
Blair, J. R.
Bothamley, A. T.
Brandon, A. de B.
Brown, E. G., A.I.C.E.
Browne, M. H.
Buick, T. L., Palmerston N.
Buller, Sir W. L., K.C.M.G.
D.Sc., F.R.S.

Caldwell, R.

Campbell, J. P. ■

Chalmers, W. M.

Chapman, Martin

Chappie, Dr.

Chudleigh, E. R.

Cockayne. A.

Cohen, W. P.

Connal, E.

Cowper, D. A. S.

Davy, Dr. T. G., Kumara

Dawson, B.

Denton, George

Easterfield. Prof., M.A., Ph.D.

Elliot, Major E. H. J.

Evans, W. P., M.A., Ph.D..

Ewen, C. A.

Farquhar, H.

Ferard, B. A., Napier

Ferguson, W., C.E.

Field, H. C, Wanganui

Fitzgerald, G.

Fletcher, Rev. H. J., Taupo

Eraser, Hon. F. H.

Boll of Members.

551

Freeman, H. J.

Freyberg, C.

Fyffe, Dr. K.

Gifford, A. C.

Gilruth, J. A.

Gordon, H., F.G.S.

Gore, A. H.

Grav, W., Palmerston N.

Hacifield, E. F.

Hauify, H. P.

Harcourt, J. B.

Harding, E. Coupland

Hastie, Miss J. A."'-

Hector, Sir James, K.C.M.G.,

M.D., F.R.S.
Herbert, W. H.
Hislop, Hon. T.
Hogben, G., M.A.
Holmes, R. L., F.R. Met. Soc,

Fiji-^=
Holmes, R. T., Masterton
Hosking, Dr. A., Masterton
Hudson, G. V., F.E.S.
Hustwick, T. H.
In wood, D., Canterbury
Jenkins, Digby A..
Johnson, G. Randall"^'-
Joynt. J. W., M.A.
Keys, B.
King, T.

Kingsley, R. I., Nelson
Kirk, Professor H. B., M.A.
Kirk, T. W., F.L.S.
Krull, F. k., Wangatiui
Lambert, T. S.
Lee, H. M.
Lewis, J.

Lewis, J. H., Otago
Liffiton, E. N., Wanganui
Litchfield, A. J., Blenheim
Lomax, H. A., Wanganui
Longton, Mrs. 0. V.
Mackenzie, F. Wallace, M.B.
Maclaurin, Prof. R. C, M.A.
Mason, G. M.
Matheson, D.

Maxwell, J. P., M.List.C.E.
McDougall, A.

McKay, Alexander, F.G.S.
McLeod, H. N.
Mc William, Rev. J., Otaki
Mestayer, R. L., M.List.C.E.
Moore, G.

Moorehouse, W. H. S.
Morison, C. B.
Murdoch, R., Wanganui
Nairn, C. J., Hawke's Bay
Newman, Alfred K., M.B.,

M.R.C.P.
Orr, Robert
Park, R. G.*
Pearce, A. E.
Petherick, E. W.
Pharazyn, C., Wairarapa
Phillips, Coleman
Pierard, C. H.
Pollen, Hugh
Powles, C. P.
Poynton, J. W.
Prendergast, Sir J.
Pringle, T.
Purdy, Dr. J. S.
Quail, A., Palmerston N.
Reid, W. S.
Richardson, C. T.
Richardson, Hon. G. F.
Robinson, W. F.
Rowse, Rev. W., Grey town
Roy, R. B., New Plymouth*
Rutherfurd, A. J.
Rutherfurd, W. G.
Rutland, Joshua, Marlborough
Samuel, E.
Simcox, W. H., Otaki
Sinclair, J.
Singer, I., F.C.S.
Skerman, Dr. Sydney, Marton
Smith, Charles, Wanganui
Smith, M. C.

Smith, S. Percy, F.R.G.S.
Stewart, J. T., Wanganui
Stowell, H. M.
Tait, P. W.
Talbot, Dr. A. G.
Tanner, Cyril
Travers, H.

552

Appendix.

Tregear, E.

Turnbull, A. H.

Turnbull, E. T.

Turnbull, Thomas

Waley, X. S., London

Wallace, James

Waterhouse, G. M., F.K.G.S.

Welch, W.; Palmerston N.
Wevergang, C. H., Taranaki
Wilton, G. W.
Woodhouse, Alfred James,

London
Young, J.

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.
[* Honorary and life members.]

Cheeseman, T

Auckland
Ching, T., Eemuera
Clark, H. C, Auckland
Clark, M. A.

