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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

1908

VOL. XLI

(New Issue)

EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD
OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE

Issued June, 1909

WELLIN'GTON, N.Z.
JOHN MACKAY, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

KEGAN, PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER, AND CO., PATERNOSTER HOUSE
CHARING CROSS ROAD, LONDON

-ARYJ'

CONTENTS.

TEANSACTIONS.

I. — Miscellaneous.

PAGES.

Art III. On a Method of carrying out the Decimal Currency.

By H. Skey .. .. .. .. .. 16-22

VII. On the Harmonic Conic of Two Given Conies. By

Evelyn G. Hogg, M.A. . . . . . . . . 34-37

VIII. On certain Couic-loci of Isogonal Conjugates. By Evelyn

G. Hogg, M.A. . . . . . . . . . . 38-42

XXIII. Captain Dumont D'Urville's Visit to Tologa Bay in 1827.
Translated from the French by S. Percy Smith,
F.R.G.S. .. .. .. .. .. 130-139

XXIX. A Very Rare Maori Implement — Ahao. By Dr. A. K.

Newman .. .. .. .. .. 216-218

XXX. On the Trisection of an Angle. By H. W. Segar, M.A... 218-221

XXXI. Insanity : Some Comparative Statistics. By H. W.

Segar, M.A. .. .. .. .. .. 221-230

XXXII. Maori Forest Lore : Being some Account of Native Forest
Lore and Woodcraft, as also of many Myths, Rites,
Customs, and Superstitions connected with the Flora
and Fauna of the Tuhoe or Ure-wera District :
Part II. By Elsdon Best . . . . . . 231-286

XXXIII. A Contribution to our Knowledge of the Physiological

Action of Tutin. By Frank Fitchett, M.D. (Edin.). . 286-366

XL. The Wellington Tide-gauge. By C. E. Adams, M.Sc,

A.I.A. (Lond.), F.R.A.S. .. .. .. ..406-410

XLI. A Natural Classification of English Poetry. By Johannes

C.Andersen .. .. .. .. .. 410-418

XLII. Development of Four - syllabled Metrical Unit in the
Australian Modification of the English Ballad. By
.Johannes C. Andersen .. .. .. .. 418-421

XLIII. New Zealand Bird-song. By Johannes C. Andersen .. 422-428

II. — Zoology.

I. On the Nesting Habits of llhipidura flahellifera. By W.

W. Smith . . . . . . . . . . 1-4

II. Notes and Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera . By

E. Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S. .. .. .. 5-16

IV. A List of the Hendptera (excluding Sternorrhyncha) of the
Maorian Subregion, with Notes on a Few of the
Species. By G. W. Kirkaldy . . . . . . 22-29

V. Birds on Kapiti Island. By .James Drummond, F.L.S.,

F.Z.S. .. .. .. .. .. .. 30-32

3240;5

iv Contents.

Art. X. Noces od Lepidoptera collected by H. Hamilton in various pages.
Localities in the Queenstown District, Otago, between
November, 1907, and March, 1908. By A. Hamilton 44-48

XIII. The Fresh-water Amphipoda of New Zealand. Bv Charles

Chilton, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. .. . ." .. 53-59

XIV. Note on the Amohipodan Genera Bircenna, Kiiria, and

iVaiidelia. By Charles Chilton, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S. 59-63

XXII. Further Notes on New Zealand Starfishes. By H.

Farquhar .. .. .. .. .. 126-129

XXVII. Notes on Coleoptern from the Chatham Islands. By

Major T. Bromi, F.E.S. .. .. .. .. 145-151

XXVIII. Revision of the New Zealand Cossonida, with Descriptions
of New Genera and Species. By Major T. Broun,
F.E.S. .. .. .. .. .. .. 151-215

XXXIV. Notes on a New Zealand Actinian, Bunodes aureoradiata.

By F. G. A. Stuckey, M.A. .. .. ..367-369

XXXV. On Two Anemones found in the Neighbourhood of Wel-
lington, Leotealia thomsoni and Sugar tia alhocincta.
By F. G. A. Stuckey, M.A. . . . . . . 370-374

XXXVI. A Review of the New Zealand Actiniaria known to
Science, together with a Description of Twelve New
Species. By F. G. A. Stuckey, M.A. . . . . 374-398

III. — Botany.

XXIV. Description of a New Species of Epilobium. By D. Petrie,

M. A., F.L.S. .. .. .. \. .. 140

XXV. Notice of the Discovery of a Species of Burmaimiacece, a
Familv new to the New Zealand Flora. Bv T. F.
Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S. .. .." .. 140-143

XXXVII. Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant-habitats (IV). Bv L.

Cockayne, Ph.D. .. .. .. " . . 399-403

XXXVUI. On a Collection of Plants from the Solanders. Bv L.

Cockayne, Ph.D. .. .. .. ' .. 404-405

XXXIX. Note on Aerial Rhizomes in Cordyline australis. Bv L.

Cockayne, Ph.D. .. .. .. .. " .. 405-406

XhY. On Dactylanthus Taylori. By H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S. .. 437-440

IV. — Geology and Chemistey.

VI. Some Striated Stones from the St. Bernard Saddle,

Upper Waimakariri Valley. By M. C. Gudex . . 33

IX. The Technical Analysis of Sliped Wool. Bv A. M.

Wright, F.C.S. .. .. .. .! .. 42-43

XI. A Rapid and Accui-ate Method of esthiiating Iron in
Iron-ores. Bv J. S. Maclaurin, D.Sc, F.C.S., and
W. Donovan, M.Sc . . . . , . . . 49-51

XIL On a Hornblende-andesite from the Solander Islands. Bv

R. Speight, M. A., B.Sc, F.G.S. .. .. .'. 52-53

XV. The Geology of the Quartz Veins of the Otago Goldfields.

By A. M. Finlayson, M.Sc, A.O.S.M. .. .. 64-84

XVI. The Geology of the Reefton Gold-veins. By A. M. Fin-
layson . . . . . . . . . . . . 85-98

Contents.

