m III Ml iil luw' H in TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1907 VOL. XL (TWENTY-SECOND OF NEW SERIES) EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE Issued June, 1908 WELLINGTON, N.Z. JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE KEGAN, PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER, AND CO., PATERNOSTER HOUSE, CHARING CROSS ROAD, LONDON. CONTENTS TRANSACTIONS. I. — Miscellaneous. pages Art. XII. Early Visits of the French to New Zealand. By Dr. Hocken, F.L.S. . . . . 137-153 XIII. The Passing of the Maori : An Inquiry into the Principal Causes of the Decay of the Race. By Archdeacon Walsh . . . . 154-175 XV. Maori Forest Lore : Being some Account of Native Forest Lore and Woodcraft, as also of many Myths, Rites, Customs, and Super- stitions connected with the Flora and Fauna of the Tuhoe or Ure-wera District : Part I. By Elsdon Best . . . . . . 185-254 XXXI. On Isogonal Transformations : Part II. By Evelyn G. Hogg, M.A. . . . . . . 333-339 Right-sidedness. By Joshua Rutland '. . 339-340 D'Urville's Exploration of in 1827. Translated by S. XXXII XL XLII. XLVI. XLIX. Captain Dumont Tasman Bay Percy Smith, F.R.G.S... .. ..416-447 Metre. By Johannes C. Andersen . . . . 466-485 The Struggle for Foreign Trade. By H. W. Segar, M.A. . . . . . . . . 520-533 A Preliminary Note of a Metaphysical Research. By Maurice W. Richmond, "B.Sc, LL.B. .. 538-540 II. — Zoology. VII. Recent Observations on New Zealand Macro- lepidoptera, including Descriptions of New Species. By G. V. Hudson, F.E.S. . . 104-107 VIII. Description of a New Ophiuroid. By H. Far- quhar . . . . . . . . 108 IX. A Heteropterous Hemipteron of New Zealand. By G. W. Kirkaldy . . . . . . 109 XVI. Additions to the New Zealand Molluscan Fauna. By W. H. Webster, B.A. . . 254-259 XVII. The Bipolar Theory. By H. Farquhar . . 259-261 XVIII. Notes on the Destruction of Kumaras from the Friendly Islands (Tonga), caused by an Imported Weevil, with Descriptions of the Larva, Pupa, and Perfect- Insect, &c. By Major T. Broun, F.R.E.S. . . . . 262-265 XIX. Notice of the Occurrence of the Lesser Frigate- bird (Fregata ariel) in the North Auckland District. By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. . . 265-266 n < } 9 3 9 - --4 IV Contents. PAGES Vkt. XX. Notes on the Occurrence of certain Marine /'< ptilia in New Zealand Waters. Bv T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. . . . . . . 267-269 XXII. Preliminary Note on some Stages in the De- velopment of a Polychcete. By H. B. Kirk. M.A... .. .. .. .. 286-288 XXXIII. |A New Placostylus from New Zealand. By Henry Suter . . . . . . . . 340-343 XXXIV. Result of Dredging for Mollusca near Cuvier Island, with Descriptions of New Species. By Henry Suter . . . . . . 344-359 XXXV. Descriptions of New Species of New Zealand Mollusca. By Henry Suter . . . . 360-373 XXXVI. Notes on some New Zealand Marine Mollusca. By Tom Iredale . . . . . . 373-387 XXXVII. A Preliminary List of the Marine Mollusca of Banks Peninsula. By Tom Iredale . . 387-403 XXXVIII. List of Marine Molluscs collected in Otago. By Tom Iredale . . . . . . . . 404-410 XXXIX. List of Marine Mollusca from Lyall Bay, near Wellington. By Tom Iredale . . . . 410-415 XLIII. The Disappearance of the New Zealand Birds. By Dr. R. Fulton .. .. ..485 500 XLIV. The Little Barrier Bird-sanctuary. By James Drummond, F.L.S., F.Z.S. . . ' . . 500-506 XLVH. Further Notes on Lepidoptera. By George Howes, F.E.S. . . . . . • 533-534 XLVIII. Additional Notes on the Kea. By George R. Marriner, F.R.M.S. . . ' . . . . 534-537 III. — Botany. 1. Young Stages of Dicksonia and Oyathea. By G. B. Stephenson, M.Sc. . . . . . . 1-16 IIL The Development of some New Zealand Conifer Leaves with regard to Transfusion Tissue and to Adaptation to Environment. By Miss E. M. Griffin, M.A. . . . . 43-72 \ X I . < 'ontributions to a Fuller Knowledge of the Flora of New Zealand : No. 2. By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S. .. ..270-285 XXIII. I )escription of a New Species of Veronica ( Linn. ). By D. IVtrie. M.A.. F.L.S. .. .. 288-289 XXIV. Account of a Visit to Mount Hector, a High Peak of the Tararuas, with List of Flower- ing-plants. By D. Petrie, M.A., F.L.S. ..289-304 XXV. Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant-habitats (III). By L. Cockayne, Ph.D. .. ..304-315 XXVI. Notes on the Spread of Phytophthora infestans, with Special Reference to Hybernating Mycelium. By A. H. Cockayne ..316-320 XLI. Notes on Botanical Nomenclature; with Re- marks on the Rules adopted by the Inter- national Botanical Congress of Vienna. By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S... .. 447-465 XLV. The Grasses of Tutira. By H. Guthrie-Smith. . 506-519 Contents. IV. — Geology and Chemistry. Art. II. Some Aspects of the Terrace- development in the Valleys of the Canterbury Rivers. By R. Speight, M.A., B.Sc. IV. Some Observations on the Schists of Central Otago. By A. M. Finlayson, M.Sc. V. Geologyof Centre and North of North Island. By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc. VI. Fossils' from Kakanui. By J. Allan Thomson, B.A. (Oxon.), B.Sc. \. The Scheelite of Otago. Bv A. M. Finlayson, M.Sc. X I. Some Alkaline and Nepheline Rocks from West- land. By J. P. Smith.. XIV. On a Soda Amphibole Trachyte from Cass's Peak, Banks Peninsula. By R. Speight, M.A., B.Sc. XXVII. Note on the Gabbro of the Dun Mountain. By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc. XXVIII. The Analyses of certain New Zealand Meat Products. By A. M. Wright, F.C.S. (Berlin), M.Am.C.S. XXIX. The Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen by Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria in certain Solu- tions. By A. M. Wright, F.C.S. (Berlin), M.Am.C.S. XXX. The Transformation of Barley into Malt. By Percy B. Phipson, F.C.S. PAGES 16-43 72-79 79-98 98-103 110-122 122-137 176-184 320-322 322-324 324-326 326-332 LIST OF PLATES AT THE END OF THE VOLUME. To illustrate Plate. Article I-V. Young Stages of Tree-ferns.— Stephenson . . I VI-VIIa. Terrace-development. — Speight . . . . II VIII-X. Leaves of Conifers.— Griffin . . . . Ill XI-XII. Central Otago Schists. — Finlayson . . . . IV XIII. Geological Map. — Marshall . . . . V XIV. Kakanui Fossils. — Thomson . . . . VI XV. Macro-lepidoptera. — Hudson . . . . VII XVI. Scheelite. — Finlayson . . . . . . X XVII-XIX. Rocks from Westland.— Smith . . . . XI XX-XXI. M ollusca.— Webster .. .. .. XVI XXII. Imported Weevil.— Broun . . . . . . XVIII XXIII. Development of Polychcete. — Kirk . . . . XXII XXIV. Right-sidedness.— Rutland .. .. XXXII XXV. New Placostylus.—STJTER .. .. . . XXXIII XXVI, XXVII, XXX. New Mollusca. — Sutep. .. .. XXXIV XXVIII-XXX. New Mollusca.— Sjjter .. .. XXXV XXXI. New Mollusca.— Iredale . . . . . . XXXVI XXXII-XXXIV» Keas.— Marriner .. .. ,. XLVIII NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND INTITULED "THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867"; RECONSTITUTED BY AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEA- LAND UNDER "THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1903." Board of Governors. EX OFFICIO. His Excellency the Governor. The Hon. the Colonial Secretary. NOMINATED BY THE GOVERNMENT UNDER CLAUSE 4. A. Hamilton ; E. Tregear, F.R.G.S. ; John Young ; J. W. Joynt, M.A. ELECTED BY AFFILIATED SOCIETIES UNDER CLAUSE 4. Wellington : Martin Chapman, K.C. ; Professor T. H. Easter- field, M.A., Ph.D. Auckland: D. Petrie, M.A., F.L.S. ; J. Stewart, C.E. Napier: H. Hill, F.G.S. Christchurch : Professor Charles Chilton, D.Sc., F.L.S. ; C. C. Farr, D.Sc. Westland : T. H. Gill, M.A. Nelson : L. Cockayne, LL.D. Otago: Professor W. B. Benham, D.Sc, F.R.S. ; G. M. Thomson, F.L.S., F.C.S. Manawatu : K. Wilson, M.A. OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1908. President: G. M. Thomson, F.L.S., F.C.S. Hon. Treasurer: Martin Chapman, K.C. Editor of Transactions : G. M. Thomson, F.L.S., F.C.S. Secretary : Thomas King. AFFILIATED SOCIETIES. DATE OF AFFILIATION. Wellington Philosophical Society ... 10th June, 1868. Auckland Institute ... ... 10th June, 1868. Philosophical Institute of Canterbury 22nd October, 1868. Otago Institute ... ... ... 18th October, 1869. Westland Institute ... ... 21st December, 1874. Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute 31st March, 1875. Southland Institute ... ... 21st July, 1880. Nelson Institute... ... ... 20th December, 1883. Manawatu Philosophical Society ... 16th January, 1904. Vlll Neiv Zealand Institute. HONORARY MEMBERS (ELECTED SINCE THE INCEPTION OF THE INSTITUTE). 1870. Agassiz, Professor Ltfuis. Drury, Captain Byron, R.N. Finsoh, Dr. Otto. Flower, Professor W.H., F.R.S. Hochstetter. Dr. Ferdinand von Hooker, Joseph I).. M.D.. F.R.S. , C.B. Mueller, Ferdinand von, M.D.. F.R.S., C.M.G. Owen, Professor Richard, F.R.S. Richards, Rear-Admiral G. H L871. Darwin, Charles. M.A., F.R.S. Gray, J. E., Ph.D., F.R.S. Lindsay, W. Lauder, M.D., F.R.S. E. Grey, Sir George, K.C.B. Huxley, Thomas H., LL.D.. F.R.S 187^. J Stokes, Vice- Admiral J. L. 1873. Bowen, Sir George Ferguson, G.C.M.G. Cambridge, the Rev. O. Pickarn, M.A., C.M.Z.S. Giinther, A., M.D., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S. Lvell, Sir Charles, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S. McLachlan, Robert, F.L.S. Newton, Alfred, F.R.S. 1874. Thomson, Professor Wyville, F.R.S. 1875. Sclater, Philip L., M.A., Ph.D. F.R.S. Filhol, Dr. H. Rolleston, Professor G., M.D., F.R.S. 1876. Beiggren, Dr. S. Etheridge, Professor R., F.R.S. Clarke, Rev. W. B., M.A., F.R.S. 1877. Baird, Professor Spencer F. I Weld, Frederick A., C.M.G. Sharp, D., M.D. L878. Garrod. Professor A. H., F.R.S. Miiller. Professor Max, F.R.S. Tenison- Woods, Rev. .1. E., E.L.S. I S80. The Most Noble the Marquis of Normanby, G.C.M.G, Honorary Members. IX 1883. Carpenter, Dr. W. B., C.B., P.R.S. Ellery, Robert L. J., P.R.S. Thomson, Sir William, P.R.S. Gray, Professor Asa. Sharp, Richard Bowdler, M.A., P.L.S. 1885. Wallace, R. A., P.L.S. 1888. Beneden, Professor J. P. van. Ettingshausen, Baron von. McCoy, Professor F., I). So., C.M.G., F.R.S. 1890. Liversidge, Professor A., M.A., P.R.S. Nordstedt, Professor Otto. Ph.D. Riley, Professor C. V. 1891. Davis, J. W., P.G.S., P.L.S. Goodale, Professor G. L., M.D., LL.D. 1894. Codrington, Rev. R. H., D.D. Dyer. Professor W. Thiselton, M.A. C.M.G., P.R.S. 1895. Mitten. William, F.R.S. Langley, S. P. Agardh, Dr. J. G. Lubbock. Sir John, Bart., P.C., F.R.S. 1901 1896. I Lydekker, Richard. B.A., F.R.S. 1900. Massee, George, F.L.S., P.R.M.S. Eve, H. W., M.A. Goebel, Dr. Carl. Howes, G. B., LL.D., F.R.S. 1902. Sars, Professor G. 0. 1903. Klotz, Professor Otto J. 1904. David, Professor T. Edgeworth, | Rutherford, Professor E., D.Sc, F.R.S. F.R.S. Beddard, F. E., F.R.S. Milne, J., F.R.S. New Zealand Institute. 1906. | Brady, G. S., F.R.S. Dendy, Dr., F.R.S. Diels, L., Ph.D. 1907. Meyrick, E., B.A., F.R.S. Stebbing, Rev. T. R. R., F.R.S. PEESIDENTS. 1903-4. HuttoD, Captain Frederick WollastoD, F.R.S- 1905-6. Hector, Sir James, M.D., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. 1907-8. Thomson, George Malcolm, F.L.S., F.C.S. LI BR-AR.Y NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT. The following Act reconstituting the Institute was passed by Parliament : — 1903, No. 48. An Act to reconstitute the New Zealand Institute. [18th November, 1903. Whekeas it is desirable to reconstitute the New Zealand Institute with a view to connecting it more closely with the affiliated institutions : Be it therefore enacted by the General Assembly of New Zealand in Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : — 1. The Short Title of this Act is "The New Zealand Institute Act, 1903." 2. "The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867," is hereby repealed. 3. (1.) The body hitherto known as the New Zealand Institute (hereinafter referred to as "the Institute") shall consist of the Auckland Institute, the Wellington Philoso- phical Society, the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, the Otago Institute, the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, the Nelson Institute, the Westland Institute, the Southland Insti- tute, and such others as may hereafter be incorporated in accordance with regulations to be made by the Board of Governors as hereinafter mentioned. (2.) Members of the above-named incorporated societies shall be ipso facto members of the Institute. 4. The control and management of the Institute shall be in the hands of a Board of Governors, constituted as follows : — The Governor ; The Colonial Secretary ; Four members to be appointed by the Governor in Council during the month of December, one thou- sand nine hundred and three, and two members to be similarly appointed during the month of Decem- ber in every succeeding year ; Two members to be appointed by each of the incor- porated societies at Auckland, Wellington, Christ- church, and Dunedin during the month of December in each alternate year ; xii Neiv Zealand Institute. One member to be appointed by each of the other incorporated societies during the month of Decem- ber in each alternate year. 5. (1.) Of the members appointed by the Governor in Council two shall retire annually on the appointment of their successors ; the first two members to retire shall be decided by lot, and thereafter the two members longest in office with- out reappointment shall retire. (2.) Subject to the provisions of the last preceding subsec- tion, the appointed members of the Board shall hold office until the appointment of their successors. 6. The Board of Governors as above constituted shall be a body corporate, by the name of the " New Zealand Institute," and by that name they shall have perpetual succession and a common seal, and may sue and be sued, and shall have power and authority to take, purchase, and hold lands for the pur- poses hereinafter mentioned. 7. (1.) The Board of Governors shall have power to appoint a fit person, to be known as the " President," to superintend and carry out all necessary work in connection with the affairs of the Institute, and to provide him with such further assist- ance as may be required. (2.) It shall also appoint the President or some other fit person to be editor of the Transactions of the Institute, and may appoint a committee to assist him in the work of editing the same. (3.) It shall have power to make regulations under which societies may become incorporated to the Institute, and to declare that any incorporated society shall cease to be in- corporated if such regulations are not complied with, and such regulations on being published in the Gazette shall have the force of law. (4.) The Board may receive any grants, bequests, or gifts of books or specimens of any kind whatsoever for the use of the Institute, and dispose of them as it thinks fit. (5.) The Board shall have control of the property herein- after vested in it, and of any additions hereafter made thereto, and shall make regulations for the management of the same, for the encouragement of research by the members of the Institute, and in all matters, specified or unspecified, shall have power to act for and on behalf of the Institute. 8. Any casual vacancy on the Board of Governors, how- soever caused, shall be filled within three months by the society or authority that appointed the member whose place has become vacant, and if not filled within that time the vacancy shall be filled by the Board of Governors. 9. (1.) The first annual meeting of the Board of Governors hereinbefore constituted shall be held at Wellington on some New Zealand Institute Act. xiii day in the month of January, one thousand nine hundred and four, to be fixed by the Governor, and annual meetings of the Board shall be regularly held thereafter during the month of January in each year, the date and place of such annual meeting to be fixed at the previous annual meeting. (2.) The Board of Governors may meet during the year at such other times and places as it deems necessary. (3.) At each annual meeting the President shall present to the meeting a report of the work of the Institute for the year preceding, and a balance-sheet, duly audited, of all sums received and paid on behalf of the Institute. 10. The Board of Governors may from time to time, as it sees fit, make arrangements for the holding of general meet- ings of members of the Institute, at times and places to be arranged, for the reading of scientific papers, the delivery of lectures, and for the general promotion of science in the colony by any means that may appear desirable. 11. The Colonial Treasurer shall, without further appro- priation than this Act, pay to the Board of Governors the annual sum of five hundred pounds, to be applied in or towards payment of the general current expenses of the Institute. 12. (1.) On the appointment of the first Board of Go- vernors under this Act the Board of Governors constituted under the Act hereby repealed shall cease to exist, and the property then vested in, or belonging to, or under the control of that Board shall be vested in His Majesty for the use and benefit of the public. (2.) On the recommendation of the President of the In- stitute the Governor may at any time hereinafter, by Order in Council, declare that any part of such property specified in the Order shall be vested in the Board constituted under this Act. 13. All regulations, together with a copy of the Transac- tions of the Institute, shall be laid upon the table of both Houses of Parliament within twenty days after the meeting thereof. REGULATIONS. The following are the new regulations of the New Zealand Institute under the Act of 1903 : — The word "Institute" used in the following regulations means the New Zealand Institute as constituted by " The New Zealand Institute Act, 1903." xiv New Zealand Institute. Incorporation of Societies. 1. No society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the provisions of " The New Zealand Institute Act, 1903," unless such society shall consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate a sum of not less than £25 sterling annually for the promotion of art, science, or such other branch of knowledge for which it is associated, to be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the Board of Governors of the Institute by the President for the time being of the society. 2. Any society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorporated with the Institute in case the number of the members of the said society shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of money annually subscribed by such members shall at any time be less than £25. 3. The by-laws of every society to be incorporated as afore- said shall provide for the expenditure of not less than one- third of the annual revenue in or towards the formation or support of some local public museum or library, or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and maintenance of the New Zealand Institute. 4. Any society incorporated as aforesaid which shall in any one year fail to expend the proportion of revenue specified in Regulation No. 3 aforesaid in manner provided shall from henceforth cease to be incorporated with the Institute. 5. All papers read before any society for the time being incorporated with the Institute shall be deemed to be com- munications to the Institute, and then may be published as Proceedings or Transactions of the Institute, subject to the following regulations of the Board of the Institute regarding publications : — Regulations regarding Publications. (a.) The publications of the Institute shall consist of — (1.) A current abstract of the proceedings of the societies for the time being incorporated with the Institute, to be intituled "Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute " ; (2.) And of transactions comprising papers read before the incorporated societies (subject, however, to selection as hereinafter mentioned), and of such other matter as the Board of Governors shall from time to time determine to publish, to be intituled " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute." (b.) The Board of Governors shall determine what papers are to be published. Regulations. xv (c.) Papers not recommended for publication may be re- turned to their authors if so desired. (d.) All papers- sent in for publication must be legibly written, typewritten, or printed. (e.) A proportional contribution may be required from each society towards the cost of publishing Pro- ceedings and Transactions of the Institute. (/".) Each incorporated society will be entitled to receive a proportional number of copies of the Transac- tions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Insti- tute, to be from time to time fixed by the Board of Governors. General Regulations. 6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from incorporated societies, and placed in charge of the In- stitute, shall be vested in the Institute, and be used and applied at the discretion of the Board of Governors for public advantage, in like manner with any other of the property of the Institute. 7. Subject to "The New Zealand Institute Act, 1903," and to the foregoing rules, all societies incorporated with the Institute shall be entitled to retain or alter their own form of constitution and the by-laws for their own manage- ment, and shall conduct their own affairs. 8. Upon application signed by the President and counter- signed by the Secretary of any society, accompanied by the certificate required under Regulation No. 1, a certificate of incorporation will be granted under- the seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as long as the foregoing regulations of the Institute are complied with by the society. 9. In voting on any subject the President is to have a deliberate as well as a casting vote. Management of the Property of the Institute. 10. All donations by societies, public Departments, or private individuals to the Institute shall be acknowledged by a printed form of receipt, and shall be entered in the books of the Institute provided for that purpose, and shall then be dealt with as the Board of Governors may direct. Honorary Members. 11. The Board of Governors shall have power to elect honorary members (being persons not residing in the Colony of New Zealand), provided that the total number of honorary members shall not exceed thirty. 12. In case of a vacancy in the list of honorary members, each incorporated society, after intimation from the Secretary ii — Trans. xvi New Zealand Institute. of the Institute, may nominate for election as honorary mem- ber one person. 13. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated, together with the grounds on which their election as honorary members is recommended, shall be forthwith forwarded to the President of the New Zealand Institute, and shall by him be submitted to the Governors at the next succeeding meeting. 14. The President may at any time call a meeting of the Board, and shall do so on the requisition in writing of four Governors. 15. Twenty-one days' notice of every meeting of the Board shall be given by posting the same to each Governor at an address furnished by him to the Secretary. 16. In case of a vacancy in the office of President, a meeting of the Board shall be called by the Secretary within twenty-one days to elect a new President. 17. The Governors for the time being resident or present in Wellington shall be a Standing Committee for the purpose of transacting urgent business and assisting the officers. 18. The Standing Committee may appoint persons to per- form the duties of any other office which may become vacant. Any such appointment shall hold good until the next meeting of the Board, when the vacancy shall be filled. 19. The foregoing regulations may be altered or amended at any annual meeting, provided that notice be given in writing to the Secretary of the Institute not later than the 30th November. TRANSACTIONS TRANSACTIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE 1907. Art. I. — Young Stages of Dicksonia and Cyathea, By G. B. Stephenson, M.Sc. [Read before the Manawatu Philosophical Society, 20th June, 1907. J Plates I-V. Introduction. Of late vears it has been recognised that anatomical relations that are not directly dependent on the mode of life of the plant often indicate with some certainty community of descent. But Bower (Phil. Trans., 1900), in his work on the leptosporangiate ferns, practically omits anatomical structure from considera- tion. He points out affinities from the character of the sorus. But it was hoped, in the present work, that a study of the early stages of the different genera of tree-ferns would show that their community of descent was shown by similarity of struc- ture ; and especially that the method of attaining a tubular stele from a solid strand would show distinct constant cha- racters. But it has been found that there is a striking similarity in the early stages of all the modern feins investigated. Spore- lings of Lomaria, Hypolepis, Doodia> Asplenium, Polypodvum.' punetatum, Pteris incisa, all show a similar stelar structure to the tree-fern sporelings. It is only when the tubular stele begins to break up that marked distinctions appear. Probably in the great group of more modern ferns there is great variability even in the early stages of the sporophyte and the attainment of similar structure by plants only remotely related in the group- In connection with this study, cultures of the prothallia of Dicksonia squarrosa and three Cyatheas — dealbata, medullaris, and Cunninghamii — were grown. The prothallia and the young spor- ophytes were imbedded in paraffin, cut with the microtome, and stained on the slide. The work was carried on in the laboratory of the Auckland University College, and the writer will always recognise a heavy debt of gratitude to Professor H. P. W. Thomas. 1— Trans. 2 Transactions. Sexual Generation. "^The spores of the four tree-ferns studied all germinated very quickly — in two or three weeks (fig. 52). The slits of ■dehiscence were generally very narrow, and the spore-case re- mained attached. The normal heart-shaped prothallium was rapidly attained, and was similar in form and development to that of the Polypoiiaceai. But the tree-ferns' prothallium ex- hibits excessive variability. The apical cell may arise (especially in Dicksonia) in the cell next to the spore (fig. 57), or a long filament be formed ; or even after the apical cell is formed it may grow out into a filament (fig. 62). In well-nourished prothallia, after about seven segments have been cut off, by a vertical pericline in the apical cell a three-sided initial is cut out, and a small - celled meristem now comes to occupy the depression at the apex. Normal prothallia produce a few antheridia and then archegonia on the " cushion." " Ameristic " prothallia, as usual in ferns, produce antheridia only. The prothallia (of Dicksonia especially) produce adventi- tious " shoots " very readily if conditions are unfavourable. Filiform upright branches spring especially from the margins of male prothallia, and produce abundant antheridia. In a few cases one of these " shoots " formed an apical cell and formed a normal prothallium. Antheridia. All the forms examined were similar in the structure of the complex normal type of antheridium and in the variety of the reduction forms. Normal Development. (a.) Rudiment: lighter green, and more de.ise'.y protoplasmic, (b.) Gap cell, (c.) Upper ring cell, (d.) Lower ting cell, (e.) Pedicil. In Dicksonia an opercular cell was often cut out from the cap cell, and the ring cells were sometimes divided. In the re- duced antheridia few walls are formed. Ausknce of Pedicel. Stephenson. — Young Stages of Dicksonia and Cyathea. 3 The sperms take some time to mature, and during this time the wall is not easily permeable. The wall seems to be chemically altered for a time, so that the nearly mature sperms may not be injured if the prothallium is suddenly wetted. The sperms are ejected rather flatly coiled, and as soon as the pellicle is softened in the water they spring out of it as if they were in a state of great tension. This movement is very jerky, especially at first. After half an hour they swim more regularly, and straighten out more as death approaches. The " ring wall " in Cyathea is peculiar in that it is attached to the peripheral wall. Docs this give us a suggestion as to how the ring wall originated from a form as in Osmunda ? Osmunda. Cyathea. Campbell (" Messes and Ferns") considers that the antheridia are intermediate between the Polypodiaecce and the Hymeno- ■phyllacece. Archegonia. The archegonia, £s Campbell states, are simply those of the Polypodiacece. It was found that the chief variations were in the basal cell and the ventral-canal cell. A single basal cell was nearly always present ; there were rarely two (fig. 12), and rarely the cell seemed to be absent. The ventral-canal cell was cut off from the apex of the central cell. Rarely it seemed to be due to the primary neck cell. In young prothallia forming the first few archegonia the divisions of the segments at the apex do show some regularity. The basal segment mav become the archegonium - rudiment (fig. 21a). r Archegonia may be formed at a distance behind the apex. The first wall is parallel to the surface of the thallus — separating the " cover " cell, which immediately divides by a vertical wall parallel to the long axis of the thallus, and soon a wall at right angles to this follows. View of Coveb ell from above 4 Transactions. The basal cell is now cut off at the base, and the central cell ■grows up between the cell-rows of the developing neck (fig. 13), and the primary neck cell is cut off (fig. 14), and later divides into :two. When the neck is full-grown the ventral-canal cell is sepa- rated from the egg cell. When the egg is mature, and before fertilisation has taken place, the cells surrounding the egg are .generally divided, so that a small-celled layer surrounds the egg (fig. 20). Sometimes in Cyathea one or two cells break away on the opening of the neck. The nucleus of the egg cell becomes very clear, and stains little just before fertilisation, and the nucleolus rapidly decreases .in size. Should an egg cell fail to be fertilised, the walls of the colls : surrounding are rapidly cuticularised and turn brown. This process prevents bacteria and fungi from penetrating the soft walls round the egg (fig. 20). A similar cuticularisation takes place in prothallia attacked by fungi. A straight row of cell- walls becomes cuticularised, and the part invaded by the fungus is thus cut off. Sporophyte. Embryo. The embryo is closely similar to that of the Poly pod iacece. Immediately after fertilisation the cells of the neck that are near the venter grow closely together and cut off communication with the outside. The oospore grows considerably before dividing, the nucleus remaining clear and nucleolus beinsj evi- dent. After the octants are formed, divisions become irregular, and the oval form is soon lost. A large apical cell is early re- cognisable in one of the cotyledonary octants, and this grows and divides more rapidly than the rest. The stem quadrant shows little division for a time, and when the first leaf is fully developed appears as a green lateral protuberance on the leaf-base. The second leaf arises opposite the first, and the third almost opposite the second. The root is as in the Polypodiacere. The extent of foot-formation de- pends largely on the thickness of the prothallium. The octants th it give rise to stem, leaf, and root are not in the same plane. Th ■ first wall in the embryo is at right angles to the plane of the thallus, and the half nearest the apex of the thallus becomes stem and leaf; and this is the besl disposition ■of the primary organs, whether the thallus is horizontal or vertical. i Stephenson. — Young Stages of Dicksonia and Cyathea. 5 The Young Sporophyte. The first leaf, guided perhaps by its positive heliotropism, soon appears between the prothallial lobes, and in Dicksonia, if the embryo is far from the apex, the leaf may break through the thallus. The blade of the first leaf of Dicksonia consists nearly always of two equal lobes (fig. 77), but sometimes a simple spathulate form occurs similar to that of Cyathea dealbata (fig. 78). In C. Cunninghamii a more complex form is found. The attainment of the more complex form by Dicksonia and C. dealbata is de- pendent on the conditions of growth. For instance, under un- favourable conditions C. dealbata may form as many as five spathulate leaves. The first leaf, except at the veins, consists of two layers of •cells, with well-developed intercellular spaces (fig. 1). " Rodlets " projecting into the air-spaces are not yet pre- sent in Dicksonia, but occur in the first leaf in Cyathea. These cuticular threads or rodlets are found in many different kinds of ferns, and probably point to some similar metabolic pro- cess. The young leaves of Dicksonia are marked out from the others by the presence of hairs. These are sparsely scattered over the leaves along the line of the veins, and consist of eight or nine cells united into a slender filament, the terminal cell being somewhat larger and rounder. The cells of the filament become larger, with brown thick walls, as the plant grows, and finally we reach the long brown robust hairs of the mature plant, which protect the growing point and developing leaves, and later serve to retain moisture on the stem for the aerial roots. In the young Cyatheas (plants of four or five leaves) short ramenta are present on the petiole, and especially at its base; but C. dealbata remains glabrous for some time. C. medvllaris is more nearly similar to Dicksonia. Fig. 73 shows a long sec- tion of apex of Dicksonia (six leaves), and fig. 76 a similar stage of Cyathea, showing the developing ramenta (r). Petiolar Wings. The first few leaves have a bulky green thin-walled cortex in the petiole. But as the leaves become more robust the as- similating tissue is found only in lateral wings, and later still in clusters of thin-walled cells forming discontinuous streaks on each side of the petiole. These groups are cut off and die; a lignification of the f.v. bundles begins. They are probably for aeration of the developing leaf. Transactions. Stomata. Verv numerous in first leaves, especially in Dicksonia. The mother cell is cut out from the acroscopic end of the elongating cells ; auxiliary cells are absent. In the mature form (figs. 46, 47) an auxiliary cell is present, but there is much variation. Slit of stoma parallel to line of greatest growth. Petiole. Dicksonia squarrosa. In the first leaf there is a simple stele consisting of three or more tracheids grouped into a solid strand, and surrounded by two or three layers of parenchyma and an endodermis. The bundle is collateral, the few phloem elements being on one side, but the elements are more evenly dis- tributed frs we descend to the foot. In later leaves the number of tracheids rapidly increases, and as- sumes the form of a shallow U, with defi- nite spiral protoxylem in the centre (fig. 4). Diagram of Bundle at this Stage. (a.) Phloem absent in the bay. (b. ) Endodermis. (c. ) Tracheids. {d.} Protoxylem group. (e.)Fro- tophloom. (/.) Ptricycle, with origin, with endodermis in a single original layer. (a.) Phloem extends to A few leaves later the protophloem here- an(' is not found in- i • , ,i . __ side the bay. (6.)Protc- is broken up into three separate masses xyk.m J fJ ^rtkn (fig. 5). but the xylem forms a con- of pinna. (cJMfcdianp-o- tinuous arc. toxylemgr< up. (d.) Xylem Later again the groups of tracheids elements, formed round the protoxylem groups are not contiguous, and now the arc is ready to break up into three separate bundles (fig. 5). When the stem is about J in. and the largest leaf 2 in. the petiolar bundle breaks up into three separate portions, but these three fuse together again before the pinnae are given off. protoxylem Q S OP £*» Base of Petiole. 3 4 J 1st below First Pinna Differences between the petiole at this stage and when mature are unimportant, being only due to increase of size. In Stephenson. — Young Stages of Dicksonia and Cyathea. 7 the mature form the breaking-up into separate bundles takes place very early. The separate bundles (fourteen or fifteen) take their origin almost directly from the protruding lips of the leaf-gap. But the bundles always show a single protoxylem group, and always fuse into a continuous arc before the first pinna is given off. The protoxylem of the first few petioles is persistent, but later, when the petiole is marked by very rapid growth, the protoxylem cells are destroyed. Provision is made for this in a single layer of small dense cells that surround the protoxylem. These grow into the spaces that are left by the destruction of the spiral cells (fig. 8, c.p. ; fig. 9, d.L). The phloem tissue, hardly distinguishable in the first few petioles, later contains very large sieve-tubes. These occur at first only on the convex side of the arc, but they finally form a ring. In the mature petiole the sieve-tubes are numerous, but each tube is in contact with at least one parenchyma cell (fig- 7). Petioles of other ferns were examined — Gleichenia flabettata and Cunninghamii, Aspidium aculeatum, and Hypolepis distans — and though the sieve-tubes were numerous each bordered on a parenchyma cell. Cyathea. The first bundle is marked by collateral (fig. 2), and the cell-layer inside the endodermis is densely granular. In very young leaves the petiolar arc breaks up into three, and then there is no fusion, as in Dicksonia, before the pinnse are given off. Smaller differences from Dicksonia are in the large size of the last-formed metaxylem and the variation in position of the protoxylem group. Pinna prom Petiole. Dicksonia. In the first leaf of Dicksonia the venation is generally dicho- tomous. In later leaves the successive pinnae arise by segments, being given off from the free ends of the bundle arc. * But when the bundle has three groups of protoxylem elements only the two lateral groups provide for the pinna?. rocoxy/em group pinna, bundle 12 3 4 A Series of Sections showing the Derivation of the Pinn.e Bundle from the Petiolar Bundle. Later leaves show a similar process. 8 Transactions. Cyathea. In the first few leaves the process is similar to that in t Dicksonia, but then differences arise because the arc is perma- nently broken into three. First Stage. (Leaf, total length, 2 in.) («.) Pinna bundle, (b. ) Lower median bundle takes part in the process. .1 z 3 Second Stage. (Leaf, total length, 10 in.) Then the two small bundles (c) and (d) approach and fuse. U O y u u a, b {a.) Upper band in pinna, (b.) Lower band in pinna. A similar fusion is seen in Pteris incisa, Polypodium punctatum, and Hypolepis distans. The third and final stage is similar to the second stage, but the bundles are more numerous. (a.) Upper band, (b.) Lower band, (c.) Segments for pinna. Gwynne Yaughan suggests that the curved form of petiole stele is primitive (Loxsoma) ; but this does not help us in deciding affinities. The curved form is simply the most convenient as regards strength and insertion of pinna-bundles. Roots. Similar in origin in the embryo and in later development, and branching to the Polypodiacece. < Iften in Dicksonia in slender plants there is only one root per leaf for eight or nine leaves. The first few roots hardly branch at all. In Dicksonia in the slender diarch strand there arc few protoxylem elements, but in Cyathea (fig. 32) they vary Stephenson. — Young Stages of Dicksonia and Cyathea. 9 between two and five, the number partly depending on the branches given off. When lignification of the cortex is taking place a few cells — especially well marked in C. Cunninghamii — opposite the oligogenetic rows remain thin-walled for some time, probably as long as they are likely to produce lateral rootlets. The endodermis stains deeply in acid fuchsin, but the oligogenetic rows do not stain. The mature roots of C. medullaris are more robust and more variable than the others. Triarch and even tetrarch bundles are sometimes found (De Bary). This calls to mind the poly- arch bundles in the Hymenophyllacece. The Vascular System op the Stem. The tracheids are scalariform in the foot of the embryo, but become spiral in first leaf and root. Figs. 25-29 show the changes in the stele at this stage as we ascend from the root (fig. 25) to the protostele above the foot. The tracheids, at first extended in a line (fig. 26), become clustered as the foot is reached (fig. 27) and turn into a hori- zontal position. They turn into the vertical position again, and now the phloem is clustered to one side in the collateral bundle of the petiole. The tracheids of the second leaf fit directly on to those of the first, and so a solid strand is found. But there is generally a change from the protostele to the tubular form of stele before the third leaf is given off. But the time is very variable, and in Cyathea dealbata especially the protostele may persist for five or six leaves. Sometimes the transition took place between the foot and the insertion of the first leaf (figs. 85-88). Here a few parenchymatous cells appear among the xylem elements (fig. 86), and rapidly increase in number (fig. 87), and then the segment is given off to the leaf. Figs. 79-81 show the third leaf given off in C. dealbata from a protostele. Here a parenchyma cell appears in preparation for the giving-off of the leaf, as in Dicksonia. But generally the transition in Cyathea is more irregular. Figs. 37-41 show the process in C. Cunninghamii. The sections are of the internode between the first and second leaves. The number of tracheids remains almost constant during the change. ci..„./-^ <-. _^ i:S ^ o or' ' 2 3 a Diagram of Xylem, showing Transition. (a.) Part directly below third leaf, (b.) Cauline part, (c.) Part below second leaf, (d.) Tnird leaf given off here a little above, (e.) Second leaf now given off here. 10 Transactions. i Figs. 82-84 show the change in C. Cunninghamu at the base- of an older plant (between first and second leaf). It will be noted that there is a considerable increase in the number of tracheids over a series in a younger plant (transition also between first and second leaf). In the younger plant there is almost constantly a single layer of tracheids on the ring ; while in the same internode, if the plant has now seven or eight leaves, there are two or three layers of tracheids in a similar transition region. But without a great number of series it could not be stated that there is a late differentiation of tracheids outside the primary ring. After the siphonostele is attained the stem increases rapidly in breadth. A well-defined endodermis is not present till the stem is about T\j in. long. Sieve-tubes are ill defined in the first petiole, and it is only after six or seven leaves have been formed that the tubes begin to assume the characteristic form. Distinct sieve-tubes do not appear inside the tubular stele for a considerable time. Fig. 43 shows typical solenostelic structure, but at once the leaf-gaps begin to elongate, and persist throughout an internode. [In the running steins which take their origin from buds formed early in the life of the plant a robust solenostele is found till the runner nears the surface of the ground and leaves are crowded again.] Change takes p'ace gradually till the mature form is reached : the leaf-gaps elongate, the number of orthostichies is increased, the outline of the stele becomes wavy, and the lips project to give off the leaf f.v. bundles. The medullary bundles of the Cyatheas do not begin to be formed till the pith is fairly broad. Near the apex, where the developing ring is still, meriste- matic groups of cells are separated h}* parenchyma from the ring, and these give the medullary bundles (fig. 42). Mucilage. No signs of a mucilage system in the early stages : mucilage- cells appear after the tubular stele is established ; in the petiole especially they form regular rows. I*T7T?T 6 Diagram showing Origin ok a Muotlagb-cbll Row. (Longitudinal section of Leaf. ) (a.) Apex of lenf. (b.) Muril:i<;o row. In the petiole the rows follow the protoxylciu groups rather closely, the rows being generally in the bays of the vascular arcs. Stephenson. — Young Stages of Dicksonia and Cyathea. 11 Protoxylem. The spiral elements of the petiole just join on to the stem, hut the elements of the stem are scalariform. In fig. 41 the two cells px are the protoxylem of the next leaf ; these cells die out in the section lower down. Fig. 44 shows the stem protoxylem, but, as in Loxsoma (Gwynne Vaughan), these elements are scalariform. Stelar Structure. Up to the last few years consideration of the stele has been on the lines laid down by Van Tiegheai, but lately more attention has been paid to the vascular structure of ferns, and a study of the ontogenetic development has modified the old stand- point. For instance, Jeffrey evidently considers the polystelic structure to be derived from the protostele through the siphono- stele. For in an abstract (Proc. Roy. Soc.) of a paper (full paper not seen) which appeared in the Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. there is the following : "Starting from the conception that the polystelic structure does not originate by the repeated bifurca- tion of the epicotyledonary central cylinder, but that the latter first becomes a concentric fibro- vascular tube, with gaps for the branches alone . . ." And in a note in the " Annals of Botany " — " Lindsaya, a new type of fern stele " (Tansley and Lulham) : " Thus Lindsaya seems to furnish a phytogenetic link hitherto wanting between the protostele and solenostele, and this view is distinctly supported by the occurrence of the same stage in the ontogenetic series." Thus the old views are being modified. The single strands no longer make us overlook the conducting system as a whole. The internal parenchyma is excluded from the stele (Jeffrey) ; the endodermis is no longer regarded as of great morphological importance ; and a study of the ontogeny is held to be necessary for the right understanding of any form (c/. Farmer and Hill — Angiopteris : ;' It would appear to be probable that no right understanding of a difficult vascular structure is possible apart from a study of its ontogenetic development "). The presence, then, of the protostele in the early stages of modern types, and the persistence of the protostele in forms like Gleichenia and Schizcea, point to the protostele as the earliest form of stele. But there are two questions — (1.) Is this proto- stele made up of leaf-traces, or is it partly cauline ? (2.) And how did the transition to the solenostele take place ? (1.) In forms with crowded leaves like Cyathea and Dicksonia it would be easy to agree that differentiation of the stele followed the differentiation of the petiole bundles ; and in the earliest 12 Transactions. stages of the tree-fern the stem f.v. elements are essentially con- nected with leaves, though later there is some differentiation be- tween the leaf-traces to provide a complete ring and to prepare for the insertion of leaves higher up the stem. But probablv the mode of growth in Gleichenia and Loxsoma is the more primitive, and that in the ferns with crowded leaves is a later development, leading to the reduction of the cauline strand. In the primitive types we may assume that the first bundle system was differ- entiated to minister to the needs of a rapidly elongating spike or strobilus. Then, as the vegetative appendicular organs became larger, strands would be differentiated in them, and fit on to the central strand. Then later, as the leaves outnum- bered the sporophylls and the leaves were crowded on the stem, the cauline strand was reduced, and on some ferns practically gives way to leaf-traces. (2.) How did the transition to the solenostele take place ? Of course, we can see that the ring is a better arrangement of the f.v. elements than the solid strand. If the stem is to be upright and bear a crown of leaves, only a few xylem elements will be needed, and these will strengthen the stem more and be better placed for leaf-insertion if they are in a ring ; and the large undifferentiated pith may serve as a starch and water reservoir. But how did the ring develop from the solid strand ? Now, in Gleichenia we have a solid strand in the stem and a curved strand in the leaves ; and when a part of the stem stele is cut off for the leaf, the segment remains attached to the main stele while it is assuming a curved form ; and especially in G. flabellata the meristele remains attached at its edges to the stem stele for some time. Thus are formed " nodal islands." Tansley and Lulham suggest that by the continuation of the nodal islands through the internode above and below a structure like Lindsaya would be reached — Lindsaya being, then, a phytogenetic link between the protostelic and solenostelic types. But it seems probable that the transition has taken place quite independently in several groups, and the process need not be similar in all. In the Schizceacece the protostele is pro- bably primitive, but siphonostely and even polystely has been reached in Anumia (Boodle). Similarly hi the Glekheniacea the protostele persists in many forms, but a solenostele has arisen in G. pectinata (Boodle). In the Marattiacecp, from the life-history of Angicphris (Fanner and Hill, 1902), the change from protostele to siphon., stele is due to parenchyma cells appearing in the centre of the xylem and the leaf removing a segment stretching to this pith. The Stephenson. — Young Stages of Dicksonia and Cyathea. 