Adams, J., B.A., Thames

Aickiu, G., Auckland

Armitage, F. C, EUerslie

Aubin, E. D., M.B., Thames

Bagnall, L. J., Auckland

Bakewell,E. H., M.D., Auck- Clarke, E.

land Cochrane, W. S.

Ball, W. T., Auckland Combes, F. H.

Bankart, A. S. „ Cooper, C.

Bartley, E., Devonport ; Cooper, T.

Bates, T. L., Newcastle, Cozens, G.

N.S.W.^^ , Craig, J. J.

Batger, J., Auckland { Crosher, W.

Beere, D. M., C.E., Auckland Cummings, H.
Best, Elsdon, Te Wliaiti Dannefaerd, S.

Brett, H., Auckland Darby, P.

Broun, Captam T., F.E.S., Dutliie, D. W.

Drury
Brown, Prof. F. D., Auckland
Brown, J., Epsom
Buchanan, J., Auckland
Burgess, E. W., Devonport
Burton, Colonel, Lake Taka-

puna'''
Busck, A., Auckland
Cameron, E. „
Campbell, H.
Campbell, Sir J. L., M.D.,

Auckland"
Carey, M. F., Auckland
Carnie, A. E.
Carr, E. A. „

Casey, M.
Cheal, P. E.

F., F.L.S.,

W.,

Edson, J., Devonport

Egerton, Professor C.
Auckland

Ewingtou, F. G., Auckland

Farmer, J., London

Fowlds, G., M.H.E., Auck-
land*

Fox, C. H., Norfolk Island

George, G. Auckland

Gilbert, T., Parnell

Girdler, Dr., Auckland

Goldie, D.

Goldie, W. II., M.D., Auck-
land

Gordon, H. A., Auckland

Gorrie, W. „

Gray, S.

Cheeseman, H. H., M.E.C.S., ' Haines, C.H., M.D.,F.E.G.S.,
Coromandel ' Auckland

Boll of Members.

553

Haines, H., F.R.C.S., Auck-
land
Hamer, J. H., C. E., Auckland
Hardie, J., Auckland
Harding, S., C.E., Auckland
Haszard, H. D. M., Thames
Henry, W., Auckland
Henton, J. S., Auckland
Herbert, T., Parnell
Howden, J., Auckland
Howell, J. H.,B.Sc., Auckland
Hunter, A. J., Parnell
Johnson, H. D., Te x\roha
Jones, H. W., Papakura
Kenderdine, J., Auckland
Kidd, A., M.H.R., Auckland
Kirker, J., Auckland
Kitt, T. W., London*
Kronfeld, G., Auckland
Larner, V. J. „

Lennox, J. M. „
Lennox, W. G., Sydney*
Leys, T. W., Auckland
Lundon, J. R. „
Lyell, W. S., Parnell
MacCulloch, C, Auckland
Mahoney, T.

Mair, Captain G., Thames
Mair, S. A. R., Rangitikei
Mair, Major W. G., Auckland
Makgill,R. H.,M.B. „
Mander, F., Whangarei
Martin, J., F.G.S., Auckland
Masefield, T. T.
McDowell, W. C, M.B., Auck-
land
McLachlan, J. M., Auckland
McLean, M. „

McMillan, C. C.
Miller, E. V., Chelsea
Moody, T. P., Hikurangi
Morrin, T. Auckland

Morton, H. B.
Mueller, G.
Mulgan, A. K.
Munro, G. C, Sandwich

Islands
Murdoch, D. L., Auckland

Myers, A. M., Auckland.
Nathan, L. D.
Neil, J. H.
Nicholson, O. R.
; Pabst, Dr.
j Parker, W. F.
! Partridge, H. E.
i Patterson, G. W. S., Auckland
Peacock, T., Auckland
Petrie, D., F.L.S., Auckland
Philcox, W., Devonport
Pinfold, Rev. J. T., F.G.S.,

Parnell
Pond, J. A., Auckland
Potter, A. T., Whangarei
Purchas, Rev. A. G., M.R.C.S.,

Auckland
Purdie. E. C, Auckland
Py croft, H. T.
Reid, J., x\uckland
Roberton, E., M.D., Auckland
Russell, T., C.M.G., London*
Seegner, C, Auckland
Segar, Professor H. W., Auck-
land
Shakespear, R. H., Little

Barrier
Shaw, H., /Auckland
Sinclair, A. „
Smith, H. G. S., iVuckland
Smith, S. P., F.R.G.S., Tara-

naki
Smith, T. H., Auckland
Speight, W. J.
Stewart, J., C.E., Auckland
Stopford, R.M.D.,
Streeter, S. C. „

Suter, H. „

Swale, H., M.B., Remuera
Talbot-Tubbs, Professor H. A.,

Auckland
Tewsley, H. C, Auckland
Thomas, Professor A. P. W.,

F.L.S., Auckland
Tibbs, J. W., Auckland
Tinne, H., London*
Tucker, W. F., Ellershe
Upton, J. H., Auckland

554

Appendix.