Art. XVII. The Geology of Rarotonga and Aitutataki. Bv P. Mar- pages.
shall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S. .. '. . .. 98-100

XVIII. Contact Rocks from West Nelson. By P. Marshall . . 101-102

XIX. Crater of Ngauruhoe. By P. Marshall . . . . 102-105

XX. Additions to the List of New Zealand Minerals. By P.

Marshall .. .. .. .. .. 105-110

XXI. Geology of Signal Hill, Dunedin. By C. A. Cotton, M.Sc. 111-126

XXVI. Some New Zealand Fossil Cephalopods. By P. Marshall 143-145

XLIV. The Great Wairarapa : A Lost River. By H. Hill, B.A.,

F.G.S.

429-437

Plate.

I.

II.

Ill, IV (Fig. 1).

IV (Figs. 2, 3).

V-VII.

VIII-XI.

XII.

XIII, XIV.

XIVa.

XV, XVI.

XVII.

XVIII-XX.

XXl-XXVIII.

XXIX.

XXX-XXXII.

LIST OP PLATES.

Striated Stones. — Gudex

Quartz Veins of Otago Goldfields. — Finlayson

Rarotonga and Aitutaki. — Marshall ..

Contact Rocks of West Nelson. — Marshall

Crater of Ngauruhoe. — Marshall

Geology of Signal Hill. — Cotton

New Zealand Starfish. — Farquhar

D'Urville's Visit to Tologa Bay. — Smith

New Zealand Fossil Cephalopods. — Marshall

New Zealand Coxsonidce. — Broun

A New Zealand Actinian. — Stuckey

Two Anemones. — Stuckey

A Review of New Zealand Actiniaria. — Stuckey

Aerial Rhizomes in Cordyline australts. — Cockayne

Dactyla7ithus Taylori. — 'H.iLij

To illustrate
Article
VI

XV

XVII

XVIII

XIX

XXI

XXII

XXIII

XXVI

XXVIII

XXXIV

XXXV

XXXVI

XXXIX

XLV

UJ I L I B R A R Y ^1

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

ESTABLISHED UNDER AN ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND INTITULED
"THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT, 1867"; RECONSTITUTED BY AN ACT OF THE
GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF NEW ZEALAND UNDER "THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE
ACT, 1903."

Board of Governors.

EX OFFICIO.

His Excellency the Governor.
The Hon. the Colonial Secretary.

NOMINATED BY THE GOVERNMENT UNDER CLAUSE 4.

A. Hamilton; E. Tregear, E.E.G.S. ; John Young; J. W. Joynt, M.A.

ELECTED BY AFFILIATED SOCIETIES UNDER CLAUSE 4.

Wellington : Martin Chapman, K.C. ; Professor T. H. Easterfield, M.A.,
Ph.D. Auckland: D. Petrie, M.A., F.L.S. ; J. Stewart, C.E.
Napier: H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S. Christchurch : E. Speight, M.A.,
B.Sc, F.G.S. ; C. C. Farr, D.Sc. Westland : T. H. Gill, M.A.
Nelson : L. Cockayne, LL.D. Otago : Professor W. B. Benham,
D.Sc, F.E.S. ; G. M. Thomson, F.L.S. , F.C.S., M.P. Manawatu :
K. Wilson, M.A.

OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1909.

President: A. Hamilton.
Hon. Treasurer: Martin Chapman, K.C.
Editor of Transactions : G. M. Thomson, F.L.S., F.C.S.
Secretary : B. C. Aston, F.C.S.

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES.

Wellington Philosophical Society

Auckland Institute

Philosophical Institute or Canterbury

Otago Institute

Westland Institute

Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute

Southland Institute

Nelson Institute

Manawatu Philosophical Society

DATE OP AFFILIATION.

10th June, 1868.
10th June, 1868.
22nd October, 1868.
18th October, 1869.
21st December, 1874.
31st March, 1875.
21st July, 1880.
20th December, 1883.
16th January, 1904.

Vlll

Neio ZealoMd Institute.

HONOEAEY MEMBERS
(elected since the inception of the institute).

1870.

Agassiz, Professor Louis.
Drury, Captain Byron, K.N.
Finsch, Dr. Otto.
Flower, Professor W.H., F.R.S.
Hochstetter, Dr. Ferdinand von.

Darwin, Charles. M.A., F.R.S.
Gray, J. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.

Grey, Sir George, K.C.B.

Huxley, Thomas H., LL.D., F.R.S.

Hooker, Joseph D., M.D., F.K.S., C.B
Mueller, Ferdinand von, M.D., F.R.S.,

C.M.G.
Owen, Professor Richard, F.R.S.
Richards, Rear-Admiral G. H.

1871.

Lindsay, W. Lauder, M.D., F.R.S. E.

1872.

I Stokes, Vice- Admiral J. L.

1873.

Bowen, Sir George Ferguson, G. C.M.G.
Cambridge, the Rev. 0. Pickard, M.A.,
C.M.Z.S.

1874.

Giinther, A., M.D., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.
Lyell, Sir Coarles, Bart., D.C.L., F.R.S.

McLachlan, Robert. F.L.S.
Newton, Alfred, F.R.S.

Filhol, Dr. H.

Rolleston, Professor G., M.D., F.R.S.

Berggren, Dr. S.

Clarke, Rev. W. B., M.A., F.R.S.

Baird, Professor Spencer F.
Sharp, D., M.D.

Garrod, Professor A. H., F.R.S.
Miiller, Professor Max, F.R.S.

I Thomson, Professor Wyville, F.R.S.

1875.

Sclater, Philip L., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.

1876.

Etheridge, Professor R., F.R.S.

1877.

j Weld, Frederick A., C.M.G.

1878.

Tenison- Woods, Rev. J. E., F.L.S.

1880.
The Most Noble the Marquis of Normanby, G.C.M.G.

1883.

Carpenter, Dr. W. B., C.B., F.R.S.
Ellery, Robert L. J., F.R.S.

Gray, Professor Asa.

Sharp, Richard Bowdler, M.A., F.L.S.

Beneden, Professor J. P. van.
Ettingshausen, Baron von.

I Thomson, Sir William, F.R.S.

1885.

Wallace, R. A., F.L.S.

1888.

McCov, Professor F., D.Sc, C.M.G.,
F.R.S.

Honorary Members. ix

1890.

Liversidge, Professor A., M.A., F.R.S.
Nordstedt, Professor Otto, Ph.D.

Riley, Professor C. V.

1891.
Davis, J. W., F.G.S., P.L.S. | Goodale, Professor G. L , :\r.D., LL.D.

1894.