13 change is somewhat similar in Helminthostachys (Lang, 1901,. " Annals of Botany "). Perhaps it will not be out of place to refer to the running stem given off from the leaf-base in Lomaria procera. The stele is at first solid, and this may grow for some distance, and even branch dichotomously. But sooner or later a weak strand of parenchyma cells appears in the centre of the xylem, and rapidly increases in bulk. An island of sclerenchyma then ap- pears in the centre of this parenchyma, and this a little later is surrounded by an endodermis ; and now phloem elements are clearly visible inside the xylem ring. The runner now presents a robust solenostelic structure. Later, when leaves begin to be given off, the leaf -gaps elongate, and typical polystely results. From a hurried study of Aspidium aculeatum piantlets, it seemed that robust plants with a strong protostele had paren- chyma cells among the xylem, and small weak plants had a small solid strand. The transition is similar to Dicksonia. Only a study of the early stages of a large number of ferns- will show whether there is any constancy in the method in which the transition is made — constancy in groups of related ferns,, or even in the same fern with the sporelings under varied con- ditions of nutrition. I incline to think that the method of change from solid strand to tubular stele is dependent somewhat oil the rapidity of growth. If growth is rapid and the stem broadens- quickly, some of the elements of the xylem strand will not need to function as wood elements, and so will remain undifferentiated. This will be the beginning of the pith. It was due in the early" history of the stele to broadening of the stem, and consequent loss of function of some of the more deeply placed water-carriers, and these remained undifferentiated ; then the stem widened further, and the segment of the xylem cut out for the leaf ex- tended right to the pith ; and then phloem elements would ex- tend down into the pith, because the pith, now it is not cut off from the leaves by the xylem ring, can be advantageously used for storage of starch. Polystely is only a well-marked variety of the tubular stele- Here the continuous ring is broken up by gaps other than those above the leaf-insertion. The change from the tube to the extreme polystely of some Polypodiwms — cf. P. serpens and P. nova-zelandice—is due to change of stem-habit. When the rhizome becomes thick because it is used for water and starch storage, and a creeping habit necessitates no mechanical strength- ening, then only those wood elements of the primitive ring are differentiated which are needed for water-carriage. The ring could have been widened and attenuated, but this would not serve so well as the network that represents the tube. 14 Transactions. Conclusion. The study of the structure of the few tree-ferns examined, and their comparison with other forms, makes me feel that the form of the stele is too directly adaptive to prove relationship. Among the modern ferns the function of the stem decides the form of stele. If the stem is a creeping one, and not too bulky, then a tubular stele is found — c/. some species of Pteris, Hypolepis, Polypodium punctatum, runners of Dichsonia and of Lomaria procera. If the creeping stem is extensively used for storage of starch and water, then extreme polystely will be found. If the stem is upright and the leaves crowded, a tubular stele, with leaf- gaps, will result, as in the tree-ferns, and in a less developed form in large forms of Polypodium pennigerum and Aspidium aculeitum. The transition from the solid strand to the tubular form in any particular fern now is not important from an historical point of view. Perhaps the idea that in the ferns function in- sures differentiation, and unless there is functioning to be done no differentiation follows, suggests how thrt parenchyma appeared in bulky stems in the first place ; and the same tendency results in extreme polystely in some ferns now. But as far as the relationship between Dichsonia and Cyathea is concerned, though no single similarity will prove anything, yet the similarity of means employed in the young plants in overcoming the environm ;nt at a great many points does point to a similar inherited constitution. EXPLANATION' OF PLATES I-V. Plate I. Fig. 1. Transverse section, first leaf Dichsonia squarrosa. x 125. Fig. 2. Transverse section, petiole fi/st leaf Cyathea dealbata. x 250. end., endodermis ; ph., phloem ; p.c, dense perioyole. Fig. 3. Transverse section, stele of same plant (as in fig. 2); starch »5. yet ab:iont. x 250. Fig. 4. Transverse section, third petiole of Dicksonia ; collateral stele. x 175. Fij. 5. Transverse section, potiole Dicksonia. In next leaf meristele breaks into three, x 125. Fig. 6. Transverse soction, single bundle of mature petiole Dicksonia. x 80. pph., p.'otophloem ; s.t.p., sieve-tubo parenohyma ; &p., cavLy p irenchyma. Fig. 7. Part of potiole bundle, showing relation between s.t. and paren- chymv x 175. x.p., parenohymi cells, rich in starch, lining the xylem cells. Fig. 8. Another pirt of sam% showing cavity pirenohy ma. x 250. Stephenson. — Young Stages of Dicksonia and Cyathea. 15 Fig. 9. Transverse section, immature petiole, x 250. px., protoxylem ; i.v., young tracheid ; d.l., dense layer of cells surrounding the protoxylem, f-nd growing in to form the cavity parenchyma. Fig. 10. Bundle of leaf of Dicksonia, near end of leaflet, x 250. Fig. 11. Bundle of leaf of Cyathea dealbata, near end of leaflet, x 250. Plates II, III. Figs. 12-18. Vertical (microtome) sections of prothallia of Dicksonia squarrosa parallel to longitudinal axis of thallus. The sections show the development of the archegonium. x 250. Fig. 19. Sections parallel to surface, showing cells cut off in the paren- chyma surrounding the egg cell, x 250. Fig. 20. Similar section, showing cuticularisatkn of walls of venter. X 250. Figs. 21-24. Surface views of young prothallia and their first archegcnia. The shaded cells are the archegonium mother cells (C. medullaris). x 250. Figs. 25-29. Transition from stele of root (fig. 25) to just below foot (fig. 27) to protostele of stem (fig. 29). x 250. Fig. 30. Transverse section, first rcot C. dealbata. Characteristic thickened layer, x 250. Fig. 31. Mature root D. squarrosa. c, compressed tissue, x 120. Fig. 32. Part mature rcot C. Cunninghamii, showing separated pro- toxylem. x 120. Figs. 33-36. C. dealbata. Four successive transverse sections near rpex,. showing insertion of protoxylem elements of the petiole ■Ti> xi> on to those of stem s-y-e^. s3 and ss are connected with next leaf, x 250. Figs. 37-41. Transition protostele to siphcnostele in C. Cunninghamii^ between first and second leaves, x 250. Fig. 42. Early stage, medullary bundle, C. Cunninghamii. x 250. Fig. 43. Solenostele in a Dicksonia, -fa in. long, x 60. Fig. 44. Transverse section near apex of runner of D. fibrosa, shewing the scalariform irregularly disposed first-formed xylem. X 80. Fig. 45. Transverse section, stem, mativre Dicksonia. Trochoids in rather regrdar rows, with parenchyma between. Well- defined layer of sieve-tubes, x 60. Plate IV. Figs. 46, 47. Epidermis developing leaf, C. dealbata and D. squarrosa. Fig. 48. Apex leaf, longitudinal section. Fig. 49. Stoma, nearly mat me, seen from below. Figs. 50-59. Developed prothallia, D. squarrosa. Figs. 60-68. Cyathea Cunninghamii. Figs. 60-63, abnormal forms, due to overcrowding; figs. 64-68, antheridia en fikmentcus protha'lia. Fig. 69. Verticfl section, embryo, with basal and quadrant walls darkened, c, apical cell, first leaf ; st., stem quadrant ; /., foot quadrant. Fig. 70. Later embryo. Only root and first leaf have grown much. Figs. 71, 72. Embryos dissected out and mounted whole. Fig. 73. Dicksonia, six leaves ; longitudinal section, shewing apical cell. Fig. 74. Transverse section, similar stage. Fig. 75. Transverse section, mature apex of C. dealbata. Segments cut off in order (sv s2, s3). 16 Transactions. Fig. 76. Longitudinal section, apex 0. Cunninghamii (seven leaves). r., ramenta. Fig. 77. Young plant, D. squarrosa. Fig. 78. Young plant, C. dealbata. Plate V. Figs. 79-81. Pi-otostele of C. dealbata, giving off petiole bundle (xv xx). A parenchyma cell (p.) first appears in the xylem. x 330. Figs. 82-84. C. Cunninghamii. Protostele to siphonostele. x 330. I, the first leaf, has been given off here. In fig. 84 note the distinction between the parenchyma of seconddeaf bay and that of stem (bilow third leaf). Figs. 85-88. Dicksonia squarrosa. Similar transition. Sections between the first leaf and the foot (the plant had four leaves) X 330, In fig. 86, p., parenchyma cells appearing ; in fig. 87, parenchyma increased — px., protoxylem from the leaf ; fig. 88, above insertion of leaf. Art. II. — Some Aspects of the Terrace-development in the Valleys of the Canterbury Rivers. By R. Speight, M.A., B.Sc [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, \st Mm/. 1H07.J Plates VI-VIIa. Part I. Explanatory. The substance of this paper formed part of an ex-presidentml address delivered before the Philosophical Institute of Canter- bury. Considerable alterations and additions have been made -to it, but the main conclusions stated originally have been retained, and further evidence put forward in support of them. The paper attempts to give, first of all, some account of the mode •of formation of the terraces in the main river- valleys, and then considers the evidence of elevation and depression of the land during late geological times. Without attempting to summarise and criticize all that has been written on the subject, the author gives some account of this, especially in its bearing on terrace- formation, and finally he draws attention to the importance of frost erosion in the Canterbury mountains, and suggests that the supply of waste is a powerful factor affecting the erosive power of the rivers, and therefore, directly or indirectly, the ■conditions favourable to terrace-development. Speight. — Terrace-development of Canterbury Hirers. 17 Introductory. The rivers of Canterbury which will be considered in this ^paper are those of the middle district — viz., the Waimakariri, Rakaia, Ashburton, and Rangitata. They closely resemble each ■other as regards the conditions under which the valleys were formed with the partial exception of the Ashburton, so that statements made about one generally apply to all. They all rise in the main range of the Southern Alps, or close to it, and flow in a south-easterly direction till they reach the sea, the first half of their course being through the mountainous region ■of western Canterbury, and the second half across the plains which fringe this region on the south-east. The rocks of the first portion consist principally of folded slates, sandstones, greywackes, and allied sedimentaries chiefly of Lower Mesozoic age. Palaeozoic rocks doubtless occur on the eastern and western margins of the mountain region, but the general absence of fossil evidence renders their true age difficult to determine. The folding of these rocks occurred most probably in Upper Jurassic times, but traces of an earlier folding are also found. They are distinguished throughout the whole area by excessive jointing, which has rendered them particularly susceptible to -the disintegrating action of frost, and has caused them to split readily into more or less rectangular and prismatic blocks. This effect is so marked that many of the mountains are, for several thousand feet in altitude, covered with a coating of debris so thoroughly that solid rock is scarcely visible. This is constantly moving down to lower levels under the influence of the transporting agents which operate in mountain tracts, but principally owing to the torrents formed by melting snows. The rocks of which the plains have been formed consist chiefly of gravels, more or less perfectly rounded, and of sands, silts, and mud. The last predominates in the outer margin of the plains. There is in some cases an admixture of volcanic material and limestone, but these are of relatively minor im- portance. The western mountain area formed at one time part of a great peneplain, and this has now been thoroughly dissected. The paths of the rivers are generally at right angles to the strike of the beds, so that the main streams may be called consequent, while the tributaries are generally parallel to the strike, and are therefore subsequent ; but, owing to the age of the river-valleys and the influence of other disturbing agencies, marked departures from this rule frequently occur. A recent severe glaciation, after the valleys had reached a mature stage, exerted great influence on them, and its effects are still plainly evident. The rivers are all perfectly graded at the present time, but it is highly 18 Transactions. likely that they had reached an approximately similar con- dition in Oligocene times, as pointed out hy Captain Hutton. Although the mountain tract of the province has heen tho- roughly dissected, the plains are practically undissected, if we omit consideration of that dissection which is due immediately to the rivers themselves. They receive hardly any tributaries after they leave the mountains ; the rain which falls on the plains soaks rapidly through the porous beds, and finds its way to the sea by percolation through the underlying shingle. The rivers do receive some tributaries — e.g., the Kowhai runs into the Waimakariri, and four rivers coalesce to form the Ashburton — but they all rise in the foothills, and derive little of their water from the rainfall on the plains. It is therefore evident that there is a marked contrast between the physiographic conditions of the upper portion of the rivers and that of their lower courses, and hence the conditions which affect the terrace-development are highly dissimilar. If we examine the valleys of the large rivers we find that their courses may be divided into four parts, relative to their terrace-development: (1.) The torrent path, where terraces are, as a rule, absent. (2.) A wider valley path, where the rivers are aggrading their beds, river terraces being absent, but glacial terraces or shelves common. (3.) A gorge path, where rivers burst through the outer range of Palaeozoic rocks on a line running- through Mount Hutt and Mount Torlesse : in this case the terraces have their highest development. (4.) A plain path — i.e., the path from the foot of the mountains to the sea, where terraces are again strongly developed, but are, as a" general rule, of a simple and continuous character. The Torrent Path. The rivers begin as fair-sized streams from the terminals- of glaciers, and this part of their course shows the general characters of torrent and glacial erosion. The valleys are typically U-shaped, with flat floors and sides so steep as to be- at times unscalable for miles. They show signs of having been recently swept clean, but are filling again with waste coming in from the sides. There are no terraces except those due directly to glacier action. Lateral moraines occasionally form terraces, but only in those places where they have been protected from the scouring action of the wild torrents which sweep this portion of their valleys. A frequent position for these terraces is round the end of a spur, and they slope down the valley at a steep angle, indicating a rapid fall in the level of the surface of the glacier, owing to its expanding as it accommodated itself to a part of the valley where the cross section was greater. The Speight. — Terrace-development of Canterbury Rivers. 19 valley-walls also show signs of the truncation or partial trunca- tion of the spurs. This is often attended by the formation of short glacier shelves due to the erosive action of the glacier. These shelves occur particularly where the glacier came over the shoulder of a spur and cut down its bed in a manner analogous to the action of a corroding stream. Good illustrations of this are to be seen towards the head of the Waimakariri, up the Bealey River, at Arthur's Pass, and in the neighbourhood of the West Coast Road between the Cass and the head of Sloven's Creek ; but these last cases belong to another part of the river- valley. The Valley Path. The first part of the river-course grades into the second. Here the valley is flatter and wider, and still shows signs of glacier erosion ; glacial terraces or shelves are common in much the same position as in the first part of the river-course, frequently in sets of three, as noted by Captain Hutton. In some cases it seems likely that terraces are formed by the erosive action of tributary glaciers. These are turned round by the resistance of the main glacier at the junction, and made to override the projecting spurs on the downstream side of the valley. The spurs are thus cut down to a marked degree, and show true terraces of primary erosion. These terraces are cut out of solid rock, and have a steep fall downstream— steeper than the grade of the valley, and of no great length parallel to its axis. This action is most probably going on now where the Ball Glacier joins the Tasman ; and if we could see the side of the valley underneath, it would almost certainly show these glacier terraces. Good illustrations occur where a large stream, the name of which is unknown to me, joins the Waimakariri on its south bank about six miles above Bealey. This case is a most important one, as it shows conclusively that even the smaller tributary valleys were formed previous to the recent glaciation. The stream enters the main river by a channel cut out of the solid rock, and in the bottom of this glacial striae are plainly visible, running across the bed of the stream and nearly parallel to the axis of the main valley. The channel must have been eroded previous to the glaciation, as it is very well marked, and depressed about 50 ft. below the level of the surrounding rocks, which are remarkably ice-worn as well, and form part of a truncated spur entering the main valley at right angles. It appears almost impossible that the channel of the stream can have been formed solely by glacier erosion, and the recency of the glaciation is emphasized by the perfection of the markings in a position where they are very likely to be effaced. 20 Transactions. Apart from the glacier shelves there are no terraces, as in this portion of their course the rivers are aggrading their beds. The supply of waste is almost inexhaustible. It is poured in by every tributary stream and every shingle-slip, and the grade of the river is not sufficient for its transportation. Where the tributaries are large, the result is to flatten the grade of the main river above the junction and to push the main river over to the opposite side of the valley. This effect is especially marked in the case of the Bealey River. Surveys carried out by Mr. Edward Dobson, C.E., when searching for the best route to the West Coast, show undoubtedly that the grade of the Waimakariri has been considerably modified, in the manner suggested, by the action of this large tributary. The main river is not competent to remove the load poured into it. This portion of the river-valley has been deepened bv glacier erosion, though not to any great extent, as the roches moutonnees in the Rangitata, Rakaia, and Waimakariri valleys show ; but the rivers have no power now to form terraces, except very low and temporary ones. The valleys at the head of Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo, in the basin of the Waitaki, show the conditions which prevailed in all the valleys in Canterbury after the maximum glaciation was past. A lake occupied the Lower Rakaia Valley, ponded back by a bar stretching across the mouth of the gorge ; a similar lake filled the. Waimakariri Valley from the gorge as far as the junction with the Hawdon River, if not farther, and in all pro- bability one existed in the Rangitata. The formation of these lakes is due to one of two causes — (1) to the elevation of the land along an axis which coincides with the outer range forming the eastern boundary of the Southern Alps ; or (2) to glacier erosion. Tf this axis of elevation really exists, it would be approximately in a line with that running through the Kaikoura Mountains, where crustal movements are now going on. This axis has, without doubt, extended from the Kaikouras in a south-westerly direction, and perhaps the great Waipara fault has been associated with this earth-movement. The fault is of very recent date, and coincides with the gorge of the Waipara River, and has a downthrow to the north of over 1,000 ft. Unless this fault is due to lateral movement, it is necessary that a thickness of 1,000 ft. has been removed from rocks about the Weka Pass and Waipara River, for the escarpment of the Mount Brown beds presents a tolerably even line both north and south of the fault-line. The physical features are more easily explained by a lateral movement of the rocks, resulting in fracture along the jjorge of the Waipara. The force producing this rupture must have come Speight.— Terrace-development of Canterbury Rivers. 21 from the south-east, and it is therefore likely that it affected the rocks further south-west. If this axis extends into mid- Canterbury, it might account for the slight break in the grade of the rvers which occurs at their gorges. They have a flat grade above and a steeper grade below, as the following table taken from Haast's " Geology of Canterbury " will show : — Distance Fall of in Rivers, Rangitata— Miles. per Mile. From junction of Havelock and Clyde to beginning of plains . . 29 35 From beginning of plains to railway . . 23£ 39f From railway-crossing to sea . . . . 8| 29 Ashburton — From Clearwater Creek to beginning of plains near Two Brothers . . . . 11^ 37* From Two Brothers to railway . . 25 44 From railway to sea . . . . . . 10| 28| Rakaia — From junction of Wilberforce River to Gorge Island . . . . . . 19 25* From Gorge Island to railway . . 21* 23* From railway to sea . . 16 234; Waimakariri — From junction of Bealev River to junction of the Esk River.. .. ..21 24 From junction of Esk River to junction of Kowhai River . . . . . . 17 33 From junction of Kowhai to White's old accommodation - house at height of 605 ft. .. .. .. ..15 26| From White's accommodation-house to tidal boundary . . . . . . 22 27£ The flat grade followed by a steeper grade is apparent in the Rangitata, Ashburton, and Waimakariri ; but in the case of the Rakaia there is no marked break : its bed is almost uni- formly graded for a long part of its course. This difference in grade may be due to crustal movements, but I think it is more probably due to glacier erosion ; however, there is no impossi- bility that it may be due to both causes. The Canterbury valleys are of very ancient date, and were developed to a mature stage before the recent glacier extension. The glaciers hollowed out their middle portion, particularly where two valleys join, but left across the mouth a bar of solid rock, owing to the falling - off in erosive power near the terminal face. Behind this bar there is always a deep depression or basin in the solid rock — 22 TraJisactions. as much as 500 ft. in the case of the^Rakaia— and the hypothesis of the axis of elevation seems hardly competent to explain this remarkable occurrence in the valleys of all the principal rivers. The deepened portion of the valley has been filled with glacial silt and angular debris from the hills ; traces of old sub- lacustrine fans or deltas are to be seen in many places. These sedimentary beds are now being eroded by the rivers as they cut down through the bars of solid rock that form the main floor of the gorges by which the rivers issue on to the plains. The present shape of the river-valleys is due, therefore, to the modifying action of glaciers and other agencies on a previous matured stream system, the rough features of which were ante- cedent to the glacier extension. With this explanation it will be possible to consider the third division of the rivers' course as regards their terrace-development. The Gorge Path. In this paper I apply the term " gorge path " to that part of the river-course from its first meeting the lacustrine beds above the bar of rock till it has freed itself from all rock obstruc- tions in the upper portion of the plains. It is only the middle section of this which shows the true character of a river gorge ; but it is most convenient to consider the more extended length with regard to the terraces. The three principal rivers of northern Canterbury burst through the outer range of mountains by gorges of a similar type. The Ashburton Gorge was formed under peculiar con- ditions, owing to the great changes in the directions of drainage caused by the extension of the glaciers. If we take the Rakaia as a typical case, we have a river flowing through a bed of glacial silt which partially filled the old Rakaia Lake, and then coming to a winding gorge cut out of the solid rock which forms the floor of a wide valley. This valley is nearly three miles in width, tolerably flat, but covered with heaps of morainic and fluvio- morainic matter. The river flows in meanders at a depth of nearly 500 ft. below the main floor. This winding trench was begun immediately after the ice began to retreat, no doubt while the lake was in existence above the solid bar of rock. Owing to increased power of corrasion, the river has deepened its meanders far below the upper floor of the gorge, and is now actively removing the projecting spurs between them. Several cases of nearly demolished spurs and of islets in the river-bed which are now quite cut off are to be seen in the Waimakariri as well us in the Rakaia. Speight. — Terrace-development of Canterbury Rivers. 23 Overlying the outer portion of the flat valley are the gravels of the Canterbury Plains. They rise in the Waimakariri fully 200 ft. above the wide floor of the upper gorge, and are found at places in the gorge itself.. The plains are formed by the over- lapping and coalescing of the fans of great Pleistocene and Post-Pleistocene rivers, and have covered up nearly all irregu- larities in the solid floor of the land ; though at such places as Gorge Hill, Burnt Hill, View Hill, the older rocks are visible above the level of the plain. Owing to the rivers cutting down through the gravels the solid floor has been exposed in other cases. In this gorge portion the terrace- development is most perfect. In the Rakaia, sixteen terraces maybe counted from the top of the heaps of morainic matter down to the level of the river — that is, in a height of 500 ft. The other river-valleys show similar phenomena, though perhaps the sequence is not so complete. It seems highly likely that this portion of the river-valley was filled by gravels up to a certain level previous to the glacier maximum, as the moraines and fluvio-morainic deposits overlie the gravels at the mouth of the gorge. This filling-up might have happened several times during the Tertiary era, as our valleys were largely excavated before the Oligocene period, as emphasized by Captain Hutton, and it is possible for a glacier to override even loose gravels at its terminal face without dis- placing them. Some of the lower gravel-beds just below the Rakaia Gorge are so highly coloured by hydrated iron- oxide as to afford an easy means of distinguishing them from the upper gravel-beds. This points to a considerable lapse of time in order to allow for this oxidation, and suggests a much older date for the lower gravels. However, this evidence is by no means conclusive. The fact that the glacier deposits overlie the gravels of the plain is important, as showing that the exten- sion of the glaciers was subsequent to the deposition of the gravels in this upper portion of the plains. Terraces near the Gorge. An examination shows that a great majority of the terraces in this part of the river's course are connected in some way with obstructions met with by the river as it cut its bed through the lacustrine silt just above the gorge proper, or through the gravels of the plains just below it. A number in the gorge itself are rock-cut terraces covered with a thin veneer of gravel. As nearly all terraces are the remains of former flood plains — whether they are cut terraces or built terraces, or formed by a combination of both processes — any circumstances which tend to preserve these flood plains will favour terrace-development. 24 Transactions. I select the Rakaia Gorge as typical of all the rivers, because it is the simplest in form, and now consider how the terraces arise here in the light of the fact that they are the remains of former flood plains. In the Rakaia Gorge they are nearly all connected with obstructions : — (1.) The highest ones are intimately related with the morainic heaps of the old glaciers, or those heaps of morainic material but roughly assorted by fluvio-glacial action. The rough angular and subangular blocks were rather difficult to remove by river action, and they protected portions of the original gravels, or they allowed flood plains to be built up under their protection either on the upstream side or on the downstream side of the obstruction. The topmost terraces are nearly all associated with these morainic heaps, and they form a series totally distinct from the lower ones. (2.) The lower series of terraces have in most cases some connection with the underlying hard rocks, which in the Rakaia Gorge are principally volcanic. The flood-plain remnants arc frequently on the downstream side of prominent bluffs of solid rock. These protect flood plains which have been built up on a foundation of solid rock or cut out of former river gravels. The bluff causes the stream to move across towards the opposite bank. Flood plains are therefore likely to form under its pro- tection, as there is likely to be relatively slack water immediately below it in which suspended matter is dropped. A flood plain is thus rapidly formed, and when formed the bluff continues to protect it, prolong its life, and thus promote terrace-develop- ment. If these terraces have been formed on a floo: of solid rock they will be doubly secure, owing to the influence of cause No. 3, mentioned subsequently. If, however, they are terraces cut out of old gravels, the bluff will still exert a protective influence. The former condition explains the occurrence of most of the terraces in the gorge proper ; immediately after the river has passed through the gorge, the latter is the most im- portant. The sheltering action of bluffs is very apparent in the Ashburton and Waimakariri Valleys. (3.) The third condition which promotes terrace-development near the gorge of the river is the occurrence of defending ledges of solid rock, which the river exposes as it lowers its bed through the gravels and lacustrine silts above the rock bar, or through the gravels of the plains immediately below it. The influence of defensive ledges was urged by Hugh Miller the Younger in a paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh in the year 1882. I have not been able to see this paper, but an account of Miller's theory was published in the " American Journal of Speight. — Terrace-development of Canterbury Bivers. 25 Science," vol. xii. 1902, by Professor W. M. Davis when describ- ing the Terraces of Westfield Kiver, Mass. The phenomena he there 'describes are reproduced in our rivers : good examples occur in the Kakaia, but excellent ones are to be seen in the Waimakariri at Little Gorge Hill, where the railway crosses. It may be urged that there is no great difference between cause (2) and cause (3). It is quite true that a defending ledge may, under certain circumstances, become a protecting bluff ; but the latter will be after the bluff has done duty as a defending ledge and the river has lowered its bed considerably. However, in very many cases the action is quite distinct, and some pro- tecting bluffs have never been defending ledges. (4.) The same result is obtained also by the defending action of a tributary stream which pours in a load of sediment. Ac- cording to the general law of stream action, a tributary if fully supplied with waste will deposit it on joining the main river flowing on a gentler grade. In any case, the tributary pushes the main stream over. This action is much the same as a defensive ledge. The bank is defended from the destructive action of the main stream by the force of the tributary. If the main river can lower its bed, then we shall expect to have a series of terraces ; but they are different in character from those due to the previous causes. They are usually lower and broader, and the sequence is more perfect ; they are extremely common, and seen in almost every case when one stream joins another. Thev afford the most complete record of the oscillations of a river across its bed, and are more remarkable in this respect than those due to cause (3). Splendid examples of such terraces are to be seen at the junction of the Kowhai with the Waimaka- riri, and also at the junction of Woolshed Creek with the South Ashburton. Closely connected with the action of tributary streams is that of ta!us cones. One of the causes of the partial destruction of the terraces is the formation of talus cones from the high shingle banks. These grow, owing to the erosion towards the head of the cone, till intermittent streams flow down them. Erosion then proceeds apace. In this way a portion of the terrace is rapidly destroyed ; but the cone or fan on the floor of the river-valley protects the remaining portion of the terrace from the erosive action of the river, so that rapid destruction of one portion prolongs the life of the remainder. This action is to be seen in many places near the Rakaia Gorge. Cases of all these four modes of terrace-development are to be seen in the gorge itself, or immediately after the river debouches on to the plains. In the Rakaia they may be seen as far down as the Curiosity Shop beds, about three miles 26 Transactions. below the Gorge Bridge, where harder sandstones and limestones underlie the shingle. Here there is a good example of the com- bined effects of the above-mentioned agencies. A protecting bluff determines the commencement of a terrace on its down- stream side, and also protects the bank so as to cause one on its upstream side. The bluff also acts as a defensive ledge to the higher terraces, which were at first dependent on the larger and more resistent blocks of the terminal moraine of the Old Rakaia glacier. A little above the bluff are excellent examples of the protective action of talus cones, and ou the opposite side of the river, a little higher up, of the action of a tributary stream developed from a talus cone. All the above-mentioned causes are in operation in the Ash- burton and Waimakariri Rivers, but it must be noted that all terrace remnants cannot be assigned to them. A number of smaller remnants are not related in any way to obstructions — that is, as far as can be detected at present. It is possible that some of the terraces above the gorge, where the river is cutting out the silt and gravels filling the old lake, rnay^be the remains of old lacustrine beaches. The Plain Path. The fourth division of the river-course is that across the plains, when the river no longer meets solid obstructions in its bed. The terraces here are simple and continuous in character; the sequence is not so complete, as the remains of flood plain* are, as a rule, fewer and higher. The river-bank sometimes drops from the level of the plain to that of the water, a distance of as much as 400 ft. in a single face. These terraces are caused by the river moving across its bed lowering its channel as it does so, making and again destroying its flood plains. One reason why the terraces are so high is that the lower ones. being composed of loose and incoherent materials, are readilv removed, and the river is able to 3wing, in some cases, the whole width of its former highest channel. The high terraces are formed by the river planing off a strip every time it swings across its bed, and swinging to the full width possible a large proportion of the times. There is thus a tendency to produce high and simple terraces. These are higher, however, in the upper part of the plains, and gel lower as the river approaches 1 lie sea; in fact, it is certain that the Waimakariri is rapidly raising its bed in its lower portion — so much so that it threatens danger to Christchurch, and demands the erection of costly protective works as a defence in flood -time. On one occasion, in the year 1868, the river burst through, flooded the neighbouring country, took a course by an old river-bed, and ran in a considerable Speight. — Terrace-development of Canterbury Rivers. 27 body of water right through the city. The danger of this re- curring is all the more serious as the river is now showing a decided tendency to wear away its southern bank. The Rangi- tata and Rakaia are also aggrading their lower portions in all probability. Mr. Edward Dobson informs me — and examina- tion of the railway-levels confirms his statement — that the river is running at a higher level at the Rakaia railway-bridge than its old bed immediately north of it. The old bed is about three miles and a half wide, and bounded on the north by a high terrace, which the railway descends near the Bankside Station. At the foot of this terrace the bed is 317 ft. above sea-level ; but at about two miles and a half from it, going south, the level of the bed rises to 339 ft., and falls in the next mile to 337 ft., which is the level of the water at the bridge. This last height , is subject to slight variation, depending on the position and size of the anastomosing streams. These facts seem to show that in former times the river ran 20 ft. below its present level, and that in all probability it is now filling up the broad, flat trench which it once eroded out of the tolerably level plains. It is thus showing the characters of a stream on a fan, though in this case the fan is confined by the old river terraces. The section across the Rakaia river-bed at the railway is most instructive. The railway surveys show that, in most cases, the low terraces within the main terrace are not absolutely flat, but have a slight inclination away from the river, being higher at the edge than they are some distance back. They thus exhibit a form which resembles in some degree the scarp slope and dip slope of sedimentary rocks. The scarp corresponds to the terrace, and the dip slope to the gently backward-falling surface of the terrace. This resemblance is merely one of form, and not of structure, and it is exactly what might have been expected in a case where terraces are partly due to erosion, and partly to building up a flood plain, the latter process being the more important. It is unfortunate that this interesting sectionrcannot be reproduced. Part II. From the foregoing description of the mode of occurrence of the terraces, it is evident that there must be some cause or causes of exceptional character which have contributed to their formation. In order that a river may form terraces on the scale that occurs here, it must have considerable power of corrasion, both vertical and lateral, and in order to form high terraces the former must be relatively more important. I will therefore consider the circumstances that affect the power of 28 Transactions. corrasion, and discuss briefly their bearing on the case in ■question. The three main circumstances which affect the corrasive power of a river are — (1) its gradient. (2) its volume, and (3) its load. The Gradient. The following table, taken from Haast's " Geology of Canter- bury," gives the grade of the rivers on that part of their course between tbeir gorges and the sea. Alongside this, for pur- poses of comparison, I have also put the grade of the plains where the rivers cross them : — Slope of Slope of Rivers in Plains in Feet per Feet per Mile. Mile. Waimakariri . . . . . . 28 36 Rakaia.. .. .. ..23* 39i Ashburton .. .. . . 40~ 42i Rangitata . . . . . . 37 45 These figures give the average slope, but in both the grade of the rivers and also in that of the plains there is a perceptible flattening on approaching the sea. The following features are shown by this table : — (1.) The rivers all have a steep slope as they cross the plains — in fact, they are still mountain torrents. They should therefore be eroding their beds very rapidly, as their banks are com- posed of incoherent material, were the erosive power given by their high grade not partly counteracted by other influences. Owing also to this lack of consolidation, lateral corrasion is relatively great. In the upper portion of the plain track, vertical corrasion is more important, so that the terraces are higher ; but in the lower part, lateral corrasion becomes more important, and the terraces are much broader and lower. (2.) The slope of the bed is dependent on the size of the river. The smallest river has the most rapid fall per mile, and the largest river — the Rakaia — the least fall. (3.) In every case the slope of the plain is greater than the slope of the river, but there is no connection between the slope of the plains and the size of the present river crossing them. Changes in the Height of the Land- As the grade of the rivers will depend either directly or in- directly on the height of the land above sea-level and its dis- tance from the sea, it is necessary here to consider the evidence for elevation and depression. Speight. — Terrace-development of Canterbury Rivers. 29 (].) Evidence for a Recnet Elevation. The existence of peat-beds, as well as buried logs — that is. an old land surface — is proved by artesian-well borings in the Christchurch area. Peat has been found at the following depths : at Ward's brewery, 400 ft. ; at Sydenham, 500 ft. ; and at Isling- ton, 700 ft., below the surface of the ground. As the first two places are less than 20 ft. and the last only 112 ft. above sea- level, the evidence is convincing that the land stood at least 600 ft. higher than at present when the outskirts of the plains were formed. This proveo a substantial elevation in recent geological times ; and as artesian borings are put down further a greater elevation may be proved, as only in the immediate neighbourhood of the Port Hills has solid rock been reached by such borings. Additional positive evidence of an increased height of the land is to be found in the bays which surround Banks Peninsula. They are all, or nearly all, drowned valleys, and were formed when the land was higher. In most cases they are valleys which have been formed wholly by water action. In the cases of Akaroa and Lyttelton Harbours, the original craters of volcanoes have, perhaps, been enlarged by explosions, but certainly have been further amplified by water erosion and extended into the valley form. The exposed floors of these valleys grade into the submerged portion. The usual depth of the bay near its outlet to the ocean is from 6 to 8 fathoms — ■ that is. from 40 ft. to 50 ft. — and this gives the minimum eleva- tion necessary to allow the valleys to be formed. But all the bays have been filled to a marked extent by mud washed from the hillsides, so that no accurate estimate can be made of the depth of the rock floor beneath. Borings in search of arte- sian water-supply put down in the valley behind Sumner failed to reach either water or solid rock at a depth of 200 ft. The date of this elevation is difficult to determine in the absence of any fossil evidence or any other accurate time indi- cation; but, taken in conjunction with the evidence from arte- sian wells, it is, I think, of fairly recent date. Another proof that the land has recently been higher is afforded by the shape and position of the valleys of the streams near Timaru. In most cases they are submerged where they enter the sea. The evidence from the valleys as well as that from the wells proves conclusively that the land was recently much higher, certainly as much as 600 ft. This elevation would produce a great extension of the land eastward, as the sea-bottom is sensibly flat till the hundred-fathom line is reached at a distance of about forty miles from the present coast-line. Then the depth increases very rapidly to over 1,000 fathoms within the next 30 Transactions. few miles. This submarine bank or shelf no doubt marks the- utmost eastward extension of the land since Pliocene times. The fan of the Rakaia and Ashburton at one time stretched further east than the present coast-line, as pointed out by Sir Julius von Haast. This would probably have been so extended during a period when the land was at a higher level. On de- pression setting in, the outer segment of the fan was swept away owing to its being exposed to the full force of the heavy seas and the strong northerly drift on the coast ; and this would, no doubt, contain that portion where the streams were actively aggrading their beds. In the case of the Waimakariri, however, this portion has only been submerged, not actively eroded, owing to the protection afforded by the volcanic mass of Banks Peninsula and its submarine easterly and north-easterly exten- sion. Soundings marked on charts show this extension, and also show that the depth increases very gradually from the mouth of the Waimakariri for some distance out into Pegasus Bay. The coast-line here is not marked by any cliff such as occurs on that part of the Ninety-mile Beach near the mouth of the Ashburton River and on the coast near Oamaru. In this place erosion of the coast-line by the action of the waves is extremely rapid, and threatens serious loss in the near future unless ade- quate protection is given. An elevation of even 600 ft. would have considerable eff-vt on the climate of the country. In the first place, it would largely increase the extent of country above the snow-line, and hence cause a great extension of the glaciers. The present terminal face of the Tasman Glacier is 2,460 ft. above sea-level ; an increased height of the land of, say, 600 ft. would bring it down nearly to the upper end of Lake Pukaki, which is 1,550 ft. above sea-level — that is, supposing the glacier would reach the same distance above sea-level in time of high land as of low land. This supposition may not be strictly accurate, as it is quite possible that the glacier would come down further owing to the increased accumulations of snow; but even if not, the effect of the elevation would still be very marked. The effect of high land is easily seen on comparing the size of the glaciers at the head of the Waimakariri and Rakaia with those near Mount Cook. Even allowing for the increased average height of the peaks in the last-named locality, the glaciers are of enormously greater importance and come down to a much lower level. The height of the terminal face of the Tasman Glacier is 2,460 ft., while that of the Lyell Glacier at the head of the Rakaia is 3,568 ft., and that of the Waimakariri 4, 1 62 ft. above sea-level. It is possible, therefore, that, owing to increased snowfall Speight. — Terrace-development of Canterbury Rivers. 31 ■due to elevation and to larger collecting-grounds, the proved elevation of 600 ft. would cause a marked glacier extension ; it might even cause a glacier epoch. Captain Hutton has previously explained the advance of the glaciers as due to increased height of the land, and pointed out, from biological evidence, that there could have been no marked refrigeration of the climate. Another effect of elevation of the land would be to cause desert or steppe conditions to prevail on the plains at the foot of the mountains. Owing to their increased height, the mountains would intercept more of the moisture brought by prevaibng westerly winds from the Tasman Sea, which, owing to its depth, probably existed under the same conditions then as now. The mountains would then intercept more moisture, and cause it to fall as snow on the higher levels. Their eastern slopes near Mount Hutt and Mount Torlesse receive their chief rainfall from the west ; but, when the higher central ranges cut off this moisture, the eastern slopes would receive much less of this westerly rain. Further, owing to the coast-line being so far to the east of its present position, there would be on the plains a smaller rainfall from the prevailing winds which at present supply the coastal lands. Even at the present time the plains of Canterbury experience a modified steppe climate. The average rainfall for Hokitika is about 119 in. per year, while at Lincoln, near the eastern border of the Canterbury Plains, it is only 25 in., and in one year it fell as low as 14 in. The average annual rainfall for Christchurch is only 23 in. These steppe conditions would be intensified during a period of elevation, and the climate would resemble that of Patagonia or Thibet as it is at present. The present steppe conditions are marked by the great number of xerophilous plants which are found in Canterbury and Otago, and there are indications from their life history that the desert conditions were at one time more severe. In his admirable paper on the " Plant Geography of the Waimakariri," Dr. Cockayne draws special attention to the present climatic conditions of the country, and emphasizes the existence of steppe conditions. When speaking of the eastern climatic plant-region he says, " The cecological condition of this region is essentially xerophilous. This is not to be wondered at when the small rainfall and constant drying winds in con- junction with the usually stony soil is considered." In this same pap?r, in giving expression to an opinion of Diels, the great cecological and systematic botanist, he further says, '' Diels was much struck with the extreme xerophilous character ■of many plants, which he considered out of all proportion to any severity of climate they have now to endure. At the present 32 Transactions. time the driest regions of New Zealand are less arid and possess- a more equable climate than Middle Europe, so he considered Carmichaelia, Hymenanthera, Corokia, and some others to be descendants of a forest flora which had been forced to retreat northwards during a rising of the land, which led to the formation of a dry easterly steppe region, where survivors of the forest had become modified and assumed the structure and physi- ognomy of desert plants." If this opinion of Diels is correct,. I think the conditions are easily explained by an increased height of the mountains modifying the climate. However, Dr. Cockayne shows in his paper that the present conditions are- severe enough to account for the plant modifications.* (2.) Evidences of Depression. The evidence for the lowering of the land below its present level is as follows : — (1.) Marine terraces occur at Kaikoura, Port Robinson, Amuri BlufE, Motonau, Conway River, and at Banks Peninsula. They are found as high as 600 ft. above present sea-level at Amuri Bluff. The first five of these have been recorded pre- viously by Haast, Hutton, Hector, and McKay, but the last case has not been previously noted as far as I am aware. The evidence for this is as follows : Round the coast of Banks Peninsula the headlands have in many cases flat extremities. The lava-flows which form them dip outwards at low angles, but the edges of the streams are truncated and cut level on the upper surface. The greatest height at which I have noted this marine terrace is at Lyttelton Heads, where the elevation is over 450 ft. ; the same phenomenon can be seen at Whitewash Head, near Sumner, and at the Long Lookout Point. It is well marked, besides, in other places. The height of this terrace diminishes, as a rule, on those parts of the coast-line which would be exposed during submergence to strong currents and heavy seas. It is low on the southern side of the peninsula. I have not come across in any place traces of marine organisms, but it is not likely they would occur plentifully, or be preservt d when they did occur, in such a position. One of the principal conditions which promote rapid erosion on rocky coasts seems to be the presence of strong currents, which can sweep away the material dislodged by w;.v>' and other action. Headlands which stretch out far into the sea, particularly if the water be deep on either side, will therefore commonly show a marked wave-cut *])r. Cockayne has told me privately that he has latterly modified his opinion somewhat, and now thinks that present conditions are hardly severe enough to account for the xerophilouS plant forms. — R. S. Speight. — Terrace-development of Canterbury Rivers. 