Urquhart, A. T., Karaka
Vaile, E. E., Auckland
Walsh, Archd. P., Waimate
Ward, P., Auckland
Waterworth, A., Auckland
Webster, J., Hokianga
Webster, Rev. W., Waiuku
Weetman, S., F.R.G.S., Lon-
don"
Will, W., Auckland

Williams, T. 0., L.R.C.P.,

Auckland
Williams, Right Rev. W. L.,

Bishop of Waiapu, Napier
Wilson, A. P., Auckland
Winter, N. A., Onehunga
Withy, E., Opotiki-
Wrigg, A. A., C.E., Auckland
Yates, E., Auckland
Young, J. L., Auckland

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OP CANTERBURY.
[* Life members.]

Acland, Dr. H.

Adams, T. W.

x\.nderson, Gilbert

Anderson, Mrs. A.

Bealey, S.

Beckett, T. W. Naylor

Bing, Miss, M.A.

Birks, L., B. Sc, Assoc. M.

Inst.C.E.
Bishop, R. C.
Bishop, F. C. C.
Blunt, Prof. T. G. R., M.A.
Booth, G. T.
Bowen, Hon. C. C., M.A.,

P.R.G.S.
Bridges, G. G.
Brown, R.
Burley, W. E.
Campbell, Rev. J., M.A.
Carlisle, W. J.
Carmichael, C.
Carrington, Rev. A. C, M.A.
Charlton. J. R., M.R.C.V.S.
Chilton, Professor C, D.Sc,

M.A., M.B.-
Cockayne, Dr. L.
Colbatch. W., B.Sc,

M.R.C.V.S.
Cook, Professor C, M.A.
Craddock, A. R., B.Sc.
Cuthbert, E., M. Inst.C.E.
Dendy, Dr. A.
Denniston, Mr. Justice

Dohrmann, Mrs.

Drummond, J.

Enys, J. D.

Evans, Prof. W. P.. 'SI. A.,

Ph.D.
Farr, Dr. Coleridge, Assoc. M.

Inst.C.E.
Finch. Dr.

Flower, A. E., M..\., B.Sc.
Frenglev, Dr.
Gray, Alex.; B.A.
Gray, George, F.C.S.
Grimes, Riglit Rev. Bishop^
Hall, Sir John, K.C.M.G.
Hailing, C.
Haselden, W. R.
Hilgendorf, F. W., M.A., B.Sc.
Hogg, E. G., M.A.
Hutton, Capt. F. W., F.R.S.,

President New Zealand In-

stitute''^
Kaye, A.
Kirkaldy, G. W.
Kitchingman, Miss E.
Laing, R. M., M.A., B.Sc.
Lee, H. M.

Lowrie, Prof. W., M.A.. B.Sc.
Marriner, G. R.
Mayne, J. B.
Moilett, T. A.*
Moyes, W. H., B..\.
Murray- Aynsley, H. P.
Nairne, R.

Roll of Members.

555.

Olliver, Miss A. M., M.A.,B-Sc.

Page, S.

Pairman, Dr. \V. T.

Palmer, Joseph

Prideaux, E. B. E., M.A., B.Sc.

Purnell, C. W.

Py croft, A. T.

Eeece, W.

Ehodes, E. Heaton, M.A.

Eoper, E. W.

Scott, Professor E. J., M.Inst.

Mec.E.
Scott, Henry
Scott, W. L., M.A.

Seager, J. H.
Sims, A.

Smith, W. W., F.E.S.
Sparkes, W.

Speight, E., M.A., B.Sc.
Stevenson, Miss E., M.A.
Symes, Dr. W. H.*
Thomas, Dr. W.-
Thomas, E. D.
Trolove, P.
Waehck, M. G.
Wall, Prof. A., M.A.
Waymouth, F.
Williams, C. J., M.Inst.C.E.

Allan, Dr. W.

Allen, J., M.H.E., M.A.

Armstrong, F.

Barnett, L. E., M.B., F.E.C.S

Barningham, J.