Codrington, Rev. R. H., D.D. I Dyer, Professor W. Thiselton. M.A.,

I C.M.G., F.R.S.

1895.
Mitten, William, F.R.S.

1896.
Langley, S. P. 1 Lydekker, Richard, B. A., F.R.S.

1900. XC^^^3
Masses, George, F.L.S., F.R;i^<^0 ^/\^^\

1901. luji LIBRARY jac

Eve, H. W., M.A. I Howes, G. B., LL.D.. F.R.B.-

Goebel, Dr. Carl. I

1902.
Sars, Professor G. 0.

1903.
Klotz, Professor Otto J.

1904.
David, Professor T. Edgeworth, F.R.S. | Rutherford, Professor E., D.Sc, F.R.S.

1906.

Brady, G. S., F.R.S.

Agardh, Dr. J. G.

Lubbock, Sir John, Bart., P.O., F.R.S

Beddard, F. E., F.R.S.
Milne, J., F.R.S.

Dandy, Dr., F.R.S.
Diels, L., Ph.D.

1907,

Mevrick, E., B.A., F.R.S.
Stebbing, Rev. T. R. R,, F.R.S.

1908.
Darwin, Sir George, F.R.S.

PRESIDENTS.
1903-4.

Hutton, Captain Frederick Wollaston, F.R.S.

1905-6.
Hector, Sir James, M.D., K.G.M.G., F.R.S.

1907-8.
Thomson, George Malcolm, F.L.S., F.G.S.

1909.
Hamilton, Augustus.

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE ACT.

The following Act reconstituting ihe Institute was passed by Par-
liament : —

1903, No. 48.

An Act to reconstitute the New Zealand Institute.

[18th November, 1903.

"Whereas it is desirable to reconstitute the New Zealand Institute with
a view lo connecting it more closely with the affiliated institutions :

Be it therefore enacted by the General Assembly of New Zealand in
Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : —

1. The Short Title of this Act is "The New Zealand Institute Act,
1903."

2. "The New Zealand Institute Act, 1867," is hereby repealed.

3. (1.) The body hitherto known as the New Zealand Institute (here-
inafter referred to as "the Institute") shall consist of the Auckland
Institute, the Wellington Philosophical Society, the Philosophical Insti-
tute of Canterbury, the Otago Institute, the Hawke's Bay Philosophical
Institute, the Nelson Institute, the Westland Institute, the Southland
Institute, and such others as may hereafter be incorporated in accordance
with regulations to be made by the Board of Governors as hereinafter
mentioned.

(2.) Members of the above - named incorporated societies shall be
ijjso facto members of the Institute.

4. The control and management of the Institute shall be in the hands
of a Board of Governors, constituted as follows : —

The Governor ;

The Colonial Secretary ;

Four members to be appointed by the Governor in Council during

the month of December, one thousand nine hundred and three,

and two members to be similarly appointed during the month

of December in every succeeding year ;
Two members to be appointed by each of the incorporated societies

at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin during the

month of December in each alternate year ;
One member to be appointed by each of the otlier incorporated

societies during the month of December in each alternate year.

5. (1.) Of the members appointed by the Governor in Council two
shall retire annually on the appointment of their successors ; the first two
members to retire shall be decided by lot, and thereafter the two mem-
bers longest in office without reappointment shall retire.

(2.) Subject to the provisions of the last preceding subsection, the
appointed members of the Board shall hold office until the appointment
of their successors.

6. The Board of Governors as above constituted shall be a body cor-
porate, by the name of the " New Zealand Institute," and by that name
they shall have perpetual succession and a common seal, and may sue
and be sued, and shall have power and authority to take, purchase, and
bold lands for the purposes hereinafter mentioned.

Neio Zealand Institute. xi

7. (1.) The Board of Governors shall have power to appoint a fit
person, to be known as the " President," to superintend and carry out all
necessary work in connection with the affairs of the Institute, and to pro-
vide him with such further assistance, as may be required.

(2.) It shall also appoint the President or some other fit person to
be editor of the Transactions of the Institute, and may appoint a com-
mittee to assist him in the work of editing the same.

(3.) It shall have power to make regulations under which societies
may become incorporated to the Institute, and to declare that any
incorporated society shall cease to be incorporated if such regulations
are not complied with, and such regulations on being published in the
Gazette shall have the force of law.

(4.) The Board may receive any grants, bequests, or gifts of books or
specimens of any kind whatsoever for the use of the Institute, and dispose
of them as it thinks fit.

(5.) The Board shall have control of the property hereinafter vested
in it, and of any additions hereafter made thereto, and shall make regu-
lations for the management of the same, for the encouragement of
research by the members of the Institute, and in all matters, specified or
unspecified, shall have power to act for and on behalf of the Institute.

8. Any casual vacancy on the Board of Governors, howsoever caused,
shall be filled within three months by the society or authority that
appointed the member whose place has become vacant, and if not filled
within that time the vacancy shall be filled by the Board of Governors.

9. (1.) The first annual meeting of the Board of Governors herein-
before constituted shall be held at Wellington on some day in the month
of January, one thousand nine hundred and four, to be fixed by the
Governor, and annual meetings of the Board shall be regularly held
thereafter during the month of January in each year, the date and place
of such annual meeting to be fixed at the previous annual meeting.

(2.) The Board of Governors may meet during the year at such other
times and places as it deeuiS necessary.

(3.) At each annual meeting the President shall present to the meeting
a report of the work of the Institute for the year preceding, and a balance-
sheet, duly audited, of all sums received and paid on behalf of the
Institute.

10. The Board of Governors may from time to time, as it sees fit,
make arrangements for the holding of general meetings of members of
the Institute, at times and places to be arranged, for the reading of
scientific papers, the delivery of lectures, and for the general promotion
of science in the colony by any means that may appear desirable.

11. The Colonial Treasurer shall, without further appropriation than
this Act, pay to the Board of Governors the annual sum of five hundred
pounds, to be applied in or towards payment of the general current
expenses of the Institute.

12. (1.) On the appointment of the first Board of Governors under
this Act the Board of Governors constituted under the Act hereby
repealed shall cease to exist, and the property then vested in, or belong-
ing to, or under the control of that Board shall be vested in His Majesty
for the use and benefit of the public.