33 terrace, while an even coast-line will show none. Thus we have the remarkable shore platforms at Kaikoura Peninsula, but hardly any sign of them on the steep hills to the north and south. The conditions would be extremely favourable for the cutting of distinct shore platforms on the spurs of Banks Penin- sula during a period of depression. (2.) The existence of the silt deposit or loess was held by Captain Hutton to be a proof of subsidence. If it is a marine deposit, it undoubtedly proves that the land was much lower — quite 1,000 ft. — as may be inferred from the distribution of the deposit, and its present occurrence so far above sea-level would be a proof of subsequent elevation. However, there are strong reasons for believing it is a wind deposit, and I know from conversations with Captain Hutton that he was not quite satis- fied with some of his evidence. One difficulty which strikes me with regard to Captain Hutton's contention is the following : The so-called silt must have' been formed of glacial rock-flour during a period of severe glaciation — i.e., during a period of marked elevation of the land. All observers are agreed, I believe, in this. Now, Captain Hutton's theory demands that it should have been distributed into its present position by marine action during a time of depression of the land. It is absolutely impossible that the two processes could have gone on simultaneously in the Canterbury area. If the silt were swept down by great rivers issuing from the glaciers and dis- tributed by the sea at their mouths, the area of deposition would be forty or fifty miles to the eastward of the present coast-line. Further, if the sea advanced to cover the Canterbury Plains, the glaciers would then have disappeared, or have lingered on only the very highest parts of the Southern Alps. The sea must therefore have distributed the silt during a time of depression posterior to the time of elevation when glaciation was at its maximum. It would have been expected that the silt would be thickest in the hollows and on lower ground. Such is not the case, however ; it shows a marked tendency to be thickest on the spurs and to thin out on low ground. In this way it closely resembles the distribution of the loess in the Valley of the Mississippi, to explain which the aid of the sea has never been called in. Professor A. Heim, of the University of Zurich, an observer of wide experience, and an authority of the greatest weight on glacial and allied problems, differed with Captain Hutton on this point. After a visit to New Zealand he published in Zurich, in the year 1905, a paper which has many valuable observations on geological problems in this country. The following is a translation of his remarks in this work on our so-called loess : 2— Trans. 34 Transactions. ' When the great glaciers which were thrust forward to the outlets of the alpine valleys receded, and the ground moraines which were left behind were dried up by the north-west wind (Fohn), then the fine dust was blown far over the surface right up to the sea. The deposit of dust accumulated in the form of the fertile loess. Then, as we see in many parts of Germany, the loess covered the land-surface, sometimes from half a metre to a metre in thickness, and sometimes from 10 to '15 metres. Where it breaks away on the upper edge of the river-bed region it forms perpendicular walls," and here long-buried moa-bones frequently appear. But even now the loess formation is going on. We have ourselves seen how thick are the clouds of dust whirled up from the broad, shingly river-beds by the north-west wind and spread over the cultivated land. The rain, when it falls afterwards, unites the dust with the agricultural land. A part of the fertility of the eastern plains depends on the loess covering." After a general consideration of the evidence, and from my own observations, I have come to the conclusion that the loess has not been beneath the sea. It is very thick on the hills between Tai Tapu and Birdling's Flat, but is completely swept away from those places which have been exposed to lake or sea erosion. It could not exist in its peculiar position on the tops of spurs, &c, if they had been washed by the sea since it was laid down. Further, if it had been a marine deposit it should have covered the whole landscape irrespective of its form, and it is unlikely that it has been removed by denuding agents from so many places and left comparatively untouched on the spurs and the sides of valleys. I am therefore inclined to think it was a wind deposit during the steppe conditions of a higher land and drier climate, with severe windstorms sweeping from great river-beds greater clouds of dust than are seen now in the Rakaia and Waimakariri, although these are by no means of insignificant proportions at the present time. The deposit of loess covers up the old shore platforms on the south-west side of Banks Peninsula, therefore the depression during which they were formed was pre-loess, and therefore before the great glacier extension. If this is really so, it serves to emphasize the recency of this extension. The general order of events would therefore be a period of low laud, when the marine terraces were formed, then an elevation in glacier times, followed by a depression till now, with probably minor periods of slight elevation. There is a slight elevation going on now, as maybe seen from the wave-worn caves at Sumner qo"w several feet above high-water mark, and the bands of sand-dunes between Christchurch and the sea. This, no doubt, accounts for the low. Speight. — Terrace-development of Canterbury Rivers. 35 broad terraces to be seen in the lower reaches of the Avon and Heathcote Rivers. The elevation of the land is always considered a most important point in causing terrace-development, but this is chiefly in those cases where rivers have been near their base-level. Subsequent elevation causes them to form terraces owing to the restoration to them of their power of corrosion. This is the case of the Avon and Heathcote terraces just mentioned. Now, the Canterbury rivers have a remarkably steep grade, and a depression of the land would hardly be felt in their upper and middle portions. I think it very probable that if the land were lowered till the shore-line corresponded with the main line oi railway, the erosive power of the streams near the gorges would be only very slightly altered. Further, if terracing were due to elevation it should be progressive upstream from the coast, whereas the contrary is the case : the terraces are highest in their upper portions. I do not think that change in the height of the land has materially affected the erosive power of these rivers. Near the sea-coast it has undoubtedly exerted some influence, and the raising of the bed of the Waimakariri near Belfast is most pro- bably due to continued depression of the land. The Volume and Load. Other causes must therefore be sought to explain the river terraces. If we consider change in volume, we are forced to conclude that our rivers have shrunk in volume from what they were in the glacier epoch. If our mountains were higher, they would intercept more snow, and the average volume of the rivers would be greater. The largest rivers of Canterbury, such as the Waitaki and Eakaia, drain the highest portions of the Alps ; further, the Rangitata, with a comparatively small drainage- basin, is nearly as large a river as the Waimakariri with a large drainage-basin, because the small area supplying the Rangitata is an area of high mountains, where the glaciers are larger. Our rivers are therefore smaller than they were, and they would not be likely, therefore, to be able to terrace their beds were this not accompanied by a marked diminution in the load. It is important to notice here the different grade of the plains — that is, of the old glacier rivers as compared with the grade of the present rivers. They are all, without exception, running on a gentler gradient now than formerly. If we except the hypothesis of elevation along an axis through the outer range of mountains, we are forced to conclude that the last important cause — viz., the load of the river — is the predominating factor in determining whether the rivers could terrace the plains 36 Transactions. or not. The volume in all probability is now less, the grade of the rivers is less, and yet terraces are formed on a tre- mendous scale. Part III. The existence of enormous supplies of waste in the valley of a river profoundly influences its action. The energy of a stream is limited, and its excess is chiefly spent on transportation and corrasion. It will therefore be evident that terrace-forming must be connected in some wav with the load a stream carries. If the load is excessive, there will be no energy left for lowering its bed, and hence for forming permanent terraces. Manv of the laws governing streams may be studied by examining the miniature fans and deltas formed at the roadside or in other places after heavy rain. The following order of events is ap- parently true for a miniature fan as for our large rivers : — During flood-time the stream is fully loaded with waste from the surrounding country, but drops it on the gently sloping ground, thus raising its bed. Terraces are absent. When the height of the flood is past, the supply of waste falls off — only smaller particles are carried ; and there is an excess of energy left over for corrasion, and the fan is terraced, on a small scale it is true, but the processes and the sequence of events are just the same as on a large scale. If this is so, the degradation of its bed by a river which is fully loaded in flood-time will occur principally as the flood is falling, and will continue till the river is running clear again and carrying no sediment. I have re- peatedly noticed this order of events on shingle fans, and I have received confirmation of these facts from engineers whose busi- ness it is to supervise the fords across the streams on the Christ- church-Hokitika Road. It must be remembered that our rivers when in flood are undoubtedly highly charged with waste, and therefore differ greatly from the condition of ordinary streams when in flood. These may be discoloured by fine particles. and may even move stones along; but the supply of waste on the Canterbury mountains is exceptional in amount, therefore our rivers in flood-time are comparable to the excessively charged streams of a small fan, and the sequence of events is apparently the same, although the conditions are somewhat different. I think it can be proved that when the volume of a stream diminishes, the transporting power falls off in a slightly greater ratio than the energy. The result of this will be that, when a stream is fully Loaded,. on a diminution in volume there will be an excess of energy left over for corrasion, and the stream will therefore channel its bed. The explanation of this phenomenon may be due to the fact that with a falling volume the larger Speight. — Terrace-development of Canterbury Rivers. 37 particles are dropped first, and if there is not an approximately equal quantity of smaller material for the river to move in place of the material dropped there will be an excess of energy left over for corrasion. Under ordinary circumstances there is an insufficient supply, and so the river-channel is lowered. The supply of waste has such an important bearing on the corrasive power of a river that a consideration of the circum- stances which control the supply in the Canterbury mountains will be relevant here. One of their most striking features is the vast supply of debris supplied by their slopes exposed to frost erosion. This effect is so marked that whole mountain- sides are covered with angular debris, which is continually moving downwards, but especially so in the case of shingle-slips. These are often from 2,000 ft. to 3,000 ft. in height, and may be as much as a mile wide. The reasons for this excessive supply of waste are as follows : (1.) The iointed character of the rocks in the drainage-basins of the rivers. (2.) Owing to intense folding of the rocks, they frequently dip at very steep angles, and therefore the weakest beds are exposed to the atmosphere without being protected by more resistent beds. (3.) The age of the folding dates back to Mesozoic times, and therefore weather- ing agents have been able to exert their influence to a marked extent. (4.) The range, both annual and diurnal, of the tem- perature is very great. (5.) The absence of close plant-covering over large areas. All these causes promote extensive disintegra- tion, and any explanation of the life history of our rivers must take them into account. One of the principal factors determining the production of waste is the extent of mountain-slope not protected by a close covering of vegetation. The area of most vigorous denudation is between the snow-line and the upper limit of this covering. The snow protects the underlying rocks to a certain extent ; but, nevertheless, even here the denudation is rapid, but espe- cially on those steep faces where snow cannot he. When the snow is turned to ice the effect is somewhat similar. Erosion will not proceed as rapidly under the ice as on the slopes at a higher and lower level free from ice, but exposed to the action of frost. The effect of elevation of the land mil be to make the area above the snow- line greater and to expose a much greater area to the influence of frost. The part affected in the Southern Alps is principally that between the 3,500 ft. and the 7,000 ft. contour lines. If the land were raised, the country affected would be approximately that between the same levels, but the area included would be very much greater ; although this would be diminished by the accumulation of ice in hollows where it could not melt. Large areas below the snow-line would be 38 Transactions. covered with glaciers ; but, in spite of this, the area exposed to frost action would be more extensive, and therefore the supply of waste would be in excess. A very large amount of erosion due to glaciers, as estimated by the proportion of sediment in the rivers flowing from their terminal faces, is due primarily to the action of frost on the hillsides above the glaciers. The supply of waste in this case would be increased during elevation, owing to the previous loosening action of the plants on the rocks rendering them subject to other weathering agencies ; again, if this were also attended with a general desicca- tion of the climate on the mountains fronting the east, the supply of waste would be further increased owing to the dis- appearance of the protective plant-covering. From a general survey of the country in the upper basins of our rivers I am of opinion that the period of maximum weathering has passed. The old and mature shingle- slips are far larger than those now existing. Vegetation in many cases has got the better of the moving shingle, and in some cases the old fans are completely covered with forest. Our shingle- slips at the present time are diminishing in extent, and they will con- tinue to do so unless the plant-covering is destroyed either by nature herself or by man. The excess of waste during a period of elevation accounts for the present form of the Canterbury Plains. They have been formed by the overlapping fans of great glacier streams, as can be conclusively proved by carefully contouring their surface. The contour lines show them to have been formed in exactly the same way as an ordinary shingle fan, except that their grade is more gentle. They were built up to their present height when the rivers were overloaded with sediment, during a time of high land, severe glaciation, and acute frost action. On the land being depressed, the supply of waste would fall off, and the rivers would begin to terrace their old deposits in a manner analogous to that in which a stream terraces its fan during a falling flood. This action was certain to occur unless the volume of the river fell off in a relatively greater proportion. I believe that such would not occur in Canterbury, owing to the excessive amount of waste which would be poured into the rivers falling off in a greater ratio than the decrease in snow or rain. It will be noted in every case that the grade of the rivers is less than that of the plains ; the rivers are therefore able to do their work on a gentler slope than formerly. This can only be due to — (1.) Elevation of the interior of the country since the plains were formed. (2.) Rivers having a greater volume, and therefore power to move their load on a gentler grade : this is extremely unlikely. (3.) A diminution in the supply of waste : Speight. — Terrace-development of Canterbury Rivers. 39 this last appears to rne the most satisfactory explanation. No doubt the erosion of its bed which the river is enabled to per- form owing to the diminution of the supply of waste would tend to be neutralised by the depression of the land proved on page 32. If the land had been low, and the former supply of waste comparatively small, this depression would have been sufficient to produce aggradation instead of corrasion. But the land is still high, the rivers are still powerful torrents, and the supply of waste fast diminishing. These factors are sufficiently great to nullify the effect of depression in the higher portion of the river- course ; but the rivers have now reached such a stage in their development that in their lower course aggrading is now going on : hence depression has made its influence apparent. This is what might reasonably have been expected ; and, if depression continues, this effect will become more and more marked, so that the terraces will tend to disappear. However, should the slight elevation which has taken place recently continue, aggrading in the lower portion of the river- course will cease and terracing will be resumed. I have been confirmed in my conclusion that the supply of waste is a controlling factor in the terrace- development of our rivers by observation of the history of shingle fans. In their youthful stage they are built up by an aggrading stream ; in their vigorous middle period they are partly channelling their fans and partly building them up on their outskirts ; when they reach their mature stage they become channelled and terraced by the stream that runs through them. This terracing closely resembles that on the plain course of our rivers. It is more marked near the apex of the fan, and falls off towards the fringe This may be due to the fact that the river is more confined near the apex of the fan, and therefore more capable of vertical corrasion. But it is also due to the fact that in former times of excessive supply of waste that waste was chiefly deposited just below the gorge. It may perhaps be due to increase in volume of the river as it enlarges its drainage-area. However, increase in volume will not explain the fact that after every freshet a stream apparently terraces its fan on a diminishing volume. In his accounts of the formation of the Canterbury Plains, Captain Hutton maintained that they had been levelled by the sea and subsequently raised, so that the rivers were able to terrace them. If this were the case, terracing should progress up - stream, should show a maximum development near the sea, and not, as in this case, near the gorges. If, however, the loess is not marine but of eeolian origin, as seems very probable, and since it is incapable of resisting marine erosion, there can- 40 Transactions. not have been any recent elevation of more than a few feet. The general recent direction of land movement has been down- ward, and this is indicated also by the aggradation going on in the Lower Waimakariri and Rakaia. The evidence afforded by Otago, where river- terracing is also shown on a gigantic scale, points distinctly to a sinking- land. Unless there has been at the same time an increase in the rainfall — and as long as conditions have been the same over the Tasman Sea there seems to be no reason why this should have increased on the mountains — we are at once driven to con- sider the supply of waste to be a predominating factor in ter- race-formation in the valleys of the Canterbury rivers. If we consider those parts of the world where terraces are greatly developed— e.g., British Columbia, the Rocky Mountains region, the Himalayas, and Patagonia — we must be struck by the fact that they have all passed through a severe glaciation, when waste filled the valleys, and now terracing is actively going on. Elevation of the land has had an important effect in some cases, but not in all. It seems that too little consideration has been given to the control exerted by excessive waste- supply. Note. I have omitted mention in the above of the effect which sag- ging of the coast-line might have had on the formation of terraces. Owing to the loading of the coast-line with enormous quantities of waste from the land, it is highly likely that differential lowering of the crust has taken place, and is probably going on now ; perhaps the general lowering since the glacier maximum may be intensified in the coastal regions by this process. It is highly likely that a large syncline has been forming under the Canter- bury Plains and to seaward of them, dating from some time posterior to the Upper Cretaceous period, and that the coal- measures and overlying limestones and other beds have ex- perienced the results of this movement. Very interesting evi- dence on this point has been afforded by the cruise of the steam-trawler " Nora Niven." Mr. Edgar Waite, Curator of the Canterbury Museum, informs me that at certain positions along the coast large pieces of brown coal were brought up in the trawl. They were frequently from 2 ft. to 3 ft. in length, and weighed at times over 1 cwt. They were obtained from the following stations : No. 39, twenty-six miles east of Timaru ; depth, 28-31 fathoms. No. 42, thirty-one miles north-east of Timaru ; depth, 21-24 fathoms. No. 54, twenty-seven miles north-east of Godley Head; depth, 21-27 fathoms. No. 57, four miles east-south-east of Waiau River ; depth, 26 43 Eathoms. Their occurrence at such a uniform depth, their absence else- Speight. — Terrace-development of Canterbury Rivers. 41 where, and their large size renders it highly improbable that they were carried to these places either by ocean-currents or by rivers. In fact, pieces of coal of such size would be quickly reduced to fragments in any of the rivers which cut through the coal- measures. It seems, therefore, highly probable that such masses have come from outcrops of coal in positions which come to the level of the sea-bottom in the localities where they are found. Similar occurrences of coal outcropping on the sea-bottom are recorded from the North Sea. If this is really so, then the brown-coal measures of Malvern, Mount Somers, and of other places along the foot of mountains probably extend eastward under the plains in the form of a great syncline, and reappear at a depth of about 150 ft. below sea-level about thirty miles to the eastward of the present coast-line on the scarp of the continental shelf. It is therefore likely that sagging of the crust has gone on in Post-Cretaceous times, but with .periods of depression and elevation, as proved by the marine terraces on Banks Peninsula. If this has gone on recently, it would no doubt affect the form of the terraces ; but I am inclined to think that its effect is not apparent, unless the depression of the land which went on since the glacier maximum is partly due to this cause. The effect of this depression is, without doubt, apparent in the lower courses of the present rivers, as explained previously. In conclusion, I have to express my sincere thanks to the following gentlemen for their kindly criticism and generous advice and assistance on many points : Dr. L. Cockayne, Dr. F. W. Hilgendorf, Messrs. E. G. Hogg, E. K. Mulgan, E. M. Laing, T. H. Jackson, Edgar R. Waite, and Edward Dobson, C.E. Bibliography. The following is a list of papers, &c, which have been referred to in the above, or which have some direct bearing on the sub- ject :— Haast, Sir J. von : " Geology of Canterbury and Westland, with a Special Chapter on the Formation of the Canterbury Plains." Haast, Sir J. von : " On the Geology of the Canterbury Plains." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. vi. Thomson, J. T. : "On the Glacial Action and Terrace-formation of South New Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. vi. (This paper draws special attention to the resemblance between the mode of forming a river-fan and that of the plains.) Crawford, J. C. : " On the Old Lake System of New Zealand, with Some Observations on the Formation of the Canterburv Plains." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. viii. 42 Transactions. Hardcastle, J. : " Origin of the Loess-deposit of the Timaru Plateau." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxii. Cox, S. H. : " Report of the Geological Survey, Mount Somers and Malvern Hills District, 1883." (This gives a good description of the geological structure of the rocks in the districts named, and in particular those near the Rakaia Gorge.) Hutton, Captain F. W. : "On the Cause of the Former Great Extension of the Glaciers in New Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. viii. Hutton, Captain F. W. : " Note on the Silt-deposit at Lyttelton." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xv. Hutton, Captain F. W. : "On the Lower Gorge of the Waimaka- riri." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xvi. Hutton, Captain F. W. : " The Geological History of New- Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxii. Hutton. Captain F. W. : "On the Formation of the Canterbury Plains." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxvii (1904). Hutton, Captain F. W. : " Report on the North-east Portion of the South Island." Geological Survey Report, 1872-3. Hutton, Captain F. W. : " The Origin of the Fauna and Flora of New Zealand." " Annals of Natural History," vol. xv (1885). In these articles Captain Hutton puts forward his views as regards the reason for the extension of the glaciers, the evidence for the marine origin of the loess, and for the forma- tion of the Canterbury Plains. As they come from such a distinguished author, they are worthy of the greatest con- sideration. Cockayne, Dr. L. : " The Plant Geography of the Waimakariri." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxii. This paper gives an excellent account of the present climatic conditions of the basin of the Waimakariri, as well as of its oecological botany. Special attention has been paid to the xerophilous plants, and to the reasons for their frequent occurrence in this area. Hikendorf, Dr. F. W. : " The Influence of the Terrestrial Rota- tion on the Canterbury Rivers." Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxix (1906). This paper is a valuable contribution to the literature dealing with the river-terraces. In it the author attempts to prove that the earth's rotation has affected the form of the terraces. While admitting that this is a vera causa, yet the geological difficulties in the way of conclusively demonstrating its effect are so great that I cannot regard the conclusion as satisfactorily established. The labour and Gkiffin. — Development of Neiv Zealand Conifer Leaves. 43 care which the author has displayed in collecting his data are worthy of admiration, and this paper will always remain a standard one with reference to the form of the cross section of the river-beds from terrace to terrace, whatever the cause of this form may be. Dr. Albert Heim, Professor : " Neujahrsblatt von der Natur- forschenden Gesellschaft auf das Jahr, 1905, Neuseeland.*' Zurich, 1905. EXPLANATION OF PLATES VI-VIIa. Plate VI. 1. Looking south-west through the Rakaia Gorge. The terrace in the fore- ground has been eroded largely from solid rock, outcrops of which can be seen on its level surface in three places. 2. Upper Waimakariri. Partially truncated spur, taken from the top of another on opposite side of river-bed, which is here about three-quarters of a mile wide. 3. Looking down Rakaia River from the Gorge Bridge, showing river-bed and high terraces. Plate VII. 1. River Hawden, at junction with the Waimakariri, showing aggrading shingle-streams filling up the bottom of an old lake-bed. 2. Upper Waimakariri River, showing rochcs moutonnees and glacial terrace, near top of picture. Plate VIIa. Map of part of Canterbury District. Art. III. — The Development of some New Zealand Conifer Leaves with regard to Transfusion Tissue and to Adaptation to Environment. By Miss E. M. Griffin, M.A. Communicated by Professor A. P. W. Thomas. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 14th November, 1906.] Plates VIII-X. The present investigations have been confined principally to species of two genera, Podocarpus and Dacrydium, both belonging to Eickler's and later to Engler's group Podocarpece, which by many botanists are regarded as being more or less primitive Conifers. As far as I have been able to ascertain, the species taken as the objects of this research have not yet been investigated 44 Transactions. with regard to the development of their leaves. In only one place have I seen the structure of any of them described. Mr. Worsdell, in his valuable paper on " Transfusion Tissue,"* has just indicated the structure of one New Zealand Conifer, Podocarpus totara, presumably of the mature leaf ; but, as will be seen later, a slightly different structure has been seen in fresh material. More will also be said in connection with this paper when the origin of transfusion tissue in the Podocarpece is discussed. Another paper dealing with a similar subject is one entitled " Centripetal Wood in Leaves of Conifers," by Ch. Bernard, f Unfortunately I have not a copy of this paper, but from a short summary of it which appears in the Journ. Micros. Soc. Lond., Dec, 1904, it seems that he has confined his attention entirely to the bundle, and in particular to transfusion tissue. From his results he arrives at the same conclusion as does Mr. Worsdell with regard to the origin of transfusion tissue in Conifers. Papers dealing with the structure of other Conifer leaves seem to be very numerous, but only a very small number of them deal with leaves from the standpoint of development in a par- ticular species. The most important work in this direction is one by Aug. Daguillon, " Recherches morphologiques sur les feuilles des Coniferes," written, " pour obtenir le grade de docteur es sciences naturelles" in 1890. Daguillon has taken for his research the leaves of some species belonging to the genera Abies, Picea, Cedrus, and Larix, and has confined himself to strictly morphological (in the limited sense of the word) con- siderations of their development. In dealing with the Podo- carpece, while keeping in view the morphological aspect, I have endeavoured in each species to go a step further and to ex- plain the development by physiological considerations. This paper of Daguillon's will be dealt with later, at the end of this thesis, where a short comparison of the morphological results obtained in these two rather widely different groups of Conifers will be given. It has been thought best not to institute com- parisons with outside groups in the main part of this paper, as these would obscure the connection between the more closely allied species. The following is the summary given by Daguillon at the end of his work (a translation has been given for clear- ness) : — In the Abietinece — (1.) The existence of primordial leaves — i.e., of leaves intermediate between cotyledon and mature leaves — is constant. (2.) The passage from the primordial form can take place without numerous transitions, as in Pinus, or by * Trans. Linn. Sue. Lond., 1897. | Beiheft. Z. Bot. CentralbL, svii. (1904). Geiffin. — Development of New Zealand Conifer Leaves. 45 insensible transitions, as in Abies. (3.) This passage is some- times characterized by a modification of phyllotaxis. (4.) Some- times marked by a change in the epidermal surface. (5.) Nearly always accompanied by the development below the epiderm of one or more sclerenchymatous layers, which afford the leaf protection and support. (6.) The pericyclic sclerenchyme, which encloses more or less completely the median vein, acquires a considerable development. Further, among the two sorts of elements of which it is composed (cells with bordered pits and fibres with smooth membranes), the latter are often absent from the primordial leaves, appearing with the passage from the primordial to the definite form. (7.) In certain genera (Abies and Pinus) the fibro-vascular system of the median vein, proceeding from a single bundle of the stem, bifurcates in the interior of the adult, while it remains simple in the pri- mordial leaf. (8.) In all cases the number of conducting elements of the xylem and of the phloem augments when the primordial passes into the mature leaf. (9.) When foliar parenchyma is heterogeneous and bifacial the differentiation of the palisade parenchvma is generally accentuated in the adult leaves. Before proceeding to the main part of the work, it might be as well to add a word or two about .the material used, and its preparation for sections. In all cases the leaves have been obtained directly from nature in different localities round about Auckland. As far as possible, only plants growing under exactly the same environment have been used for the different developmental stages. The sections from which most of the drawings have been made were cut by hand. It was found impossible to get very good results from material imbedded in paraffin and cut by the microtome. The great thickness of the epidermis and hypoderm no doubt largely accounts for this — in the first place making penetration hard during imbedding processes, and in the second place causing an obstruction to the razor, especially in trans- verse sections. By stripping off the epidermis and hypoderm good results were obtained by the microtome in longitudinal sections (radial and tangential) of the vascular bundle in the cotyledons of two species of Podocarpus. The method of double-staining with haemalum and saffranin has been found the most convenient and differential. Sections treated thus have been supplemented by others which have been mounted straight in a mixture of glycerine, alcohol, and saffranin. These sections are much less likely to have become distorted, while the saffranin marks off well such tissues as are lignified. 46 Transactions. The drawings have all been done with the aid of a camera lucida. Classification of Species taken. (Engler.) Group . . . . • • Taxace^;. Subgroup . . . . . . Podocarpe^e. Genera . . . . . . Podocarpus and Dacrydium. Species — 1. Podocarpus totara (totara). 2. ,, ferruginea (miro). 3. „ spicata (matai). 4. ,, dacrydioides (kalrikatea). 5. Dacrydium cupressinum (riimi). 6. ,, Kirlcii. Podocarpus totara. The leaves of this species have been chosen as an intro- duction to this genus on account of their simple but well-marked transitions, which all point to the greater adaptation of the maturer plant to surroundings which call for a xerophytic habit. With the exception of young plants with cotyledons, all the leaves of the different stages were gathered within not so many yards of one another. Young Plants with Cotyledons. The cotyledons of this species are interesting, for they re- main much longer on the plant than they do in other species of this genus. They may be found on plants several inches high, which have an appreciably thick and woody stem. There is a marked development seen in the cotyledons on the older plants from those on the younger. There is a general increase in thickness of cuticle and epidermis for protection, and in- crease of vascular tissue for conduction. This development is best shown by a study of transverse sections of the two. Young Cotyledon, § in. long. — The epidermal cells are pro- tected by a fairly thick cuticle, and have well-thickened outer and side walls. The stomata occur on both surfaces, but more on the lower than on the upper. They are only a very little sunk, and heme very little overarched by neighbouring epidermal cells. There is an air-space beneath each. The sclerenchymatous hypoderm is not developed except just at the margins, where more protection is required. The chlorophyll parenchyma shows rather a high degree of differentiation. At each margin of the leaf we find ordinary parenchyma, the diameter of which is the same in all direc- tions. Below the epidermis, on the upper side of the leaf, we find cells more or less elongated at right angles to the surface, Griffin. — Development of New Zealand Conifer Leaves. 47 while on the lower side there is a tendency to elongation parallel to the surface. The cells in between these two layers are elon- gated in the direction of the margins, which is very desirable, considering the distance there is between the bundles and from these to the margins. Here and there between these elongated cells we find ordinary parenchyma cells, which are often seen in transverse section to form lines stretching across at right angles to the elongated cells. These cross-rows probably serve for quicker communication between the upper and lower sur- faces. None of the elongated cells show any signs of lignifi- cation, which cannot be expected at this stage of development. Vascular bundles : There is no sharply marked off endo- dermis roimd each bundle ; the pericycle is one or two cells thick. The protophloem forms a well-marked crescent-shaped zone of crushed elements, while the active phloem elements are arranged in three or four radial rows. The sieve-tubes at this develop- mental stage are long and narrow elements which still have nuclei and horizontal transverse walls. Above the phloem are the xylem tracheids. These are spiral or pitted elements, or elements with both spiral markings and bordered pits, which latter commonly occur on the oblique end walls. On the ventral side of these elements we find the protoxylem with more or less irregular and crushed spiral thickenings. At the sides of the xylem are one or two rather larger elements, the transfusion tracheids ; while occasionally an element is found on the ventral side of the wood, which therefore corresponds to centripetal xylem. Sacs containing a substance with tannin reaction also occur at the sides and on the ventral side of the bundle in the pericycle. I may mention in passing that these sacs have very much the appearance of large tracheids under certain treat- ments, but there can be no doubt of their nature when they are treated with ferric chloride. It is rather interesting to note the gradual decrease of tra- cheids in the bundle towards the apex. In a section very near the apex we find the number reduced to six or seven, whereas near the middle and base we find as many as twenty. The number of transfusion tracheids at the sides has increased, for we find groups of twos and threes against the one or two in the middle section. These elements have spiral and pitted markings, which are seen in transverse section on the slightly oblique transverse walls. Older Cotyledon. — Transverse section : This presents typically the same appearance as the preceding section. It is charac- terized, however, by a much thicker cuticle and by thicker epidermal walls. The thickened hypoderm also appears along the sides here and there as one or two isolated cells. The pali- 48 Transactions. sade form of the parenchyma cells on the upper surface is rather more regular, while the middle cells are narrower and longer on the whole than those of the preceding section. In the vascular bundle we find a more clearly defined endo- dermis and a general increase of the conducting elements. In the greater number of the bundles we find a tendency for the bundle to split into two. We find larger transfusion elements at the sides than in the younger cotyledon. It is rather interesting to note the complete absence of resin-canals in the cotyledons, especially when in accordance with a prolonged period of growth these leaves have assumed a differentiated character as great or even greater than the succeeding leaves. Young Leaf on the same Plant as the Cotyledons, \ in. long. The leaf in transverse section presents a long and narrow appearance like the cotyledon, but it differs in having a mid- rib up which runs the single vascular bundle of the leaf. The cuticle is thicker again than that of the cotyledon, especi- ally at the margins, and there are also thicker walls around the epidermal cells. The stomata here occur only in four longitudinal rows on each side of the vascular bundle, on the lower surface only, and are much more sunk — obvious protections against excessive transpiration. The hypoderm occurs as one or two rows at the margins, and extends a considerable way from there in a continuous band round the sides. There is another continuous band above the vascular bundle, while between the margin and the bundle it occurs in irregular groups of two or three. The chlorophyll parenchyma presents much the same charac- ters as the cotyledon. In the vascular bundle the most striking difference from the cotyledon is the presence of a resin-canal. This is placed in connection with the phloem, and presents the same characters as in other Conifers, secretory cells surrounded by a ring of strengthening cells. The endodermis is better marked, and in the pericycle we find abundant transfusion tracheids showing transitions out from the protoxylem {px), through the centri- fugal tracheids at the sides, to the transfusion tracheids in con- tact with the endodermal cells. The elongated cells of the chlorophyll parenchyma are just outside of the separating endoderm eel's, and hence in direct communication with these tracheids. The phloem has the same character as before, but the crushed protophloem elements do not form so conspicuous a part of the bundle. Griffin. — Development of Neiv Zealand Conifer Leaves. 49 Older Leaves. The leaves on plants of two to four years' growth show a gradual development of cuticle and hypo-derm. In the chloro- phyll parenchyma are found slightly lignified elements in con- nection with the bundle transfusion tracheids, which have greatly increased in number. In a plant about 2 ft. high, very well developed accessory transfusion tissue was found. Mr. Worsdell himself found only very slight lignification in this species, but here, at this stage, there are undoubted lignified walls in certain of these cells. The walls are much thickened, and have pits which do not show any signs of bordered thicken- ing. These lignified elements are in direct communication with elements which show no signs of lignification, but which also have pits on their walls. Mr. Worsdell inclines to think that cells of this structure are not equivalent in function to cells in a similar position in Cycas. He thinks, on account of the pre- sence of simple pits, the thickness of their walls, and scattered arrangements, that these elements are more of the nature of stone cells, and are not used for conduction, but merely serve the mechanical function of strengthening the leaf. These cells do undoubtedly serve for this purpose, but I think their position in direct communication with the normal transfusion tracheids shows that they also serve for the equally important function of carrying out water towards the margin. Mature Leaves. The leaves of the shrub and mature stages are very similar in structure, but differ in arrangement on the stem. The leaves of the shrub stage stand out more or less at right angles to the stem, but in the mature stage they are arranged in a closer spiral, and form a much smaller angle with the stem. This is obviously a xerophytic adaptation. The structure of these leaves does not differ greatly from the young leaf already fully described. The stomata are more numerous, and are confined still to the lower surface, and well away from the vascular bundle, which is protected by a continuous line of hypoderm. Undoubted accessory transfusion tissue was found, but the cell-walls did not appear so strongly lignified as in the younger stages. In the vascular bundle the number of transfusion tracheids at the sides has greatly increased. A. few tannin- sacs occur on the ventral side. Summary, P. totara. Summarising the principal points in connection with the anatomical development, we find, — 50 Transactions. In the cotyledon, a sclerenchymatous hypoderni at the margins, and at a later stage one or two isolated elements along the sides ; stomata on both surfaces ; highly differentiated parenchyma cells, and two vascular bundles, with tannin-sacs, but no resin-canal ; very few transfusion tracheids, and a great number of crushed protophloem elements. Near the apex of the cotyledon we find, less wood in bundle and more transfusion tracheids at sides, while in the older cotyledon we see a tend- ency for the bundles to divide up again. In leaves of the same plant, hypoderm elements along sides ; stomata deeply sunk only on under - surface ; one vascular bundle, with a resin-canal ; and a greater number of trans- fusion tracheids and less crushed protophloem. In later stages, fully developed sclerenchymatous hypo- derm ; greatly modified accessory transfusion tissue, with pits and lignified walls. In shrub and mature stages, the same characters in the trans- fusion tissue ; greater development of chlorophyll parenchyma, both of palisade and irregular- shaped cells. In the shrub, leaves standing out at right angles ; in the mature tree, more parallel to stem. In all stages we see a gradual increase in the number of transfusion tracheids from the early stages to the later. The development, then, of P. totara is chiefly marked by the acquisition of protective characters and by the production of increased facilities for conduction, especially of water, both in the bundle itself and towards the margins. The mature form does not differ greatly from the leaf of the first year, and shows many points of resemblance even with the cotyledon. Origin of Transfusion Tissue. • Now, from the cotyledon up to the mature leaf there appears in every stage undoubted transfusion tracheids. These I have verified not only by double stained transverse sections, but also by longitudinal sections, both radial and tangential. Mr. Worsdell, in his paper on " Transfusion Tissue," says, concerning Podocarpus totara. — " In the much shorter and narrower leaf of this species it is interesting to note the complete absence of this tissue [i.e., transfusion] in the leaf. Here the central mesophyll cells are elongated in the direction of the margin of the leaf, but are thin- walled and unpitted. I was able to determine, however, the presence of a very slight ligni- fication of their walls." These remarks are directly opposed to what the present writer has found in the leaves of this species. I do not know what material Mr. Worsdell had at his disposal, or what methods he used in obtaining his results, but with Griffin. — Development of New Zealand Conifer Leaves. 51 material gathered straight from nature I have certainly found undoubted transfusion tracheids and undoubted lignification in the accessory transfusion tissue. I should like to add here an opinion concerning the probable origin of transfusion tissue in the species I have investigated. Mr. Worsdell's paper does not leave much doubt as regards the origin of transfusion tissue in those two primitive groups of gymnosperms, the Cycadales and the Gingkoales. In both these groups we see at some period a great development of centripetal xylem. In Cycas it is this wood which does most of the conducting work of the plant in the leaf and petiole, the centrifugal xylem playing quite an inconspicuous part. It is therefore natural here that if any modification takes place in any tracheids for the conduction of water out to the sides, it will be in those of the centripetal xylem. This will be so not only because of their much greater number, but also because the centrifugal wood is probably of very much later develop- ment here, formed after the leaf has been functional for a con- siderable period. In the cotyledons of Gingko the centrifugal wood is again the better developed, and the previous remarks will also apply here. In Mr. Worsdell's figure of the leaf, how- ever, it does not seem very clear as to which elements are cen- trifugal and which centripetal ; the centripetal elements marked are much smaller than those of the centrifugal, and also smaller than an element marked "px," which seems to form a direct transition to the transfusion tracheids at the sides of the centrifugal xylem. It does not, therefore, seem clear in this case why these tracheids should be regarded as formed from the centripetal xylem (vide Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., Dec, 1897 pi. 23). When we come to what we consider the more advanced group of gymnosperms — i.e., the Coniferce — the centripetal wood has fallen out of use, its place having been taken by the centrifugal. It seems, therefore, more natural in this case that this wood, which even in the cotyledons has usurped the func- tion of the centripetal in the matter of conduction, should also be the one to become modified for transfusion tracheids. When starting on the study of the Podocarpece leaves I fully expected to gain further evidence in support of Mr. Worsdell's theory, and it was only after the development had been traced in several species that I was forced to see that the evidence in the Podocarpece pointed much more strongly in favour of the origin of transfusion tracheids, the greater number at least from centrifugal rather than from centripetal xylem. Mr. Worsdell has said nothing as regards the origin of this tissue in the Podocarpece, having confined himself merely to denoting 52 Transactions. its position in the mature leaf of two species of Podocarpus ; while in the third species (totara), as has already been pointed out, he was unable to find any at all. I therefore feel more at liberty to express an opinion with regard to this group. It seems rather a premature proceeding to confine the origin of transfusion tissue in all gymnosperms to centripetal wood when the evidence is conclusive only in the lowest groups. Now, in the Podocarpece — of which, for the development of transfusion tissue, P. totara may for the present be taken as a type, the development being similar in the following species — in no section either of the cotyledon or of the mature leaf was there any great development of centripetal xylem, the elements, if any, being very occasional even in the cotyledons, where we should most expect to find them. From the cotyledons upwards the transfusion tracheids were always at the side of the centrifugal wood, and in many cases, as will be seen from the drawings of the bundle, there were direct transitions to them from the px through the centrifugal tracheids which extended out towards the sides. In every species there was a marked increase in the number of transfusion tracheids from the earliest to the later stages, where there is no evidence of any centripetal xylem ever having been formed. These transitions, which in many cases make it hard to distinguish which is to be regarded as centrifugal wood and which as transfusion tracheids, to- gether with this gradual increase in number from the earliest to the later stages, seems to give almost conclusive evidence in these species of their origin not from the centripetal but from the centrifugal xylem. Near the apex of the young cotyle- don we actually see the wood of the bundle passing out to the sides, and serving as transfusion tracheids. When one or two elements of centripetal wood have been formed, in many cases they have been preserved and used on the ventral surface as transfusion tracheids, but I see no reason because of this why we should regard all transfusion tracheids as having been formed on this side of the px, and then as passing out and attaching themselves in direct communication with the centri- fugal tracheids at the sides. The character of these elements does not in any way alter this opinion : there are transitions here out through tracheids at the sides from the px. In the case of P. totani it will be seen from the longitudinal section of the shrub-leaf how greatly modified are these elements on the outer edge, appearing almost like parenchyma cells, and very hard, in many eases, to dis- tinguish from these. I have found undoubted cases where the walls are only very slightly lignified, the reaction of the wall being more that of cellulose, but which have undoubted bordered Griffin. — Development of New Zealand Conifer Leaves. 