phi tidied a te Date er Oe» seat opt Tr deen Ee BE Gelato . AE OIE In SSI a be Panettiere haga) wei ee eS eareew teeere : pe Grbvgar= bie ko A Ree Io rh ct: stapes ’ 4 Lie eri etst wt Ose T OOS 4 Tree pat ae Th Bey bE te ree trier rey, DED EPPO Ie ey Se ere A Fabs ee. ‘ 7 sv ee eee lowes ese GI ite perth et Krteaneetneye ae te bb Roya! Sociely Of K/. ie . TRANSACTIONS PROCEEDINGS NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE, Is 1 EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE, BY AEE SS: EEE CVO. MED RRS. AEEENED Issu—ED May, 1872. : WELLINGTON: J Aven S =) EU GEES Eke NT nck, SLA NB TON “QU AY. TRUBNER & CO., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. is a ee val PREFACE. In the present volume the arrangement of the Proceedings and Transactions which was adopted in the first two volumes has been again reverted to, as the separate publication of the former in anticipation of the whole work was not found to be so satisfactory and convenient to members as was anticipated. The Board of Governors having decided that in publication preference should be given to those papers which add to the knowledge of observed facts relative to New Zealand, several papers of a general character have been held back, or are only given in an abridged form. | The editor has to acknowledge the assistance which he received from Mr. J. T. Thomson, F.R.G.8., m revising in the press the first proofs of his learned paper on the Whence of the Maori. The facilities offered to the Board, through the courtesy of the Hon. the Colonial Secretary, for having the illustrations lithographed at the Government press, cannot pass unnoticed, while they have again to thank Mr. John Buchanan for the great care and skill which he has exercised as draughtsman. i will be observed that this year the illustrations have, in most cases, been drawn direct on the stone, which gives to them a more artistic effect. The assistance received from Mr. R. B. Gore in preparing the Meteoro- logical Report, which appears in the Appendix, must also be acknowledged. In a volume consisting of articles of such varied characters mistakes will necessarily occur, and the chief of these are printed in an errata slip. It is, however, again necessary to call the attention of authors and the secretaries of societies to the desirability of forwarding papers and minutes of proceedings in such a shape that no re-copying may be required, nor questions arise as to the author’s exact meaning. It is satisfactory to note that the list of ordinary members of the Affiliated Societies is still maintained, and that the number of papers contributing - original observations and researches shows a marked increase. Wellington, 10th May, 1872. ADDENDA ET ERRATA. ———w Page 15, line 12 from bottom, for ‘‘force” read ‘‘ pace.” », 33, ,, 10, for ‘Map, Appendix I.,” read ‘‘The map in corner of Plate I.” », 41, ,, 20-22. The colours are shown on the Plates by dotted lines. 5, 42, line 10, for ‘‘ Map III.” read ‘‘ Plate I.” 75, on the Plate, for ‘‘V.” read ‘‘ III.” » 96, ,, 2, for ‘‘tibia” read ‘‘tibie.” », 104, on the Plate, for ‘‘ VII.” read ‘‘ TV.” ,, 114, ,, 13 from bottom, for ‘‘ spine” read ‘‘specimen.” », 115, ,, 4, for ‘‘ guessed” read ‘‘ grouped.” oo LSiley ss) Levomut “sp moves: ,, 213, ,, 3 from bottom, for ‘‘ brown” read ‘‘ yellow.” ei Ce ue ms for “1-din.” read “2-5in.” ARPES tcp alles 53 for ‘“‘ Phogiochila” read ‘‘ Plagiochila.” yes»; LO 5 for ‘‘ Dumortiera”’ read ‘‘ Dumortiera ?” OL is see Kf for ‘‘? hirsuta” read ‘‘ hirsuta.” », 245, ,, 22, for ‘“‘ Hooker’s” read ‘‘ Richard’s.” », 249, bottom line, for ‘‘Alseuosmia macrophylla” read ‘‘ Cyathea sps.” », 251, line 12 from bottom, for ‘‘?” read ‘*!” a 20a ws 33 for ‘‘Spongeworts” read ‘‘Spurgeworts.” », 205, ,, 21, for ‘‘ pastoral” read ‘‘ prostrate.” >, 257. RosacE#. Insert next to ‘‘ Potentilla” ‘* Geum urbanum, L., var. strictum. Distribution—from Wairoa and Paparata (Auckland) southwards ; general. Differs from the typical form in the larger size of all its parts, and in the stout rigid habit. In Britain the typical form is abundant from Cornwall to Aberdeen.” ,», 262. In the arrangement of species, insert below ‘‘5. obcordatum” the words ‘‘B. Flowers terminal.” », 275, line 8, for ‘‘ Corsysanthes ” read ‘‘ Corysanthes.” », 280, ,, 14, for ‘‘xanthocarpa” read ‘‘ ebenocarpa.” », 282, ,, 17 from bottom, for ‘‘quercifolium, Linn.” read ‘‘ querci- folium, dit.” ,, 293, ,, 4, for ‘‘ pessica”’ read ‘‘ persica.” », 283, ,, 20 from bottom, for ‘* Scholl” read ‘‘ Schott.” { CONT HEN as: NEW ZHALAND INSTITUTE. Anniversary Address of the President, H. H. Sir George F. Bowen, G.C.M.G. Third Annual Report by the Governors Accounts of the New Zealand Institute, 1870-1 ART. 1. XV. . Notes on Moa Remains. By W. D. Murison 3 . On the Occurrence of Footprints of a Large Bird, found at Paneeee TRANSACTIONS. MiIsceELLANEOUS. Ethnographical Cee Tetons on the Whence of the Maori. By J. T. Thomson, F.R.G . Notes upon the nies Value of the << Traditions of the Nee Zealanders,” as collected by Sir George Grey, K.C.B., late Governor-in-Chief of New Zealand. By W. T. L. Travers, ELS. . Notes on the Chatham Islands, extracted from Letters from Mr. H. H. Travers. By W. T. L. Travers . Moas and Moa Hunters. Address to the Bilbsophical Institute of Canterbury. By Julius Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S. Additional Notes Third Paper on Moas eal iWon iSimior . Some Observations on the Annual Address of the Besant of ne Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. By Rev. J. W. Stack.. . On Recent Moa Remains in New Zealand. By James Hiecton M.D., F.BS. nui, Poverty Bay. By Archdeacon W. L. Williams . On the Occurrence of Footprints of the Moa at Pov ary Bay. Py His Honour T. B. Gillies . On the Geographical and other Heatires of some tle: known Pore tions of the Province of Wellington. By H. C. Field . A Description of the Foundation of the rep use in the Ponui Passage. By J. Stewart, Assoc. Inst. C.H. . Work for Field Naturalists. By P. Thomson XIII. XIV. Description of a Simple Contrivance for Economising the Current of Large Rivers. By J. T. Thomson, F.R.G.S. On Some Experiments showing the Relative Value ‘of N.S. Wales and New Zealand Coals as Gas PRORMC HE Materials. By J. Rees George On Experiments made to determine ie Value of Different Goats for Steam Purposes. By J. Rees George Ae PAGES 1215 17—18 19 2351 5162 6366 66—90 9094 94—107 - 107—110 110120 eos _ 124197 _ 127128 _ 128-135 _ 135—138 _ 138—141 141145 "146150 | 151—152 vi Art. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI XXVIT. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. XXXITI. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI- XXXVI. XXXVITII. XXXIX. XL. XLI. XLII. XLITI. Contents. On the Destruction of Land by Shingle-bearing Rivers, and Sugges- tions for Protection and £ revention. By A.D. Dobson, Provin- cial Engineer, Nelson Notes on the Remains of a Stone Hipoch at the Cape of Good Hope By B. H. Darnell Notes on the Practice of Out-door Photo eaohy: By Wilts i Travers ... at 306 an ZOooLoGy. On Megapodius pritchardi, Gray. By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.G.S. On the Microscopical Structure of the Egg-shell of the Moa. By Captain I’. W. Hutton = Notes on the Lizards of New vealed. with Desciguees of Two New Species. By Captain F. W. Hutton aa p On some Moa Feathers. By Captain F. W. Hutton On the New Zealand Chitonide. By Captain F. W. Hutton Description of a Specimen of Mus raitus, L., im the Colonial Museum. By Captain F. W. Hutton On the Bats of New Zealand. By Captain F. W. Waters Observations on the New Zealand Bats. By F.J. Knox, L.R.C.S.E. Notes on the Anatomy of the Kanae (Mugil sp.). By F. J. Knox Notes on Harpagornis moorei, an Extinct Gigantic Bird of Prey ; containing description of Femur, Ungual ‘Phalanges, and Rib. By Julius Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S. Notes on the Fur Seal of New Zealand (Arctocephalus cinereus, Gray ?). By James Hector, M.D., F.R.S. On the Fur Seal of New Zealand. By J.S. Webb. Notes on a New reais of Rail ies pictus), Painted Rail. By T. H. Potts, F.L.S a Notes on a New Sea of Gull, Larus (Br uchigav ia) bulleri, Potts. By T. H. Potts Notes on a New See of He Gai (4 haastii, Potts) By. Dane Potts Notes on the Habits ifs some of the Bir ds of NO ‘Wendasvas By W. T. L. Travers A On a Supposed New Species of Tee = A. €. Purdie Observations on a Paper read by Mr. A. Bathgate before the Otago Institute, 11th January, 1870, ‘‘ On the Lepidoptera of Otago.’ By R. W. Fereday, Correspond ling Member of the Entomologic: al Society of London : , ae Description of a New Shell found at Seiko! By E eae A Rock Pool and its Contents. By P. Thomson Borany. On some New Species of New Zealand Plants. By J. Buchanan, of the Geological Survey Department .. On the Flora of the Isthmus of eaabiatel and the Takaprne Dis- trict. By T. Kirk, F.L.S On ee ity in New Feilend of Polygon auteur e, L. Py me Roark 22. Notes on the New Beaten Aste Tiads, with Descriptions of wee Species. By T. Kirk A Comparison of the Indigenous Finves of the British Islands ta New Zealand. By T. Kirk Bi PAGES . 153—157 . 157—159 . 160—164 165 . 166—167 . 167—172 . 172—173 173—183 - 183—184 . 184—186 186—188 189—191 192—196 . 196—199 .. 199—202 . 202—203 -.. 203—204 . 204—205 . 206—213 213 214—218 . 218—219 . 219—223 . 224997 . 228—238 . 238—241 241— 247 . 247—256 Contents. Art. XLIV. Notes on the Local Distribution of Certain Plants common to the British Islands and New Zealand. By T. Kirk ... On the New Zealand Species of se um, with ee of New Species. By T. Kirk On the Habit of the Rata (7 Oderee robusta). By T. Kirk On the Botany of the Titirangi District of the Province of Auck- land. By T. F. Cheeseman On the Naturalized Plants of the SRA of Canterhuny. By John F. Armstrong XLV. SCUIE XLVIL. XLVIII. XLIX. On some New Species of New esi Plants. Armstrong By John F. L. Report of a Committee of the Canes necarnsieell Hee on Native and Introduced Grasses, with Appendices CHEMISTRY. On the Conducting Power of various Metallic Sulphides and Oxides for Electricity, as compared with that of Acids and Saline Solu- tions. By W. Skey, cualyst to the pense S Survey of New Zealand . LI. Lil. Gold and Platina in Solutions of the Alkaline Suiphades W. Skey LITT. ‘ Nut of the Karaka Tree (Corynocarpus levigata). LIV. Hydrogen Gas for use as a Re-agent in ni Pees By W. Skey Notes in support of the allege Atkatinty of Gattonaes of roa By W. Skey LV. LVI. indicated by their Reaction with Test Paper. By W. Skey LVI. On a Form of Electro-magnetic Seismograph adapted for Indicating or Registering Minute Shocks. By W. Skey LVIII. New Process for the Manufacture of Sulpho- stone of Polaceiin By W. Skey ee LIX. Absorption of Copper from its Ammoniacal Soliton by chines in presence of Caustic Potash. By W. Skey GEOLOGY. ; LXI. On the Alluvial Deposits of the Lower Waikato, and the Formation of Islands by the River. By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.G.S. LXII. By A. D. On the Traces of Ancient Glaciers in Nelson Province. Dobson, C.E. ae On the Remains of a Gigantic Benen (Paleeuds ples antar: cticus, Huxley), from the Tertiary Rocks on the West Coast of Nelson. LXIII. By James Hector, M.D., F.R.S., Director of the New Zealand Geological Survey MiscELLANEOUS.—(Continued from p. 164.) On the Sailing Flight of the Albatros ; a Gee to Mr. J. 8. Webb. By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.G.S. ... LXIV. PROCEEDINGS. WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. ‘Abstract Report of Council Election of Office-bearers for 1871 On the Teetires motive ced Meenas enor tne developed is a Preliminary Notes on ie Teolation of “ake Bitter compeieines of the By W. Skey 316—321 On a New and Rapid Process for the Generation of Sulphuretted On the Alkalinity or eae of estan Salts ia Mineeate ha as vil PAGE . 256—260 . 260—267 . 267—270 . 270—284 . 284—290 . 290—291 292— 310 . sl1—313 . 313—316 . 821—323 . 323—825 . 329—329 330 . 330—331 302 . ddd—336 . d36—341 . 341—346 . 347—350 393 a Contents. PAGE Extraordinary Flight of Beetles aes Seale wa BA 353 Description of Moriori Canoes. By A. Shand Bh hare ie 354 Notice of a Meteor observed all over New Zealand. By J. Hector, M.D., F.R.S. 354—355 Anniversary Address of the President, W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S. . 356—362 Observations on the Kiore, or Indigenous Rat of New Zealand. pees: J. Knox L.R.C.S.E. j 362 On the Ocean Currents foto New Fenland: Teeter ener Mr. Robert Hanbieae 362 Description of Additions to the Collections in Colonial Museum. Bye me M.D., F.R.S es 363 Description of Nee Birds and Mateos By Capiats AW Hutton E.G. S. 364 Australian Geography and Topography, with some New Zealand Compa and Contrasts. By J. C. Crawford, F.G.8. ... 364—367 Great Disturbance of the Electric Teleebe ayeten of the Colony on. 13th February. By J. Duigan 367 Notes on St. John’s Nursery Garden, Wana By Robert Pian E.R.G. S. 367—369 Note on the Southern Mutton Bird ( Boge er By Captaiy F, W. Hutton, E.G.S. ... 369 Notes on the Presence in Certain Fibres of a Pate siscesuble of some striking Colorific Changes when chemically treated. By W. Skey Eee 370 On the Microscopic Characters of the Fibres of New Zealand, as distinguished from those of Manilla or Sisal. By Captain F. W. Hutton, F.G.S. . 370—371 On the Wreck of a Vessel found inland on the West Coast. ay J. Teetoe M.D., F.R.S. = 373 The Results of the Desbricion of Ponts upon the River Wolga at haute By Dr. A Wojeikof, of St. Petersburgh = . 374—376 Critical Notes on some of the Birds of New reeled By Captain FE, W. Hutton, F.G.8. ... 376 Letter from Professor Agassiz, accompanying a presentation of Hooks Bee 377 Observations on an Albino Eel. By F. J. Knox, L.R.C.S.E... - 378 Account of a Cave in which Recent Moa Remains were found. By Dr. Thomson 378—379 Introduction of English Trout into Buen and mention of New Fishes. By Dr. Hector... 2 . 379—380 On the Cause of the Suspension of Clay i in Water, anal its Precipitation fhe from by certain Substances. By W. Skey ... . 380—382 Further Notes on the New Zealand Bats. By F. J. Knox, L.R. c. S.E. ie 382 AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. Anniversary Address of the President, T. Heale, C.E. ee .-» 383—388 Note on a Tuatara. By Major Mair 388 On the Use of Vulgar Fractions instead of Decimals in the Compilation of Mathematical Tables. By R. J. Pearce as ate . 389 & 392 On Eclipses. By T. Heale ss es ae . 389—391 Description of a simple form of Rain-gauge. By Archdeacon Williams ae 392 On a Mode of Communication between a Station on a Line of hay and a Train in Motion on the same Line. By G. Rayner 394 Note on a Tomahawk formerly belonging to Taraia. By Dr. J. © Gamphall 396 Notes on a Thermal Spring near Helensville, Kaipara. By Robert Mair ss 396 On the Defence of Auckland Harbour. By S. J. Stratford, M.R.C.S.E. ne 397 PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. An Inquiry into the Influence of Railway Gauge upon the Constructive Cost and Working Expenses of Railways. By E. Dobson, Assoc. Inst. C.E. . 400 Contents. ix PAGE Remarks on the New Zealand Rat. By Llewellyn Powell, M.D. es 401 Notes respecting the Discovery of the Egg of the Moa at the Kaikoura Penin- sula. By J. D. Enys 403 Continued Creation versus ema Eeoieee By Dr. A. C. oe wh 404 Annual Report a ee ad sts ... 405—406 Election of Office-bearers fon NS) ame we 406 On a pre method of supplying Water to the Chumenurck Fire Seon By W.Fereday' ... ie 407 OTAGO INSTITUTE. Notes on the Botany of Otago. By. J. Buchanan Je ae 408 Abstract of Annual Report igi aie Bs UE SF sc 409 Address by J. S. Webb, Vice- PReidont 409-412 Remarks on the Collection of Birds in the Gage insu By Captain F, W. Hutton, F.G.S.... 4\2 Election of Office-bearers for year aucun 30th June, ,, 1872 ae 413 Notes on Sir William Thomson’s Hypothesis that the Germ of Life is ee from Meteors. By Martin Chapman . 417—419 Account of some Presents recently received from the erin Tnatitution, and the Museum of Cee Poolsey of Harvard Pass By J. s. Webb ... 419—420 On Proportion applied to Ceonciae Be D. Bien, M. A. Side 420 Notes on the Experiments on the so-called ne Force peeeully made by ili Crookes. By J. 8. Webb as . 421—422 NELSON ASSOCIATION FOR THE PROMOTION OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. On a Means of Detecting Incipient Combustion in Flax or Wool in Ships at Sea. By F. W. Irvine ... “423 Measurements of Brown Trout (Salmo Faria ca eA, ae of the Maitai. By 7. Mackay 423 Sketch of the History of ip oubnieal ‘Suttioes third paper Neon and his Times.’ By R. Lee 424 Presentations to the Museum by the Bishop of Ne teon ; aie 424. On the Varieties of the Mulberry Tree as Food for the Glioan (Part I). By T. ©. Batchelor eat ... 424 426 On the Varieties of Food for and Management of ae Silesoum (Ban II.) By T. C. Batchelor... ... 426—427 Abstract of Annual Report wer ie Eee la 427 Election of Office-bearers for 1872... ts doh its 428 On the American Blight on Apple Trees. By T. Mackay, C.E. .. 429—432 ) APPENDIX. Meteorological Statistics of New Zealand for 1871... as ... 485—437 Earthquakes reported in New Zealand during 1871 fan Be 437 Notes on the Weather during 1871 ... a Bae ... 438—440 Lists of Members — S55 ane 580 see ... 441—446 Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute ... si xi Abstracts of Rules and Statutes of the New Zealand Institute ... XI—Xill List of Incorporated Societies , eke XIV List of Office-bearers and Extracts from the Laws of Incarnorated Societies ... xiv—xvi 2 Contents. x Li US Ash LOANS P PAGE Priate I. J. T. Thomson.—Map illustrating ‘‘ Whence of the Maori ” sais 32 II. 5p 5p 50 dor 32 IIa. of Antique Tamil Bell and Inscription ace 40 III. Haast.—Map showing Moa-hunter Encampment ae 74 IV. .», Maori Implements Be se dee 104 V. Hector.—Neck of Moa ... doc 3c 114 VI. 5 Eggs and Chicks of Moa net ne ee Abe 110 VII 3p Maori implements 506 116 VIII. Williams.—Footprints of Birds oieated at Poverty nay p Bb 124 IX. Hutton.—Moa Egg and Feather—Chitons was os 166 X. Haast.—Fossil Bird (Harpagornis moorei) . 500 By 194 XI Aj 56 60 35 : Vee 194 XII. Hector.—Fur Seal of New Zealand (Arctocephalus ae & 197 XIU. Buchanan.—Haloragis aggregata ee ie es 224 XIV. : Acena giabra ace ater ies 226 XxGVe a Celmisia lateralis ote Ave ah 226 XVI. a Rostkovia nove zelandie ... a Fe 226 XVII. Hector.—Fossil Penguin (Paleeudyptes antarcticus) .. sor 346 XVIII of Ap ‘5 6 use Be 346 NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND INTITULED “THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867.” BoarpD OF GOVERNORS. (EX OFFICIO.) His Excellency the Governor. | The Hon. the Colonial Secretary. His Honour the Superintendent of Wellington. (NOMINATED. ) Hon. W. B. D. Mantell, F.G.S. (retired 1868), Hon. Col. Haultain (retired 1869), Jas. Edward FitzGerald, C.M.G. (retired 1871), Sir David Monro, W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S., Alfred Ludlam, James Hector, M.D., F.R.S., Charles Knight, F.R.C.S. (ELECTED. ) 1871.—His Honour T. B. Gillies, His Honour W. Rolleston, B.A., His Honour Mr. Justice Chapman. 1872.—W. Rolleston, B.A., Mr. Justice Chapman, W. B, D. Mantell, F.G.S. ' ABSTRACTS OF RULES AND STATUTES, GAZETTED IN THE ‘‘ NEW ZEALAND GaAzETTE,” Marcu 9, 1868. SEcTION 1. Incorporation of Societies. 1. No Society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the provisions of ‘‘ The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867,” unless such Society shall consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in the aggregate a sum of not less than fifty pounds sterling annually, for the promotion of art, science, or such other branch of knowledge for which it is associated, to be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the Board of Governors of the Institute by the Chairman for the time being of the Society. 2. Any Society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorporated with the Institute in case the number of the Members of the said Society shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of money annually subscribed by such Members shall at any time be less than £50. 3. The bye-laws of every Society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall provide for the expenditure of not less than one-third of its annual revenue in or towards the formation Xi New Zealand Institute. or support of some local public Museum or Library ; or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and maintenance of the Museum and Library of the New Zealand Institute. 4. Any Society incorporated as aforesaid which shall in any one year fail to expend the proportion of revenue affixed in manner provided by Rule 3 aforesaid, shall from thence- forth cease to be incorporated with the Institute. : 5. All papers read before any Society for the time being incorporated with the Institute, ‘shall be deemed to be communications to the Institute, and may then be published as proceedings or transactions of the Institute, subject to the following regula- tions of the Board of the Institute regarding publications : Regulations regarding Publications. (a) The publications of the Institute shall consist of a current abstract of the proceedings of the Societies, for the time being incorporated with the Institute, to be intituled, ‘‘ Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute,” and of transactions compris- ing papers read before the Incorporated Societies (subject, however, to selection as hereinafter mentioned), to be intituled, ‘‘ Transactions of the New Zealand Institute.” (6) The Institute shall have power to reject any papers read before any of the Incor- porated Societies. (c) Papers so rejected will be returned to the Society before which they were read. (d) A proportional contribution may be required from each Society towards the cost of publishing the proceedings and transactions of the Institute. (e) Each Incorporated Society will be entitled to receive a proportional speniber of copies of the proceedings and transactions of the Institute to be, from time to time, fixed by the Board of Governors. (f) Extra copies will be issued to any of the Members of Incorporated Societies at the cost price of publication. 6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from Incorporated Societies and placed in the charge of the Institute shall be vested in the Institute, and be used and applied at the discretion of the Board of Governors for public advantage, in like manner with any other of the property of the Institute. 7. Subject to ‘‘The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867,” and to the foregoing rules, all Societies incorporated with the Institute shall be entitled to retain or alter their own form of constitution and the bye-laws for their own management, and shall conduct their own. affairs. 8. Upon application signed by the Chairman, and countersigned by the Secretary of | any Society, accompanied by the certificate required under Rule No. 1, a certificate of incorporation will be granted under the Seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as long as the foregoing rules of the Institute are complied with by the Society. Section IT. For the Management of the Property of the Institute. 9. All donations by Societies, Public Departments, or private mdividuals, to the Museum of the Institute, shall be acknowledged by a printed form of receipt, and shall be duly entered in the books of the Institute provided for that purpose, and shall then be dealt with as the Board of Governors may direct. Abstracts of Rules and Statutes. xiii 10. Deposits of articles for the Museum may be accepted by the Institute, subject to a fortnight’s notice of removal to be given either by the owner of the articles or by the Manager of the Institute, and such deposits shall be duly entered in a separate catalogue. 11. Books relating to Natural Science may be deposited in the Library of the Institute, subject to the following conditions :— (a) Such books are not to be withdrawn by the owner under six months’ notice, if such notice shall be required by the Board of Governors. (6) Any funds specially expended on binding and preserving such deposited books, at the request of the depositor, shall be charged against the books, and must be refunded to the Institute before their withdrawal, always subject to special arrange- ments made with the Board of Governors at the time of deposit. (c) No books deposited in the Library of the Institute shall be removed for temporary use except on the written authority or receipt of the owner, and then only for a period not exceeding seven days at any one time. 12. All books in the Library of the Institute shall be duly entered in a catalogue, which shall be accessible to the public. 13. The public shall be admitted to the use of the Museum, and Library, subject to bye-laws to be framed by the Board. Secrion III. 14, The Laboratory shall, for the time being, be and remain under the exclusive management of the Manager of the Institute. Section IV. OF DATE 23RD SEPTEMBER, 187. Honorary Members. Whereas the rules of the Societies incorporated under the New Zealand Institute Act provide for the election of Honorary Members of such Societies: but inasmuch as such Honorary Members would not thereby become Members of the New Zealand Institute, and whereas it is expedient to make provision for the election of Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute, it is hereby declared— Ist. Hach Incorporated Society may, in the month of November next, nominate for election as Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute three persons, and in the month of November in each succeeding year one person, not residing in the Colony. 2nd. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated, together with the grounds on which their election as Honorary Members is recommended, shall be forthwith forwarded to the Manager of the New Zealand Institute, and shall by him be submitted to the Governors at the next succeeding meeting. 3rd. From the persons so nominated, the Governors may select in the first year not more than nine ; and in each succeeding year not more than three, who shall from thenceforth be Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute, provided that the total number of Honorary Members shall not exceed thirty. xiv Incorporated Societies. LIST OF INCORPORATED SOCIETIES. NAME OF SOCIETY. DATE OF INCORPORATION. WELLINGTON PHILosopHIcAL Society . A , June 10th, 1868. AUCKLAND INSTITUTE ‘ i ‘ ; ‘ June 10th, 1868. PHILosoPpHIcAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY . ; October 22nd, 1868. , Otaco INSTITUTE ; : ‘ : : : October 18th, 1869. NeEtson ASSOCIATION FOR THE PROMOTION OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY : ; : . , September 23rd, 1870 WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1871: President—W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S. ; Vice- Presidents—J. C. Crawford, F.G.8., W. L. Buller, F.L.8., F.G.8S. ; Cowncid— Robert Hart, James Hector, M.D., F.R.S., J. Kebbell, W. Lyon, F.GS., W. Skey ; Honorary Treaswrer—F. M. Ollivier ; Honorary Secretary—Captain F. W. Hutton, F.G.8. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1872: President—J. Hector, M.D., F.R.S.; Vice- Presidents—J. C. Crawford, F.G.8., J. Kebbell ; Cownctl—Captain F. W. Hutton, F.G.S., C. Knight, F.R.C.8., W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S., H. F. Logan, John Buchanan ; Honorary Treasurer—F. M. Ollivier ; Honorary Secretary— R. B. Gore. Extracts from the Laws of the Wellington Philosophical Society. 5. Every Member shall contribute annually to the funds of the Society the sum of one guinea. 6. The annual contribution shall be paid in advance, on or before the first day of January, in each year. 7. Thesum of ten pounds may be paid at any time as a composition of the ordinary annual payment for life. 17. General Meetings for business of Members of the Society shall be held in the evening of one day or more in each quarter (the time and place of meeting to be fixed by the Council, and duly announced by the Secretary), to receive the Secretary’s Report, and to carry out the general objects and business of the Society. AUCKLAND INSTITUTE. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1871.— President—T. Heale, C.E.; Cowncil—His Honour T. B. Gillies, Rev. J. Kinder, T. Kirk, F.L.S., H: H. Lusk, Rey. A. G. Purchas, M.R.C.S.E., J. Stewart, Assoc. Inst. C.E., S. J. Stratford, M.R.CS.E., T. F. 8. Tinne; Added 8th November, 1871—T. Russell, J. L. Incorporated Societies XV Campbell, M.D., J. M. Clark; dAuditor— G. B. Owen; Secretary and Treasurer—T. Kirk, F.L.S. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1872: President—T. Heale, C.E. ; Cownci/—Hon. Colonel Haultain, T. Russell, J. M. Clark, Rev. A. G. Purchas, M.R.C.S.E, T. Kirk, F.L.S., T. F. 8. Tinne, Rev. J. Kinder, J. Stewart, Assoc. Inst. C.E., His Honour T. B. Gillies, J. L. Campbell, M.D., H H Lusk; Auditor— C. Tothill ; Secretary and Treasuwrer—T. Kirk, F.LS. Extracts from the Laws of the Auckland Institute. 4. New Members on election to pay one guinea entrance fee, in addition to the annual subscription of one guinea ; the annual subscriptions being payable in advance on the first day of April for the then current year. 5. Members may at any time become Life Members by one payment of ten pounds ten shillings, in lieu of future annual subscriptions. 10. Annual General Meeting of the Society on the third Monday of February in each year. Ordinary Business Meetings are called by the Council from time to time. PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1871: Patron—His Honour the Superintendent ; President—Julius Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S.; Vice-Presigents—Hon. John Hall, Rev. C. Fraser, M.A., F.G.8. ; Council—J. F. Armstrong, W. B. Bray, C.E., J. W. 8S. Coward, R. W. Fereday, W. Rolleston, B.A., J. 8. Turnbull, M.D. ; Honorary Treasurer—John Inglis; Honorary Secretary—Llewellyn Powell, M.D. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1872: Patron—His Honour the Superintendent ; President—His Honour Mr. Justice Gresson ; Vice-Presidents—W. B. Bray, C.E., R. W. Fereday ; Council—J. F. Armstrong, J. W. 8. Coward, J. 8. Turnbull, M.D., Julius Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S., G. W. Hall, Ven. Archdeacon Wilson ; Honorary Treasurer—J. Inglis; Honorary Secretary—t.lewellyn Powell, M.D. Extracts from the Laws of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. VII. The Ordinary Meetings of the Institute shall be held every first week during the months from March to November inclusive. XXV. Members of the Institute shall pay two guineas for the first year of member- ship, and one guinea annually thereafter, asa subscription to the funds of the Institute. XXVII. Members may compound for all annual subscriptions of the current and future years by paying ten guineas. : xvl Incorporated Societies. OTAGO INSTITUTE. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1871 : President—His Honour Mr. Justice Chapman ; Vice-Presidents—J. T. Thomson, F.R.G.8., J. 8. Webb; Cowncil—Daniel Brent, Robert Gillies, Stuart Hawthorne, M.A., John Hislop, Richard Oliver, James Smith, Rev. D. M. Stuart; Honorary Treasurer—W. D. Murison ; Honorary Secretary—Y. M. Hocken, M.R.C.S.E. OFFICE-BEARERS FoR 1872: President—His Honour Mr. Justice Chapman ; Vice-Presidents— Robert Gillies, T. M. Hocken, M.R.C.S8.E.; Cowneil — W.N. Blair, E. B. Cargill, 8. Hawthorne, M.A., J. McKerrow,:G. 8. Sale, M.A., J. T: Thomson, F.R.G.S., P. Thomson ; Honorary Treaswrer—J. 8. Webb ; Honorary Secretary— D. Brent. Extracts from the Laws of the Otago Institute. 3. From and after the lst September, 1869, any person desiring to join the Society may be elected by ballot, on being proposed in writing at any meeting of the Society by -two members, on payment of the annual subscription for the year then current. 4. Members may at any time become life members by one payment of ten pounds ten shillings, in lieu of future annual subscriptions. 9. An annual general meeting of the members of the Society held on the second Monday of July. a NELSON ASSOCIATION FOR THE PROMOTION OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1870-1 : President—Sir David Monro; Vice-President —The Right Rev. the Bishop of Nelson ; Cownci/—F. Huddleston, F. W. Irvine, M.D., Thomas Mackay, Alexander Sclanders, George Williams, M.D. ; Honorary Treasurer—C. Hunter-Brown ; Curator and Secretary—J. Smith. OFFICE-BEARERS FOR 1872: President—Sir David Monro ; Vice-President —The Right Rev. the Bishop of Nelson; Cowncid—F. W. Irvine, M.D., Robert Lee, The Hon. T. Renwick, Joseph Shephard, George Williams, M.D. ; Honorary Treasurer—J. Holloway ; Curator and Secretary—Thomas Mackay. Extracts from the Laws of the Nelson Association for the Promotion of Science and Industry. 2. The Association shall consist of members elected by ballot, who have been proposed ata monthly meeting of the Society, and elected at the ensuing meeting. 3. Hach member to pay a subscription of not less than one pound per annum, payable half-yearly in advance. 4, Ordinary meetings held on the first Wednesday in each month. NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT, HIS EXCELLENCY SIR GEORGE F. BOWEN, G.C. M.G. DELIVERED TO THE Mrumpnrs or THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE, AT THE ANNIVERSARY MEETING, HELD ON THE 23RD SEPTEMBER, 1871. GENTLEMEN, —- It is with great pleasure that I now proceed to open, with the usual anniversary address, the session for 1871 of the Ney Zealand Institute. PROGRESS OF THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. This is the fourth occasion on which we have assembled for the purpose of reviewing the progress achieved by literature and science in this country, and especially the efforts made by our own Association for their advancement. From the report recently laid before the Legislature, it will be seen that there is ample ground for congratulation in the continued success of the scheme under which we are organised. During the last twelve months our numbers have been increased by the accession of above two hundred new members ; while the society recently formed at Nelson “ for the promotion of science and industry ” has been affiliated. The connection of all the chief provinces and cities of the Colony with this central body has thus been completed. Nor is it less gratifying to observe that our Transactions have been very favourably reviewed by many high authorities, both in England and on the continent of Europe ; and that strong opinions have been expressed to the effect that a similar Institute for the systematic organisation of the various literary and scientific societies 1s urgently required in the mother country. The progress and popularity of the New Zealand Institute may be regarded as a not unimportant evidence of the condition of intellectual studies and tastes in this community. And here I may be permitted to allude to what A Lo New Zealand Institute. seems the prominent characteristic of public opinion at the present day; I mean the active interest that has been awakened in everything which tends to the diffusion of sound education, and to the better qualification of the youth of the Colony for fulfilling their duty and privilege of self-government. The measures adopted last year by the Parliament for the foundation of a Colonial University, and the actual establishment in the vigorous Province of Otago (in this as in other respects a true off-shoot of Scotland)* of a University which is already in operation, are striking proofs of the general desire for education of the highest class. At the same time the Bill introduced by the Government, and now under the earnest consideration of the Legislature, shows that primary and secondary education will also be zealously fostered by the State. The recent arrival of several accomplished and learned Professors to occupy the chairs of the Otago University is an epoch in the history of New Zealand which may probably hereafter be more prominent in the annals of this country, and may exercise more enduring influence than many events to which greater present importance has been attached. The proposed system of Affiliated Colleges, on the basis of local examinations, is in accordance with the direction in which the English Universities are now tending. Like the constitution of our own Society, this appears to be the system best adapted to the geographical position of New Zealand ; for, while it does not preclude the most successful College in whatsoever Province from proving and maintaining its pre-eminence, it encourages rather than limits that emulation by which alone a high state of efficiency in educational establishments can be secured. NEW ZEALAND UNIVERSITY. In connection with this subject, I wish to make one remark—of course, in my capacity, not of Governor of the Colony, but of President of the Institute. It is this:—In common with the joint committee of both Houses of the Legislature, and of most of those who have given full attention to the point, I think it very desirable that some well-considered and equitable arrangement should be made whereby the two existing University Councils may be amalgamated—by which our available resources may be economised, and there may be thus erected, on the foundations already so carefully laid, one great and truly national University of New Zealand. TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION, Turning to the question of technical and scientific education, to which I drew attention in my address of last year, I have much pleasure in announcing that the scheme for establishing a course of practical instruction in connection * “In almost all the periods of the history of Scotland, whatever documents deal with the social condition of the country reveal a machinery for education always abundant.”—Burton’s ‘‘ History of Scotland,” chap. 39. Anniversary Address. . 3 with the Colonial Museum has been already so far carried into effect that the Laboratory has been adapted for the reception of a certain number of students, NEW MUSEUM AT CHRISTCHURCH. It would be improper, on this occasion, to omit mention of the Museum which has been opened during the past year at Christchurch. That institution is an eminent proof of the recognition which the claims of science receive in the Province of Canterbury, and of the admirable manner in which the liberal support granted by the Provincial Government has been applied. REVIEW OF VOLUME III. OF THE ‘“‘ TRANSACTIONS” OF THE INSTITUTE. I will now proceed to refer briefly to the annual volume in which the proceedings of the several Affiliated Societies are published. Our third volume, that for 1870, fully keeps up the character of its predecessors, and has been received with greater interest, from the fact that the large amount of carefully selected matter which it contains is more amply illustrated by drawings and figures than either of the volumes previously issued. ZOOLOGY. The name of Mr. Walter Buller, eminent among those of the contributors to the Zoology of New Zealand, appears at the head of several excellent papers —all interesting and valuable, as might be expected from so accomplished an observer in this branch of science, and especially in his own favourite depart- ment of ornithology. I would recommend particular attention to Mr. Buller’s description of the hwia (heteralocha Gouldi), that rare and beautiful bird held sacred by the Maoris, which can be known in its native state to few colonists, but of which very perfect specimens are preserved in the Colonial Museum. Worthy also of especial notice and careful study is the conclusion of Mr. Potts’ elaborate Essay on the Birds of New Zealand, the commencement of which appeared in the volume of our Zransactions for 1869. There are other contributors to Zoology in the volume now before us, whose distinguished names would alone vouch for the value of their remarks. Foremost among these is the name of Dr. F. J. Knox, who remains devoted to the natural history of the Cetacea, and who has furnished some important papers on this and on other subjects. Moreover, it is gratifying to find among the contributors to this section of our Zransactions, Dr. J. E. Gray, of the British Museum. This gentleman, so eminent in the scientific societies of Europe, has supplied a description of a new species of whale discovered in the seas around New Zealand. It may here be mentioned that during my visit in last February, in H.MLS. ‘Clio,’ to Milford Sound, I was myself so fortunate as to shoot three seals, which appear to belong to a species that has hitherto escaped accurate notice. 4. New Zealand Institute. BOTANY. Among those to whom this Colony is most indebted for fresh investigations of its Botany, Mr. Kirk occupies a high place as a writer on this engaging and practically useful branch of study. Tt will be seen that nearly all his papers are confined to the Province of Auckland ; and it is to be regretted that we do not receive from other parts of the Colony more frequent communications on the same subject. Mr. Kirk’s botanical researches have led him to the conclusion that while many native trees and plants are much more rare than formerly, and are confined to smaller areas, none have become extinct. EXHIBITION OF THE NEW ZEALAND FLAX. In connection with this portion of my address, I should draw attention to the exhibition now open in the Colonial Museum of numerous and well- arranged specimens of the New Zealand flax (Phormium tenaz). As I have remarked in previous addresses, it cannot be too often repeated that the main object of Parliament in founding and endowing the Institute and Museum was to furnish practical assistance in the development and utilisation of the rich natural resources of these islands. Now, this flax exhibition is an excellent illustration of the value of the method of conveying instruction throagh the eye, by means of classified specimens ; and this kind of education is one of our fundamental and necessary functions. The present collection will form a good basis for future reference ; and it is to be hoped that it may prove the means of rendering permanent an industry, the importance of which to New Zealand can hardly be exaggerated, if only a satisfactory solution of the ditficulties involved in the process of manufacture were discovered. The experience in this respect already acquired has been somewhat dearly purchased ; but even a cursory inspection of the exhibition is sufficient to show that much progress has been made, and that a large amount of accurate information respecting this entire subject has been collected. All will admire the varied and beautiful specimens of the manner in which the Maoris have adapted this indigenous fibre to almost every purpose of domestic economy. Several of the articles of native manufacture show at once thought in contrivance, taste in design, and skill in execution. BOTANIC GARDENS. There is a very important and practical application of science, regarding which I must here say a few words. I refer to the formation of Botanic Gardens and Nurseries for the rearing of useful and ornamental trees and shrubs. Planting is now generally recognised as an essential step towards the future prosperity of every new country. The character of the climate, the comfort of life, and the beauty of the scenery, all depend, in no slight degree, on this work. Some progress has already been achieved in this respect throughout these islands. During the past year I have derived great Anniversary Address. 5 satisfaction from witnessing the efforts made at all the principal centres of . population. Each province has its own peculiar advantages ; but on this occasion I wish to allude especially to that garden which forms an essential adjunct to our Institute. It is now a little more than a year since the Botanic Reserve was placed under the management of the Board of Governors, and there is good reason to be satisfied with the advance already secured. Not only has the luxury of a pleasant recreation ground been conferred on the inhabitants of Wellington, and on the numerous visitors who reside here during the sessions of the Colonial Parliament, but a field has also been provided for interesting experiments in practical botany. The preservation of the beautiful patches of native forest, which still survive in the ravines, and the affixing the names of the various trees and shrubs, have created, at a small expense, a Botanic Garden of the most useful kind. Visitors are thus enabled to render themselves familiar with the indigenous vegetation of this country, with its scientific classification, and with the beauty and value of the flora of this and of other lands. CHEMISTRY. In the department of Chemistry, nearly all the papers are by Mr. Skey, the Analyst to the Geological Survey of New Zealand ; and the Institute is fortunate in possessing among its members a gentleman so well qualified to handle this branch of science. GEOLOGY. : We must all deplore the loss by drowning, while in the zealous discharge of his duty, of another officer of the Government Survey—Mr. E. H. Davis— to whom our Zransactions owe several instructive geological papers. On the above, and on a variety of miscellaneous subjects, we have a number of interesting contributions by Dr. Hector, Dr. Haast, Mr. Travers, Captain Hutton, and others of our leading associates. The last, but by no means the least important paper in the third volume of our Zransactions is the opportune lecture, by Mr. Justice Chapman, on the “ Political Economy of Railways,” which will excite the more interest from the fact that the Colony is now about to undertake extensive public works, such as those of which the learned Judge has so ably treated. On the whole, it may be safely affirmed that the Institute has no reason to be dissatisfied with the araount of work which it has accomplished during the first three years of its existence ; and if we look to the large accession to its numbers during the past year, and to the interest which its labours have excited, alike in this and in the neighbouring colonies and in the mother country, we may confidently regard the progress already made as only the germ and infant promise of a far greater development and success in the future. 6 New Zealand Institute. OFFICIAL VISITS OF THE GOVERNOR. After this brief and imperfect sketch of the recent Transactions and present position of the Institute, I will proceed—so far as time will allow, and in accordance with a request addressed to me—to give a short account of my official visits during the past year to two of the most remarkable regions to be found in this or in any other country of the world. I allude, m the first place, to the great volcanic zone in the North Island, stretching for nearly 150 miles from the ever-steaming crater of Whakari (or White Island), in the Bay of Plenty, to Lake Taupo and the burning mountain of Tongariro. Here the traveller admires, under an Italian sky and in an Italian climate, a long succession of panoramas of hot lakes and boiling springs, far surpassing in variety, beauty, and .curiosity, the famed geysers of Iceland. In the second place, I refer to Milford Sound and to those other grand and wondrous inlets of the south-west coast of the Middle Island, which, rarely visited by civilised man, and shrouded in almost perpetual mist and storm, combine the snowy peaks and glaciers of Switzerland with the gloomy forests, deep seas, and winding channels of the fiords of Norway. I.—THE HOT LAKES IN THE NORTH ISLAND. My visit to the Hot Lakes was made in company with the Duke of Edinburgh and several officers of H.M.S. ‘Galatea.’ Leaving Auckland, by sea, on the 12th of last December, we landed on the following morning at Tauranga, where the “son of the Queen” (te tamaiti o te Kuini), as His Royal Highness is styled by the Maoris, was enthusiastically welcomed by seven hundred chiefs and clansmen of the tribes of the Arawas and of the Negaiterangis. . It will be remembered that the last-named clan fought bravely against the British troops at the Gate Pa,* and elsewhere, in 1864; but they soon afterwards made peace with the Government, and now at the korero (or conference) held to greet the Duke of Edinburgh, they vied with our faithful friends, the Arawas, in expressions of loyalty to the Queen, and of good will to the English settlers. At the conclusion of his speech, Enoka te Whanake, a chief foremost among our enemies during the late war, said ; “It is true that I fought against the Queen at the Gate Pa; but I have repented of this evil, and am now living under the shadow of Her laws. As for this Tawhiao, who styles himself the ‘ King of the Maoris,’ let him be brought hither as a footstool for the son of our Queen, whom we welcome among us this day.” From Tauranga we proceeded to Maketu, the principal kainga, or settle- ment, of the Arawas, and celebrated in their traditions as the spot where their forefathers, some twenty generations back, first landed in New Zealand. * This pa was three miles from Tauranga, and was so named because it commanded the approach to the inland districts, at a point where the road passes along a narrow tract of firm ground between two extensive swamps. Anniversary Address. iL No Europeans have as yet settled in the inland districts of this portion of the North Island, but the “Queen’s son” was as safe among the Arawas in their own country as he would be among the Gordons in Aberdeenshire. We were, however, attended by a guard of honour, consisting of an escort of the clansmen in arms for the Queen. The Duke of Edinburgh and his officers were much interested by the many striking scenes and incidents of life in a Maori camp, especially by the war-songs chanted by the Arawas around the watchfires which they kindled each night in front of our tents. On the other hand, the native warriors were delighted by His Royal Highness’s power of enduring fatigue—by his good horsemanship and swimming—by the skill and vigour with which he paddled his canoe across their lakes—and, above all, perhaps, by his constantly wearing the kilt, which is the favourite garb of the Maori as well as of the Scotch Highlanders. On the 14th December we rode a distance of forty miles, from Maketu to Ohinemutu, the principal inland settlement of the Arawas. It is situated at the north-western extremity of the beautiful lake of Rotorua, and has in front the lofty islet of Mokoia, famous for the legend of Hine Moa, the Hero, and of her lover, the Leander of the Maoris.* The road from Maketu to Ohinemutu, winding along the shores of Rotoiti and Rotorua, presents a succession of lovely prospects. It was spontaneously commenced by the Arawas, the chiefs and clansmen labouring together, for the use of the Duke of Edinburgh when his visit was first expected in 1868. Ohinemutu still exhibits most of the features and scenes of a Maori pa and kainga of the olden time. The dwellings of the chiefs are surrounded with stockades, while many of them are adorned with grotesque wood- carvings, and are curious specimens of native architecture. The boiling springs—sure signs of the volcanic fires smouldering below—seethe, bubble, and steam on every side ;—among the houses, where they form excellent natural cooking places ;—and in the tepid waters of the neighbouring lake, in which the natives swim, each morning and evening, as in a vast natural bath. On Sunday, the 18th December, a missionary clergyman, the Rev. 8S. Spencer, who had accompanied our party from Maketu, read the service of the Church of England, in the open air, on the shore of Lake Rotorua. It was a calm, clear, and sunny day, and the scene was highly picturesque and suggestive ; with the little knot of Englishmen surrounding the “son of the Queen,” and the large congregation of Maoris repeating the responses and chanting the hymns in their own sonorous language ; amid some of the finest prospects of lake and mountain, and near some of the most wonderful natural phenomena in the world ; in the very heart, moreover, of the native districts * See the “‘Story of Hine Moa, the Maiden of Rotorua,” in Sir George Grey’s Polynesian Mythology, pages 235-245. 8 New Zealand Institute. of New Zealand, and of the country most renowned in Maori song and legend ;—and on a spot where, in the memory of men still living, human victims were sacrificed and cannibal feasts were held. From Ohinemutu we visited the neighbouring geysers and solfataras of Whakarewarewa, which at intervals throw high into the air columns of water, with whirling clouds of steam and showers of pumice stone. Thence we rode over the hills, skirting the deep blue lakes of Tikitapu and Roto- kakaki,— both embosomed in overhanging forests and craggy cliffs, —to Tarawera, which surpasses in wild grandeur of scenery all its rival lakes. On the following morning we crossed Lake Tarawera in native canoes, and encamped for the night by the side of one of the famous terrace-fountains* of Lake Rotomahana,—the most striking marvels in this region of wonders, and of which no verbal description can convey any adequate idea. They have been likened to cascades of bright and sparkling water, gently falling from blue basins of turquoise over a succession of natural shelves, and suddenly turned, as they fall, into terraces of white marble,t streaked with soft lines of pink. Many rare and delicate ferns, and other plants usually found only in the Tropics, cling in green clusters round the snow-white margin of the fountains, and flourish in luxuriant growth in the warm and dank air. From Rotomahana we rode back in two days to Maketu, and thence returned by sea to Auckland. Thus it will be seen that the chief points in the district of the Hot Lakes can even now be visited by active horsemen in an excursion of a week or ten days. The natives alone have hitherto made practical use, for the cure of various diseases, of the healing properties of these waters. But when, through the progress of colonisation, these springs, truly described by Hochstetter as the ‘‘ grandest in the world,” shall have become more accessible, it cannot be doubted that, as multitudes of summer tourists from the cities of the old world now resort to the warm baths of Germany, and to the mountains of Switzerland, so thousands will hereafter flock from Australia, and from all parts of the southern hemisphere, to those regions of New Zealand where nature displays many of her most remarkable beauties and wonders in the most genial and healthy of climates. I shall not trespass on your time and patience by dwelling at greater length on this part of my subject. The Lake district of the North Island has been fully described in the well-known and elaborate work of Dr. * Named respectively Te Tarata and Otukapuarangi. The first of these names is said to signify ‘the tattooed rock,” and to refer to the strange figures and shapes formed by the silicious deposits of the terraces. The second name means “‘ cloudy atmosphere,” from the continually ascending clouds of steam. + The terraces of Rotomahana are encrusted by the overflowing waters with a white silicious deposit, the growth of many years.—See ‘‘ Hochstetter’s New Zealand,” chap. 18. Anniversary Address. 5 Hochstetter, and by other writers more competent than myself.* Let it suffice on the present occasion to say that all the authorities agree that the solfataras, geysers, and fumaroles alike owe their origin to water sinking through natural fissures into the caverns of the earth, where it becomes heated by ever-burning volcanic fires. High-pressure steam is thus generated, which, accompanied by volcanic gases, forces its way up towards the cooler surface, and is there condensed into hot water. It has been further remarked that even the legends of the Maoris correctly ascribe the origin of the hot lakes and springs to the combined agency of fire and water, in connection with the still active craters of Whakari and of Tongariro. The traditions of the Arawas relate that among the chiefs who led their ancestors from Hawaikit to New Zealand was Negatiroirangi, whose name, being interpreted, signifies “the messenger of Heaven.” He landed at Maketu, whence he set forth with his slave Ngauruhoe to explore the new found land. As they journeyed onward they at length beheld, towards the South, the lofty snow-clad mountain of Tongariro (literally “towards the south”). Climbing to the highest peak to gain a wider view of the surrounding country, they were benumbed with the cold, when the chief shouted to his sisters, who had remained upon Whakari, to send him fire. The sisters heard his call, and sent him the sacred fire brought from Hawaiki. It was borne in the hands of two taniwhas ox water-spirits, dwelling in the caverns of the earth and ocean, from Whakari, through a subterranean passage, to the top of Tongariro. The fire arrived just in time to save the life of the chief, but the slave was already dead. And so the crater of Tongariro is called, to this day, by the name of Ngauruhoe ; and the sacred fire still blazes throughout the underground zone along which it was carried by the taniwhas. It burns under the lakes of Rotoiti, Rotorua, and Rotomahana—under the thousand hot springs which burst forth between Whakari and Tongariro. Dr. Hochstetter (‘‘ New - Zealand,” chap. 18) remarks that ‘this legend affords a remarkable instance of the accurate observation of the natives, who have thus indicated the true line of the chief volcanic action in the North Island.” II. THE SOUNDS ON THE SOUTH-WEST COAST OF THE MIDDLE ISLAND. I now proceed to give a short sketch of my visit during the months of February and March, in the present year, to the magnificent, but hitherto little known, Sounds on the south-west coast of the Middle Island, whither Commodore Stirling conveyed me in H.MLS. ‘Clio.’ Dr. Hector accompanied * See also the graphic and accurate account of the Hot Lakes in ‘‘A Ride through the Disturbed Districts of New Zealand,” by Lieutenant the Hon. H. Meade, R.N., London, 1871. + The Hawaiki of Maori annals was probably Hawaii in the Sandwich Islands, or Savaii in the Navigators’ Islands. B 10 New Zealand Institute. us ; and, had it not been*for the disaster which befel us in Bligh Sound, we expected to have been enabled to collect much practical information respecting that part of the Colony, and also to furnish fresh and valuable notices to the Geographical, Geological, and Zoological Societies of London. It may here be mentioned that the best general descriptions of the south-west coast of the Middle Island which have hitherto been published, will be found in the “‘ New Zealand Pilot,” compiled chiefly by an honorary member of our Institute, Admiral Richards, F.R.8., the present Hydrographer to the Admiralty ; and in a paper by Dr. Uector, printed in the 34th volume (for 1864) of the Journals of the Royal Geographical Society. The notes which I shall now read to you were written while the ‘Clio’ lay disabled in Bligh Sound, and have been partly embodied in my despatches to the Imperial Government. We left Wellington on the 4th of last February, but the ‘Clio’ was much delayed at first by baffling winds, and afterwards by a strong contrary gale with a heavy sea. We reached Milford Sound on the 11th, and remained there, thoroughly examining that extraordinary inlet, until the 17th February. Admiral Richards has observed* that the only harbours of shelter for large ships along the West Coast of the Middle Island of New Zealand—a distance of five hundred miles—are the thirteen sounds or inlets which penetrate its south-western shore between the parallels of 44 and 46 degrees south latitude, including a space of little more than one hundred miles. They are, counting from the north, and according to the names given chiefly by the adventurous whalers, who alone have frequented these inhospitable regions, as follows :—1. Milford Sound ; 2, Bligh Sound ; 3. George Sound ; 4. Caswell Sound ; 5. Charles Sound ; 6. Nancy Sound ; 7. Thomson Sound ; 8. Doubtful Inlet; 9. Daggs Sound; 10. Breaksea Sound ; 11. Dusky Bay ; 12. Chalky, or Dark Cloud Inlet ; 13. Preservation Inlet. As I wrote to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, these arms of the Great Southern Ocean, cleaving their way through the massive sea wall of steep and rugged cliffs, reach far into the wild solitudes of the lofty mountains which form the cordillera, or “ dividing range,” of the Middle Island. These mountains attain their highest elevation further north, in Mount Cook, a snowy peak rising 13,200 feet above the sea level, and visible in clear weather at a distance of more than a hundred miles to the mariner approaching New Zealand ; thus forming a noble monument of the illustrious navigator who first recommended the planting of an English settlement in this country. To quote Admiral Richards —‘“ A view of the surrounding country from the summit of one of the mountains bordering the coast, of from 4,000 to 5,000 feet in elevation, is perhaps one of the most grand and magnificent spectacles it is possible to imagine ; and, standing on such an elevation rising over the south side of Caswell Sound, Cook’s description of * See ‘‘ New Zealand Pilot,” chap. ix. ne A So ee eee # Ae ee sy Ts ism = Anniversary Address. ii! this region was forcibly called to mind. He says -—‘A prospect more rude and craggy is rarely to be met with, for inland appeared nothing but the Summits of mountains of a stupendous height, and consisting of rocks that are totally barren and naked, except where they are covered with snow.’ We could only compare the scene around us as far as the eye could reach, north to Milford Haven, south to Dusky Bay, and eastward inland for a distance of sixty miles, to a vast sea of mountains of every possible variety of shape and ruggedness ; the clouds and mist floated far beneath us, and the harbour appeared no more than an insignificant stream. ‘The prospect was most bewildering, and, even to a practised eye, the possibility of recognising any particular mountain, as a point of the survey from a future station, seemed almost hopeless.” : ; The following extract from Dr. Hector’s account of Milford Sound shows the probable mode of its formation :—‘“‘Three miles from the entrance of the Sound it becomes contracted to the width of half a mile, and its sides rise perpendicularly from the water’s edge, sometimes for 2,000 feet, and then slope at a high angle to the peaks that are covered with perpetual snow. The scenery is quite equal to the finest that can be enjoyed by the most difficult and toilsome journeys into the Alps of the interior ; and the effect is greatly enhanced, as well as the access made more easy, by the incursion of the sea, as it were, into their alpine solitudes. The sea, in fact, now occupies a chasm that was in past ages ploughed by an immense glacier ; and it is through the natural progress of events by which the mountain mass has been reduced in altitude, that the ice stream has been replaced by the waters of the ocean. The evidence of this change may be seen at a glance. The lateral valleys join the main one at various elevations, but are all sharply cut off by the precipitous wall of the sound, the erosion of which was no doubt continued by a great central glacier long after the subordinate and tributary glaciers had ceased to exist. The precipices exhibit the marks of ice-action with great distinctness, and descend quite abruptly to a depth of 800 to 1200 feet below the water level. Towards its head the sound becomes more expanded, and receives several large valleys that preserve the same character, but radiate in different directions into the highest ranges. At the time that these valleys were filled with glaciers, a great ‘ice lake’ must have existed in the upper and expanded portion of the sound, from which the only outlet would be through the chasm which forms its lower part.” On account of the great depth of water in these inlets, and of the sudden storms of wind rushing down from the mountains above, vessels are generally obliged to moor to trees or pinnacles of rock, whenever they reach a cove in which an anchor can be dropped. Accordingly, while we were in Milford Sound, the ‘Clio’ lay at anchor in Harrison’s Cove, only a few yards from the 12 New Zealand Institute. shore, and moored head and stern to huge trunks of trees. Immediately above rose Pembroke Peak to the height of nearly 7,000 feet, covered with perpetual snow, and with a glacier reaching down to within 2,000 feet of the sea. The lower slopes of the mountains around are covered with fine trees, and with the luxuriant and evergreen foliage of the tree-fern and the other beautiful undergrowth of the New Zealand forests. Two permanent waterfalls, one 700 and the other 540 feet in height, add picturesque beauty to the gloomy and desolate grandeur of the upper part of Milford Sound. During a storm of wind and rain, mingled with snow and sleet, which, though it was the middle of summer, raged during three days of our stay, avalanches were often heard thundering down, with a roar as of distant artillery, from the snow fields above ; while a multitude of foaming cascades poured over the face of the lower precipices, hurling with them into the sea masses of rock and trunks of trees. On the other hand, nothing could exceed the charm of the few fine days which we enjoyed during our voyage. In his work, entitled “ Greater Britain,” (Part II., chap. 2), Sir Charles Dilke has truly observed “that the peculiarity which makes the New Zealand West Coast scenery the most beautiful in the world is that here alone you can find semi-tropical vegetation growing close up to the eternal snows. The latitude, and the great moisture of the climate, bring the glaciers very low into the valleys ; Aas and cause the growth of palm-like ferns on the ice-river’s very edge. ‘The glaciers of Mount Cook are the longest in the world, except those at the sources of the Indus; but close about them have been found tree-ferns of thirty and forty feet in height. It is not till you enter the mountains that you escape the moisture of the coast, and quit for the scenery of the Alps the scenery of fairy land.” Again, Sir C. Dilke’s description of the view from Hokitika at sunrise would apply also to the same view from many other points on the West Coast: ‘‘ A hundred miles of the Southern Alps stood out upon a pale blue sky in curves of gloomy white that were just beginning to blush with pink, but ended to the southward in a cone of fire that stood up from the ocean ; it was the snow-dome of Mount Cook struck by the rising sun. The evergreen bush, flaming with the crimson of the rata blooms, hung upon the mountain side, and covered the plains to the very margin of the narrow sands with a dense jungle. It was one of those sights that haunt men for years.” The neighbourhood of the sea, and the semi-tropical magnificence of the foliage, are features in which the New Zealand Alps excel the highest moun- tain ranges in Europe. As members of the Alpine Club of England have already scaled the peaks of the Caucasus, it is hoped that they will ere long explore the glaciers and summits of Mount Cook, together with the elsewhere unrivalled scenery of the neighbouring jiords. Mount Cook (as has been already said) rises to 13,200 feet above the sea level—that is, it surpasses all Anniversary Address. 13 but Mont Blane and one or two others of the highest of the Alps of Europe. But the exploration of this giant of the southern hemisphere probably presents no unwonted difficulty to practised mountaineers, while it could not fail to add. largely to the general stock of scientific knowledge. The present Secretary of. State for the Colonies (the Harl of Kimberley) has, at my instance, invited the attention of the Royal Geographical Society to this subject. I have also to announce that the Admiralty, in consequence of my representations, intend to publish new and corrected charts, on an enlarged scale, of the West Coast of New Zealand. The ‘Clio’ left Milford Sound on the morning of the 17th February, and on the same afternoon struck on her port bow upon a sunken rock, unnoticed in the existing charts, near the middle of the second reach of Bligh Sound. Had the accident occurred amidships, she would probably have at once-gone down with all on board. As it was, the ship made water so fast through the leak on the port bow that she was immediately put back, and anchored in Bounty Haven, at the head of Bligh Sound. The pumps kept the water down, while the divers, with two of whom the ‘ Clio’ was fortunately furnished, examined, and the carpenters stopped the leak. I was very glad to be of some service in this emergency, by pointing out, from my knowledge of their foliage, the best timber trees in the forests covering the slopes of the mountains around this harbour. A party of seamen and marines was sent on shore to procure sufficient wood far such repairs as enabled the ‘Clio’ to put to sea again in the course of a fortnight. Meanwhile, we were absolutely cut off from all communication with the rest of the world ; for the repeated attempts made to discover a pass leading directly from the settlements in the Province of Otago to the sounds on its south-western coasts, have hitherto completely failed, owing to the inaccessible character of the intervening forests and mountains. In 1863, Dr. Hector, hoping to discover some mode of communication with the inhabited districts on the East of the dividing range, forced his way up the valley of the Cleddau River, which flows into the head of Milford Sound. After a toilsome scramble of two days, his further progress was barred by almost perpendicular cliffs of some 5,000 feet in height, with snowy peaks rising several thousand feet higher. However, Dr. Hector afterwards found his way by a rugged and circuitous path from Martin’s Bay (nearly forty miles north of Bligh Sound), to Queenstown on Lake Wakatipu ; and he now volunteered to attempt the same route again, with messages from myself to the Colonial Government, and from Commodore Stirling to the officer commanding H.M.S. ‘ Virago’ at Wellington. Accordingly, on the night of our disaster, he sailed in the launch of the ‘Clio ? which returned, after an absence of five days, and reported that Dr. Hector, with two seamen, sent by the Commodore to attend him, had been safely landed on the 19th at Martin’s Bay, and had set out forthwith on their journey across the mountains. It may 14 New Zealand Institute. here be mentioned that a river named the Kaduku (or Hollyford), with a difficult bar at its mouth, runs into Martin’s Bay from Lake M‘Kerrow (or (Kakapo), on the northern shore of which a few adventurous settlers from Otago have lately planted themselves. On the 27th February we were agreeably surprised by the arrival in Bligh Sound of a small steamer, the ‘Storm Bird,’ despatched to our assistance by the Colonial Government, with fifty sheep and other provisions for the officers and crew, so soon as Dr. Hector had reached the nearest settlement and made our situation known by telegraph. Shortly afterwards the ‘ Virago’ also arrived to the aid of the ‘Clio.’ Commodore Stirling then determined to take his ship to be docked at Sydney ; so, on the morning of the Ist March, I left Bligh Sound in the ‘Storm Bird’ for Invercargill. After passing successively the entrances to George, Caswell, Charles, and Nancy Sounds, we anchored at sunset in the secure harbour of Deas Cove, about three miles from the entrance of Thomson Sound. On the following morning we started at daybreak, steamed up Thomson Sound, and returned to the open sea by Doubtful Inlet. After passing the entrance to Daggs Sound, we entered Breaksea Sound, and regained the sea by Dusky Bay, in which Captain Cook remained for several weeks in 1773, and which he has described with his usual graphic accuracy. Afterwards we passed the entrances to Chalky and Preservation Inlets, and then proceeded to the Solander Islets, at the west end of Foveaux Straits. It. had been reported that some seamen had been cast away there from a recent wreck ; but after a careful examination, no trace of any visitors could be found on these desolate rocks, so we bore up for Invercargill, where I landed on the 3rd March. Here began an official tour of great interest through the Middle Island, where I was received by the provincial authorities and by all classes of the community with a warmth of courtesy and hospitality for which I shall ever feel grateful. Although Milford Sound, at the extreme north of the thirteen inlets of the West Coast, surpasses the rest in stern grandeur and awful solitude, they all have many features in common. They are everywhere deep and narrow, subject to violent winds and strong tides and currents, and with few safe and sheltered anchorages. A tumbled sea of mountains looks down from above on the long swell of the Southern Ocean, breaking in clouds of snow-white foam on craggy cliffs rising abruptly from the shore, while glaciers and snowy peaks, slopes covered with noble forest trees, gloomy valleys and glittering waterfalls, —all combine to present an ever-varying succession of sublime pictures. The official tours of a Governor may be made practically useful, for they enable him to point out, from personal knowledge and in an authoritative shape, the resources and capabilities of the several districts of the Colony over which he presides, and the advantages which they afford for immigration and for the investment of capital. I have learned from several quarters that the Anniversary Address. : 15 published reports of my visits to all parts of New Zealand have awakened much interest in the mother country. Time will not permit me, on the present occasion, to discuss the future prospects of settlement on the Sounds of the West Coust, of which I have attempted a general description. It has been proposed to place some Norwegian emigrants on one or more of these jfiords, but any scheme of this nature will require careful consideration. There are now no inhabitants whatsoever, either Huropean or Maori ;—the few families of natives seen in Dusky Bay in 1773, by Captain Cook, appear to have become extinct ;—and the tales related by the old whalers of thirty years ago, concerning a tribe of wild men haunting these desolate shores, have probably as little foundation as the stories of flocks of moas having been seen, within living memory, stalking over the neighbouring mountains. Nor can I trespass on your patience any longer with remarks upon the fauna and flora of this part of New Zealand. The supply of timber seems almost inexhaustible. Ducks and other wild fowl are numerous. Whales and seals abound, as well as excellent fish of various kinds. We were tolerably successful in shooting and fishing. J may enliven this part of my address by reading Dr. Hector’s animated account of one of our seal-hunts, in which, however, we were not fortunate. “On one occasion,” he states, “the chase of five seals with the steam pinnace of the ‘ Clio,’ in the waters of Milford Sound, afforded a most exciting and novel sport. The seals, startled by the snorting of the little high-pressure engine, instead of taking their usual dignified plunge from the rocks into deep water, and so vanishing out of sight, went off at full speed, diving and reappearing in order to get a glimpse of the strange monster that pursued them so closely. The utmost speed that we could make barely kept us up with them, until they began to show signs of distress, and, one by one, doubled and dived under the pinnace. Two of the seals held out for a run of three miles, and succeeded at length in getting into safety among the rocks on the opposite shore of the sound. From the experience of this run, the force at which seals can go through the water would seem to be not less than six or seven miles an hour.” On the occasion to which Dr. Hector here refers, we, unfortunately, had not our rifles with us, but on subsequent days, as was stated above, I shot several large seals, in addition to a number of wild ducks and other water-fowl. In conclusion, gentlemen, I beg to thank you for the indulgence with which you have listened to this somewhat desultory address. I am fully sensible that these imperfect remarks on rarely-visited regions of this Colony can claim little merit beyond their fidelity. My original notes were written in full sight of those wonders of nature which have left so deep and lasting an impression on the memories of all who have had the good fortune to behold them. fe ls oer BGts-ateX ae SY Ho ; PEN ® ‘pianie Nines, paz Fee bs Vege . : re Be hy! Re i tS: ORE ND Tuirp AnnuaL Report by the Governors of the New ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Tue Governors met for the transaction of business during the past year on the following dates :—21st July, 15th September, 23rd September, and 1st November, 1870; 6th January and 5th April, 1871. On the 23rd September, 1870, an additional Statute, forming Section IV., was adopted relative to the election of honorary members of the Institute, in accordance with which the following gentlemen were elected on the 6th January, 1871, from the list of names suggested by the various affiliated Societies, and their election was communicated to them under the hand of His Excellency the Governor, as President of the Institute :—Professor Louis Agassiz, Captain Byron Drury, R.N., Dr. Otto Finsch, Professor W. H. Flower, F.R.S., Dr. F. Von Hochstetter, Dr. J. D. Hooker, C.B., M.D., F.R.S., Dr. F. Von Miieller, C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S., Professor Richard Owen, F.R.S., Rear-Admiral G. H. Richards, R.N. The following members of the Board were re-nominated to be Governors :° —Sir David Monro, Dr. Knight, and J. HE. Fitzgerald, Esq. On the 23rd September incorporation was granted to the Nelson Associa- tion for the Promotion of Science and Industry, according to the terms of the Act. . The New Zealand Institute now includes the followimg incorporated Societies, the total number of members being 553, making an increase of 208 during the past year :-— Members in Members in 1870. 1871. Wellington Philosophical Society oe 80 ae 107 Auckland Institute ie st6 LOS oe Bl Philosophical Institute, Cantey IORI? = coc 76 a 100 Otago Institute... as She 80 560 123 Nelson Association ae oe ed 12 The Governors elected for these Societies ‘fbr ae year 1871 were, His Honor T. B. Gillies, His Honor William Roilleston, and His Honor Mr. J ustice Chapman. The appended report by the leroa eer relative to the Museum, shows that, while the progress made by that Institution is satisfactory, great inconvenience is now experienced from want of sufficient accommodation for the proper display of the collections, and to allow of the acceptance of B2 18 New Zealand Institute. collections which are offered as exchanges. The suggestions made in the last report of the Governors, at the request of Government, with a view to adapting the Museum and Laboratory for the purpose of instruction in technical science, have been carried out so far as to allow of eight or ten students being instructed in the Laboratory. This was done by taking advantage of the alterations required for the introduction of gas into the establishment ; but as provision has not been made for lecture-rooms and apparatus, full effect cannot yet be given to the proposed scheme for a regular course of lectures on practical science. The Governors, therefore, venture to express a hope that the Legislature will see fit to sanction an expenditure adequate to carry out the objects of the New Zealand Institute. The appended statement of accounts shows the manner in which the endowment to the Institute has been applied during last year; and it will be observed that the receipts include a sum of £49 16s. 9d. for copies of the Transactions sold to persons not members of the Societies. It is proposed to devote the funds received in this manner to the illustration of hand-books on the various branches of the Natural History of the Colony. The Proceedings of the Societies were issued to members in a separate form in July, 1870, and January, 1871; and the volume of Transactions for the year was in the hands of members early in May 1871. The latter consists of 351 pages devoted to original articles, as against 348 in Volume IL, the total number of pages in the volume, including the Proceedings, being 499. Sixty-eight original articles have been published at length, and it has been found necessary to defer twelve articles for future publication. Notwithstanding that in several cases illustrations sent with papers have been omitted, when not absolutely necessary to explain the author’s views, the number of plates has been increased in this volume to thirty, there being in last year’s volume only twenty-three. There were 750 copies of Volume IIT. printed, 524 of which have been issued to the affiliated Societies, and 146 presented to Public Libraries in England and other places. The volumes remaining on hand at this date are —of Volume ITI., 80; of Volume II., 75 ; and of Volume I., 9 copies. Under these circumstances the Governors cannot make the same distribu- tion to the affiliated Societies of extra copies to be sold in aid of their funds as they did last year ; and in future the spare volumes will be sold for £1 1s. each, which is the annual subscription paid by members of affiliated Societies. G. F. Bowsrn, President. Wellington, 28th August, 1871. Annual Report by the Governors. 19 Accounts oF THE NEw ZEALAND Institure, 1870-71. RECEIPTS. EXPENDITURE. 25 fay £ os. d. Balance in hand ; . . 32 3 O| 1. Expenses of Meetings . i. Oi Government Grant in Aid . 500 0 O| 2. Expense of publishing vol. iii. 475 14 4 Contribution from Wellington 3. Miscellaneous — Translating, Philosophical Society . - 16 5 4 Binding, etc. . : . 2010 3 Proceeds of Sale of Transactions 49 16 9 | Balance in hand of Treasurer . 9417 5 £598 5 1 £598 5 1 ae A. LUDLAM, Honorary Treasurer. 23rd August, 1871. A aah it Ei 5 4 ; TRANSACTIONS. Paw oes Cul LOsNes OF THE NE Wea A AN Doo NS iw ve, eat Lk. I.—MISCELLANEOUS. Art. 1.—Hihnographical Considerations on the Whence of the Maori. By J. T. THomson, F.R.G.S. ; (With Illustrations.) [Read before the Otago Institute, 22nd November, 1870.] Native tradition has indicated the Navigators’ Islands as the directly prior home of the Maoris or aborigines of New Zealand, from whence they are said to have migrated through, or by way of Rorotonga, which latter island is still denominated “the road to Hawaiki,” an island of the former group. (“Story of New Zealand,” by Dr. Thomson). With tradition this paper has little to do, as our object is to examine the ethnographical relations of the Maori with other races of the world, in as far as his physical form, customs, and language will guide us. To enable us to perform our task with any degree of satisfaction, we must give wide scope to our observations by first taking a glance at the map of the old world, tracing thereon the seats of the great divisions of the human family. The human family may be reduced to three primary divisions—by colour, white, red, and black; or by name, Caucasian, Mongolian, and Negro, between which there are innumerable subdivisions and moditications of shade, and diversity of form, customs, and language. Before the discoveries of Columbus and Vasco de Gama, which gave such wide expansion to the white and black divisions, the seat of the first was confined to that area extending from Iceland over Central Europe to the confines of Hindostan ; the seat of the second was over North Europe, North, Central, and Hastern Asia; while the seat of the third was confined to the continents and islands of the tropics, extending from Cape de Verde to Malicolo. Where one division bordered on another at various points they intermingled, and thus graduated one into the other, or the weaker 94 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. gave way and died out. Yet each leading division had great geographical barriers to separate them ; thus, the black and white divisions were separated in a great measure by the Deserts of Zahara and Arabia, and the red and white by the Himalaya Mountains and the arid steppes of Tartary ; and it is a remarkable fact that upon one point of the surface of the earth all three divisions had easy convergence—this point is the peninsula of Hindostan. This notable fact has intimate bearing on the enquiry before us, so will be referred to hereafter. In the meantime I must point out how much the physical geography of the world has to do with the spread and currents (if I may so express myself) of the divisions of humanity. lt is a fact well known to physiologists that the pure offspring of the white man, when confined to the tropics, dies out in the third generation, and again, much beyond the same limit, we know of no purely black race existing; the red man alone appears to have a constitution fitted to endure in all regions habitable by the other two. Hence, he extends across the Equator, from Cape Horn to North Siberia. In that dim chaos of pre-historic times, into which reason has enabled us but partially to penetrate, it will appear to have been one of the arrangements of nature that the Negro should have at one era populated the plains of Hindostan, as well as Africa and Papuanesia, and which plains are in the middle distance of his extreme range East and West. Abutting closely on this middle area were energetic hordes of white and red men settled in the mountain valleys of Aria and Thibet. These valleys were situated on the flanks of the highest region in the world. Ethnographical enquiry, while proving the above fact, also traces the descent of these hordes on the fertile plains of India, the former by the valley of the Indus, the other by those of the Bahrumputra and Ganges, driving out or enslaving the simple and unwarlike black inhabitants. In scanning an ethnographical map of the world, it will at once strike the observer that the Negro division has extended itself only either by the sea coasts or from island to island in close contiguity, thus indicating a rude, primi- tive, and unskilful knowledge of navigation, and which required vessels little superior to the canoe. The red race, on the contrary, has evinced surprising powers of locomotion both by sea and land, a proof of their superiority. Again, until these latter ages, the white man has been confined to a limited area, and as his skill, boldness, and intelligence, must be acknowledged to be superior to the other two divisions, may we not accept this as one of the proofs of his later development or increase? Otherwise, how are we to account for his tardy intrusiveness on the habitats of the other divisions, and which within the last three centuries have had such mighty exposition. The relative superiority of intellect, as evidenced by the capacity of the skull, may here be shortly noticed. In a paper that I furnished to the J. T. ToHomson.—The Whence of the Maori. : 25 “Journal of the Indian Archipelago” (vol. i, 1847), I gave the result of measurements that I made on crania of the three divisions. The system of measurement was explained in that journal, being by squares on a central section of the head, the standard line being drawn through the meatus auditorvus and base of the nose. I then found that the brow of the European equalled 88, of the Eastern Asiatic 71, and of the Negro 60. The ape of the Indian Archipelago, I may add, equalled 44. The jet black native of Central Africa may be likened to one pole of humanity, and the fair, light-haired native of Scandinavia may be likened to the other, between which there are links innumerable till the chain is joined. Thus, while in physical aspect there are graduations from one race or tribe to another till the most remote are joined, so in language, the same law has been found to appertain. Affinities of language must not only be judged of by glossaries, but by phonetic systems and ideology. On this branch of the subject the late Mr. J. R. Logan (than whom there was no more ardent an enquirer), by a laborious and exhaustive comparison of the various languages of Asia and Polynesia, has drawn the following conclusions. He says (“ Jour. E. I. Arch.,” vol. vii.) “‘ That there is reason to believe that the strong Africanism of some of the lower South Indian castes is really a remnant of an archaic formation of a more decided African character. In some places Tamil books record that the original inhabitants had tufted hair, and some of their customs were Africo-Papuan. The black Doms of Kumaon have hair still inclining to wool. The phonetic elements of the Dravirian (South Indian) formation are numerous, and some of them have a somewhat African and Australian character.” It is probable, therefore, he comtinues, “after a lengthened analysis of the various languages, and on linguistic evidence alone, that the Dravirians (as above described) occupied the plain of the Ganges and all India before the present Gangetic tribes imported or diffused the ultra Indian and Thibetan elements which are now found in their languages. India, from its position and climate, was destined to receive and not to send out dominant races. [t has only been less recipient and passive than Asianesia.” Again, “the main affinities of the Dravirian formation point two ways, the linguistic chiefly to Sythic, the physical chiefly to an African origin or fraternity.” Of other Asiatic languages, he remarks ‘that the principle languages, from the Fin and Hungarian in the West to the Japanese in the East, have many phonetic characters in common, particularly that of vocalic harmony. The Sythic languages, as a whole, appear in their earlier form to have embraced the entire range of the simple definitives. In this respect they resemble the Thibetan, Ultra-Indian, Dravirian, Caucasian, South African, and Asianesian systems.” He adds “that, ideologically, the Dravirian and Sythic formations have a close agreement, and in some common traits 26 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. they differ from the Thibetan.” The positive results which he sums up, after a most full and laborious exposition, including in the process numerous investigations and examples, are, “that the bases of Thibeto, Ultra-Indian, Dravirian, and Sythic formations are strongly allied to Chinese, not only by their monosyllabic character, but by many structural traits, and it may be added by glossarial affinities also. The three formations are further and more closely connected with each other by syntactic characters which are not Chinese, by the possession of a harmonic phonology—feeble in the Thibeto Ultra-Indian languages, and powerful in the Sythic, and by numerous common roots,” Thus I have endeavored to show, by as short extracts as possible, from the writings of an acknowledged high authority, that there are links of language between Archaic South India and the rest of Asia, which will prepare the mind to pursue other connections from the same region with Polynesia, and which latter is the immediate subject of this paper. Between the various Polynesian languages a certain degree of relation has been"proved to exist, and this extends to Madagascar. Those ethnographers who have given special attention to the subject, amongst the most eminent of whom are Marsden, Humboldt, Bopp, Hale, John Crawfurd, and J. R. Logan, are somewhat divided in opinion on the origin and cause of this phenomenon, one side maintaining a derivitive origin of the various tribes from one common stock, while the other adheres to the primordial theory of rude hordes speaking ab wtio-languages of their own. Into these speculative subjects we need not enter, as they do not materially affect the enquiry before us. Logan, with the view of ascertaining generally the position of the insular languages with reference to others, states (vol. iv. “Jour. E. I. Arch.”) “that he compared the structure of those of which he had a knowledge with the Burman, Chinese, Tartarian, Thibeto-Indian, Older Indian, African, and American groups, and made a comparative vocabulary, of little more than 300 words, of 135 of the Indo-Pacific languages.” ‘These he partially compared with 150 continental languages that appeared to have connection with them. As a general result of his investigations | may mention the following, that though the enquiries, as a whole, proved far beyond the grasp of one person, after discoursing on the various languages of Africa and Asia, he states, “that if any oceanic language be examined it will be found to have strong resemblances and even coincidences in words and structural traits to one or another branch of all or several of the great linguistic families of Asia, bordering on the ocean or intimately connected with the border natives—Lau, Chinese, Japanese, Tartarian Thibeto-Indian, Burman, Old Indian, Syro-Arabian, Ancient Egyptian, African, and even Iranian and American.- The investiga- tion of Ethnic evidence afforded by Oceanic languages is therefore exceedingly complicated. One general conclusion is that the human history of the Indian J.T. THomson.—The Whence of the Maori. 27 Archipelago is of very great antiquity. Amongst the foreign influences tha can be traced, the first is African or Indo-African in character—that is, embracing the Indian Archipelago, Australia, and Papuanesia. The Melanesian languages are still probably Indo-A frican.” For two, out of many glossarial resemblances given by the author, I would refer the reader to Appendix I. as illlustrative of this part of the subject. | Of insular languages the author goes on to state that “they present contrasts of harsh and soft phonologies such as those that are found in the Continent of Asia and elsewhere, but their prevailing character is vocalic, harmonic, and flowing. These phonologies have largely influenced the languages of Melanesia and Micronesia, and they have degenerated in Polynesia into extreme softness and weakness. In some respects Polynesia has a closer resemblance to Malayan than to Eastern Indonesia. It is greatly distinguished from the latter by its comparatively crude phonology, in its low degree or absence of fluency and adhesiveness. It is nearer the Malay, while it possesses many traits of the E. and N.E. Indonesian ideology, which is not found in Malay, as well as some very striking ones that are peculiar to it.” Mr. Hale has shown that the more eastern dialects of Polynesia have been derived from the western, and have lost or changed some of the forms of the latter. The Samoan group is considered by that authority as the first location of the Polynesian race, from whence it spread south to New Zealand, and east to Tahiti. Again, Logan states that the Australian languages, with many characteristics in common with the insular, yet possess a primary form radically distinct. They have also more modern connections, attributable to the influence of the Indo-Polynesian and Papuanesian languages, exerted chiefly on the East Coast. The eastern or Molluccan languages he aflirms to be, probably, the parents of all Polynesia. Of the Andaman language, which is of great interest, owing to its Negro tribes having been so long preserved separate from surrounding continental nations, Logan observes that it is purely Indonesian, and its words are dissyllabic. At the dawn of our present ethnic light, vocalic languages occupied the Malacca basin, and the fragments of a Negro population still existing in the Andaman Islands and the Malay Peninsula speaking these languages, attest to the fact that the spiral-haired Negro race were in these regions prior to all others. The extensive enquiries of the above dis- tinguished ethnographer have, therefore, led to the conclusion that a Negro race once spread itself over Hindostan and India beyond the Ganges, and whose languages even yet resist extinction by later intruding tribes. Crawfurd (whose purely speculative views I need not notice) has given a laborious disquisition on the Malayan and Polynesian languages, from which I 28 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. give several quotations (“Journal of Ethnological Society,” London). By an analysis of a Malagasi dictionary, consisting of 8,000 words, he discovered 140 to be Malayan, or 1-57th part of the whole ; 60 of the Malayan words were of natural objects, and 13 were numerals. Of the Tagala language (Philippine), in a dictionary containing 12,000 words, he found 77 to be Malayan, 20 to be Javanese, and 150 to be common to both languages. This gives a proportion of 32 words to the 1,000. There were also 24 Sancrit terms. Of the Bisayan language (also Philippine), in a dictionary containing 9,000 words, 72 were Malayan, 17 Javanese, and 197 common to both, making about 30 in 1,000. There were also 13 Sancrit terms. Of the Maori language of New Zealand, in a dictionary of 5,500 words, 107 were Malay, making about 20 to the 1,000. Of the Negro languages of the Andaman Islands and Keddah, or Queda, he remarks that he found in their vocabularies no two words alike; this was also the case with the Papuan language of Wajeou (near New Guinea). This dissimilarity he states to be the case with all Negro and Papuan tribes. Comparing also the languages of the islands in the Torres Straits with those of Malicolo, Tanna, and New Caledonia, no two words were found to be common. Further, he found no Malayan word in any of the languages of Australia ; this fact he accounts for by the low social state of the latter. Crawfurd has scarcely touched on the phonology and ideology of the languages reviewed, which is to be regretted, and he evidently ascribes the possession of common words by various races over so large a portion of the world to Malayan origin, disseminated by tempest-driven proas, and other accidents of the sea, a theory adverse to the conclusions arrived at in this paper. Having availed myself hitherto of so much of the materials collected by prior writers, I now proceed to a portion that is more peculiarly my own. During my long sojourn in the East Indies I made drawings of various individuals of several tribes, with no intention of ever bringing them to any use further than for the amusement of home friends, but as they serve, in some measure, to illustrate my paper of this evening, I will now refer to them. Commencing at the westerly range of the Negro, viz., Africa :— Bashier, of Muscat, a native of Central Africa, presents a specimen of the coal-black type. . Furham and Barrahk, of Zanzibar, are of mixed race or Arabo-Negros. Next are two men and one woman of the Sumnali tribe, natives of the Straits of Babelmandeb, of brown complexion. The men especially are very lanky, figure approaching to the physical form of the Arab, yet otherwise having all the characteristics of the Negro. Next is a Pariah of the Coromandel Coast of South Hindostan, a nearly J. T. THomson.