- (2.) On the recommendation of the President of the Institute the
Governor may at any time hereinafter, by Order in Council, declare that
any part of such property specified in the Order shall be vested in the
Board constituted under this Act.

X Ne^o Zealand Institute.

13. All regulations, together with a copy of the Transactions of the
Institute, shall be laid upon the table of both Houses of Parliament
within twenty clays after the meeting thereof.

REGULATIONS.

The following are the new regulations of the New Zealand Institute
under the Act of 1903 : —

The word "Institute" used in the following regulations means the
New Zealand Institute as constituted by " The New Zealand Institute
Act, 1903."

Incokporation of Societies.

1. No society shall be incorporated with the Institute under the
provisions of " The New Zealand Institute Act, 1903," unless such
society shall consist of not less than twenty-five members, subscribing in
the aggregate a sum of not less than £25 sterling annually for the pro-
motion of art, science, or such other branch of knowledge for which it
is associated, to be from time to time certified to the satisfaction of the
Board of Governors of the Institute by the President for the time being
of the society.

2. Any society incorporated as aforesaid shall cease to be incorporated
with the Institute in case the number of the members of the said society
shall at any time become less than twenty-five, or the amount of money
annually subscribed by such members shall at any time be less than £25.

3. The by-laws of every society to be incorporated as aforesaid shall
provide for the expenditure of not less than one -third of the annual
revenue in or towards the formation or support of some local public
museum or library, or otherwise shall provide for the contribution of not
less than one-sixth of its said revenue towards the extension and main-
tenance of the New Zealand Institute.

4. Any society incorporated as aforesaid which shall in any one year
fail to expend the proportion of revenue specified in Regulation No. 3
aforesaid in manner provided shall from henceforth cease to be incor-
porated with the Institute.

5. All papers read before any society for the time being incorporated
with the Institute shall be deemed to be communications to the Insti-
tute, and then may be pubhshed as Proceedings or Transactions of the
Institute, subject to the following regulations of the Board of the Institute
regarding publications : —

Regulations kegabding Publications.
[CI.) The publications of the Institute shall consist of —

(1.) A current abstract of the proceedings of the societies
for the time being incorporated with the Institute, to be
intituled " Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute " ;

(2.) And of transactions comprising papers read before the
incorporated societies (subject, however, to selection as here-
inafter mentioned), and of such other matter as the Board of
Governors shall from time to time determine to publish, to
be intituled " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute."
{b.) The Board of Governors shall determine what papers are to be

published.
(c.) Papers not recommended for publication may be returned to their
authors if so desired.

Regulations. xiii

{d.) All papers sent in for publication must be legibly written, type-
written, or printed.

(e.) A proportional contribution may be required from each society
towards the cost of publishing Proceedings and Transactions
of the Institute.

(/.) Each incorporated society will be entitled to receive a propor-
tional number of copies of the Transactions and Proceedings
of the New Zealand Institute, to be from time to time fixed
by the Board of Governors.

General Eegulations.

6. All property accumulated by or with funds derived from incor-
porated societies, and placed in charge of the Institute, shall be vested
in the Institute, and be used and applied at the discretion of the Board of
Governors for public advantage', in like manner with any other of the
property of the Institute.

7. Subject to " The New Zealand Institute Act, 1903," and to the
foregoing rules, all societies incorporated with the Institute shall be
entitled to retain or alter their own form of constitution and the by-laws
for their own management, and shall conduct their own affairs.

8. Upon application signed by the President and countersigned by the
Secretary of any society, accompanied by the certificate required under
Eegulation No. 1, a certificate of incorporation will be granted under
the seal of the Institute, and will remain in force as long as the fore-
goiirg regulations of the Institute are complied with by the society.

9. In voting on any subject the President is to have a deliberate as
well as a casting vote.

Management of the Property of the Institute.

10. All donations by societies, public Departments, or private indi-
viduals to the Institute shall be acknowledged by a printed form of
receipt, and shall be entered in the books of the Institute provided for
that purpose, and shall then be dealt with as the Board of Governors may
direct.

Honorary Members.

11. The Board of Governors shall have power to elect honorary
members (being persons not residing in the Colony of New Zealand), pro-
vided that the total number of honorary members shall not exceed thirty.

12. In case of a vacancy in the list of honorary members, each incor-
porated society, after intimation from the Secretary of the Institute, may
nominate for election as honorary member one person.

13. The names, descriptions, and addresses of persons so nominated,
together with the grounds on which their election as honorary members
is recommended, shall be forthwith forwarded to the President of the
New Zealand Institute, and shall by him be submitted to the Governors
at the next succeeding meeting.

14. The President may at any time call a meeting of the Board, and
shall do so on the requisition in writing of four Governors.

15. Twenty-one days' notice of every meeting of the Board shall be
given by posting the same to each Governor at an address furnished by
him to the Secretary.

16. In case of a vacancy in the office of President, a meeting of
the Board shall be called by the Secretary within twenty-one days to
elect a new President.

xiv Neiv Zealand histitute.

17. The Governors for the time being resident or present in Wellington
shall be a Standing Committee for the purpose of transacting urgent
business and assisting the officers.

18. The Standing Committee may appoint persons to perform the
duties of any other office which may become vacant. Any such appoint-
ment shall hold good until the next meeting of the Board, when the
vacancy shall be filled.

19. The foregoing regulations may be altered or amended at any
annual meeting, provided that notice be given in writing to the Secretary
of the Institute not later than the 30th November.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE,

1908.

Akt. I. — On the Nestimj Habits of Rhipidura flabellifera.

I By W. W. Smith.

[Read before the Manawatu Philosophical Society, IQth March, 1908.]

The native fantails or fly-catchers are, by their abundance and airy and
graceful evolutions on the wing when in pursuit of their tiny prey, perhaps
the best-known birds at the present time in the New Zealand avifauna.
By reason of there being few ornithological observers in the early days of
settlement, and the rapid extinction of species proceeding meanwhile, the
latter have nearly all vanished without science knowing anything — or, at
least, very little — of their nesting habits, or of the respective periods of time
occupied during their incubation. Although the late Sir Walter BuUer has
given a good general history, with very perfect delineations of each species,
only in three cases has he referred to their approximate time - periods of
incubation. His great industry during his early life in compiling general
and accurate histories of all species coming under his observation occupied
his full time, and frequently prevented him from observing and noting
their several and perfect habits and full periods of hatching. It may there-
fore be of interest to members of our Society to have complete and accurate
notes on the nesting habits of the fantail, from the hour of lacing the first
twig on to -the forked site of the nest to that of the four young fledglings
reared therein leaving it for the 'first time.