53 pits on their walls. This seems to point to the fact that some at least of the outer transfusion elements are formed from modified parenchyma. The presence of bordered pits in the transfusion tracheids seems constant in this species, where they occur in the maturer stages on the oblique transverse walls, being plainly seen in trans- verse sections. The character of these tracheids varies, as does the character of the wood. In the cotyledon they hardly difEer at all from the wood of the bundle, except in length ; in both cases there is present a great amount of spiral thickening on the walls. It may be noted here that the above remarks in no way detract from Mr. Worsdell's important discovery concerning the presence of centripetal wood in Conifers. The investigation of these species has added further evidence of this, though this wood is not so markedly developed here as in species described by Mr. Worsdell. What the writer has endeavoured to show is that Mr. Worsdell has carried his discovery too far when he ascribes the origin of transfusion tissue in all gymnosperms to centripetal wood, and to that alone. The next two species are of a very similar nature to tlie one I have just fully described, but, as a rule, are much simpler. In parts, for briefness and clearness, I shall give the description more in the form of notes. Podocarpus ferruginea (Miro). In most respects this leaf is much simpler than P. totara, for we do not find such marked modification for protective purposes, nor such highly differentiated parenchyma in the earlier stages. The first two leaves of the seedling, as in totara also, are placed opposite one another, alternating with the two cotyledons, and standing out at right angles from the stem. The succeed- ing leaves arise also in alternate pairs, but lie almost in the same plane as the stem ; hence we get apparently a single row on each side of the stem ; but even in older plants we can trace four rows of leaf-bases down the stem. Cotyledons. The cotyledons of miro die much sooner than those of totara ; they remain only till the young plant has six or seven leaves to assimilate for it. The cotyledons of which I cut sections were growing under a large miro in moist and shady conditions. In transverse section they are a great contrast to those of totara. In the epidermis we find only slight development of cuticle, and only slightly thickened walls in the epidermis — thicker on the under surface, which in germination is the more exposed. 54 Transactions. The stomata occur chiefly on the upper surface, only an occasional one on the lower : this is also for protection. Of hypoderm in the usual form of sclerenchyma there is no trace, but certain large cells in the layer below the epidermis have become modified to form tannin-sacs, more on the dorsal or under surface than on the upper, where are most stomata. These sacs also occur in great numbers around the xylem. The chlorophyll parenchyma is very homogeneous, consisting only of larger and smaller parenchyma cells. The vascular bundles are much larger than those of the totara cotyledons. This seems as if increased provision had been made to carry a greater supply of water to make up for the poorer protection against transpiration. Below the vascular bundle we find two, occasionally one or three, resin-canals. The presence of tannin-sacs was noted before. The xylem forms a well-marked group of centrifugal ele- ments, and there are one or two isolated tracheids at the sides of the bundle and on the ventral side of the wood. The phloem is also well developed, and, as in totara, there is a crescent of crushed protophloem. These crushed elements are separated by three or four rows of parenchyma cells from the resin-canal. Hence we see that in most respects the cotyledon is simpler than that of P. totara, but it will be noted that there is an in- crease of vascular tissue in the bundle. Young Leaves. These were on the same plant as the cotyledon, and are from Jn in. to \ in. in length. They are very simple in structure. In transverse section we note briefly : — Epidermal walls thicker than those of cotyledon, and cuticle better developed. Stomata on both surfaces, but more on lower than upper. Here the upper is the more exposed, not the lower, as in cotyledon. Chlorophyll parenchyma differentiated. Upper palisade and lower looser, some elongated towards margins. In the vascular bundle the chief difference from cotyledon is the presence of a single resin-canal instead of two or three. Tannin-sacs and transfusion tracheids occur. Plants approximately Two Years Old. These are from 6 in. to 7 in. high, and the leaves from \ in. to £ in. in length. We note briefly : — The cuticle and epidermis more thickened than in previous stage. Griffin. — Development of Neio Zealand Conifer Leaves. 55 Stomata only on lower surface. Chlorophyll parenchyma, same arrangement as preceding section, but more developed. Vascular bundle same as stage 1, only more elements. Succeeding Stages. In the succeeding stages we find a greater development of cuticle, and there are a few cells corresponding to a hypoderm. The number of transfusion tracheids is much increased, and the vascular and chlorophyll cells much better developed. Though the maturer stages are better protected than the younger, and have stomata only on the lower surface, yet we note that in every stage of leaf there is an absence of a sclerenchy- matous hypoderm, and that the middle parenchyma cells are only very slightly elongated towards the margin, and there is no lignification. In view of the difference of leaf-structure, it is very interesting to compare miro with totara with respect to habitat. As we should expect from the character of the leaves, the totara is found in much more exposed conditions than the simpler miro. The observations of the authoress on their habitat have been confined to places north of Kotorua ; but nowhere was the miro found in an exposed environment, while the totara was frequently found where only the hardiest of plants were surviving. Podocarpus spicata (Matai). This species is rare in this part, but is more common in the South Island. I was unable to get any of the earliest stages or of the mature, so I have not traced the course of development. I found, however, plants about 2 ft. in height and young trees. I will just indicate the structure of their leaves, since they are to some extent intermediate between totara and miro. These young trees are very hard to distinguish from miro, having the same arrangement of leaves, and are also somewhat similar in shape, but are blunter at the apex and whitish in appearance underneath. Young Plants about 2 ft. high. This particular plant was growing in an exposed position, and both its leaves and stem were coloured rather a bright- bronze pink, the youngest leaves and stems pink, the older ones more bronze-coloured. This is due to the presence of a pigment in the cell-sap of the epidermal cells — perhaps anthocyanin — and it is there for protective purposes. The leaves of this plant were very short, and had blunt apices, which make the leaf more oblong in shape. The anatomy is similar to that of miro : no hypoderm, 56 Transactions. stomata only on lower surface, and the same vascular bundle. The advance is in the character of the chlorophyll parenchyma, for here we find, in the middle, cells which on either side of the bundle are well elongated towards the margins. They have pits on their end walls, but the lignification is very slight. In the shrub stage the leaves were much longer, and green in colour. Their structure is very similar to that of the pre- ceding leaf. This species, then, is interesting, for to some extent it is an intermediate form between the two preceding. Podocarpus dacrydioides (Kahikatea). We now come to a species whose foliage is very different from that of the three forms already described. Kirk gives the general appearance and height of kahikatea in his " Flora," and in his description notes that the young plants are always of a deep-bronze colour. This is not always the case ; young plants growing in the shade of the bush are, as a rule, of a bright- green colour. Those that grow in open, exposed places, how- ever, tend to assume a dull-bronze colour. This is due to a colouring substance in the epidermal cells, and is very probably of a similar nature to that found in matai ; but I have not investigated its nature in either of the species. Its object in young plants is no doubt to protect them from excessive light. Hence in these young plants we find developed a remarkably high power of adaptability to environment, by which young plants grown in the open can protect themselves from the effect of a too-intense light. Which Form of Foliage is the more primitive? From the earliest stages there are two distinct forms of foliage, both forms of which are greatly reduced. One form is flattened, and in appearance is very like a very much reduced totara- leaf ; these are arranged in rows along two sides of the lateral branches. The other form is shorter, awl-shaped, and adpressed in spiral arrangement to the stem. Both kinds of leaves vary a good deal in size and exact shape throughout development. In some cases we find gradual transitions from one form into the other, but very often abrupt changes take place. In the three preceding species the leaves were all of the same kind, and the development in each was a more or less obvious adaptation to environment, the younger stages being the simplest, and the development gradual. In the case, however, of a plant with distinct dimorphic foliage the development is not so simple, and we are confronted with the question, Which form is the more primitive ? Is the flattened form, which Kirk says is the Griffin. — Development of New Zealand Conifer Leaves. 57 juvenile form, or the awl-shaped, which is the mature form, the more primitive ? This is a question which needs careful observation before it can be answered. It has generally been thought that the flattened form is the more primitive, and that the awl-shaped is the modified form. This is not the case ; the flattened form is really the modified leaf, and the awl-shaped the more primitive. By a very careful observation of the ex- ternal form alone this conclusion would be arrived at, and it is strengthened so as to leave no doubt at all by the study of the anatomical structure. Let us first just look at the relative positions of the two kinds of leaves on a plant. By a comparison of a number of plants we arrive at this conclusion — i.e., the flattened form is never found on main stems, but only on the lateral branches. The rounder form occurs on both the main stem and on the lateral branches at different periods of development. Again, the flattened forms are not, as has been supposed, the first- formed leaves on a germinating plant. If a seedling be carefully examined during germination it will be seen that the awl-shaped leaves are those which appear first on the main stem. One or two of these leaves are also formed at the base of the branches of the first whorl, but higher up we find only the flattened form. This form is the only one found on the lateral branches in older plants, with the exception of the prophylls, which soon die off. When the plant has reached a certain stage, however, the awl- shaped leaves too begin to appear on the lateral branches, and the other form becomes rather smaller and not so flattened. In the mature stage the awl-shaped leaf is the general rule on both stem and branch, being finally triumphant. Now, the lateral branches are alone in a suitable position for assimilation, and since they alone have flattened leaves, we surely must conclude that these branches bear the modified form so as to increase the surface for assimilation. This theory is strengthened by the fact that all lateral branches tend to stand out at right angles to the stem, and hence expose the whole surface of the leaves to the sun. For confirmation of the theory we shall have to compare the anatomical structure of the two forms on the same plant. Leaves of Seedling Six Months Old. Flattened Form. The leaf is on first sight apparently a much reduced specimen, similar in shape, in transverse section, to the preceding species ; but the strange position of the vascular bundle strikes one at once. This is nearer one margin than the other, and the resin- canal is opposite the nearer margin. I will now give the struc- 58 Transactions. ture of this form, and, later, a comparison with the awl-shaped leaf will leave no doubt as to what changes have taken place. The epidermis at this early stage is very much thickened, as is also the cuticle. The stomata are confined to four regions, which are the corners of a rectangle, with the bundle for the centre. The hypoderm is well developed, but does not form a con- tinuous band. The chlorophyll parenchyma at the margins and along the sides consists of large ordinary parenchyma cells. In the middle of the leaf, radiating out from the bundle to the sides and mar- gins, are long, narrow, and in some cases curved, elements. These would evidently serve for conduction of water, but it is doubtful, however, whether they owe their modification primarily for this purpose. The smallness of the leaf makes this modi- fication unnecessary, and it is more probable that they originated in quite a different manner, as will be seen by a comparison with the next section. The vascular bundle, as seen in the diagram, is slightly nearer one end than the other. It contains a resin-canal opposite the nearer margin, which is strengthened by a row of sclerenchyma. The px is turned towards the further margin, and between the px and the resin-canal are the very scanty elements of phloem and wood. There are two or three elements of transfusion tracheids starting from the px and running out to the sides, and an occasional element is also found outside the px corre- sponding to centripetal xylem. Awl-shaped Leaf. The cuticle and epidermis are better developed in the awl- shaped leaf. This may be expected, for the two kinds of leaves are exposed to the same conditions, and the smaller form has so little tissue that it would wither very easily unless it had great protection against excessive transpiration. This view is not altered by the fact that transpiration is lessened by decrease of surface. The stomata here, as in the preceding leaf, occur in four regions, but two regions are here about opposite the vascular bundle, the other two being on the sides representing the upper surface of the leaf. The hypoderma is well developed at the two most prominent margins, but is broken by the stomata along the rest of the surface. The arrangement of the chlorophyll parenchyma differs in one important respect from that of the preceding leaf : there are no elongated elements on the morphologically lower surface Gkiffin. — Development of New Zealand Conifer Leaves. 59 of the leaf, only one layer of small parenchyma being between the resin-canal and the hypoderm. The elongated elements on the upper surface are not nearly so long as those of the flattened leaf, and are fewer in number, as we find only one row. The vascular bundle is like the preceding one, only very much reduced, there being only three or four elements of phloem and wood. The px is turned towards one of the more prominent margins, as in the preceding section, and it is more obvious here that the two sides nearest the resin- canal represent the lower surface, whilst the two nearest the px represent the upper. Origin of Flattened Form. Now, it has already been pointed out that from the order of succession and the arrangement on the stems the awl-shaped leaves should be considered the more primitive. The first leaves are formed while the cotyledons are still inside the endosperm, and hence are shut up between them. These young leaves have therefore a very constant environment in the successive generations. The leaves, however, after the cotyledons have expanded are subjected to much more varying conditions, and hence some slight variations in form might prove advantageous under a given condition, and thus, in course of time, become " selected." In this case it would seem probable that the voting plant at a certain period of its history found that, after the store of food had been used, the greatly reduced awl-shaped leaves presented an inadequate surface for assimilation. Hence by natural selection it may have gradually acquired the more flattened form, which now appears at a very early stage in the cycle of development. This theory is borne out by a com- parison of the transverse sections of the two forms, where we find out also the detailed evidence of the change. It was seen that in the awl-shaped leaves the elongated elements were absent on the morphologically lower surface of the leaf, and only one row was present on the upper. In the flattened form, however, we find elongated elements on both sides of the bundle, and these are also longer and more numerous on the upper surface of the bundle. The leaf has not actually flattened, in the sense of detracting from the thickness to add to the width, but has extended itself out on two sides by the elongation of its parenchyma. By this extension a flattened form of leaf has arisen, for the width of the new leaf is much greater in proportion to its thickness. We may therefore speak of the extension as a flattening process — i.e., the leaf has become flattened in the median plane. The flattening, further, has taken place in such a direction that a dorsi- ventral arrangement of the leaves, in two rows, 60 Transactions. one on each side of the stem, is necessary so that advantage may be taken of the increased surface. The young lateral branchlets, with the flattened leaves ranged down each side, present somewhat the form of a pinnate leaf. The stem is very slender, and the leaves towards the apex become smaller, the apex itself being occupied by imperfect small leaves. As a general rule these young lateral branches are of limited growth. If the flattening had been towards what corresponds to the margin of a flat leaf, the appearance in transverse section would have been just that of a reduced totara-leaf. The bundle would then have occupied a central position, slightly nearer the lower surface than the upper. The protoxylem would have been turned towards an upper flat surface, the resin-canals towards a lower, while at each side of the bundle, towards the margins, would have extended similar elongated elements to those of totara. The actual flattening has, however, taken place in the opposite direction, so that each apparent upper and lower surface of the leaf consists half of the mor- phologically lower surface and half of the morphologically upper surface. In other words, the median line of the dorsal and ventral surfaces has become in each case a margin. This makes the protoxylem face one of the margins, but at the same time it is opposite the upper surface, while the resin-canal has a position similar with regard to the lower surface. It may be noted again that the position of the whole bundle, including the resin-canal, remains nearer one margin than the other — that is, nearer the lower than the upper surface. The dorsi-ventral arrangement may have taken plac1 simul- taneously with the flattening. If this did not happen so, and the flattened leaves still remained in spiral arrangement -on the branch, the effect would be rather to decrease than to increase the surface for assimilation. The leaves would then present their margins to the sun, as is the case in many species of Euca- lyptus. The plant seems to have gone to an unnecessary amount of trouble to insure the flattened form and dorsi-ventral arrange- ment, but it is impossible to know all the factors at work in producing this result. Perhaps it is to the advantage of the plant in assimilation and transmission of food to have a part of both wood and phloem in direct communication with each flat surface. The arrangement of the leaves in the bud may be one factor in producing the flattened form. I have not yet followed out all the details of the development in the young seedlings. Having now found out how the flattening has taken place, and which form is the more primitive, it will perhaps be in- Griffin. — Development of New Zealand Conifer Leaves. 61 teresting to note briefly the further modification of each form in the succeeding changes of development. Plant entering on Second Year. The anatomy of the two forms of leaves is very similar to that of the younger stage, but shows an advance in the hypoderm, which in both forms is better developed at the sides than in the preceding stage, and in the vascular bundle, which in both forms has a greater number of conducting elements. The number in the rounder form is, as a rule, less than in the flattened form. The transfusion tissue is well developed in both, consisting of large tracheids showing transitions out from the px to the endo- derm, on the other side of which are elongated parenchyma cells, which at this stage show no signs of lignification. There is an occasional lignified element above the px which may represent centripetal xylem, kept at this period as a transfusion tracheid on account of the unusual relation of the px to the elongated parenchyma. The resin-canal in both is very large in proportion to the size of the bundle, as will be seen from the figures. Plants Three or Four Years Old. Here we see the maximum development of the flattened form. Not only are the leaves on the lateral branches more flattened and narrower in transverse section, but the leaves on the main stems, while they keep their awl shape, are here also inclined to be flattened, as can be seen in transverse section. This increased •surface for assimilation will be of great service to the young plant at this period, because it has now reached the stage when it must struggle hard for its existence if it is to make a place for itself among the other forms of vegetation. In both these leaves and those on older plants we find an increase of trans- fusion tissue, especially at the sides of the bundle. We also find that the middle elements of the parenchyma become un- doubtedly lignified, which shows that these elements, which perhaps in the first place had their origin for a different pur- pose, have now become specialised further for the conduction of water. Mature Foliage. Here we find on both stem and lateral branches none but very much reduced awl-shaped leaves about T^ in. in length. This is the general rule for the mature plants, which grow as is usual in large forests. When they grow in forests, branches with leaves are found only at the top, for these alone can reach the sunlight, for assimilation and natural selection tend to the extinction of useless organs. In more open positions, however, 62 Transactions. trees may grow to a fair height, still keeping branches near the ground, and it is on these trees that a more flattened form of foliage sometimes occurs. This form does not, however, differ in any important respect from the preceding leaves, so I will describe only the usual type of mature foliage. As a general rule the leaf is triangular in section, the base representing the upper surface. This form is more like the early stages of the awl-shaped leaves. It is interesting to note the bulging -out of the upper surface in certain of the mature leaves, showing that even here the leaves are liable to more or less modification. The arrangement of the chlorophyll parenchyma is rather different from that of the preceding leaves. The row of cells round the leaf next to the hypoderm has here become modified, and forms closely packed palisade parenchyma. In the pre- ceding forms the parenchyma round the edge was composed of loose and irregular parenchyma cells. On the lower surface occur only irregularly shaped parenchyma cells ; on the upper surface their place is taken by elongated cells, which are rather irregular. This arrangement is very analogous to that of the youngest awl-shaped leaves, where, however, there was only one row of irregular-shaped parenchyma between the bundle and the lower surface. In the vascular bundle we do not find any increase in the number of elements of true xylem ; there is rather a decrease. The transfusion elements are, however, much better developed, forming great groups at the sides of the bundle, and extending round also on the ventral side. It seems as if nearly the whole of the xylem had here become modified into this tissue. Remarks on Origin of Transfusion Tissue in Kahilatea. It will be as well here to add a few separate remarks on the origin of transfusion tissue, as, owing to the differences in form, this tissue is arranged somewhat differently. The posi- tion in this leaf in no way contradicts what was said concern- ing the origin earlier. Ir» this species, as in the preceding ones, there is hardly any development of centripetal xylem in the younger stages. If there had been any the tracheids would most likely have been preserved as transfusion tracheids in the flattened form of leaf, for increasing facilities of conduction out towards the spurious margins. When transfusion tracheids do occur in the younger stages, they occur more often at the true sides of the bundle, forming transitions outwards, as in the pre- vious species. I have, however, found an occasional tracheid on the ventral side of the wood in young plants about two years old {vide plate) ; while in older plants we see transfusion tracheids Geiffin. — Development of Neiv Zealand Conifer Leaves. 63 starting to be formed on all sides of the bundle, seemingly aris- ing directly from the px. This is a later development, arising out of the increase in parenchyma tissue, for there is not nearly so marked a development seen in the awl- shaped leaf of the same stage. In the mature leaf we see this development car- ried further, and transfusion tracheids occur on all sides of the bundle, and arising in some cases from the px on the ventral surface. This leaf would form a strong support for Mr. Wors- dell's theory, unless the intermediate forms had been studied. We may regard here the transfusion tracheids on the ventral surface as a later development of centripetal xylem, arising on account of the needs of the leaf, but not as modified primitive centripetal xylem. We will now pass to two species of a different genera — Dacrydium cupressinum and D. Kirkii — and show where they differ from the species of the preceding genus. We will take D. cupressinum first, as it shows in its foliage many points of resemblance with the last species. Dacrydium cupressinum (Eimu). Of this species I was fortunate in finding all forms growing under the same conditions, from young germinating plants to mature foliage. The mature leaves of this species are very hard to distinguish from those of the kahikatea, especially when separate from the mother tree. Both are awl-shaped, and arranged spirally, closely adpressed to the branches. The leaves of the rimu are, however, slightly longer, and not quite so closely adpressed to the stem as those of kahikatea. Both trees, when growing amongst other trees in the forest, lose their lower branches. The height of the tree thus makes it very hard to distinguish the difference in foliage when viewed from the ground ; but these trees can readily be distinguished by other points. One of the most important of these is that, while the lateral branches of the kahikatea are erect, those of the rimu are pendu- lous. Hence the rimu is greatly used for ornamental purposes, while the kahikatea is but rarely so used. If grown in the open, as in cultivation, the rimu may grow to a great height while still keeping pendulous branches low down on the main stem. An analogy to this was seen in the kahikatea. In the young stages, however, there is a great difference in the appearance of the young plants of these two species : this is due to the absence of dimorphic foliage in the rimu. Here we find only narrow awl-shaped leaves arranged spirally round the stem. We find little or no flattening of the leaves, though there is a slight tendency in the earbest stages to flatten each side of the bundle, 64 Transactions. though not, as in kahikatea, towards the upper and lower sur- faces. These awl-shaped leaves are, however, much longer than those of the awl-shaped kahikatea, varying in length in the younger stages from \ in. to tl in. in the mature. It would be a very interesting study to compare the rate of growth of young plants of these two species of the same age, and growing near each other under exactly the same conditions, and thus find out which form of leaf — the shorter, flatter form of the kahikatea, or the longer, narrower one of the rimu — is more advantageous for plant-growth. Further differences will be noted in the more minute struc- ture of the leaves in the various stages. Cotyledons compared with those of other Species. The cotyledons bear a great resemblance to those of miro and kahi-katea, both in general shape and structure. The epidermal cells have thickened walls and cuticle, especi- ally on the lower surface. This seems to be a general rule among the cotyledons of the Podocarpeos, and probably of other Conifers also, though I have not seen it remarked on. This is no doubt due to the mode of germination. The young cotyledons stay inside the seed for some time to absorb the food, and hence the upper surfaces are pressed together and are thus pro- tected, while the lower surfaces are exposed as soon as the hypocotyl appears above the surface with the bases of the cotyledons. The stomata also appear much more regularly on the upper surface in the Podocarpece. In this particular species they occur only on the upper surface, a position similar to that found in the kahikatea cotyledon in its youngest stages, and in miro they are more numerous on the upper surface. The fact that the stomata are produced on the upper surface and then are exposed when the cotyledons open out may, in some measure, account for the fact that the cotyledons last for so short a time. In the cotyledons of totara, which last for a considerable time, we find great thickening of the epidermis on both sides, and stomata, though they occur on both surfaces, are very much greater in number on the lower. This provision for the future is in accordance with the highly specialised character in other directions. Hypoderm, as in miro and kahikatea, is absent. The chlorophyll parenchyma is homogeneous, like that of miro ; and, like miro, tannin -sacs occur beneath the lower epidermis and round the bundle. In the vascular bundle there is only rarely found a resin- canal. These canals are not found universally in the cotyledons Griffin. — Development of New Zealand Conifer Leaves. 65 of the Podocarpece. We find none even in the more advanced stages of totara, none in the early stage at least of kahikatea, while we find two or three in miro. In this particular leaf we find small-celled parenchyma in the place where the canal should appear. The number of elements in the wood is very small, and the protophloem does not form as well-marked a crescent as in most of the preceding species. I was unable to find any trace of isolated transfusion tracheids, but, as will be seen[ in the figure, the wood tends to arrange itself out on either side of the fx, and the outermost tracheids are the largest. Leaves of Young Plants with Cotyledons. We see in this leaf a tendency to elongate out at the sides of the bundle. The epidermis has well-developed outer walls on both surfaces, and there is no sclerenchymatous hypoderm. The stomata are still only on the upper surface, and remain ho throughout the development. Hence we see that in this leaf these organs never occur on the lower surface ; their position in the cotyledon is advantageous in the later stages. The posi- tion of the stomata on the first leaves of the different species varies. In totara, in the first stage, stomata occur only on the lower surface ; whilst in miro we find at this stage a few still retained on the upper surface, though in the succeeding stages they occur only on the lower. This brings out again the early provision totara makes for the protection of its first leaves. In the chlorophyll parenchyma we find the row of cells next to the epidermis modified into palisade parenchyma, but the rest is homogeneous. The vascular bundle is very much reduced ; there are only chree or four elements of phloem and wood, and no trace of transfusion tracheids. There is a small resin-canal beneath^the bundle. The Succeeding Leaves on Older Plants. These gradually increase in diameter, and are triangular in transverse section, except on the more mature trees, where they are oval in young conical trees and four-sided on the older forest forms. The increase in diameter is usually correlated with a decrease in length, a provision for protective purposes. The mature foliage is very like that of the mature kahikatea, but can readily be distinguished by the smallness of the resin- canal. The number of palisade cells in the chlorophyll paren- chyma increases as the tree gets older, till in the mature leaf we find this tissue arranged in rows of three, radiating out from 3— Trans. 66 Transactions. the vascular bundle, or running in rows from the lower to the upper surface. The vascular bundle does not vary much except in size. In the mature leaf there are lignified elements present in the pericycle, but I have not ascertained their nature in this species. They do not show any markings on their walls in transverse section, but these may perhaps be seen in sections •cut longitudinally. Dacrydium Kirkii. This species is very rare, and is confined to the north, where only a very few trees occur. The material which has been used was got by Professor Thomas, of this college, from a district north of Auckland. I have none of the very early stages, all investigation being confined to a single young plant, about 7 in. or 8 in. high, and to the foliage of the mature tree ; but in this case the mature tree alone forms a very interesting study. On the young plant there occurred only one land of leaf — one like that of miro or totara, and in transverse section almost identical ir shape and size to that of a totara-leaf. On the mature tree we also find this kind of foliage, but longer and broader. In addition to this large leaf, we find almost every stage of reduction, to very small scale-like leaves, separate from the stem only at their apices. On a single branch one form may be seen gradually merging into the other, or we may find quite abrupt changes. On this particular tree the larger form predominated on the lower branches ; further up there was a mixture of the two ; while on the top branches only scale leaves were found. This example of dimorphic foliage in a Dacrydium forms a great contrast to the example of P. dacrydioides. In the latter we saw that dimorphic foliage only occurred on the younger plants, whilst in the former it is found only on the mature. That of kahikatea is an example of adaptation in the interme- diate stages, the primitive form reinstating itself finally on the mature tree. In Dacrydium Kirkii, however, the opposite is the case, for here we have an example of adaptation late in life, the adapted foliage being on the mature tree. The large, broad lamina is well adapted in the early stages for vigorous growth, but is evidently unsuitable in the mature state. We saw that in totara and miro the mature leaf was always more reduced than those of the intermediate stages. Dacrydium Kirkii has carried this reduction to the extreme. This extra- ordinary amount of reduction, occurring in one and the same mature tree, and accounting for the intermingling on one tree of two totally distinct kinds of foliage, is perhaps not paralleled by any other tree in existence. Griffin.-— Development of Neiv Zealand Conifer Leaves. 67 Anatomical Structure. The structure of leaves on the young plant corresponds very closely to that of a miro-leaf on a plant of the same size, though the shape in transverse section is more like a totara-leaf. The large form of the mature leaf is also very similar, hut has increased enormouslv in size in comparison with the former leaf. We still find a total absence of hypoderm, and find stomata still in the middle region of the upper surface, as well as in great numbers on the lower. We find a remarkably small amount of differentiation in the chlorophyll parenchyma, considering the great expanse of leaf. In this also the leaf agrees closely with miro. The middle elements are only very slightly elongated, and show no signs of lignification ; on the upper surface we find one or two rows of wide palisade parenchyma, while the rest is composed of loosely arranged irregular-shaped parenchyma. The vascular bundle is of great size, the phloem being better developed than the wood. Transfusion tracheids are well de- veloped at the sides of the bundles. We see by this transverse section that, of all leaves of those we have studied, this leaf is the least adapted for the prevention of excessive transpiration. It has the largest expanse of leaf,, no sclerenchymatous hypoderm, and in addition it bears sto- mata on the exposed upper surface. Taking these facts into consideration, we should not be surprised that the tree has endeavoured to make up for these deficiencies by a reduction of its leaves in length and breadth. I have cut sections of various stages of reduction to see if the reduction in length and breadth is correlated with any anatomical changes. None of any importance occur till the leaf has been very greatly reduced, and closely united to the stem. The reduction in length is as great or greater in pro- portion to the reduction in width. Reduced-scale Leaf : Free Tip. We note a great difference in size from the last stage. We see that the margins are greatly strengthened and are curved round the stem to serve for the protection of the neighbouring leaves. In the middle of the upper surface we see a bulge out of tissue. This is a continuation up of the region of the leaf where it joins the stem. In the chlorophyll parenchyma we also find changes. Here we find the palisade parenchyma on the lower surface and the looser on the upper, instead of vice versa as in the preceding 68 Transactions. stages. This naturally follows, for the under surface is now the more exposed. In the bundle we find a reduction of elements corresponding to the reduction in size, but there are still large groups of transfusion tracheids at the sides of the bundle. Transverse Section : Base tvhere Leaf has joined Stem. Stomata : We find no stomata now on the upper surface, for the region in which they occurred has become joined to the stem. The stomata are then, on the final stage, only on the lower surface, and are here on the exposed surface ; but they are greatly sunk, and are protected by the very close adpression of the leaf to the stem, and by the overlapping of neighbouring leaves. It is hardly necessary to give a summary of this leaf, the description being scarcely more, but it may be as well to mention again that — (1.) In Dacrydium Kirhii we have an example of dimorphic foliage in a different genus to that of kahikatea. This dimorphic foliage, however, occurs only on the old plants, while in kahikatea it occurs only in the younger stages. The dimorphic ioliage in D. Kirlii was a result of reduction from the more primitive form ; that of kahikatea was the result of an enlarge- ment of this form. (2.) In this leaf we have an example of stomata preserved on both surfaces of a broad leaf to the mature stage. Stomata at this stage were absent from the broad leaves of totara, miro, and matai. The presence of these stomata. and the absence of a sclerenchymatous hypoderm, makes it possible to explain why a reduction has taken place in this species. Comparison of Different Forms of Leaves. The species I have chosen represent very fairly the. different types of foliage found in the New Zealand Podocarpece ; but, as my thesis is already very extensive, I shall not be able to give at present a comparison of these species with the other forms. I should like to add, however, that the most common form of leaf in the New Zealand Podocarpea' is that represented by totara, miro, matai, and the earlier stages of Dacrydium Kirhii. Of these species the totara-leaf represents the most advanced form of this type, miro and Dacrydium Kirhii the simplest, whilst matai is intermediate between the two. A comparison of the structure in the " broad lamina " leaves of the Podocarpece, in conjunction with their habitats, might lead to some very interesting phytogenetic considerations. The totara is obviously the best adapted for living in exposed positions, and it is found where miro and matai could not survive. This type of foliage, which, in many respects, corresponds to Tarns Gkiffin. — Development of New Zealand Conifer Leaves. 69 ■baccata, is supposed to represent the most primitive type of Conifer leaf. The prevalence of this type in New Zealand Conifers is very suggestive when we consider the complete isolation of New Zealand from other countries, an isolation which can only have taken place at a very early geological period. Very different from the first type of foliage are the reduced forms also found in the New Zealand Podocarpea?. The reduction in Dacrydium Kirkii is a later development in its life-history, but in rimu and kahikatea we find from the beginning of develop- ment very much reduced forms. This reduction incites, both in kahikatea and in rimu, an attempt, though very different in each, to increase the surface for assimilation in the young plants. It is very probable that this reduced form may have been derived through scale leaves like those of the mature Dacrydium Kirkii, but it is not within the scope of this thesis to go into phytogenetic details regarding the origin of the different types of Conifer foliage. It is hardly necessary here to draw any further conclusions as regards the anatomical development in these species, as I have given summaries and comparisons as I have proceeded. My investigations have not been extensive enough to draw many general conclusions for the whole group, but I should like to show before concluding how far the development in these species agrees with that of the Abietinece. For this purpose I will give a very short summary and comparison on parallel lines to that of M. Daguillon, which is quoted in the introduction of this thesis. 1. In the Podocarpeo3, as in the Abietinew, the existence of leaves intermediate between the cotyledon and mature leaves is constant. 2. The passage from the primordial form in all species investigated shows insensible transitions. We find nothing to compare with Pinus, for though in the two plants with dimorphic foliage— Podocarpus dacrydioides and Dacrydium Kirkii — we find often abrupt changes, insensible transitional forms also occur. 3. In the Podocarpeaj, as in the Abietinea?, the passage is sometimes marked by a modification of phyllotaxis — e.g., totara. 4. Sometimes by a change in the epidermal surface. This change is perhaps more marked in species of the Podocarpeae than in the Abietinew. One or two parallel changes occur in species of the two groups, especially as regards the position of stomata. 5. In both groups there is a development below the epiderm of a sclerenchyrnatous hypoderm, though we find remarkable 70 Transactions. exceptions in the eases of miro,f niatai, and Dacrydiuni Kirhii. It might be noted here again the frequent occurrence in the Podocarpece of tannin-sacs in the layer next to the epidermis. Daguillon does not mention anything of the kind as occurring in the Abietinece. 6. It is interesting to note the almost complete absence of " pericyclic sclerenchyma " in the Podocarpece ; one or two isolated fibres alone occur. The only strengthening development here is the row of sclerenchyma cells round the resin-canal. This must, however, form a very strong support for the leaf, owing to the arrangement of these cells in a circle. Daguillon also notes the presence of transfusion tissue in the pericycle, but its distribution is very different in the two groups. In the Abietinece it generally extends right around the bundle, often appearing to be connected with the phloem ; in the Podocarpece this tissue generally occurs in groups at the sides of the bundle. From the position of the transfusion tracheids, as shown in Daguillon's figures, it seems more likely that they originated from the centrifugal than from the centripetal xylem. Daguillon himself says nothing about their origin, evidently regarding them as modified pericyclic cells. Tannin-sacs occur in the pericycle of many Podocarpece. 7. A bifurcation of the bundle like that occurring in the later stages of the Abietinece does not occur in the Podo- carpece. The bundles of the mature leaves are, however, broken up by medullary rays. It is in the case of a co- tyledon— i.e., that of totara — that we find the most parallel development. 8. In both groups the " number of conducting elements of the xylem and of the phloem augments when the primordial passes into the mature leaf." 9. In both groups also " when the parenchyma is hetero- geneous and bifacial the differentiation of the palisade paren- I'livma is generally accentuated in the adult leaves." We see from this summary and comparison that in the Abietinece there are many anatomical developments similar to those we have noted in some of the Podocarpeo?. This similarity in development must not be confounded with the entirely different matter — similarity of structure. The leaves of the two groups are generally very different both in external form and in the arrangement of their component anatomical elements. But in both groups, to put the mutter generally, disregarding all specific differences, the development tends to the differentiation of tissues for protection and strength, and also, both in the bundle and in the parenchyma, to modifications for increasing the power of conduction. Griffin.— Development of Neiv Zealand Conifer Leaves. 71 To sum up in a few words : the development of the successive stages of Conifer leaves is, to a very great extent, merely the acquisition in the mature leaves of better appliances for the manufacture of food, and for its protection during the processes of assimilation. EXPLANATION OF PLATES VIII-X. Lettering used in Figures. cut. Cuticle. peric. Pericycle. epid. Epidermis. t.t. Transfusion tissue. hyp. Hypoderm. p. ph. Protophloem. l.sur.par. Lower surface parenchyma. ph. Phloem. upp.sur.par. Upper surface parenchyma. x. Xylem. e.par. Elongated parenchyma. px. Protoxylem. acc.t.t. Accessory transfusion tissue. cpx. Centripetal xylem. t.s. Tannin-sac. scler. Sclerenchyma. end. Endodermis. r.c. Resin-canal. The following are transverse sections, unless otherwise stated: — Plate VIII. Fig. 1. Vascular bundle, youngest stage ; totara cotyledon, x 192. Fig. 2. Vascular bundle, apex, young cotyledon ; totara. x 192. Fig. 3. Vascular bundle, older cotyledon, x 192. Fig. 4. End of young cotyledon, x 192. Fig. 5. Vasculav bundle, youngest leaf, x 192. Fig. 6. Tangential section, young cotyledon; totara. x 192. Fig. 7. Outlines, transverse section — (a) cotyledon ; (6) young leaf, x 12. Fig. 8. Vascular bundle, older totara-leaf. x 192. Fig. 9. Radial longitudinal section through outer elements transfusion tissue ; shrub ; totara. x 100. Fig. 10. Transverse section, showing transitions in size of transfusion tracheids from px to endodermis ; shrub ; totara. x 100. Fig. 11. Middle elements ; older leaf, totara. x 100. Fig. 12. End of mature leaf, totara. x 100. Fig. 13. Outlines, transverse section — (a) mature totara ; (b) mature miro ; (c) youngest leaf ; (d) cotyledon (miro). x 12. Plate IX. Fig. 14. Bundle of cotyledon; miro. x 164. Fig. 15. End of cotyledon ; miro. x 100. Fig. 16. Tangential section, bundle, cotyledon; miro. x 164. Fig. 17. Bundle, older leaf, miro, stage 1. x 164. Fig. 18. Bundle, stage 2 ; miro. x 164. Fig. 19. Radial longitudinal section transfusion tissue ; mature miro. X164. Fig. 20. Awl-shaped leaf, stage 1 ; kahikatea. x 100. Fig. 21. Flattened leaf, stage 1 ; kahikatea. x 100. Fig. 22. Bundle, awl-shaped leaf, second year ; kahikatea. x 192. Fig. 23. Bundle, flattened leaf, second year ; kahikatea. x 192. ^ Fig. 24. Outlines, transverse sections — (a) cotyledon ; (6) stage 1, awl- shaped ; (c) stage 1, flattened form ; (d) leaf, awl-shaped, on plant three years old ; (e) flattened form on three-year-old plant ; (/, g, h) different mature forms ; kahikatea. x 22. 72 Transactions. Plate X. Fig. 25. Flattened form, plant three years old, lower surface elements ; kabikatea. x 192. Fig. 26. Flattened form, plant three years old, upper surface elements; kahikatea. x 192. Fig. 27. Bundle, mature kahikatea. x 192. Fig. 28. Rimu ; bundle, cotyledon, x 192. Fig. 29. Transverse outlines — (a) cotyledon ; (b) stage 1 ; (c) stage 2 p (d) stage 3 ; (e) shrub; rimu. x 22. Fig. 30. Stage 1 ; rimu ; bundle, x 192. Fig. 31. Stage 2 ; rimu. x 192. Fig. 32. Stage 3 ; rimu. x 192. Fig. 33. Mature leaf ; rimu. x 192. Fig. 34. Transverse outlines, Dacrydium Kirkii — (a, b, c) sections from apex to base of mature scale leaf ; (d) large form of leaf ; (e) large form, natural sizo ; (/) scale form, natural size, x 12. Art. IV. — Some Observations on the Schists of Central Otago, By A. M. Finlayson, M.Sc. Communicated by Dr. P. Marshall. [Read before the Olago Institute, 8th October, 1907.] Plates XI and XII. 1. Denudation Forms. Many of the Central Otago ranges are capped by vast as- semblages of rock hummocks or buttes. These are well dis- played on the Dunstan, Old Man, Carrick, and Rough Ridge Ranges, also at Barewood and Macrae's. As we approach the coast these hummocks become more numerous and smaller, till they finally disappear. They are best seen near mature river development, while sufficient erosion removes them alto- gether. They are thus not enduring features of the landscape, but are brought into existence, and again destroyed, by erosive activity. These peculiar forms have been remarked by several observers, notably the late Captain Hutton* and Mr. T. A. Rickardf ; but the only one who discusses their nature is Rickard, who studied them at Barewood. As he observes, they are generally composed of more siliceous and resistant portions of the rock. Basins and cavities are frequently developed near their base, * P. W. Hutton, •' Geology of Otago" (Dunedin, L875), p. 91. fT. A. Rickard, " GSoldfielda of Otago," Trans. Am. Inst, Min. Eng., vi 1. xxi, p. 411. Finlayson. — Schists of Central Otago. 73 and these are seen to face generally to the north — i.e., to the midday sun. The formation of these cavities is, therefore, pro- bably due to changes of temperature, and to freezing, and con- sequent disintegration. No writer, however, has sufficiently emphasized the import- ance of joints in the production of these hummocks, for to this< factor their formation is chiefly due. This is evident from a OTS! Fig. 2. Fig. 1. study of them in any one locality, where they are seen to be roughly square in plan, with their corresponding sides parallel. Castle Rock, on the Dunstan Range, in the form of two large turrets, shows very con- spicuously the effect of the jointing (fig. 2). The buttes are seen to best advantage in dis- tricts of horizontal strata, and this is why they are so conspicuous along the summits of many of the ranges, where the bedding-planes of the schist are generally horizontal. Where the dip increases they become irregular ; and with a nearly vertical dip, as on the fault- line at the south end of the Pisa Range, they appear as nearly upright minarets or " bayonet peaks " (fig. 3). It thus appears that the amount of dip is the chief cause of their varying form, the joint- ing of the rocks the cause of their existence. The combined effects of spher- oidal weathering and of split- ting along joint-planes have been the cause of the numerous resemblances in the rock-hummocks to} human forms, such as the Monk on the Carrick Range, and the Celebrities on the Skipper's Road. Fig. 3. 