Batchelor, F. C, M.D.,

M.E.C.S.
Bathgate, Alexander'''
Bell, A. D.
Benham, Professor, D.Sc,

M.A., F.Z.S.
Beverley, Arthur
Bews, D. J.
Black, A. D.-
Black, Professor, D.Sc.
Blair, John
Brent, Daniel, M.A.'^'
Brown, Thomas
Brown, William
Brown, William, M.B., CM.
Buchanan, N. L.*
Burnside, J. A.
Campbell, Eobert
Garew, W. S.
Ghamberlain, G. W.
Ghapman, G. E.
Chapman, Mr. Justice
Chisholm, Eobert
Collier, E. E.

OTAGO INSTITUTE.
[* Life members.]

Collins, F.

J.

Colquhoun,D.,M.D., M.E.C.S.
Cooper, J. S. S.. M.A., B.Sc.
Don, Dr. J. E., D.Sc, M.A.
Duncan, Peter
Fairbairn, Thomas B.
Fels, Willi
Fenwick, Geoi'ge
Ferguson, H. Lin do, M.D.,

F.E.G.S.I.
Fitchett, Dr. Frank
Fitzgerald, W. S.
Fulton, E., M.B., G.M.
Fulton, S. W.-
Gibb, Eev. J., M.A.
Gibbous, Professor, M.A.
Gilkison, Eobert
Goyen, P.

Hamilton, Augustus
Hardy, H. F.
Hay, Dr. F.
Herbert, E.
Hocken, Dr. T. M., M.E.C.S.,

F.L.S.
Hosking, J. H.
Howes, G. W., F.E.S.
Jackson, Howard
Joachim, George*
Kempthorne, T. W.

556

Appendix.

King, Dr. F. Truby
Lamb, Thompson
Langmuir, John
LilHe, C. O., M.A.
Lusk, T. W.

Marchant.MissM.E. A., M.A.
Marshall, Dr. P., D.Sc, M.A.,

F.G.S.
Matthews, J. H.
McKerrow, James, F.R.A.S.
McKnight, Miss S., M.A. , B.Sc.
McNieol, D. A.
McPhee, J.
Meggett, A.
Melland, E.*
Micbie, Alexander
Milne, W. D., M.A., LL.D.
Morris, Colonel
Neville, Most Eev. Primate,

D.D.
Ogston, F., M.D.
Park, Professor J., F.G.S.
Pearce, T. D., M.A.
Petrie, Donald, M.A., F.L.S.-
Eattray, James
Eeid, Donald, M.H.E.
Eeid, George

Eichardson, Charles, M.A.
Eitchie, J. M.
Eoberts, John, C.M.G.

Eoberts, W. S., M.E.C.S.
Eussell, George Gray
Sale, Prof. G. S., M^A.
Salmon, H.
Sargood, Percy E.
Scott, Professor, M.D.
Shacklock, John B.
Shand, Prof., M. A., LL.D.
Shennan, Watson
Sidey, T. K., M.H.E., LL.B.
Sim, William A.
Sise, G. L.
Skey, Henry
Smith, Dr. W. M.
Smith, J. Crosby
Smith, W. A.
Stevens, Dr. William
Stevenson, Dr. E. S.
Stout, Sir Eobert, K. C.M.G.
Theomin, D.

Thomson, G. M., F. L.S.-
Thomson, J. C.
Waters, D. B., A.O.S.M.
Whetter, Eichard G., M.A.
White, David E., M.A.
Williams, Mr. Justice"
Wilson, Alexander, M.A.
Woodhouse, J.
Young, Dr. James

Addison, Miss A.
Andrews, A. A.
Beare, T. W.
Benjamin, Mrs. A.
Bignell, Captain
Burger, H.
Burgess, G. A.
Burmeister, H.
•Campbell, J. K.
Clarke, J. J.
Corner, A. F,
Dabinett, J.
Dale, Miss L.
Day, K. G.

WESTLAND INSTITUTE.

Douglas, Eev. W.
Dowell, B.
Duncan, W.
Dunne, J. P.
Eisfelder, F.
Emerson, W. E.
Evans, J. D.
Folley, W.
Fowler, Mrs. C.
Gill, T. H.
Heinz, Miss
Heinz, W.
Holmes, Hon. J.
Hyams, Mrs.

Boll of Members.

557

Inwood, Mrs.
Jamieson, Captain
Keller, A.
Lewis, J. B.
Little, A.
Low, B. H.
Lynch, J. D.
Mace, Mrs.
Mahan, A.
Malfroy, J.
Mandle, J.
Marshall, D.
Martin, Canon
Maunders, J.
Michel, H. L.
Moore, J. E.
Morton, A. J.
Macandrew, Dr.