For many years two pairs of these charming little birds have built
their nests in Mr. W. Park's garden at " The Wattles," Palmerston North.
On hearing of this a year ago, and being much interested, I requested Mr.
Douglas Park to observe and make absolutely accurate notes of the brood
or broods of young fantails. With kindly and commendable patience and
perseverance Mr. Park, jun., daily closely observed and accurately noted
all phases of life of the parent birds when engaged nesting.

On the 9th August, 1907, a pair began to construct a nest in the fork of
a climbing rose trained on the outside of a summer-house in the shade of
native trees. After working earnestly and many hours per day for four
days the birds apparently became displeased with their work and discon-
tinued operations. Inside the roof of the summer-house some stems of
clematis have grown down through the air-passages and formed a small com-
pact network of growth. On one of these stems the fantails chose a site for

1— Trans.

2 Transactions.

a new nest, and immediately began to demolish the unfinished structure,
and use the same materials with which to rebuild it. " The work of con-
structing the second nest," writes Mr. Park, jun., " was started on the 14th
August, and was finished on the 31st. They laid four eggs — the first on
the day they completed the nest, and one on each morning following until
the 4tli. At 10 a.m. they commenced sitting — each parent taking turns on
the nest until the young birds were hatched on the 21st. The young ones
were full-fledged and flew away at about 10 a.m. on the 30th September."
The time-period of incubation of the New Zealand fly-catcher therefore
occupies a full day less than that of any European species of the genus as
recorded in the works of British ornithologists.

Whilst engaged dismantling the partially finished nest, and utihsing
the materials with which to build the new one in the dome of the summer-
house, the birds would alight occasionally on the side of the nest, and,
fixing their feet thereon, would use their full strength in dra%ving asunder
with their beaks the tightly and closely woven materials. They displayed
great activity at their work, meanwhile uttering notes of apparent in-
struction and approval to each other. The male performed most of the
work of carrying the materials to the new site, while the female did most
of the work in building the nest. When the young birds were hatcJied
the parent birds continued to hunt vigorously on the wing for tiny insects
with which to feed them. AVhen not hunting on the Aving for their own sus-
tenance the parent birds — especially the male — frequently sat close to its
mate hatching, and occasionally on the rim of the nest. The habit is prac-
ticed by many species of birds, but more especially by those of the group to
which the fly-catchers belong. Mr. Park states that the weather, being
very wet and boisterous while the nest was in course of building, retarded
considerably the progress of their work at it.

On the 16th January last we observed a pair of fantails hunting assidu-
ously and passing frequently into a " lacebark " tree {Hoheria populnea)
growing on the Victoria Esplanade, Palmerston North. On looking up
through the branches I located the nest, which contained three young birds.
They remained in the nest until about noon the following day, when they left
it and fluttered along towards the extremity of the bough bearing the nest.
The weather being hot and calm, they remained sitting near each other
for nearly two days, and were well fed meantime by their active parents.
On the 21st they separated, and were fed at times for several days after
leaving the " lacebark " tree in which they were reared. It was indeed
interesting to observe these young fantails flitting gracefully from bough
to bough or from tree to tree, as if training and developing their wings, by
which they were soon to become self - dependent. These birds are now
expert fly-catchers, and belong to a group of about twenty individuals
regularly inhabiting the Esplanade and its environs. Nearly all trees of
Hoheria populnea and its varieties ^ZancfoZoto and angustifolia, with Plagi-
anthus hetiiUnns, have been extremely floriferous on the Esplanade during
the late-early and midsummer months. The great masses of scented white
flowers they produce are a great attraction to all classes of insect. On
calm days, when insects were plentiful at the flowers, the fantails were
generally close to them on the -wing, having a royal time subsisting on the
numerous small insects, chiefly Diptera, passing to and from the flowers.
After feeding for several minutes on the wing on the minute flies frequent-
ing the blossoms, the birds would, dart through the outer branches, and,
resting for a few minutes within them in the shade, would again dart swiftly

Smith. — On tJie Ncating Habits of Ehipidura flabellifera. 3.

out in pursuit of their prey as it hove ui sight. These graceful little birds
possess remarkably quick and clear vision, while their minute and delicate
beaks may occasionally be distinctly heard snapping at their prey as they
flit near the observer.

When at Tirotiro-moana Valley, in Taranaki, on the 7th August, 1905,
I observed a pair of fantails constructing a nest on a Hmb of tutu-shrub
partly overhanging the road formed obliquely along the steep east side of
the valley. They were using mosses and lichens chiefly, and, as with the
pair studied by Mr. Douglas Park, the male was carrying the materials,
while the female wove them expertly and neatly into the nest. For about
two minutes during the half-hour I watched them the male assisted in
placing and fixing the materials it brought into the structure. They were
working with great vivacity and vigour, meanwhile twittering freely to each
other. The female seemed to work fretfully, but with perfect precision, and
was a little fastidious in the selection of the materials brought by her mate
wherewdth to build the nest. They were working with great activity when
I reluctantly left them.

When engaged preparing these notes I received an interesting letter
from Mr. D. Sinclair, C.E., of Terrace End, Palmerston North, narrating
a remarkable experience mth a fantail's nest, which I have pleasure in
reproducing here.

" While I was engineer for the Pohangina County Council," writes Mr.
Sinclair, " I was using a slasher cutting a line through the bush. In doing
so I cut a small branch of a rather bushy tawhara, which often grows on
the side of a tree-fern. The branch fell from the slasher upside down, when
I noticed a fantail's nest, and, to my surprise, found that the bird was on
the nest, and, although it was upside down, the bird was clinging so ten-
aciously to the nest that it prevented the Httle eggs (four in number) from
falling out. The little bird sat on the nest with its eyes closed, and seemed
oblivious to the rough ordeal it was being subjected to. I lifted it partly off
the nest to count the number of eggs, when it hustled itself down again in
the nest, saying in efl'ect, if not in words, without sound or motion, ' Do
what you will with me, I am going to stick to my nest.' Maternity seemed
for the moment to outweigh all sense of danger in the little fantail. I
carried it a little distance in the bush from where the line was being cut.
and inserted the branch in an upright position in the trunk of another fern-
tree, with the hope that the fearless little mother would be rewarded in
due time with four little fantails."