74 Transactions. » 2. Fracture Cleavage. This phenomenon, hitherto undescribed, is well displayed in the lower schists at Alexandra and on the Dunstan Range. Here we find a series of cross-fractures rilled with quartz, and inclined to the foliation or flow-cleavage planes at an angle of 45° (Plates XI and XII). The veins thus formed are widely spaced and discontinuous. This is a typical example of fracture cleavage developed by shearing in the zone of rock-fracture. Its mode of origin has been pointed out by C. R. van Hise, who says, " In the zone of rock-fracture, where the differential stress surpasses the ultimate strength of the rock, there may be produced a fissility in two sets of intersecting planes equally inclined to the greatest pressure."* In Otago one set is generally emphasized to the exclusion of the other. The name " fracture cleavage " is due to C. K. Leith, who has discussed its nature at length in his monograph on " Rock-cleavage. "f In some of the upper members of the schists, shearing-planes occur frequently along the foliation-planes, and there result slip-bands marked by a line of crushed and broken rock. These are well seen in some of the railway-cuttings in the Taieri Gorge. It thus appears that the effect of shearing - stress differs according to the depth of the rocks affected, since fracture cleavage in the lower schists gives place to slip-bands along the foliation-planes in the upper schists. 3. The Chlorite-schists. Distinctive types of chlorite- schist occur generally near the base of the mica-schists, notably the coarse chlorite-schist on the Dunstan and Pisa Ranges, and the granular chlorite-schist in younger beds at Cowcliff Hill, near Gibbston. These have all the characteristics of metamorphosed igneous rocks, an origin which was suggested by Hutton for some bands of chlorite- schist near Queenstown.J Field Relations. The two types referred to are interbedded with the mica- schists, in bands varying from 50 ft. to 300 ft. thick. They are frequently underlain by thin distinctive bands of micaceous quartz-schist, which may represent altered contact rock. * C. R. van Hise, "Principles of North American Pre-Cambrian Geology," U.S. Geol. Survey, L6th Annual Report, part i. p. (143. fC. K. Leith, " Rock-cleavage," Bulletin No. 239, U.S. Geol. Survey (1905), p. 119. JF. W. Hutton, "The Foliated Rocks of Otago," Trans. N.Z. Inst.. vol. xxiv (1891), p. 360. Finlayson. — Schists of Central Otago. 75 Composition. The following analyses show the composition of these rocks : — l. 2, 3. 4. 5. Si0.2 . 42-97 39-90 49-18 41-28 46-28 ALA . 16-06 8-22 15-09 18-48 12-96 Fe203 7-92 13-12 12-90 9-44 4-67 FeO 6-05 7-26 , , 8-20 6-06 MnO 0-45 0-39 , B , , TiO, 2-75 2-06 , . , r CaO . 11-45 14-09 10-59 7-04 10-12 MgO 3-24 2-26 5-22 7-48 8-71 K,0 0-90 2-57 1-51 2-21) 3-75 Na.O 2-64 3-41 3-64 3-52J C0.2 3-45 4-01 , t , , . . so., 0-16 Nil . . . . . . H,0 1-33 2-00 1-87 2-74 3-34 99-37 99-29 100-00 100-39 95-89 1. Chlorite - schist, Dunstan Ra. ; Anal., J. S. Maclaurin (Bull. No. 1, N.Z. Geol. Surv., 1906, p. 42). 2. Chlorite- schist, Gibbston ; Anal., A. M. Finlayson. 3. Chlorite-schist, Klippe, Sweden ; quoted by Roth, Ge- steinsanalejsen, 1884, p. 8). 4. Epidote-schist from diabase, South Mountain, Pa. ; C. H. Henderson, Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., xii, p. 82. 5. Diabase, Point Bonita, Calif. ; F. L. Ransome, Bull. Geol. Dept. Univ. Calif., i, 106. The features of the two Otago types are the low silica per- centage, and the high proportions of lime, magnesia, and notably titanium. These figures indicate a basic igneous rock. Analyses 3 and 4, of chlorite-schist and epidote-schist respectively, show analogous features. No. 5, of a typical diabase, is inserted for comparison, and shows close correspondence in respect of the main constituents. Petrography. Under the microscope, type No. 1 (Plate XII, 2) shows a mass of chlorite fibres and scales imbedded in elongated granules of quartz, the structure being perfectly schistose. Rutile is abundant in elongated crystals ; plagioclase and magnetite are accessories, though the last is frequently very coarse and strikingly developed in large and thickly clustered octahedra. Calcite and epidote are very abundant, and the rock is sometimes so highly epidotised as to constitute an epidote-schist. Some specimens carry pyrite in large flattened cubes. The altera- 76 Transactions. tion of the rock is too intense to determine whether this con- stituent is original, but it was at least introduced prior to the dynamic metamorphism of the schist, the large size of the indi- viduals being the result of recystallization during metamor- phism. Type No. 2 (Plate XII, 3a) is less schistose, and preserves more of its original structure. It is composed of a mass of labradorite and quartz crystals thickly grouped, the interspaces being occupied by fibres of chlorite, a good deal of calcite and epidote, with rutile plentiful and magnetite accessory. The feldspars are roughly rectangular, and simple or once twinned. The absence of polysynthetic twinning indicates secondary recrystallization. Both feldspars and quartz are crowded with crystals of epidote having a marked centric arrangement. The rock is practically a feldspar-schist. The specific gravity of these rocks varies from 2-9 to 3-2. Conclusions. Judging from the above lines of evidence, there is no doubt that the schists described are altered flows or sheets of basic igneous rocks, contemporaneous with the associated mica-schists of sedimentary origin. 4. Igneous Intrusions. The So-called Porphyrites of the Carrick Range. Both Hutton and Ulrich refer, in their " Geology and Gold- fields of Otago," to dykes of porphyrite, or hornstone-porphyry, on the Carrick Range, in the vicinity of the Carrick reefs.* Careful examination failed to locate these dykes, and I can only conclude that both these authorities have been misled into call- ing dykes some outcrops of dark iron-stained gossan near old Carricktown. These have frequently a brecciated structure, and the resulting appearance resembles a porphyritic rock with phenocrysts of quartz. The outcrops are, however, simply the barren caps of lodes. Two magnesian dykes occur in Central Otago which were unknown to Hutton, and which have not been hitherto de- scribed. Gibbston Dyke. This occurs across the Kawarau River from Gibbston, about half a mile up the left branch of the Springburn, a tributary of the Gentle Annie. The schist in the neighbourhood of the intrusion has been highly crushed and disturbed. The dyke * Hutton and Ulrioli, " Geology of Otago " (Dunidin, 1875), pp. 31 and 157. Finlayson. — Schists of Central Otago. 11 is composed of altered olivine rock, and sections show the characteristic mesh structure of serpentine derived from -olivine* Where least altered, it is a black serpentine rock, showing occa- sional good cleavage-surfaces of hypersthene. The serpentine- in more-altered portions graduates into talc, and the rock is traversed by veins of calcite and chrysotile asbestos. The surrounding rock is a fine-grained mica-schist with a band of fine chlorite-schist. For a distance of 6 ft. from the contact the mica-schist has been altered into a highly quartzose schist, with a striking development of biotite blades arranged across the foliation - planes. The chlorite - schist shows, as a result of the intrusion, numerous actinolite needles. This development of the magnesia minerals, biotite and actinolite, is a characteristic contact- effect of magnesian intrusions. Moke Creek Dijke. This occurs on the right bank of Bushy Creek, 300 yards above its junction with Moke Creek, between Kilpatrick and Moke Lakes. It lies on approximately the same line of strike as the Moke Creek copper lode, and is, like the other, a serpent- inked olivine rock. The outcrop is very obscure, and highly weathered into a talcose serpentine, with remnants of massive dark-green serpentine. This dyke is particularly interesting, in that an analysis- of the serpentine showed it to contain 0-075 per cent, of copper. Copper - ores are frequently associated with magnesian rocks, and. this proximity of a copper - bearing dyke to a copper lode strongly suggests that the ore in the lode has been formed from a previous concentration of the ore in an ultrabasic magma beneath. 5. On the Presence of Segregated Gold in the Schist. The majority of writers — notably Hector,* Ulrich,f McKay,}: and Rickard§ — in order to account for the vast amount of alluvial gold in Otago, claim that the schists carry gold segregated in the quartz laminae. In the first place, the contention is un- necessary, as is evident from a careful study of the lodes in Otago. In the second place, only two examples have * Sir J. Hector, " Outline of New Zealand Geology " (Wellington, 1886), p. 83. t Hntton and Ulrich, " Geology of Otago " (Dunedin, 1875), p. 157. J A. McKay, "Gold-deposits of New Zealand" (Wellingtcn, 1903), p. 68. § T. A. Rickard, " Goldfields of Otago," Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. xxi, p. 442. "78 Transactions. been recorded, and both of these rest on unsatisfactory evi- dence. McKay records the occurrence of gold in laminated quartz at Green's Reef, Ophir.* Both Ulrichf and Park! have con- clusively shown that there is here a zone of crushed rock on the line of a fault, through which mineralising solutions have risen. The crush-zone is penetrated by cross-veins and " flats " of quartz carrying pyrite and gold, and leaving no doubt as to the secondary origin of the metal. This instance must therefore be rejected. H. A. Gordon states that gold has been found in the schist near the Bullendale lode, Skipper's.§ He did not describe or figure the specimen, nor did he, apparently, take any precautions to observe from where it was taken, which was very necessary in the case of a wide mullocky lode like that at Bullendale. where a broad belt of country has been intersected by several parallel fissures, and the intervening rock impregnated with auriferous pyrite. I examined a reported instance near Butcher's Gully, Alex- andra, || which proved to be on the line of a crush-zone, highly mineralised, the rock being penetrated by " flat " veinlets of quartz resembling laminated quartz. My conclusion is that the occurrence of gold in the schist laminse is not borne out by observation. The presence of gold in the schist would therefore require to be tested by careful analysis, and, in view of Wagoner's recent researches on the presence of gold in various rocks, ^[ it is quite probable that the mica-schists of Otago may carry minute quantities of gold. It is, however, inconceivable that the quantity present could ever induce one to claim such as the main source of the alluvial gold of Otago. The first investigator who opposed the view that the alluvial gold of the drifts was derived from segregated gold in the schists was Professor James Park, in his report on the Alexandra Subdivision,** and to him I am greatly indebted for the many facilities and opportunities he gave me during my work with him on the Cromwell Subdivision. *A. McKay, " Gold-depositB of New Zealand" (Wellington, 1903), p. 08. f " Handbook of New Zealand Mines " (Wellington, 1887), p. 75. % J. Park, Bulletin No. 2, N.Z. Geol. Surv., L906, p. 29. S " New Zealand Mining Eandbook" (Wellington, L906), p. 33. |] Mutton and Ulrich, " Geology of Otago " (l)unedin. 1875), p. 167. "I Luther Wagoner, "Detection and Estimation of Small Quantities of Gold and Silver," Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Mug., vol. xxxi, p. 798. ** Bullotin No. 2, N.Z. Geol. Surv.. L906. Marshall. — Geology of North Island, 79 EXPLANATION OF PLATES XI AND XII. Plate XL 1. Fracture cleavage in rock-face, lower schists, Alexandra. (Photo by Professor Park.) Plate XII. 1. Fracture cleavage in boulder, Bannockburn Bridge. (Photograph.) 2. Section of chlorite-schist, Dunstan Range. Magnetite (black) marks the foliation-planes. Chlorite (cloudy) and quartz (clear) are present. X 32 diameters. 3a. Section of granular chlorite-schist, Gibbston. Shows large recrystal- lized feldspars and quartz, x 32 diameters. 36. Same negative as 3a ; printed deep, to show centric arrangement of epidote and twinning of feldspar. Art. V. — Geology of Centre and North of North Island. By P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc. [Bead before the Otago Institute, \0th September, 1907.] Plate XIII. A great deal of interest is attached to the northern part of the North Island from a geological point of view. This interest is partly a result of the direction of the trend of the land, which,, somewhat to the west of north, offers a striking contrast to that of the rest of the Dominion, which is directed north-east and south-west. It is of some importance to know whether this direction of the northern portion indicates a new structural direction, or whether the land is composed of broken fragments of mountain-ranges parallel to the great structural feature of the North Island — the Tararua-Euahine-Kaimanawa-Raukumara chain. Additional interest attaches to the extreme north, because here Mr. McKay has mentioned the occurrence of intrusive masses and " sills " of crystalline rocks of plutonic character,, which he has classified with the syenites. Except for the occurrence of tonalites and other dioritic rocks from the Cape Colville Peninsula, and of granites as boulders in conglomerates at Alexandra and at Gisborne, plutonic rocks are unknown in the North Island. From a popular point of view, the greatest interest attaches to this part of New Zealand because volcanic action has been more pronounced here than elsewhere, and is still maintained spasmodically. No comprehensive attempt has been made to deal with these volcanic areas since Hochstetter's time, though much information has been gained by several investigators in various parts of the district. 80 Transactions. In a short paper of this kind it will be impossible to attempt anything more than a general discussion of these three matters. A reference to any map which shows the contours of the western Pacific at once makes it clear that the northern peninsula is not continued far as a submarine ridge below the waters of the Pacific. Still, there are submarine ridges parallel to it. A small ridge of this nature lies relatively close to the land, but does not extend far to the north. Over a portion of it the water is less than 500 fathoms in depth. A second ridge, of much greater importance, lies five hundred miles to the west. This, like the other, has a fairly large portion which is less than 500 fathoms below the surface of the water. The ridge continues as far north as New Caledonia without in any place dipping below the 1,000-fathom level. There is, however, another submarine ridge of some import- ance north of New Zealand. Commencing about three hundred miles north of the Bay of Plenty, this ridge, less than 1,000 fathoms below the sea-level, extends continuously nearly as far north as Samoa. In ordinary maps it is not indicated as continuous, but as divided into two portions between the Kermadecs and the Tonga Islands. There does not appear to be any reason to divide the ridge into two parts in this manner. It is true that those soundings that have been made between these groups of islands indicate rather deeper water, but none of the soundings are in the direct line of the ridge, and all parts of it are extremely narrow. The evidence that is avail- able seems to point to the continuous nature of the ridge rather than to its separation into two parts. The ridge appears to be a continuation of the trend-line of the main structural features of New Zealand. Wherever the ridge rises to the surface it -displays volcanic rocks, as at the Kermadecs and at Tongatabu, though it must be remembered that Professor Thomas has obtained specimens of syenite from the former group. To the •east of this ridge there is a deep rift in the bed of the Pacific. In places it is 5,000 fathoms in depth, and there appears to be definite evidence that it is 4,000 fathoms and more in depth throughout a distance as great as the length of the ridge that borders it so closely on the west. The evidence in favour of the continuity of the rift is similar to that given above — viz., in those places where discontinuity is generally repre- sented in maps no soundings have been made in the direct line of the rift. So far as submarine contours go, it appears from the fore- going statements that there is no definite evidence as to the nature of the northern peninsula. Trend-lines there undoubtedly are, and some of these are parallel to but not continuous with Marshall. — Geology of North Island. 81 the peninsula. On the other hand, there is strong evidence of pronounced structural lines in the bed of the Pacific in the same direction as the mountain-ranges, and, if an intermediate depth of 1,600 fathoms be disregarded, actually continuous with the dominant structural features of the North Island. If we turn to the rocks of this portion of the land we find three main types — (1) volcanic rocks of many kinds ; (2) Caino- zoic sediments, probably of Miocene age ; and (3) intensely folded and often contorted sandstones and shales, which have been classed as Carboniferous, though there is no definite evidence that they are older than the Mesozoic. With these are associated in many northern localities the plutonic rocks previously noted. Of these three rock-groups, the first two are not folded, and therefore afford no evidence as to the structural features at present being considered. The slates and sandstones have, however, been subjected to earth-pressure of an intense nature, and it is from them that information is to be expected. Though the whole of the area has been geologically examined, it is a remarkable fact that there is in the reports that describe the country practically no statement as to the direction of the strike and dip of these older sediments. I was able to make a few observations last summer in the Bay of Islands, and here the beds are much contorted, and are often so changed that the stratigraphic planes are completely obscured. However, from the observations that could be made, there appeared to be a north or north-north-east strike, and the same direction appeared to be represented in the hills between Mangonui and the Oruru Valley, and in the shales that are occasionally displayed in the range extending from Reef Point to Raetea. This statement is very general, but it remains the only indication of the structural lines of the country. So far as it goes, it indicates that the trend of the land is not a result of structural characters, but, as it were, accidental, because here it happened that fragments of moun- tains with a northerly strike in many ranges were left in such large numbers as to constitute an apparent north-westerly trend. This view is in accord with that expressed by Suess. At present a portion of the district is being examined in detail by the reorganized Geological Survey, so definite information mil shortly be forthcoming. The second matter of special interest is the occurrence of plutonic rocks at various places, which has been noted by McKay, who referred them to syenites or diorites. At Mangonui Town- ship McKay states that these rocks are interbedded with sand- stones and shales. Of this no evidence could be seen. Certainly the character of the rocks varied somewhat : the colour is darker, and they are more compact in some places than in others. When 82 Transactions. examined under the microscope it was seen that the differences- were due to unimportant variations in a diorite rock. The rock is not coarse-grained, and the feldspar is nearly all triclinic, ande- sine and oligoclase being chiefly present. All the ferro-magnesian mineral is hornblende, but it is much decomposed into serpen- tinous and chloritic substances. There is some magnetite. In the absence of analyses, the rock appears to approach the syenites somewhat closely. At Ahipara other specimens were obtained that appear to represent the mass that extends from that locality to Reef Point, though the actual specimens were obtained from Ahipara only. The rock, again, is not particularly coarse-grained, and in hand-specimens is less grey than the diorite mentioned above. The separate minerals are clearly seen in hand-specimens, and, in addition to feldspar and a dark ferro-magnesian mineral, olivine was evidently present. When seen in thin sections the rock is at once identified as an olivine norite. The feldspar is a basic variety of labra- dorite. Augite is plentiful, and but slightly schillerised. The hypersthene is not abundant, and is generally associated with olivine, which is rather frequent. This appears to be the only olivine norite recorded from New Zealand, though it is probable that similar rocks exist in the Darran Mountains, near Milford Sound. Other specimens of plutonic rocks were obtained from the Raetea Saddle. They were almost entirely norites, but were wanting in olivine. In those sections that were seen the relations between the plutonic rocks and the Mesozoic shales were not clearly dis- played. No actual contact was observed, but from the irregular succession of the rocks on the road to the Raetea Saddle it was evident either that the Mesozoic sediments rested on a highly eroded surface of plutonic rock, or that the plutonic material was intruded into the sediments, and is therefore of Post- Meso- zoic age. This is the view taken by McKay, and, although it is impossible to mention any section that negatives it, there are a few facts which suggest that more vigorous investi- gation is yet required. It is obvious that the intrusion of such large masses of plutonic rock would be likely to induce much contact action, yet when search was made in the. sediments no evidence of contact action could be found, even when the out- crop of norite was close at hand. The slight schillerisation of the pyroxene also indicates that the plutonic matter has been subject to much dynamic action since its formation. Since there is no evidence of earth-movements in this district since the period of folding of the Mesozoic sediments, it would appear that the norite received its character of schillerisation at a period not later than that of the folding of the Mesozoic Marshall. — Geology of North Island. 83 sediments. As this folding probably took place immediately after their deposition, it appears that the norite can hardly be of Post-Mesozoic age. The volcanic rocks extending from Mount Egmont, Ruapehu, and the Bay of Plenty northward have not received much atten- tion, so far as general statements are concerned, since Hoch- stetter's time. Apparently he made extensive collections, but only a few of his specimens appear to have been submitted to microscopical or chemical examination. A few of them, how- ever, were described by Zirkel.* All of them are classified as rhyolites, though with very different structures in the different specimens. Of those examined, the majority were collected near Taupo and near Rotorua, though there were examples of obsidian from Tuhua as well. Mica was identified in many examples, but no rhombic pyroxene. As a result of his observations, Hochstetterf classed the whole of the volcanic rocks of New Zealand in two divisions, called an older and a younger series. The different occurrences in the region under discussion were classed as follows : — I. Older volcanic rocks. Tertiary and older Quaternary (Pluto- volcanic). (a.) Northward of Auckland Harbour, on the west. Ande- site and dolerite breccias, with dykes of basalt. (b.) South of Manukau, and thence to Aotea Harbour. Basalt conglomerates and basalts without distinct cones. (c.) Volcanic table-land between upper and middle Wai- kato. Pumice and trachyte tuffs, with old extinct craters of trachytic, andesitic, and doleritic rocks. II. Younger volcanic formation. Acid and basic products. Cones with distinct or stuffed-up craters, (a.) Taupo zone. Rhyolitic and trachytic lavas. Obsi- dian and pumice important. Includes the large volcanoes around Taupo. (b.) Mount Egmont. This may belong to the older period. (c.) Auckland zone. Sixty-three eruption-points, with dis- tinct craters and lava-flows. (d.) Bay of Islands. Between Hokianga and Bay of Islands. Similar to Auckland zone. Since Hochstetter's time important work has been done by Professor Thomas. The results of his first paperf may be thus summarised : Augite-andesites were found at Mount Edge- cumbe ; Ngauruhoe ; Ruapehu, west side ; Wanganui River, * " Reise der ' Novara ' : Geologie," vol. i, p. 109. t " Reise der ' Novara ' : Geologie," vol. i, p. 200. J Thomas, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xx, p. 306 et seq. 84 Transactions. on west side of Taupo ; Whangamata Bay, West Taupo ; Titi- raupenga. Khyolites were found in several places. Some contained quartz, brown hornblende, and augite. Spberulitic and axiolitic types were mentioned, and a banded type from Motutaiko Island, in Lake Taupo. In a second paper* the rocks of Tongariro are described as typical augite-andesites, but in a few instances there was a little olivine — e.g., the summit of Tongariro, at the red crater, and at Otukou. It is noticeable that in all of Professor Thomas's descriptions there is no mention of the occurrence of rhombic pyroxene. Captain Huttonf described many rocks from this district. Rhyolites are recorded from Taupo ; hornblende-rhyolite, from Lake Tarawera and Lake Rotorua ; augite-rhyolite, from Atea- muri ; enstatite - rhyolite, from Lake Taupo ; chlorite-rhyo- lite, from Okaro ; pitchstone, from Maketu, Tauranga, and Mayor Island ; spherulitic pitchstone, from Eotorua ; obsi- dian, from Mayor Island, Taupo, and Lake Rotoiti. Trachyte is recorded from the Sugarloaves, Taranaki, but subsequently Hutton classified this rock as an andesitej ; from Whangarei, based on an identification of Cox§ ; from Runanga, Napier- Taupo Road, based on an identification of Hector ||. Horn- blende - andesites are recorded from Sugarloaves, Taranaki ; Mount Egmont ; eastern base of Mount Ruapehu ; Tokatoka ; Kaipara. Augite - andesites, from Mount Egmont ; Mount Pirongia ; Okaro ; Mount Tarawera, eruption of 1886. Ensta- tite-andesite, from Sugarloaves, Taranaki ; Ruapehu ; Horohoro ; White Island ; Puponga, in Manukau Harbour ; Helensville ; Kamiti, in Kaipara Harbour ; Whangarei Heads. Olivine-ande- site, from Mount Egmont. A dolerite is recorded from Kake- puku ; and basalt from Mount Eden and Rangitoto, near Auckland. ■ t Thomas, ^[ in a report on the Tarawera eruption, published by the New Zealand Government in 1888, has mentioned the rocks of Mount Edgecumbe as augite-andesite, and the lava emitted as bombs from Tarawera in 1886 is also described under the same name. Hill** has described the rocks of Ruapehu as basalt, trachyte, and andesite. * Thomas, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxi. p. 349 et acq. t Hutton, Royal Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. L02 U scq. t Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst,, vol. xxxi, p. 483. § Cox, Geological Reports, 1876-77, p. 95. || Heotor, Geological Reports, 1870-71. ^1 Thomas, " Report on Eruption of Tarawera,'' pp. 13 and 58. ** Hill, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxiv, p. 617; also Trans. Aust, Assoc Adv. Sci., vol. iii, p. 170. Marshall. — Geology of North Isla?id. 85 Park" has mentioned dolerite, phonolites, porphyritic tra- chytes, and pitchstone as occurring on Kuapehu ; but neither of these last two authors appears to have made anything more than a field examination of the rocks. Rutleyf has described a large number of rhyolites from the Rotorua area. Several of these suffered from geyser-action and have become more or less silicified. Descriptions of rocks from Tuhua (Mayor Island), in the Bay of Plenty, are included in this paper. A different type of rock, a pantellaritic liparite lava, has recently been described by F. von WolffJ from Mayor Island. This is the only mention of soda-rich types from the district — at any rate, in technical descriptions. During the presence of the " Discovery " expedition in New Zealand, rocks were collected by Ferrar near the Aratiatia Rapids, on the Waikato River. They have been described as rhyolites and andesites by Rastall.§ Reference is here made to a peculiar reddish pyroxene that it is stated may be strongly soda-bearing. The Auckland rocks have also been described by Shrewsbury, || who classed them all as basalts. The literature referring to the Thames rocks and those of the Cape Colville Peninsula is quite extensive, but there is a very general agreement as to the rock-types and the succession of lavas. The most recent publication on the district appeared in 1905, from the pen of Professor Sollas^J, with descriptive notes by A. McKay. Photographs of many of the rock-types appear in this work. It is recognised by all workers in this field that the andesites are very varied in type and structure. They range from dacites to hypersthene andesites, with some olivine. Augite and horn- blende types occur as well, but there are no unusual minerals present. Sollas speaks in several places of the micropcecillitic structure as peculiar. The mineral with which this structure is most commonly associated he has identified as quartz. Coarsely spherulitic rhyolites from this locality have received considerable attention from Rutley** and Sollas.ff The spheru- * Park, Geological Reports, 1886, p. 70. f Rutley, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. lvi, p. 493 et seq. t F. von Wolff, " Centralblatt fur Mineralogie, &c, 1904," p. 208 et seq. § Geological Mag., Decade v, vol. ii, p. 403 et seq. || Shrewsbury, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxiv, p. 366. ^f Sollas, " Rocks of Cape Colville Peninsula," 2 vols. ; Government Printer, Wellington. ** Rutley, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. lv, p. 449 et seq., particularly p. 466 ; also vol. lvi, p. 509. ft Sollas, " Rocks of Cape Colville Peninsula," vol. i, pp. 120, 121. 86 Transactions. lites are nearly an inch in diameter at times, and have irregularly curved radiating arms. Rutley regards the objects as a result of refusion of the rhyolite. Sollas rejects this explanation, and states that these features, as well as certain isotropic feldspars, have resulted from processes of decomposition. This explana- tion he afterwards withdrew, but did not substitute another. A peculiar type of rock with a semi-brecciated appearance is called by Professor Sollas " wilsonite." He suggests that its peculiar structure is due to the association of fragments of lava ejected during an eruption which retained their viscosity until they reached the ground. A very complete bibliography of the literature of Cape Col- ville geology is given in the introduction to Professor Sollas's work.* Unfortunately, it is impossible to represent the results of different authors here. This is less regrettable because they are in essential agreement as to all the main features. Re- ference, however, should be made to the geological map of the district in the second volume, and a similar map by Professor Park.f In the second volume of Professor Sollas's report there are descriptions of rocks collected by McKay on the western spurs of the Kaimanawa Range. J Some of these are probably material ejected by Ruapehu and its neighbours, for the rocks agree with those of the volcanoes in all essential particulars. Others agree with rocks near Lake Taupo. Other descriptions are given of rocks from the Sugarloaves, Taranaki. The only special feature to notice is the occurrence of hypersthenej in one example as a core of a hornblende crystal. Fox,§ in a paper on the volcanic rocks near Auckland, has described certain tuff-beds as being formed of fragmentary matter ejected by the Cape Colville eruptions, and others as formed during the eruptions of the Waitakerei volcanoes. The physiography of this region has been referred to by many authors. Hill, in particular, and Park have described the physiography of the Ruapehu region, and further descrip- tions have been added by Von Friedlander,|| who visited the district after the eruption of Te Mari in 1896. Marshall and Alison have also written on the subject in the volumes of the " New Zealand Alpine Journal." Thomas, in papers quoted above, has dealt fully with Tongariro. An accurate map of Tongariro has been drawn by Cussen. * Sollas, " Rocks of Cape Colville Peninsula," vol. i, p. 124. |- Park, " Geology and Veins <>f Hauraki Goldnelds, N.Z. Inst. Min. Eng., I HOT. I Solhis, " Rocks of Cape Colville Peninsula," vol. ii, pp. l(>0-65. § Fox, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxiii. p. 462 ct ••>"/ || Friodlander, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxi. p. 4'.ts. Marshall. — Geology of North Island. 87 The general features of the physiography of the whole dis- trict were, of course, fully outlined by Hochstetter,* who travelled throughout the district in 1864. The general results of his work require no very great modification, though, of course, there has been much change in the Tarawera and Rotomahana dis- trict as a result of the eruption of 1886. Another description has been given by Marshall! and by Gregory. J Cussen§ has written papers on the changes in the course of the Waikato River, as well as a paper on the country to the west of Taupo, that is still very imperfectly known. McKay 1 1 has lately discussed the locality of the eruption, from which all the pumice was dispersed. In regard to the age of the outburst of volcanic action in this part of New Zealand, we have Hill's^f statement that there is a pumice-bed interstratified with Miocene (Cretaceo-tertiary} clays at Tolaga Bay. Park** states that the activity of Rua- peliu and Egmont began in the newer Pliocene. In the Thames district Parkff gives the Upper Eocene age for the commence- ment of volcanic action. Hectorff states that the Thames andesites are of Cretaceo-tertiary age. Hutton§§ places the Thames andesites doubtfully in the Oligocene, and the volcanic rocks of the central region in the Pliocene. Afterwards |||| he states that the eruptions began in the Miocene. In this paper an attempt will be made to combine the results obtained by the various authors named above with the observa- tions made by the author of this paper. Age. A recent paper by Professor Park^j has revised the classifica- tion of the Cainozoic rocks of New Zealand. Nearly all the Cretaceo-tertiary rocks of Hector, as well as his Eocene rocks, are referred to the Miocene as a result of a fresh examination of typical sections. If this reasonable conclusion is adopted, an * Hochstetter, " New Zealand," 1867. f Marshall, " Geography of New Zealand," p. 73 et seq. ; Whitcombe and Tombs, 1905. X Gregory, " Australasia," vol. i, pp. 577-82 ; Stanford. § Cussen, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xx, p. 316; vol. xxvi, p. 398. || McKay, Mines Reports, 1899, p. 16. If Hill, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xx, p. 304. **Park, Geological Reports, 1886, p. 71. ft Park, " Hauraki Goldfields," p. 13. XX Hector, " Outline of New Zealand Geology," p. 87. §§ Hutton, " Geology of New Zealand," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, 1885, p. 192. Illl Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxii, p. 172. ifjfPark, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxvii, p. 491. 88 Transactions. important change must be made in the age of the Thames andesites, which rest on rocks that have hitherto been classed as Cretaceo-tertiary. They must be accepted as of Upper Miocene age at the earliest. Hill's observations prove the Miocene age of some acid eruptions, probably that of the interior region near Taupo ; so it appears that volcanic action commenced in the Thames and Taupo regions almost simultaneously towards the end of the Miocene period. At Auckland, Fox has shown that the scoria-beds in the Waitemata series are of the same nature as the Waitakerei rocks, and, as the Waitemata beds are Upper Miocene, there can be no doubt that the great series of Waitakerei andesites are of Upper Miocene age. The main features of the Waitakerei rocks, stratigraphical, petrographical, and physiographical, are repeated at many points further north, notably at Kamiti, Kaipara Harbour ; Manaia Peaks, Whangarei ; the entrance to Hokianga ; St. Paul, aud the surrounding district, Whangaroa : south of Mangonui ; North Cape district. It therefore seems reasonable to refer all these areas to eruptions of Upper Miocene age. In making this correlation, it must be remembered that the rocks have most striking characteristics in common, and that in several cases actual stratigraphical evidence that war- rants such a correlation is to be found. • There is little evidence as to the age of the rocks of Karioi and Pirongia. Stratigraphically they rest upon Miocene lime- stones, and are possibly of late Miocene age. The rocks are dolerites, and differ markedly from all other volcanic material of the North Island, so far as my experience goes. Another group of rocks about which there is at present but little information is that of the older basalts between Kerikeri and Orotere, and, further on, between Mangonui and Ahipara. I know of no stratigraphical evidence as to their age, and they are here termed " older " merety because of the mineralogies! changes of serpentinisation that they have undergone, and because of the extensive weathering changes by which their surface has been altered. At Kerikeri they rest on Miocene rocks. There appear, then, good evidences of great volcanic activity towards the close of the Miocene; but this activity was more pronounced in the northern part of the district than in the southern, for in all the extensive Miocene rocks near Wanganui there are no pumice or fragments of volcanic rock to be found, even in the upper rocks of the series. That this period of activity extended into the Pliocene is possible, though, owing to the general absence of Pliocene deposits, there is no absolute Marshall. — Geology of North Island. 89 proof of the statement. Such Pliocene deposits are, however, found in the Hawke's Bay and Wanganui districts. The former district has been described by Mr. Hill,* who mentions pumice and volcanic material in the Upper Pliocene only. From this it appears that the volcanic action which distributed pumice in the Miocene became dormant in the Upper Pliocene, or became extinct, and a new district became active in its place. At Wanganui, Parkf has stated that volcanic material is found in the Upper Pliocene only. This agrees with Hutton'sf statement and with that in his geological history of New^Zea- land.§ With these statements my observations entirely agree, and I would add that the lower gravels of volcanic material in the Upper Pliocene at Wanganui contain a much larger quantity of pebbles of Mesozoic sediments and of rhyolites than the higher strata of gravels, which consist almost entirely of andesitic pebbles. This suggests that in the early Pliocene the sediments of the range west of Taupo had not become so nearly obliterated by volcanic ejecta as now, and that the Ongaruhe was then cutting its gorge vigorously through the white rhyolite, while the Wanganui did not have its head- waters obstructed, in bringing gravels from the Kaimanawas, by the huge andesitic masses of Ruapehu and his fellows. Later on, as Ruapehu grew, the source of sedimentary pebbles was cut off, and the steep slopes of Ruapehu yielded more and more material to the streams that coursed down its sides. Further north the volcanic cones at Auckland are of extremely recent age. Their lava-streams flowed down valleys that still exist. So recent are the lavas that streams still flow beneath them through the loose scoriaceous matter of their lower surface. In no instance has a stream cut a higher-level channel on the surface of the lava. The same remarks apply to the volcanic matter at Whangarei and at the Bay of Islands. ThisTvolcanic action, however, appears to have lasted a considerable time. The rocks of the plateau of the lower Waikato are similar to those of the Auckland caves. Though still quite fresh at a little distance from the surface, there is a deep and fertile soil formed from the lava, and streams have cut deep channels through it. The same remarks apply equally to the Bay of Islands. It appears, then, that though the present cones and their lava-flows are of extremely recent age, they represent only the final effort of a long period of activity, which may have com- menced in the Pliocene. *Hill, Tram. N.Z. Inst., vcl. xx, p. 301. t Park, Geological Reports, 1886, p. 71. j Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xix, p. 339. § Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxii, p. 173. 90 Transactions. Physiography of the District. So many writers have already discussed this aspect of the subject that little need be added here. There are, however, a few matters that seem to have, in part, escaped attention previously, and others which allow of very different interpreta- tions. The actual craters of the large volcanoes have often been described. It will, perhaps, be interesting to make a few remarks on the crater of Ngauruhoe, which I have visited six times since 1891. The two earliest accounts, by Dyson and Bidwill, represent the crater as a profound abyss which could not be descended on any side, nor could the bottom be seen. In December, 1890, it was possible to walk all over the bottom of the main crater, though steam- jets of some size were to be found in many places. Round each steam-jet there was a small cone of sulphur. The small scoria cone on the north rim of the main crater was then much more active than the main crater itself. A year later the crater had completely changed, and there was a large pit near the centre of the main crater. This pit was the scene of rather violent activity, and it was impossible to see to the bottom of it. But little change has taken place since that time, though the pit has become larger, and has changed its position rather to the west, so that in December, 1906, its western side coincided with the western flank of the mountain. At this time the moun- tain was rather inactive, and it was possible to see to the bottom of the pit. It was about 250 ft. in depth, with nearly vertical sides, which were encrusted with sulphur, and from which steam issued in clouds. At the bottom of the crater was a pond of water of a bluish-green colour. There was a scum, apparently of sulphur, and the water was in ebullition. Sulphuretted hydrogen was being emitted in small quantity, but sulphur- dioxide was in far larger amount. The small-rim crater to the north was nearly quiescent. In February, 1907, the mountain became rather violent, and emitted large quantities of dust, which fell over the country to leeward. The mountain was ascended in March, during the continuance of the active phase. The crater appeared to have undergone no material change, but the shower of acid rain and mud prevented me from making more exact observations. The mud was six inches deep on the rim of the crater, and ■extended 2000 feet down the side of the cone. The craters on Ruapehu and Tongariro have undergone Marshall. — Geology of North Island. 91 no material change within the period of my observations, and they have been accurately described by many observers. The violent eruptions of Tarawera in June, 1886, have been so fully described by Hector, Hutton, Percy Smith, and Thomas, as well as a host of other writers, that it is unnecessary to refer further to them here. The features of this volcanic area have lately been examined by Bell,* and the changes that have oc- curred since the eruption are described by him. An important feature of the physiography of the district is described by Cussen. f This is the range of old folded sedi- ments here referred to as Mesozoic, though stated by Cussen, in conformity with the usual custom, to be Carboniferous. The range commences ten miles to the west of Tongariro, and extends throughout the country to the west of Taupo. There is little doubt that, though the old sediments have actually been found only in few places on this range, it is really an old denuded range which has been smothered beneath the accumulation of volcanic material. This range was first discovered by Hoch- stetter. The deep dry valleys found at intervals in the pumice country are deserving of some notice. They are especially frequent on the north of Taupo. In many of them no water has ever been known to flow, yet they are 150 ft. to 200 ft. in depth, with nearly vertical sides, and 30 or 40 yards wide, and often of great length. Even if heavier rainfall is assumed to have taken place in the past, it is hard to account for these. The eruption of Tarawera afforded a clue to their origin, for the torrential downpours of condensed steam and mud which succeeded the eruption caused the erosion of such channels in several places, notably near the road between Rotorua and Wairoa. It seems reasonable to suppose that the dry channels have generally been formed in this way. Another physiographical feature which is most striking is the steep, straight-sided form of many of the hills in this region. Horohoro is a well-known example. The straight sides are formed of rhyolitic lava in most cases, though Cussen states that Titirangenga, in which straight sides are noticeable, is formed of augite-andesite. These remarkable hill-forms have been described as fault-lines along which the surrounding land has fallen in. Hochstetter first held this view, and more re- cently GregoryJ has adopted it, and the theory was mentioned by Marshall. § Gregory describes one fault-plane along the * J. M. Bell, Geograph. Journal, 1906, p. 369. t Cussen, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xx, p. 320. % Gregory, " Australasia," vol. 1, p. 582 ; Stanford. § Marshall, " Geography of New Zealand," 1905, p. 183. 92 Transactions. flank of the Paeroa Mountains parallel to the Tarawera fissure. These vertical scarps are general in the whole district. They are noticeable at Ngatira, on theJRotorua line, where the railway enters the plateau. They are prominent on the Rotorua side of thisTplateau and on the flanks of Ngongotaha, on Tarawera itself, and in the southern portion of the district such scarps are very prominent on the sides of all the streams that cross the railway-line between Mokau and Porootarao. It is evident that these features are most general, and, as in the southern district there can be no doubt that they are due to the resistant nature of the rhyolite, there is no reason why the same explana- tion should not be accepted for Horohoro and its fellows. If these features are due to faulting, it is remarkable that the erup- tion of Tarawera should have occurred in solid rock, midway between two profound adjacent faults parallel to it, for the sides of Tarawera have notably this scarped form. The distribution of pumice has long attracted attention. Cussen has suggested>that it was derived from the Taupo basin, for he noticed that the pumice on the west of the lake became coarser as the lake was approached. McKay has, for reasons of a similar nature, stated that eruptions probably took place somewhat to the east of Taupo. He rightly states that the distribution of the pumice is so great that it is almost impossible that it should have been the product of a single volcano. He supposes that many of the vents have afterwards been smothered in the products of other volcanoes. This statement of McKay probably represents as near an approach to exactitude as can at present be made. At the same time, it is reasonable to regard the lake-basins of the volcanic region as areas that have been affected by violent explosions, possibly of a hydrotherma! or perhaps of a truly volcanic nature. That lake-basins can be formed by such explosions we have good evidence in Lake Roto- mahana, and its contours are not strikingly different from those of the other lakes. If the explosion were accompanied with volcanic action and emission of acidic tuff, we have in the present depressions of the volcanic plateau sufficient points of emission to account for the distribution of pumice. The form of Lake Taupo is particularly suggestive of an explosive origin, though its present dimensions do not probably represent merely the area of the exploded depression. Such a cataclysm causes the outlet to be stopped up, and the gathered waters gradually spread over the adjacent lowlands. It is noticeable that though the actual melted rock at Tara- wera was andesitic, yet pumice of an acidic nature was more widely dispersed than the andesitic tuff. If this view is correct, the lakes of the volcanic country must be regarded as filling Marshall. — Geology of North Island. 93 explosion cavities, as Lake Rotomahana actually does. It is perhaps advisable in connection with this part of the subject to state that there is every reason against the supposition that the pumice was derived from any of the present volcanic cones. Without any known exception, all the cones of the district are formed of andesitic rocks from top to base. So far as the nature of the rocks is concerned, I am able to make a few additions to the descriptions given, and, in view •of the large amount of literature now available, to generalise rather more widely as to the distribution of various rock-types. Rhyolites of many types are found throughout the dis- trict. The purely glassy type, obsidian, is found at Mayor Island and near Tarawera ; spherulitic obsidians are common at Roto- rua and near Wairakei. The glassy base is usually trichitic. Spherulitic rhyolites are very abundant. The coarse types, from the Cape Colville Peninsula, contain nests of angular quartz grains and some tridymite. I am quite unable to agree with either Rutley or Sollas as to the origin of the spherulites. While being somewhat diffident in this matter, I cannot regard them -as either due to refusion or to decomposition. They appear to be essentially original, though the exact conditions necessary to their formation cannot at present be defined. They are the last objects to form during consolidation of the rock. At Lake Taupo and in many other places there is a banded rhyolite. When examined microscopically the darker bands are found to consist of axiolitic structures of indefinite length, and the other portion consists chiefly of microscopic spherulites, and sometimes the micropcecillitic structure of Sollas is distinct. The rhyolites in the eastern portion of the district, in the valley of the Ongaruhe, have a groundmass in which there is little individualisation of minerals, and the rock has markings that somewhat resemble the damascened patterns on a gun-barrel. Tridymite is common in this type of rock, but quartz is absent. The minerals which have crystallized out are not very numerous. Quartz occurs quite infrequently, but its place is generally taken by tridymite in very small aggregates. In the spherulitic rhyo- lites of Tairua quartz is found in nest-like aggregates, and dis- tinct grains are found in some Taupo rhyolites and in the silicified tuff of the Huka Falls. Feldspar is found in all but the more glassy varieties. Often it is confined to minute radially arranged microlites in the spherulitic types, but distinct crystals are found in the rocks that are not particularly glassy. It is most abundant from rocks in the south and west of the district. Sanidine is relatively infrequent, for nearly all the crystals belong to triclinic forms, apparently between albite and oligo- ■clase. 