Macfarlane, J. C.
MacNaughton, J. E.
Newman, Mrs.
Park, J.
Perry, G.
Ealfe, T. L.
Eenton, J.
Eenton, W. J.
Eoberts, G. J.
Smith, T.
Solomon, J.
Stevenson, A.
Teichelman, Dr.
Thornton, D. E.
Wake, H. G.
Wild, E.
Wilhams, W. E.

HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.
[* Life members.]

Anderson, E. N.
Andrews, E. W.
Antill, H. W.
Asher, Eev. J. A.
Bernau, Dr. H. F.
Burnett, H., Woodville
Chambers, J. B., Te Mata
Chambers, J., Mokopeka
Chambers, W. K., Waerenga-

ahika, Poverty Bay
Craig, J. W.
Dinwiddie, P.
Dinwiddle, W.
Donnelly, G. P., Crissoge
Duncan, Eussell
Goggan, Eev. Father
Guthrie- Smith, H., Tutira
Hall, T.

Hallett, T., Puketitiri
Hamilton, A., Wellington'-''
Harding, J. W., Mount Vernon
Hardy, J.
Henley, Dr.

Hill, H., B.A., F.G.S.

Hislop, J.

Holder, H. E., Woodville

Hutchinson, F., jun.,Eissington

Kennedy, Dr., Meeanee

Large, J. S.*

Large, Miss

Leahy, Dr.

Lowry, T. H., Okawa

Lufi', A., Wellington

McLean, E. D. D.

McLernon, S.

Moore, Dr. T. C.

Nelson, George

Oliver, F. H., Waipawa

Ormond, G., Mahia

Ormond, Hon. J. D.,-M.L.C.

O'Eyan, W., Waipiro

Parr, E. J., M.A., B.Sc.

Pointon, C. F.

Eon aid. Dr. A.

Smith, J. H., Olrig-

Spencer, Miss

■558

Appendix.

Tanner, T.

Tiffen, G. W., Wheturau, Gis-

borne
Townley, J., Gisborne
White, G.
White, T., Wimbledon

Williams, A. J.
Williams, F. W.

Williams, J. N.,

Hastings
Williams, Eev. H.

Frimlev,

NELSON PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.

Bartel, Mrs.
Catley, J. T.
■Charles, Mrs.
Clifford, W. W.
'Cooke, C. F. W.
Duncan, H.
•Gibbs, F. G.
Grant, D.
Hornsby, J. E.
Hudson, Dr.

Mules, Bishop
Nicholson, Mrs.
Noble, Mrs.
Eedgrave, A. J.
Eobinson, H. W.
Selby, G. E.
Stevens, Mrs.
Topliss, P.
Worley, W. F.

List of Free Copies. 559

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Messrs. Kegan, Paul, Trench, Triibner, and Co. (Agents),
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Geological Society, London.

Zoological Society, London.

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Editor of Nature, London.

560 Ajipendix.

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36— Trans.

562 Apjye7idix.

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anstalt, Vienna.

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Museum, Dresden.

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Stuttgart.

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a/M.

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dei Lavori Pubblici, Roma.

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Switzerland.
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Libraries and Societies in New Zealand.

General Assembly Library.

Executive Library.

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Library, Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute.

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Library, Otago Institute.

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Library, University College, Auckland.

Library, University College, Christchurch.

Library, University College, Dunedin.

Library, Victoria College, Wellington,

564 Ajjpendix.

Library, Auckland Museum.
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Editor.

Draughtsman.

Lithographer.

Publishing Braiwh.

Government Printer.
Photo-lithographer .

I ISJ^ D E X .

AUTHORS OF PAPERS PUBLISHED IN THIS VOLUME.

A. j H.

Aston, B. C. (and Easterfield, Pro- ! Hamilton, A., 11, 334, 342, 465,
fessor T. H.), 483 471, 474

Harding, R. C, 85

B.

Bathgate, A., 67

Bee, J., 486

Benham, Professor W. B., 172, 185,

192, 198
Best, Elsdon, 14

0.

Chilton, Dr. C, 201
Cockayne, Dr. L., 225
Cooper, J. S. S., 487, 490, 492

D.

Doveton, G., 481

Hutton, Captain F. W., 148, 149,
150, 153, 154, 155

M.

Marshall, Dr. P., 467
McLeod, H. N., 479
Mulgan, E. K., 453
Murdoch, R., 156

N.
Newman, Dr. A. K., 1

P.

Park, Professor J., 373, 405, 418,

431, 447
Philpott, A., 161
Poynton, J. W., 170

3.

E.