—Zhe Whence of the Maori. 29 black native of the Dravirian type, with curled hair, approaching much to the features of the Negro. Then comes a Hindoo of the same region, of dark-brown complexion, yet whose lanky hair and oval features prove a further removal from the Negro type, and nearer to the Indo-European. Next is a Hindoo of Coorg, in the same region, who, having been the son of a chief, has a light brown complexion, sharp features, and small lips and chin, showing a more northern derivation than the two latter, and in whose countenance none of the Negro characteristics are to be observed. These drawings, as far as they go, give illustrations of the graduations of the human race, from the coal black Negro to the olive-colored, and then the white Arian, Caucasian, or European. Now go to the most easterly range of the Negro. Here are two drawings of Papuans, natives of New Guinea. While exhibiting cerebral contours equally as low as those of the most westerly range, in their prognathous jaws, retreating foreheads, oblong faces, and thick lips, they are of lighter complexion, viz., dark brown, with spiral hair, a feature which distinguishes them from the African type. Next we have an albino of the same race—mistaken by the credulous for a European—but whose red weak eyes, scaly skin, protruding lips and jaws, small brow, and long thick-jointed fingers, prove him to have had his origin in Papuanesia. Now we come to the Bajow or Oranglaut, of the Indian Archipelago. Campar, evidently allied to the Mongolian division, but the Negro features in him are slightly apparent, while in his sisters Puteh and Smih (both albinos) the Mongolian featuresare predominant. This tribe is evidently derived from the Mergui Archipelago, and remotely from the valleys of the Irrawaddy and Bahrumputra. They are strong and muscular, also piratical and regardless of shedding blood. These I would point out as being most likely the descendants of the first intruders on the Negro Equatorial area. Next are a man, woman, and child of the Seletar tribe of Johore— river nomads—whose closer contact with the present natives of the Malay Peninsula graduates them further into the Mongolian type, as shown by their square faces, small oblique eyes, and brown yellow complexion. The next in order may be classed together, all having Mongolian or Thibetan features, viz., a Jakun of Johore, Muka Kunings of Battam (mother and son), Sabimba of Johore (man, boy, woman, and child), Mintera of Salangore (man and woman). All these are wild tribes, living solely in the dense forests of the interior of the islands and peninsula of Malacca, evidently deriving their origin in archaic times from the valleys of the Menan and Irrawaddy. These are now popularly known as the primitive inhabitants, but the ethnological researches already quoted prove them to have been preceded D 30 Transactions. —Miscellancous. by the Negro, Their features being also closely Thibeto-Chinese, their more northerly origin is corroborated. Some of these tribes live in savage freedom within 30 miles of the settlements of Europeans, such as Malacca and Singapore, totally unaffected in habits or manners by the civilisation so nearly brought to them for a period of three and a half centuries—that is, since the advent of the Portuguese in the year 1511. Next is a Jawee Pakan of Malacca, a man of mixed race, evidently Malayo-Dutch. Thus, in these portraits the graduations or links from the Papuan to the Indo-European are exhibited. As examples of the pure Mongolian races that now occupy the Indian Archipelago, the following are exhibited:—lst. Two women and a child of the Silat, in the Singapore Straits, claiming to be Malays; 2nd. A man, woman, and child of Waju in Celebes. These claim to be Bugis, and belong to the most enterprising race in the equatorial Hast. Last is a Mug of Burmah, who, being nearer to Thibet than any yet shown, has features more closely approximating to the natives of the eastern Himalayan spursthan any other. It will be observed by those acquainted with the images of the Thibetan Buddha, how closely similar the features of the face are to those ; the straight nose, round face, and rectangular eyebrows of those people presenting a beaw ideal of beauty, grace, and symmetry in these regions of the earth. This portrait gives the link Letween the Thibet and Indonesian races. (Copies of these drawings are necessarily excluded from this work.) Thus, while the language of these tribes or nations have been shown in the preceding part of this paper to graduate one into the other, so have their physical forms, colors, and complexions been proved (imperfectly, it must be admitted, for want of more drawings) also thus to graduate. Now to the question before us—which of these approach nearest to the general type of the Maori? On this point Dr. Thompson, in his “ Story of New Zealand” (a very competent authority) describes “the Maori males as averaging dft. 6}in. in height ard 10 stones (without clothes) in weight, their body being longer than that of an Englishman, while their legs are shorter. The head hair is abundant, and generally black, but some have a rusty red tinge. A few have lank head hair, a few frizzly, but the majority have dark hair with a slight wave in it. Their beard and whiskers are occasionally considerable, but on the trunk it is scanty ; few become bald, although many are grey ; the skin is olive-brown, with many shades, some so fair that blushes in their cheeks can be seen, while others are so dark that the tattoo marks can scarcely be detected ; the mouth is coarse, the face broad, and the upper lip long, the forehead high, narrow, and retreating. They are a mixed race, and may be divided into brown, reddish, and black. In different tribes the numbers of each complexion vary.” * J. T. Tuomson.—The Whenee of the Maori. 31 To compare for ourselves the correctness of this description, we have not far to go, for we have the prisoners of the North Island in Dunedin, and the Maoris of the Lower Harbour to contemplate, and we have also Chinese now in our streets. Though the countenances of the Maoris will be found to differ widely, yet the general cast will be admitted to approach none of the three great distinctive divisions of mankind. They are clearly a cross, whose affinities are Dravirian or South Indian of the oldest class. On this subject I may be allowed to speak as one who has had experience, having resided in countries where both races were to be daily seen ; and while I would ascribe the affinities of the Maori physiognomy to be nearest to the Dravirian, yet I would also support an hypothesis that the race was also affected by an archaic connection with some of the first off-shoots of the Thibetan and ultra-Gangetic races, such as are now represented by the Bajow or Oranglaut, to whose physiognomy there is a striking approximation in many individual Maoris whose countenances _ have been scanned by me. This tribe are sea nomads, and frequent all waters and islands of the Indian Archipelago. The above opinions would indicate a more remote and westerly origin to the Maori than has yet, as far as I am aware, been enunciated by prior writers; but, before dealing with this hypothesis, it will be necessary to examine into the grounds of the generally received opinion of their Malay origin. The idea of the Malay origin seems to have been accepted by various writers, owing to partial glossarial resemblance and great similarity of phonetic system and idiom; but the Malay is only one dialect amongst 300 or more spoken over the wide area of the Indian Archipelago, many of which have nearer resemblances to the Maori than the Malay has. Before, therefore, we can proceed, the hitherto accepted hypothesis of the Malay origin of the Maori requires refutation. The original seat of the Malays is ascribed to Malayala, on the Malabar Coast, as the Javanese to the Yavanas, of Central Asia. This may be fanciful or true ; I would rather adhere to the more practical theory, that the name of Malay was derived from the river Malayu, the highway to their Menangkabau territory in Sumatra, this being the common mode of naming tribes in these regions at the present day—such as Orang Johore, the people of the river Johore ; Orang Ache, the men of the river Acheen, etc. So I would also derive the generic term for the inhabitants of Java, from the fact of the island being called by the natives Tannah Jawa—literally, the land of rice fields—and as such it is pre-eminently the granary of the Archipelago, hence by surrounding tribes, the inhabitants are called Orang Jawa, which we translate into the term Javanese. According to the ‘‘Sijara Malayu” or ‘Malay Annals” (a copy of which is on the table) the Malay Rajas descended from no less a personage than Alexander 32 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. the Great, through issue by his Queen Shaher ul Beriah, daughter of Raja Kida Hindee (Porus). A descendant of these, named Raja Suran, carried an Indian army (of Klings or Dravirians) as far as Tamasak, the ancient name of the south part of the Malay Peninsula. This Prince or Raja married Putri Onang Kiu, a daughter of the King of Klang Kiu. Again, a descendant of this royal race, named Sangsapurba, was miraculously translated to Paralembangan (ancient Palembang) in the country of Andelas (Sumatra), where he is related to have married a princess of the Malay race, and was elected king. His son, Sang Nila Utama, was in due time united to Wan Sri Bini, the beautiful daughter of the Queen of Bentan (Bintang), and remained to rule that country. The father, Raja Sangsapurba, after visiting various countries, at length proceeded to Menangkabau, to the throne of which country, the principal seat of the Malays, he waselected. An illustrious princess of renowned beauty, named Nila Panchadi, was affianced to his son, Sri Tribuana, to whom she was duly: married. Sang Nila Utama remained at Bentan, but after a while was seized with a desire to visit Bemban (modern Tanjong Bomban), from whence, viewing the white sands of the beach of the shore of Tamasak, he crossed over the strait and settled there, giving the new country the name of Singapura (Singapore). Here the Malay annalist remarks that Singapura was a very extensive country, and its populous parts became much frequented by merchants from all parts. Such is a very abridged native account of the descent of the Malay race from the interior of Sumatra, on the Straits of Singapore, and lands adjacent, the date of which is given by Crawfurd as a.p. 1160, and probably this is very nearly correct, for Marco Polo, the renowned Venetian traveller, passed through the Straits in the year 1291, when he remarks of the settlement then existing as being governed by a king, the people having a peculiar language of their own, the town being large and well built, a considerable trade being carried on in spices and drugs, with which the place abounds, but nothing else presenting itself to notice. Shortly after the latter date the Malays were driven out of Singapore by the Javanese, after which they founded Malacca, from whence also their princes were driven out by the Portuguese in the year 1511. It will thus be seen that the Malays had but a comparatively modern and short possession of ancient Tamasak, whose straits hold the key of the Indian Archipelago. So their influence in prior and archaic waves of migrations passing through this great water-way of Asia and Polynesia must have been null. Having personally visited all the capitals of their so-called empires, viz., Bintang, Singapore, and Malacca, I can state that none of them even showed any proofs of former power and grandeur, there being no ancient monuments, nor the remains of structures such as are to be so amply discovered VYT AY YPONOCITS 4 <<<¢<<<<<< UD283UN70 == VO = 2) UDI*DOLZS UM a J 20D T Ce, 0090905050 aninobuo jy \ i 5 Go i a Ss WYY uorynsbn tu UDIS DIT») o U + yl LV ¥ cs) 2 —.F o ei ateasirs } ©Pooq000000 . 7 o AN ON °o TIE AT TOA SINLISNIZN SNVEL Se ER es te ee Sete Pere Sieh 4) ion WHT WRT 295 UAD yg gO Papursy 4) EL VYAT AYYW/Y + oogDpan boo ij. / PICS s >” ad na Aid Shae = a Heimann Ra Pe ee t Re 4 : a anes eS t : sigh A: eet . het PreSetade enyy TED) | EYEE OAL ‘puree *puUvIST MON ‘TLO’ TAL Ioqseq * umy V "Aq V * nie A. V ‘ MOT WV oud V BUY eH V N10 7, = eny a * keyer, V ‘oq1oTTe}) pue TOIMpurg = npn e suey = po ENS = Bre AA eae ae ONT = BULe A “meet ull] syeq q|° eye Gekal (G0 IO PRRGE GE |e 8a ET VEIT Cain ‘OPOOT[R YT (BOUIN) AO NT ‘endeg ‘endeg ‘STVUAWOANT AO ninduyg |* + nng nvig * BMIG Er AN eG = eal Sal * + TOU! meny GHENT foun} ‘ gedy |: eduy ee nny, oe OUND ened CMO eae NaS | ae OA ‘outddryiyg | “eayeurng ‘neuepuryy | “ouoduey NOSIUVANO/) TI XIGNHddV erndeg NVQ UBS ‘ uedvjoq nf weny OL qedury * Sry, CLG " nye0 "OORT? IAL ‘Key ey 91rd “ ouyEquT eal UR gy olay " 9MeNy 5 i ouny " ‘9pungy nA) ‘eSIpUuy YANOG TIULey, VLAD “* * gag * OIA. "+ 910 Hy * 9u0 guiry ese NRT ‘IBOSBOVPL IA eT Ino jf eal], “OMT, “9c YSTPouy J. T. THomson.—TZhe Whence of the Maori. English.| Saxon. Two Twa Five Kif Six Six Ten Tyn I or me| Icor me Fire Fyr Fruit Brucan Hair Heer Fish Fise Drink | Drincan Stone Stan Louse | Lus Load Lade Hill Hyl Sky —= Weep | Wepan Bury Byrian Split Spillan Land Land Deaf Deaf Wife Wit Water | Weeter Ear Har Tree Tree APPENDIX TIL CoMPARATIVE VOCABULARY. Latin. Greek. Duo Dud Quinque | Pénté Sex Héx Decem Déka Ego orme | go Tgnis Pur Fructus | Karpds Pili Thrix Piscis Icthus Potio Pind Lapis Petrés Pediculus | Ptheir Onus Accthds Collis Pagés Atither Aithér Lacrimare| Dakruo Humare | Thapto Fissura Schizo Terra Gé Surdus | Kophés Uxor Guné Aqua Hudor Auris Ous Arbor Dendrén ~Pharo Hindu. Do Paneh Che Dus Hum or me Aag Pul Bal Muchili Pina Putta Bari Par Asman Rota Zumeen Byra Juroo Pani Kand Jhar Sanserit. Dui, dwega Malay. Dua Lima Anam Sapuloh Aku Api Buah Bulu- bulu Ikan Minum Batu Kutu Pikul Bukit Langit Menan- gis Tanum Titta Benua Tuli Bini Ayer Telinga Kayu dl Maori. Rua Rima Ono Ngahuru Ahau Ahi Huah Huru- huru Ika Inu Kohatu Kutu Pikau Puke Rangi Tangi Tanu Tata Whenua Turi Wahini Wai Teringa Kai Art. Il.—Wotes upon the Historical Value of the ‘“‘ Traditions of the New Zealanders,” as collected by Sir George Grey, K.C.B., late Governor-in-Chief of New Zealand. By W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S8. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 16th September, 1871. In the following notes I propose to inquire how far the “ Traditions of the New Zealanders,” as collected and published by Sir George Grey, are to be relied upon, taken by themselves, in any investigations into the history of the race, either before or since the commencement of their occupation of these Islands. I think it desirable, however, before entering upon the proposed inquiry, 52 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. shortly to discuss the nature of the rules by which we ought to be guided, in giving or in refusing credit to narratives of this kind in relation to a savage people, who possess no other materials from which we can arrive at a knowledge of their history. ‘Tt may be assumed that a narrative of events which have not come under the actual observation of those to whom they are communicated, receives credence, amongst civilized people, in direct proportion, not only to the faith of the hearers in the truthfulness of the narrator, but also to their own experience as affecting the probable occurrence of the events narrated ; and that, even then, the narrative has no higher value, so far as the actual knowledge of those to whom it is communicated is concerned, than a plausible fiction, against which they are either unable or unwilling to raise any presumptions, and which they accordingly accept, without further. proof, solely on account of their faith and experience. But if the narrative in any degree conflicts with a knowledge on their part of circumstances which, in the ordinary course of things, must have so controlled the possible occurrence of the events narrated as to render the narrative at all improbable, then faith in the truthfulness of the narrator will not prevent doubt or disbelief, unless the alleged occurrences are supported by independent proofs sufficient to remove such doubts. Educated men refuse, in such a case, to accept any speculative theory, however otherwise plausible, until they have received some positive testimony in support of it. With uneducated people, on the other hand, with whom I should class such an intelligent savage race as the New Zealanders, the acceptance or rejection of such narratives rests on a different basis, and the credit given depends upon a different class of feelings. In such cases imagination takes an active part in inducing belief, and the delight with which narratives involving the marvellous are usually received, if the events narrated be sufficiently removed either in point of time or of distance, indicates not only a less critical judgment, but also that faith is but little controlled by the teachings of experience, and that even in cases which, to the educated mind, would appear very glaring and absurd. I take the following illustrations of these positions from Chambers’ “ Book of Days” :—“ Hasted, in his History of Kent, states that the popular belief as to the two female figures, side by side, and close together, impressed _ upon the Biddendon cakes, is, that they represent two maiden ladies, named Preston, who, at a remote period, were born twins, and in the close bodily union represented on the cakes ; whereas he ascertained, beyond a doubt, that the impression in question was of quite recent origin, and that the figures were meant to represent ‘two widows as the general objects of a charitable benefaction.’ The story of the conjoined twins—though not inferring a thing impossible or even unexampled—must, says the writer, be set down as one of the cases of which so many are to be found in the legends of the common people, where a tale is invented, by a simple and natural process, to account W. T. L. Travers.—Traditions of the New Zealanders. 53 for appearances after the real meaning of the appearances is lost. In this way, too, a vast number of old monuments, and a still greater number of the names of places, come to have grandam tales of the most absurd kind con- nected with them, as the history of their origin. There is, says the same writer, in the Greyfriars’ Churchyard in Edinburgh, a mausoleum, composed of a recumbent female figure, with a pillar-supported canopy over her, on which stand four female figures at the several corners. The popular story is, that the recumbent lady was poisoned by her four daughters, whose statues were placed over her in eternal remembrance of their wickedness ; the fact being that the four figures are those of Faith, Charity, etc.—favourite emblematical characters in the age when the monument was erected, and the object in placing them there was purely ornamental.” But where intrinsic presumptions can fairly be raised against the truth of a narrative, however plausible it may be on a cursory view, we are entitled to require that it be supported by some independent and positive testimony, which shall raise it to the undoubted dignity of atruth. In this, however, lies the chief difficulty in dealing with the case of Traditions of the class now under consideration ; for, it being manifestly impossible to support them by any positive testimony, we must be content to arrive at an estimate of their value, for historical purposes, by a careful and reasonable criticism, and then to accept them as narratives of fact in pro- portion, but in strict proportion only, to the probabilities by which they can be supported. Under any circumstances, indeed, the origin and history of a savage race, possessing neither written nor pictorial records, must be a difficult subject to deal with, but more especially so when the race in question has, for some period of unknown duration, occupied a position of quasi-isolation from the rest of mankind. ‘Those who have attempted to investigate the origin and history of the races which occupied Western Europe before the Roman conquests, have experienced and commented upon this kind of difficulty, and have found it impossible to arrive at any conclusions which can be treated as demonstrable, notwithstanding the material assistance derived from the accounts of ancient writers, the examination of monuments of various kinds, and the careful analyses which, of late years, have been made of the languages spoken by the descendants of those races. They have been obliged, in effect, to adopt a course very similar to that which I propose to follow in the present inquiry, and have ultimately accepted such only of the Traditions still extant, relating to the races in question, as do not conflict with probabilities still ascertaimabie. Tn this connection it must be manifest that the term “Tradition,” applied to narratives of the class under review, at all events when presented to us in the character of historical tales, ought to have some definite meaning, and I shall assume that, for the purposes of criticism, they must be provisionally accepted G 54 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. as ‘oral records of past events,” but that they are entitled to be received as such, only in so far as they bear the test of reasonable criticism, and can be supported by probabilities arismg from the character, position, and cireum- stances of the people to whom they are applied. In the present inquiry I propose to act upon the rules which I have thus ventured to lay down, and so to ascertain to what extent the “Traditions” in question (using the term provisionally) may fairly claim to come within the foregoing definition. It will have been observed by those who have perused these “ Traditions,” _that the ancestors of the present race of New Zealanders are invariably represented as having migrated, at a comparatively recent period, from a place called ‘‘ Hawaiki,” the locality of which, however, is utterly unknown to the present people, and has, certainly, been equally unknown to their ancestors for very many generations. Now, ifthe migrations mentioned in the “ Traditions ” had taken place at periods so recent as those which are assigned to them, the loss of all knowledge of the actual position of Hawaiki by so enterprising a race as the New Zealanders, would be extremely singular, it appearing, if we ave to credit the narratives in this respect, not only that the voyage from Hawaiki to these Islands and back again, had more than once been undertaken without hesitation, and performed without difficulty, but that on one occasion, at least, it had been successfully performed by persons who had not made it before, guided solely by instructions from a previous explorer. Still the fact of migration is insisted upon in all the narratives, and although, in our present state of geographical and nautical knowledge, the possibility of any such migrations as those which are narrated, is scarcely admissible, we should not, for reasons which will appear in the sequel, be justified on this ground alone in rejecting the “Traditions.” A precisely similar difficulty presents itself in regard to the inhabitants of Madagascar, who, even in a higher degree than the natives of New Zealand, offer an exception to the ordinary rules by which we are guided in fixing the origin of Island populations. Madagascar lies at a distance of only 300 miles from the Hastern Coast of Africa, and, in accordance with observed rules, we should, in the absence of proof to the contrary, unhesitatingly assume that the affinities of its Flora and Fauna, including man, as well as of its language, would lie with those of that continent. But this is not the case as regards its people, who belong to the same branch of the Polynesian races, to which the inhabitants of these Islands, lying 130° to the eastward, and between the 35th and 40th parallels of south latitude, and the inhabitants of the Sandwich Islands, lying 155° to the east- ward, and in the 23° of north latitude, also belong. Now the nearest land to Madagascar, which is occupied by people allied to its inhabitants, is nearly 3,000 miles distant, without any intervening station, making the peopling of that Island, if it was effected by migration, a greater difficulty than the W. T. L. Travers.—Traditions of the New Zealanders. 5D peopling of New Zealand from the supposed centre of dispersion of the common race. The case of Madagascar has, in effect, been long treated as an ethnological mystery, and I think that the case of New Zealand will, when the “ Traditions” now under discussion are reduced to their true value, be looked upon as involving little less difficulty. Comparing the manners and customs of the inhabitants of Madagascar with those of the New Zealanders, we find that the former are almost entitled to the position of a civilized people, and yet, so far as I have been able to ascertain, they possess neither historical records, nor monuments of any kind calculated to throw light upon the time or the manner in which they first occupied that Island. Baron Humboldt, brother of the great traveller, thus expresses his opinion on the subject :—“ There is no doubt that the Malagasi belongs to the family of the Malayan languages, and bears the greatest affinity to the languages spoken in Java, Sumatra, and the whole Indian Archipelago, but it remains entirely enigmatical in what manner and at what period this Malayan population made its way to Madagascar.” Mr. Ellis remarks, however, that it has been generally admitted that there is reasonable evidence that the vessels of the Polynesian races were formerly much larger than they are at present, and that we have sufficiently well authenticated accounts of voyages, long in point of duration and of distance, having been performed by people of these races in recent times, to raise a fair presumption of their former ability to spread themselves over even the widely extended regions which they now occupy. It would, indeed, be even more singular than the actual occurrence of such migrations, that a people occupying a country at such a distance as New Zealand from any other land, and so entirely out of the ordinary line of the navi- gation of the Polynesian races, should possess traditional accounts of such events, unless they were founded upon some long antecedent fact. But whilst this circumstance gives weight to the proposition involved in the “ Traditions,” that the ancestors of the present people migrated to these Islands from some part of Polynesia, then inhabited by the same race—and justifies us, more especially when taken in connection with the case of Madagascar, in accepting migration as a fact—it affords us no clue whatever to the locality of “‘ Hawaiki,” or to the probable date of the events in question. My own belief is, that the whole of the narratives based upon this recollection, are, so far as they pretend to give historical accounts of contemporaneous events, pure fictions ; and that, so far as they represent actual events at all, they only represent comparatively recent occurrences, which have been engrafted upon the leading idea by some imaginative minds. Accepting migration, however, as a fact, I will now proceed to inquire to what extent we are aided by the “ Traditions ” them- selves, in fixing either the locality of Hawaiki, or the probable dates of the various migrations referred to in them. It is noteworthy, in regard to the latter question, that the migrations 56 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. recorded are all supposed to have taken place within a comparatively limited time, and, in effect, the narratives in question, when reduced for the purposes of criticism, to their simplest elements, give the following as the sequence of the events leading to, during, and immediately after the alleged migrations. Ist. That the intention to migrate was formed in consequence of dissensions in Hawaiki, followed by long and sanguinary wars, in which the tribes to which the intending emigrants belonged had already suffered severely, and apprehended further disasters. 2nd. That the first person who undertook the voyage to New Zealand with the intention of migration was Ngahue, who went forth, as the story tells us, “to discover a country in which he might dwell in peace,” and that “he found, in the sea, the North Island of New Zealand,” which he named Aotea-roa, or the long day.* 3rd. That Ngahue returned to Hawaiki, and reported his discovery to his people, commenting upon the beauty of the country, and that a migration was at once determined upon, and soon afterwards undertaken. 4th. That, for the purposes of this migration, a number of canoes were constructed, amongst which the ‘Avawa’ and the ‘Tainui’ are specially mentioned. 5th. That, when the canoes were completed, the emigrants started for New Zealand—the ‘ Arawa’ under Tama-te-Kapua ; but the actual commander of the ‘Tainui,’ which was to have sailed under the charge of Ngatoro-i-rangi, is not mentioned.T 6th. That during the voyage the ‘ Arawa’ and the ‘ Tainui’ separated, the former narrowly escaping shipwreck. 7th. That the ‘Tainui’ arrived first, followed almost immediately by the ‘ Arawa,’ and that both reached the Hast Coast nearly at the same point. 8th. That the immigrants, though in comparatively small numbers, soon separated, and, in different parties, occupied stations on both coasts of the North Island, . 9th. That the whole of the northern tribes are descended from these immigrants. 10th. That this migration took place not more than 350 years ago. I propose to examine the above points very much in the order given, and * The name of Aotea-roa is remarkable as indicating that the people by whom it was given had previously occupied a tropical country, in which, of course, the summer days were much shorter than they are in the latitude of New Zealand. + The ‘ Arawa’ evidently made the voyage only once, for we find that Raumati, one of the chiefs of the people who had come over in the ‘Tainui,’ and who had settled at Kawhia, hearing that she was laid up in a creek at Maketu, went across the island and maliciously burnt her. —? SO a ee W. T. L. Travers.—Traditions of the New Zealanders. 57 I think we shall find that the proposition I have already laid down, namely, that the narratives in question are not entitled to be regarded as records of events contemporaneous with the original introduction of the New Zealanders into this country, is well founded. I may at once say that I do not propose to offer any speculations of my own as to the locality of “ Hawaiki.” Those who are curious upon this subject may consult the pages of Dieffenbach, Colenso, Shortland, Ellis, Captain Erskine, and others who have inquired into the matter, and particu- larly the writings of the Rev. Richard Taylor, who has solved all difficulties in connection with the alleged migrations and the locality of Hawaiki, in a manner highly satisfactory to himself, if not to those who may be indisposed to put faith in speculations unsupported either by reasonable conjecture, or by the faintest testimony. In effect, a perusal of the writings of the several authors referred to (except, of course, the Rev. Mr. Taylor) will show that, apart from any other question touching the origin of the New Zealanders, the locality of Hawaiki is involved in great mystery and difficulty, and when I have called your attention to certain passages in the narratives under con- sideration, we shall find that they afford us no assistance whatsoever in solving the mystery or in dispelling the difficulty. From an examination of the various legends, we find the following persons mentioned as principal actors in connection with the original discovery of these islands,—in the alleged dissensions and wars at Hawaiki,—and in the various migrations which resulted from these dissensions :— Uenuku, a great ariki or high-priest. Manaia, a chief, married to Kuiwai, the sister of Ngatoro-i-rangi, and supposed ancestor of the Ngatiawa tribes. Houmai-tawhitt, father of Tama-te-Kapua, who commanded the ‘ Arawa’ in the great migration. Tama-te-Kapua, himself. Nyasoro-i-rangi, who was to have had charge of the ‘Tainui,’ as before mentioned. Nyahue, alleged to have found the North Island when searching for a new abode. Kupe, a previous discoverer of the Islands, and claimed by the Muaupoko as their ancestor. Turi, the supposed ancestor of the Wanganui tribes ; and others, whom, for my present purpose, it is not necessary specially to refer to. As I before mentioned, Ngahue was the first who visited New Zealand with the intention of making it his future abode, but we are informed, in the legend of the Emigration of Turi, that both islands had previously been discovered by Kupe (a contemporary of Turi), in a canoe called the ‘ Mata- 58 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. horua,’ which, as well as the ‘Aotea,’ had been constructed by Toto, the father- in-law of Turi, from a log of timber obtained on the banks of a lake (I presume in Hawaiki),' named Waiharakeke. This canoe (the ‘ Matahorua’) had been given by Toto to his daughter Kumararotini, the wife of Hoturapa, Kupe’s cousin. Kupe killed this cousin, and carried off his wife, and is said, whilst flying in the ‘ Matahorua’ from the vengeance of Hoturapa’s relatives, to have discovered the Islands of New Zealand, and to have circumnavigated them without finding any inhabitants. A curious circumstance is mentioned in connection with this supposed voyage, namely, that near Castle Point the voyagers saw a huge cuttle fish, which fled before their canoe in the direction of Cook Straits, and which was afterwards killed by Kupe in Tory Channel. It is somewhat strange that, in the course of last year, accounts reached us of an enormous cuttle fish, nearly seven feet long, having been found dead on the beach near Castle Point. When Turi, in dread of the vengeance of Uenuku, for having killed and eaten his infant son, determined to leave Hawaiki, he obtained from his father-in-law, Toto, the ‘ Aotea,’ the sister canoe to the ‘Matahorua,’ and having received from Kupe, who, in the meantime, had returned to Hawaiki, full instructions (the singularity of which will appear in the sequel) how to reach New Zealand, started on his voyage, accompanied by some of his people in another canoe, named the ‘ Ririno.’ We are told, in the legend, that the ‘voyagers took with them, in the ‘ Aotea,’ “‘ sweet potatoes, of the species called Te Kakau, dried stones or berries of the Karaka tree, live edible rats in boxes, tame green parrots (I suppose the Soe pet Pukekos (Porphyrio melanotus ) and other valuable things.” In this account of the “‘ Aotea’s’ valuable freight,” as it is termed in the legend, we have not only a very remarkable instance of early labours in acclimatization, but an invaluable clue to the identification of ‘‘ Hawaiki,” and it will certainly be an interesting surprise when some island is discovered in the Polynesian group, producing the Karaka, the Kiore, and the Pukeko, and in which the two former are used as food by its human inhabitants. Returning to our voyagers, we are told that they halted on their way at a small island named Rangitahua, where they rested for some time and refitted their canoes. During their stay at this island, they are said to have killed two dogs, (of which they are said to have brought several as being valuable stock, though not mentioned in the ‘ Aotea’s’ manifest), and one of which was devoted to the gods as a propitiatory offering, to insure the continued success of the voyage. It appears that when the ceremonies attending this sacrifice were ended, “‘a very angry discussion arose between Poturu (who had charge of the ‘Ririno),’ and Turi, as to the direction they should sail in. Turi persisted in wishing to pursue an easterly course, saying, ‘ Nay, nay, let us séz// sail towards W. T. L. Travers.—Traditions of the New Zealanders. 59 the quarter where the sun first flares up ; but Poturu answered him, ‘ But I say nay, nay, let us proceed towards that quarter of the heavens in which the sun sets.’ Turi replied, ‘Why, did not Kupe, who had visited these Islands’ [speaking of the Islands, it will be observed, in the present tense] ‘particularly tell us, now mind, let nothing induce you to turn the prow of your canoe away from that quarter of the heavens in which the sun rises?” Poturu, however, appears to have prevailed, and having started from Rangitahua, the party followed his lead in the ‘ Ririno,’ but soon came to grief, the ‘ Ririno’ being wrecked. The ‘ Aotea’ then changed her course according to Kupe’s original instructions, and ultimately reached Aotea, on the West Coast of the North Island, Kupe himself having first made the land on the East Coast. All the particulars of this voyage, and the acts of Turi and his people on their arrival at Aotea, are related in the narrative with great exactness and detail, but the sailing directions given by Kupe are evidently quite different from those which could have led him to the East Coast, and from those which were used by the ‘Arawa’ and the ‘Tainui,’ which, as will shortly be seen, arrived from the eastward. It would, indeed, be difficult to conjecture, from Kupe’s sailing directions, the locality from which Turi and his people had started, no land lying to the westward or north-westward of New Zealand, except Australia, from which, it is very clear, the New Zealanders did not come. Nor do some of the other circumstances stated with respect to this voyage add to the credibility of this particular narrative. As I have before observed, the ‘‘Traditions” give us accounts of at least two independent discoveries of these Islands by voyages from Hawaiki, before any of the “ migrations ” took place, namely, that by Ngahue and that by Kupe, and we are led to believe that in both cases the discoverers found no difficulty in performing the voyage here and back. We are further told that the instructions for the voyage were so simple, that Turi and his people, as well as the commanders of the ‘ Arawa’ and the ‘Tainui,’ were enabled, by following those instructions, to make their land-fall with as much certainty as the most experienced navigator of the present day could do. All this becomes the more astonishing when we know the great straits to which shipwrecked Europeans, even with the aid of the compass, have been reduced in attempting to reach land far less distant from the scene of their disaster, than New Zealand is from the nearest land which can possibly be looked upon as Hawaiki. Turning now to the migration of Tama-te-Kapua, and those who accom- panied bim in the ‘ Arawa,’ the ‘Tainui,’ and other canoes, we are informed, by the legends, that on the return of Ngahue to Hawaiki, he found the people all engaged in war, and that-when he reported his discovery and the beauty of the country, some of them determined at once to emigrate to it. The chief 60 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. of these was Tama-te-Kapua, son of Houmai-tawhiti, whose people had suffered severely in war with Uenuku, and who dreaded further reprisals for some unjustifiable acts of cannibalism which they had recently committed. Having constructed several canoes, amongst which the more celebrated were the ‘ Arawa’ and the ‘Tainui,’ they left Hawaiki for New Zealand, and in due time arrived on the East Coast, the ‘Tainui’ first reaching the land. In consequence of disputes as to the ownership of a dead whale, the immigrants soon separated, some going to the northward, some to the southward, and some, crossing the portage at Otahuhu, proceeding to occupy the country on the western side of the Island. It is evident that the incident of the dead whale mentioned in the account of this principal migration, is the same which is referred to in the “Legend of the Emigration of Manuia,” for we find the ‘Toko-maru,’ the canoe in which Manaia is reported to have made the voyage from Hawaiki, amongst those which were dragged across the portage at the time above referred to. It is not necessary for my purpose to go any further into the particulars attending the alleged voyages, but I think I have shown, that although we may accept as a fact, singularly preserved, that the ancestors of the present New Zealanders came to this country from some other land, the accounts given of the incidents which occurred during the voyages are in themselves too improbable to justify our treating them, in any degree, as records of contem-. poraneous events. I will now proceed to inquire into the date assigned by the legends to these migrations, and the result will, I think, strongly confirm the above position. / Amongst the persons who are said to have arrived in the ‘Tainui,’ with the great migration was Hotunui, who, after the separation of the people consequent upon the disputes about the whale, went and settled at Kawhia. Here he had a son born to him, named Maru-tuaha, whom, however, he never saw until the latter had reached man’s estate, for it appears that on account of some false accusation of theft, Hotunui had, before the birth of his son, abandoned his family and his settlement at Kawhia, and gone to live at Whakatiwai, in the Gulf of Hauraki. Here he married a sister of a chief named Te Whata, by whom he had another son, whom he named Paka. When Maru-tuaha reached man’s estate he went to seek his father, and on his way across the island, and when close to his father’s new settlement, was met by the two daughters of Te Whata, the elder of whom at once fell in love with him. The account of the meeting of the father and son is very interesting, as well as that of the circumstances under which Maru-tuaha and his half-brother Paka afterwards married the two daughters of Te Whata, the former, however, marrying the younger and more comely of the two. Maru- W. T. L. Travers.—TZraditions of the New Zealanders. 61 tuaha appears to have settled at Whakatiwai, with his father, Hotunui, and to have engaged in wars with neighbouring people, in which he was successful, adding greatly to his father’s territory. We then learn that Paka, the younger son of Hotunui, had a daughter named Te Kahureremoa, famed for her beauty, and whom her father was desirous of uniting in marriage to a son of the then chief of the Great Barrier Island, in order that the ultimate possession of that island might be secured for his own family. Now this project did not suit the fancy of Te Kahureremoa, who, with the capricc common to beautiful women, had chosen to fall in love with another, in the person of Takakopizi, chief of Otawa, whom she had seen and admired during a visit he had paid to her father, and whom she had made up her mind to marry. We are not informed, in the legend, whether any understanding on the subject existed between Te Kahureremoa and the young chief of Otawa, but it is probable that he had expressed some admiration of her during his visit, and that she felt pretty sure of her ground, for we find that when her father broke his wishes to her respecting the Barrier Island chief, she at once made arrangements for flight, and, accompanied only by a single female slave, actually fled towards Otawa. Having nearly reached this place, she fell in with Takakopizi, who was out upon a hunting expedition, and the result was that they were shortly afterwards married with great pomp and ceremony. Now, Te Kahureremoa is said to have borne a daughter to Takakopiri, named Tuparaheke, “from whom,” in the words of the legend, “ in eleven generations, or in about 275 years, have sprung all the principal chiefs of the Ngatihaua tribe, alive in 1853.” Adding the lives of Tuparaheke, of Te Kahureremoa, and of Paka, the son of Hotunui, who is said to have accompanied the firs: great migration from Hawaiki, to these eleven generations, we have only fourteen generations, or about 350 years ago, as the assigned date of that event. It will thus be seen that the “ Traditions,” if entitled to be taken as narratives of events contemporaneous with, or immediately following the alleged migrations, would lead us to the following conclusions, namely :— 1st. That these islands were twice discovered, within a limited period, by voyagers from Hawaiki. | 2nd. That upon the visit of Kupe, the supposed first discoverer, and who expressly reported that he had circumnavigated the islands, they were found to be uninhabited ; whilst Ngahue, being silent on this point, may be said to have affirmed the same fact. ord. That the migrations consequent upon the reported discoveries of Kup and N gahue, though successive, all took place within a very limited perioc, and were not followed by any further arrivals from Hawaiki. 4th, That although the number of persons who emigrated was not larg: H 62 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. their increase must have been extraordinarily rapid, for we find, from the legends themselves, that very soon afterwards the people were settled in great numbers in various parts of both islands, and were often engaged in sanguinary wars. Indeed those parts of the ‘‘ Traditions” which purport to give accounts of events immediately subsequent to the migrations, depict the habits and customs of a long-settled people, well acquainted with the topography and with the natural productions of the country, affording, in my opinion, irre- spective of any outside considerations, conclusive evidence that the whole of the tales, founded upon the bare recollection or tradition of a foreign origin, are in the nature of historical novels, in which a few real and comparatively recent events are made the ground work of a large amount of fiction, suited to the imaginative and speculative character of the people to whom they were addressed, ; i It is unnecessary for me to go any further into detail in criticising these tales in order to satisfy those who choose to peruse them with a reasonable appreciation of the questions which they purport to solve, that so far from solving these questions they are calculated either to check inquiry, or to envelope the matters in point, in deeper mystery and confusion. -But whilst I do not hesitate in stating this opinion, we must not therefore assume that these tales are, or rather must necessarily continue to be, without value in connection with the history of the New Zealand race. Indeed, we are under great obligations to Sir George Grey for having recorded them, and if the same care is bestowed in preserving the legendary tales of other branches of the race in other places, we may possibly arrive, in the future, at some reason- able idea of the circumstances which led to their dispersion over the enormous area which they still occupy, and of the means by which that dispersion was effected. And now, in closing these remarks, [ cannot do better than refer those who are desirous of fuller information on the general question, to Mr. Colenso’s valuable “ Essay on the Maori Race” (published in the first volume of the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute), in which the foregoing arguments have been anticipated, but only in general terms, and which embodies opinions in which I entirely coincide; and I have no doubt that, even when all the facts which can properly be used in elucidating the mystery in which the origin of the New Zealanders, as a branch of the Malayan race, is at present shrouded, have been collected, and carefully and honestly digested, we shall be obliged to conclude, with the writer of that Essay, that the first occupation of these islands by the race whom we found here, is a very old story indeed. W. T. L. Travers.