To Mr. Park, jun., is due the honour of first observing and ascertaining
precisely the respective time-periods of nest-bmlding, egg-laying, and hatch-
ing of the native fantail fly-catcher, which constitutes a valuable addition
to our knowledge of the habits of the species. Though these birds are still
fairly numerous, there is some probability of them becoming rarer as the
native bush disappears. In parts of the South Island they adapt them-
selves to wholly altered conditions to those of the native bush during the
winter months. On the approach of cold weather in the bush remaining
in some of the valleys of the fore hills of other ranges in Canterbury the
fantails migrate across the plains and live in the plantations and shubberies
around the settlers' homes, until the nesting instinct returns with the warmth
of spring, when they again repair to the bush to nest for the season.

The nest of the native fantail ranks amongst the neatest and best-finished
of its class, and is an excellent model of bird-architecture. A closer exam-
ination of the methods of lacing together the soft mosses, lichens, tiny leaves.

4 Transactions.

and pappus with threadlike tendrils and roots, all collected in the bush, into
a beautiful and compact structure, imparting great warmth, further en-
hances admiration of its instinctive work. The graceful habits and delight-
ful twitterings when flitting through and on the outskirts of our perennially
green forests in pursuit of minute prey are likewise some of the more
pleasing scenes of native bird-life to be seen and enjoyed in this beautiful
country. No words or language could adequately express the feelings of
regret of the true naturalist and nature-lover to know that already, within
the period of fifty years of settlement in New Zealand, some of the most
remarkable species of birds man has seen or science known have vanished
for ever from our green forests, grassy plains, and reedy swamps, which
almost everywhere existed in their full native beauty when European settle-
ment began.

It may be of interest to note some of the sites on which nests of the
fantail have been observed in the North Island : —

1. On the matipo-tree {Myrsine Urvillei) in Mr. Park's garden, Palmerstou
North ; September, 1905.

2. On a mahoe {Mclicytus ramifiorus) at Hawera ; October, 1905.

3. On a tutu-shrub {Coriaria ruscifolia) at Tirotiro-moana, Taranaki ;
7th August, 1905.

4. On a Magnolia qrandiffora in Mr. Park's garden, Palmerston North ;
October, 1906.

5. On a young totara {Podocarpus totara) in Mr. Barton's garden, Fare-
ham, Featherston ; October, 1907.

6. On clematis inside roof of summer-house in Mr. Park's garden, Pal-
merston North : August and September, 1907.

7. On Hoheria popuhica, Victoria Esplanade (an area of native bush) ;
January, 1908.

8. On tawhara {Freycinctia Banlsii)' on trunk of fern-tree, Kimbolton
bush ; no month or year given. (Mr. D. Sinclair.)

9. On tutu (Coriaria rvsci folia), Pakekura Park, New Plymouth ;
October and November, 1906. (W. Pycroft.)

Having in view the rapid and inevitable passing of the native birds,
it invariably seems to me to be the bounden duty of observers of the pre-
sent time to place on permanent record all facts respecting them, for the
information and delight of generations who are to follow us. To me there
is no ornithological subject more urgent. The remark would also apply
to many remarkable species belonging to other groups of the New Zea-
land fauna, and to many rare species of plants, now threatened with
•extinction.

Meyrick. — Notes and Descriptions of Netv Zealand Lepidoptera. 5

|uJ I L I B R A R Y

Art. II. — Notes and Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. . s>/M

By E. Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S. # V

Communicated by G. V. Hudson, F.E.S.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, Qth May, 1908.]

1 AM again indebted for the material of these notes to the energetic assistance
of my valued correspondents, Mr. G. V. Hudson, of Wellington, and Mr.
A. Philpott, of Invercargill.

Caradrinid^.
Leucania phaula, Meyr.

L. neurce, Philp. (Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1904, 330), is a synonym of this
species. Mr. Philpott kindly sent me two examples of his species, himself
suggesting that it might be identical with my phaula, and this is undoubtedly
the case.

Plusiad^.
Plusia transfixa, Walk.

Mr. Hudson sent me several examples of this species from the Thames
district. It is common and widely distributed in eastern Austraha, where
it is undoubtedly native ; it has not been hitherto recorded from New
Zealand, and may perhaps have only recently succeeded in introducing
itself. The species of this genus are strong and bold fliers, and can cross
wide seas.

Hydriomenid^.
Eucymatoge anguligera, Butl.

S t . 32-37 mm. Head and thorax whitish-ochreous, partially sprinkled
with brown-reddish ; thorax with an irregular transverse anterior reddish-
fuscous or dark-fuscous hne. Abdomen whitish-ochreous sprinkled with
brown-reddish, with a bar of blackish suffusion on apex of second segment,
and sometimes a double dorsal series of blackish dots. Forewings triangular,
costa posteriorly moderately arched, apex obtuse, termen bowed, obUque,
strongly waved ; pale brownish-ochreous, with numerous waved ferruginous-
brown striae, tending to be somewhat marked with black on veins and costa ;
median band somewhat paler through obsolescence of strioe, limited by
groups of striae more distinctly marked with black, anterior curved, posterior
rounded-prominent beneath costa and in middle, latter prominence suffused
with blackish ; an oblique subapical patch of darker brown suffusion, its
upper edge defined and running from above median prominence to apex :
cilia pale ochreous mixed with brown-reddish, basal half sprinkled with
dark fuscous. Hindwings with termen rounded, irregularly waved-dentate ;
colour and stria? as in forewings, but prominences of median band nearly
obsolete ; a blackish discal dot ; ciUa as in forewings.

6 Transactions.

Invercargill, common on flowers of Senecio in March (Philpott) ; two
specimens. Much. Hke gohiata, from which it may be certainly distinguished
by the much more strongly waved termen of both wings ; gohiata is also
rather smaller, whiter-irrorated, with straighter strise, lower half of anterior
margin of median band and obUque streak from apex forming distinct black
hues. I formerly quoted Butler's name erroneously as a synonym of
gobiala.

Xanthorhoe adonis, Huds.