94 Transactions. Of other minerals, hornblende is sometimes found, but is not very frequent. Biotite is still more uncommon. Hypersthene is by far the most usual of all ferro-magnesian minerals, especi- ally in the southern portion of the district, though further north its place is taken by hornblende in some measure. Augite is un- common. The pumice offers no special peculiarities, for it is merely vesicular scoria of the rhyolites. Few analyses of the rhyolites have been published. Hoch- stetter* quotes some analyses of hot- spring deposits near Ro- torua. Some of these appear to be silicified rhyolites. Mac- laurin and Pondf give analyses of pumice. The percentages of lime and magnesia are somewhat higher than is usual in this type of rock. Determinations of silica are given in " Rocks of Cape Colville Peninsula.''^ The percentage is rather more than 70. There appears to be no record of rhyolites occurring any- where to the north of Cape Colville, except in the Great Barrier Island. The only example known to me is a dyke penetrating the Manukau breccias at Karekare : it resembles those from the Ongaruhe Valley. Trachytes : The only example of this group of rocks that I have had was taken from one of the small hills near the Kai- para. It is composed almost entirely of feldspar microlites, but there is also a little biotite. Andesites : These rocks have a wider occurrence than the rhyolites, and differ among themselves more in mineralogical composition, but less in structure. Dacites have a considerable distribution in the Cape Colville area, and many of them are coarsely porphyritic. Sollas has described them under several names. Hornblende, pyroxene, and hypersthene dacites all occur. The last are least frequent. The minerals occasionally occur together, though hypersthene and hornblende are not associated in more than two or three specimens of dacites. Outside of the Cape Colville area dacites have not been re- corded, so far as I know. I have, however, had specimens of hornblende-dacite from the Hen and Chickens Islands, and in the main volcanic area Tauhara is formed of a hornblende- hypersthene-dacite. The hornblende has a peculiar reddish colour. Of other andesites there is a great variety. The Cape Col- ville Peninsula has numerous representatives of almost every * Eochstetter, " NVw Zealand," p. ».V>. t Pond and Maclaurin, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxii, p. 233 et seq, X Vol. ii, pp. 303, 304. Marshall. — Geology of North Island. 95 type, though I do not know of descriptions of any mica-andesite. Hornblende-andesites are less usual than hypersthene-bearing varieties, and augite-andesites are not very common. Two or more of these minerals may occur together. The structures, too, are many. Besides the ordinary structures of andesitic rocks, Sollas has described the micropoecillitic, in which quartz forms grains of relatively large size, with highly irregular bound- aries, and in the grains are included the constituents of the groundmass. Spherulitic varieties are also described in some number. Mount Egmont consists entirely, so far as my researches go, of andesitic rocks. The usual type is a hornblende-augite- andesite, in which the augite is a pale green. The hornblende is sometimes completely resorbed, and an augite-andesite re- sults. Occasionally a little olivine is found. This description agrees with that of other workers, though Hutton first described the Sugarloaf rocks as trachytes, and he has also mentioned a hypersthene-augite-andesite from this locality. Sollas mentions a little hypersthene in one type : I have found none in any of my sections. Mr. R. Browne sent me some fine lamellar speci- mens of haematite which were obtained from a tuff-bed on the lower slopes of Mount Egmont. Ruapehu and its neighbours are entirely formed of hyper- sthene-augite-andesite, so far as I know. Specimens have been collected all over the east and south sides of the mountain, and from the west and north sides collections have been made from streams. The augite is pale brown, and the hypersthene is strongly pleochroic. There is no hypersthene in the groundmass, which is usually hyalopilitic, though sometimes pilotaxitic. A little olivine is occasionally found. It is usually surrounded by numerous hypersthene crystals. I have found no hornblende in any of my numerous specimens, and no examples of phonolites, basalts, or trachytes, mentioned by Park and Hill. In Thomas's descriptions of the rocks of these mountains there is no men- tion of hypersthene. This must be regarded as an oversight, for the mineral occurs so invariably in my specimens that I cannot fail to think that some, at any rate, of his must have contained it. Hypersthene-andesites are recorded by Hutton from many •other localities, and augite-andesites from many by Thomas. The latter mentions this rock as the product of the eruption of Tarawera in 1886. This statement has been confirmed by Hutton and Rutley. The specimens I have gathered from this volcano are hypersthene-augite-andesites again, but the rock is very fine-grained, and identification of the minerals is not easy, but there is no doubt that hypersthene occurs. 96 Transactions. In the present state of our knowledge one appears justified in making the statement that nearly all the cones that rise above the rhyolite plateau are formed of hypersthene-augite- andesites. Tauhara appears to be the only exception re- corded. It may here be stated that Hochstetter referred to many of these rocks as trachydolerites, and that this name has been widely adopted in the reports of the Geological Survey of the past. Hypersthene-andesites have a considerable development further north. All the specimens that I have gathered from the Waitakerei region belong to this type, and from the Little Barrier Island a pure hypersthene-andesite was given me by Mr. Cheeseman, F.L.S. At Whangarei Heads, Parua Bay, a similar rock was found. At Whangaroa hypersthene-andesites and hornblende - hypersthene - andesites were obtained from St. Paul's Dome. One is probably justified in assuming that these rocks occur in the other regions where the typical Manukau breccia occurs — viz., at Hokianga and at the North Cape. In the central region it can be clearly seen that distribution of pumice succeeded earlier eruptions of the Ruapehu region, for at Waiouru and in the Onetapu Plains pumice rests on the surface of andesitic rocks. That the distribution of pumice was succeeded by eruption of andesitic matter is shown by the andesite tuff that rests on the pumice in the same localities. Basaltic rocks show less variation, and have a wider occur- rence. Pirongia and Karioi appear, from the specimens that I have collected, to be formed entirely of a porphvritic rock of this class, which is perhaps best called a dolerite. The olivine is much serpentinised, augite in large crystals is plentiful, and andesine-labradorite feldspar as well. The groundmass is augite feldspar and magnetite. Amongst New Zealand rocks this type resembles some of the dolerites of Dunedin more closely than any others that I have seen. The older basalts which occur north of Kerikeri, and between Kaitaia and Ahipara, are very fine-grained ; olivine much serpentinised, and fine ; feldspar very plentiful, as well as augite and magnetite. I do not know the localities from which the eruption of these took place. The rocks of the cones at Auckland and of the Waikato plateau, as well as those of the Bay of Islands, have always been classed as basalts. All that I have examined prove to be basanites. The nepheline is not present in any quantity, but it can be detected by gelatinisation and Btaining, as well as by the cubes of salt obtained when the solution derived from treatment of the rock-powder with hydrochloric acid is evaporated. These Marshall. — Geology of North Island. 97 basanites are usually fine-grained, though this character is far less noticeable in the specimens from the Waikato area, which are relatively coarse but even-grained, and thus different from the Karioi-Pirongia rocks. A consideration of these statements will show that our know- ledge at present allows us to classify the products of volcanic action as follows : — 1. Later Miocene, — (a.) Andesites of Cape Colville Peninsula. (6.) Andesites of Manukau breccias in their many occur- rences, (c.) Rhyolites of north of Taupo. (d.) Dolerites of Pirongia'and Karioi.* (e.) Older basalts of Kerikeri.* 2. Later Pliocene, — (a.) Hornblende-andesite of Mount Egmont. (b.) Augite-hypersthene-andesite of Ruapehu and other cones of the plateau. Hypersthene-dacite of Tauhara. Basanites of lower Waikato. (c (d. 3. Recent (a. (b. (c. Andesites of Ngauruhoe and Tongariro. Basanites of Auckland and Bay of Islands. Andesite of Tarawera. A very interesting type of basanite is found in the Domain volcano, Auckland, in the form of ejected blocks only. The iron-ore is ilmenite ; feldspar is oligoclase-andesine ; olivine in elongated crystals ; augite is violet, and shows strong pleo- chroism, and sometimes has a fringe of segerine ; nepheline idiomorphic and small ; ophitic and micrographic structures are well shown, the latter as typically as in the celebrated type from the Labauer Berg. Summary. There is little evidence in regard to the structural meaning of the direction of the North of Auckland Peninsula. That the plutonic rocks of Mangonui and Ahipara are diorites and norites, but no evidence is available as to whether they are intrusive or older than the Mesozoic sediments. Volcanic rocks are chiefly rhyolitic in the central region, but the rhyolites are penetrated by andesitic pipes, over which large cones have been built up. The lake-basins are probably areas of violent hydrothermal explosions, and from these explosions pumice was distributed. * Perhaps early Pliocene. 4 — Trans. 98 Transactions. The sharp scarps of many of the rhyolite hills do not indicate the action of faults, but are due to erosion. The sequence of eruptive rocks is suggested. Note. — Specimens lately collected by Mr. R. Speight show that hornblende-andesite with much hypersthene occurs on the north slope of Ruapehu, and also on A Tama. This confirms Hutton's statement. The rock resembles that of Egmont in some respects, but must be scantily distributed on Ruapehu. Since the above was in type I have received specimens of rock from the Patua Range, north of Mount Egmont, from Mr. N. Cochrane, and others from near Albatross Head, Kawhia, from Mr. R. Browne. In both instances the rocks are similar to those of Mount Egmont, except that pyroxene is entirely absent. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIII. 1. Recent and Pleistocene. Sands, gravels, and pumice. 2. Cainozoic. Chiefly Miocene limestones and marls. 3. Mesozoic. Chiefly Triassic shales and sandstones. 4. Rhyolite. Eruption began in Miocene. 5. Hornblende-andesite, Mount Egmont ; dacite, Tauhara. 6. Andesites of Cape Colville. Eruption in Miocene. 7. Manukau breccia. Hypersthene-andesites, Miocene. 8. Volcanoes of rhyolite plateau. Hypersthene-andesites, Upper Pliocene to Recent. 9. Dolerite of Pirongia and Karioi (Miocene ?). 10. Basanites. Waikato, Auckland, &c. 11. Older basalts of Kerikeri. 12. Diorites and gabbros. Age uncertain. Note. — The map, Plate XIII, is largely based on the work of McKay, Park, and Cox so far as the boundaries of the sedimentary and volcanic rocks are concerned. The author alone is responsible for the boundaries of the different divisions of volcanic rocks. Art. VI. — Fossils from Kakanui. By J. Allan Thomson, B.Sc. Communicated by G. M. Thomson. \Rnid In ■■fori tin Otago Institute, 8th October, 1907.] Plate XIV. The fossils treated of below were collected in 1903, when the author was working at the gem gravels of Kakanui. After a preliminary determination of the species, they were submitted to Captain Hutton, and agreement was reached as to the names. He recommended that the generic names in Zittel's " Text- book of Palaeontology" (translation, C. R. Eastman, 1900) Thomson. — Fossils from Kakanui. 99 should be uniformly applied, and also that publication should be delayed till his revision of the Tertiary Brachiopoda came out.* In the meantime the author removed to England, and found it necessary to send off the manuscript of his paper on the gem gravels of Kakanuif before receiving the revision. Consequently the latter paper, which gives an account of the beds from which the fossils were taken, does not always employ the names to which in the former paper Captain Hutton gives his authority. The necessary corrections will be made by substituting Terebratula for Liothyrina, and Terebralulina for Notothjris (on p. 488 et seq.), and filling in the new species from those described below. Corals. Isis dactyla, Tenison- Woods. 1880 : " Corals and BryozoaJ of the Neozoic Period in New Zealand," p. 7, fig. 1. This species is common in the limestones at Kakanui. Some specimens agree well with the description ; the condyles in some cases are more conical than those figured by Tenison- Woods, while others have the condyles depressed, with a small central cone. Isis hamiltoni, nov. sp. Plate XIV, fig. 1. Short, thick, cylindrical, often branched, sides irregularly longitudinally striated, sometimes striae branching ; condyle depressed, with a small central cone ; radiately striated. This species seems to be the same as one figured by Duncan. § With regard to the identification of the genus, he says in another paper,^[ " The calcareous bodies form little trunks or columns varying in height and in the amount of external striation. The branches commence from the calcareous bodies, and not from the horny matter. It is this branching from the calcareous body which distinguishes the genus Isis from Mopsea, in which the branching starts from the horny substance. Hence, if branching calcareous bodies are found, they may be safely at- tributed to the first-named genus ; but if calcareous bodies with- * " Revision of the Tertiary Brachiopoda of New Zealand," Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxvii, p. 474. f " The Gem Gravels of Kakanui, with Remarks on the Geology of the District," Thomson, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxviii, p. 482. J This was published as part iv of " Palaeontology of New Zealand " by the Colonial Museum and Geological Survey Department. § Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, 1875, p. 675, and pi. xxxviii, figs. 1 and la. ^f " On some Fossil Alcyonaria from the Australian Tertiary Deposits," torn, cit., p. 673. 100 Transactions. out branches present themselves, they may belong to Mopsea, or to parts of Isis where no branching occurs. Usually, however, the Mopsece have extremely slender polyparites, so that probably all stout and simple calcareous bodies belonging to the Isidinece should be classified as belonging to the genus Isis." The specimens now described, being often branched, are therefore placed in the genus Isis. This species differs from Isis dactyla, Tenison- Woods, in that the condyles are radiately, not concentrically, striated. It is abundant in the greensands accompanying the limestones at Kakanui. Graphularia, sp. Quadrate calcareous axes referable to this genus are frequent in all the limestones of the Oamaru district. They are very similar to Gr. robince, McCoy.* Brachiopoda. Terebratula gravida, Suess. Plate XIV, fig. 2. f 1865 : Waldheimia gravida, Suess, Reise der " Novara," Palse., p. 56, pi. ix, figs. 5a and 5&. 1886 : Terebratida, sp. (figure only), Hector, " Catalogue of the New Zealand Court, Indian and Colonial Exhibition," p. 57, fig. 6. 1905 : Terebratula gravida, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1905, p. 475. The larger Brachiopoda occurring abundantly in the quarry limestone were originally labelled W. gravida by Hutton, as specimens in the Otago Museum show. When, however, in Canterbury, he obtained specimens showing the brachial arms, he hesitated to identify it with Suess's species, and labelled it merely Terebratula, sp. The Kakanui shell differs from Suess's description in showing no deltidium, as the thickened anterior wall of the foramen grows forward over the umbo of the dorsal valve. But as Suess's figures show no deltidium and no brachial arms, this identification should hold good. This species is extremely abundant in the quarry, and occurs in all stages of age. That figured is an old-age form, showing a fold in the dorsal valve. It is not unlike some British oolite species. Younger forms are smoother, the walls of the foramen are not so thickened, and the umbo is more produced. It also occurs in the the limestone underlying the mineral breccia. At Oamaru Cape the individuals are smaller, and the umbo is more produced. * Prodrom. Palse. Vict., Dec. v, p. :?_\ pi. xlviii. figs. 2-4. •(•The references to species in (his paper do not have any pretence io completeness. For the sake of brevity, only such ace pven as hear on ill.- name and priority of the Species. Thomson. — Fossils from Kakanui. 101 Terebratulina suessi, Hutton. Plate XIV, fig. 5, a, b, and c. 1865 : Terebratulina, sp., Suess, Reise der " Novara," Palse., p. 57, pi. ix, fig. 6. 1873 : Terebratella suessi, Hutton, Cat. Tert. Moll. N.Z., p. 37. 1905 : Terebratulina suessi, Hutton, Revision, Trans. N.Z. Inst., p. 475. In the " Novara " palaeontology* Suess refers to this species as Terebratulina, but in the description of the plate (ix) he calls it Terebratella, sp. ; and Hutton, in his earlier paper (1873), followed him in this, correcting the genus in 1905. The simi- larity to T. scouleri, Tate, is most marked, and the latter may have to disappear. The ear-like processes on the dorsal valve characteristic of Terebratulina have not been noticed in earlier descriptions. This species is abundant in the quarry limestone, and also occurs in the fossiliferous layers of the Kakanui breccias, as well as on Oamaru Cape. Photos of the shell, and of the interior of the dorsal valve, showing the loop, are given. The photos show two varieties of shape and ornamentation, between which all intermediate forms may be found. Magellania sinuata, Hutton. Plate XIV, fig. 3. 1873 : Waldheimia (?) sinuata, Hutton, Cat. Tert. Moll. N.Z., p. 26. 1885 : Terebratella (?) sinuata, Hutton, Quart. Jo urn. Geol. Soc, 1885, p. 553. 1905 : Terebratella sinuata, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1905, p. 478. Captain Hutton considered these specimens to be the same as his Waldheimia sinuata. They agree also with specimens in the Otago Museum labelled by him. They differ, however, frorn his description in having a deltidium conspicuous, if small, and in having a sharply keeled umbo. The description should, then, read : " Shell orbicular-trigonal, valves subequal ; beak very short, umbo keeled ; hinge-line angular ; deltidium con- spicuous. Ventral valve with a broad marginal sinus ; dorsal valve convex ; margin much sinuated." There is no evidence that the brachial loops are twice joined to the septum, so the original generic determination is sustained, except that Magellania has now replaced Waldheimia. This species is abundant in the Kakanui greensands, and presents considerable variety in form, partly due to crushing. The margins in stout shells are little sinuated. It approaches M. lenticularis. Some rather similar shells were considered by Captain Hutton as new, but the amount of material gathered does not justify the description of new species. * Suess, Reise der "Novara," Palse., p. 57. 102 Transactions. Terebratella kakanuiensis, Hutton. Plate XIV, fig. 4. 1905 : Trans. N.Z. Inst., p. 479. The specimens on which Captain Hutton founded this species were furnished by the author ; they were collected from the quarry, North Head, Kakanui. The following description, prepared before the receipt of Captain Hutton' s revision, will simplify in some particulars his description : Broadly ovate ; greatest width at middle ; slightly longer than wide ; valves equally convex, a ridge on the ventral valve, extending from umbo to margin, dividing it into three lobes ; dorsal valve with a deep sinus from the centre to the anterior margin ; umbo produced and slightly curved, bluntly keeled ; foramen large, incomplete ; deltidium a small triangular plate on either side. Surface smooth, with inequi distant lines of growth ; loop short, reflexed, and doubly attached. This species differs from T. rubicunda in its much deeper dorsal sinus and shorter loop. Captain Hutton considered it the probable ancestor of T. rubicunda. It somewhat resembles the figures of T. woodsii* LiAMELLIBRANCHS. Pecten sectus, Hutton. 1873 : Pecten secta, Hutton, Cat, Tert. Moll., p. 30. 1886 : Pecten sectus, Hutton, " Mollusca of the Pareora and Oamaru Systems of New Zealand," Proc, Linn. Soc. N.S.W., p. 235. Two types of Pecten differing from known species were con- sidered by Hutton to be the young of this species. Their de- scription may be of value : — (a.) Left valve slightly convex, orbicular-trigonal ; angle as long as high ; ears unequal ; the anterior one with 4 radiating ribs and fine transverse striae. The whole shell is thrown into 10 plicae, each dividing at the margin to 2 ribs, the hollows being also occupied by 2 slightly smaller ribs ; the ribs spring from the middle zone of the shell ; concentric lines of growth ; margin crenulate and sinuous. Size, f in. (6.) Right valve flat ; shell thrown into 10 plicae, each splitting into 3 ribs near the bottom, the hollows with 1 rib ; surface with very fine concentric striae, and also oblique striae. Cardita benhami, nov. sp. Shell very convex, subquadrate, slightly inequilateral ; 26-30 large radiating ribs, nodulose, a little smaller than the inter- *Tatc. Trans. Phil. Soc. Adelaide, 1880. Thomson. — Fossils from Kakanui. 103 spaces ; lunule small, cordate ; umbones recurved. Height, | in. ; length, | in. This species differs from C. australis, Quoy, as described by Hutton* as Venericardia australis, in having always more than 22 ribs. It would, however, be included under the more general description of the same species by G. F. Harris. f He, however, admits several of Tate's Australian species, which do not differ more from G. australis than does this variety ; hence the foundation of a new species for the purposes of com- parison with Australian Tertiary shells is justified. Of these, C. benhami resembles most C. delicatula, Tate, and C. granuli- costata, Tate. The only locality observed was in the fossiliferous layers of the tuff underlying the limestone on the cliffs, North Shore, Kakanui. It is here, however, fairly abundant. Gasteropoda. Turbo marshalli, nov. sp. Plate XIV, fig. 6. Shell turbinate-conical, imperforate ; spire depressed, whorls 5-6, convex, acutely keeled ; 2 keels on the body-whorl ; orna- mentation ; tubercles on the keel, about 13 to a whorl, but none on the second keel on body- whorl ; between keels and upper suture of each whorl are spiral granulose lineations, absent between the keels and the lower suture. Aperture subcircular, entire ; outer margin thin. Operculum elliptical. This species has the same occurrence as the last. It re- sembles no other known New Zealand Turbo. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV. Fig. 1. Isis hamiltoni ; natural size. Fig. 2. Terebratula gravida ; natural size. Fig. 3. Magellania sinuata ; natural size. •Fig. 4. TerebratdLa kakanuiensis ; x 3. Fig. 5. Terebratulina suessi ; X 4. a, b, two extreme varieties ; c, interior of dorsal valve, showing arm-loop. Fig. 6. Turbo marshalli ; natural size, a, Turbo marshalli ; b, side view of operculum ; c, face of operculum. * Cat. Tert. Moll. N.Z. t Cat. Tert. Moll. Brit. Mus., 1897, part i, Australasia. 104 Transactions. Art. VII. — Recent Observations on Neiv Zealand Macro- lepidoptera, including Descriptions of New Species. By G. V. Hudson, F.E.S. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 1st Mai/, 1907.] Plate XV. Anosia plexippus. During May, 1906; two specimens of this rare and handsome butterfly were brought to me, having been captured at Makara Beach ; a third was seen in the same locality, and a fourth observed flying about the Queen's Wharf in the city. The appearance of this rare insect at an exposed locality like Makara Beach, almost in the middle of winter, is remarkable, and cannot at present be explained. Limnas chrysippus. Plate XV, figs. 6, 7 (under-side). Mr. Edwin C. Sherlock informs me that in March, 1901, a boy captured a specimen of this butterfly about four miles from the Thames. Mr. Sherlock at once visited the locality. and was fortunate enough to see another, but he could not capture it. No other specimens have since been taken, and. so far as I am aware, these are the only recorded instances of the insect's appearance in New Zealand. The figures which accompany this paper were copied from Mr. Sherlock's specimen, and the following is a brief description of the same insect : The expansion of the wings is almost 3 in. The forewings are bright orange-brown, darker towards the costa, and very broadly bordered with black at the apex, tapering off at the tornus ; there is a number of clear white spots near the apex. The hindwings are paler orange-brown. with three obscure brownish-black spots near the middle, and a broad black terminal band containing one or two paler spots. On the under-side the forewings are very broadly shaded with rich blackish-brown ; there is a large patch of dull greenish-yellow above the white spots near the apex. The hindwings are bright ochreous - yellow with a black border, containing numerous white spots, and three central black marks bordered with white. This species somewhat resembles Anosia plexippus, but may easily be distinguished from that insect !>v its smaller size and by the veins on the upper side of the forewings not- being marked in black. According to Mr. W. F. Kirby, Limnas chrysippus occurs throughout Africa, west Asia, the East Indies, and Greece. Hudson. — Neiv Zealand Macro-lepidoptera. 105 Diadema bolina. Two specimens of this fine butterfly have occurred at Wellington during this summer — one captured by Leslie Roskruge near the Government Buildings in April, and another captured by Mr. Bannehr in Cuba Street. Melanchra omoplaca, Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xix, p. 24. (Melanchra umbra, Hdsn., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxv, p. 243.) Mr. Meyrick informs me that the species described by me as above is identical with M. omoplaca. Orthosia fortis, Butl. (Miselia iota, Hdsn., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxv, p. 243.) During a recent examination of the collection of New Zealand Lepidoptera formed by the late Mr. R. W. Fereday, and now in the Christchurch Museum, I detected an insect labelled " Orthosia fortis," which is clearly identical with the species described by me as Miselia iota. Ophideres maturna, Lin. Plate XV, fig. 5. Two specimens of this extremely handsome species have been recently found in New Zealand — one captured at Makara Beach by Mr. Cook in May, 1906, and kindly given to me by Mr. W. R. Morris ; another captured at Dunedin by Mr. George Howes, F.E.S., in March, 1907. Mr. Froggatt informs me that this is one of the banana-moths, and I conclude that it has been artificially introduced into New Zealand amongst consignments of that fruit. The following is a brief description : The expan- sion of the wings is about 3f in. The head and thorax are pale reddish-brown. The forewings are very broad, triangular, with the termen slightly waved and bowed, pale yellowish-white, entirely covered with numerous brown and reddish-brown short wavy stripes ; the central portion of the wing has strong bronzy- golden reflections, this portion being divided into three fairly defined patches by two oblique whitish bands ; there are two large and two small bright reddish-brown spots in the centre of the wing. The hindwings and abdomen are rich orange- yellow, with a terminal black band and two round black spots near the middle. Xanthorhoe chlorias, Meyr., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xvi, p. 80. (Venusia princeps, Hdsn., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxv, p. 244.) This correction is also necessary. 106 Transactions. Lythria siris, n. sp. Plate XV, fig. 1. This very neatly marked little species was discovered by Mr. J. H. Lewis on the Old Man Range, Central Otago, at an elevation of about 4,000 ft. The expansion of the wings is a little over § in. The fore- wings are slaty-grey, with light reddish-brown, black, and pale- yellowish markings ; there is a very small grey area at the base, followed by a wavy transverse reddish-brown band ; next two yellowish- white bands enclosing a very narrow yellowish-brown area ; then a strongly waved whitish line, followed by a narrow black line and a broad reddish-brown line ; the central area is broad, slaty - grey, with a reddish-brown discal dot ; this is followed by an extremely sharply angulated series of lines, consisting of a narrow reddish-brown line, a narrow black line, a narrow yellowish-white line, and a shaded orange-brown line ; the termen is shaded with dark-brown with a very fine, wavy, whitish line and a series of small reddish-brown spots. The hindwings are golden-yellow, the basal and terminal portions broadly clouded with black, and a very wavy central black line. The cilia of all the wings are brownish-grey. The female is paler, and much less distinctly marked than the male. The perfect insect appears in February. Notoreas orphnsea, Meyr. Plate XV, figs. 2, $ ; 3, S ■ In January, 1905, I captured two specimens of this very distinct species on the Humboldt Range, at the head of Lake Wakatipu, at an elevation of about 4,500 ft. above the sea- level. The expansion of the wings of the male is nearly If in. ; of the female, 1^ in. The fore wings of the male are very dark greyish-black, speckled with paler grey ; there are several small black marks on the veins, and an obscure yellowish-brown transverse line at about § ; the hindwings are dark-grey, speckled with paler grey ; the cilia of all the wings are pale greyish-white, strongly barred with blackish-grey. The body is black ; the head and thorax are densely clothed with long black hair ; the antennae are heavily bipectinated. The female is much paler, with numerous obscure blackish transverse lines on both fore and hind wings ; the forewings are faintly clouded with yellowish-brown towards the base and termen, and all the wings have a terminal row of small but conspicuous oblong black marks. The antenna- arc simple, and the head and thorax are moderately clothed with short black hairs. This species may be at once distinguished from any of the varieties of Dasyuris hectori by the hairy clothing of the head and thorax, and the strongly bipectinated antenna' of the male. Hudson. — New Zealand Macro-lepidoptera. 107 Paragyrtis inostentata, Walk. {Dichromodes griseata, Hdsn., Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxv, p. 244.) This correction is also necessary. Dichromodes simulans, n. sp. This species was discovered by Mr. J. H. Lewis on the Old Man Range, Central Otago, at an elevation of about 4,000 ft. The expansion of the wings is about | in. The forewings are dull bluish-grey, with two obscure slender yellowish-brown bands ; there are three jagged blackish transverse lines, one at £, one near the middle, and one at £ ; there is a series of black and bluish-grey marks on the termen. The hindwings are yellowish-brown, clouded with dull-brown towards the base and termen, leaving the central portion paler. The cilia of al! the wings is yellowish-brown mixed with black. This species has a deceptive resemblance to Notoreas jidva, from which it differs in the following respects : The wings are somewhat broader, the transverse lines more indented, the cilia not strongly barred, and the antennae of the male unipectinated. The perfect insect appears in February. Porina senex, n. sp. Plate XV, fig. 4. This interesting species was discovered by Mr. J. H. Lewis on the Old Man Range, Central Otago, at an elevation of about 4,000 ft. The expansion of the wings of the male is about If in. All the wings are very sparsely covered with hair-like scales. The forewings are very pale ochreous, irregularly mottled with blackish-grey. There are two rather large irregular patches of the pale ground-colour on the dorsum near the base, and two obscure oblique bands parallel with the termen. The hind- wings are brownish-grey, with the veins and termen strongly marked in dark-brown. The body is ochreous-brown, with several tufts of very pale ochreous hair near the middle. The antennae are strongly bipectinated. A single male specimen of this insect was bred in February from a pupa found under stones as above. The only other New Zealand Porina with pectinated antennae is P. dinodes. The present insect may be immediately dis- tinguished from that insect by its very much smaller size. DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XV. Fig. 1. Lythria siris, male. Fig. 4. Porina senex, male. Fig. 2. Notoreas orphncea, female. Fig. 5. Ophideres rnaturua. Fig. 3. Notoreas orphncea, male. Fig. 6, 7. Limnas chrysippus. 108 Transactions. Art. VIII. — Description of a New Ophiuroid. By H. Farquhar. Communicated by Professor H. B. Kirk. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 2nd October, 190".] Ophiocoma bollonsi, n. s. The disc is somewhat irregularly round, slightly swollen above, with a thick rounded edge ; about 18 mm. in diameter. The arms are about 60 mm. long, 3 mm. wide at the base, and tapering evenly to a fine extremity. The disc is covered above with rnicroscopica^y rough granules, evenly and closely placed at the centre, but somewhat more open and irregular towards the edge, with a few irregular bare patches ; the granules extend a little beyond the edge of the disc on the plates of the oral sur- face in the interbrachial spaces, where they are longer than those above, a few being like small spinelets. The scaling on the oral surface is fine and even. The mouth-angles have four or five irregular, bluntly pointed mouth-papillae on each side, those within smaller than the others. The tooth-papillae are very numerous and small, like small bluntly-pointed spinelets. The mouth-shields are round or slightly oval, with a small peak within ; side mouth-shields triangular, with rounded angles and emarginate sides, meeting, or almost meeting, within. The upper arm-plates are diamond-shaped, with rounded angles, slightly overlapping. The side arm-plates are prominent, meeting neither above nor below ; they bear five or six (six near the disc) rounded, somewhat flattened, tapering, bluntly pointed, granular arm-spines, the lower ones shorter than those above ; the length of the longest is 6 mm. There are two rounded, leaf- like tentacle-scales, about twice as long as broad, on the lower edge of the side arm-plates adjacent to the lowest arm- spine. The under arm-plates are broader than long, and rounded without. The colour of the dried specimen is chocolate -brown above and paler below, the spines being brownish-grey. The unique type specimen, which is in the Dominion Museum at Wellington, was dredged up by Captain Bollons, of the Go- vernment steamer " Hinemoa," in 16 fathoms of water, between Stephen Island and the mainland, when laying a telegraph cable to Stephen Island lighthouse. This is the first species of the genus Ophiocoma found in New Zealand waters. I have to thank Mr. Hamilton, Director of the Dominion Museum, for the opportunity of describing this species. The type specimens of Ophiactis nomentis, described in the last volume of the Transactions, are in the Dominion Museum at Wellington. Kirkaldy. — Heteropterous Hemipteron of N.Z. 109 Art. IX. — A Heteropterous Hemipteron of New Zealand. By G. W. Kirkaldy. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 3rd July, 1907.] In vol. xxxii, pp. 408-9, of the Transactions Mr. T. White pub- lished a short paper on some supposed spiders (" Arachnids : the Small Pond in the Forest "). I would suggest that these were a species of the heteropterous hemipteron Microvelia, a tiny sort of water- strider, the account of the behaviour of the " spiders " applying very well to that of Microvelia. Some years ago I described a species of this genus from New Zealand, and, as it was published in a French journal perhaps little accessible to most residents in New Zealand, I append a translation now : — Microvelia macgregori (Kirk.). Aydrcessa macgregori, Kirkaldy, 1899 : ' Revue d'Entomologie." xviii, 91-2. Apterous Form. — Long and fairly narrow, about 2^ times as long as wide. 4th segment of the antennae about twice as long as the 3rd, which is about £ longer than the 2nd, the latter subequal to the 1st. Rostrum reaching as far as the base of the pronotum. Pronotum rugose, not carinate. Femora neither tuberculate nor dentate ; fore femur ^ longer than the tibia, which is ^ longer than the tarsus ; middle femur a little longer than the tibia, which is \ longer than the tarsus, the 2 tarsal segments subequal ; hind tibia \ longer than the femur and 2i times as long as the tarsus, the 2 tarsal segments subequal. Blackish, with a narrow band of silvery pubescence on the interior lateral margin of the eyes ; antennae lurid or flavo- tegtaceous, the 4th segment always lurid ; a wide band across the anterior margin and a narrow band across the posterior margin of the pronotum, reddish-yellow ; coxae and femora yellowish, testaceous ; tibiae and tarsi more or less lurid. Be- neath, greyish-black. Length, 2£ mm. ; width, nearly 1 mm. Hab. — New Zealand. This description is incomplete, as it lacks notice of the winged form. The little bug is surely well distributed in all ponds, water-troughs, &c, and I will be much obliged to any one who will favour me with a good supply for a revised description. 110 Transactions. Art. X. — The Scheelite of Otago. By A. M. Finlayson, M.Sc. Communicated by Dr. Marshall. [Read before the Otago Institute, 8th October, 1907.] Plate XVI. Scheelite occurs in greater or less quantity in a large number of the auriferous- quartz veins in the Otago goldfields. The country rock of the veins is for the most part a quartzose mica- schist, graduating into phyllite and slate. It is included in Sir James Hector's " foliated schists,"* and in the Wanaka and Kakanui series of the late Captain Hutton.f Only those veins which carry scheelite in exploitable quantity will here be considered, and these may be conveniently grouped into two classes — (1) fissure- veins ; (2) bedded or segregated veins. The latter occur exclusively in the Macrae's district ; the former class includes all other known scheelite-veins. (1.) Fissure-veins. Glenorchy Reef. This outcrops on the steep left bank of the Bucklerburn, a mile and a half above its mouth at Glenorchy. The country rock is a slate, striking north and south, and dipping to the west at from 30° to 50°. The vein strikes east and west, and dips to the north at a mean angle of 15°. It has been followed on the surface for about half a mile, is well defined, with fairly smooth walls, and carries a strong continuous seam of quartz throughout. Its width between walls varies from 1 ft. to 5 ft. In accordance with the varying width of the walls, the vein is lenticular in longitudinal section, a feature which evidently indicates some displacement of the walls of the' original fissure (% 1). Fig. 1. * Sir J. Hoctor, " Outline of New Zealand Geology " (1886), p. 83. t Captain F. W. Hutton, " Geology of Otago " Dunedin, 1875), p. 29. Finlayson. — Scheelite of Otago. Ill The accompanying sketch section (fig. 2), along No. 2 level, illustrates this feature. Fig. 3. HmnHBI Quartz K^T^ZZ Mu/lock or formation S Fig. 2. — -Section along No. 2 Level, Glenoechy Reef. The seam of quartz generally occupies the centre of the lode- formation, being separated from the walls by a few inches of pug. Frequently, however, the seam splits into two branches, leaving a horse of country rock between (fig. 3). The quartz is seamed throughout with thin parallel strings of mullock, highly pyritized. The reef carries scheelite, not gene- rally in very clean patches, but more or less quartzose. It does not cling particularly to either wall, but is generally seen along mullock stringers. The bands or seams of scheelite, though discontinuous, are fairly well defined. The lode is auriferous, but its assay value for gold is very small. Eecent prospecting in the Eees Valley and Bucklerburn has disclosed other reefs carrying scheelite, some of which are now being developed. Alia Reef, Bendigo. This lies at the head of a small gully just over the western spur of Bendigo Creek, and about three miles to the east of the old Bendigo battery. Its strike is 116°, and it stands almost vertically, with frequent irregularities. The country rock is a flat-lying quartzose schist, and the outcrop of the reef has been proved for nearly half a mile. 112 Transactions. Near the east end of the old workings the vein is thin and the seam of quartz insignificant. Followed west, it increases in St oped Fig. 4. — Section across Alta Reef. Fig. 5. — Section across Alta Reef. width, and has a sinuous and irregular course, with numerous leaders coming in on both walls. The accompanying sketches (figs. 4 and 5) illus- trate the characters of the vein. Near the end of an adit driven close to the old bat- tery-site scheelite is seen in conspicuous bunches on and near the south wall, which Fig. 6. is here poorly defined (fig. 6). The scheelite in this reef has never been exploited, but the reef was successfully worked for gold in the early days. Veins on the Lammerlaw Range, Waipori. Several of the small gold-bearing veins on the Lammerlaw and Burnt Ranges, near Waipori, carry scheelite, sometimes in considerable quantity, but they have never been developed to any extent. A notable occurrence of the mineral is in the antimony-reef at Stony Creek, nine miles from Waipori Township. At one point in this reef scheelite and stibnite were found in close association, and accompanied by gypsum. This last is evidently a product of secondary origin, resulting from oxidation of the sulphide ore and interaction with the scheelite. Among other occurrences, scheelite has been found in the Barewood reef, and in the Saddle Hill reef. (2.) Bedded Veins. The reefs of Macrae's are bedded or segregated veins, and are of peculiar interest in that they embrace all the veins of this Finlayson. — Scheelite of Otago. 113 class in Otago. The Macrae's goldfield occupies an area of two hundred square miles between Dunback and the Taieri River, and extending from the Mareburn in the north to the Stoneburn in the south. The country rock is an argillaceous mica-schist, with much interfoliated quartz. With few exceptions, it has throughout the area a uniform strike — north-west and south-east — and a north-easterly dip of from 10° to 20°. The veins consequently all have that dip, allowance being made for local irregularities. A description of the features to be seen in Messrs. W. and G. Donaldson's mines will sufficiently illustrate the characters of the veins. Donaldson's Reef, Mount Highlay. This outcrops 10 chains up the hill to the west of a small creek running north to the Mareburn. The hanging-wall is very ill denned, and for a distance of 40 ft. beyond the wall the country rock is impregnated with pyrite, and crossed by frequent slides. Near the hanging-wall a few lenticular bunches of segregated quartz appear. The vein, near its outcrop, is cut by a north-south fault, which has dragged it down in a very striking manner, and open- cast work along the fault-line displays a good section (fig. 7). Both walls are here smooth and slickensided, as a result of the faulting, and the hanging-wall country is much twisted and broken. Fig. 7. — Section across Donaldson's Lode, at Fault-line. Followed west up the flank of the hill, the foot- wall continues well defined, with a varying seam of quartz, but the hanging - wall loses its individuality, the lode-material grading off into crushed and veined country rock. The reef carries from 10 dwt. to 15 dwt. of gold per ton, and scheelite in places. Golden Point Reef. This outcrops on the right bank of the Deep Dell, directly south of Mount Highlay. It has a mean north-easterly dip 114 Transactions. of 10°, and has been opened up by a considerable amount of tunnelling. In general, the reef varies in thickness from 1 ft. to over 6 fr., its mean width being 3 ft. The foot-wall is generally smooth and fairly defined, the hanging- wall indistinct. As in the Glen- orchy reef, and from the same cause, frequent rolls occur, illus- trated in the section (fig. 8). Upper leveL Lcr/er /eve/,.L^. Fig. 8. — Longitudinal Sketch Section, Golden Point Reef. The quartz occurs in a seam from 6 in. to 4 ft. thick, the remainder of the lode-formation being composed of soft structure- less pug, graduating into veined and crushed country rock, and crossed by frequent slides. The seam generally follows the foot-wall, but sometimes divides into two, one on each wall. It occasionally crosses from one wall to the other, and a seam may wedge out on one wall, while another comes in on the other wall immediately opposite. The Ounce Reef. This lies four miles south-east from Macrae's Township, on the left bank of a small stream running into Murphy's Creek. The outcrop of the reef is anticlinal, due to a local rock-fold, and the vein peters out on the limbs of the anticline (fig. 9). Fig. !).— Section, Ounce Reef. It thus simulates the saddle-reef type of Bendigo, Victoria. Several other outcrops in the Macrae's and Mount Highlay districts have been prospected and intermittently worked for gold, but nearly every one that has been developed has been found to carry more or less scheelite. The gold-value of the lodes varies from 4 dwt. to 12 dwt., mostly free-milling. Finlayson. — Scheehte of Otago. 115 It is significant that all the reefs in this district outcrop on a single plane in the schist. This indicates that the horizontal shearing movement which localised the reefs followed a particular zone in the rock, although it is quite likely that there may be one or more zones or levels of lode- formation beneath the one now exposed. (3.) The Scheelite. This mineral occurs, firstly, in segregated masses of varying size, typically seen at Macrae's. These generally cling to the foot-wall, and frequently pass right into the country rock, the foot-wall being then obscured. These comparatively pure masses grade off into highly quartzose ore scattered through the gangue. Secondly, it occurs in irregular veins in the quartz leaders and stringers, as well as in the larger quartz seams. It may con- stitute a whole vein, or it may have a broad or narrow selvage of quartz on either side. The hand-specimen, which always contains some quartz, has a specific gravity of 5-12, that of the pure mineral being 5-9 to 6-1 (Dana). It is yellowish-white in colour, brittle and friable, with an irregular fracture. It shows interrupted cleavage- surfaces, and is massive in habit, no crystals being found, as far as my observations showed. Microscopic Characters. In section (Plate XVI, a, b), the mineral is dark-brown, with a high refractive index. In isotropic sections a faint positive uniaxial figure may be seen. The interference colours are more usually yellow and red of the first order. The individuals are large, with sharp boundaries and pointed or pyramidal termi- nations. Two interrupted sets of cleavage-traces crossing at 40° are seen in suitable sections, these being the characteristic cleavages, p (111) and e (101). The cleavage-lines are frequently crossed by irregular fractures, along which the mineral is dark and clouded. A faint lamellar structure is occasionally seen, resembling polysynthetic twinning. The lamellae, however, are alternately broad and narrow, and can be distinguished, though with difficulty, in ordinary fight. The appearance is probably a strain-effect. Chemical Composition. The following analysis indicates the average composition of Otago scheehte. Quartz is always present in intimate associa- tion, as shown in Plate XVI, a and b ; in the analysis this con- stituent was eliminated, and the figures recalculated to 100 per cent. 116 Transactions. Per Cent wo3 • • • ■ . a . 80-58 CaO t . 18-98 MgO , . 0-20 FeO , 0-24 Feo03 . Nil. MnO , . Nil. C02 • . Nil. 10000 The FeO and MgO are probably present as isomorphous tungstates, and the mineral composition is then as follows : — Per Cent. CaWO. .. .. .. .. 97-63 101 FeW04 MgW04 1-36 10000 The commercial scheelite of Otago is thus not the pure calcium compound. The absence of manganese indicates that there is no admixture of wolfram. The mineral carries distinct traces of molybdenum in varying quantities up to 1 per cent. The methods used in estimating this constituent were those of Rose,* of Ruegenberg and Smith, f and of Ibbotson and Brearley.f A search was made for cerium and the other rare earths, both chemically and spectroscopically, but with negative results. Analyses by Traube§ of scheelite from various localities are here inserted for reference and comparison, and the universal association of molybdenum is of peculiar interest. In his figures for New Zealand scheelite, it will be observed that he records no iron and no magnesia, but the particular locality from which his samples were collected is not recorded. Locality. Zinnwald » Altenberg G. 5-88 603 601 603 606 607 wo, 71-08 75-29 76-78 77-84 78-04 77-54 MoO:,. 8-23 3-98 3-69 2-23 1-92 2 03 CaO. 20-33 20-34 19-86 19-48 19-57 19-91 * H. Rose, Handbuch (1. 77-. J II)l)otson anil Bicarlcy. Journal ('hem. Soc. 1000, Alistr. ii. ]>. 445. § J. D. Dana, " System of Mineralogy," Gth ed. (1800), p. 087. Finlayson. — Scheelite of Otayo 117 Locality. G. W03. Mo03. CaO. Schwargenberg(a) .. 6-12 79-94 Tr. 19-57 (a) .. 6-02 80-17 0-07 19-49 Schlaekeuwald .. .. 6-13 79-76 Tr. 19-67 Haslithal .. .. 614 80-16 Tr. 19-65 Traversella(fc) .. .. 6-06 78-57 1-62 19-37 (/;) .. .. 6-04 79-68 0-76 19-29 CarrickFels. .. .. 601 79-97 0-35 19-27 Pot Mine, South Africa(c) 5-96 70-57 8-09 20-05 71-59 7-63 20-51 Mount Kamsay, Tasmania 6-09 79-77 Tr. 19-65 New Zealand . . . . 601 80-29 Tr. 19-44 (a) MgO, trace. (b) Ce203, trace. (6) CuO, 0-34. (4.) Deposition op the Scheelite. Microscopic examination of the ore, and chemical analyses of the wall-rock of the veins, prove that the scheelite has been formed by metasomatic processes — namely, by combination of tungstic acid with lime-bearing minerals in the adjoining rock. Microscopic Evidence. The relations of scheelite and calcite, as seen under the microscope, are very striking. Plate XVI, c, shows scheelite in clear granules with fresh sharp boundaries enclosing a corroded core of calcite, and indicating the replacement process by which the ore has been formed. This phenomenon is best studied at Macrae's, where the country rock contains a considerable amount of calcite. In general, the scheelite is always fresh, the calcite where seen is much attacked and corroded. Several of the plates accompanying Mr. Lindgren's classic work on " Metaso- matic Processes in Fissure-veins "* show very similar processes to that illustrated in the above plate. A similar association of scheelite and calcite is occasionally seen in sections cut from Glenorchy ore. A characteristic fea- ture of the Glenorchy mineral is the manner in which strings of pyrite occur along the border between scheelite and gangue (Plate XVI, d). The pyrite thus appears to have segregated along the line of most intense metasomatism. The process of osmosis, regarded by many authorities as the central factor in ore-deposition, f would evidently be equally favourable to the formation both of scheelite and of pyrite, the latter being, like the former, essentially a replacement product. * '• Genesis of Ore-deposits," Trans. Amer. Inst. Man. Eng., 1901, p. 498. t H. P. Gillette, " Osmosis as a Factor in Ore-formation," Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. xxxiv (1903), p. 710. 