—WNotes on the Chatham Islands. 63 Arr. III.—WNotes on the Chatham Islands, extracted from Letters from Mr. H. H. Travers. By W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 25th November, 1871.] I BEG to communicate to the Society the following notes, extracted from letters from my son, who is now on a visit to the Chatham Islands, and is engaged in collecting objects illustrative of their natural history. He started from New Zealand in the beginning of July, experiencing very severe weather on the passage down. During the voyage he saw considerable numbers of Mollymawks (Diomedea melanoptorys ), Cape Pigeons (Procellaria capensis ), and other kinds ‘of Petrel, but very few Albatrosses. Unfortunately, the want of hooks pre- vented his obtaining any specimens of these birds. The vessel first made the land near Manganui, the residence of a German family (whose name he does not mention), by whom he was received and treated with great kindness. Their place derives its name from a picturesque volcanic hill, at the foot of which the house is built. This hill is clothed with bush on its lower slopes, from which it emerges, as it were, in nearly perpendicular crags, full of small caves and fissures. He searched these caves for traces of raised beaches, but observed none. He, however, found in them considerable numbers ,of birds’ bones, but whether any of them are of extinct species does not appear from his letter. The beach near the house is strewed with dead shells, chiefly Z’urbo Cookit, Hlenchus, Iris, a large Triton (the specific name of which is not given), with quantities of bivalve shells, which he describes as generally similar to those on the beach at Waikanae heads. Manganui is near Tuponga, which, before the Maoris’ late departure from the Chathams for Taranaki, was one of their most flourishing settlements. This settlement appears to have been nearly destroyed by the tidal wave of 15th August, 1868, by which many of the huts were broken to pieces, the fragments being carried for a considerable distance inland. He next visited Wangaroa, the only harbour in the islands. It has the appearance of a small lake, the shores of which were formerly covered with bush, which has since been destroyed. In walking from Manganui to Wangaroa, he passed one of the places in which the peat (which covers a large part of the main island to a considerable depth,) has been on fire for time out of mind. Mr. Engst, by whom he was accompanied, pointed out where, thirty years before, the road crossed a place now occupied by a deep hole, resulting from the burning of the peat, and my son observed that, since that time, the entire space burnt does not exceed an acre in extent, showing how very slow is the process of destruction. Some of the burnt-out holes are now filled with water to the depth of ten or twelve feet. From Wangaroa he pro- ceeded to Waitangi, where the late New Zealand convicts were kept. He 64 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. expresses little surprise at their escape, and describes the so-called redoubt as a most miserable affair. In every respect the utmost looseness appears to have been observed in regard to them, and their moderation on the occasion of their departure is still a matter of wonder. The tidal wave did much damage to this settlement also, and the sea has since been encroaching rapidly on the narrow strip of level land between the hills and high water mark. He was fortunate enough to obtain here an ancient Moriori stone club, of which he has sent a drawing. These weapons are now extremely rare, only one or two having previously been obtained. He describes it as having been manufac- tured from stone found on the island, rather rough in finish and peculiar in form. He also obtained one of their primitive fish-hooks, made from the Pope’s-eye bone of the seal. These implements are also now very rare. In the latter part of July he left the main island for Pitt’s Island, which he reached on the 29th. Here he was most kindly received by Mr. Hunt’s family. He noticed that wherever the tidal wave had impinged on the beach the old accumulations of sea-sand had been completely washed away, and that a great number of slips had since taken place in the hills adjoming the shore. At Waikari he found a considerable quantity of fossils and plant impressions, but of what age he does not mention. He has, however, collected largely, and no doubt these collections will enable the age and character of the deposits to be determined. In August he again visited the main island, chiefly for the purpose of inquiring into the traditions of the Moriori inhabitants. They are now very few in number, and he found that, with the exception of four or five old men, they were utterly ignorant on the subject of their origin. The infor- mation he obtained leads him to believe that the Morioris are a mixed race, descended from the union of Maoris, who had reached the islands many generations ago from New Zealand, with an aboriginal race by whom they were then occupied. These aboriginal people are represented as having been taller and more robust than the Maoris, but seeing that the latter are them- selves a robust and powerful race, I think this may be doubted. As my son is collecting a large number of skulls from old burying places on the islands, no doubt some opinion on this point, and also as to any difference between the aboriginal and the mixed race may be arrived at. He also states that the present people represent that their Maori ancestors came originally to New Zealand from Hawaiki, wherever that may be ; that when they came to the Chathams they brought with them the kumera (Iponea tuberculata ), and karaka (Corynocarpus levigata), but that the former did not thrive, owing to the moistness of the climate. He finds the karaka growing abun- dantly in the immediate neighbourhood of the various old settlements, but not in the general bush of the islands, which gives colour to the state- ment of its comparatively recent introduction. They further state that their W. T. L. Travers.—WNotes on the Chatham Islands. 65 Maori progenitors arrived in two separate batches, at considerable intervals of time, and that it was not until the arrival of the second batch that wars and cannibalism were introduced amongst them. These habits, however, were not long persisted in, having been brought to an end through the wisdom of a chief, who saw that the inevitable result would be the extinction of the people. After this they continued to live in profound peace until invaded by the Maoris, as detailed in my son’s account of his former visit. At the date of his last letter to me he was still in communication with some of the older people, and hoped to gather fuller accounts than have yet been published of their habits of life before the invasion. I may here mention that the report of Mr. Rolleston on the condition of the existing remnant of the Moriori race indicates that it had undergone great deterioration in physical character, as the result, no doubt, of close inter-breeding for many generations. My son’s observations on the general fauna and flora are necessarily at present incomplete, but I gather from his letters that he expects to add largely to the number of plants collected on his former visit, especially amongst the cryptogams, although he has also found several new and interesting phanerogamous plants, all, however, closely allied to, if not idetical with those of New Zealand. As on his former visit, he finds it extremely difficult to preserve his specimens, owing to the dampness of the climate, and he had already lost two large collections of sea-weeds through mildew. He states that the undergrowth on both islands has been greatly destroyed by pigs and other animals, rendering it difficult to obtain specimens of ferns, etc., in anything like good condition, and leading him to suppose that many of the species will soon become extinct. Amongst the birds he has obtained are several which he believes to be new to our fauna. He particularly mentions a large and beautifully crested Cormorant, which he shortly describes as follows : Head and crest jet black ; back black, except a patch between the wings, which is pure white ; throat, neck, and breast also white, and over the nostrils carunculated patches of naked skin. He also mentions a small bird, entirely black in plumage, and having much the habits of Petroica albifrons ; a Dotterel, differing from the common Dotterel of this country, which he also found ; a sea-bird, called by the whalers the “ Blue Billy,” the beak of which is singularly shaped, and of a blue colour, whence its trivial name; the Nelly (Ossifraga gigantea), of which he has obtained some very large and fine-plumaged speci- mens, and several other birds which, though not new, are rare and interesting. He has obtained the skeletons of two species of seal, and one of a species of Berardius, of which a tooth is preserved in the Colonial Museum. He noticed a considerable number of peculiar fish, both marine and fresh water, and many beautiful molluscous animals, but was unfortunately short both of bottles and spirits for preserving them. He has not found any lizards on the main island, and has been assured, both by the European residents and by the 66 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. natives that they had never seen any. Ee obtained one specimen at Pitt’s Island, and saw several more. He is informed that these reptiles are numerous on the Star ‘Keys, a small rocky islet some few miles from Pitt Island, which he hopes to be able to visit.. He mentions, too, the probable existence of a native rat, mentioned by the Morioris, but has not yet seen any specimen. From the tenour of his letters I believe that his collections will add greatly to our knowledge of the fauna and flora of the islands, and may probably help in determining the period at which they were cut off from land communication with New Zealand. Art. 1V.—Moas and Moa Hunters. Address to the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. By Junius Haast, Ph.D., F.R.S. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 1st March, 1871.] GENTLEMEN,— When I had the honour to deliver to you last year the usual anniversary address, I earnestly hoped that you would elect for the next session another of your members as your President, but although I repeatedly acquainted you with my wishes in this respect, I had to give way to your urgent request to keep for this year the honourable position assigned me, for which, no doubt, many of the members of our Institute are, in many respects, much better qualified than I am. In my address of last year, I pointed out how very desirable it would be to have scientific and technical education introduced among us to further the sound advancement of the Province; and the members of the Philosophical Institute, by petitioning the General Assembly, and by several other means, have shown their anxiety for the same object. Hitherto, however, no further steps have been taken by the authorities of the Province, with the exception of the opening of the Canterbury Museum in a building of its own; but I have no doubt that the desire for the progress of the colony, and the wise liberality of the Provincial Council will, in due course of time, bring about the desirable improvement and addition to our educational machinery. In a country like ours, with its resources only partly developed, with a great variety of fine and useful raw material, with a large and daily increasing agricultural population, and with magnificent and never failing water power in every direction, every step tending to teach its inhabitants to make better use of their dormant resources is in the right direction, and New Zealand can only become great and truly independent when its growing population will have the means to obtain all those advantages which older countries now offer to their youth. Not that I wish for a moment to assert that scientific and technical education would offer a panacea for all shortcomings we have to contend with, t Haast.—Moas and Moa Hunters. 67 because it is self-evident that many causes must combine advantageously to advance a nation, but it is one amongst others of which, I can truly say, that: it has produced good results in other countries ; and I am not going too far in stating that the advantages gained just now by one great nation over another, to the utter astonishment of the whole civilized world, have, in many respects, only been obtained by the daily improving system, of which scientific and technical teaching forms a portion, through which all classes of the German Empire have become more highly educated, whilst the French nation has remained comparatively stationary. I should like to dwell somewhat longer upon this very important subject did I not fear I should weary you with it. I shall therefore devote the space of time allotted to me to some other subjects which have for a considerable number of years occupied my attention. When a French savant in Amiens, Boucher de Perthes, announced to the world in 1847 that he had discovered, in the gravels of the valley of the Somme, rude flint implements, together with the bones of the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, lion, cave bear, etc., an incredulous smile, if not more, passed over the faces of scientific men, geologists as well as archeologists. Both considered it a settled point, that the huge pachydermata which at one time inhabited the Huropean continent, were so long extinct, and the human race of such recent origin, that it was impossible they could be contem- poraneous. However, further researches in almost every Huropean country have proved beyond a doubt that the French savant was right, and that these gigantic animals, although having been extinct for such a length of time that we have no means of calculating it even approximately, were nevertheless hunted and used as food by man, and were thus connected with the present age, showing conclusively that Europe has been much longer inhabited by the human race than was formerly supposed or admitted. If we turn now to the southern hemisphere, and especially to New Zealand, we have to overcome the opposite difficulty, it having been generally asserted that the extinct gigantic birds formerly inhabiting these islands, and doubtless representing the huge pachydermata and other gigantic forms of the same geological period in the northern hemisphere, have only recently become extinct, that there were no original inhabitants in these islands, and that the different species of Dinornis only became extinct by the exertions of a race of new comers, who, not many hundred years ago, landed as immigrants on the coast of New Zealand. With your permission, I shall devote the next portion of my address to these interesting questions, which are so full of suggestive matter. The pre-historic people in Europe have been divided into four great divisions, according to the nature of the tools they employed :—I1st. To the 68 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Paleolithic period belonged those oldest inhabitants who used only flint and stone implements roughly chipped, without any attempt to polish them. 2nd. To the Neolithic, those who had already advanced a considerable step in art, and whose stone implements of well selected forms were more or less finely polished. 3rd. The Bronze age included those nations who used bronze implements. And lastly—4th. The Iron age, those who, after the intro- duction of iron, almost exclusively employed this ore for the manufacture of their weapons and tools. Europe has been for many centuries in the last- mentioned age, whilst New Zealand at the time of the arrival of the Europeans was only in the neolithic period, or that of polished stone imple- ments, but there is ample evidence that the paleolithic period, and with it a people most probably belonging to a different race from the present native inhabitants of these islands, had passed away together with the different Dinornis species, long before the Maoris settled here. I shall endeavour to prove these propositions by laying before you the main evidence I have been able to collect, but I shall give you only the general results, leaving for some other occasion all the details in proof of my hypothesis, for which drawings, sections, and maps are necessary. Our first step must be to inquire what geological evidence we have of the age of the Moa, or Dimornis, because if we are able to settle that important point satisfactorily, the age of the moa-hunting population, of which I shall speak more fully in the sequel, is also fixed with the same degree of certainty. Moa bones occur first in beds which have been formed during the glacier period of New Zealand, and the era immediately following it. The principal strata in which they are imbedded are either lacustrine or fluviatile beds, situated between or immediately above the large morainic accumulations which mark the former extension of our enormous glaciers in post-pliocene times. Some localities, such as the banks of the river immediately below Lake Tekapo, an old glacier bed surrounded by enormous moraines, have been always favourite resorts for obtaining moa bones in a good state of preservation. Similar beds in the neighbourhood of Lake Wanaka have also yielded them occasionally. Following down our large river courses towards the sea, these remains sometimes. occur in their banks, either water-worn amongst the shingle, or in more perfect condition where they were preserved in silt, probably deposited in back-waters or similar localities. It is evident that an enormous period of time must have elapsed, first to enable these large shingle masses to be deposited, forming our large plains ; and afterwards, when the rivers retreated to higher sources and dwindled to smaller watercourses, to be cut through to such an extent that their contents became exposed to a depth of several hundred feet. From the observations we were thus able to make, the conclusion has been forced upon us that these gigantic birds must have Haast.—WMoas and Moa Hunters. 69 been able to sustain life over a long period, because the same species which occur in the lower lacustrine and fluviatile deposits are again found in the bogs and swamps, in the fissures of rocks, and in the kitchen middens of the moa-hunting race, which latter evidently mark the end of the Dinornis age. - As before observed, boggy grounds are also frequent localities for the preservation of moa bones, of which, amongst others, the comparatively small swamps near the Glenmark home station have yielded the richest harvest, and where, as it appears from observations made during my excavations, a great portion of the birds may have perished by becoming entangled in the swamp, either by accident, or, what seems to me more probable, from having been driven by fire or man into it in endeavouring to cross the valley. Another portion of the bones, together with driftwood of large dimensions, which had evidently been carried by floods into the swamp, were doubtless still connected by the flesh and ligaments when deposited, as no water-worn bones were found amongst them. Thus in some spots a complete leg of one specimen is found without any bones of the same individual near it, whilst the neck of another, or the pelvis of a third, each belonging to different species, lie close to it. However, I intend to lay before you at a future meeting a detailed account of the results obtained during the Glenmark excavations, for which hitherto more pressing work has not afforded me the necessary time. I may be permitted to state here only a few of the facts bearing upon the subject under review. The Glenmark Swamp lies in a hollow of the post-pliocene alluvium, skirting the hillsides. Its formation dates only from the end of the post-pliocene period, when the alluvial beds were already existing. The Glenmark Brook having afterwards cut a channel through these deposits, the whole mode of formation is well exposed. Close to the swamp in question, fluviatile deposits of a thickness of thirty feet, mostly silt and shingle, are laid bare, with here and there a small layer of peaty matter interstratified, pressed together by the superincumbent mass into a much smaller compass, and containing great quantities of moa bones. Thus we have here ample evidence that the different species of Dinornis existed already when the valley was first filled with debris brought down during the glacier period from the higher regions, and that they continued to flourish till not only was the valley filled with alluvium, but also, in their turn, the hollows in the latter became levelled by marsh vegetation, and by extraneous organic substances, such as drift timber and animal remains, washed into them by floods. Immediately below the Glenmark Swamp I obtained moa bones down to the water’s edge of the brook, at least thirty feet below the level of the former, so that this alone convinces us that a long period must have elapsed between the formation of the first and last deposits. Higher up the little valley the excavations of the rivulet have been on a still larger scale. Two I 70 Transactions. —Miscellancous. miles above the homestead, in a cliff about 100 feet high, water-worn moa bones occur near the water's edge, amongst the post-pliocene shingle ; and in another locality, about twenty feet from the summit of the cliff, in a peaty layer, a nearly complete skeleton was obtained. The hill-sides above Glenmark station are covered with silt, looking like a lacustrine formation, which, in many cases, is also studded with moa bones. I may here observe that since my first excavations in Glenmark, and after the articulation of the different Dinornis skeletons in the Canterbury Museum, I have been so fortunate as to obtain single skeletons of almost every one of these species, some of them nearly complete, the bones lying still im sttw, which, in every instance, have fully confirmed the correctness of these articulations. Moa bones are found abundantly in other localities, such as fissures or caves in limestone rocks, the neighbourhood of which appears to have been a favourite resort of the Dinornis, and the hills formed of drift-sands, which, from their nature, are well adapted to the preservation of the osseous remains of these gigantic birds. We come now to another and more difficult question in connection with their extinction. It would appear, at least at first sight, that the different species of Dinoriis, and even some of the largest, must have been living in comparatively recent times, owing to the fact that moa bones have been found on the ground, amongst the grass on the plains, or between rocks and debris in the mountains. J must confess I have never observed any in such positions, except when it could be easily proved that they had been washed out either by heavy freshes from older deposits in cliffs, along river beds, or by the dis- appearance of the luxuriant virgin vegetation, consisting of high grass or bushes, the soil having been laid bare, so that its upper portion would speedily be washed away by the rain water. I have been repeatedly informed that im the neighbouring province of Otago, some plains, when first visited by Européans, were strewed with moa bones. This account reminded me of a passage in Darwin’s “ Journal of a Naturalist,” pages 167 and 168, where he mentions having observed on the plains of Patagonia, near the banks of the Santa Cruz river, masses of bones perfectly intact, of the Guanaco or wild Llama, which, he supposes, must have crawled before dying beneath and amongst the bushes, as it were to a common burial ground; and that distin- guished naturalist adds the following pertinent remark:—‘“I mention these trifling circumstances, because in certain cases they might explain the occurrence of a number of uninjured bones in a cave, or buried under alluvial accumulations, and likewise the cause why certain animals are more commonly imbedded than others in sedimentary deposits.” However, on further thought, I do not consider that a similar explanation could be offered for the occurrence of the moa bones on the plains, as I am led to believe that their exposure may be more properly traced to the agency Haast.—Moas and Moa Hunters. 71 of man, whose appearance in these islands, as everywhere else, must have brought about some very important physical changes on the face of the country. The burning or destruction of the luxuriant vegetation in valleys and on hills and plains, the diminution or even drying up of swamps, which formerly retained the produce of the rain or of the melting snow much longer than at a later period, have, as we could quote numerous instances to show, brought about many considerable alterations on the surface and drainage of the country. One of the principal results of this action is the occurrence of much larger floods than those formerly experienced, the waters running off far more rapidly than they did when the thick virgin vegetation, together with the swamps and boggy grounds, acted, as it were, like a sponge, retaining the moisture for a longer period. Another argument in favour of this suppo- sition, that the Dinornis must have become. extinct much earlier than we might infer from the occurrence of bones lying amongst the grass, is the fact proved abundantly by careful inquiries, that the Maoris know nothing whatever about these huge birds, although various statements have been made to the contrary, lately repeated in England; however, as this question stands in close relation to the age of the moa-hunting race, I shall leave it until I proceed to this portion of my task. } The testimony that moa bones have been found lying loose amongst the grass on the shingle of the plains, together with small heaps of so-called moa stones, where probably a bird has died and decayed, is too strong to be set aside altogether, or to be explained by the assumption that the bones became exposed, as I suggested before, through the original vegetation having been burnt so extensively. We are, therefore, almost compelled to conclude that the bones have in some instances never been buried under the soil, but remained lying on the surface where the birds died. I can, however, not conceive that moa bones could have lain in such exposed positions for hundreds, if not thousands, of years without decaying entirely. Even if we assume that the birds have been extinct for only a century or so, it is inconceivable that the natives, who have reliable traditions extending back for several hundred years, and of many minor occurrences, should have no account of one of the most important events which could happen to a race of hunters, namely, the extinction of their principal means of existence. At the same time, the pursuit of these huge birds to a people without firearms or even bows and arrows, although they might have possessed boomerangs or a similar wooden weapon, must have been so full of vital importance, excitement, and danger, that the traditions of their hunting exploits would certainly have outlived the accounts of all other events happening to a people of such character. The Rev. J. W. Stack, with whom I repeatedly conversed upon this 72 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. subject, fully agrees with me that the absence of any traditions places an almost insurmountable obstacle in the way of our supposing that the moa bones found lying on the plains or hillsides are of such recent origin as their position at first might suggest. Some moa bones, broken or otherwise injured, but excavated in good condition from the Glenmark Swamp, were left by me on the banks, where in a short time they became bleached by the sun. After a few years, when again visiting that locality, these bones had entirely dis_ appeared, and only small decayed fragments indicated in a few places where the larger specimens had previously lain. Of course 1 am aware that these semi- fossil bones have not the same power of resistance as fresh ones, but neverthe- — less this rapid destruction ought to show us that, were they fresh bones, they would not resist for any number of years the agencies at work—heat and cold, rain and frost,—without becoming totally destroyed. I do not know how long the bones of cattle and horses remain on the plains exposed to the atmospherilies without becoming entirely destroyed, but I imagine they would not last for a number of years. On the other hand, if we assume that all the bones which became exposed had been subjected to the action of fire, and were thus in a calcined state, which would have prepared them to offer better resistance, I do not think that this could have preserved them for such a long period as we are obliged to believe that the Dinornis has been extinct. I may here add that at present moa bones and moa stones in the Canterbury plains are found only by digging ditches and ploughing, and that, as far as I am aware, no instance has occurred lately where they have been of superficial occurrence, so that the bones which were exposed sixteen to twenty years ago have all disappeared. From the occurrence of moa bones amongst morainic accumulations, it might appear that the Moa existed in New Zealand only when the climate was different from that we at present enjoy in these beautiful islands, so much favoured by nature in this respect. In some other publications I have already treated of this subject, pointing out that at the present time in the morainic accumulations forming below the Francis Joseph glacier at the West Coast, and less than 700 feet above the sea level, the trunks and leaves of large pines and arborescent ferns are imbedded, together with the bones of Apteryx, Strigops, Nestor, and Ocydromus, from which the investigators of future days might conclude that these species had existed in a much colder climate than that of the West Coast of New Zealand at the present time. In the same way, having this interesting fact of the present day before us, we are debarred from believing that, from the former larger extent of the New Zealand glaciers, the climate was much colder in similar positions, as far as regards aspect, altitude, and general orographical features, than it is at present. If we look, for instance, at the country at the southern base of Mount Cook, between the Tasman, Hooker, and Mueller glaciers, the outlets of which form the Tasman Haast.—Moas and Moa Hunters. 73 River, a luxuriant vegetation delights our eye, where certainly throughout the whole year the Dinornis would have found ample nourishment even close to the ice. I say so with more confidence, knowing that the locality referred to is now used as a ram paddock, always assuming that the sheep is not of a more hardy nature than those former inhabitants of the country. Judging from the structural character of the different species of Dinornis, they must have inhabited the open country where such existed, and not the forest regions, where not only innumerable impediments to locomotion would have stood in their way, but where they also would probably have found little food suitable to them. In the term ‘open’ I include plains and hill sides in the low lands covered with grass, fern, tutu (Coriaria ruscifolia), flax (Phormium tenax), and cabbage trees (Cordyline Australis), and the subalpine regions, with bushes—Spaniards (Aciphylla), wild Irishman (Discaria toumatou ), and snow grasses. It has often struck me that to all appearance the greater portion of the luxuriant vegetation of New Zealand is of compara- tively little service to the present fauna, whilst it would produce more harmony in the household of nature if we imagined that the seeds of the Phormiwm tenax (the New Zealand flax), of the Cordyline Australis (the cabbage tree), of the large species of Aciphylla (spear-grasses), the different species of Coprosma, and many other plants, had been at one time the favourite food of the Dinornis, whilst the roots of the Aciphylla, of the edible fern (Péeris esculenta), and several other plants, might have provided an additional supply of food when the seeds of the former were exhausted. Moreover, I have no doubt that the different species of Dinornis, like those of the Apteryx, were omnivorous, so that they did not despise animal food, and thus lizards, grasshoppers, and other insects might also have constituted part of their diet. Another observation which I have been enabled to make convinced me that the Dinormis species remained generally in certain localities, being of stationary habits and not roaming over the county, and crossing rivers and mountains in quest of food. In collecting the crop-stones lying with the skeletons, J invariably observed that they must have been picked up in the immediate neighbourhood. Thus, to quote only a few instances. In the caves of Collingwood, all the moa stones are derived from the quartz ranges close by, in the Malvern hills from the amygdaloids of the same zone, and in Glenmark only from the chert rocks in the neighbourhood. It has been the fashion to assert that the present native inhabitants of New Zealand, the Maoris, are the race who have hunted and exterminated the Moa, and there are even natives who declare that their fathers have seen the Moa and eaten its flesh. If such assertions could be proved, our researches would have been much simplified. It will therefore be my duty to examine the data upon which such statements rest, and to bring in my turn what I consider 74. Transactions.—Miscellaneous. overwhelming evidence to the contrary, namely that the forefathers of the Maoris not only have neither hunted nor exterminated the Moa, but that they knew nothing about it. The main authority quoted for the former assertion, that the Dinornis species are not long extinct, are the writings of Dr. Mantell, the illustrious geologist, who, in his various works, when speaking of the subject under review, gives his son’s (the Hon. W. Mantell’s) statements. Thus in “Petrifactions and their Teachings,” London, 1851, p. 93, the following passage occurs -— “The Maoris, or natives, were acquainted with the occurrence of such bones long ere this country was visited by Europeans: and traditions were rife amongst them that a race of gigantic birds formerly existed in great numbers, and served as food to their remote ancestors. They aiso believed that some of the largest species had been seen alive within the memory of man, and that individuals were still existing in the unfrequented and inaccessible parts of the country. They called the bird Moa, and stated that its head and tail were adorned with plumes of magnificent feathers, which were worn and much prized by their ancient chiefs as ornaments of distinction. The bones were sought for with avidity, and were used in the manufacture of lures for fish- hooks and other implements.” Again, Dr. Thompson, surgeon, 58th Regiment, in a letter to Dr. A. Smith, as quoted by Dr. Mantell, when writing of the discovery of several caves containing moa bones, speaks of the same subject, page 104 of the same work :—“ During the month of September, 1849, Servantes, the interpreter to the General here, was told by a native that he had discovered a cave in which were many bones of Moas. J accompanied him in search of this place, and was rewarded by getting many curious specimens and several skulls with mandibles. The beak very much resembles that of the ostrich or emu. This cave is on the west side of the North Island, in the limestone formation which extends along the coast. The country around is wild, and there are many similar caves, which, we were told, also contained bones. The popular opinion is, that the country has been set on fire by an eruption of Tongariro, and that all the Moas fled to the caves for refuge, and there perished. From traditions and other circumstances it is supposed that the present natives of New Zealand came to these islands not more than 600 years ago. However this may be, that the Moa was alive when the first settlers came, is evident from the name of this bird being mixed up with their songs and stories. One of the bones I obtained bore marks of having been cut or chopped, perhaps to get at the marrow.” It is evident that the statements of such observant scientific men as Messrs. Mantell and Thompson deserve all attention and credence, the more so as both had such favourable opportnuities to collect native traditions, and consequently ST YUT 40D MED 732 7? B7QusT WM EL @ Sarogy Uvuapy ; sdoUy Pi 9 say Uo woded a SISDOY.(T pee Wp a @D SOU DRL ‘Ga aqoasy SIX BIA PULO4S 2402, wee DIOYOY, AY JO Yi 0d Le = = > 78 ey (steel OO ; Y “A *8°Ld ‘AL IOA“ FLNLILSNI'ZN SNVUL Haast.— Moas and Moa Hunters. 75 it was generally considered an undeniable fact that the Maoris had not only been cotemporaneous with the Dinormis, but had hunted it, and had also reliable traditions about it. When [ first observed the geological position of the moa bones in situ I began to doubt the accuracy of such statements, because it became clear to me that the huge birds were the representatives of the gigantic quadrupeds of the northern hemisphere in the post-pliocene period. I mean to say that they have lived as far back from the present as the mammoth, the rhinoceros, the cave lion, and cave bear, the bones of which are found in similar deposits in Europe. And as even the highest civilized nations in Europe have no tradi- tions of the occurrence of these huge animals, it seemed to me _ highly improbable that a far inferior race, having advanced only to the state of those people representing the neolithic period in Europe, could have retained traditions extending over such an immeasurably long period. The discovery of a fossil bone of Dinormis Australis in New South Wales, also in post- pliocene beds, and resembling very much the Dinornis crassus of New Zealand, offers additional evidence of the great antiquity of these huge birds. Being occupied in examining the contents of the large encampment of moa hunters at the mouth of the Rakaia, I applied to several of my friends in the Colony, who, by their knowledge of Maori lore, had ample opportunity of forming an opinion upon the matter. I wrote to the Rev. William Colenso, who, as far back as 1838, or 33 years ago, began to devote much attention to the subject, and requested his assistance. He kindly forwarded to me a copy of the “Annals and Magazine of Natural History ” of August, 1844, which contains an exhaustive paper, written by himself, bearing the title “ An account of some enormous fossil bones of an unknown species of the Class Aves, lately discovered in New Zealand,” and with which I was not previously acquainted. In this paper the author gives an excellent description of the moa bones in his possession, assigning to them their correct place in the classi- fication of the avifauna. Mr. Colenso also relates in the same publication the principal traditions of the natives respecting the Moa—that there was still one specimen in existence which lived in the Wakapunaka mountains, guarded by two Tuataras, gigantic lizards; that it was like a huge cock with the face of a man ; that it lived on air and had wattles. The author, from the latter assertion, is inclined to believe that the Maoris, of Malayan origin, had still some tradition of the Cassowary, the only struthious bird having fleshy appendages. I cannot refrain from giving from that important paper the following passages bearing upon the subject, page 89 :—‘“ From native traditions we gain nothing to aid us in our inquiries after the probable age in which this animal lived; for although the New Zealander abounds in _traditionary lore, both natural and supernatural, he appears to be totally 76 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. ignorant of anything concerning the Moa, save the fabulous stories already referred to. If such an animal ever existed within the time of the present race of New Zealanders, surely to a people possessing no quadruped, and but very scantily supplied with both animal and vegetable food, the chase and capture of such a creature would not only be a grand achievement, but one also, from its importance, not likely ever to be forgotten ; seeing, too, that many things of comparatively minor importance are by them handed down from father to son in continued succession from the very night of history. Hven fishes, birds, and plants (anciently sought after with avidity as articles of food, are now, if not altogether, very nearly extinct), although never having been seen by either the passing or the rising generation of aborigines, are, notwith- standing, both in habit and uses, well known to-them from the descriptive accounts repeatedly recited in their hearing by the old men of the villages.” And again, further on—“ In fact, unless we suppose this bird to have existed at a period prior to the peopling of these islands by their present aboriginal inhabitants, how are we to account for its becoming extinct, and, like the Dodo, blotted out of the list of the feathered race? From the bones of about thirty birds found at Tauranga in a very short time, and with very little labour, we can but infer that it once lived in considerable numbers ; and from the size of those bones we conclude the animal to have been powerful as well as numerous. What enemies then had it to contend with in these islands, where, from its colossal size, it must have been paramount lord of the creation, that it could have ceased to be? Man, the only antagonist at all able to cope with it, we have already shown as being entirely ignorant of its habits, use, and manner of capture, as well as utterly unable to assign any reason why it should have thus perished. The period of time, then, in which I venture to conceive it most probable the Moa existed was certainly either antecedent or cotemporaneous to the peopling of these islands by the presentrace of New Zealanders.” In his masterly essay “‘On the Maori Races of New Zealand,” Mr. Colenso- briefly alludes to the same subject, affirming that he has not changed his opinion concerning the age of the Dinornis, and that he has never been able to obtain any reliable traditions concerning it. The Rev. James W. Stack, who has also made careful inquiries in both islands, has come to the conclusion, after sifting the so-called traditions of the aborigines, that beyond the fact that the Moa was a bird, and that its feathers resembled those of the Kiwi or Apteryx, the Maoris do not possess any informa- tion about it. They, moreover, attribute its extinction to a great fire, called the fire of Tamatea, which they assert swept over the Canterbury Plains about 500 years ago, the smouldering remains of which, as they think, may still be seen in the gorge of the Rakaia. The so-called smouldering remains are, how- ever, seams of brown coal in combustion, and this fact alone proves the fod Haast.—Woas and Moa Hunters. (aa legendary character of the tradition. The proverb “ He moa kaihau ” (a wind- eating moa) is the only trace which Mr. Stack can discover in the sayings of BVFOR Fat on peeing ee the ancient inhabitants, relative to the existence and habits of these birds. If it is true, as I have been informed, that it is a favourite habit of the African Ostrich to stand with its beak wide open towards the wind, such a coincidence in the habits of two allied terrestrial birds would be very curious, and would clearly show that although all other traces have been lost, the proverbial saying has outlived all past generations. Moreover, it would compel us to believe in its correctness. We might, however, trace it to the Cassowary, as suggested by Mr. Colenso in respect to the wattles. Mr. Alexander Mackay, Native Commissioner, who enjoys excellent opportunities of obtaining accurate information upon this and other subjects | in reference to the natives, has also made diligent researches. This gentleman informs me that there is not a single tradition amongst the natives respecting the Moa; in fact, that they know nothing about it. It seems evident to me that the present native race, unable otherwise to account for the huge remains of the Moa found sometimes washed out from the post-pliocene alluvium, occurring in caves, etc., had recourse to miraculous legends. On comparing the Moa bones with those of other living species of birds, they undoubtedly found that in their principal characteristics they most resembled those of the Kiwi or Apteryx, which were sometimes mixed with them, and which fact may account for the tradition concerning the similarity of the feathers. But a still greater proof of the long extinction of the Dinornis, is the fact that all early voyagers, who had ample opportunities for observation, who assiduously collected specimens of the fauna and flora of both islands, and noted down carefully the traditions of the natives, never allude to the existence of the Moa, nor do they speak of its osseous remains. Thus I looked in vain through the accounts of the three voyages of Captain Cook, of those of Captain Vancouver, Admiral d’Entrecasteaux, and of Captain King, but in all of these no trace of such traditions can be detected. Captain Cook, that admirable observer, who gives us such a faithful account of the animal life of New Zealand, made inquiries through his interpreter, Tupia, during his first journey, concerning the native traditions ; on his second visit he obtained further intelligence from a native chief in Queen Charlotte Sound, which is of such interest that I wish to transcribe it. Thus he says, in the “Voyage to the Pacific Ocean,” vol. 1, p. 142: “We had another piece of intelligence of him (Tawaihurua), more correctly given, though not confirmed by our own observations, that there are snakes and lizards there of enormous size. He described the latter as being eight feet in length, and as big round as a man’s body ; he said they sometimes seize and devour men, that they burrow in the ground, and that they are killed by making fires at the mouths of the holes. K 78 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. We could not be mistaken as to the animal, for with his own hand he drew a very good representation of a lizard on a piece of paper, as also of a snake, in order to show us what he meant.” I cannot stop now to inquire what animals Tawaihurua may have meant, but it shows vs clearly that he was an intelligent man, whose drawings were so well executed that the animals could be readily recognized. Queen Charlotte Sound, being in easy communi- cation with the more southern portion of this island, and in close proximity to the Wairau Plains, where moa bones have been found repeatedly, must we not assume that the natives of those days had no traditions of the Moa, or this chief would certainly have spoken of it, and drawn it also, as the most wonderful animal of New Zealand? In any case, this is certainly very important negative evidence in support of my opinion. Proceeding now to an examination of the traces left by the moa-hunting population, I believe that it was also the Hon. W. Mantell who first drew the attention of scientific men to the fact that there was ample evidence to prove convincingly that man had been co-temporaneous with the Dinornis. He describes the occurrence of small circular beds of ashes with charcoal very ancient, and such as are generally left by the native fires that have long been burning on the surface. They contained calcined bones of men, dogs, and Moas. Fragments of obsidian, flint, two fishing-line stones, and a small whale- bone mere were also dug up. The Maoris informed Mr. Mantell that the sand-flat of Te Rangatapu, where he obtained these relics, was one of the first spots on which their ancestors located.* A similar account is given by the Rey. J. Taylor, who has examined some localities in the valley of the Wanganui river abounding in old cooking places. If further investigations of these interesting localities would prove beyond a doubt that really the bones of man, moa, and dog, with flint chips and true Maori implements, occur together, and have not been mixed up accidentally, the present indigenous race having chosen the same favourable spots for their camping grounds as the moa hunters did before, the question, as far as the Northern Island is concerned, would soon be settled. However, I venture to assert that more careful and systematic researches than Mr. Mantell, owing to the troublesome interference of the natives, was enabled to make, would prove that the Moa kitchen middens are quite distinct, and that where Maori ovens with indica- tions of cannibalism occur, they have been formed over, near, or within those of the older race. In the course of this address it will be my duty to show why I believe that such a result. would be gained, and which would confirm my observations made in this province upon the subject. Another important question which remains still to be answered is, whether the human skeletons found amongst the sandhills, which, by the shifting of * «* Petrifactions and their Teachings.” Haast.