Segar, Professor H. W., 80, 493,
501, 504

Easterfield, Professor T. H. (and gmith, W. W., 203
Aston, B. C), 483 Speight, R., 477

F.
Fulton, Dr. R., 113

W.
Walsh, Archdeacon W., 4
Williams, Right Rev. W. L., 333

SUBJ

A.

Aconitic Acid, 527

Adjustmenl of Triangulation by

Least Squares, 527
Adultery (Purcniu), Maori, 51
Affinitative Nomenclature of the

Maori, 23
Ageaislribution of the Population,

504
Age of New Zealand Coalfields, 405
Age returns, Veracity of, 80
Albacros on Southern Islands, 298

ECTS.

I Anatomy of Paryphanta ftcmosa, 156
Animistic Myths of the Maori, 16
Antipodes Island, General Descrip-
tion of, 285
Arranging of Maori Marriages, 34
Ash burton County, Naturalised
Plants of, 203

Auckland Institute —

iNIembers, 552

Officers, 533

Report, 531
Auckland Islands, 231

566

Index.

B.
Bacteria and Fermentation, 534
Bench Marks, 538
Betrothed (Taumau), 42
Bibliography of Long-tailed Cuckoo,

145
Bibliography of Papers on New

Zealand Ferns, 340
Bibliography of Southern Islands,

327
Blow-fiy from Campbell Island, 155
Botanical Excursion to Southern

Islands of New Zealand, 225
Boulders in Triassie Conglomerate,

467
Bounty Islands, Description of, 296
Bovichiths roseo-pictus, Description

of, 148
Branched Cocoamit Palm, 529
Brown Trout, 29 lb. weight, ex-
hibited, 525

C.

Calculating-machine, 524

Campbell Island, General Descrip-
tion of, 267

Canterbury Geology, A Chapter on,
535

Canterbury Philosophical Insti-
tute— " '
Annual Report, 536
List of Members, 554
Officers, 537

Carvings on Karaka-trees, Chatham
Islands, 11

Caves in Greymouth District, 479,
523

Centrolophiis, Occurrence of, in New
Zealand, 149

Character, The Study of, 545

Chat about Earthquakes, 545

Chatham Islands, Carving on Ka-
raka-trees, 11

Chemistry of the New Zealand
Flora, Studies on, 483

Citric and Sulphuric acids. Inter-
action of, 486

Climate of Auckland Islands. 234

Climate of Campbell Islands, 268

Coalfields, Age and Relations of New
Zealand, 40.5

Cook Islands, Lecture on, 542

Courtship among the Maoris, 14,
34

Cuckoo, Habit of Long-tailed, 113

Curlew-Sandpiper in New Zealand,
155

Cvanide-solutions, Regeneration of,
481

D.

Decimal and Metrical Fallacies, 85
Degrees of Consanguinity amongst

the Maori, 25
Dinornithidce, Third Supplement to

Bibliography of, 471
Drawing for Competitions, 501
Dyke at Nugget Point, Otago, 477

E.

Effect of Animals on the Vegetation

of Southern Islands, 297
Election of Governors of the New
Zealand Institute —

Christchurch, 536

Hawke's Bay, 545

Otago, 541

Wellington, 528
Electric Currents, Induction of,

535
Exogamy and Endogamy, 19
Extinct Birds at Ngapara, 474

F.

Ferns, Abnormal, 335

Filiation, Consanguineous, 23

Fish in Hot Springs, 526

Flies, Two New, 153

Flora of Coastal Rocks, Auckland

Islands, 239
Forests of the Auckland Islands, 243
Fossil Penguin, 524
Fossils of the Waitemata and Papa-

kura Series, 530
Fossils from Wharekuri, 465

g;

Geology of Auckland Islands, 232
Geology of Campbell Islands, 269
Gladstone, Lecture on, 530

H.

Hawke's Bay Philosophical Insti-
tute—

Annual Report, 545

Li«t of Memiiers, 557
Heat Effect, 492
High-speed Steel, 524
History of the Flora of Southern

Islands, 308
Horticulture in New Zealand, 534

tnde;.

ex

5H7

I.

Incest, 30

Insect found in Taupo Hot Springs,

170
Interferometer, On the, 530
International Yacht racing and the

America Cup, 545
Ixodes parasitic on Grey Duck, 201

Jurassic Age of the Maitai Series,
431

K.

Kauri-gum, Physical Properties of,
490

Kokoivai, Maori Method of prepar-
ing, 4

L.

Leech, New Species of, 185

Lepidoptera, New, from Lake Wa-
katipu, 528

Liquefaction of Gases, 535

List of Papers on Botanical Sub-
jects in Transactions, New Zea-
land Institute, 342

List of Plants of Southern Islands,
318

Lowland Tussock, Auckland
Islands, 255

M.