Having received two fine specimens from Mr. Philpott, I am satisfied
it is a good. species, and readily distinguished from beata by the colour of
the hindwings.

Notoreas fulva, Huds. {Lythria jniva, Huds., Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1904, 357.)

According to two 9 specimens communicated by Mr. Hudson, this species
is a true Notoreas.

Selidosemid^.
Selidosema leucelaea, n. sp.

(^ 30-32 mm., $ 27-30 mm. Head white or ochreo us- whitish, somewhat
mixed with grey and dark fuscous, anterior half of crown in $ suffused
with ochreous. Antennal pectinations of J : a, 9 ; h, 6. Thorax whitish,
anteriorly irregularly marked with blackish, and in J partially suffused
with brownish-ochreous. Abdomen whitish-ochreous tinged with grey.
Forewings triangular, costa somewhat bent beyond middle, termen rounded,
somewhat obhque ; white, more or less strewn with black or in J brownish
specks and strigulse ; in 3 the whole wing is more or less suffused with
grey or ohve-brown, except a straight white fascia (usually interrupted in
middle) before subterminal line, and more or less of dorsal area towards
middle, and there is usually a broad streak of brown suffusion beneath
costa and another along termen, in ? there is no brown colouring, but some-
times some grey suffusion ; basal area more or less marked with blackish ; first
and second hnes more or less indicated bv white marks, enclosed between
thick blackish more or less interrupted waved Unes, first obtusely angulated
above middle, second nearly straight, sinuate near dorsum ; median cloudy,
blackish, sinuate, interrupted ; discal spot transverse-linear, black, beyond
median hne ; subterminal line slender, waved, white, partially edged an-
teriorly with blackish suffusion, and followed by grey or brown suffusion :
ciha grey, barred in 3 with brownish, in 5 with white. Hindwings pale
whitish-ochreous, sometimes tinged with grey, sometimes darker posteriorly ;
a grey discal dot ; two or three waved grey hnes sometimes more or less
developed posteriorly ; a terminal series of blackish-grey crescentic marks :
cilia whitish-ochreous, obscurely barred with greyish.

Christchurch, Otira Gorge, Dunedin, Invercargill ; from January to
March, and in July ; seven specimens. I have possessed examples of this
species for a long time, but did not feel sure of their status, the species
being a very variable one, and alUed to other variable species ; having now,
however, received four very fine specimens from Mr. Philpott, I am satis-
fied that it is a good species. Mr. Philpott writes that it is usually con-
fused in collections with productata ; it is, however, nearer melinata, from
which it differs by the much longer antennal pectinations, less rounded
termen of forewings, distinct and unusually straight white posterior fascia ,.

Meyeick. — Notes and Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. 7

liindwings of c? not tinged with fuscous towards base, and other details.
S. productala is also very variable, but easily distinguished by different form
of median band, of which the posterior margin is obtusely angulated rather
above middle ; in fact, all the allied species could be distinguished by
the form of the posterior margin of median band, which is different in
«ach.

Selidosema lupinata, Feld.

*S. humillima, Huds., is a synonym of this species, according to specimens
sent me by Mr. Philpott, by request of Mr. Hudson.

Pyraustid^..
Scoparia gyrotoma, n. sp.

3 . 20 mm. Head pale ochreous, sides mixed with whitish. Palpi 2|,
grey sprinkled with whitish, white towards base beneath. Antennae blackish,
ciliations \. Thorax pale brassy-ochreous sprinkled with grey, margins
suffused with whitish. (Abdomen broken.) Forewings elongate, narrow,
gradually dilated, costa sinuate in middle, apex obtuse, termen shghtly
rounded, somewhat obhque ; Hght brassy - yellowish - fuscous, suffusedly
irrorated with white and sprinkled with dark fuscous ; an obUque fascia
of blackish suffusion near base ; Unes thick, suffused, whitish, first rather
indented on fold, followed by a fascia of blackish irroration, second shghtly
angulated above middle, preceded by a fascia of blackish irroration ; orbi-
cular and claviform coalescing to form an 8-shaped blotch of blackish suf-
fusion with two whitish centres, coniiuent with blackish fascia of first hne ;
a smaller 8-shaped discal spot outhned wdth blackish and filled with whitish,
its lower extremity confluent with margin of second line ; terminal area
irrorated with blackish, subterminal hne represented by broad cloudy whitish
suffusion not reaching tornus : ciha whitish, with a grey median shade,
basal half barred with darker grey. Hind wings 1^, grey- whitish, costa and
termen narrowly suffused with hght grey ; ciha white.

Lake Tekapo ; one specimen (Hudson). Alhed to S. asaleuta, but very
distinct.

Scoparia cyptastis, n. sp.

3 2 . 17-20 mm. Head grey, more or less mixed or suffused with white.
Palpi 3, dark-grey, sprinkled with white above, wholly white towards base
beneath. Antennae dark fuscous, cihations in J ^. Thorax dark purplish-
grey sprinkled with whitish. Abdomen whitish-ochreous, more or less
sprinkled with grey. Forewings elongate, narrow at base, obhque ; fuscous,
variably mixed or suffused with whitish, veins tending to be more or less
streaked with dark fuscous or blackish ; a black streak on fold from base
to first line, interrupted in middle by a white spot ; hnes thick, white, first
curved, little obhque, more or less edged with dark fuscous posteriorly,
second slightly curved, indented beneath costa and sinuate above dorsum ;
orbicular and claviform small, rather elongate, black, orbicular sometimes
touching edge of first line ; discal X-shaped, black ; subterminal hne cloudy,
whitish, entire, irregular, not touching second hne ; a terminal series of
black marks on veins : ciha whitish, with rather dark fuscous basal and
paler median shades. Hindwings IJ, without long hairs in cell ; pale whitish-
fuscous, with a faint yellowish tinge, termen suffused with fuscous, more
strongly in ? : cilia whitish, with two hght-fuscous shades, basal darker
in 2 .

8 Transactions

Invercargill, common in November (Philpott) ; three tpecimens. Be-
longs to the deoclorah's group ; not very like any New Zealand species, but
probably related to the Tasmanian plagiotis and its allies.

Scoparia luminatrix, n. sp.