—Moas and Moa Hunters. 79 the sands, become exposed, as well as those from ancient burial grounds, are all of Maori origin, or if, at least, some of them do not belong to a race distinct from the present aborigines. Unfortunately, I never found any human bones in or near the moa hunters’ encampment, to which fact I shall again call your attention in the course of this evening, otherwise they would have offered ‘valuable material for comparison. However, one authority, and that one of the highest we could desire, has already pronounced that some of the skulls found in these sandhills are not derived from the Maori race. In the year 1868 I sent to Professor Dr. C. G. Carus, the President of the Imperial German Academy of Naturalists, two skulls, which I considered belonged to the Maori race, and which were obtained from some sandhills near the Selwyn. That eminent physiologist, upon examining them, informed me that IT must have made some mistake, as these skulls could not be of Maori origin, but must have belonged to some other race. Unfortunately, before my answer arrived in Dresden, the illustrious octogenarian had in the meantime passed away, but I may expect to receive shortly, from some other reliable source, drawings of these two skulls, together with measurements, descriptions, and a careful determination of the question as to which human family they approach nearest in their principal characteristics. As Mr. Alexander Mackay, the Native Commissioner, informed me, the natives assert that in the interior of the North Island a race had existed called Maero, which they described as wild men of the woods, and somewhat like Australians. According to the Wellington natives, a member of this race should have lived in a comparatively recent time on the island of Kapiti. It is foreign to the scope of my address to enter upon a discussion as to the manner in which these islands have been peopled. This has been done already by eminent men amongst us, as well as by distinguished savants in Great Britain, Germany, France, and America, without, however, deciding the question; on the contrary, the matter remains more uncertain than ever, and it will be long before it can be definitely settled. My next object will be to ascertain how far back we can trace the occurrence of polished stone implements, which, in this province at least, the moa hunters did not appear to have become possessed of. Passing over the well-known localities, such as old Maori pahs, battle-fields, burial and camping grounds, these tools have been found under the roots of huge trees, and in cutting deep drains through bogs in the Wellington province, which may be taken as a proof of their great age. In this province the plough has dis- interred many on the plains, buried to a depth of several inches with soil or silt. But another instance of still greater antiquity has come under my notice, namely, the discovery of a well-polished stone adze, together with a grinding stone, at the West Coast, about fifteen feet below the undisturbed surface, over 80 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. which a luxuriant pine forest was growing at the time. In a paper published in the Transactions of the Ethnological Society of London, I have described these interesting specimens of pre-historic human workmanship, which, two years ago, I had the satisfaction of laying before you, accompanying their exhibition by a verbal description. TI shall therefore not repeat what I then stated, but proceed to the description of the principal locality in which I dis- covered a moa-hunter encampment of considerable extent. A great and almost insurmountable difficulty in the way of the foot traveller in this island is the presence of large torrential rivers, coming down from the central chain, since they can only be crossed by him when they are very low, over long fords, and even then not without considerable danger. It is therefore not surprising that the aboriginal population should have searched from the earliest times for any spots where the necessity for crossing on foot could be dispensed with. They observed that all these rivers, before entering the sea, expanded into still-water lagoons, often of considerable extent, which they could easily cross with canoes, or on rafts, or even by wading, and thus the native paths, of which in many localities the traces are still quite distinct, were always found upon the coast. The Rakaia being one of the most dangerous of these rivers, it is natural that the northern side of the river, near the sea, should always have been a frequented spot. Here, also, the lagoon extends along the coast, affording the natives a secure resting-place for their canoes or other means of conveyance, and, at the same time, a favourable fishing ground. Thus it was to be expected that we should find near the mouth of the river numerous remains of Maori occupation in the form of ovens, signs of former huts, and occasionally a Maori implement; but this locality, on being more closely examined, proved to be of still greater interest, having at one time been the camping ground of a moa-hunting population, and covering an area of more than fifty acres. It is to this remarkable encamp- ment that T shall devote the next portion of this address. However, before proceeding, I wish to offer a few general remarks on the topography of the spot, in order to show how well this pre-historic people had selected their habitations. | Between the mouth of the Rakaia and Banks Peninsula, and even as far as Sumner, all round the western foot of that volcanic system, a succession of lagoons, of which Lake Ellesmere is by far the largest, swamps and deep boggy creeks exist, through which, in former years, before the original vegeta- tion was destroyed and better drainage introduced, this portion of the country must have been kept in an almost impassable state. Looking over the country between Banks Peninsula and the mouth of the Rakaia, we observe, first, Lake Ellesmere, covering a large portion of that region, and between it and the river several lagoons, surrounded by impenetrable swamps, from the Haast.—Moas and Moa Hunters. (os) — outlets of which, and from several springs a little higher up the plains, a creek is formed, now called the Little Rakaia, which, after a short southerly course, empties itself into the Rakaia lagoon. Consequently, a large triangular block of country, surrounded on two sides by ground almost impassable to man or beast, is formed, whilst a similar block exists on the southern side of the river, with this difference, that the sea coast forms one of the sides, which was also available for hunting purposes. Referring more especially to the encampment under consideration, we find that here the Canterbury Plains run without any break to the banks of the Little Rakaia, where they form cliffs ten to twelve feet high, whilst towards the main river two terraces occur of an altitude of eight and four feet respectively. It is chiefly on the lower terrace that proofs of Maori occupation are to be found, but ovens of the moa-hunters also occur in the same locality. On the plains above the terraces, distant about sixty yards, both from the first terrace and from the bed of the Little Rakaia, Mr. Cannon, the owner of the land, to whose courtesy and kind permission to collect and to make further excavations Tam much indebted, in ploughing the ground uncovered a mass of former cooking-places and kitchen-middens, the latter consisting mostly of broken moa bones, and extending over an area of about fifty acres. When on a visit to Mr. Edward Jollie, whose property is in the neighbourhood, I was accidentally informed of this interesting fact, and in his company I devoted several days, with the active co-operation of Mr. F. Fuller, to a careful examination of this remarkable spot. The old ovens, generally covered by three to six inches of silt and vegetable soil, are found all over the ploughed ground, but most of them are situated near the centre of the field, where also the greatest amount of kitchen-middens occur. They are about 150 yards from the banks of the Little Rakaia, and nearly an equal distance from the first terrace sloping down towards the main river. This circumstance is more surprising, as the moa-hunters had to carry stones and water for their cooking ovens a great distance, a labour they might have avoided had they selected some locality close to either of the two watercourses. When passing, however, along the perpendicular banks, ten to twelve feet high, of the Little Rakaia, before it joins the Rakaia lagoon, we obtained in the silt, four to six inches below the surface, a large piece of flint, about seven inches long and three to four inches broad and thick, from which pieces had evidently been chipped for knives. In other spots, in the same layer, moa bones, either broken or entire, occurred, but isolated, suggesting that they had more probably been thrown away by man in passing, or dropped by dogs, than that they were the remains of a regular kitchen-midden. No moa bones, as before stated, were found by me anywhere on the surface, All of them had been covered by silt, or at least by thick layer of vegetable soil ; but I 82 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. have been informed that the very same locality was covered with moa bones, but whether broken or entire I could not ascertain. As previously observed, the principal ovens and kitchen-middens are situated some distance from the banks of the rivers; about twenty acres are more or less covered with them, so that in some instances they must have offered some difficulty to the plough. Although now mostly disturbed, I could readily recognize the form and diameter of these cooking-places. Some of them were of an oval shape, eight feet long and five feet broad, others more circular and about eight feet in diameter. Generally covered by three to four inches of soil at the border, they are about eighteen inches deep in the centre. The outer rim is generally built up by larger stones, smaller ones fill the interior, piled in four to five layers upon each other, of which, of course, many by the intensity of the heat have been split into angular fragments. Occasionally, small pieces of charcoal are still found lying between them. From five to eight of these ovens are usually in close proximity, with intervals of about twenty yards between them and the next group ; the ground between having probably been the camping ground of the moa-hunters. I may here add that these pre-historic people without doubt cooked their food in the same manner as the aborigines of the present day, which has been so often described that I need not repeat it here. There are seldom any moa bones or other remnants of their meals amongst the stones of the ovens ; these are generally situated a few feet from them, where the offal has been thrown in a heap, together with the chips of their rude stone implements. Large flat stones, ten to twelve inches long and six to eight inches broad, are sometimes found near them, together with a roundish long boulder, also of large dimensions, which I have little doubt have been used for breaking the bones in order to extract the marrow, or for pounding other materials. All these stones, without exception, had to be carried from _ the rivers or sea-shore to the plains, and their great quantity testifies that for a long time this locality must have been a favourite resort of those inhabiting the country at that distant period. I assume also that this spot was to them very important in a strategical point of view ; the natives, after crossing the lagoon with their rafts or canoes, being out of the reach of their enemies, who, without the same means of conveyance, could only cross with difficulty and loss of time. Scattered over the ground an enormous quantity of pieces of flint are strewed, proving that the manufacture of rude knives or flakes must have been carried on upon the spot for a considerable period of time. The most primitive form of stone implement, and of which a great number is found lying all over the ploughed ground, consists of fragments of hard silicious sandstone, broken off apparently with a single blow from large boulders, and for the manufacture of which considerable skill must have been necessary. The boulder was always selected Haast.—WMoas and Moa Hunters. 83 in such a form that if fractured in the right way it would yield a sharp cutting edge. These rude sandstone flakes are very different from pieces detached by heat in the ovens, where the natural joints of the rocks are always exhibited, while here the rough surface of the broken side attests clearly that the specimens have been obtained artificially. These primitive knives are mostly three to four inches long and two to three inches broad, possessing a sharp cutting and sometimes serrated edge ; but there are also some of larger dimensions, being six inches long and nearly four inches broad. Some of them have evidently been much used. They were probably employed for cutting up the spoil of the chase, and severing the sinews. Similar specimens have been obtained in abundance in the Northern Island. Their frequent occur- rence may be accounted for by the rapidity with which they were manu- factured, and consequently they were of small value. The really properly worked or chipped flints are so very rare that I obtained only a few of them, although of chips and flakes I could collect several hundreds, of which many show that they have been used. Before entering upon a description of the former, I wish to speak of the material which has been selected for the manufacture of the greater portion of them. The principal regularly shaped implements consist of a greyish greasy-looking peculiar flint rock, the original bed of which is not known to me. If it should exist in this part of the South Island, the only locality might be in the neighbourhood of Gebbie’s Pass (Banks Peninsula), where so many varieties of silicious deposits occur. Another reason for believing that the rock has been brought from a great distance is its scarcity, which shows that unlike the sandstone knives or flakes, the ancient inhabitants took greater care of it. From specimens received from Dr. Hector and Captain Frazer, it appears that it has also been extensively used in the interior of the Otago province. There is in the Otago Museum a series of fine specimens manufactured of the same rock, collected in a short time in or near the Manuherikia plains by the last-named gentleman, so that there is no doubt that we must seek in that neighbourhood the original workshop whence they were derived. There are also, but far less frequent, smaller implements and flakes made of chert, porcellanite, and a few of chalcedony, semi-opal, cornelian, and agate, probably collected for their hardness in the neighbourhood. But the most interesting objects were small pieces of obsidian, in lithological character identical with that obtained near Tauranga. It is thus evident that a race so remote from our own times must have had communication with the Northern Island, and as the different species of Dinornis, as far as I can judge from Professor Owen’s drawings and des- criptions, are identical in both islands, it forces us to the conclusion that in the era of their existence Cook Straits did not yet exist, but that both islands formed part of a larger island, or even continent, over which the wingless 84 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. terrestrial birds could roam at will. In no other way can we account for the existence of the same species of Dinornis over the whole of New Zealand. We might even assume that the human race made its appearance. when this com- munication still existed, entirely, or at least partially, because it is rather difficult to conceive that a people in such a low state of civilization could have built canoes sufficiently large and strong to cross the boisterous strait now existing between the islands.’ In any case, we may safely conclude that the human races in the southern hemisphere are of far greater antiquity than might appear at first sight, and, instead of migrations, possible and impossible, to explain the peopling and repeopling of New Zealand, geological changes might afford a more satisfactory explanation. If we admit the former existence of land in the Pacific Ocean, either as a continent or large island, where now the boundless ocean rolls, and if we further suppose this land inhabited by autochthones, of whom we find remnants all over the islands, either still existing or extinct, and only proving their former existence by their works of art, the whole problem is solved. Such an explanation is, moreover, in better accordance with the present state of geological and ethnological science. Tt appears to me that the flakes, which have generally a sharp-cutting edge, have also been used by the moa-hunters for the purpose of cutting, perhaps, also, as small scraping knives to prepare their meals, or, what is still more probable, to assist them in eating their food, because doubtless they would have required some instrument to cut through the sinews and ligaments, or to otherwise divide the meat after being cooked in the large ovens, which from their size would easily have contained a whole bird. The principal specimen of flint implements which I obtained from the locality in question, is of the so-called spear-headed pattern, closely resembling those found in the post- pliocene beds of France, and in many other spots of the same geological age in Europe. It is fourand a half inches long and two inches at its broadest parts. There is, however, one great difference between this antipodean tool and those of Hurope, namely, that the former is flat on one side, all blows having been struck on the other. That their form and peculiar manner of manufacture are not accidental is proved by similar specimens collected by Captain Frazer and now in the Otago Museum, to which I alluded already. There are at least half a dozen amongst them which have exactly the same form, being at the same time only chipped on one side. Two other specimens found at the Rakaia are flint implements, manufac- tured in the form of a chopper, about six inches long and three inches broad, and three-fourths of an inch at its thickest part. They are also flat on one side with a ridge near the centre on the other, whence they have been worked towards the edges, which are both sharp. At one corner a piece has been Haast.—WMoas and Moa Hunters. 85 removed so as to form a kind of handle, or for fixing it to a piece of wood. A similar specimen is also in the Otago Museum. As far as I am aware no implement resembling this curious tool has been described from Europe. There are some flint implements of the so-called oval-shaped hatchet type, presenting the same peculiar characteristics, and again some smaller flint knives resembling those found near Abbeville, in France. I may here observe that I also found two smaller spear-head implements, which in every respect resemble those of the mammoth and rhinoceros beds in Europe ; intermediate forms are also present. As I stated previously, this locality shows traces of having been afterwards inhabited, from the fact that true Maori ovens, for ordinary cooking as well as for the preparation of the cabbage tree, are not unfrequent ; moreover, the Maori track leading to the south passed over the same ground. It is, there- fore, not surprising that a few greenstone adzes, and some other well polished Maori implements, should have been turned up by the plough. Another more interesting discovery was made by Mr. Cannon ; a cache, containing twenty-two pieces of roughly chipped Palla, a green silicious rock, occurring only on the northern side of the Gawler Downs, between the forks of the Hinds. They had evidently been brought a distance of over fifty miles to be shaped into the proper form by polishing them. They had already been prepared to take finally the more recent forms adopted by the Maoris, which at once distinguishes them from the moa-hunter implements. This is the more evident, since, in many localities, polished Maori adzes have been obtained manufactured from this peculiar green silicious rock. When I first found it on the Gawler Downs, about seven years ago, I was struck by the large amount of chips lying about, which led me to believe that somebody struck by the flinty appearance and fine colour of this rock, which besides this spot, occurs only in Transylvania, had amused himself by making specimens. I am now satisfied that the Maoris visited the spot in question to obtain this rock for their stone implements, carrying it away such long distances. Mr. John Davies Enys found some of the Palla adzes in the Upper Waimakariri country. I searched for a long time, anxious to obtain any other relic which might show that the pre-historic race had used any durable ornament made of stone or bone, such as ear or nose ornaments, amulets to wear round the neck, bracelets, or needles and pins made of bone. At last we discovered two pieces of the wna of the wandering Albatross (Diomedea exulans), which, at their proximal end and below the condyle, had evidently been bored through by the hand of man. Both, however, were broken in the middle of the shaft, the lower portion of both being missing, and they had therefore probably been thrown away. Of course it is impossible to say for what purpose these neat L a 86 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. holes had been bored ; but, belonging to such a majestic bird, is it not possible that they might have been worn as charms or amulets, or used in connection with some religious rite ? Amongst all the stone implements, there was not a single one from which we might draw an inference how the moa-hunters killed their prey, but as the birds lived doubtless in droves, they were probably driven by men or dogs towards the apex of the triangle either to be killed with heavy wooden implements or stone spear-heads fixed to staves, to be snared, or to be caught in flax nets. Another method of killing them, if we assume that the moa- hunters were allied to the Australians, may have been by the use of the boomerang or a similar wooden weapon, to be hurled at their prey. Proceeding to an examination of the kitchen-middens or refuse heaps, we observe that by far the greater portion consists of moa bones, belonging to several species, identical in every respect with those the skeletons of which we excavated in the Glenmark Swamp. In the first volume of the “‘ Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,” page 89 and sequel, I have given a list of the Dinornis bones found in Glenmark, arranged according to the species they belonged to, and showing the number of each. From that list, it will appear that of all these species, Dinornis casuarinus is the most numerous, being represented by bones belonging to at least forty-five specimens, while Dinornis didiformis follows with thirty-seven, Dinornis crassus in the third line, and then Dinornis elephantopus. The other species, Dinornis gracilis, struthioides, robustus, giganteus, and maximus, are of much more rare occurrence, and Palapteryx ingens is only represented by one single specimen. J ventured to draw the conclusion, that the smaller and more numerous species had been living in droves, whilst the larger ones were of solitary habits and of much rarer occurrence. During the examination of the kitchen-middens, and while in the act of collecting their contents, I was at once struck by the curious fact that the more or less frequent presence of the bones coincided closely with similar observations made concerning the skeletons imbedded in the Glenmark Swamp, and which showed that the frequency of the different species in that locality was not accidental. - It also became evident to me that all the species, except perhaps the largest ones, had been co-temporaneous, affording ample food to the aborigines of the country. Of the remains of Dinornis casuarinus, the leg-bones are the most plentiful. A few only of the tarsws-metatarsus were intact, by far the greater portion broken on both extremities, the ¢ibia was always broken on both ends, the shaft of the bone smashed to small fragments, with the exception of a few pieces which were left uninjured. This additional trouble had doubtless been taken in order to extract the medullary contents for food ; also the epiphyses both of the proximal and distal ends were generally partially destroyed, having been scooped out to get at the marrow. The femur Haast.—Moas and Moa Hunters. 87 appeared generally broken in the centre, but a few were also fractured on both ends. Of Dinornis didiformis, which with D. crassus, was next in number of individuals, only one tarsus-metatarsus was intact ; the tibiw were either broken in the centre or more frequently on both extremities. Of the femora, a few were collected, broken in the middle, but generally they had been left entire, so as to suggest that the medullary contents, which must have been very small, were not thought worth the trouble of extracting. Dinornis crassus seems also to have occurred in large numbers on the plains, judging from the great quantity of bones belonging to it. The metatarsus is only rarely broken, the tibia always at both epiphyses, and the femur in the centre. Of Dinornis elephantopus, bones belonging to a few specimens were collected, of which the tibia is invariably broken, whilst the femur, and, in a few cases, the tarsus- metatarsus, have been fractured in the centre. Of Palapteryx ingens I obtained remains belonging to at least three specimens. They are, however, a little smaller in size than that figured by Professor Owen. All the three principal leg bones, without exception, are broken at both extremities, and the inter- mediate portion fractured to small fragments. The epiphyses also show clearly how they have been scooped out to obtain the marrow. No bones of other species came into my possession, such as those of Dinornis gracilis, struthioides, and the more gigantic forms, which, considering that they are very rare in comparison with the species enumerated above, is not surprising, and does not prove that they did not exist. Further excava- tions in the same locality will doubtless afford us more information on the subject. Of Cnemiornis, a bird with well developed wings and of the size of the bustard, and of which I also collected some portions of the skeleton in Glenmark, a few bones were also found at Rakaia. Small pieces of moa bone, mostly derived from the leg bones, are very numerous, and le generally upon the refuse heaps. Occasionally they are burnt, so that it appears that the moa- hunters generally threw the refuse of their meals upon the middens, and only accidentally into the fire, unless we assume that they used the bones occasionally as fuel. Phalanges of all the species already mentioned are present, and in the same proportions ; they are generally intact. Of the pelvic bone only one large piece of Dinornis didiformis was obtained, but otherwise its fragments were of frequent occurrence. They were probably broken up to get more easily at the meat. The same observation also applies to the sternum, of which only small pieces were found. Ribs and intercostals, generally broken, are not rare. A great many vertebre, and occurring in the same proportion as the leg bones, mostly in a good state of preservation, were collected. It is _ remarkable that only in a few bones cuts or other marks could be observed ; the reason may be that the larger bones, as already pointed out, were probably broken with stone mallets. However, some of the smaller bones show clearly the marks of the rude stone knives. 88 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. The fact that the vertebre and other smaller bones, such as costals and intercostals, were quite uninjured, and that I never found any sign of gnawing on any of them, either large or small, would imply that the dog was not domesticated by the moa-hunters, but lived in a feral state, and was hunted by them like the Moa. Several of the skulls of D. caswarinus and one of D. didiformis were obtained, some of them in a very fragmentary condition, and each of them having been scooped out from below to obtain the brains. Of minor bones were collected the upper and lower mandibles, tympanic bones, and tracheal rings of most of the species named, which, with the rest are now exhibited in the Canterbury Museum ; also a good selection of moa stones could be made, consisting either of pebbles of quartz, agate, etc., such as we obtain in the Malvern Hills, or of silicious sandstone, and of chert. It wasin vain that we searched for egg-shells ; if once existing, they must have decayed. Of the bones of smaller birds we were able to distinguish those of the New Zealand Rail (Rallus pectoralis), the Black-backed Gull (Larus dominicanus J, the Swamp Hen (Porphyrio melanotus), the Mollymawk (Diomedea mela- nophrys ), and the Godwit (Limosa uropygialis). Apteryx bones were missing, but this may be easily explained by the distance of timber-covered country from the encampment; but a more striking feature is the total absence of bones of the Weka (Ocydromus Australis), which is at present foand all over the island. Could this bird have been confined during the Dznornis era to the forest region, kept there by the attacks made by the large birds upon it? Another interesting fact is the frequent occurrence of tympanic bones of whales; there is, however, not a single specimen amongst them belonging to the Caprerea antipodarum, nor of any of the other large right whales visiting the coast of New Zealand ; all the specimens belong to smaller species, such as Berardius Arnuxit, etc. These bones are mostly in a fragmentary state, having been broken in such a way that the interior cavity or lower surface remains intact. It is ditficult to understand why these bones, of which we pickel up more than a dozen, should have been collected and brought up to the encamp- ment; they could not have been used for ornaments, as they are always broken too unevenly for such purpose ; or can they have been used for drinking cups or ladles? Some of the pieces were charred. There were also a few pieces of larger bones, belonging to the skeletons of cetaceans of the smaller dimensions. Seals must have formed also a favourite article of food, as many bones, belonging to at least two species, are found frequently in the kitchen- middens. The dog is also represented in these refuse heaps. We obtained parts of a few lower jaws, belonging to several individuals, some vertebre, part of the pelvis, sternum and of the skull. It was of the size of a shepherd’s dog, the canine tooth longer and more slender in comparison with the otber teeth than is generally the case with the present varieties of the same size. ‘These remains Haast.—WMoas and Moa Hunters. 89 are, however, rare, which might suggest that the dog was only exceptionally eaten, either when its owner was short of provisions, or perhaps when some of these animals were killed by the Moas during the chase. I have, however, already given some reasons why we are almost compelled to believe that the dog was not domesticated by the moa-hunter. Some few shells were also found between the bones, consisting of freshwater mussels (Unio), and of a large Mytilus. Bearing in mind what the Hon. W. Mantell states in respect to the occurrence of the bones of men, together with those of the Dinornis, dog, and seal, in the kitchen-middens of the Northern Island, I concluded that the moa-hunters must have been cannibals ; however, the most careful search, continued for a number of days, has never brought to light the smallest portion of a human bone at the Rakaia. And, although this evidence is merely of a negative character, it is strong enough to induce the belief that the moa-hunters were not addicted to anthropophagy, as Mr. Mantell’s observations might suggest. Had the inhabitants of the Rakaia encampment been cannibals, there is no doubt, in my mind, that amongst the thousand fragments of bones passing through my hands, at least some of the human skeleton should have appeared to bear witness. Mr. F. Fuller, who lately discovered a small moa-hunter encampment in Tumbledown Bay, near Little River, found close to it, amongst some sandhills, the traces of a cannibal feast, but there was nothing to connect the one with the other. Some other localities, in which the ancient population has left evidence of its presence, are the flat near Moa-bone Point, on the road to Sumner, another near Mr. Joseph Palmex’s former residence among the sandhills near the Avon, and on the opposite side below Mr. Wright’s property. Here, moa bones, broken in the usual manner, associated with those of the seal and tympanic bones of whales, are exposed by the sands having been shifted by the wind. Similar flakes, manufactured of flint and sandstone, occur also there, together with great quantities of pipi shells (Venus intermedia) and of Amphibola avellana. The contents of the ovens consist of common river shingle, but also of rough pieces of volcanic rocks, derived from Banks Peninsula, and which must have been brought all the way, unless we admit that during the time of the moa-hunters the sandhills in question were still close to the sea shore, or at least fringing an arm of the sea, running round Banks Peninsula. Another locality, where Mr. John D. Enys has collected flint implements of the same type as those described previously, is situated on the western flanks of Mount Torlesse, about 3,000 feet above the sea level. From all these observations I am led to the conclusion that the moa- hunters have left their traces in many localities in both islands, of which only a very few are at present known to us. I have no doubt that further search 90 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. will bring to our knowledge many more large camping places, and will offer us more ample material to draw conclusions as to the character, life, and manners of that pre-historic people whose implements, so far as we know, are of the same character throughout both islands. Fragmentary as my researches have been, so are necessarily my notes on this important subject, but T trust that they will be at least the means of procuring more attention to the matter amongst my fellow colonists, many of whom, I have no doubt, can assist me materially in more fully investigating it, either by collecting specimens, describing their own experience, or pointing out to me where similar encampments may be examined. I need scarcely observe that I am far from considering the inductions drawn from the obser- vations I have been able to make as final, or that I claim for the different hypotheses I venture to propose more than a simply suggestive character. Every day, especially if other observers will give us the result of their labours, new vistas will be opened before us, and our ideas become enlarged and modified. I should feel quite satisfied with the result of my labours, even should some of the views expressed to-day prove erroneous, if by this means I shall have been instrumental in extending our acquaintance with the ancient inhabitants of this country, and thus promoting the advancement of know- ledge and truth. ADDITIONAL NOTES. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 5th April, 1871.] In the address I had the honour to deliver to you at our last meeting, I omitted some points of importance concerning Moas and moa-hunters ; I trust, therefore, that you will allow me to supplement the information then given by returning once more to the subject. However, before doing so, I wish to observe that it has never been my intention to attempt to deal exhaustively with the subject, in so far as alluding to all former publications upon it, for the simple reason that most of those writings were published in newspapers, or in the 7ransactions of scientific societies not accessible to me, my principal object being to allude to those of a few well qualified authors, who were the first to collect traditions concerning the Moa amongst the natives. This I did in order to inquire how far my own researches into the geological position of the remains of Dinornis confirmed or contradicted those so-called native traditions. I selected principally the oldest writings, such as those of the Rev. W. Colenso and of Dr. Mantell, because the old natives with whom Mr. Colenso and Mr. W. Mantell conversed, and who now have, doubtless, passed away, were still in full possession of the traditions of their ancestors prior to Haast.—Woas and Moa Hunters. 91 the arrival of the Europeans, and were consequently more reliable than those of the present Maori generation. When writing that address I was well aware that Mr. Mantell had delivered, only a few years ago, a lecture on the Moa, but it-had entirely escaped my memory that an extract of this lecture had been printed in the first volume of the Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute. However, as I remembered having seen somewhere a notice of it, I searched amongst some cuttings from Wellington newspapers which I kept by me, but in vain. Consequently I had to fall back on Dr. Mantell’s works, containing, as far as I knew, the most authentic information of the views and statements of his son. Dr. Hector, on his late visit to Christchurch, pointed out where I could find the desired information. In reading the interesting extract of that lecture in the first volume of the Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute, it became apparent to me that since the publication of Dr. Mantell’s works the Hon. W. Mantell had somewhat modified his former views, because, when speaking of the extermination of the Moa, he is reported to have expressed himself to the following effect :—‘“‘That this must have taken place within a short period after the appearance of man, adducing the only slight and obscure allusions in the most ancient Maori traditions to their existence as proof of this.” It appears also that Mr. Mantell is inclined now to believe that the Moa owed its destruction to a different race, and prior to the arrival of the Maori race in New Zealand, a conclusion at which I also arrived by comparing the tools of the moa-hunters at the Rakaia with those of the Maoris. The same gentleman is also reported to have stated that there was evidence that cannibalism prevailed at the time the Moas were used for food, but only in the North Island, confirming my observations made at the Rakaia and elsewhere, that the moa-hunters in this island were not anthro- pophagt. However, I still doubt very much whether the inhabitants of the North Island, in the same era, were cannibals, as I believe that the same favourable localities, formerly selected by the moa-hunters, were also used by the Maoris as camping grounds, by which the mixture of the kitchen-middens of both races has been produced. Even were we to admit that the inhabitants of each island had belonged to a different race, or that they had not had com- munication with each other, so that different kabits of vital importance had become formed in each of them, the discovery of obsidian in the kitchen- middens of this island clearly proves that such arguments would be fallacious. The pieces of obsidian being of such frequent occurrence, we are obliged to assume that regular communication existed between both islands, and it is difficult to conceive that, under these circumstances, the one island should have been inhabited by cannibals and not the other. Nor could different races have inhabited the two islands during the extermination of the Moa, and the southern race have gone to the North Island to obtain the much 92 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. coveted obsidian without fear of being devoured by the more savage tribes inhabiting it. Such a case seems to be improbable. [ regret very much, and every lover of ‘science will agree with me, that Mr. Mantell has not allowed the publication of his lecture in extenso, as, no doubt, much valuable informa- tion and sound speculation would have been placed before us. I have been told that the present race inhabiting New Zealand must have been co-tempo- raneous with the Dinornis, because the word Moa forms part of the designation of several localities in New Zealand, but this occurrence might be explained in several ways. In the first instance, it is very possible that the word Moa in those names is only the alteration of another word in course of time, because words having the same, or nearly the same sound, are not unfrequent in the Maori language, such as moa, a bed in a garden, a certain stone ; moana, sea ; moa ta, to be early ; moe, sleep or dream ; moho, a bird; mou, for thee ; or moud, the back of the neck ;* or that the natives used the expression to designate localities where moa bones were principally found. Another explanation might be given by pointing out that the word Moa is used in connection with other birds. Thus I may quote from the Rev. Richard Taylor’s “A Leaf from the Natural History of New Zealand,” Wellington, 1848, the following expressions :—WMoa@ kerua—a black bird with red bill and feet ; a fresh water bird; a water hen. Moa koru—very small rail. Moeriki —rail of the Chatham Islands. And may we not therefore conclude that if the Maoris had known anything of the Dinornis, the present representative of the genus, which, in appearance, form, and plumage, most probably closely resembles some of the extinct gigantic forms, would have in preference been named by them JMJoa-1ti, or some similar appellation, instead of calling the Apteryx, Owenit kiwi, from its peculiar call; and the Apteryx Australis, Tokoeka and Roa? The fact that they added instead to the names of birds, resembling somewhat the domestic fowl, the prefix moa, might be taken as an additional confirmation of the probability that the theories advanced by me are correct. And how can we reconcile the difference in the statements con- cerning the plumage, which, according to one account, consisted of magnificent plumes on head and tail, whilst, according to the other, it resembled that of the Apteryx? Another point of importance must strike the observer, concerning Maori nomenclature. If the present race had known anything of the Dinornis should we not expect that several and very distinct names would have been _ preserved to us for the different species? We may safely presume that the moa-hunting races had different names for the huge Dinornis giganteus, robustus, and for Palapteryx ingens, for the smaller and more slender species of Dinornis casuarinus and didiformis, as well as for the stout-set Dinornis _elephantopus and crassus ; which, moreover, were doubtless distinguished by *Williams’ Maori Dictionary, London, 1852. Haast.— VWoas and Moa Hunters. 93 different habits and modes of life. Instead of that, we find them speaking of the Moa indiscriminately, a word extensively used all over the Polynesian Islands. I may also here state that the Rev. R. Taylor alludes already in the publication previously quoted to the native report about the Maero, or wild man of the wood. Another important fact, of which I have omitted to speak, is the discovery of a Dinornis skeleton in the Manuherikia plains, in which not only portions of integuments and feathers were still attached to the sacrum, and a portion of the sole of the foot was still intact, but also the joints of one leg had their ligaments and inarticular cartilages preserved. We owe to Dr. Hector many interesting details concerning the discovery and position of this unique specimen, which was found fourteen feet below the ground, partly imbedded in a stratum of dry sand. As some portion of the skeleton was already in the fossil condition in which moa bones are usually found, we must assume that the better preserved portion owes its present condition to a very exceptional case, such as being imbedded in a layer of very dry sand, by which it has been transformed into a natural mummy, and in which state human and animal remains are known to have existed in several parts of the world for a very considerable time. The discovery of a human skeleton, together with a moa egg-shell, in excavating for the foundations of a house on the Kaikoura peninsula, is another fact I should have alluded to. Unfortu- nately, the skeleton has not been preserved, or we might conclude from its examination to what race the owner of the egg had belonged. However, I have been informed that the Maoris had not the least tradition of a burial place of their own race having ever been in that locality, and disclaim the skeleton as belonging to them. And even if it had turned out that it had been of truly Maori origin, and that polished stone implements had been also found near it, we could not conclude therefrom that the Dinornis egg was of co-temporaneous origin with the individual with whom it was found buried. We might as well believe that the eocene or cretaceous fossils, artificially bored, which, together with human remains, have been found in caves on the continent of Europe, must be of the same age as the human bones with which they are associated. In addition to the facts that small heaps of so-called moa stones are found on the plains, which might indicate a spot where a bird had died, I wish also to state that I have met with moa stones in such localities where it would have been impossible for a body to le, and which offered evidence that, like the Emu, the Dinornis had the power of disgorging the stones when they were so much polished that they could not longer be used for the comminution of the food. This is the more probable as the stones in such positions are always very smooth, while those I found with the skeletons, and of which one fine specimen, from the Aorere caves in the Nelson province, is in the Canterbury Museum, exhibit well their natural roughness. Finally, M 94 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. “Taylor's New Zealand,” page 124, contains some instructive information concerning a Maori tradition, which, if reliable, at once points to the fact that when the present race arrived in New Zealand the Moas were already extinct. In giving the list of original canoes, Mr. Taylor relates, in speaking of No. 12, “Te Rangi na mutu. Tamatea Kokai was the chief; Nga ti rua nui. It came to Ranga tapu. On their arrival at that place they saw stones like English flints and moa bones,” and he adds, “it was there that I discovered the largest quantity of the bones of the Dinornis which I have seen. The flints, I have no doubt, were the stones which that bird used to swallow, being © chiefly quartz pebbles.” However, as the reverend gentleman distinctly speaks of stones like English flints, might this not suggest that at least a portion of them were rude stone implements and chips made of flint, such as we still find in the kitchen-middens of the moa-hunting race ? THirD Paper ON Moas anp Moa Hunters. [Read before the Philosophical Society of Canterbury, 20th December, 1871.] In my anniversary address delivered to you on lst March of this year, I had the honour to lay before you some of the principal facts concerning the so- called native traditions about the existence of the Dinornithes. I also offered a description of the moa-hunter encampment situated between the junction of the Little Rakaia and the main river, and of some others of minor importance, discovered by me in other parts of this province, but of similar ethnological interest. At our meeting of April 5th, I laid before you some additional information on some points of importance concerning the same subject previously over- looked, and to-night, with your permission, I wish to give a further account, based partly upon my own researches and partly upon communications received from different parts of the colony, all bearing upon questions intimately associated with the subject under review. Tam happy to say that my papers have had the effect of eliciting the publication of very important information ; first, in two papers read before this society by the Rev. J. W. Stack and Mr. John D. Enys ; and afterwards, in two other papers of Dr. J. Hector, F.R.S., and Mr. W. D. Murison, both read before the Otago Institute, which are full of valuable facts and suggestions, and to which I shall have to refer fully in these pages. During the course of this winter I paid another visit to the Little Rakaia encampment, and as the ground had all been broken up, and the owner of the property, Mr. T. Cannon, allowed me to make excavations wherever I thought Haast.