118 Transactions. Chemical Evidence. The following analyses show the nature and extent of wall- rock alteration at Glenorehy :— 1 o 3. 217 4 H20 .. 2-42 2-71 — 0-25 Si02 .. 56-68 52-49 4200 — 14-68 A120, - .. 9-96 12-38 9-96 Fe203 . .. 5-92 612 4-97 — 0-95 FeO .. 6-77 2-42 1-94 - 4-83 CaO .. 9-96 6-58 5-26 — 4-70 MgO .. 1-55 119 0-95 — 0-60 K20 .. 2-86 5-82 4-62 + 1-76 Na20 .. 2-41 2-86 2-32 — 009 MnO .. 0-21 012 010 — 0-11 Ti02 .. 0-56 0-48 0-40 — 0-16 FeS2 .. Nil 5-61 4-48 + 4-48 C02 .. Nil 1-25 100 + 100 99-30 10003 80-17 + 7-24 - 26-37 1. Unaltered rock. — - — 2. Altered rock. — 19-13 3. Altered rock, recalculated on a basis of constant alumina. 4. Gains and losses of altered rock. The considerable loss of silica in the wall-rock is characteristic of the veins throughout Otago. The notable loss of lime and addition of carbon-dioxide and potash indicate that the mineralis- ing solutions carried alkaline tungstates and carbonates. Re- action with the wall-rock resulted in the addition of carbon- dioxide, and in exchange between lime of the rock and potash of the solutions, with the formation of scheelite in the lode. The next group of analyses indicates the processes at Macrae's (samples from Golden Point). 1. •j 3. 4. H20 . . 0-70 1~24 0-67 — 003 Si02 .. 7002 60-58 30-29 — 39-73 A1203 . . . 5-67 11-34 5-67 . . Fe203 . . . 3-68 4-88 2-44 — 1-18 FeO . . 3-38 2-56 1-28 — 210 CaO . . 7-80 4-31 2-15 5-65 Mgo .. 1-20 0-62 0-31 — 0-89 K20 . . 0-78 301 1-50 + 0-72 Naa0 .. 1-22 5-12 2-56 + 1-34 FeS2 . . Nil 4-27 2 13 + 213 co2 . . 642 100-87 2-92 146 5046 — 4-96 100-85 + 4-36 -54-71 — 50-35 Finlayson. — Scheelite of Otago. 119 1. Unaltered rock ; specific gravity = 2-695. 2. Altered rock ; specific gravity = 2-693. 3. Altered rock, recalculated on a basis of constant alumina. 4. Gains and losses of altered rock. In this case the loss of half the total mass of the rock, in- cluding 40 per cent, of the original rock, is in accordance with the fact that the Macrae's veins are segregated veins. In other words, wall-rock + lode (gangue) = original rock. This approximate equation will hold good for volumes as well as for masses — that is to say, the wall-rock has suffered a correspond- ing diminution of 50 per cent, in volume. This explains why the specific gravity of the altered rock (2-69) is equal to that of the unaltered rock. Further, there is to be observed in the wall-rock a depletion of lime and addition of alkalies, as at Grlenorchy, and likewise due to the processes by which the scheelite was deposited. The notable loss of carbon-dioxide is no doubt due to the destruc- tion of calcite during the metasomatic action. The bunchy tendency of the ore, particularly at Macrae's, is evidence of the segregation of the mineral during the forma- tion of the lodes. (5.) Genesis op New Zealand Tungsten-ores. J. D. Irving, in a description of the tungsten-deposits of the Black Hills of South Dakota,* deposits which occur in associa- tion with crystalline limestone, has divided tungsten-ore de- posits into two classes : — (1.) " Primary deposits," associated with granitic rocks, in veins with cassiterite, and minerals such as tourmaline, beryl, and fluor-spar. Such were concentrated by the pneumatolytic phase of activity of the granitic magma. (2.) " Secondary deposits," formed by solution of bodies of the first type and metasomatic redeposition in higher levels. The scheelite of Otago is thus a typical secondary deposit. As regards the other type, it is probable that the wolfram of Stewart Island, which has been described by Mr. Alex. McKay as occurring in the neighbourhood of granitic rocks, and in association with cassiterite, gahnite, and topaz, f is a primary deposit as defined above. .Further, it is evident that the tungstic acid of the scheelite has ascended through the schists by way of the lode-fissures, * J. D. Irving, " Wolframite in the Black Hills of South Dakota," Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. xxxi (1902), p. 683. t A. McKay, " Reports of Geological Explorations, 1888-89," p. 74. 120 Transactions. and the fact that tungsten is a characteristic element in ore - deposits associated with granitic rocks leads to the in- ference that the magmas beneath were largely granitic in character. (6.) The Scheelite-mining Industry. Rise and Progress. The history of scheelite-mining in Otago dates from about 1888, when the first mine was opened up on the Glenorchy reef by the Lake Wakatipu Scheelite Company, and an expensive ore-dressing plant was installed. Some 27 tons of dressed ore was shipped to Hamburg, but the price was low — £20 to £29 per ton ; and after two years the demand ceased, and the com- pany liquidated, after an outlay of £3,000. About two years ago the mine was taken over by a new company, and a crushing and dressing plant installed. With a good market and improved methods of concentration, this com- pany is making rapid strides. On the Macrae's field scheelite was first exploited in 1893, by Messrs. A. B. Kitchener and William Donaldson, who sent 6^ tons of 40-per-cent. ore from the Golden Point Mine to London. The returns did not leave much profit, but the work was per- severed with, and a later shipment realised £58 per ton. The market was subsequently transferred to Hamburg, and the demand and price steadily increased. Improved plant was installed, and considerable prospecting for scheelite was carried on, in consequence of the success attending Messrs. Donaldson's efforts. Up to date the Golden Point Mine has produced scheelite to the value of £24,000, the price having risen pro- gressively in the last fifteen years from £20 to £160 per ton. During this period 400 tons of ore has been shipped from Macrae's, while the Glenorchy Mine during the last eighteen months has dressed 60 tons. Present Mining Methods. There are at present three working mines — Messrs. Keid and Lee's Glenorchy Mine, and Messrs. W. and G. Donaldson's two mines at Macrae's. The method in vogue of concentrating the ore is to pass the pulp from the battery where it is crushed over shaking-tables or vanners, where it is dressed to an average value of 65 per cent, of tungstic acid (WO:1), the impurities being quartz and pyrites. The ore thus concentrated is dried, bagged, and shipped. For crushing the ore there are five stamps in operation at Glenorchy, ten at Golden Point, and a 5 ft. Huntington mill at Finlayson. — Scheelite of Otago. 121 Mount Highlay. The concentrating-tables used are a Wilfley at Glenorchy and Mount Highlay, a Woodbury and Frue vanner at Golden Point. Of these, the Wilfley appears to find most favour. The Glenorchy company have lately installed a Wilfley slime-table, with the object of recovering the slight loss in the tailings. The pulp is dried, over small wood or coke furnaces, a method that would scarcely be suitable for a large output. Further, a more efficient method of drying — or, rather, roasting — would burn off the sulphur of the pyrites, and thus indirectly raise the percentage value of the ore, which is a desideratum in view of the fact that the price per unit or per cent, varies with the percentage. Prospects. The success of the industry in Otago has been due to the steadily improving market at Hamburg, to which the ore is now shipped, and to greater attention on the part of present firms to the securing of clean and high-grade concentrates. The pro- blem of concentration is a very importatnt matter, as a poorly dressed ore will soon cause buyers to fight shy of the mine which ships it. The market, also, requires to be studied. In 1900, Messrs. G. P. Blackwell and Sons, metal-merchants, of Liverpool, reported thus : " The indiscriminate shipping of tungsten-ore from Australia and New Zealand is unwise, and has depressed the market, which is a peculiar one, and requires careful handling. Shippers should send their ore through one channel to a firm which understands the business, and can keep the market firm."* In view of the steadily increasing demand for tungsten, the prospects of the scheelite industry in Otago must be considered bright. Unfortunately, the fluctuations which have hitherto occurred in the market affect the production of small mines. This can only be guarded against by insuring that the mines shall be backed by sufficient capital, which would render them secure against closing down in the face of a slightly lowered quotation, an event which has happened more than once in New South Wales and Queensland. Considering the success of the present producing mines, it is highly desirable that the other scheelite-veins, both in Otago and Marlborough, should be taken up, and there can be little doubt, provided the market remains firm, that they would prove successful ventures. New Zealand Mines Record, 16th November, 1900, p. 176. 122 Transaction*. Conclusion. I must here express my indebtedness to Messrs. W. and G. Donaldson, of Macrae's, and Messrs. George Reid and Robert Lee, jun., of Glenorcby, for the many facilities and liberties they allowed me during my examination of the mines. To Dr. P. Marshall and Mr. D. B. Waters, of the Otago School of Mines, my warmest thanks are due for much valuable advice in the laboratory and in the preparation of this paper. EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI. a. Section of scheelite, showing cleavage, and quartz (white), x 36 dia- meters. 6. Scheelite, clouded, with quartz stringers, x 36 diameters. c. Illustrates metasomatic replacement. Dark fragments of scheelite, with calcite in the centre of the photograph, x 36 diameters. d. Scheelite (dark), separated from gangue (white) by strings of pyrite (black). The specimen was taken from Glenorchy. x 3 diameters. Art. XI. — Some Alkaline and Nepheline Rocks from WesUand. By J. P. Smith. Communicated by Dr. Marshall. [Read before the Otago Institute, 12th November, 1907.] Plates XYII-XIX. The rocks about to be described were obtained from the gravels of the watershed of the New River and its tributaries. They embrace a series of hypabyssal rocks ranging from acid granite porphyries to basic lamprophyres and gabbro diabases. Very few of the examples have been found in situ, but there is every reason to believe that the whole of the series were set free by erosion from the northern slopes of the Hohuna Range and from the adjoining Te Kinga Mountain. The humidity of the climate and a heavy rainfall has clothed the hillsides of Westland with a dense forest growth and a depth of humus matted with roots which effectually conceals the rock-surfaces. It is only above the bush-line, or upon the precipitous side of some deeply incised creek, or in some artificial cutting, that exposures of the underlying rocks occur. These limited exposures afford sufficient evidence to permit the rocks of the different forma- tions to be classified and the areas of the formations to be defined. They, however, give few opportunities to examine or locate any dykes which may traverse these formations. It is. Smith. — Alkaline and Nepheli-ne Rocks, Westland. 123 therefore, only from the detrital rocks derived from the erosion of the now bush-covered mountains that a knowledge of many of the dyke rocks can be obtained. So far as is known, the Arahura and Kanieri formations of the new geological survey are, with the exception of the Pounamu series, remarkably free from intrusions ; but the Tuhua forma- tion— an intrusive mass itself — is seamed in all directions with narrow dykes. Already in the Hokitika sheet of the new survey outcrops of the following dyke rocks have been located and the rocks described : Pyroxene and hornblende camptonites, pyroxene and hornblende porphyrites, diabases, and an augite diorite. The Tuhua formation is a great granitic intrusion, with its major axis roughly parallel to the axis of the main range. As the flanks of the granite hills which expose this formation are in many places covered with detritus to a height of several hundred feet above sea-level, the outcrops are not continuous, but appear as huge bosses and isolated groups of hills. The Tuhua formation has been subjected to glaciation. The ice- sheet at the period of maximum extension flowed around and frequently over the summits of the granitic mountains. Enor- mous erosion resulted, and upon the retreat of the ice-sheet deep deposits of morainic matter covered the depression between the main alpine range and the granite range, and between the granite range and the ocean. The rivers emerging from the retreating ice-cap immediately began the reassortment of the glacial drift, and this work, with decreasing intensity, has con- tinued on to the present time. The rocks herein described were collected from the fluviatile gravels in the beds of the present streams and from the auriferous gravels deposited at higher levels by streams no longer existing. They were gathered from the beds of the New River and its tributaries on the right bank, and from the higher-level gravels between the New River and Arnold River basins, but not from the Arnold basin itself. A rough estimate of the rock contents of the gravels was made in three or four localities ; they contain about 80 per cent, of greywackes, some 10 per cent, of slates, phyllites, argillites, quartzites, sandstones, and conglomerates from the Arahura and Kanieri series, and 10 per cent, of rocks from the Tuhua series. Roughly, perhaps about 1 per cent, of the Tuhua rocks may be classed as of hypabyssal origin, of which the larger proportion are much-decomposed feldspar-porphyrites, and the balance consist of the rocks herein described. Locally, these rocks are known to the miners as ironstones. They are recog- nised by their dark-green to black colour, and by their tendency 124 Transactions. to weather m concentric layers. The shells of decomposed rock surrounding the boulder illustrated were more than 2 ft. in thickness. In some of the smaller boulders only a kernel of fresh rock remains (Plate XVII, fig. 1). The basic and alkaline basic rocks collected have a wide range, and include an interesting series of tinguaites, tinguaite- porphyries, vogesites, camptonites, diabases, and rocks ap- proaching monchiquites associated with theralites and gabbro- diabases. The latter may possibly be deep-seated representa- tives of the other rocks ; but, until their plutonic or hypabyssal origin can be determined from outcrops in the field, they will be classed with the dyke rocks. The numbers under which the rocks are described are the field numbers of the specimens as collected. Only those which represent the different types, or show transitional characters of an interesting nature, have been described. The specimens collected numbered 131, from each of which one or more sections were prepared, and only in exceptional cases were any two rocks found to be exactly similar. They grade gradually from one type to another throughout the whole series. The suggested inference is that the whole series are genetically the product of one alkaline magma, which has under- gone a gradual differentiation during the period in which the dykes were injected. 108. Tinguaite. Megascopieally, a semi-translucent green rock, with vitreous fracture, resembling pitchstone. Micro- scopically, a network of segerine crystals, with occasional phenocrysts of anorthoclase distributed in a groundmass of anorthoclase, cancrinite, and nepheline. The flegerine is brownish- green in colour, and occurs in crystals of blade-like habit, some- times frayed at the ends. It gives straight extinction and moderate pleochroism, dark-green for vibrations parallel to the longitudinal axis, and yellow-green perpendicular to it. It also occurs as needles and microlites, without any approach to orientation. It is idiomorphic to all other minerals, the terminal ends of the individuals sometimes penetrating the feldspar. The feldspar occurs in two generations, the earlier being idio- morphic. Rectangular phenocrysts are sparingly developed : crystals of long blade-like habit are frequent. Although these consolidated after the pyroxene, they are only occasionally penetrated by it, but appear, to have pushed the segerine aside, or to have developed alongside the already crystallized pyroxene. A few of the broader crystals show Carlsbad twinning. The groundmass of the rock is composed of cancrinite, nepheline. and anorthoclase in allotriomorphic relations: the small plates of anorthoclase with ragged outlines r their lost navigator, La Perouse, of whom, it will be remembered,* no tidings whatever had been received after his departure from Botany Bay in March, 1788. The vessels of the expedition were the " Recherche " and " Espe- rance," under the command of Captains Bruny Dentrecasteaux and Huon Kermadec. These names will be recognised in con- nection with the Huon pine, the Kermadec and Recherche Islands, and Dentrecasteaux Straits. Two or three days in March, 1793, were spent off the north coast of New Zealand in intercourse with the Natives, but, remembering the fatal disasters that had befallen Marion, no attempt was made at landing, and the vessels passed on to Tongatabu. The history of this voyage was written by Labillardiere, the celebrated naturalist. It was he who first brought to Europe plants of the New Zealand flax, which he successfully cultivated and experimented on with regard to the comparative strength of its fibre. It may be added that though the quest of the ex- pedition was extensive, and extended over two years, no clue whatever was found of La Perouse's missing vessels, the " Astro- labe " and " Boussole." The mystery that for forty years, had enveloped them like an impenetrable cloud was dissipated by a countryman of our own, Captain Dillon, an old ship-captain, who nearly a century ago plied amongst the Pacific islands, and had an intimate knowledge of the New Zealand wild life of that date. Following up the slight traces of a few glass beads, buttons, and ornaments, he discovered in 1827 the undoubted fate of La Perouse, and the wreck of his vessels, which occurred at Vanikoro, the southernmost island of the Santa Cruz group. 144 Transactions. For these services he was made by the King of France a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and received a pension of 4.000 fr. a year. The account of his adventures, and of this search, is of the most enthralling kind, and was published in 1829, followed by a French translation in 1830. Returning from this digression, a period of thirtv-one vears elapsed between the visit of Labillardiere in 1793 and that of Lieutenant Duperrey in 1824. But during this period New Zealand had been rapidly emerging from her age-long obscurity. Not only was that faint figure on the map — so like a note of interrogation— which Tasman had allotted to her now replaced by her true position and shape, but the rough whalers and sealers were around her coasts, and for ten years Mr. Marsden and his missionaries had endeavoured to introduce to her the blessings of the Gospel and civilisation, but, alas ! so far with but little success. Duperrey commanded the corvette " La Coquille " during her voyage round the globe, and he spent a fortnight of April in the Bay of Islands, which was the rendezvous of vessels for rest and refreshment. Unfortunately, the history of this portion of his visit was not included in that magnificent work published by the French Government descriptive of the voyage. The atlases contain, however, eight fine plates of the Natives, their implements, &c, and view of the mission premises at Kerikeri. This deficiency is, however, the less to be regretted, being greatly supplied by some personal observations of M. Dumont D'Urville, a junior officer of the expedition, to whom later reference will be made, and a geographical memoir on New Zealand by M. de Blosseville, also a junior officer. Both were most assiduous in collecting information from whaling ■captains, Natives, and other sources, Math the result that much curious and valuable information not met with elsewhere is given on many points. D'Urville describes the secrecy and mystery with which a chief entered his cabin, carefully shut "the door, and then produced from under his mat a beautifully tattooed head, which he offered to sell for a little gunpowder. With great delight he told its story, and pointed out its beauties, showing where and how the fatal blow had been delivered, and where a dog had made off with part of the jaw, beside a few other similar details ; but, as no sale was effected, the chief declared that he would restore the head to the tribe with which he was at war, and so restore peace — another way of offering the olive branch. Whilst the sailors revelled in the haka and other dances of the women, the chief viewed them with sovereign disdain and contempt. But let there be a war-dance, his aspect changed at once, and he could no longer preserve the dignity and constraint he imposed on himself in the presence of his Hocken. — Early Visits of the French to New Zealand. 145 new friends : his features lighted up, his eyes rolled in their orbits, his knees shook convulsively, he thrust his tongue out of his mouth, and presently, in spite of himself, he joined heart and soul in the yells and leaps of the warriors. The " Coquille " brought down with her from Sydney, in polite compliance with Mr. Marsden's desire, Mr. George Clarke and family, who had b^en awaiting a suitable opportunity to proceed to the Bay of Islands as one of the band of missionary settlers there. Mr. Clarke's name is well known in early New Zealand history as Protector of Aborigines, an appointment conferred on him by Governor Hobson in 1840, and filled by him with advantage to both colonists and Natives during the stormy period of those early days. The next visit to bo recorded is that of Captain D'Urville, who circumnavigated the globe during the years 1826 to 1829. On this occasion he commanded the old vessel in which, as junior, he had sailed two years before with Duperrey ; but now her name was changei from the " Coquille " to the " Astrolabe," in memory of La Perouse, whose sad fate was yet shrouded in mystery, and still unceasingly deplored. Her crew were eighty in number, thirteen of whom were officers and scientific men, and as such their names will ever b3 held in repute — Quoy, Gaimard, Lesson, and De Sainson. The stay in and about the coasts of New Zealand extended over two months — from January to March, 1827 — during which time D'Urville sailed up the west coast of the South Island from about Cape Foul wind, through Cook Strait, and along the whole east coast of the North Island, finally departing from the Bay of Islands. Throughout this course he added greatly to our geographical knowledge, though gained in the face of violent storms, and bos^t more than once with imminent danger of shipwreck. This was espe- cially the case whilst exploring Massacre (or Tasman's) and Blind Bays. With these his name will ever be associated in D'Urville Island, Astrolabe Roads, the Croixelles, and the famous French Pass, through which at ebb and flow the waters rush with all the fury of a cataract. He first sailed through these tumultuous waves, pointing out to the mariner how he might thereby save twenty miles of his course ; and the story of those few but exciting moments is told with such dramatic force as to be worth repeating. He is now about to proceed northward from his anchorage in Tasman's Bay to Admiralty Bay, through the French Pass. ;' Throughout the evening and the night the unvarying east wind blew with fury and in violent gusts. Our position was still more precarious than on the previous nights, for, had we drifted, the wind would have driven us directly upon the reef of the pass, and there our lot could not have been 146 Transactions. doubtful. At last day broke, with better auspices, which seemed to promise me a favourable wind. Not to neglect anv pre- cautions in my power, I pulled to the S.E. point of the pass, and climbed to the summit of the hill which overlooked it. This was no easy matter, owing to its steepness and the dense fern which clothed it. Arrived at the top, I took in the whole position, and concluded that, taking even* precaution, I could sail through the narrow channel. Still, my eyes were not blind to its danger, and to the fact that failure meant catastrophe. Involuntarily my gaze turned to the corvette, so beautiful, so well equipped in all respects to perform her long and important voyage, and so full of her living freight. And then I thought that by a word from me her destruction might be accomplished amongst the rocks at my feet, and that my whole crew of officers and men, who so long had dwelt aboard as in a home, might be cast on the inhospitable shores, perhaps to perish, never again to see their relatives and friends. Thoughts such as these shook my resolution, but only for a moment, and I then returned on board determined to try my fortune. At 7 o'clock the anchor was hove and dropped again 6 fathoms nearer the vessel. Soon after, the breeze becoming steadier and more moderate, and the sea quieter, I determined to get under sail, so as to better handle the vessel. We had taken up the stream cable astern, and faced the bows so as to catch the wind the moment the anchor was raised. All this was quickly done. At the same moment the storm trysails, foresail, and foretopsail were unfurled, and for some minutes we steered well ; but the moment we entered the pass, the impetuous current swept us to port. In vain I put the helm hard down, and clewed the sails so as to stand in for the land. The corvette refused to steer, and, mastered by the current, she could not avoid being carried towards the rocks which terminated the reef, and on which I knew there were not more than 10 ft. or 12 ft. of water. Shortly after, the ' Astrolabe ' touched twice ; the first shock was slight, but with the second there was an appalling grinding noise, followed by a prolonged shock. In a moment the corvette stood still. and listed over to port, which gave me some hope that she was neither on the rocks nor stove in. At this moment the crew raised a terrified cry. With a bold voice I shouted out, ' It is nothing ; we are clear.' And, indeed, the current, sweeping the vessel along, forbade her from resting on the fatal rock, and then the breeze springing up enabled us again to steer, and thus, freed from our fears, we glided with filled sails into the peaceful waters of Admiralty Bay, our sole, loss being a few frag- ments of the keel, which floated in the eddy around us. My pre- occupation in sailing the vessel prevented me from seeing anything Hocken. — Early Visits of the French to New Zealand. 147 -else around me, but those of my companions who could give more attention said it was a magnificent sight to see the ' Astrolabe ' bending down as though to allow the surrounding whirlpools to engulf her, and then, gracefully rising, sail with majesty through them to the quieter waters beyond." Such is the thrilling story of this courageous and resourceful sailor who first sailed through and named the French Passage. Even now, though steam has robbed it of every danger, the passenger traverses it with awe and bated breath. The remainder of M. D'Urville's stay in New Zealand was marked by further dangers, due to tempestuous weather, which seems to have been raging round its coasts. His visit to the Bay of Islands, however, greatly made amends. It was of over a week's dura- tion, and he was warmly received by his former friends the missionaries, the brothers Henry and William Williams espe- cially. He made extensive surveys along the eastern coast, and collected valuable information regarding the Natives and the natural history of the country. One of his remarks exhibits singular prevision where treating of possible future settlement in the country. His points of selection were the neighbourhood of Cook Strait, and then the Hauraki ; fourteen years later at these spots were founded Auckland and Wellington. On his return to France the results of this expedition were printed by the Government in the most elaborate and sumptuous manner in eleven octavo volumes of letterpress and six folios of accom- panying maps and illustrations. These consist not only of the history of the voyage, but of scientific contributions to most departments of science, and all are of great value. Two of the volumes are devoted to New Zealand, and really form a standard reference on the subject, and although, unfortunately, but little known, are well worthy of translation. In one closely printed volume of 800 pages is brought together from every source what may be considered the chronicles of New Zealand from the discovery by Tasman to date. Altogether our indebtedness to this great voyager and his celebrated companions is not to be overestimated. His name remains with us not only attached to important surveys, but also to many of our New Zealand plants. In October, 1831, Captain Laplace, in the discovery vessel ir<> (stinking water), and refused to touch them after a first trial. The taste probably first came with the association with the sailors just described, as well as with the shore whalers, who had their stations all along the coast from the extreme north down to Stewart Island. But after a time the craving for intoxicating drink became the ruling passion, and the money no longer required for the purchase of arms was spent in securing a supply. It almost seemed as if the system, weakened by the fatigues of war, privation, and vice, required some kind of a stimulant. and for many years every Land Court, tribal meeting, marriage, and funeral was the scene of unlimited indulgence. The evil woidd not have been as great as it was had the liquor been of even average quality; but a special brand was stipplied for the " Native trade," which was maddening in its immediate effect and poisonous in its ultimate results, (asks of adulterated beer and kegs of doctored rum were carted out to the pas, while belated stragglers from the publichouses might be seen trying to struggle borne, or lying l>v the wax-side in a comatose con- dition—women unable to suckle their babies, and the men unable to help them along. This craze went on for more than a generation, more or less,. all over the country; but about twenty or twenty-five years ago the habit began to be given up. Wholesale drinking is now- Walsh. — The Passing of the Maori. 161 practically a thing of the past, and in most districts a drunken Maori is the exception rather than the rule. Still, the evil was done, not to be undone ; and its efiect — especially on the children begotten and reared under the conditions described — is incal- culable. Change op Habits. The partial adoption of European customs and modes of living largely contributed to the decay of the Maori, and that which under other conditions might have been a blessing has only proved a curse. This is nowhere more apparent than in the case of their housing and clothing. It might appear at first sight that a dwelling built in European style — well lighted, floored, and properly ventilated — would be more conducive to health than the dark, smoky whare — hermetically sealed when the door was shut — in which the inmates slept on mats spread on the ground around a smouldering fire. The same comparison might be made between a comfortable suit of European clothes and the scanty waist-mat which hardly covered their nakedness — supplemented in wet weather by a clumsy rain-cloak which might keep the wearer dry, but scarcely kept out the cold. The converse is really the case. The whare was usually built on the sunny side of a hill, in a situation both airy and dry, and it was sheltered from cold blasts by the palisading of the pa. If the weather was damp or chilly, a handful of embers would raise the temperature to any desired degree. There was no trouble about wet clothes or insufficient blankets, and the double or triple coating of raupo which covered the walls effectu- ally kept out the draughts, while if ventilation were needed the sliding door had only to be pushed back. Little incon- venience would be caused by the cramped dimensions of the domicile, as the whare was simply a sleeping-apartment, the porch formed by the projecting gable being used as the sitting- room, while the cooking and eating were carried on in a separate building, or, if the weather were fine, in the open air. The European style of dwelling would be very well if the Maori were able to live up to it ; but, with the exception of the more fortunate Natives about the east coast who derive an income from the rent of their lands, and a very small percentage scattered throughout the country who have been able to adapt them- selves to the new conditions, the Maori's attempt to live like the pakeha is generally a failure. In the first place, the house is usually in a bad situation. For convenience — to be near the cultivation — it is often built on the low ground, probably in the vicinity of a swamp full of stagnant water and decaying vegetable matter. Then, it is seldom finished. It is a bare shell of weather- 6— Trans. 162 Transactions. board or split paling, often unlined and without paper or scrim. There is, perhaps, a chimney of slabs or galvanized iron ; but no body of heat can be maintained, and the only effect of the fire is to draw in the cold air from the hills or the malaria from the marshy ground. Moreover, the Maori generally lives from hand to mouth, and has barely sufficient for present necessities. On a cold night, when a crowd of visitors come to put up with him — and his native hospitality forbids him turning any away — he has to share his scanty supply of bedding among them as far as it will go ; and when he conies in out of the wet he rarely troubles to change his clothes, if, indeed, he have another suit to change into, but simply takes off his coat and boots, wraps himself in a blanket, and steams until he is dry. What wonder, therefore, that even when a Maori is possessed of a European house he often lives in it as little as possible, and prefers to squat by a fire in an open shed ? It is the nearest he can get to the old Native system — the system that suits him best. The adoption of European methods of cultivation was, of course, inevitable ; and the Rev. Samuel Marsden. the founder of the mission to the Maoris, thought that when they were pro- vided with ploughs and bullock-teams they would enter on a new era of progress. The new era certainly dawned, but it was not the era expected by that great humanitarian ; or, to be more correct, the new era did not fulfil its early promise. In the pre-European days every kind of work was organized and regulated. Whether it was the breaking-up of land, or the planting or taking-up of the crop, the people worked in gangs under the direction of a leader, who marked the time with a song, to which the workers answered with a chorus. Each class of work had its appointed season, determined by recognised signs and portents, as the age of the moon or the blooming of a certain tree or flower, while in cases of doubt or uncertainty the time would be fixed by the tohunga and the regulation enforced by the chief. Growing crops were under strict tapu, and it was believed that any breach or neglect of the tapu would involve serious disaster. In this way punctuality was secured, the labour was greatly lightened, and the work done with cheer- fulness and hope. All hands worked together like a well-ordered team, and each bore his full share of the common burden. For a time the new system seemed to promise very well, and as long as something of the old tribal spirit was kept up large quantities of wheat, maize, potatoes, &c, were grown, with the assistance of European implements, all over the country. But as the authority of the chief declined, the co-operative spirit passed away, while the mere fact that the work was easier in- duced an element of failure. The fatal indolence and procrasti- Walsh. — The Passing of the Maori. 163 nation of the Maori asserted itself, and the crops were often put in too late, or under improper weather conditions, to be neglected during the growing-season ; or, perhaps, in the middle of a job a death would occur in the neighbourhood, or some other reason for a hui would eventuate, when all hands would clear out for a week or more, and leave the work to take care of itself. The consequence, is that the Maoris have become disheartened, and the whole thing is done in an abortive and slovenly manner. There is less and less cultivation done every year ; large areas of fertile land lie waste. In many districts there is a chronic shortage of provisions — often even semi-starvation. Introduced Diseases. In his original state the Maori seems to have been ideally healthy. As a usual thing he only died of old age, unless he were slain in battle or fell a victim to maakutu or witchcraft. Tradition states that some six generations ago — perhaps 150 years — a plague, which appears to have been a kind of spotted fever, swept over the country with very fatal results. In Taia- mai, a fertile and populous district inland of the Bay of Islands, the number of deaths was so great that the survivors cleared out in a general stampede, leaving the place to be occupied by the Ngapuhi, who spread from Hokianga. It is very probable, however, that as many of the deaths occurred from panic as from the effects of the disease. The visitation passed away, leaving no evil results ; but with the advent of the pakeha new diseases came, and came to stay. Certain (venereal) complaints which appeared for the first time do not seem to have made the havoc that might have been expected, though there is little doubt that they helped to lower the system and weaken its power of resistance to other maladies. By great good fortune smallpox has never made its appearance among the Maoris, but measles and typhoid fever have proved most fatal. The former has swept through the country on several occasions, sometimes almost exterminat- ing whole settlements — e.g., when only two individuals escaped out of a popiilation of three hundred in a kainga near the Moly- neux River. The remedies used for the measles were often more fatal than the disease itself. Finding that a bath in cold water would cause the spots to disappear, whole parties would im- merse themselves in a running stream, with — as might be ex- pected— the most fatal results. Typhoid fever makes its ap- pearance every few years, and once it has visited a settlement it is sure to recur whenever the atmospheric and other condi- tions are favourable for its development. Of late years many of the Native-school teachers have tried to cope with this in- sidious disease. They have supplied the Maoris with medicine, 164 Transactions. and have instructed them in the elements of the rules of health, but from want of proper sanitation, and from the impossibility of getting any course of treatment carried out, their efforts have been mostly unavailing. Besides, the Maori is at all times an unsatisfactory patient. Once his vitality falls below a certain point he loses heart, and frequently dies from the mere want of an effort to live. From an epidemic of typhoid fever a hundred died in a village in the north out of a population of five hundred a few years ago, at a time when almost every settlement had a similar visitation. Asthma and consumption probably always existed among the Maoris to a certain extent, but under the healthy conditions that obtained in their primitive state their prevalence was greatly limited. There is no doubt that the receptivity of the Native for these and their contingent diseases — bronchitis and pneumonia— has proportionately increased with the generally lowered tone produced by the causes already enumerated. At the present time, throughout the north — the region in which the contact between the races has been the longest and most intimate — it is rare to find a really sound Maori. Most of the old people are troubled more or less with asthma, while amongst the young and apparently the most robust cases of consumption develop with marvellous rapidity. The Hui. One of the most fatal mediums for the propagation and spread of disease is the modern hui. There have, of course, always been huis. They are, in fact, an essential feature of Maori economy ; but the modern hui possesses certain elements which did not obtain in the old days. A hid is a gathering of the tribe, the hapu, or the family, and may be held for any purpose of common interest, whether political, social, or religious — for a tribal meeting, for the welcome of distinguished visitors, for a marriage, or a funeral. Any Maori is free to assist at a hui, and European visitors are always made welcome. In a very large hui, to which parties come from a distance, it is not unusual for them to bring contributions of provisions, bnl the tangata whenua, or local Maoris, are always considered as the entertainers, and it is a point of honour for them to supply as large a quantity of the very best that the tribe or settlement can afford, even if they have to go short for months afterwards. Up to some twenty years ago it was customary for the enter- tainers to erect temporary sheds of rawpo or nikau to serve as sleeping-places for the visitors, the discussions being carried on in the open air. Of late years, however, it has become the practice to have in every settlement of importance a large hall, built of sawn timber, to serve the double purpose of hostelry Walsh. — The Passing of the Maori. 165 and meeting-house. Although the style and dimensions vary considerably with the importance of the settlement, the general plan is the same. The hall is a long building, entered from the end. A bare strip some 8 ft. or 10 ft. wide runs up the centre of the floor, and the space between this and the side walls is littered down with fern or mangemange, covered with mats of green flax. This serves as a sleeping-place for the Maoris, who lie with their heads towards the wall, from which they are sepa- rated by a kind of narrow trough filled with fern, which acts as a general spittoon. Each Maori, on entering, takes his place — a kind of seniority being observed — the principal men occupy- ing the upper end, and the women and children gathering near the door. The food, which is cooked outside, is set on the floor in the central space, the Maoris squatting in a row along each side. The business — if there is any to be done — is con- ducted by a sort of informal debate, which is often carried on far into the night ; and the hui, for whatever purpose it may have been called together, usually lasts until the stock of pro- visions shows signs of giving out. It would be impossible to conceive of a more perfect medium for the dissemination of disease than the hui as it is now con- ducted. As it is important to have plenty of food, the larger meetings are held, if possible, soon after the crops have been harvested — -that is to say, in the late autumn, when the weather is often cold and wet. A crowd of men, women, and children are packed together more closely than the passengers on an emigrant-ship. A large percentage are suffering from some pulmonary complaint, or from some inherited constitutional delicacy which renders them peculiarly accessible to infection. Night and day they are lying in damp clothes — as they never wholly undress — and breathing a mephitic atmosphere, poisoned by the exhalations from so many bodies and from the general spittoon. A person suffering from influenza comes in, and in a few hours the disease has gone the round of the house. Some- times a death occurs, and the body is kept for days in the vicinity of the food, while the tangi (mourning) goes on. Diseases con- tracted at the hui are taken away to the homes of the visitors, where fresh centres of infection are started ; and, although a new supply of bedding is provided, the germs remain about the building, to be nursed into life on the next occasion it is used. Wars with the Europeans. It was only to be expected that sooner or later the Maoris would come into conflict with the invading race. This first happened when, in 1845, Hone Heke cut down the flagstaff in the Bay of Islands. This action resulted in a war that lasted 166 Transactions. for two years, and included a good deal of sharp fighting. Owing, no doubt, to the spirit introduced by the missionaries, and the influence of their families, the contest was prevented from developing ■ into a war of extermination. It was conducted on new and civilised lines. There was no cannibalism or slaying of the wounded. With the exception of the Kororareka episode, property was respected, and non-combatants were unmolested. It was, in fact, more of a tournament than a war — a trial of strength, which left no sting behind it. But it was very different with the war of 1860. This war began in Taranaki, and lasted for ten years, spreading over a third of the North Island, including Taranaki, Waikato, and the districts about Poverty Bay. Ten thousand men were en- gaged on the European side ; and it is estimated that some £12,000,000 was expended before the contest was brought to a conclusion. Considering the large forces engaged on both sides, the number of men killed in the field was comparatively trifling ; but the effect of the campaign as a factor in the pass- ing of the Maori was deep and far-reaching. Multitudes of the most robust and vigorous men were withdrawn from the work which in normal times was barely sufficient to maintain them in comparative comfort. These had to be fed, and the produc- tion and transportation of the food more than taxed the ability of the women and non-combatants. Houses and cultivations had to be abandoned in the country accessible to the troops, and hunting and fishing grounds were deserted. For years this kind of thing went on. The whole population of a vast area extending from sea to sea was kept in a state of unnatural tension, and it would be impossible to estimate the numbers that perished from sickness and privation. On the conclusion of the war all Native land beyond a certain line was confiscated by the Government, and the Maoris had to fall back and form new settlements as best they could, often with the total loss of any live-stock they might have possessed. Te Whiti. The long delay of the Government in fulfilling their promise to allocate land to those Natives who, though living within the confiscated area, had not taken up arms caused much disap- pointment and distress. Brooding over their wrongs, and seeing no hope of redress, they at last found a mouthpiece in Te Whiti, who arose as a prophet in 1880, and established himself at Pari- haka, a few miles south of New Plymouth. It was assumed that he was about to start on the warpath like a second Te Kooti, and once more the country was got under arms. A large force of Constabulary and Volunteers was got together. Walsh. — The Passing of the Maori. 167 Redoubts were built and Parihaka was invested. But the ex- pected uprising did not take place. The prophet had neither arms nor ammunition. He was really a " passive resister," and was quite willing, if necessary, to suffer martyrdom. Te Whiti had been educated by a Wesleyan missionary, the Rev. Mr. Riemen- schneider, and had made a deep study of the Bible, which he seemed to know from beginning to end. He saw in his oppressed and downtrodden countrymen a type of the dispersed Israel, and he applied to them the promises of future restoration. In order to promulgate his doctrine he held meetings every month at Parihaka, with a grand festival in the month of March. To these the Maoris flocked from all quarters— at first from the kaingas near at hand, but, as the idea caught on, from settle- ments several days' journey away in the bush country. They came in hundreds and thousands — on horseback, in bullock- drays, and on foot — bringing cartloads of provisions ; and when they returned they would repeat the wonderful message at their homes, and attract fresh visitors to the next meeting. There was to be no weapon lifted against the oppressor. Every- thing would come right by Divine interposition, when all the Maoris that had been slain in the war would come to life again, and the pakeha would retire into the sea and molest them no more. The only thing that could be construed into an overt act of rebellion was a sort of object-lesson intended to bring their grievances under the notice of the Government, when parties of Maoris were sent out to plough up some of the land in Euro- pean occupation. This was taken as a declaration of war, and a great excitement arose among the settlers, when the Govern- ment, by way of bringing matters to a crisis, poured an over- whelming armed force into Parihaka. The Riot Act was read to a peaceable crowd of women and children, wholesale arrests were made, cattle and horses were seized, and houses and crops were destroyed,* while in order to bring the matter within the scope of the law the West Coast Settlements Act was passed, the legislation to have retrospective action. Te Whiti and a number of his followers were sent to prison, but on his return the meetings were held as before. The movement, however, gradually died out, and, although the prophet continues to prophesy, he has long ceased to be an active factor in Maori politics, f Though no blood was shed in connection with the Te Whiti movement, it had, nevertheless, a very fatal effect on the Maoris among whom its influence extended. Half their time was spent * Cf. " Long White Cloud," by Hon. W. P. Reeves, p. 308. t Te Whiti has died since this paper was written. 168 Transactions. in going backwards and forwards and attending the meetings, while the hope of a future deliverance left them no interest for the practical work of the present. At the meetings multitudes were crowded together, without proper accommodation and with no attempt at sanitary arrangements. Fever took pos- session of Parihaka, and resulted in wholesale sickness and death, while the infection was carried home and spread through the settlements ; and this, combined with the overstrain and excitement, the irregular living, and unhealthy conditions, caused a shrinkage in the population of Taranaki probably unequalled at any other time or place. The Land Laws. By the misconstruing of a clause in the Treaty of Waitangi,* the " right of pre-emption " has always been interpreted as the " sole right of purchase." This has prevented the Maoris from dealing with a private individual in the disposal of their lands, and has forced them to sell to the Government if they wish to sell at all. The result is that the Government can buy at their own price and sell in the open market, making perhaps 500 or 600 per cent, on the transaction. In the hope of some tardy justice, the owners have largely reserved their lands from sale, although they would willingly part with the greater portion if they could be sure of a fair price ; and, though titular owners of vast estates, they are condemned to live in poverty and perhaps destitution. Under the old regime the land was the property of the tribe as a whole, and the cultivation at each kainga was done on a co-operative system, under the direction of the local chiefs ; but since the supreme compelling force has passed away, and the interests and ambitions of the various members of the tribe have become differentiated, it has become necessary to indi- vidualise the ownership, so as to secure to each man the fruits of his labour. In order to accomplish this, the Native Land Court was established, and of late years Native Committees elected by the tribal owners have been set up to allocate the various claims, their decisions to be confirmed or otherwise by a Judge of the Court on evidence taken amongst the claimants. The system seems simple and fair enough until it comes to be worked out, but then the trouble begins. The claims are made on such various and conflicting grounds that it is often impossible to come to a decision thai will be satisfactory to all parties; while, from the fact that the .Maoris are so interrelated, a Clevel- and unscrupulous man, with little or no real right, can often * Sec Appendix Walsh— The Passing of the Maori. 