Maitai Series, Jurassic Age of,

481
Maori Calabashes, Notes on, 1
Maori Marriage Customs, 14
Maori Marriage Feast (UmuKotore),

44
Maori Medical Lore, 530
Materials for Bibliography of Di-

nornitliidce, 471
Mesozoic Rocks, Subdivision of New

Zealand, 373
Meteorological Report, 516
Lleteorology in Relation to Public

Health, 545
Molecular Association and the Ar-
rangement of Atoms in Space,

527
Moon as seen through a Telescope,

545
Moriori Carvings on Karaka-trees,

11
Mount Mary, Discovery of Permo-

carboniferous Rocks at, 447
Mount Potts District, Plant -beds

at, 387
Museum Report, 516

N. " ■ -

Naturalised Plants, Ashburton

County, 203
Nelson Institute, 546

Officers, 558
New Zealand Institute —

Accounts, 517

Honorary jMembers of, 549

Incorporated Societies, ix.

Officers of, ix.

Ordinary Members of, 551

Presentation List of, 559

Report, 516

Regulations of, xii.
Ngapara, Extinct Birds at, 474
Niagara, The Falls of : A Geological

Story, 534
Northern Wairoa, 453
Notes on Ancient Maori Customs,

14

0.

OligochcBta of New Zealand Lakes,-

192
Otago Institute —

Annual Report, 541

Members, 555

Officers, 542
Our Shingle (H.B.) and its Origin,

545

P.

Pakuwha, 45

Paryphanta fuviosa, Anatomy of,

156
Permo- carboniferous Rocks, Dis-
covery of, 447
Plwrinium, Abnormal Growth of,

333
Phorocera, Revision of the New

Zealand, 150
Physiography of Auckland Islands,

232
Pigs on the Southern Islands, 301
Plant- formations on Antipodes

Islands, 287
Plant- formations on Auckland

Islands, 236
Plant -formations on Campbell

Islands, 270
Plants of Southern Islands, List of,

318
Pleurophyllum Meadows, Auckland

Islands, 255
Plusia festuccE in Southland, 161
Polygamy and Monogamy, 29
Presentation to Mr. R. B. Gore, 525
Provencal Troubadours, Lecture on,

539

568

Index.

Puhi Customs, 33

Pukepoto, Blue Coiourmg-matter. 5

E.

Radiation, 530

Radium and Radio-activity, 540
Regalecus parkeri, New Species, 198
Remedy for the Sparrow Plague, 67
Resin-acids, Constitution of, 528
Retirement of Sir James Hector,

525, 534
Revision of the New Zealand Pho-

rocera, 150
Rimu-resin, 483, 526

S.
Sand-dunes, Auckland Islands, 236
Sheep-farms on Campbell Island,

305
Sipunculids of New Zealand, 172
Sirsx found in Moulding, 539
Snares, The, 301

Southern Islands of New Zealand :
A Botanical Excursion in Mid-
winter, 225
Southern Lepidoptera, Notes on, 161
South Pacific Cod, 524
Sparrow Plague, The, 67
Spectroscope, and its Use, 529
Starch in Timber, 528
Subalpine Meadows, Auckland

Islands, 265
Subalpine Scrub, Auckland Islands,
267

T.
Tareha, a Variety of Kokowai, 6
Tatimau, Maori Betrothal, 42
Taupo, Past and Present, 545
Taupo, a Variety of Kokowai, 7

Theory. A : A Hundred Years in

the History of, 523
Time-ball Observatory Report, 516,

517
Trade, Trend of English, 493
Travers, W. T. L., Motion re Death

of, 523
Trias of Nelson, 386
Trout, 251b. weight, exhibited, 525
Tuki, or Mouthpiece of Calabash, 3
Two New Flies, 153

U.
JJrodynamis taitensis. Habits of, 113

V.

Vanessa atalanta in Southland, 161
Various Customs connected with

Maori Marriage, 63
Veracity of Age-returns, Census of

1891, 'New Zealand, 80
Viviparous Lizard, A, 545

W.

Waikouaiti, Geology of North Head,

418
Wairoa, The Northern, 453
Wave Theory of Light, 487
Weka from Chatham Islands, 154
Wellington Philosophical Society —

Annual Report of, 528

Members of, 550
Westland Institute —

Annual Report, 541

Members, 556

Officers, 542
Wharekuri, Fossils from, 465
Widows and the Levirate, 62

^

JOHM MACKAY, GOVBENMBNT PRINTER, WBLLINGtOK.— 1904.