—WMoas and Moa Hunters. 95 fit, I obtained a great deal more information than I formerly possessed. In fact, I was thus enabled to trace and examine the whole extent of the encamp- ment from the banks of the Rakaia to the Little Rakaia, all across the fields. During that visit the same gentleman handed over to me, as a presentation to the Canterbury Museum, a fine series of Maori and moa-hunters’ stone implements collected by him. In my first notes on the subject I explained that between the main river and the Little Rakaia a small terrace exists about eight feet high, by which a lower triangular flat is formed. The lines of the moa ovens and kitchen- middens run in the same direction as this terrace, so that their position must in some respects be in connection with that line. The ovens consist in the centre of five to six rows, sometimes close together, sometimes at some distance from each other, but near the banks of both rivers they diminish considerably in number. Generally they are situated ten to twelve feet from each other, and are either empty, nothing except loam and vegetable soil lying upon the stones of which they are built, or they are filled with heaps of broken bones and chips of chert and knives of sandstone ; this refuse sometimes also forming distinct heaps in close proximity to the ovens. Besides this principal belt there are a few scattered ones on the open space towards the first terrace, as well as immediately below it, of which one refuse heap is of particular interest, to which I shall refer in the sequel. I have previously described the moa-hunter remains near the small water- course bounding the triangular flat, and cannot add any new information, as I did not make any more excavations in that portion of the fields. Before proceeding to an examination of the kitchen-middens of the moa- hunters, I wish to allude to the numerous polished stone implements found over the same property. In the small sketch map annexed to this paper L have marked the principal localities. All over the fields numerous smaller polished stone implements are found indiscriminately in and near the moa-hunter encampment, as well as away from it. Many of them were picked up previously amongst the grass, but by far the greater portion became exposed when the land was broken up by the plough. ; In my first paper on this subject I have shown that long after the moa- hunters had ceased to exist, this locality continued to be a favourite camping ground of succeeding generations, who, in the course of ages, became more civilized, as shown by their polished and more finished stone implements. Near the north-eastern boundary of the moa. ovens, but in close vicinity to them, Mr. Cannon, jun., found a cache containing four large stone adzes, 96 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. made of a hard blackish chertose rock, of which two were finely finished, whilst the two others were only prepared for the polishing process by being cleverly chipped so as to assume the intended form. These stone adzes are twelve inches long, and proportionately broad and thick. From the manner of their occurrence, as explained to me by the dis- coverer, it is evident that they had been placed in a cuche dug for the purpose, just in the same manner as the chipped specimens of Palla described in my first paper, were hidden close by. On the south-western side, just cutside the line of moa ovens, a large square rubbing-stone, made of coarsely-grained sandstone, twelve inches long and four inches broad and deep, together with some other stone implements, were dug up, evidently forming also the contents of a cache. Some of the latter consisted of small chisels and gouges of distinct patterns, without doubt specially adapted for some peculiar kind of work. Some of the smaller implements are made of a greyish chert, such as is found on the Nelson side of the Dun Mountain range. I am not aware whence the black chertose schist can have been obtained, but suspect that it has also been brought by the Maoris from a considerable distance. A little away from this latter cache a piece of nephritic schist was obtained, ten inches long, four inches broad, and two to three inches thick. There had never been an attempt made to work it, without doubt owing to its inferior quality. Amongst the other objects found is a sinker, made of white compact lime- stone, such as is of frequent occurrence north of the Kowhai, in the so-called Weka Pass formation. It is egg-shaped, with a depression for the insertion of a fastening string all round its longer axis. Below the upper terrace, on the second flat, before the land was broken up, I observed on my first visit that a hut had been standing here, about fifteen feet long and-seven feet broad, with an opening towards the north. The outlines were shown by the floor being raised above the surrounding flat. The plough, in effacing all traces of these contour lines, had exposed the spot where the former cooking place in this hut had been situated. Here the soil was baked to a hard cemented mass, containing small pieces of charcoal, bones, either broken or entire, of fishes and small birds, together with a few fragments of polished stone implements, but not the least sign of moa bones, flint implements, or chips amongst them. On the same terrace, in two localities, cemented masses of the same kind proved the former existence of similar cooking places. In the neighbourhood of the hut four human bones were also exposed by the plough, consisting of two tibia, one femur, and one humerus, all belonging to the same individual, a full-grown man. Each of these bones had its Haast.—Moas and Moa Hunters. 97 extremities sharply broken off, as if for the extraction of the marrow, but only one of them appeared as if it had afterwards been gnawed by a dog. It will thus be seen that polished Maori stone implements occur all over the extent of the land, and as I had occasion to convince myself, also in the neighbouring fields, in which no sign of moa-hunter encampments exist ; but in no instance were polished stone implements found in the kitchen-middens of the moa-hunters, of which I examined carefully a great many, they invariably maintaining the same characteristic features. A further examination of the kitchen-middens of the moa-hunters confirmed fully the statement made in my first report, concerning the relative proportion in the occurrence of the bones of the different Dinornis species, the remains of Dinornis caswarinus still continuing to be the most numerous, and next those of Dinornis didiformis and crassus. A few more specimens of Dinornis elephantopus were also obtained, but no more of D. ingens, and none of the largest species, D. robustus and giganteus, so that I cannot add any new information on this head. The hollow space in one of the cooking places towards the central position of the encampment had been filled up with masses of broken moa bones, as this, as before observed, is not unusual 5 but this spot gained additional interest from finding that nearly two complete necks had been thrown on the heaps, so that, when we exposed the bones to view, we observed the vertebre, and the rings of the larynx along them, still in their natural position. One of these necks, which were lying one across the other near the bottom of the old oven, belonged to Dinornis casuarinus, and the other to D. didiformis ; the skulls belonging to them were also present, and had been scooped out in the usual manner. In examining and collecting carefully the contents of this oven, I found the broken leg-bones, portions of pelvis, sternwm, also phalanges, ribs, intercostals, and even some of the tympanic bones belonging to these two specimens on one heap together, with a few chips of flint and a sandstone knife. Thus we had here the remnant of a meal before us for which two birds of different species had at the same time been cooked. If we had had no other bones at our disposal, we could have constructed from this refuse heap alone, two species of the extinct Dimornithes. I also examined again fragment after fragment, to see if I could not trace by gnawed pieces the co-existence of a domesticated dog, but in vain ; even the smallest bones being quite intact, and the bigger ones, which were broken, showing invariably the original fractures, sharply defined. I may also allude here to the curious fact that I never obtained any scapulo-coracoid bone, which, judging from the existence of this bone in the skeletons of the larger species, the smaller ones ought also to have possessed. However, the Glenmark Swamp in this respect never yielded a single 98 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. specimen except those of Dinornis giganteus and robustus, so that I almost despair of ever obtaining this bone from the smaller species. Amongst other specimens of interest, I obtained a great quantity of bones of the New Zealand dog, of which one kitchen-midden below the terrace contained a considerable number, besides a great quantity of broken moa bones. We made at that spot quite a collection of lower jaws and fragments of skulls and of limb bones, having belonged to numerous specimens mostly of the same size. The examination of the lower jaw shows that this dog had a very narrow muzzle, with powerful teeth for its size, resembling the dingo and jackal in that respect, although smaller than these animals. In one of these lower jaws I observed that one premolar existed above the usual number. I also obtained a great quantity of the bones of the leg, but mostly broken in two or more fragments. A considerable number of bones of seals were also dug up, including portions of the skull and lower jaw, but they invariably belonged to an Otaria (fur seal). Tympanic bones of whales, either entire or broken, were again found in considerable numbers, but without offering any clue as to their use. Besides the numerous flakes of flint and obsidian, I obtained a few more well-worked flint implements, of which the principal ones are figured as illustrations to this paper. With one exception they also exhibit the same peculiarity of being only chipped on one side ; some of them were evidently used as knives. Amongst the larger pieces is a block of flint of a yellowish colour, about five inches long and four inches broad and thick, and another flat piece eight and a half inches long by five inches broad and two inches deep. The former shows clearly, and this I think is very important, that it was used merely for the chipping of flakes whenever they were wanted, and not for the manufacture of larger knives or hatchets. A fine block of obsidian, six inches long, four and a half inches broad, and three inches deep, shows the same marks of small chips and flakes having been broken off in a similar manner, and evidently for the same purpose. Thus, from the appearance of these blocks, we may safely deduce that the moa-hunters were in the habit of breaking off small chips for their daily use, perhaps being compelled to do so by custom or superstition, not being allowed to use the same cutting edge to two animals ; such an explanation, which I admit is very hazardous, might account for the enormous quantity of small chips and flakes found amongst the kitchen-middens. Numerous sandstone knives were also obtained, turned up by the plough, some of them clearly showing that the cutting edge had been sharpened by additional blows all round. I was also fortunate enough to find during my Haast.—WMoas and Moa Hunters. 99 last excavations a large flat sandstone boulder from which these knives had been broken off all round the edge. From the appearance of this stone it was evident that they had been obtained by one blow, as the stone was otherwise intact, but from the planes of fracture it could easily be seen that some of the knives had not been of the desired shape, and in searching closely I found some broken pieces which evidently had been thrown away as useless. I also obtained during these last excavations a shell, Musus Zelandicus, through which a hole was bored in a neat manner, a testimony that this pre- historic people was not devoid of the love of personal adornment. Before I shall enter into a consideration of the arguments brought forward against portions of my deductions, based upon the facts given in these papers, I wish to lay before you some new information, some of it of considerable importance, bearing upon the subject under discussion. Mr. Sherbrook Walker, who is well acquainted with the Friendly Islands, where he is a partner in a sheep run, writes to me as follows :—“ There is a tradition of a gigantic bird which once resided in Kua (one of the Friendly Islands), and about half a mile from our house, on the top of the island, there is a small hill of about one and a half acres in extent, and about fifty feet high, covered with trees. This is called by the natives ‘Te Moa,’ which is, being interpreted, ‘moa dung,’ and the legend is that the bird one day, whilst passing over the island, evacuated at that spot, and raised the mount in question. Of course, all this is extremely absurd, but it is curious that the natives should have such a tradition ; and there is another thing I should like to point out to your notice, namely, that the native name for the common fowl is ‘moa,’ which would seem as though the traditions handed down amongt them anent the extinct bird showed that it had some external resem- blance to the domestic fowl, which, I think, would certainly have been the case with the New Zealand Moa, only of course on vastly different scales. There is also a legend in this island of a gigantic lizard, which half the natives in the island made an attack upon, and, after a desperate battle, succeeded in slaying. I have often had the spot pointed out to me where the fight took place.” I consider this information highly important, because it proves beyond a doubt that the Polynesian inhabitants of the Pacific Ocean have the same legends abont a gigantic bird and lizard, and that the Maoris, as proved by the Rev. W. Colenso, have in this respect no other knowledge which has a less fabulous character. Speaking of this gentleman, I regret deeply that ill-health prevents him from writing more fully on the subject under discussion, of which no one in New Zealand is more thoroughly master, but I am glad to say that Mr. Colenso fully agrees with all the principal deductions concerning the extinction 100 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. of the Dinornis in pre-historic times, and the utter ignorance of the Maoris on the subject. In my first essay I tried to explain that the Maoris, by comparing the moa bones with those of other living species of birds, and finding that they resembled most closely those of the Apéeryx, might have traced in such a way the near relationship of both genera ; however, as Mr. Colenso states in a letter dated 13th July, even in this respect I went too far, because, alluding to this subject, the reverend gentleman says, “ Believe me, no Maori of thirty or thirty-five years ago ever once supposed the moa bones to be those of a bird, they always obstinately denied it. That they since have done so is entirely owing to the pakehas.” Mr, Colenso informs me, also, that he would translate differently the Maori proverb, Te moa kathau, to which I am indebted to the Rev. J. W. Stack, although he does not give me his translation. My attention has been directed to a letter of Sir George Grey to the Zoological Society of London, in March, 1870, in reference to my first com- munication to the same society concerning the moa-hunter encampment at the Rakaia, in which that gentleman states, ‘‘ The natives all know the word ‘ Moa,’ as describing the extinct bird ; and when I went to New Zealand twenty-five years ago the natives invariably spoke to me of the Moa as a bird well known to their ancestors. They spoke of the Moa in exactly the same manner as they did of the Kakapo, the Kiwi, the Weka, and an extinct kind of Rail, in districts where all these birds had disappeared. Allusions to the Moa are found in their poems, sometimes together with allusions to birds still in existence in some parts of the island. From these circumstances, and from former frequent conversations with old natives, I have never entertained the slightest doubt that the Moa was found by the ancestors of the present New Zealand race when they first occupied the islands, and that by degrees the Moa was destroyed and disappeared, as have several other wingless birds from different parts of New Zealand.” Tt will be seen from that extract that Sir George Grey speaks of allusions to the Moa being handed to us in the poems of the Maoris, and it is therefore very much to be regretted that none of these allusions are to be found in any of the published traditions or poems, of which the classical volume of Sir George Grey is considered the most reliable, because, as the Rev. James W. Stack informs me, in none of them is any allusion made to moa-hunting, though frequent references are made to kiwi aud weka-hunting, and sports of other kinds. In my first paper I alluded to two human skulls from the sandhills, sent by me to the late Professor Dr. C. G. Carus, and which by that illustrious anatomist were thought not to be of Maori origin. Since then Professor Haast.— VWoas and Moa Hunters. 101 Dr. Leuckart has examined them very carefully, compared them with a genuine Maori skull, and has informed me that they are not to be distin- guished from the latter. This distinguished naturalist has thus set this matter at rest, and the question appears to me settled that if these skulls really belonged to the pre-historic moa-hunters, of which however there is no evidence, that race was not different from that at present inhabiting New Zealand. There is another important point to which I wish to refer, namely, to the occurrence of a gigantic raptorial bird in New Zealand, the Harpagornis Mooret, of which the Canterbury Museum possesses portions, found in the turbary deposits of Glenmark, together with bones of the extinct Dinornithes. There is no reason to suppose that the Harpagornis became extinct before the Dinornis, and thus if the present inhabitants of New Zealand had any reliable traditions about the Moa, would it not be evident that the existence of this more terrible bird of prey would have been recorded by them? This is certainly circumstantial evidence, which cannot easily be set aside.* However, returning to Sir George Grey’s letter, may I express a hope that the Maori traditions about the Moa, contained in songs, etc., to which that distinguished Maori scholar alludes, might be collected and published by him for our benefit, so that we can judge how far the present native inhabitants of these islands have any traditions concerning its existence ; I wish this the more sincerely as the Rev. J. T. H. Woehlers, of Ruapuka, who has been nearly thirty years amongst the natives in the southern portion of this island, writes to me and states that he has never been able to obtain any information on the subject, thus in every respect testifying to the accuracy of the information received from the Revs. W. Colenso and Stack, and Mr. Alexander Mackay. Two very important papers were read before the Otago Institute, to which I wish to refer at some length. Dr. J. Hector, F.R.S., gives in the first paper a great deal of valuable information which he possesses on the subject, for which every lover of science must feel grateful, and which was particularly welcome to me, although Dr. Hector arrives at somewhat different conclusions to my own. One of the principal facts upon which Dr. Hector bases his conclusions as * I found, however, that Professor Owen, when exhibiting in November 1839, at a meeting of the Zoological Society of London, the fragments of the shaft of a femur of Dinornis, the first bone brought to Europe, he observed that he had received this bone from Mr. Rule, with the statement that it was found in New Zealand, where the natives have a tradition that it belonged to a bird of the eagle kind, which has become extinct, and to which they gave the name of ‘‘ Movie.” N } 102 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. to the recent occurrence of the Moa is the neck of a Dinornis discovered in Otago, with portions of the skin partly covered with feathers still attached by shrivelled muscles and ligaments. Hitherto, however, we have not heard in what position this neck was found, but I may observe that the skeleton of Dinornis robustus excavated near Tiger Hill, on the Manuherikia plains, was found to possess also portions of skins, feathers, and ligaments, attached to the bones in exactly the same manner, although lying fourteen feet below the ground. Moreover, the important fact, which we must not overlook, that portions of that Tiger Hill skeleton were in the semi-fossil condition in which moa bones usually are preserved to us, is in itself sufficient evidence, that from the occurrence of another well preserved portion we cannot altogether judge correctly as to the recentness of these remains. Dr. Hector himself, in a letter to Professor Owen, dated 15th February, 1864, as printed in the “Transactions of the Zoological Society,” when giving him a description of the geological features of the ground where the Tiger Hill skeleton was found, expresses himself as follows :—“‘ The dry climate and the fact that the bones were imbedded in dry sand, prevent our necessarily infer- ring from the weli-preserved condition of this skeleton, that it is of more recent date than the bones that are usually found ; and, moreover, as some parts of the skeleton are quite as much decomposed as the generality of the moa remains, it is more natural to suppose that the preservation of the more perish- able parts of the remainder of the skeleton has been due to an accidentally favourable position of the soil.” I fully agree with this conclusion, and I wish to point out that under favourable conditions, even in tertiary rocks, similar organic remains have been preserved. ‘Thus in the paper coal of the brown coal beds of Rhenish Prussia, which are of miocene age, feathers of birds have been discovered, which shows that under exceptionally favourable circumstances organic substances can be preserved, which otherwise perish in a very short time. That the neck of the Moa, now in the Colonial Museum, which is in a similar remarkable state of preservation as the Tiger Hill skeleton, was once imbedded in micaceous sand, is stated by Dr. Hector himself. We are, there- fore, not too bold to assume that it has been excavated from a bed similar to that in which the last-mentioned skeleton was found. However, to my mind, one of the main arguments in favour of the great antiquity of the moa ovens, from which we may conclude also of the long extinction of the Dinornis species, is given by Dr. Hector when relating the interesting discovery of the two steatite dishes carved in Maori fashion, of which one was found near an old Maori oven at the coast and the other far in the interior. This fact proves beyond a doubt that the natives had reliable traditions for HaAast.—Woas and Moa Hunters. 103 centuries back, even of such minor events as the existence and loss of two carved stone dishes, and this suggests that certainly they would have similar correct and reliable traditions as to the existence and the extinction of the huge wingless birds, had they been known to their forefathers. What better argument could I bring forward in proof of the long lapse of time since the Dinornithes must have become extinct ? The occurrence of moa bones on open plains, etc., as described by Dr. Hector, is quite in accordance with observations made in this province, but if their presence is explained in the way the Rev. J. W. Stack has so successfully attempted, all difficulties on this head are easily removed. The south-eastern portion of this island was not only inhabited by large tribes of Maoris, but they were also constantly in the habit of travelling to the lakes in the interior for fishing purposes, and to the West Coast for obtaining the much coveted greenstone. Every valley and peak, every creek and ford over a river had a name, and was perfectly well known to them for centuries. But besides these fishing and other excursions, they went to the interior for catching rats and woodhens, and they were therefore exceedingly anxious that no fires should run over the country, so as to destroy the means of their subsistence. But when the Europeans came and settled upon the land, this fear was greatly removed ; extensive fires passed repeatedly over the country, and the moa bones, which for ages had been preserved under the protecting cover of the peaty soil, were laid bare, but soon disappeared again, when subjected to the destructive atmospheric influences. How can we account otherwise for their sudden appearance and disappearance ? My first extensive exploration in this province dates back to the beginning of 1861, or ten years after the country was first occupied by European settlers ; but even then I never found any moa bones lying in the grass, except when they could be traced to their having been washed out from the banks of creeks and deposited there by floods. The extensive layer of bones which in many localities were seen by the first settlers had already entirely disappeared in the short space of ten years, and this has doubtless been the case in Otago. Thus, for instance, there were great quantities of moa bones, no doubt uncovered a short time previously by great fires, at some locality on the banks of the southern Ashburton, when the first settlers went there, over which the track leads to the lakes near the head of that river, to which the Maoris resorted for centuries for purposes of eel-fishing. Now even supposing that the moa bones had been lying there for 100 years, which is utterly impossible, as the bones of horses and cattle disappear within twenty years on our plains, is it conceivable that the natives, of whom some were of very great age when 104 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. the first Europeans arrived, should have had not the least idea of the existence of those birds, except perhaps a few fabulous legends common more or less to all the Polynesian Islands ? Dr. Hector, at the conclusion of his very interesting and instructive paper, cites, amongst others, the testimony of the Hon. W. Mantell in support of his view, namely, that the Moa survived to very recent times; but in my opinion the views of that gentleman do not altogether coincide with those of Dr. Hector. In my second paper I quoted from a lecture of Mr. Mantell’s, and showed that he had somewhat modified his former views. Since then, at a meeting of the Philosophical Society of Wellington, as I see from the “ Wellington Inde- pendent,” of 3rd July, 1871, when speaking of the occurrence of moa eggs in the Northern Island, Mr. Mantell is reported to have expressed himself as follows :—‘‘ Mr. Mantell explained that he had discovered these eggs in what were called Maori ovens, or, as he preferred to call them, pre-historic man ovens, etc., etc.” Mr. Mantell thus offers additional confirmation to the correctness of my deductions, and I was truly glad to see that this gentleman was willing to modify his former views, in accordance with those advocated by me, as soon as he became convinced of their correctness. The next paper to which I wish to refer is entitled ‘‘ Notes on Moa Remains,” by Mr. W. D. Murison, and was read before the Otago Institute. This con- tribution to the questions at issue is particularly valuable, as Mr. Murison offers principally the results of his own researches. His examination of the ovens in the Maniototo plains shows convincingly that in all their principal features they are identical with those of the Little Rakaia, with the exception hat they contain numerous pieces of egg-shells, of which not a single specimen was obtained in the latter locality. Mr. Murison lays great stress upon the fact that from the same place several fragments of polished stone implements were taken.out, but as we have not that gentleman’s testimony that they were found by himself in a kitchen-midden or oven of the moa-hunters, I cannot attach much weight to it. Although that gentleman thinks that it is unlikely the natives ever visited the Puke- toi-toi creek, on the banks of which the moa ovens are situated, with any other object than that of moa-hunting, I wish to point out that that small and insignificant creek has a Maori name, and that when the country was covered with vegetation, the volume of water was probably much larger than at present, when the whole district has been dried up by the systematic burning of the vegetable growth by the sheep farmer. Unfortunately, I am not acquainted with the topography of that district, but I am certain that the occurrence of the numerous moa ovens on the banks of that creek proves it being a favourable locality for camping. JI also wish to TRANS.NZ. INSTITUTE, Vol.V.PUVIL To accompany Paper by D? Haw st. e a JEM" Cordell del. IE Uith, Ue 2 SUZE. Haast.—WMoas and Moa Hunters. 105 remind you that the Maoris went not only eel-fishing, but also rat and wood- hen catching. If I am allowed to offer a simile, [ would compare the finding of polished and unpolished stone implements together, with finding some coins of the middle ages near some stone implements and bones of the giant elk in a boggy deposit on the banks of a small gully in Ireland, and we should conclude there- from that they must all have been co-temporaneous, because after the extinction of the giant elk no other means of sustenance could be procured near such a locality. However, even supposing that really polished stone implements had been mixed up with the chipped flint Instruments, this would merely prove that of a people possessing a very low standard of civilization, the generality used only very rough and primitive stone implements, but numbered a few favoured persons amongst its members, who were already in possession of fine polished ones, indicating a much higher state of civilization for them than for the great mass of the tribes. To believe in such an anomalous state of things would be, to my mind, taking a very strange view. However, this would not prove that the Moa had lived in more recent times, than from the absence of reliable traditions, and from the generally very primitive form of flint implements, we are com- pelled to assume. Moreover, I wish to point out that even polished stone implements are of considerable antiquity in New Zealand, as they have been found in -such positions that their great age cannot be doubted. In volume Ii: of the “Journal of the Ethnological Society of London,” page 110, etc., I have described two stone implements, a polished stone adze and a sharpening stone, found in Bruce Bay, fifteen feet below the ground, in an undisturbed deposit, over which a forest, consisting of large trees, was growing ; since then I have received another adze made of sandstone, possessing a well polished cutting edge, found at Hunt’s Beach, West Coast, eighteen feet below the ground, amongst the roots and stumps of an ancient forest, which last June, during the progress of gold mining operations, was laid bare. Plate IV. fig. 1 gives a drawing of this stone implement, now in the Can- _terbury Museum, of the considerable age of which there can be no doubt. The story of the whaler about the Moa, to which Mr. Murison alludes, is simply a sailor’s yarn, with which we have been favoured repeatedly. [ am sorry I cannot agree with the conclusions of Mr. Murison, but sincerely hope that that gentleman will personally superintend some excavations in the valley in question, and if the discovery of polished and rudely chipped stone implements in co-temporaneous deposits should be confirmed by him, a great step towards solving the question at issue will have been made. 106 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. Tt is not my intention to enter into a discussion of the vexed question of Polynesian migrations, although in some respects this interesting subject has some bearing upon the so-called Moa traditions. Several essays and books, in English, German, French, and Italian, lie on my table, all treating of that question from various points of view, and in which attempts are made to settle it one way or the other, but it would be beyond the scope of this paper to enter into a discussion of the different theories propounded therein. However, [ wish to offer one suggestion, which might assist in removing some of the difficulties as far as New Zealand is concerned. It appears that before the arrival of European vessels in the Pacific Ocean, frequent communications between the Ladrone Islands and Tahiti, and from both these points to Hawai, by canoes existed, which afterwards ceased, owing most probably to the circumstance that the Polynesian navigators were frightened by the European vessels. Consequently, if the Polynesians some hundred years ago had the courage to sail such long distances, it is very possible that some of the large canoes, taken from their usual track by currents and winds, landed in New Zealand, where a population of Awtocthones, the direct descendants of the moa-hunters and of the same Polynesian race as the new comers existed. Were this the case it could easily be accounted for, that when Tasman first visited our shores the Maoris possessed double canoes, manufactured by them in imitation of those which had brought the few new comers to their shores, but which, in course of time, were again discarded for their original canoe of a more simple construction. Such an explanation might also account for the tradition about their arrival in New Zealand. The same explanation may also assist us to under- stand that some feathers of the Cassowary (Moa) were brought to New Zealand, and that the fable of the large Moa and huge reptile from the Friendly Islands, if not of much older origin, found also its way to our shores. In summing up the points at issue, I think that the following propositions are proved by me :— Ist. The different species of the Dinornis or Moa began to appear and flourish in the post-pliocene period of New Zealand. 2nd. They have been extinct for sucha long time that no reliable traditions as to their existence have been handed down to us. 3rd, A race of Autocthones, probably of Polynesian origin, was co-tem- poraneous with the Moa, by whom the huge wingless birds were hunted and exterminated. Ath. A species of wild dog was co-temporaneous with them, which was also killed and eaten by the moa-hunters. Srack.—WNotes on “ Moas and Moa Hunters.” 107 5th. They did not possess a domesticated dog. 6th. This branch of the Polynesian race possessed a very low standard of civilization, using only rudely chipped stone implements, whilst the Maoris, their direct descendants, had, when the first Europeans arrived in New Zealand, already reached a high state of civilization in manufacturing fine polished stone implements and weapons. 7th. The moa-hunters, who cooked their food in the same manner as the Maoris of the present day do, were not cannibals. 8th. The moa-hunters had means to reach the Northern Island, whence they procured obsidian. 9th. They also travelled far into the interior of this island to obtain flint for the manufacture of their primitive stone implements. 10th. They did not possess implements of Nephrite (greenstone). llth. The polishing process of stone implements is of considerable age in New Zealand, as more finished tools have been found in such positions that their great antiquity cannot be doubted, and which is an additional proof of the long extinction of the Moa. Art. V.—Some observations on the Annual Address of the President of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, delivered on the \st March, 1871. By the Rev. J. W. Stack. [Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 5th April, 1871.] In his very interesting paper on ‘“ Moas and Moa-hunters,” our President spoke of the absence of any reliable traditions, amongst the Maoris generally, regarding the causes that led to the extinction of the Moa. He concludes from this, and other evidence, that the extinction of the Moa was long antecedent to the settlement of these islands by the Maori race. There is very strong presumptive evidence in support of his view, that the Maoris were not the moa-hunters. But that the Dinornis was hunted, and became extinct ages before the advent of the Maori, is a conclusion hardly deducible from the facts upon which the theory is based. The present Maori inhabitants—Ngai Tahu —have occupied this island for about ten generations. Allowing twenty-five years for a generation, their occupation dates back 250 years. In none of the traditions relating to this period, though numerous and detailed, are there any allusions to the Moa. We may safely conclude, then, that, for that period at least, the Moa has been extinct. The Ngai Tahu found this island in the posses- sion of the Ngati-mamoe, another Maori tribe, whom they exterminated or absorbed. The Ngati-mamoe having previously succeeded Waitaha, a tribe 108 ~ Transactions. — Miscellaneous. descended from a chief of that name, who arrived from Hawaiki im the canoe ‘Arawa,’ twenty generations ago. Ngai Tahu having incorporated the remnants of the two preceding tribes, the traditions of these tribes would become the property of Ngai Tahu, and be handed down with the rest of their tribal lore to posterity. Now, while these traditions are full and distinct in everything else to which they relate, and extend as far back as to events that occurred before the migration from Hawaiki, they only contain very vague and meagre references to the Moa. It is inconceivable that an observant and intelligent people like the Maoris should be without traditions of such exciting sport as moa-hunting, had they ever engaged in it. And these traditions, did they exist, would not be confined to particular localities, but would be met with in every part of these islands in which the remains of the Dinornis are found. I have occasionally heard in the North Island stories of moa hunts, but they were regarded by all, but those perhaps who related them, as pure fabrications. In common with most people, I was long under the impression that the extinction of the Moa was an event of recent date, and hastened by the Maori. I took it for granted that the natives only required to be questioned to afford every information regarding its nature and habits, and the causes of its disappearance. Further inquiry, however, has led me to think that the Maoris were not moa-hunters, and that the bones that strewed the plains of Canterbury were lying there at a period anterior to the last migration - from Hawaiki. I am strongly confirmed in this opinion by the fact that Mr. Colenso, after careful inqviry thirty-three years ago—when circumstances were more favourable for the collection of reliable traditions—came to the same conclusion. I may remark, in passing, that Sir George Grey published a col- lection of traditions gathered from all parts of New Zealand. In none of them is any allusion made to moa-hunting, though frequent references are made to kiwi and weka-hunting, and sport of other kinds. But how are we to account for any allusions to the Moa at all in Maori poetry and proverbs, unless the people were familiar with it? Dr. Thompson, as quoted by the President, says “That the Moa was alive when the first settlers came, is evident from the name of this bird being mixed up with their songs and stories.” But Dr. Thompson was probably not aware that the Maoris were familiar with a large land-bird which they called a Moa before ever they came to New Zealand. The name by which the Cassowary is known in the islands is Moa; and as it somewhat resembles the Dinornis in form, an exaggerated description of it would be a sufficiently accurate description of that gigantic bird to mislead anyone not fully prepared to question the knowledge of the Maoris upon the subject, into supposing that they were perfecrly familiar with its form and - habits. I remember hearing, when a child, of the beautiful plumes that were found at the top of the cliff which overhung a cavern somewhere on the East Stack.—WNotes on “ Moas and Moa Hunters.” 109 Coast of the North Island, where the last of the Moas hid itself. But no one I ever met had seen them. Those who described them had only heard of them from others. It is quite possible that moa feathers may have been found and used as ornaments, but it is not necessary to believe they were so to account for the description the Maoris give of them. The feathers of the Cassowary are used as ornaments in the islands where they exist, and probably the ancestors of the Maori brought some away with them. These, from their rareness, would be highly prized and carefully preserved, and when all recol- lection of the Hawaikian Moa had faded away, would be thought to belong to that Moa of which remains were everywhere visible. In the same way, we may account for the saying regarding the toughness of the Moa’s flesh, which could only be thoroughly cooked with the twigs of the koromiko, by supposing that it was the flesh of the Hawaikian Moa, and not of the Dinornis that was meant. But unless the Maoris saw the Dinornis alive, how did they know that the bones they found strewing the earth were the bones of a bird? The largest form of land-animal life with which they were familiar on their arrival here was that of a bird which they called a Moa. Probably they found many skeletons of the Dinornis lying in such positions as clearly to indicate its form when alive. Being careful observers of nature, they would note the resemblance between the skeletons they found here and the skeletons of the Moa with which they were acquainted in the islands, and would at once conclude that they were identical, and call them by the same name. Against the theory of the antiquity of moa remains, it is urged that the bones which were everywhere found in good preservation twenty years ago, have entirely disappeared since then. How, it is asked, could those bones have remained in exposed situations for hundreds of years before the advent of Europeans, when so short a period has sufficed, since their arrival, to destroy all traces of them in localities where they were so plentiful? I think the efforts of the Maoris to preserve, and the efforts of the Europeans to destroy, the rank vegetation of the country, account for the preservation in one case, and the subsequent destruction in the other, of the moa remains. Ever since the peopling of these islands by Maoris, the natural vegetation has been protected as far as possible from destruction. The grass of the Canterbury plains afforded cover for the Kviore, native rat, which was caught in immense numbers, being highly esteemed for food. If the Maoris have inhabited these islands for five hundred years, then during that period they preserved, as far as possible, the vegetation of the plains, the decaying leaves of which would each year add to the thick covering overlying the moa remains, and which, being impervious to wet, would preserve them from the destructive action of the atmosphere. On the occupatién of the country by Europeans, the vegetation was burnt, the covering removed, and the bones exposed ; and successive fires, coupled with atmospheric influences, 0) 110 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. have now destroyed all traces of them. So far, I think the evidence is against the theory of the recent destruction of the Moa, but the rejection of that theory does not involve the acceptance of the other, which refers the extinction of the Moa to a period immeasurably distant. Art. VI.—On Recent Moa Remains in New Zealand. By James Hector, M.D., F.RS. (With Illustrations. ) [Read before the Otago Institute, 16th September, 1871.] {rv will be in the recollection of some members of this Society that in January, 1864, a remarkably perfect specimen of the Moa was found near Tiger Hill, on the Manuherikia Plains, in the interior of the province of Otago, and that it was transmitted to the Museum at York. Before the bones were packed for Europe, I was afforded an opportunity of examining and figuring them, and a photograph of the restored skeleton is in the Otago Museum. They afterwards formed the subject of a memoir by Professor Owen in the “ Trans- actions of the Zoological Society” for 1869, who identified the species as Dinornis robustus. These remains were chiefly remarkable on account of the well-preserved condition of some parts of the skeleton, portions of the ligaments, skin, and feathers, being still attached to some of the bones ; whereas moa bones, in the condition in which they are usually found, are to some extent fossilized, or at least have undergone sufficient chemical change to deprive them not only of all ligamentous appendages, but to some extent of their original proportion of organic matter. The discovery in the following year of a Moa’s egg, containing the bones of an embryo chick, in a road cutting at Cromwell, was recorded by me in 1867. (‘Zoological Transactions,” London.) This egg was found imbedded in sand two feet below the surface, and was unfortunately broken by the workmen who extracted it, so that many fragments were lost. Those which remain bave, however, been fitted together, and give the form of more than one half of the egg, which appears to have had the followimg dimensions :— Long diameter, 8-9 inches ; short diameter, 6:1 inches. A model of this egg, which I have lately prepared, will be found in the Otago Museum, together with a model of the great egg which was obtained by Mr. Fife at the Kaikouras, and another that was found by Mr. Mantell near Oamaru in 1849. The texture of the shell of the Cromwell egg is soft and chalky, having, no doubt, been corroded by solvents contained in the soil. In order to ascertain TRANS.N.Z.INSTIT UTE Vou.LV, PL. VI. we & e ASS ae oN ee ao N & EMU GHICK. MOA CHICK. MOA EGG. V3. nat. svZe. IB, del. eb ith. 7G hae alte au Fa lia a Hector.—On Recent Moa Remains. 111 the probable extent of change to which the egg-shell has been subjected in this manner, a fragment was analysed and proved to contain only ‘9 per cent. of organic matter, while the egg-shell of the Emu contains as much as 7:89 per cent., from which we may infer that the shell of the Moa egg had been almost wholly deprived of its animal matter. I happen to have in the Museum an egg of the Emu, also containing the bones of a chick which had reached about the same stage of development, so that I was able to institute some very interesting comparisons. The principal difference in the outward appearance of the bones is, that while the Moa chick bones are of a light brown colour, spongy texture, and adhere to the tongue like baked clay, the Emu chick bones have a dense brittle structure, white colour, and smooth surface that is not porous. The most remarkable feature, however, is the enormous disproportion in the bones of the extremities, while there is very little difference in size between the crania and total relative height. Thus the length of the Moa chick may be estimated at 14-5 inches, and that of the Emu chick at 13 inches; and the weight of the bones of the limbs and pelvis in the Moa is 167 grains, while in the Emu chick it is only 40-5 grains, or in the proportion of four to one. I compared the specific gravity of the bones for the purpose of determining roughly the extent to which those of the Moa chick had been fossilized, and obtained the following results :— Moa chick . : ‘ ‘ . sp. gr. of bone 1-538 Emu chick . , : : : ‘ ; saalsoiah Ordinary moa bone . 2 5 . 