169 work up a claim that will satisfy the Court. The result is that a rehearing is applied for, and the Court sits again, perhaps after an interval of several months, and with no better satisfac- tion in the end. Meanwhile all the expenses of the Court come off the land, and as the sessions usually occupy several weeks, or perhaps months, these are very considerable. All this time the Maoris are excited and unsettled. Their home-work is largely neglected. Those who have come from a distance hang about the township in which the Court is held, and live in great dis- comfort in tents and makeshift whares, many of them spending their enforced leisure in drinking and gambling at the local hotel. It requires, however, a majority of the persons interested to bring a block of land before the Court ; and, in view of the great expense attending the proceedings, as well as the frequently unsatisfactory nature of the decisions, it is often years before those who are desirous of having their claims defined can induce the rest of the tribe to undertake a step fraught with so uncertain issues. Meanwhile the enterprising and industrious Maori is severely handicapped, as, even if he obtain the tacit consent of the tribe to occupy and improve a piece of land, he has no guarantee that his home will not be broken up and the fruit of his labour go to another claimant whenever the land goes through the Court, as sooner or later it is sure to do. The consequence is that the whole settlement is kept back and discouraged. The man whose enterprise and industry would give a lead to his neighbours loses heart, while the rest are deprived of an example which would help to raise them in the scale of civilisation. There is another point in which the land laws press very heavily upon the Maoris. In order to substantiate a claim to ancestral land the claimant is required to prove occupation. After much delay and contention — extending perhaps over a number of years — it is finally resolved to bring a block before the Court in order that the rights of the various claimants may be defined. During all this time every one aspiring to a share must have done something to demonstrate the fact that he is an owner. He must make a cultivation, build a house, sell some timber, assent to the making of a road, &c. He must, in fact, " shepherd his claim," or his claim will be jumped. But the house is not meant for a permanent dwelling ; very often the fence is uncompleted, and the crop is allowed to take care of itself. The occupation is for the most part purely technical, but the work has to be done all the same, though it involve much useless labour and frequent journeyings to and fro over long distances ; while, as the Maoris almost invariably take their wives and families along with them, these have to endure much 170 Transactions. hardship and privation, while the real home is often practically deserted for months at a time, and everything falls to pieces.* The Gumpields. Partly from the unsatisfactory nature of the land laws, occasionally from the failure of his crops, and very often from an innate love of change of occupation, the Maori throughout the northern district betakes himself to the guinfields. The gumfields are scattered over an immense area, extending from the Waikato to the North Cape. Wherever throughout this area the kauri is growing, or has grown in former times, the gum is found in more or less payable quantities. Surface gum has long since disappeared, and the article has now to be dug from the ground, where it has either exuded from the roots of the trees, or, falling from the tops, has been buried by landslips or by deposits from volcanic eruptions. Gum-digging may be roughly divided into two classes — viz., that on the " winter fields." or the high tea-tree ranges, where the ground is too hard to work in dry weather, and that on the " summer fields," or low swampy situations, where digging would be impossible during the wet season. Unless very hard driven, the Maoris seldom resort to the winter fields, but throughout the summer and autumn they are to be found all over the Auckland Province wherever the ground is in a fit condition to be worked. The attraction of gum-digging is, of course, the hope of an immediate cash return, as the gum has a very high commercial value ; but the return in the case of the Maori is usually very trifling. In contrast to the European, and especially the Austrian — who work in a more or less energetic and systematic manner — his operations are of a very desultory and superficial character. At starting he is generally in debt to the store, and the output of gum scarcely pays for the cost of the provisions consumed on the field. Meanwhile the living arrangements are most uncomfortable and unhealthy. The Maoris generally go out in parties — men, women, and children together. A calico tent, a light fiame covered with sacking, or a raupo whare of the rudest description serves as a dwelling for each family. To be out of the wind it is often placed under the shelter of a clump of tea- tree, in some low, moist situation. Living on scanty rations of unaccustomed and unwholesome food, drinking bad water, working all day in the swamp, and exposed at night to the * Since this paper was written certain amendments have been made in the land laws, but they have brought no satisfaction. The right of pre-emption guaranteed by the Treaty is not yet recognised, and the pro- ceedings of the Court seem to be more involved and tedious t ban ever. Walsh. — The Passing of the Maori. 171 miasma from the marshy ground, many of the people suffer from pulmonary and enteric troubles ; dysentery kills off the young children, and not infrequently an epidemic of typhoid fever takes heavy toll of the camp. The same thing goes on from year to year, for the Maori will never learn from experience, and there is no doubt that the work on the gumfields is sapping what is left of the vitality of the race throughout a very large section of the Maori people. Native Schools. There is a very general belief that by a course of education according to European standards the Maori will be enabled to avail himself of the benefits of civilisation, and so raise himself towards the level of the white population. To this end the Government has established a system of Native schools all over the country. These schools are, in fact, the forlorn hope of a large section of the community who have the interests of the Maori at heart. We shall see how this hope has been fulfilled. Tried by an examination test the system has been successful enough. The attendance is generally satisfactory, and the average of attainment is wonderfully good, especially when we consider that — at the commencement, at least — the teaching has to be imparted in a language imperfectly understood by the pupils. In some subjects — e.g., drawing, mapping, singing, &c. — the average of proficiency is usually quite above that of the country district schools. Tried by another standard, however, the Native-school system is not so satisfactory. In the first place, the school is a " Native school " : the race-distinction is emphasized from the start, and carried on all through. In the. next place, there is a good deal of time wasted that might be more profitably spent if a school career is to be considered as a preparation for adult life. The teacher conscientiously tries to keep up the attendance, and endeavours to attract the children by means of treats, games, singing-classes, and so on, while these, naturally preferring the excitement of the playground and the society of their mates to the dreary monotony of the kainga, have little or no opportunity of practising the duties of the house or the cultivation. From a hygienic point of view, also, the Native school is generally prejudicial to the welfare of its attendants. The children are often only half-fed and imperfectly clothed, and after walking perhaps a mile or two in the rain, or lounging about on the wet grass of the playground, they have to sit for hours shivering in their damp garments. As a natural consequence the germs of pulmonary troubles are nursed into growth, their general health is undermined, and when an epidemic of typhoid 172 Transactions. or measles attacks a settlement it finds its readiest victims among the children of the Native school. Though there are, of course, individual exceptions, still the vast majority of the Maori scholars find little or no opportunity in adult life of making practical use of what they have learned. The Maori is handicapped from the start, and overweighted all through the race of life. His natural indolence and his love of change and excitement unfit him for the uninteresting monotony of steady effort, while his constitutional diffidence and his fear of putting himself in the wrong act as a bar to any real competition with the pakeha. Thus it is that numbers of young men with a sufficient educational equipment to fit them for employment in a lawyer's or a surveyor's office, or in a banking or mercantile establishment, are to be found cutting flax in a swamp, acting as ostler or boots at a bush publichouse, or driving bullocks at starvation wages for a country storekeeper. Nor are the girls any more fortunate. In the early days, when white women were scarce, many a settler found an excellent wife in a Maori maiden — not only as a practical helpmate, but as a refined and intelligent companion. But as European population has increased the race prejudice has correspondingly asserted itself, and, no matter how capable and attractive a girl may now be, she has very little chance of rising in the social scale. Her bright early promise is unfulfilled. Hope is soon lost, and she gradually sinks back to the general level of the tribe. Looking at the question in all its bearings, it must be admitted that the Native schools have not fulfilled the hopes that have been reposed in them. In the vast majority of cases they have failed to bring the Maori into closer touch with what is best in the European civilisation. They have emphasized the race- distinction, and have deprived him of the opportunity of study and practice in many useful directions, while by the inevitable conditions that surround them they have largely contributed to his physical decay. Summary. I have enumerated some of the principal causes that have combined to produce the wholesale and rapid decay of the Maori people. I might go on to show how at almost every point at which the race has conic into contact with the new civilisation it has suffered a shock from which it has been unable to recover. As Dr. Yon Hochstctter observed more than forty years ago, " Despite the many advantages it has brought to the Natives, the European civilisation acts upon them like an insidious poison, consuming the inmost marrow of their life .. . . Walsh. — The Passing of the Maori. 173 Compared with the fresh and full vigour with which the Anglo- Saxon race is spreading and increasing, the Maori is the weaker partv, and thus is he the loser in the endless ' struggle for exist- ence.' " * The case of the Maoris is analogous to that of the New Zealand bush. The magnificent growth that has withstood the storms of countless centuries, and that has been able to renew itself after the ravages of volcanic fires and the deposits of ashes and mud, is gradually perishing before the advance of European settlement. Even the portions that have so far escaped the bushman's axe are unable to support the new con- ditions. The browsing cattle, the competition with foreign plants, the incursion of imported blights, all contribute their share in the general destruction, while even well-meant efforts at preservation often serve only to hasten the decay. Doubly decimated by the guns of Hongi, of Te Rauparaha, and Waharoa ; worn out with the agonizing effort to secure a supply of weapons and ammunition ; their vitality sapped by the liquor traffic and the wholesale debauch of the mothers of the race ; utterly wearied by the ten years' war and its disas- trous consequences ; discouraged by the injustice of the land laws ; and disheartened by an ever-growing race prejudice, the Maoris of to-day are but a dying remnant of the once vigorous and populous tribes. The men and women of fabulous age once to be seen in every Jcainga have died off, and none are taking their place. On a late interesting occasion — the un- veiling of the Marsden cross in the Bay of Islands in last March — the only chief within available distance that could remember something of the old times was a half-caste. It is becoming a rare thing in many districts to see a Maori above middle age. Young men and women apparently healthy and robust are cut off at a few days' notice by fever and rapid consumption, while children die wholesale from infantile diseases that would be easily thrown off by their white brothers and sisters, and the shrinking remnant is ever less and less able to resist the doom of their race. The decay, on the whole, as I have attempted to show, has been rapid, but it has been fitful, and there have been times when it almost seemed as if there was a gleam of hope. Al- though the Rev. Samuel Marsden and the early missionaries were unable to restrain Hongi from going on the warpath, still, it is unquestionable that their influence largely contributed to the suppression of cannibalism, and helped to secure a better fate for the thousands of prisoners than they would otherwise * Hochstetter's " New Zealand," pp. 220-2-21. 174 Transactions. have met with. At the time that the horrors of the " ship-girl " and the liquor traffic were being enacted at Kororareka, order and decency reigned in the mission settlement at Paihia, on the opposite side of the Bay of Islands. The industrial and educa- tional system of the Church station at the Waimate compelled the admiration of Charles Darwin, who visited the place during the voyage of the " Beagle."* The young women brought up in the missionaries' households were often sought as wives for the chiefs, and the effects,of their training might be seen in after- life by the habits of order and neatness they imported into the kaingas. With the gradual development of colonial life the close con- tact of the missionaries with the Maori came to an end, but its spirit has survived to some extent in other agencies. To the precept and example of the Maori clergy is no doubt mainly due the wholesale stamping-out of the drinking habit throughout the northern district, while the Te Aute College and St. Stephen's School, and the Hukerere and Victoria Girls' Schools have helped to give some of the youth of both sexes a hopeful start in life. But all these checks, and any other that might be mentioned, have been but temporary and local. Taken altogether, their effect on the general result has not been great. They have failed to arrest the stream of tendency that is sweeping onward with ever-increasing power and volume, ever meeting with less and less resistance. The Maori has lost heart and abandoned hope. As it has already been observed in the case of the individual, when once the vital force has fallen below a certain point he dies from the sheer want of an effort to live ; so it is with the race. It is sick unto death, and is already potentially dead. As Von Hochstetter remarks again, f " The Maoris themselves are fully aware of this, and look forward with a fatal resignation to the destiny of the final extinction of their race. They them- selves say, ' As clover killed the fern, and the European dog the Maori dog ; as the Maori rat was destroyed by the pakeha rat, so our people also will be gradually supplanted and exter- minated by the Europeans.' " The Census. According to a census taken last year| che Maori population stood at 47,721. This includes 3,938 half-castes living as Maoris. * " A Naturalist's Voyage in the ' Beagle,' " Chap, xviii. ■\ Hochstetter's '• New Zealand," p. -I... % New Zealand Official Year-book, 1. Walsh. — The Passing of the Maori. 175 The Official Year-book states that each time the census has been taken since 1896 there has been a considerable increase in the number. A similar statement will never be made in connec- tion with any future census, and for the following, reason : In former years it was impossible to arrive at anything more than a very casual estimate. The system of enumeration was more or less rough-and-ready, no particular care was taken in the appoint- ment of reliable officers, and Maori information had to be largely relied on. The Maori mode of computation was based on the number of able-bodied men in a hapu or hainga, the women and children being thrown in by a rough guess ; and, as the Maoris were somewhat suspicious of the motives of the Govern- ment, their returns were often purposely below the mark. As time went on the enumeration was made with increasing accu- racy, but it was only on the last occasion that it was made on the lines of the European census — viz., by a systematic house- to-house visitation by properly qualified officials, who were accompanied on their rounds by intelligent and trustworthy Maoris. The rise in the figures is therefore only due to the increasing accuracy of the returns, numbers being each time in- cluded that would have escaped in former calculations. Finality has now been reached, and the next census will show that the Maori population, instead of increasing, has been diminishing all the time, and that if the present rate of declension continues it must soon reach the vanishing-point. APPENDIX. Article 2 of the Treaty of Waitangi. '' Her Majesty the Queen of England confirms and guaran- tees to the chiefs of New Zealand, and to the respective families and individuals thereof, the full, exclusive, and undisturbed possession of their lands and estates, forests, fisheries, and other properties which they may collectively or individually possess, so long as it is their wish and desire to retain the same in their possession ; but the chiefs of the united tribes and the individual chiefs yield to Her Majesty the exclusive right of pre-emption over such lands as the proprietors thereof may be disposed to alienate, at such prices as may he agreed upon between the respective proprietors and persons appointed by Her Majesty to treat with them in that behalf." 176 Transactions. Art. XIV. — On a Soda Amphibole Trachyte from Cass's Peal; Banks Peninsula. By K. Speight, M.A., B.Sc. \[Read before the Canterbury Philosophical Institute, 6th November, 1907.] The oldest rocks found on Banks Peninsula consist of slates, cherts, and greywackes of uncertain age ; but the last show a marked lithological resemblance to Lower Mesozoic greywackes that occur at the Malvern Hills. The only exposure of these rocks on Banks Peninsula is near Gebbie's Pass, where they occupy a considerable portion of the main ridge, and extend down on both sides of it, but especially towards the head of Lyttelton Harbour. Here they form a large part of the solid floor of the valley in which Teddington lies. Over them lie solid flows of rhyolite and beds of agglomerate penetrated by dykes of rhyolite and pitchstone. The age of these beds is also uncertain, but they resemble very closely in lithological charac- ter the garnet-bearing rhyolites of Mount Somers, Rakaia Gorge, and the Malvern Hills, which are certainly of Cretaceous age, as rhyolite pebbles are found in conglomerates forming the lower members of the coal-bearing series, which, as well as the rhyolites, overlie unconformably Jurassic sedimentaries. At Mount Somers, too, rhyolite tuffs, according to S. H. Cox, are interstratified with coal - bearing beds. It is therefore highly likely that the Gebbie's Pass rhyolites are of Cretaceous age. After a considerable lapse of time, during which the rhyolites were heavily eroded, the main mass of Banks Peninsula was formed, consisting chiefly of andesites of basic type and basalts. These were poured out as subaerial lava-flows, and thrown out as scoria and ashes from two craters which now form Lyttelton and Akaroa Harbours. Onawe Peninsula probably marks the centre of the latter volcano, as the extremity of the peninsula is composed of a syenite, and this is the only occurrence of a plutonic rock in the locality. The remaining part of this small peninsula near the narrow isthmus is principally formed of intercrossing dykes ; it thus shows the structure which cha- racterizes the neighbourhood of the pipe of an old volcano. Sir Julius von Haast suggests that a third centre of eruption, belonging to this period, occurs in the valley of Little River. He is not very definite about it, and says that the remains of the lavas that were poured out from it are not very extensive. I believe, however, that he modified his views somewhat at a Speight.— Soda Amphibola Trachyte. Ill later date, and considered that the peninsula was built princi- pally from the centres of Lyttelton and Akaroa. I cannot speak definitely from personal observation as regards this point, but from what I have seen I am inclined to think that it is un- likely that a crater occupied the valley of Little River, but that the lavas occurring there were poured out from both Lyttelton and Akaroa, and that the form of the valley can be well ex- plained as the result of prolonged stream erosion. When all the lavas are basalts and basic andesites, and good sections showing their relations are practically absent, an accurate estimate is extremely difficult to make. Good sections showing contacts of the andesites with the earlier rhyolites are also rare, owing to the completeness with which the soil covers over every- thing. However, a section near the end of the spur which divides Gebbie's from McQueen's Valley affords convincing proof of their relative age. Here the actual contact is seen, and andesites undoubtedly overlie denuded rhyolites. The andesites always contain augite, with a small amount of olivine generally added, and thus show close relations to the basalts ; but the silica percentage of some varieties is too high (about 56) for them to be classified as such. There are grada- tions, however, from the less basic to the thoroughly basic types, which finally pass into undoubted basalts. It is highly likely that the Akaroa lavas are of a slightly later date than those from the Lyttelton volcano. They are generally of a more basic character, true basalts forming a large proportion of effu- sive mass. This evidence is perhaps very unreliable, but it is supported by the fact that the crater-ring of Akaroa is in a much more perfect condition than the Lyttelton ring, denudation not having exerted such a marked influence over its original form. However, this may be accounted for by the more resistent character of the rocks constituting it. In the subsequent sec- tion I have represented the Akaroa lavas as being slightly younger than the Lyttelton ones. The andesitic eruptions from these two centres were suc- ceeded by an outpouring of basalts and andesites from Mount Herbert, and probably from Mount Sinclair. The latter moun- tain forms the geographical centre of Banks Peninsula, being situated at the junction of the Port Levy, Pigeon Bay, and Little River Valleys, with outlying parts extending nearly to the edge of the crater-ring of Akaroa. Sir Julius von Haast mentions a fourth centre of eruption at Quail Island, within Lyttelton Harbour; but this may be contemporaneous with that at Mount Herbert, and it is even possible that the Quail Island basalts came from Mount Herbert, and that the connecting rocks have been removed by denudation. 178 Transactions. On examining a map of Banks Peninsula it will be seen that the centres of volcanic activity lie approximately on a line running east-south-east and west- north- west. It seems, there- fore, a reasonable inference that the eruptions took place at different points of a fissure or line of weakness in the earth's crust running in that direction ; that eruptions broke out first at the Lyttelton end of the fissure, and that afterwards the centre of maximum disturbance moved eastward to Akaroa, and then back to Mount Sinclair and Mount Herbert, and possibly to Quail Island. As the Lyttelton volcano has thrown out rocks belonging to three different periods, and perhaps to four, I think it would be convenient to refer to the rhyolites as the Gebbie's Pass series, to the olivine-andesites as the Mount Pleasant series (named from one of the chief peaks on the northern side of the harbour immediately behind the Town of Lyttelton), and to refer to the lavas which come from Mount Herbert as the Mount Herbert series. All these are quite distinct in age : the Gebbie's Pass series being almost certainly Cretaceous, the Mount Plea- sant series being early Tertiary, and the Mount Herbert series middle Tertiary ; but the last two are extremely uncertain as regards their age, and may be much more recent. Although stream erosion has exerted a marked influence in forming valleys, yet the form of the crater-ring is fairly perfect, especially as regards Akaroa, so that a more recent date may very well be assigned to the two later series. Diagrammatic Section of Banks Peninsula, from Tai Tapu to the Coast near East Head. 1. Slates and groywackos ; Lower Mosozoic(?). 2. Rhyolites, Gebbie's Pass series ; Cretaceous. 3. Augite-andesitoa and basalts, Mount Pleasant series ; early Tertiary(?), perhaps later. 4. Basalts and andesites, Mount Herbert series ; mid Tertiary!?), perhaps later. 5. Syenite, Onawe Peninsula; early Tertiary (T), perhaps later. "! Note. — The line of this section is not straight, but altered 'in direction to show the relative position of the rocks of different age. A l">"„ 58-93 59-87 61-99 (51-38 (i(t-()!l 52-18 71-09 70-04 Al0<)3 23-95 21-22 13 08 20-60 17-75 2(1-0(1 16-45 15-40 Fe«,03 .. FeO 5-43 4-42 1-1G 8-65 2-57 3-83 5-00 L-50 0-34 j- 4-65 MnO 014 4-42 119 1-21 . , . . CaO 1-75 2-58 2-21 2- 18 1-20 4-92 3-25 Sight i race MgO 0-96 0-91 Trace (1-4(1 1-43 1-03 0-89 0-55 K20 4-32 4-06 Mil Traces 2-30 2-35 4-35 \a20 .-Hi 1 5-34 4-22 9-7(1 1310 1 i-.-.: 4-81 4-65 H20 1-36 3-82 1-98 11-79 0-07 0-57 Total .. HI2-3I 99-70 1 00-00 100-00 10000 100-00 99-75 100-21 Speight. — Soda Amphibole Trachyte. 183 A. Trachytoid phonolite, Lvttelton-Sumner Road ; analysed by P. Marshall ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxvi (1893). B. Trachytoid phonolite, Heathcofce ; analysis by T. Bute- ment ; quoted by H. F. Ulrich, Trans. Aus. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. iii (1891). C. Vesicular trachyte from agglomerate bed ; analysis made in laboratory of the Geological Survey ; quoted in Haast's " Geology of Canterbury and Westland." D. Dyke (side) cut by tunnel, No. 29b, same dyke ; analysis made in laboratory of the Geological Survey ; quoted in Haast's " Geology of Canterbury and Westland." E. Dyke (centre) cut by tunnel, No. 29a, same dyke ; analysis made in laboratory of the Geological Survey ; quoted in Haast's " Geology of Canterbury and Westland." F. Dyke (centre) cut by tunnel ; analysis made in Paris by Dr. H. Filhol ; " Mission de File Campbell." G. Tridymite-trachyte, Lyttelton-Sumner Road ; analysis by P. Marshall ; Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxvi (1893). H. Soda amphibole trachyte, Cass's Peak ; analysis made in chemical laboratory, 'Canterbury College ; inserted again for convenience of comparison. This list includes nearly all the published analyses of trachytic and allied rocks of this series. There seems to be one or two striking features about some of them. Assuming that they are tolerably correct, those marked D, B, F show an abnormal per- centage of soda, and also a very small percentage of potash ; also A, B, C show an excess of soda over potash. The high percentage of MnO in C is also remarkable ; this apparently ex- plains the presence of frequent thin coatings of a black mineral resembling pyrolusite, which occurs on the fracture surfaces of the rock. Analyses A and B undoubtedly show the characters of a trachytoid phonolite, and C, D, E, and F those of a soda trachyte. These last rocks have anorthoclase as a common phenocryst, but the practical absence of potash in the analysis is rather peculiar. The two analyses G and H afford in- teresting comparisons. The marked agreement of the silica, alumina, magnesia, and the soda are very noteworthy. The only differences appear to be the greater proportion of iron- oxides and the practical absence of lime in H. These peculiarities are explained by the microscopical analysis. There is a fair proportion of plagioclase (andesine) and a very small amount of iron-bearing mineral in the tridymite-trachyte. In his de- scription of the rock Dr. Marshall noted the percentage of mag- nesia without being able to account for it. On looking over a section of it I found in the groundmass a considerable quantity 184 Transactions. of greenish -blue pleochroic mineral in very minute fragments, which may be either the soda amphibole or the greenish augite. These would account for the small percentage of magnesia that does occur. This greenish mineral with slight pleoehroism is found in other rocks occurring as dykes in this series. In some cases it is undoubtedly an augite of a soda-bearing variety ; but in other cases where it has the bluish tinge of varying de- grees of intensity it is, in all probability, a soda-iron amphi- bole. Perhaps the most interesting occurrence of this mineral is in the syenite of Onawe Peninsula, Akaroa. In his description of this rock Captain Hutton says,* " The hornblende goes up to 005 in. in length ; when fresh it is greenish and pleochroic, changing from blue-green to yellow-green, the polarisation colours not brilliant." On examining this rock further with the advantage of thinner sections I find the masses of iron-oxides which have in most cases replaced the hornblende show not merely a greenish-blue, but a deep-blue colour, aud in other cases I noticed small pieces of hornblende exactly resembling the amphibole of Cass's Peak. This, therefore, seems to me a case of the occurrence of an arfvedsonite syenite. Just as in many dykes of the Mount Pleasant series, this rock is very light in colour, and shows a small proportion of iron-bearing mineral. The fairly wide occurrence of the rocks of the phonolitdc trachyte variety so closely connected with the trachytoid pho- nolites, as well as the occurrence of arfvedsonite syenite at Akaroa, is of special interest when we note the existence at Dunedin of the magnificent series of alkaline, rocks discovered by Ulricli, and well described latterly by Marshall. The occurrence of the rocks previously mentioned in the Banks Peninsula, area, shows distinctly that the distribution of alkali rocks in New Zealand is wider than at first supposed. * " The Eruptive Rocks of New Zealand." I>y Professor F. W. Hutton. Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 7th August, ISS'.I. Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 185 Art. XV. — Maori Forest Lore : being some Account of Native Forest Lore and Woodcraft, as also of many Myths, Rites, Customs, and Superstitions connected with the Flora and Fauna of the Tuhoe or Ure-ivera District. — Part I. By Elsdon Best. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 30th October, 1907.] The forest lore of the Maori people of these isles is but little known to those interested in ethnographical studies — or, at least, the latter have placed but little of such lore on record. Hence these notes are presented in order to conserve some very singular old-time customs and beliefs of the ancient Maori. The paper will be by no means a comprehensive one, inasmuch as it merely treats of a tithe of the forest lore of a single tribe of Natives, the unimportant Tuhoe or Ure-wera clan. Moreover, the old men who held full knowledge of the old customs, myths, and quaint beliefs have now passed away, and much interesting lore has died with them. The items herein given are but frag- ments, lacking many connecting-links and explanatory notes. The ritual pertaining to all work connected with the forest and its fauna was of a most extensive and pervading character. We can give but the skeleton thereof ; the bulk of such matter is lost. Here follows some account of the forests of Tuhoeland, their sylva, flora, and fauna, as given not by the botanist and ethno- grapher, but by primitive man. He who evolved the peculiar customs, myths, and superstitions herein described shall tell of them. Mythical Origin of Trees and Birds. The most widely used term employed by the Natives of New Zealand to denote a forest is ngahere or ngaherehere. In some parts, as among the Aotea tribes, the word motu takes its place. In others, the latter term is only applied — as motu rak.au — to an isolated clump of trees, a grove or small wood. Such a small patch of timber-growth would be called an uru rakau by the Matatua tribes. There is, however, another term used to denote a forest, but which, as a rule, is only employed as a kind of emblematical expression. This is the word wao, which is usually connected with the name of the tutelary deity or personification of forests, the great Tane, offspring of the Earth Mother and of Rangi, the Heavens. Thus, forests are termed te wao nui a Tane (the 186 Transactions. great forest of Tane), or te wao tapu nui a Tane (the great sacred forest of Tane). A single tree or bird is often spoken of as though it itself was Tane. In speaking of one of the prized timber trees, such as totara, a Native would often say, " That is your ancestor, Tane." A canoe made of such trees was often termed te riu tapu nui o Tane. It was doubtless this feeling of Tane being incarnated in the forms of trees and birds that induced the Maori to perform some very peculiar rites prior to felling a tree, as also on the opening of the bird-taking season. When engaged in the task of felling some rimu trees which overhung my camp, passing Natives would call out to me, " Kai te raweke koe i to tipuna, i a Tane " (You are meddling with your ancestor Tane) ; or, on the fall of a tree, " E ! kua hinga a Tane " (0 ! Tane has fallen). This singular phase of primitive mentality is noted in all Maori myths — viz., the belief in an anthropomorphic origin and personification of all things, such things being looked upon as the descendants of such mythical being, and also as being imbued with a certain amount of his personality. Thus the origin of the gourd-plant (hue) in Maori myth is one Putehue, a descend- ant of Rangi and Papa (Sky and Earth). The saying of Putehue was, " Ko nga kakano o roto i a au hei utu wai mo aku mokopuna. Ko tetehi o nga kakano he tane, tena e kore ia e whai uri." (The seeds within me shall become water-vessels for my descendants. But some of them are male seeds which will not have offspring.) In this ancient myth we note an early proof of Maori recognition of sex in plants. The following mythical genealogy is of a cosmogonic nature, needing explanation. Maori Cosmogony : The Cosmogonal Tree in Maori Myth, and the Descent op Tane from the Same, through the Sky and Earth Parents. (From Ngati-Awa of Whakatane.) Te Pu (root, origin). Te More (tap root). 'LV Weu (rootlets). Te Aka (creeper, vine). Te Rea (growth). Te Wao-nui (great wood). Te Knne (conception, form). Te Whe (sound). Te Kore (chaos, void). Te Po (darkness, &c). Rangi = Papa I I I Tane-nui-a-rangi Tangotango Wai-nui Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 187 The above names are said to represent certain beings who existed before man was, and before the sky and earth were formed. Some Native mythologists assert that there were ten beings named Te Pu (Te Pu the First to Te Pu the Tenth), ten named Te More, and so on down to Rangi and Papa, though it is not clear as to whether the ten were contemporaries or otherwise. Others state that Te Pu and Te More were the primal pair, male and female, who begat Te Weu and Te Aka, male and female, and so on down to Rangi and Papa. Yet another version is that each of these beings was of a bisexual nature, and contained within themselves the powers of repro- duction. They are not said to have been anthropomorphic, or possessed of any faculties akin to those of the genus homo. Rangi, the Sky Parent, and Papa, the Earth Mother, are the first beings to whom are allotted powers of speech, thought, and feeling in Maori myth. It will be seen that many of the names in the above genea- logical allegory pertain to trees and their growth, taking the present-day meaning of the words, which takes the mind back to the cosmogonal or universe tree of Oriental and Aryan myth- ologies. An explanation of these names given to me by a very old Native agrees with the above bracketed words, save in the case of the first name. He said, " Te Pu is the upper part ; Te More is the root ; Te Weu represents the rootlets ; Te Aka means the aka ; Te Rea stands for growth, and Te Wao-nui for size attained ; Te Kune means form attained ; Te Whe stands for wJieke, the creaking sound of trees heard when wind blows in the forest ; Te Kore implies nothingness, non-existence ; Te Po is darkness. From Te Po came Rangi ; his sister was Papa : these iwo produced Tane, Tangotango, and Wai-nui. From these sprang all things in the world — people, and plants, trees, stones, fish, animals, birds, reptiles, rats, insects, moths, spiders, mosquitoes, and all other things. From Tane sprang men, trees, and birds. His descendant was Tangaroa-i-te- rupetu, who begat Maui, who begat Te Papatiti-raumaewa, who begat Tiwakawaka, who came to this land (New Zealand) from Mataora in times long past away." The word aka, above, is used to denote long, thin roots, and is also a generic term for climbing-plants. Te Po is a name applied to the underworld, the place to which go the spirits of the dead from this world ; but it also is applied to the aeons of time before this world came into being — that is, before Rangi and Papa were. For, prior to the forcing-apart of Sky and Earth by their son Tane, light was unknown : darkness obtained everywhere. Beings who existed before the separation are said to have belonged to the Po. Those who came after it are said to have been of the ao mamma, the world of light. 188 Transactions. Other offspring of Rangi and Papa we are not here concerned with, but we will give the position of Tane as preserved by the Tuhoe Tribe, and given by old Tutakangahau : — ' The first-born of Rangi and Papa, who carne into being before light was, before man was, and before heaven and earth were separated, were Te Kaukau-nunui, Te Kaukau-roroa, Te Rupe-tu, Te Rupe-pae, Pekepeke, Hauaitu, Te Manu-waero- rua, and Tahiri-matea. The second lot so born of Heaven and Earth were Tane-tuturi, Tane-pepeke, Tane-ueha, Tane-uetika, Tane-mabuta, Tane-mataahi, and Tane-te-po-tiwha. The third lot were Tane-te-wai-ora, Tane-nui-a-rangi, Paia-te-rangi, and Ruaumoko. The human race is descended from Tane-nui-a- rangi and Tane-te-wai-ora. The offspring of Tane-te-po-tiwha were Te Ao-tu, Te Ao-hore, Hine-tuahoanga, and Tangaroa." Of the many different beings named Tane in the above myth, Tane-te-wai-ora and Tane-te-po-tiwha are often spoken of as being separate and distinct from Tane-nui-a-rangi, but all the others seem to be but different names of Tane-nui-a-rangi. The name of Tane appears to be changed according to the dif- ferent beings or natural objects which originated with him. As the progenitor of the genus homo he is termed Tane-nui-a-rangi, or simply Tane. As the origin of trees and plant-life he is Tane-mahuta. As the origin of birds he is Tane-mataahi. Tane has many other names, as Tane-takoto, Tane-wai-nui, Tane-wai-kokina, Tane-wai-patato, Tane-i-te-kapua, and those given above. Rangi, the Sky Parent, is known in full as Rangi nui e tu nei (the Great Heavens above), and Papa-tuanuku is the full title of the Earth Mother. This twain were the origin of all things on earth ; they were the primal parents ; nothing existed before them save darkness and the mythical beings that were the denizens of darkness and chaos. And Rangi and Papa were as one in the beginning, for the sky lay prone upon the earth, and darkness covered the earth. Light was not. It was Tane who forced the heavens upwards and brought light to the world. For the offspring of Rangi and Papa were living in darkness on the breast of the Earth Mother. They desired light and space. Hence Tane thrust the sky upwards with his feet as he lay on the breast of Papa. So it is said that the branches of a tree are the legs of Tane, and the butt or base of the tree is the head of Tane. For such are the thoughts of the Maori. The many names assigned to Tane is a circumstance that carries the mind to ancient Asiatic cults, and to others far spread toward the setting sun. For in like manner did Merodach, the chief deity of the Babylonian pantheon, bear many names, Best.— Maori Forest Lore. 1S9 as also Ea, god of the underworld, of reproduction, of cultivation, and of waters. In India we see the same thing, as of Vritra, who is Ahi the strangler, and Vala, and Pani, who entices the cows of Indra to leave their pastures. Westward to the setting sun and eastward to the dawn one notes similar cases in the mythologies of many peoples. Rangi also appears under many different names in Maori myth, as Rangi-nui, Rangi-roa, Rangi-potango, &c. The first act performed by Tane was the forcing- apart of heaven and earth, after which he brought light to the world, by setting the sun, moon, and stars in the breast of Rangi. Having performed these tasks, Tane went in search of the female element. He foimd the female nature in various forms, but these forms were not human. He found Apunga, by whom he produced shrubs and the smaller birds. He found Mumuhanga, who had the totara (a tree). He found Te Pu-whakahara, who became the origin of the trees called maire and puriri. He found Tu-Kapua, by whom he had the tawai, kahikawaka, and other trees. He found Ruru-tangi-akau, who bore the ake and kahikatoa trees. He found Rere-noa, who produced the rata and all parasitic and climbing plants. He found Hine-wao-riki, who bore the kahika and matai trees. He found Mango-nui, who had the tawa and hinau trees. He found Punga, who be- came the origin of the kotukutuku and patate trees, as also of all insects. He found Tutoro-whenua, who bore Haumia (roots of the rarauhe fern). He found Hine-tu-maunga, who had Para whenua-mea (origin and personification of flood waters). Other Natives give Pani-tinaku as being the parent or origin of the sweet potato, Hine-mahanga as the parent of the tutu (shrub), Tawake-toro as parent of the manuka, Hine-rauamoa as parent of the kiokio fern, Huna as origin of the harakeke (flax), Tawhara-nui of the kiekie, Kakaho of the toetoe, and so on. The sim, moon, and stars were the offspring of Tangotango, while Wai-nui was the origin of all waters. Hence we see that in Maori myth life seems to be shared in common by men, animals, treer., and plants, the heavenly bodies, and water. The idea of the cosmogonal or universe tree in New Zealand myths seems to bear two aspects — first, that the universe ac- quired form and grew as does a tree ; and again, that the sky was forced upwards, and supported by a tree in the form of Tane, who was the origin, personification, and tutelary deity of trees and forests. The cosmogonic tree in Maori mythology is a conception of somewhat rudimentary form when we compare it with similar myths in Japan, China, India, Persia, Chaldea, Egypt, and northern Europe, but a study of this conception, as also of 190 Transactions. many rites, customs, beliefs, &c, conserved in Maori ritual, myth, and folk-lore, tends to a belief that the remote ancestors of the Maori must have for a long period dwelt in a forest country. Possibly the Indian concept of the universe tree approaches more closely the Maori myth than any other we wot of, wherein Brahma himself is described as the vast overspreading tree of the universe, of which the gods are the branches. In Eastern legend the cosmic tree sometimes appears as the giver of im- mortality, whereas in Maori legend Tane-te-wai-ora confers that boon by means of the " waters of life." In Arabia the stars were said to be the fruit of the zodiac tree, while the Maori has it that the stars were the ornaments of the house of Tane-te- wai-ora. The custom of planting a tree at the birth of a child, with the belief in some mystical relationship between them, has obtained in many lands, and has been noted by the late Mr. John White as having been practised by the Maori in former times. The " world pillar," allied to the cosmogonic tree, was also a Maori concept. The " family tree " and " community tree " have not, I believe, been noted in Maori myth, but there is some evidence in favour of a belief in phallic trees. Such a tree is Te Iho o Kataka, a hinau tree at O-Haua-te-rangi, Kua-tahuna, a description of which, and the necessary rites in order to cause a woman to conceive, we have already placed on record. We would hesitate to say that the Maori practised tree- worship, although certain trees were, for various reasons, looked upon as possessing certain supernatural powers, or as being the material representation of wood spirits, or spirits of the land, or as being tapu because a chief died near such tree, or it was used as a burial-place, or because the severed umbilical cord of a new-born infant was deposited on such tree. A tree on or in which such umbilical cords were placed, or under which a dying man had been laid, would often be adorned, in modern times, by means of hanging thereon bright - coloured handkerchiefs, strips of cloth. &c, from time to time ; but in pre-European days some prized article, as a piece of greenstone, would be placed on the tree, often thrust into a crevice or fissure in the bark. Now, a traveller who might happen to see such trees so adorned would very probably be of the opinion that the Natives of the district were tree-worshippers — the trees so adorned, as well as tipua trees and uruuru-whenua tiees, being looked upon as gods. But it needs a long residence among a primitive people, a deep interest in primitive cults and kindred studies, and a tireless patience, before we can find out what any primitive Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 191 people do, or do not, believe. I certainly would not say that the Maori was a tree-worshipper. Tipua. The trees termed tipua are supposed to be endowed with certain supernatural powers. The term tipua is often translated as meaning " demon," and it is applied to anything possessing weird, supernatural power, in Maori belief. There are many trees, stones, &c, in Tuhoeland so gifted, say my Native friends. The small pond called Rongo-te-mauriuri, on the summit of Maunga-pohatu, is a tipua. Our term " enchanted," as used in fairy tales, comes near to the meaning of tipua in the present case. At the mouth of the Manga-o-hou tributary of the Whakatane River stands a rock known as Te Komata-o-te- rangi, said to have been located there by Tane-atua. Its in- herent power is that, should a stranger to the place pass near it, then heavy rain will at once come on, making travelling un- pleasant for that stranger. A rock at Titi-o-kura, known as the Canoe of Taurua-ngare- ngare, is a tipua. A log of totara timber, which is known as Tangi-auraki, lying in the Rangi-taiki River at Nga-huinga, is a tipua. It has, or had, the power of preventing eels from travelling any further up- stream. Te Toka a Houmea, a rock situated in a paddock on Sec- tion 261 at Whakatane, was a tipua until the godless pakeha destroyed its magic powers. When a stranger approaches a tipua tree, stone, &c, a heavy fog, or mists, often descend upon the land. A stranger in ascending the enchanted hill Maunga-pohatu is said to be so greeted. The sun is spoken of in old tales as a tipua. Te Kuri-a-Tarawhata is a tipua rock in the Whakatane River, near Pu-kareao. Tarawhata was an immigrant from Hawaiki. Te Puku-o-Kirihika is a stone tipua at Pu-kareao, and is gifted with powers of locomotion. If any person moves that stone it will, ere long, return to its former resting-place. Some of the tipua rocks at Wai-kare Moana will, if touched or interfered with, cause the wind to change, or a gale to rise. Te Tapuwae a Eke-nui (the footprint of Eke-nui), a mark on a rock at Maunga-pohatu, is a tipua. A small totara tree growing on a tawai tree on the old trail over Huia-rau Range is a tipua. It is at a place called Te Pakura, and was an uruuru whenua. Marae-roa, a taiva tree at Maunga-pohatu, was another such. There are said to be two ruru birds (owls), named Kahu and Kau, which frequent the forest at Te Purenga, Rua-toki. Both 192 Transactions. of these birds are albinos, and are tipua, inasmuch as they give notice of the fruitfulness or otherwise of the approaching season. When a person who has an ancestral right to those lands enters the forest thereof he knows whether or not it will be a plentiful season. If when he commences to set his snares those two white owls appear, that is a sign that it will be a tau kai, or fruitful season. If when the first-snared bird is taken and prepared the owls have not appeared, then it is known that a tau hiroki, a lean season, is at hand. The place from which the Wairau district of Wai-kare Moana derived its name was a pond or small lake. This pond was a tipua. Around it were many fine trees, much frequented by birds, and on which quantities were snared. Even the hiwi (permanently fixed rods on which the poles with set snares are suspended) on those trees were adorned with carving. Once upon a time a chief engaged in bird-snaring at that place told his wife to be very careful to never pass before him when carry- ing food. Unfortunately she did so on one occasion, with the result that no one has ever been able to find that lakelet since ; both it and the prolific trees adjacent thereto have passed from human ken. The term tipua is sometimes applied to fairies and other forest- or mountain-dwelling beings supposed to possess strange powers. Many of the rocks which stand in the entrance to the Whaka- tane River, inside the bar, are tipua. The names of those rocks are Arai-awa, Toka-mauku, Toka-roa, Himoki, Hoaki. and Ira-kewa. Uruuru Whenua. The custom known as uruuru whenua, or " entering the Land," is a peculiar one. Scattered about the tribal lands are certain trees, stones, &c, which are viewed as though they represented the spirits of the land, which must be placated by all persons who pass by such tree or stone for the first time, if not on every occasion. The ceremony is but brief. The way- farer plucks a branchlet, or frond of fern, or handful of grass, and casts it down at the base of the tree or rock, repeating at the same time a brief charm, such as, — Tuhituhi o tauhou Mau e kai te manawa o tauhou \\ li.ikapii-i ki tautohito. This performance is evidently to placate the spirits of the land, and is performed at many of the tipua trees, &c. described above. It was absolutely necessary for a person to do this when passing such a place for the first time, or trouble would be his lot. After the first passage it did not matter so much, but still the offering -