Trans N.Z. Inst., Vor.. XXXVI

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Pl. III.

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Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXVI. Pl. Pl.VI.

PARYPHANTA FUMOSA.— Murdoch.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXVI.

Pl. VII.

N.Z. SIPUNCULIDS.— Benham.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXVI.

Pl. VITf

HIRUDO ANTIPODUM, n. sp.— Benham.

I

:;i

Trans. N.Z. Inst.. Vol. XXXVI

Pl. X,

IXODES ANATIS.— Chilton.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXVI.

PiPl. XI

LEAVES OF PANAX SIMPLEX.— Cockayne.

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Trans >'.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXVI.

Vl. XXII.

EFFECT OF MOIST AIR AXD LIGHT OX VEROXICA
LYCOPODIOIDES.— Cockayne.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXVI.

Pl. XXIII,

.V. £ Cape 7 =r-

15 A&les

La.t •f7'-fj 5,

0--

3B©uJFirT r^®

To illustrate paper by L. Cockayne.

Trans. N Z. Inst., Vol. XXXVI.

Pl. XXIV.

i^ Counreialles

CAMPBELL I^^

■ Scale —

^^

Miles

To illustrate paper by L. Cockayne.

i

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXVI.

Pl. XX Y

ABNORMAL GROWTH OF PHORMIUM— Williams.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXVI.

Pi, XXVI

f

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fit!

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FERN VARIATIONS— Hamilton.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXVI.

Pl. XXVII.

FERN VARIATIONS.— Hamilton.

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Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXVI.

Pl. XXXI.

NW

Thrust-Plane.

South Side of Tank Gully, Mount Potts.

a. Tbin-bedded sbales and sandstones.

b. Grey sandstones.

//o

Section across Tank Gully.

a. Sandstones.

b. Black carbonaceous shales with fossil fern-leaves.

^sr

SE

SUBDIVISION OF LOWER MESOZOIC. Park.

I

1

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXVI.

Pl. XXXII.

530

Section, Waikouatti North Head.

630

■.■■." .°.°o •»•» »\* '^ iT

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Summit of Mount Cronin, Waikouaiti North Head.

1. Talus deposit. 2. Basalt flow. 3. Gravel-bed. ba. Grey silts.
iih. Coarse grits. 3c. Silts and Sauds. 3d. Coarse gravels. 3f. Sands.
4. Grey sandstone. 5. Calcareous sandstone. 6. Blue clays.

GEOLOGY OF WAIKOUAITI NORTH HEAD.— Park.

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Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXVI.

Pl. XXXVI

PLAN OF PART OF WAITAKI VALLEY.

To illustrate paper by James Park.

Trans. N Z. Inst., Vol. XXXVI.

Pl. XXXVIII.

SECTION OF ATURIA ZICZAC var. AUSTRALIS.-

Hamilton.

Plate XL.

a. Porphyry. Large crystal at bottom plagioclase. Rounded grains
of magneiite. Smaller clear crystals and grains of orthoclase. Glassy
base, showing damascened structure and flow structure. (C 28G.)

h. Porphyrite. Large crystal at top of figure plagioclase. Irregular
grains of magnetite. Groundmass consists of glassy matter containing
minute ferritic microlites. (C 283.)

5

m

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Trans. N.Z. Inst, Vol. XXXVI.

Pl. XLII.

o

in

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AGE-DISTRIBUTION IN NEW ZEALAND.^ Segar.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., \^ol. XXXVI.

Pl. XLIII.

12

Fig. 2.

\

/

V

lV'rc('iitii.i,'(s of Male Population, of

I I

s N

/

\

I'ldviiifcs of New Zealand in
(^iiinijuennial Agu Periods.

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AGE-DISTRIBUTION IN NEW ZEALAND.—Segar.

I

p

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XXXVI.

Pl. XLIV.

AGE-DISTRIBUTION IN NEW ZEALAND.— Segar.

i

f-^V^ TEANSACTIONS

AND

PEOGEEDINGS

OP THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

1903

VOL. XXXVI.

(Nineteenth of New Series)

EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHOBITY OF THE BOARD OF
GOVBRNOBS OF THE INSTITUTE

BY

A. HAMILTON

Issued August, 1904

WELLINGTON

JOHN MAGKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

KEQAN, PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNEE, & CO., PATERNOSTER HOUSE,
CHARING CROSS ROAD, LONDON

i

MBl. WHOI I.IBKARY

UH

TflJ I

I

i ^i

;*i til' .1 lt>nr'< l?*Hitj>fk p.' :i: ■-■