1:700 to 1:979 We thus find that no marked change real ea place in the density of the bones of the chick, the shell having, no coubt, protected them from the action of the soil. Plate VL, figs. 1 to 4, shows the relative size of the Moa and Emu eggs and chicks reduced to one-third natural size. I have now to describe another remarkable specimen from the same district, being the cervical vertebrew of a Moa, apparently of the largest size, upon the posterior aspect of which the skin, partly covered with feathers, is still attached by the shrivelled muscles and ligaments. The specimen in question belongs to Dr. Thomson, of Clyde, she obtained it from a gold-miner, and kindly forwarded it to me for description. It was discovered in a cave, or under an overhanging mass of mica schist—the locality being thus described by Dr. Thomson, who has since visited it :— “The cave in question lies at the foot of the Obelisk range of hills, and about four miles from its summit. I am unable to give you its proper geographical position, as we had no compass with us. It is situated at the back of a large rock, which stands about seventy feet high from the ground, and to me it appears to be more a rent and crumbling away of the sides of rocks round about. There are two openings, one of which is immediately 112 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. opposite Alexandra, the other towards the Obelisk ; the former is a steep incline, the other exactly like a funnel, and is in the centre of a flat about a quarter of an acre in extent, while the former is surrounded by rocks. The descent into the cave, which is accomplished by sliding down feet foremost, is by the former opening—by the other opening the descent is difficult ; the two Openings communicate with each other. On entering what may be termed as the first or upper floor, you have to be in a bent position. This floor is composed of loose dirt, pieces of wood, and other rubbish, and a few bones, and is bounded on all sides by rocks; and it is here that the separation of the rock is most apparent, and the fracture can be easily traced on all sides. Below this is another floor, to enter which you have to go on your face and slide under a piece of rock about ten feet long, there being just sufficient room to pass through, and the descent is also an incline. In this compartment, where you are alto- gether unable to stand, stooping, or rather kneeling and sitting, being the only positions that can be assumed, are found all the bones, lodged against the side of the rock (towards the south). The position may be described as that assumed by a ship when lying well over on her side. Below this floor are others, which become rocky as you descend, and in which are observed other rents. The entire depth of the cave from the surface is at least from forty to fifty feet. I have been so far minute in describing the place in order to give you some idea of how the bones found got there. I may mention that in the third floor the height is at least ten feet, so that there is plenty of room for standing erect. “ At our visit, and on entering the first floor, our attention was attracted to the remains of a fire. We found numerous charred bones, both moa bones and sheep bones, pieces of wood, and spear grass. No bones worthy of note were obtained here, but on entering the second floor, and by scraping away the loose dirt to a depth of two feet, we came upon numerous bones—/emora, ‘tibie, fibule, ribs, vertebre, tracheal rings, and cesophageal rings, and pieces of skin and muscle, also bones of the toes and tarsal bones, and a portion of a pelvis. In the third storey we found pieces of egg-shell and the bones of some kind of flying bird (the keel on the breast-bone indicating the kind of bird). “Our visit was paid rather late in the day, and as it began to rain and snow alternately we had to leave. Since then other people have been into the cave, and one man found a perfect head with lower jaw and tracheal rings attached ; these were found lying whole. They also found a large lower jaw. The latter I have now in my possession, but the former the finder would not part with. “On one of the thigh bones portions of muscular tissue are observed, in pretty good preservation, and found at the same spot where the portion of neck was found. Herctor.—On Recent Moa Remains. 113 “T have been able to make out pretty distinctly the remains of eight birds, there having been found sixteen tibiw, of course not all complete. I have referred to the remains of a fire in the cave ; a great many pieces of charred bones were found in the first floor, chiefly of the femur ; in the second floor a number of claws were found, and these were nearly all charred, and of all the leg bones only two were found slightly charred. Two tibie are evidently those of a young bird, as the ends are undeveloped, also a portion of pelvis evidently belonging to the same bird ; these bones are thin and soft, much more so than any yet found either in that cave or elsewhere. “« My impression is that the flat ground round about the opening opposite the mountain was the camping ground of the birds, and, having been killed either on the flat or higher up the hill, their remains were washed down into the cave and deposited on the side of the cave above alluded to, for it is impossible to imagine how such gigantic birds could have found their way into the cave, unless, indeed, the openings were at some anterior period larger, and have since become closed by an earthquake or by the settling down of the huge rock. The idea of a landslip is negatived by the presence of the rocks and the entire flatness of the ground round about. They may, however, have been killed and then roasted in the cave, but it is difficult to say, especially as no implements have been found in or near the vicinity of the cave. “Of the portions of egg-shells found, it may be stated that these were, along with the remains of the winged birds, found at the lowest and deepest part of the cave, in small crevices of the rock. In my opinion the only possible way of arriving at any positive conclusion as to how the bones got into the cave is a thorough examination of the country lying above the place, in order to see if any slip had ever occurred. Iam inclined to think that they have been washed down, as a quantity of sheep manure and pieces of wood ‘are scattered about the place, and such marks as are left after a place has been flooded are distinctly seen.” “T have again visited the cave, and still adhere to my former impressions. At this visit only a few claws were got, and a few tracheal rings and vertebre. *«« At another place (Butcher’s Gully) bones have been found ; a éebia, thirty- two inches long, has been got, which I have in my possession. Other bones have been found, and are to be sent in to me, and it is my intention to pay a visit to this place, about which I shall inform you if you think it necessary. « Along with this I forward you a few feathers found half-way between Alexandra and Roxburgh.* They were found by a miner, eighteen feet below the surface of the ground, while sluicing. Perhaps you have already in your possession feathers, but these may not be unacceptable, and tend to show * Described by Captain Hutton, see post. 114 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. that the Moa was largely distributed over this part of the island, and has but recently become extinct.”* 7 | : The total length of Dr. Thomson’s specimen is 16:5 inches, and includes the first dorsal and last six cervical vertebre, with the integument and shrivelled tissues enveloping them on the left side. The surfaces of the bones on the right side, where not covered by the integument, are quite free from all membrane and other tissues, but are quite perfect, and in good preservation, without being in the least degree mineralized. The margin of thc fragment of skin is sharply defined along the dorsal edge, but elsewhere it is soft, easily pulverized, and passing into adipocere. The circumference of the neck of the bird, at the upper part of the specimen, appears to have been about eighteen inches, and the thickness of the skin about three-sixteenths of an inch. The only indication of the maériz in which it had been imbedded, was a fine micaceous sand that covered every part of the specimen like dust, there being no clay or other adherent matrix. On removing the sand with a soft brush from the skin, it was discovered to be of a dirty red-brown colour, and to form deep transverse folds, especially towards the upper part. The surface is roughened by elevated conical papillce, from the apex of some of which springs a slender transparent feather-barrel, never longer than half an inch. On the dorsal surface a few of the quills still carry fragments of the webs, some being two inches in length. From this it appears that the colour of the barbs was chestnut red, like Apteryx Australis, but that they had two equal plumes to each barrel, as in the Emu and Cassowary ; and in that respect differed from the Apteryx, the feathers of which have not any after-plume. On the other hand, the barbs of the webs of the feathers do not seem to have been soft and downy towards the base as in the Emu, From the direction of the stumps of the feathers it is evident that the portion of the neck which has been preserved is that contained within the trunk of the body, and which, in the natural position, has a downward slope, the cervical end of the spine being where the upward sweep of the neck of the bird commenced, which accounts for the absence of the trachea with its hard bony rings, no trace of which was * Writing to me on 18th October, 1871, of some moa remains found in the same district, Mr. W. A. Low says :—‘‘I have obtained a well-preserved piece of the bird’s flesh, with portions of down and numerous feather-barrels observable on the outer surface. The flesh is not the least fossilized, simply well dried, and can be easily separated into fibres. You remember what quantities of rats used to infest this part of the country eight or nine years ago; they were legion, and I am astonished that this fragment should have escaped their ravages—perhaps on purpose that it might ultimately come into your hands, and enable you to settle the vexed question of the period of the existence of these gigantic birds, which once roamed in such immense numbers in this old lacustrine region.” TRANS. N-Z. INSTITUTE. VOL.IV. Plate 3, % wnded at 114 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. that the Moa was largely distributed over this part of the island, and has but recently become extinct.”* The total length of Dr. Thomson’s specimen is 16:5 inches, and includes the first dorsal and last six cervical vertebree, with the integument and shrivelled tissues enveloping them on the left side. The surfaces of the bones on the right side, where not covered by the integument, are quite free from all membrane and other tissues, but are quite perfect, and in good preservation, without being in the least degree mineralized. The margin of thc fragment of skin is sharply defined along the dorsal edge, but elsewhere it is soft, easily pulverized, and passing into adipocere. The circumference of the neck of the bird, at the upper part of the specimen, appears to have been about eighteen inches, and the thickness of the skin about three-sixteenths of an inch. The only indication of the maériv in which it had been imbedded, was a fine micaceous sand that covered every part of the specimen like dust, there being no clay or other adherent matrix. On removing the sand with a soft brush from the skin, it was discovered to be of a dirty red-brown colour, and to form deep transverse folds, especially towards the upper part. The surface is roughened by elevated conical papille, from the apex of some of which springs a slender transparent feather-barrel, never longer than half an inch. On the dorsal surface a few of the quills still carry fragments of the webs, some being two inches in length. From this it appears that the colour of the barbs was chestnut red, like Apteryx Australis, but that they had two equal plumes to each barrel, as in the Emu and Cassowary ; and in that respect differed from the Apteryxz, the feathers of which have not any after-plume. On the other hand, the barbs of the webs of the feathers do not seem to have been soft and downy towards the base as in the Emu. From the direction of the stumps of the feathers it is evident that the portion of the neck which has been preserved is that contained within the trunk of the body, and which, in the natural position, has a downward slope, the cervical end of the spine being where the upward sweep of the neck of the bird commenced, which accounts for the absence of the érachea with its hard bony rings, no trace of which was * Writing to me on 18th October, 1871, of some moa remains found in the same district, Mr. W. A. Low says :—‘‘I have obtained a well-preserved piece of the bird’s flesh, with portions of down and numerous feather-barrels observable on the outer surface. The flesh is not the least fossilized, simply well dried, and can be easily separated into fibres. You remember what quantities of rats used to infest this part of the country eight or nine years ago; they were legion, and I am astonished that this fragment should have escaped their ravages—perhaps on purpose that it might ultimately come into your hands, and enable you to settle the vexed question of the period of the existence of these gigantic birds, which once roamed in such immense numbers in this old lacustrine region.” - TB cher del. ez leth, NECK OF MOA TRANS. N.Z.INSTITUTE. VOL.AV. Plate 3, Printed at te Gon line Hector.—-On Recent Moa Remains. 115 found among the soft parts which have been preserved. The integument was easily removed on dividing the few threads of dried tissue by which it was attached. The shrivelled up soft parts thus displayed could not be clearly distinguished, but may be guessed as follows: — Ist. A strong band of ligamentous tissue, connecting the spinous processes. 2nd. Intervertebral muscles and ligaments. 3rd. A sheath diverging from the lower part of the spine. The only bone present besides the vertebra was attached to this sheath by its tip, the other extremity having been articulated to the first dorsal, as shown in the accompanying drawing, Pl. V. fig. d. Fig. @ is the side view, showing the integument. Fig. b is the dorsal aspect, showing the portions of the vertebre, which are covered and uncovered. Fig. ¢ is a view of the soft parts after the removal of the skin. The above interesting discoveries render it probable that the inland district of Otago, at a time when its grassy plains and rolling hills were covered with a dense scrubby vegetation or a light forest growth, was where the giant wing- less birds of New Zealand lingered to latest times. It is impossible to convey an idea of the profusion of bones which, only a few years ago, were found in this district, scattered on the surface of the ground, or buried in the alluvial soil in the neighbourhood of streams and rivers. At the present time this area of country is particularly arid as compared with the prevalent character of New Zealand. It is perfectly treeless—nothing but the smallest-sized shrubs being found within a distance of sixty or seventy miles. The surface features comprise round-backed ranges of hills of schistoze rock with swamps on the top, deeply cut by ravines that open out on basin-shaped plains formed of alluvial deposits that have been everywhere moulded into beautifully regular terraces, to an altitude of 1,700 feet above the sea-level. That the mountain slopes were at one time covered with forest, the stumps and prostrate trunks of large trees, and the mounds and pits on the surface of the ground which mark old forest land, abundantly testify, although it is probable that the intervening plains have never supported more than a dense thicket of shrubs, or were partly occupied by swamps. The greatest number of moa bones were found where rivers debouch on the plains—and that at a comparatively late period these plains were the hunting-grounds of the aborigines, can be proved almost incontestably. Under some overhanging rocks in the neighbourhood of the Clutha river, at a place named by the first explorers ‘“ Moa Flat,” from the abundance of bones which lay strewn on the surface, rude stone flakes of a kind of stone not occurring in that district, were found by me in 1862 associated with heaps of moa bones. Forty miles further in the interior, and at the same place where the Moa’s neck was recently obtained, Captain Fraser, in 1864, disco- vered what he described to me as a manufactory for such fakes and knives of chert as could be used as rough cutting instruments, in a cave formed by over- 116 Transactions. —Miscellancous. hanging rocks, sheltered only from south-west storms, as if an accumulation by a storm-stayed party of natives. With these were also associated moa bones, and other remains. Again, on the top of the Carrick mountains, which are in the same district, but at an altitude of 5,000 feet above the sea, the same gentleman discovered a gully, in which were numerous heaps of bones, and along with them native implements of stone, among which was a well-finished cleaver of blue slate, Pl. VII. fig. 5, and also a coarsely-made hornstone cleaver, the latter of a material that must have been brought from a very great distance. Still clearer evidence that in very recent times the natives travelled through the interior, probably following the Moa asa means of subsistence, like natives in the countries where large game abounds, was obtained in 1865-6, by Messrs. J. and W. Murison. At the Maniototo plains bones of several species of Dinornis, Aptornis, Apteryx, large Rails, Stringops, and other birds are exceed- ingly abundant in the alluvium of a particular stream, so much so that they are turned up by the plough with facility. Attention was arrested by the occurrence on the high ground terrace which bounds the valley of this stream, of circular heaps composed of flakes and chips of chert of a description that occurs only in large blocks along the base of the mountains at about a mile distant. This chert is a very peculiar rock, being a “cemented water quartz,” or sandy gravel converted into a hard quartzite, by infiltration of silicious matter. The resemblance of the flakes to those they had seen described as found in the ancient kitchen-middens, and a desire to account for the great profusion of moa bones on a lower terrace shelf nearer the margin of the stream, led the Messrs. Murison to explore the ground carefully, and by excavating in likely spots they found a series of circular pits partly lined with stones, and containing, intermixed with charcoal, abundance of moa bones and egg-shells, together with bones of the dog, the egg-shells being in such quantities that they consider that hundreds of eggs must have been cooked in each hole, Along with these were stone implements of various kinds (reduced to one- third natural size in Pl. VII., figs. 1 to 4), and of several other varieties of rock besides the chert which lies on the surface. The form and contents of these cooking ovens correspond exactly with those described by Mantell in 1847, as occurring on the sea coast ; and among the stone implements which Mantell found in them, he remembers some to have been of the same chert which occurs im siéw at this locality, fifty miles in the interior. The greater number of these chert specimens found on the coast are with the rest of the collection in the British Museum. There is another circumstance which incidentally supports the view that while the Moas still existed in great numbers, the country was open and regularly traversed by the natives engaged im hunting. Near the old Maori ovens on the coast, Mantell discovered a very curious dish made of steatite, a mineral occurring in New Zealand only on the TRANS.NZ INSTITUTE, VolLV. PUVIL To wecompany Paper by D* fe ctor. SB. del & bith 72 size Ithyeet, . tude, a 2 i Lead q aed Rent e ‘ OS Hector.—On Recent Moa Remains. 117 West Coast, rudely carved on the back in the Maori fashion, and measuring twelve by eight inches and very shallow. The natives at the time recognised this dish by tradition, and said there were two of them. It is very remarkable that since then the fellow dish has been discovered by some gold-diggers in the Manuherikia plain, and was used on a hotel counter at the Dunstan. township as a matchbox, till it was sent to England, and, as I am informed, placed in a public museum in Liverpool. The manner in which the Maoris use their cooking ovens suggested to me an explanation of the mode in which these flakes of chert came to be found in such profusion, while only a few of them show any sign of having been trimmed in order to fit them for implements. The native method of cooking is to heat the hardest stones procurable in the fire, and theu placing the food to be cooked on top, to cover the whole with green leaves and earth, and through an opening pour in water, which, coming in contact with the hot stones, causes the forma- tion of steam by which the food is cooked. If masses of the white chert be heated and quenched with water in this manner, the result is the formation of flakes of every variety of shape with sharp-cutting edges. It is natural to suppose that when one of these flakes was found to be of a shape convenient for a particular purpose, such asa knife, cleaver, or spear-head, it was trimmed and dressed somewhat in the manner of a gun-flint when the edge became defective, rather than cast away, and favourite forms might be preserved and carried even as far as the coast. This suggested explanation of how a race, advanced probably far beyond the so-called period of such rude implements, might yet find it convenient to manufacture and use them, is supported by the circumstance that along with the trimmed chert flakes the Messrs. Murison found polished adzes of aphanite, and even jade, which shows that the hunting natives had, in addition to the flake knives, the same implements as those which are so common among the natives at the present day, though their use is now superseded by iron. In the ovens on the coast, besides flakes and rough knives of chert and flint, are found flake knives of obsidian, a rock which only occurs in the volcanic district of the North Island, and also adzes and stone axes of every degree of finish and variety of material. Although there is no positive evidence in the latter case that more highly finished implements were in use by a people co-temporaneous with the Moa, whose remains, collected by human agency, are so abundant in the same place, nevertheless the fact of a similar association occurring far in the interior, affords strong presumptive evidence on this point, as the finely finished implements must have been carried inland, and to the same spots where the moa remains occur, to be used at native feasts, of which these bones are the only other existing evidences. So far I have been dealing with evidence gathered in the South Island of P 118 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. the recent co-existence of Man and the Moa, but in the North Island there is no lack of similar proofs. During the summer of 1866 His Excellency Sir George Grey made a fine collection at Waingongoro, on the West Coast of this island, being the same locality in which Mantell gathered the magnificent series of bones which he forwarded to Hurope in 1847. At this place, along with the bones of the Moa and other extinct birds, were found those of dogs, seals, and many species of birds that are common at the present day, such as the Albatross, Penguin, Nestor, Porphyrio, and notably the Notornis, a gigantic Rail, which, till a comparatively recent date, was supposed to be, ike the Moa, extinct, and of which as yet only two living examples have been obtained. Associated with these remains Sir George Grey obtained artificially-formed stone flakes of a very peculiar kind, being chips from rolled boulders of hard crystalline sandstone, produced by a single blow—probably when the stone was heated and quenched in water. (Pl. VIL, fig. 6, also similar flakes found by Dr. Haast, Pl. TV.) The stones from which these chips were obtained had evidently been used in the first instance for cooking—as ancient umus or cooking ovens are chiefly formed of them; and, indeed, in many localities in sandy tracts on the West Coast where stones are rare, the identical stones that in former days were used for cooking Moas are still in use by the natives of the district for cooking pigs and shell-fish. Here, again, we find that the same necessity and circumstance that suggested the use of the chert flakes in the south, apparently gave origin to a similar adaptation of the chips from the sandstone boulders. It is of some interest to find that native tradition points to Waingongoro as the spot where the first Maori immigrants originally settled, and there appears to be nothing in the abundant traces which they have left of the great feasts which we must refer to this period that would indicate any - difference in their domestic habits from those of the Maoris now existing, and who no doubt are their direct descendants. What has been advanced affords evidence that the Moas, although belonging probably to a race that was expiring from natural causes, were finally exterminated through human agency ; and on this subject Mr. W. D. Murison has suggested how infallibly the wholesale consumption of the eggs, which were evidently highly prized as an article of food, must have led to their rapid extinction, without it being necessary that the birds themselves should be actually destroyed. That wide-spreading fires contributed in some instances to the destruction of these wingless birds, is rendered probable from the occurrence of little heaps of bones in spots where flocks of them would be overtaken when fleeing before the destroying element. At the south-west extremity of a triangular plain by the side of the Wakatipu Lake, in 1862, I counted thirty-seven of such distinct skeleton heaps, where the steep rocky slope of the mountains, covered with fallen blocks and tangled shrubs, meets the lake, and would therefore stop Hactor.—On Recent Moa Remains. 119 the progress of the fugitives in this direction. From what we know of the habits of birds akin to the Moa, we may fairly infer that they did not frequent heavily-timbered country, but roamed over the grass-covered plains and mountain slopes. This view is supported by the comparative rarity of moa remains in forests, the few exceptions being easily accounted for. | The whole of the eastern district of the South Island of New Zealand back to the Southern Alps, was completely surveyed and mapped as early as 1862, and had been thoroughly explored at least ten years before that date, without any of these gigantic birds being met with ; but there is a large area of rugged mountainoas country, especially in the south-west district of Otago, that even to the present time is only imperfectly known. The mountain sides in this region are covered with open fagus forest, in which Kiwis, Kakapos, and other expiring forms of apterous birds, are still to be found in comparative abundance, but where we could scarcely expect to meet with the larger species. Never- theless, owing to the peculiar configuration of this country, the mountains afford very extensive areas, above the forest limit, which are covered with alpine shrubs and grasses, where it is not impossible that a remnant of this giant race may have remained to very recent times. The exploration, however, to which the country has been subjected during the last few years, by parties of diggers prospecting for gold, forbids the hope that any still exist. I may here mention that on one of the flat-topped mountains, near Jackson’s Bay, which I visited in January, 1863, I observed, at an altitude of 4,000 feet, numerous well-beaten tracks, about sixteen inches wide, intersecting the dense scrub in all directions, and which, owing to the height of the scrub, could only have been formed in the first instance by the frequent passage of a much larger bird than either the Kiwi or Kakapo, which, judging from the droppings, were the only birds that now resorted to them. On the sides of the tracks, especially near the upper confines of the forest, are shallow excavations, two or three feet in diameter, that have much the appearance of having been scraped for nests. No pigs or any other introduced animal having penetrated to this part of the country, it appears manifest that these are the tracks of some large indigenous animal, but, from the nature of the vegetation, it is probable that such tracks may have been for a very long period in disuse, except by the smaller ground birds, without becoming obliterated. The above facts and arguments in support of the view that the Moa survived to very recent times are similar to those advanced, at a very early period after the settlement of the colony, by Walter Mantell, who had the advantage of direct information on the subject from a generation of natives that has passed away. As the first explorer of the artificial moa beds, his opinion is entitled to great weight. Similar conclusions were also drawn by Buller, who is per- sonally familiar with the facts described in the North Island, in an article 120 Transactions. — Miscellaneous. that appeared in the “ Zoologist” for 1864. The fresh discovery, therefore, of well-preserved remains of the Moa only tends to confirm and establish this view, and it would have been unnecessary to enlarge on the subject by the publication of the foregoing notes, which were long since written, but for the dissimilar conclusions arrived at by Dr. Haast, in a recent address to the Can- terbury Institute, which, from the large amount of interesting and novel matter it contains, will doubtless have a wide circulation. (See p. 66 ef seq.) Art. VII.—WNotes on Moa Remains. By W. D. Murison. [Read before the Otago Institute, 16th September, 1871.] Dr. Hector, in his paper, refers to certain information which he obtained from me in 1866, relative to the discovery of moa remains in old cooking places on the Maniototo plains. I shall take the opportunity therefore of adding a few notes upon this interesting subject, in the hope that my observa- tions will assist in solving some questions concerning the Moa, which have formed matter of controversy, and which still remain unsettled. Nearly every writer on New Zealand has had something to say about the wingless birds which formerly inhabited the country, but remarks concerning them have been confined chiefly to descriptions of the bones, to the conditions under which they have been found, and to inquiries about the Moa amongst the Maori tribes in the North. It was not until about six months ago, when Dr. Haast delivered his inaugural address to the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, that any attempt, so far as 1 am aware, has been made to deter- mine the approximate date of the disappearance of the Moa, or to show that the bird was known only to a race of people which is now extinct. (See Art. IV., p. 66.) Dr. Haast has met with great success in his search after moa remains, and mainly through his exertions the Christchurch Museum has acquired probably the finest collection of moa bones and skeletons that can be seen anywhere. In his able and exhaustive address he narrates fully the results of his investigations, and he indicates the conclusions which they have led him to arrive at. He contends that the large birds of New Zealand were the representatives of the gigantic quadrupeds of the northern hemisphere in the post-pliocene period ; that New Zealand at the time of the arrival of the Europeans was in the neolithic period, or that of polished stone implements ; but that there has been a palzolithie period, or age during which stone and flint implements, rudely fashioned, were used ; that the Moa frequented the grassy plains of the interior during the latter period, and was hunted by a people who inhabited these islands before the arrival of the Maoris; and that hunters and hunted have both passed away. He remarks upon the absence of ‘ Murison.—WNotes on Moa Remains. 12 traditions among the Maoris concerning the Moa, and considers it inconceivable that natives who have traditions going back several hundred years, should have no account of the extinction of their principal means of existence ; and he is of opinion that overwhelming evidence can be brought to show that the forefathers of the Maoris not only neither hunted nor exterminated the Moa, but that they knew nothing about it. He addresses himself, in the first place, to the geological evidence which can be brought to bear to determine the age of the Moa. He confesses he has never observed the bones exposed on the surface of the ground, in the same way as he has been informed they frequently occur in Otago. He refers, also, to the small heaps of crop stones that are often met with in the latter province, and he admits that the occurrence of these, together with bones, on the surface of the ground is difficult to account for, when the absence of native traditions concerning the bird is borne in mind. He refers to the careful researches of Colenso and Stack, and he quotes the opinion of the former, who holds that the period of time in which most probably the Moa existed was certainly either antecedent or coetaneous to the peopling of these islands by the present race of New Zealanders. He alludes, also, to the discoveries of Mr. Mantell, and expresses a belief that he was the first to draw the attention of scientific men to the fact that man had been co-temporaneous with the Dinornis. What may be called the second part of his address is taken up chiefly with an account of his investigations of old kitchen-middens and cooking places on the banks of the Little Rakaia. He describes at great length the construction of the former, ‘and the character of the implements and bones he dug up. It is-not my intention, however, to follow Dr. Haast in the interesting investigations he made. I have indicated some of the leading points of his exhaustive address, and I must pass on to my own observations. At the foot of Roughbridge, where the Puke-toi-toi creek enters the Maniototo plain, I assisted im forming a station some ten years ago; and although I had had occasion to observe near the coast, and in other parts of the interior, the bones of the Moa, I was at once struck with the frequency of their occurrence at this place, as well as with the excellent state of preservation in which they were found. Scarcely a hole could be dug without some of those remains being exposed ; and when the land came to be cultivated, bones and fragments of egg-shells in great number were laid bare by the plough. The bones most frequently picked up under these conditions were those of the feet belonging to the larger species of the Dinornis, and the femur and tibia of the Aptornis—a bird which stood some three feet high, whose remains are rarely met with in other localities. Tt was not till 1865, however, that any discovery of cooking places was made. These were first observed by my brother, when, in riding along the banks of the creek, he noticed a chain of hollows which he conjectured were Maori ovens 12 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. filled up. Further investigation showed that they had been used for cooking the Moa, great quantities of bones being discovered in each oven that was examined. Thé ovens lay about ten or fifteen yards from the creek, and were covered with about six inches of silt. Mixed with the pieces of half-charred bones were innumerable fragments of moa egg-shells. In some of the cooking places these latter were found in layers, showing that a vast number of eggs must have been consumed as food. And scattered through the ovens were found rude chert implements, many of which bore signs of having been used. Most of these were fashioned like knives, and had been employed, no doubt, to cut the flesh and sinews of the bird. Some heavier implements were also found ; one of these was shaped like a cleaver, and had probably been used to break the large bones. In one oven the jaw of a young dog was discovered, mixed up with the bones and knives; and from the same place were taken out several fragments of polished stone implements. A great deal of importance is to be attached to the discovery of the latter under such conditions, as, if it is conceded that the polished implements and the chert flakes were used by the same people, Dr. Haast’s theory of a paleolithic period and a neolithic period for New Zealand will have to be abandoned. The two different kinds of implements have, according to Dr. Haast, been found at the same spot, but he thinks that careful research will prove that they have not been used at the same time nor by the same people. On the banks of the Little Rakaia green- stone adzes and other polished Maori implements have been turned up by the plough ; but he explains that it is known that the Maoris frequented the locality on account of it being a favourable fishing ground. In the case of the Puke-toi-toi Creek, however, it is unlikely that the natives ever visited the spot with any other object than that of moa-hunting. There is a small volume of water in the creek, and there being no eels in it there was nothing to attract the natives to the locality. Even such a common article of food as the Unio, a fresh water mollusc, which is to be met with in great quantities in the Taieri River, some four miles distant, does not inhabit the creek. It appears tolerably certain, therefore, that the moa-hunters were the only people who ever visited this encampment, as no known means of sustenance is to be procured nearer than the Taieri River. I think it clearly established, from what I have stated, that the moa-hunters used both polished and rudely fashioned stone implements. The latter were easily made, and must have been of greater service in cutting the flesh of the Moa than any of the polished tools we know of. On the terrace above the ovens, and within about twenty yards of them, was found the place where those rude knives had evidently been manufactured. Traces of fires were to be seen, full of innumerable fragments of chert, and all round the fires broken stone knives could be picked up. : . : : sd OO Screw - : . : . - : : eyes CO a 6) et 150 feet of 2 inch india-rubber tubing at 2s 6d per foot. 18 15 0 150 do. do. iron piping, at 1s. 3d. per foot 9. Carriage and labour of erecting . : : ‘ »{ 80) 1 DirsO £106 17 6 Tuomson.—On Economising the Current of Large Rivers. 145 Tn this case, for the avoidance of damage by heavy floods, arrangements would be made to elevate the wire cable and draw the screw and pump in-shore till they had abated. I have already given the dimensions of a screw required to raise one sluice head (ninety-five cubic feet per minute) seventy feet above the level of the river, and an approximate estimate of the cost of the same would be as follows. The duty required would take a single acting pump fourteen inches diameter and eighteen inches stroke per second, or double acting, eleven inches diameter and 14:5 inches stroke of same velocity :— By Se SiaiG: Pump ‘ ; ‘ : , ‘ LOOP a ae) Screw . : : ; . ; - . = 20%. 0) 30 50 fathoms of 44 inch galvanised iron wire . ; » 45.205 7.0 150 feet of leather 6 inch hose, at 5s. per foot : ~ 37.10. 0 150 feet of cast iron 6 inch pipes, at 4s. per foot . 5 30 ORO Carriage and labour (say) . : : : . OO LR AOR 20) £297 10 0 Of course the cost would be much modified by position and the relative facilities given by the state of the river, its banks, rocks, and currents. In applying the large machinery, it would be advisable to choose such sites as would afford rock foundations for the pump and gearings, so as to avoid the necessity of supporting the same by cable or punt, and in such cases the per- manent material (cast iron) might be used solely for the piping. As the altitude of water to be raised in many parts, especially below the Teviot, does not require to be so great, of course much reduction in cost could also be effected. This remark is also particularly applicable to the service of pumping water from river bank claims carried on below the level of the stream surface, where the height to be raised is generally small. In many parts of the goldfields of Otago large capital has been expended in bringing water to claims on the banks of the Clutha now worked out. The cost of bringing in water when not available for other claims thus remains a loss. Thus a great advantage is gained, under such circumstances, by the introduction of the contrivance and machinery proposed, inasmuch as the plant can be removed to other localities, and re-erected for new operations. 146 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. Art. XLV.—On some Experiments showing the Relative Value of New South Wales and New Zealand Coals as G'as-producing Materials. By J. Rees GEorGE. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 30th September, 1871.] Tue table giving the result of tests of coal from various mines will be of interest at the present time to those desirous of developing the various mineral resources of New Zealand. I propose to add a few remarks showing the manner in which the experiments were conducted, and such explanation as may be necessary to show the relative value of the different samples tested. In testing coal for the purpose of ascertaining its value as a gas-producing material, the result depends so much on the heat at which the retorts are worked, that it is only by numerous trials, under variable conditions, that its true value for practical purposes can be ascertained. Some coal will give a good result when worked at a great heat, which, if worked at a low heat, would prove the reverse of economical. The Old Lambton coal is an instance ; this, at a high heat, gives a large quantity of gas, but with a small illuminating power and at a moderate heat gives less gas, but of better quality. The results given in the table were ascertained by comparing the illuminating power of the gas burning in a standard Argand burner of fifteen holes, con- suming nearly six cubic feet per hour, against a standard sperm candle, burning 120 to 125 grains per hour, the power being measured on the graduated scale of a photometer as in use by the government examiners in London. The pressure of gas, in cases where samples of 112 pounds weight were tested, was 2°5 inches, or about the same pressure at which the gas is delivered to con- sumers from the mains ; in cases where samples of only seven pounds or ten pounds were tried, the pressure was 1-4 inches, and this difference of pressure accounts largely for the decreased power of illumination shown in the smaller samples. In the case of the larger samples the illuminating power was ascertained immediately after the gas had passed through the purifiers, before being stored, or subjected to the friction of a long length of pipe; while in the case of the smaller samples it could not be tried until some two or three hours after storage, and passing through a length of, perhaps, 100 feet or more of a small tube. These circumstances combine to make the small samples show a worse result than the larger quantities, as storage and friction rapidly reduce the illuminating power of coal gas. The mode usually adopted for ascertaining the exact standard illuminating power of gas is by reducing the amount consumed by the gas burner and candle respectively to a standard quantity of five cubic feet of gas, and 120 grains of sperm per hour. In the results given this calculation has not been made, in consequence of the want of convenient apparatus for ascertaining Grorce.—On Coals as Gas-producing Materials. 147 the different quantities consumed during the tests. The comparisons given will be slightly in favour of the gas, but not to a sufficient extent to affect the value of the experiments. The specific gravity of the various gases I have been unable to ascertain, but I am not sure that the specific gravity of gas is a reliable testimony of its value as an illuminating agent, as a large specific gravity may arise from the presence of carbonic acid, one of the many impurities of coal gas. In some instances the illuminating power is given as from twenty-one to twenty-five, and an average; in these cases the photometer was read at different periods during the baking of the coal ; on the Grey coal for instance, half an hour after starting the photometer gave twenty-two and a half candles ; one and a half hours after starting, twenty-four candles ; two and a half hours after starting, twenty candles, which was the lowest reading. A. fact worthy of observation, and one I am unable to explain, in reference to the Grey coal, is that the slack or coal dust gives a better illuminating power than the large coal. In classifying the coals in accordance with their relative values, at the head of the list I must place the New Zealand coal, from the Brunner mine on the Grey River. It will be difficult, indeed, to discover any coal more suited to general purposes, and for this reason I think it entitled to the first place. It is not only a very good steam and house coal, but also gives a large quantity of gas of very fair illuminating power. It is more free from impurities than any coal I have tried, and the coke remaining after the gas is worked off is large in quantity, of first-class quality, and, in burning, clinkers less than the coke from any of the other coals. The Collingwood coal is next best on the list, and for purely gas purposes is superior to the Grey coal. The quantity and quality of the gas obtained is equal to that from good English Cannel, but it possesses one great advantage over English Cannel, viz., that it leaves a large quantity of coke of fair quality. Coke obtained from Cannel is of very little value ; the Collingwood coke, however, appears to be superior to some of the coke obtained from the Australian coals for heating purposes, but it makes a larger amount of clinker. The gas obtained from this coal possesses a great advantage over most, as it appears to be less affected by storage, and does not lose its illuminating power so quickly. This coal contains very little sulphur, or other impurity, and is a very good house coal. For steam purposes it has been tried by Mr. Kebbell, of Wellington, who informs me that he finds it superior to New South Wales _ coal, but has not yet reduced the result to figures. Third on the list I should place the Newcastle coal, of New South Wales. Of the samples tried there is not a very marked difference, but the coal from the Australian Agricultural Company’s mine is, for general purposes, the best 148 _ Transactions. — Miscellaneous. of these, the Old Lambton being second, and Co-operative Company’s third. Bay of Islands coal gives a large quantity of gas, of average illuminating power ; the coke obtained is smaller in quantity, and not of such good quality as that obtained from the Collingwood coal; the large quantity of sulphur contained in this coal makes it difficult to work and expensive to purify ; this defect reduces very considerably its value for general parposes. A specimen of coal sent from Mount Somers, on the Ashburton River, in Canterbury, is entirely useless for gas purposes, in fact, appears to be a sort of lignite. The gas obtained from this sample burns with a small blue flame, giving no light whatever. [t is necessary to mention that the weight of coke is ascertained after being extinguished with water, on being removed from the retort, and it shows the weight available for sale. This accounts for the great difference observable in the weight of coke, as, if rapidly extinguished, it takes up more water than if extinguished gradually. I may, in conclusion, state that the trials or experiments have been made with only a practical purpose in view, aud that every endeavour has been made to obtain a large number of samples for comparison, but without success. I hope that at some future time I may be enabled to carry further these tests, and to report a more exact result. ‘There can be no doubt, however, that New Zealand coal is superior for all purposes to that at present imported. The only cause of its not being more freely used is the difficulty of obtaining it, and the great price charged for it as compared with New South Wales coal ; it appears only to be necessary te invest sufficient money in plant to work the mines economically, to make coal become an article of export instead of the colony depending on other places for its supply. The following will, I think, be found a correct statement of some of the circumstances that combine to shut out the New Zealand coal from the market. At the Grey River the price of coal is twelve shillings per ton, delivered alongside the vessel ; twelve shillings towage per ton is charged for vessels entering and leaving the river; making the price twenty-four shillings per ton before paying freight and dealer’s profit. The report of Dr. Hector and Mr. Blackett* will furnish information as to the necessary means of developing the mine. The Collingwood mine is situated on a small river, allowing vessels of only seven feet draft to enter, and the price charged for coal alongside is sixteen shillings and six-pence per ton. One disadvantage this mine labours under is, that the coal is only a thin seam of about three feet, and is always delivered wet. At the Bay of Islands, a short time since, sixteen shillings and six-pence *Parliamentary Papers, 1871. Grorce.— On Coals as Gas-producing Materials. 149 was charged for the coal per ton, but I believe the price has lately been reduced. A more melancholy example of the result of incompetent manage- ment and want of means it was never my fortune to witness, than was exhibited at this mine in 1868. A seam of coal, twenty-four feet thick, only covered by an earth crust of a few feet in thickness, was being tunnelled, and in some cases the roof or covering had fallen in, leaving the coal exposed to daylight. After the coal had been obtained from the mine it was carried on a tramway worked by horses, a distance of about three miles, to the side of a tidal creek ; the coal was then transferred to flat-bottomed punts, and at high water these proceeded about four miles down the creek, and delivered the coal at the vessel’s side—a staff of about fifteen or twenty men, thirty horses, and six or eight punts, being employed on the transport after the coal had left the mine. By extending the tramway little more than a mile, and erecting a small bridge about 150 feet in length over the creek, the anchorage of the colliers would have been reached, and the coal could have been delivered from the trucks to the vessel. Three men and one locomotive would have done the work, and about six shillings per ton expenses would have been saved; the expenditure required being about three thousand pounds to remove all this great expense, risk, and delay. In New South Wales none of these disadvantages exist. A convenient har- bour allows large vessels to enter, which are loaded at a very short notice, the coal on board costing only seven shillings and six-pence or eight shillings per ton. I trust means will be adopted to develope the New Zealand mines, and so enable New Zealand coal to compete on more equal terms with the imported, with advantage both to the colony and to consumers, Table showing Gas-producing Qualities of various Coals. NEW SOUTH WALES COAL. ie | Fas) Basle | 28 gala | oz Weight |S ¢.2|5 S al cue Weight of Date s of we OOS — | = 2 Coke per tt of Name of Mine. Sample = as Si a 3 Sa ;| Ton of Coal, Remarks. Test. tested. JESSE _.2] 2 aq in Ibs. gES|G2| Bas ee f=") oe S o° 1871. ; Jan. 30] Australian Agricultural Co. | 7lbs 27 | 8,640) 13 1,600 Mar. 17 6 re », | 14]Ibs. | — — 17 — mixed withZoz. Kauri Gum Dust. : July 26 = a », |1121bs.| 605 |10,100) 17 1,580 Obtained at high tem- perature, 1,700° or 1,800° Fahr. Feb. 23 | Co-operative Co. o8 -- | 10 ]bs. | 40°85 | 9,150] 114 1,680 July 28 os 96 o0 +» | 1121bs. | 500 |10,000) 163 1,600 Obtained at hich tem- perature, 1,700° or 1,800° Fahr. Feb. 23} Old Lambton Co. .. fe Tbs. | 33°4 (10,700) 6 to 7 1,760 This gas had been stored several days before testing, and in consequence lost largely in illuminat- ing power. T 150 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. NEW ZEALAND COAL. 243;|0.8 | 38 i: icin SAZICS |S | Weight of ate A (0) ww Ogle sb) a2 Coke per . of Name of Mine. Sample | 2: as Be «|B 4 | Ton of Goal, Remarks. Test. tested. [2 IB ° S| S22 in Ibs. BoE s/s ao o|s Selq fo Be a|Se 5/258 Sag aie NE 1871. April 30 | Grey Coal, Test No. 1 . 7 lbs. | 35°5 |11,360 This is not a guaran- 144 1,590 teed sample, it was 45 Peg Te EeSUENOse 60 7 \bs. | 31°3 |10,016 obtained from the s.s. ‘Luna,’ and may possibly have other coal mixed. July 10 |Grey Coal eee. 112Ibs. | 550 |11,000/20 to24) ‘1,820 July 17 |Grey Coal, Slack.. | 94 1121bs.| 430 | — |21 to 25 — The quantity regis- |_ rates tered is doubtful. July 18] ,, a * Ze .. ||112Ibs. | 510 |10,200] Avree. 2,020 B28 22% July 20) 5, » » £5 $4 |112Ibs.| 550 |11,000| Avrge. 1,880 Retorts were atamuch Sat 223 greater heat than in oe the preceding and e e| following examples. July 24] ,, yD ” 2 1121bs. | 580 |10,600| Avrge. 1,800 wn es 20 Mar. 23 | Collingwood Coal (Nelson) 7lbs.} — |About/183t019 _ Retort at only a dull ____ | 6,000 red, about 1,000°. Mar. 31 ” ” »” 7 Ibs. ea.| 28°27 | 9,811|18 to 19 1,280 Illuminating poweras- (8 tests, about equal) certained after gas had been stored some time, perhaps tns. cwt. two or three days. June 30 | Collingwood Coal (Nelson)..| 8 4 |76,960| 9,300) 19 1,780 This gives illuminating nearly! power after storage, and as was supplied to consumers. July 25 50 BS) 29 112 lbs. | 500 |10,000) 25 and 1,600 above July 8 Bay of oe Coal (Kawa |1121bs. | 530 |10,600/18 to 19 1,328 awa, July 17| Mount Somers, Ashburton} 84lbs.| 200 | 5,800) None |Asmall quan- River, Canterbury tity of light breeze only left after working off the gas. Approximate Analysis made in the Colonial Laboratory of Coals and Cokes referred to above. COALS. COKES. Locality. Per Centage. Per Centage of Water. Volatile Pure Carbon. Hydro-carbon, Gunes Sulphur. Ash. ete. ; Grey River . ./| 1°60 33°50 59°80 ‘90 4:2 88°81 Collingwood . 1:26 35°51 58°12 | With hydro-| 5.11 No sample carbon. Neweastle, N.S. W.| 1°42 27-25 61:21 1:02 8°80 84:09 Bay of Islands 4:28 29°66 54°54 4-9] 6°61 83°36 Mount Somers 8.80 35°10 39°60 4°10 12°40 67°40 GrorcEe.—On Lxperiments on Coal for Steam Purposes. 151 Art. XV.—On Haperiments made to determine the Value of Different Coals jor Steam Purposes. By J. Rees GEorGE. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 14th October, 1871.} Tue value of different New Zealand coals for steam purposes will be best illustrated by comparing the work performed with coal from longer established and more deeply worked mines. Mr. John Kebbell, of Wellington, having kindly furnished me with the result of several trials made at his mill, together with his notes on the subject, I now lay the same before the Society as a con- tinuation of the paper read a short time back on the New Zealand coal for gas purposes. Mr. Kebbell’s trials were made by burning half a ton of coal, and ascer- taining the time the engine was kept at work with the consumption of this weight of coal; care was taken in each case that the height of water in the boiler, the pressure of steam, the work being performed by the engine, and all other circumstances, should in each case present exactly the same conditions when the trials were commenced and completed. The result of three experiments in 1869 was as follows :— hymn No. 1.—-English steam coal . . worked engine 3 39 No. 2.—Neweastle, N.S.W., . . ws ae a oto O) No. 3.—Bay of Islands (Kawa Kawa) coal ,, . 4 20 No. 1, English coal, would generate steam very rapidly if required. No. 2, New South Wales coal, made 114 pounds waste from the half ton. No. 3, Bay of Islands ; this coal made twenty-eight pounds pure clinker. The clinker is as injurious to the fire bars as the South Wales coal of England ; it adheres very strongly, and can only be removed by allowing the bars to cool down. If it were not for this fault it would be a good steam coal. With narrow spaces between bars, say five-eighths of an inch or less, it might give a better result; the ashes should be returned quickly to the furnace or they waste away. Experiments made with the same weight of coal, during the present year, gave the following results ; the improvement will be due to alterations in the engine and boiler :-— he on: No. 1.—English steam coal . . worked engine 4 25 No. 2.—Collingwood coal, No. 1 trial _,, 3 4 55 No. 3.—Collingwood coal, No.2 ,, ,, s BY) No. 4.—Grey coal ie ts Oe 152 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. No 1 gave about the same quantity and description of coal as the New South Wales coal, Nos. 2 and 3, This coal cokes sufficiently to prevent it running through the bars. If the fires are fed regularly they require no stoking, and the least attention of any coal ever used by Mr. Kebbell. The clinker is similar in quantity and quality to the New South Wales coal. No. 4, Grey coal, is a good coking material, and cakes very much in furnaces with a moderate draught, requiring a good deal of attention. The quantity of clinker and waste was so small as not to be worth mentioning. In these trials all the New Zealand coals give a better result than either — English or New South Wales coal, in work performed with an equal weight. New Zealand coal, as a rule, appears to be of a less specific gravity than imported coal; this, however, may in time be altered as the mines become more deeply worked, and this renders them at the present time less valuable for steamers, and furnaces with a strong draught, From inquiries made of the engineers of steamers, who have made use of the Grey and other kinds of coal, it appears to be the fact that the Grey coal is not so economical as the New South Wales for the use of steamers, for the reason that it is more bulky, and with the strong draught of the steamer’s furnace burns away more quickly. The engineer of the steamer ‘Luna’ states, in his opinion, first-class New South Wales coal would be worth, for steamers, three shillings per ton more than the Grey, that is to say, if the price of the New South Wales is twenty-six shillings per ton, the Grey coal would only be worth twenty-three ; but at the same time he prefers the Grey coal to much of the New South Wales coal that is sold in New Zealand. For household purposes, all who have tried the Grey and Collingwood coal prefer them to any coal imported into the colony, as being cleaner and burning more freely and pleasantly. All the experiments made, and information that I have been able to obtain, tend to show that New Zealand possesses superior coal for steam purposes, when worked with stationary engines, at a moderate draught, and for household and gas purposes, to that of New South Wales; but that for steamers’ boilers, working at a strong draught, the heavier coals of England and New South Wales have the advantage. It is to be hoped that the further development of the mines will ultimately remove the last-named disadvantage. Dogson,—On Destruction of Land by Shingle-bearing Rivers. 153 Art. XVI.—On the Destruction of Land by Shingle-bearing Rivers, and Suggestions for Protection and Prevention. By A. D. Dosson, Provincial Engineer, Nelson. [Read before the Nelson Association for the Promotion of Science and Industry, 6th December, 1871.] THE great loss of land and damage occasioned to property yearly in New Zealand, is a matter which is rapidly assuming a more and more serious aspect ; and although at present, as a general rule, the greater portion of the land destroyed is of no great value, nevertheless in many places on the banks of the smaller rivers considerable quantities of valuable land have been lost, in some instances entailing great expense and heavy loss to the owners and occupiers. For instances we need not go far in the Nelson province. Both the Motueka and Waimea rivers have widened their beds considerably ; the former was, twenty years ago, only a few chains, but is now in many places nearly half a mile wide, and is rapidly filling up its bed with shingle brought down by the floods, and cutting new channels in the alluvial flats adjoining. Between the lowest ferry and the upper part of Pangatotara, several hundreds of acres have been destroyed during the last few years, and the river is now rapidly destroying some of the best land in Riwaka. The Waimea, although of considerably less volume than the Motueka, is con- tinually encroaching upon the adjoining alluvial lands, every flood doing more or less damage. This has been particularly the case above Appleby, and again near Wakefield and Fox-hill, To take larger examples, we have the Wairau, which has always been a source of great anxiety, danger, and loss, to the inhabitants of the plains near Blenheim, The Waimakariri, in Canterbury, has encroached enormously on the alluvial land lying to the northward, and caused a great amount of damage to the farmers by the loss of crops, home- steads, and land. In fact, all the shingle-bearing rivers of the country are continually altering their beds and destroying adjoining land. In order to correctly appreciate the causes which make this the rule, it will be necessary to consider the general characteristics of shingle-bearing rivers and the country which they drain. The greater number of the rivers in the _ Middle Island of New Zealand are, more correctly speaking, mountain torrents, which rise in lofty mountains and run but a short distance before reaching the sea ; they are subject to very high and sudden floods, which occur in the spring and early summer, from the melting of the snow by the warm rains. The greatest floods occur generally in the streams which are fed by the glaciers in the Southern Alps, the warm northerly rains which fall on the glaciers and exten- 154 Transactions.—Miscellancous. sive snow-fields occasioning enormous floods. From the rapid fall in the river beds, many of them having a greater inclination than thirty-three feet to a mile in their upper parts, vast quantities of drift shingle and silt are brought from the higher levels and deposited in the lower, where the velocity of the stream is diminished by the lessening inclination of the bed ; the fine gravels and sand are borne onward to the sea, and form the bars and shoals which exist at the mouths of all our rivers. The larger gravels are thrown down as the velocity of the stream diminishes, and rapidly fill up the lower portions of the river bed until it is raised above the level of the adjoining land, when the stream, during some flood, overflows” its banks, inundating all the low ground adjoining, and makes a new channel in the lower ground, which in its turn will be rapidly filled up, and the stream overflows again into the lowest ground in the neighbourhood. To this action is due the formation of most of the alluvial flats bordering the lower portions of the river courses. This subject has been very carefully investigated in connection with the formation of the Canterbury plains, by Dr. Haast and Mr. Doyne, C.E., whose reports and maps are most instructive. The process of successive elevations of the river bed is much more rapid in an open country such as Canterbury, where there is nothing to prevent the destruction of the river banks, than it is in a wooded country, such as the Nelson province, but the process is exactly the same in both cases. In a forest-covered country, such as the greater portion of the Nelson province is, the elevation of the river beds is necessarily a slow process. The forest clothing the mountain sides checks the sudden rush of water down hill during rain, besides preventing it from cutting water-channels in the surface, thus preventing a supply of detritus to the river in the first instance ; and also the banks of all streams and rivers in a state of nature, before disturbance by the hand of man are, thickly covered with scrub and ferns, which, hanging down into the water, constitute a most effective protection against the destructive action of the rivers. The natural vegetation which covers the surface of a wooded country may be truly said to form the best protection to its surface, and the difference in the manner in which the water of precipitation drains off forest and open land is very striking, and well worthy of attention. When heavy rain falls on forest land, before it begins to flow on the surface it has to saturate all the humid and decaying vegetable matter which lies at the foot of the trees; the surface of the ground is also so covered with a network of roots that the water can only form a series of pools, which overflow from one to another as the rain continues, and a large body of water is thus retained upon the ground, which drains off slowly through the moss and roots. The small water-courses also get filled with trees, masses of twigs and moss, which materially assist in checking the velocity of the streams, and prevent abrasion of the surface—but Dosson.—On Destruction of Land by Shingle-bearing Rivers. 155 the case is very different in open country, where there is nothing but grass to check the flow of water on the surface. After saturating the soil the water rushes without hindrance into the nearest hollow, and, rapidly accumulating volume and velocity, soon forms a dangerous and foaming torrent, which, cutting into the surface of the ground, carries down large quantities of gravel and detritus into the nearest river. Whenever a river, for the greater part of its course, runs through a wooded country, the changes are effected so slowly in the river bed that the vegetation has ample time to take possession of any ground the river may abandon and convert it into forest lands the scrub and ‘undergrowth also retain the silt borne amongst them by the floods, so that the banks and lowlands are raised and fertilised by every inundation. All this, however, is totally changed as soon as settlement commences and man begins to clear the timber and cultivate the soil. The timber is frequently taken from the river banks first, from the facility of transport by water—cattle feed on and destroy the scrub which clothes the banks, which, denuded of the natural covering, become an easy prey to the action of floods-—every ditch that is dug increases the rapidity with which the rainfall is carried into the river, and the floods necessarily rise higher than before from having to carry off a greater body of water in the same time; as the clearing is carried further inland and the hill sides are bared, the water, during rains, can collect rapidly in all the small gullies, which will be con- verted into foaming torrents, and, no longer prevented by roots and moss from abrading the surface, they carve deep gullies in the mountain sides, bearing down enormous quantities of broken stone and gravel into the main stream below, which, in its turn, will carry on the detritus as far as the strength of the current permits, and then throw it down to fill up the river bed, and add to the destruction already in progress by the cutting away of the river banks. The enormous devastation occasioned by the indiscriminate destruction of forests in the Old World is so clearly shown by Mr. G. P. Marsh, in “Man and Nature,” that I must refer to his work, as it gives a far better idea of the evils to be apprehended from the destruction of forests than any description of the devastations at present in progress in this province. His descriptions show that most disastrous results may be expected from the felling of timber in the valleys and on the mountain sides in this province, unless steps are taken to prevent the evils thus occasioned by renewed planting, and the conservation of the forests in the upper course of the streams. The town of Nelson, standing as it does on the banks of a mountain torrent, is particularly liable to damage from inundations. Floods which have already occurred show the amount of damage even a small stream can do in a few hours, when flooded and heavily charged with detritus. Owing to the inaccessibility of the valleys of the Maitai and the Brook, but little clearing 156 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. has been done, but, as the means of communication are improved, there is no doubt that a great deal more timber will be obtained from these districts ; the extension of the dray road up the Maitai will enable fire-wood cutters to work where they have been unable to do so hitherto, and, if the road was but a good one, there is no doubt that a great deal of wood would be brought in from there. The destruction of the forest in the basin of the Maitai I conceive to be prejudicial to the safety of the town in the highest degree, so much so, that I feel no hesitation in stating it as my opinion that before two-thirds of the water-shed of the Maitai are bared of timber, the destructiveness of the floods will have so increased that all the lower parts of the town will be converted into shingle bed. As the upper parts of the rivers in the province run for the most part through wooded country, composed to a great extent of drift shingle, very great destruction may hereafter be confidently expected if steps are not taken, on some general scheme, to preserve the woods which clothe the moun- tain drainage basins, and to protect the river banks from damage. For the protection of the river banks, I would suggest the planting of willows, in great quantities, all along the banks and on the shelving gravel beds. Cattle should be kept from destroying the trees, which should be planted on every available part of the river bed ; all low flats should also be planted with useful trees, and every little streamlet and water-course that carries shingle should be well planted. The great object to be attained is to prevent shingle from travelling in the first instance as much as possible, and this can be achieved to a great extent in all open ground by planting along the water- courses. An excellent example of the efficacy of this system can be observed at Stoke, near Nelson, on the property of Mr. Marsden, where a dangerous and troublesome stream has been carefully and judiciously planted in this manner, with willows in the bed and Kuropean trees on the bank, and thus changed from a destructive torrent into a pleasant brook, which greatly adds to the beauty of the grounds. In the large streams, where the banks are perpendicular and are at present being undermined, planting could not be executed without other measures were taken in connection with it. The banks would require to be well sloped, or, if the land was sufficiently valuable, it might be worth while to undertake the erection of engineering works to divert the current from the bank until the planting could be properly effected. But it must be borne in mind that so long as the higher parts of the rivers are neglected, whatever may be done on the lower levels will be of very little use, for, if the action of the river is to raise its bed, any protective works that may have been erected on the banks will require to be raised as the bed rises, thus entailing a constant outlay. The streams should be encouraged to meander at first as much as possible over the existing shingle beds, for, by encouraging the length, the fall and velocity are naturally diminished. DaRNELL.—On a Stone Epoch at the Cape of Good Hope. 157 If the banks and gravel beds of the Waimea, for instance, were well planted with willows, and the neighbouring low grounds planted with rows of trees and shrubs at right angles to the flow of the water, but little damage could be done by floods, and the trees on the banks would materially assist the deposit of silt during floods, thus raising and fertilising the low ground. In the open country, where timber is very scarce, such as in Canterbury and Otago, the planting could be made to serve a double purpose, for, if properly managed, twenty years after planting a great deal of wood might be cut without in the least endangering the efficacy of the trees as a protection from floods. There are many difficulties in the way of preserving the timber and instituting a general system of planting such as I have suggested ; there would also be a difficulty about keeping cattle from destroying the trees,* but these matters are questions which could be readily settled by the inhabitants of the districts likely to be damaged, a8 soon as the magnitude of the evils, which are certain to follow the clearing of the mountain sides and destruction of river banks, was clearly appreciated. No one who travels much in the Middle Island of New Zealand can fail to be struck by the amount of ground occupied by the river beds, nor fail to observe the rapid increase in size of most of the streams on the banks of which clearing is going on, and it is with the view of directing attention to this important subject that I have ventured to write this paper. | It may be urged that but little loss has been suffered yet, and that it will be time enough to go into the question when it assumes a more serious aspect ; but, in answer to this, it must be remembered that preventive measures can hardly be taken too soon; and further, when the destruction has once com- menced on a large scale, nothing but time and a very great expenditure can possibly remedy the evil. Art. XVII.—WNotes on the Remains of a Stone Epoch at the Cape of Good Hope. By B. H. DaRne tt. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 25th November, 1871.] Havine seen the sand-worn stones in the museums of Nelson and Wellington, so strongly resembling those which are undoubtedly the work of human hands, and which Mr. Mantell, half jestingly, half seriously, has assumed to have been placed where they were found by the prudent foresight of ancient Maoris, in order that the abrading action of drift-sand might utilize them for posterity ; *The Acacia dealbata is recommended by Mr. Ludlam, of Wellington, as a good tree for such purposes, and not so liable to be destroyed by cattle as the willow. U 158 Transactions. —Miscellaneous. and, having lately read Dr. Hector’s paper on “ Recent Moa Remains in New Zealand,” I venture to believe that my slight experience in the remains of a stone epoch, gathered in another colony (the Cape of Good Hope) may not prove uninteresting to you. I may premise that, unlike New Zealand, no native tribe in South Africa has been known to have used stone implements within historical times. In the early days of the colony, Hottentots, or Bushmen, are represented to have used the perforated stones or stone-rings, (of hard sandstone, greenstone, etc.), which are frequently turned up from under the soil, in weighting the ends of sticks with which they dug up roots, but they probably found them to their hand and thus utilized them, many of them being so small as to be useless for such a purpose. As they are found quite independently of the so-called “arrow-fields,” they probably belong to another and later period. Arrow and spear-heads, celts, hammers, saws, chisels, etc., were first found a few years ago by Mr, T. H. Bowker, a well-known colonist at the Cape, and since then have been discovered at various localities, both on the coast and inland. It is remarkable that they are generally found on the surface of the same red clay or gravel, a circumstance which may assist in determining their age. As to that I will hazard no opinion, but at East London the coast line has been submerged and raised again since the implements found there were fashioned. The following extract from a paper by Mr. Mackay, Clerk of Works, in the employment of the Government, (which accompanied a collection of implements that I have seen), may throw some light on this part of the subject. The cal- careous tufa referred to is a recent deposit. On one part of the West Coast, near the mouth of the Orange River, I observed numerous shells of ostrich eggs im- bedded in it. He says, “The red soil in the interior affords no indication of the age of the implements ; but on the coast the red clay can be shown to be overlaid by the calcareous tufa, followed by a wind-stratified sand-limestone, on which rests a yellow plastic clay that is from a rock decomposing at the higher levels, and the resultant clays transported to and filling in the depressions at the lower levels; then follow gravels, and over them alluvial and sedimentary mud; then the modern sand-drift.” ‘In 1851 the whole of the ground between East London and Fort Glamorgan was covered by drift-sand, with a thick carpet of grass grown over it. Waggon traffic cut up the sand in all directions, and in a short time all was blown away except a few hillocks from four to eight feet high. The exposed black clay, formerly protected by the sand, was gradually cut through, and the implements exposed to view. In this condition they were discovered by Mr. T. H. Bowker, in 1867, who had previously discovered them elsewhere. No doubt the implements were made on the spot, for with them were cores and flakes, also their being found in the small islets of black clay that still remain undenuded in the ‘arrow field,’ and their occurrence in the ARNELL.—On a Stone Epoch at the Cape of Good Hope. 159 cutting at the road, where they are overlaid by four feet of black clay, place this matter beyond dispute. No bone or any other material has been found.” The imperfect specimens which I now send for the Wellington Museum, are only the remnants of a larger collection which was sent to Vienna. They were found by me on the “Cape Flats,” a low tract of land mainly covered with drift-sand, averaging ten feet in depth, and lying between Table Bay and - False Bay, at the south-west angle of the Cape. The “arrow-field” is of con- siderable area, many acres in extent. In fact, the chips and flakes are found wherever the dark red clay or gravel is exposed by denudation of the drift- sand. The material of which they are made was, and still is, found on the surface in the form of boulders, which accounts for the extent of the “ field,” and the cores from which they were struck are to be met with everywhere. Mr. Bowker, who is an ingenious person, has succeeded in manufacturing flakes readily by striking the stones in a peculiar way. ‘The finds on the Cape Flats consisted principally of broken arrow and spear-heads, broken in the manufacture, and of numerous “rubbers” and flakes, and an occasional saw. The field had been pretty well gleaned by another before my introduction to it. I was, however, fortunate in finding the remains of an earthenware pot (only the second or third found of the kind) of which I also send you one handle and some of the sherds. These remains lay at the base of a high sand- drift, and had apparently been recently uncovered. It is difficult to believe that these pots were contemporaneous with the stone flakes, but at the same time they might be preserved for an indefinite period when covered up with dry sand. They resemble in form the utensils figured in the old books of travels as used by the Hottentots. A thong of hide was passed through the holes in the handles wherewith to carry them. Some years before I had seen an extensive bed of potsherds exactly similar on the coast, about three hundred miles to the eastward, underneath many feet of drift-sand, and concluded that it was the site of an ancient Kaffir pot manufactory, that part of the country having been formerly occupied by Katfirs, but the composition of these pots is of coarser material than that of the modern Kafiir pots. Happening to show some of these implements to a friend, who had been many years before in Greece, ‘‘ why,” said he, ‘“ these are the very same things they pick up on the field of Marathon, and call Persian arrow-heads, but 1 never believed they could be that!” Shortly afterwards I read what follows in Mr. Gladstone’s “Juventus Mundi,” “There is no reason to believe that there were any earlier occupants of the Greek or of the Italian Peninsula than the group of tribes called Pelasgian. Neither of these countries presents us with remains belonging to what is called the stone period of the human race, when implements and utensils were made of that material, and the use of metals was unknown.” 160 Transactions.—Miscellaneous. Art, XVIII.—WNotes on the Practice of Out-door Photography. By W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S. [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 28th October, 1871.] THE following notes and suggestions on the practice of out-door photography may possibly be useful to those who propose to follow this art, premising that they are offered as the result of my own experience during the last three or four years. In the first place it is essential that the operator should use the very best instruments and chemicals, and above all things, as the most important condition of success not only in this, but in all other branches of the art, that he should observe the strictest cleanliness in all the operations. After trying several instruments, I ultimately selected, and confined myself to, _ a Ross doublet, constructed for whole plates, but which covers, without the least distortion and with perfect definition, as may be observed from my pictures, ten by eight glass plates. I have always used Mawson’s collodion, with the accompanying directions for development, and I have found this important advantage from adherence to one formula, that the operator ascertains by experience the best length of time for exposure of the plates under the most varying conditions of light and temperature. I may add, also, that I always use the wet process, and for this purpose I have succeeded in constructing portable apparatus of different, but in each case of simple kinds, which I have found no difficulty in carrying safely over country in which a pack-horse alone can travel, and over which, in many cases, it required very well trained pack-horses to make their way at all. Indeed, to those who are compelled to use pack-horses in the more rugged and difficult parts of the Middle Island, for the purpose, for example, of supplying gold-diggers and others with provisions, the sagacity and surefootedness of these animals, under kind treatment, recall the anecdotes of the mule in travelling through the mineral districts of Peru, or in crossing the snow- capped passes of the Pyrenees. The advantage of using the wet process over every form of dry plate is, that the operator knows at once whether he has obtained a satisfactory picture or not, so that he can, by the use of a second or third plate if - necessary, correct errors or imperfections appearing on the first trial. It is, in effect, for the purpose of describing the apparatus I use in connection . with the wet process that these notes are written, as I venture to think them superior, in point of simplicity and general utility, to any which are to be found described in treatises on photography. W. T. L. Travers.—On the Practice of Out-door Photography. 161 My camera is so constructed as, when completely closed, to occupy a space only four and three-fourths inches deep by eleven inches square, and the dark slide permits of the pictures being taken either the wide or the long way of the glass; but although, as I have before observed, the lens face covers admirably a ten by eight plate, I have reduced the size of the glass to nine by seven, and I never take a picture of less size, for the simple reason that to do so would involve carrying separate glass boxes, whilst, of course, the larger size includes all that could be got by using a smaller plate. The nitrate bath is carried in a porcelain trough fixed in a strong wooden frame, with a small space between the ware and the wood, from which it is kept generally free by a few india-rubber buffers. This precaution diminishes the risk of damage from any accidental blow or crush. I use a glass dipper, which also fits into a wooden case, after being wrapped round with a soft rag. My developing and cleansing solutions are kept in six-ounce botiles, which fit into a box made of thin board, divided into cells, padded with cotton wool and lined with cloth. I usually carry in these cells two bottles of cyanide solution, and one each of iron, pyrogallic, and silver solutions. The collodion bottle is also fitted with a small wooden box, into which I stuff a few of the cloths which are necessarily used for wiping the developing glasses, etc., when I am at work. A galvanized iron dish, with a pipe about an inch long in one corner for carrying off the waste water, plateholder, developing glasses, a spare silver dipper, and a few other odds and ends which every one accustomed to landscape photography ordinarily requires, complete the materials for the work. When I travel in mountainous or other districts, in which there are no carriage roads, I usually carry all these articles packed in a developing box, which I propose to describe, and which I have found admirably suited for the purpose. The bath in its case, the camera when folded up, the boxes containing the collodion and developing solutions, etc., are all of nearly uniform thickness, which is about five inches. The developing box, answering to the dark room of the stationary photographer, is made of three-quarter inch well seasoned deal, and is thirty inches long by sixteen inches broad, and five and a half inches deep in the inside. The inside is fitted with straps which are screwed close to the edges, and which are so fixed as, when buckled, to secure in their respective places the various articles laidin the box. On the left hand side I place the bath, lying across the width of the box, next to it, in the middle, the iron washing dish, in which the box containing the developing solutions, the dipper, and any odds and ends, lie, and on the right side the camera and lens, whilst the remain- ing available space affords room for the collodion bottle, the focussing screw, cloths, etc. When the lid is down, and a pair of straps are fastened round the box, the whole is secure, and it can easily be slung on one side of an 162 Transactions.— Miscellaneous. ordinary pack-saddle. Besides the articles contained in this box, there are of course, the tripod for the camera, and boxes containing glass for the pictures. The glass boxes are also made of stout deal, with grooves for the glass, and are padded with several thicknesses of old, well-washed calico. Cross legs, similar to those used for supporting a butler’s tray, complete the equipment. When I intend taking any large number of pictures, [ always carry the necessary raw chemicals (if I may use such a term) with me, as I prefer having the solutions fresh and fresh. The above photographic outfit, with a tent, provisions, clothes, etc., makes a reasonable load for a pack-horse for an expedition into the mountains to last ten days or a fortnight. I now proceed further to describe the dark box when in use. Assuming il to be resting on the cross legs, it is kept firm by four strings attached to the lower corners, and pegged to the ground in the manner of tent ropes. The lid is then raised, and forms the back of the dark box. In the centre of this lid is a small window, fitted with orange-coloured glass, which opens inwards, and is protected on the outside by a shutter which slides over it. Two arms, two inches broad by three-quarters thick, are fixed by hinges to the inside of the box, on the side opposite to the fastening of the lid, and these, when raised, are kept upright by a cross piece of the same dimensions, the whole forming an open frame opposite to and of the same dimensions as the lid. The latter is then attached to this framing by pieces of stout iron wire, which slide into loops in the lid and open frame. The box, when open in this manner, resembles a butler’s tray, to which a back (the lid) has been fixed, with a slight frame-work in front, which, if solid, would make it a box thirty inches long, sixteen inches wide, and eighteen inches high. 'To the edges of the lid and the bottom of the. box a tent, which stretches over the framing above referred to, and falls behind the operator, is fixed. This tent, in my case, is formed of three thicknesses of stuff, the inside one of close black holland, the outside of close black cotton twill, and between these a close yellow twill. Over these I throw a light white calico covering, in order to prevent too great heat when working in the sun. I usually select, if possible, some spot near a tree for fixing the apparatus, in which case a string run through the top of the tent-covering enables me to draw it well up, and thus increase the inside height. When engaged in developing, I wrap the hanging end of the tent-covering round me, thus excluding all light. I have found this apparatus perfectly sufficient, even when the actinic condition of the light is most active. For washing the pictures during development, I use a strong tin kettle, ten inches high by six in diameter, which also serves the purpose of a tea kettle for the camp. With an apparatus such as I have described, I have taken nearly two hundred negatives, many of them in very rugged and difficult localities. ane Da - W. T. L, Travers.—On the Practice of Out-door Photography. 163 In places accessible to a wheeled vehicle I use a dark box, the sides of which are solid throughout, but of very much the same general construction as the other, and which [ usually carry at the back of an ordinary spring cart. It opens in front by a lid divided into two parts, one folding on the other, to the inside of which a dark cloth is attached, which falls behind me, and which I wrap round me, precisely as in the other case, when engaged in developing a picture. In conclusion, it may be useful to those who contemplate engaging in landscape photography in the country, if I add a few words on my own practice, which has been more than ordinarily successful. JI chiefly use Chance’s patent plate for my negatives. The perfect flatness, smooth surface, and general freedom from flaws, of this glass more than compensate for the extra cost, though I have taken good pictures on the same maker's flatted crown glass. I invariably clean both sides of the glass equally, and never use a plate which I cannot feel sure of being chemically clean. I always prepare overnight the number of plates I expect to use on the following day, and never use glass which has been kept more than a few days in the boxes, without recleaning it, for I have found that even in the driest weather it is liable to become spotted. For taking three or four dozen of negatives, when they are likely to be taken within ten days, I find it con- venient to prepare a sufficient quantity of the various developing and cleansing solutions,.of double strength, which I reduce with river-water ; but, in order to guard against accidents, I always carry the necessary quantity of raw chemicals, carefully packed in a strong wooden box, and requiring only the addition of water to fit them for use. The best times for working are from nine in the morning until about half-past three in the afternoon. TI have taken fair pictures before nine o’clock, but as a rule the half tones are rarely obtainable, or very imperfect, in pictures taken very early in the morning, and the light loses a good deal of its actinic power after three o’clock, owing, I believe, to the air being much charged with moisture. The actinic power of the light is most active in clear cool weather, as, for example, during north- east weather in Wellington and Canterbury, north-west weather being unfavourable even for printing. After the operation of developing a picture I invariably wash out the developing glasses, and I never use the cleansing solution over again, which I feel sure is a bad practice, though sanctioned by many writers on the art. The water used for washing the pictures should pass through fine muslin tied over the mouth of the vessel, as I have observed that “pin-holes” are often caused by small particles of matter in the water coming in contact with the filn. In fact, no precaution ought to be neglected to insure a perfectly clear and uniform film, without which all kinds of shifts, destructive to anything like perfection in the prints, must be resorted to in 164 Transactions. —Miscellameous. order to produce a passable picture. It may be observed that my pictures are entirely free from blemishes of this kind, and this is attributable solely to close attention to cleanliness, and to care in the mechanical operations. Of course there are cases in which the most careful operator must be content to put up with imperfections ; but I am assuming the case of one who has it in his power to control circumstances. As a last suggestion I would add that perfect calmness and deliberation in all stages of the work are in the highest degree necessary, anxiety and hurry being fruitful sources of failure. Hutton.—On a Species of Megapodius. 165 Il.—ZOOLOGY. Art. XIX.—On Megapodius Pritchardi, Gray. Megapodius Huttoni, Buller. By Captain F. W. Hurron, F.G.S8. [Read before the Auckland Institute, 31sé July, 1871]. In the third volume of the Zransactions of the New Zealand Institute, p. 14, Mr. Buller has described a bird in the Auckland Museum as Megapodius -Huttoni. This bird was presented to the Museum by Captain Rough, of Nelson, who brought it from the island of Nuifo (not Nuipo), and gave me the following information concerning it. Nuifo is one of the Friendly Island group, and is under the Government of Tonga ; it lies 100 miles west of Keppel’s Island, and about 300 miles south-west of the Navigator Islands. It consists of a ring of high land which is the summit of a volcano, the interior crater of which is occupied by a lake of brackish water, studded with two or three islands. - It is on these islands that the Megapode, called Malau (not Malan) by the natives, lives. At the breeding season the bird scratches a hole in the ground, in which it lays several (about six) eggs, and then covers them up with earth. The young bird comes out of the egg fully fledged and able to fly. The specimen now under notice was brought to the Museum in spirits, but was afterwards skinned and set up by order of the Council of the Auckland Institute ; the body, however, is still preserved in spirits in the Museum. There can, I think, be little doubt but that Nuifo of Captain Rough is identical with Niafu, or Niufu of Dr. Finsch ; and Mr. Buller, in his descrip- tion of I. Huttoni, has omitted to mention that the tail feathers are whitish at the base, and that a ring round the neck is almost bare of feathers. With the exception of the tail, the general plumage of the bird corresponds exactly with the description of I. Pritchardi, as quoted by Mr. Buller, but no mention is there made of the quill feathers. The bill and feet certainly do not quite correspond, which may be owing to the Auckland Museum specimen having been kept for some time in spirits, but I can see no difference between the two sufficiently great to warrant the establishment of a new species, and think, therefore, that this bird must be referred to IW. Pritchardi, Gray. xX 166 Transactions.—Zoology. Art. XX.—On the Microscopical Structure of the Egg-shell of the Moa. By Captain F. W. Hurron, F.G.S8. (With Illustrations.) _ [Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 26th August, 1871.] Havine been kindly supplied by Dr. Hector with some broken fragments of the Moa’s egg, I have now the honour to lay before the Society the results of a microscopical examination which I have made of them; I must, however, first observe that I have been informed that the structure of the Moa’s egg was described many years ago, but, as I cannot find any trace of that description, I hope I shall escape the accusation of making you listen to a repetition of well known facts. About four years ago Dr. Blasius published an extensive and detailed account of the structure of the shell of birds’ eggs. This account I have not seen, but I am aware that he arrived at the conclusion that the microscopic differences are neither constant nor reliable, and cannot be used for purposes of classification. There is, however, one constant feature that distinguishes the eggs of the Struthious birds from the rest of the class, or the Carinate birds. This is, that in the eggs of the Struthious birds the carbonate of lime shows a prismatic structure, while in the eggs of the Carinate birds the prismatic structure is absent. I believe that I have examined the egg-shell of more than one species of Moa, but I find the structure to be fundamentally the same in all, and that the differences in different portions of the same specimen are quite as great as in any two diiferent specimens. The shell, when not abraded, is of a pale yellow colour, smooth, and irregularly pitted on the outside with dots and linear markings, sometimes 0°08 of an inch in length. (PI. [X., Fig. 1), On some fragments the markings were all straight, in others they were nearly all curved, while in others again both straight and curved markings occurred together. Round dots were on all the specimens. In appearance they are more like the egg of the South American Ahea than any other that I know. The specific gravity I found to be 2°714. On dissolving in dilute hydrochloric acid no residue was left. The shell is about 0:07 of an inch in thickness, and is divided into two layers, each presenting a different structure (Fig. 2). The outer layer (Fig. 2a) forms about two thirds of the whole thickness, and is composed of a large number of thin lamine, arranged parallel to the surface of the egg. Each of these lamine appears to be void of structure when viewed under a power of 400 diameters, being made up of numerous points variously aggregated together into clouds (Fig. 3), very similar in appearance to mucilage. TRANS.NZ.INSTITUTE, Vob.V. PUIX. nak. StZEe. I l WV @ single column from the wusude more magnified. SZ LESS sila oe WS N-Margive of mantle, See Sos = <> SS <> <2