S 9 . 19-22 mm. Head rather dark fuscous, sprinkled with whitish
and mixed on crown with, yellow-ochreous. Palpi 3, dark fuscous sprinkled
with whitish, towards base white beneath. Antennae dark fuscous, ciliations
in c? I- Thorax fuscous mixed with dark fuscous and whitish. Abdomen
fuscous, segmental margins ochreous-whitish. Forewings very elongate-
triangular, costa slightly arched, somewhat bent posteriorly, apex obtuse,
termen rather oblicjuely rounded ; deep ochreous-brown, suft'usedly streaked
mth blackish on veins, especially tending to form a median longitudinal
black streak interrupted by lines ; first and second lines white, well marked,
first curA^ed, waved, Uttle oblique, edged posteriorly with black suffusion.
on upper half sometimes broadly, second slightly curved, indented towards
costa, and sinuate above dorsum ; median band much mixed with white,
especially towards second line below middle, where it sometimes forms a
conspicuous patch of white suffusion ; orbicular and claviform small, round,
partially outlined with black, and filled with whitish, sometimes absorbed
in black suffusion of first line ; discal indistinct, 8-shaped, white, partiallv
edged with black ; subterminal line cloudy, whitish, remote from second
throughout, indistinctly interrupted above middle : cilia whitish, with two
grey shades interrupted by white bars. Hindwings IJ, with long hairs
in cell ; whitish-fuscous tinged with brassy-yellowish ; discal spot, post-
median line, and a terminal fascia indistinctly fuscous ; cilia fuscous-whitisli.
with two fuscous shades.

Invercargill, in October and November ; five specimens (Philpott).
Eather variable in the development of the black and white scales. A
distinct species, somewhat intermediate between legnota and ejncremna.

^ , . ^ Crambid^.

Crambus sanstes, n. sp.

3 . 17-18 mm.. Head and thorax ferruginous-brown, face prominent,
flattened-conical ; edge of collar and a spot on shoulders whitish. Palpi 3J,
brown mixed with dark fuscous, whitish towards base beneath. Antennse
dark fuscous, pubescent-ciliated (|). Abdomen dark grey. Forewings elon-
gate, gradually dilated, costa slightly arched, apex obtuse, termen little
rounded, rather oblique ; bright ferruginous-brown ; a slender median
longitudinal rather irregular ochreous-whitish streak from base to termen,
terminal fifth attenuated and tending to be obsolescent : cilia slaty-grey.
Hindwings dark-grey ; cilia pale-grey, basal third slaty-grey. Under-
surface dark-grey, hindwings sometimes with very slender indistinct median
streak of whitish suffusion ; costal edge of hindwings whitish-yellowish ;
all ciha whitish-grey.

Invercargill, in January (Philpott) ; two specimens. Very close to
heteranihes from Mount Cook, but that species is darker, median streak of
forewings whiter, broader, more regular, forewings on under-surface with
dorsum suffused with white, hindwings on under-surface with costa suffused
with white towards base, and well-marked white median streak, cilia white
towards base. Possibly more extensive material may show this to be a
local form of heteranthes, but at present it seems better to treat them as
distinct.

Meyeick. — Notes and Descriptions of Neiv Zealand Lepidoptera. 9

Crambus aulistes, n. sp.

J . 16 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax ferruginous-brown, face rounded-
prominent ; palpi 4, whitish towards base beneath. Antenna dark fuscous,
pubescent-ciUated (f). Abdomen rather dark fuscous. Forewings elongate,
broader than in saristes, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen straight,
rather oblique, rounded beneath ; ferruginous-brown ; a moderate regular
white median longitudinal streak from base to termen, somewhat edged
with fuscous suffusion towards middle : ciha pale grey, with darker basal
shade, on costa whitish except near apex, with a white bar on terminal
extremity of median streak. Hindwings dark fuscous ; cilia whitish, basal
third fuscous. Under- surface dark grey, forewings much suffused with yel-
lowish towards costa and termen, on dorsum broadly whitish-yellowish,
hindwings with costa rathex broadly pale ochreous-yellowish, with veins
suifusedly streaked with pale yellowish, especially on a median streak, all
cilia whitish.

Invercargill (Hudson) ; one specimen. Distinguished from the preceding
by the broader forewings, rather longer palpi and antennal ciliations, white
costal cilia, extensive yellowish suffusion of under-surface, and other details.

Crambus melitastes, n. sp.

S 9 . 17-20 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax ochreous-brown, in 9 with
a broad dorsal white stripe extending through crown and thorax, face some-
what rounded-prominent ; palpi 4, whitish beneath and more or less above,
especially in 9 . Antennte dark fuscous, in J simply ciliated (|). Abdomen
rather dark fuscous, more or less whitish on segmental margins posteriorly.
Forewings elongate, gradually dilated, costa hardly arched, apex obtuse,
termen straight, rather oblique, rounded beneath ; ochreous-brown ; a
moderate white median longitudinal streak from base to termen, slightly
broadest in middle, in 3 more or less edged beneath with dark-fuscous
suffusion, in 9 broadly edged with dark-fuscous suffusion on both margins
except towards base above ; in 5 a narrow irregular white suffused subcostal
streak, and broad dorsal or subdorsal white streak narrowed towards base ;
in J a slender white streak along upper part of termen above median streak,
in ? a broader undefined patch of white suffusion : cilia in ^ pale grey,
with a white basal streak on upper half of termen, in 9 almost wholly white.
Hindwings rather dark fuscous, with a broad costal streak of whitish-ochreous
suffusion from base to | ; cilia whitish-ochreous, in J more or less greyish-
tinged, and with a grey basal line. Under-surface wholly light ochreous-
yellowish, forewings somewhat infuscated ; cilia ochreous-whitish.

Invercargill, in December ; three specimens taken by myself, and three
others received from Mr. Philpott. I have hitherto confused this species
with cethonellus, and recorded it under that name, but now see ifc to be
distinct. .-Fthonellus, which is known from Mount Hutt only, has the costal
edge of forewings ochreous-whitish, no white streak on upper part of termen
or in cilia, hindwings without the pale-yellowish costal patch, but with cilia
clear pale-yellowish except basal line, under-surface of forewings suffused
with grey except towards costa and on a median streak, of hindwings partly
greyish between veins. In five of the seven species of this group — viz.,
cethonellus, aulistes, saristes, heteranthes, and antimorus — the antennae of 3
are pubescent-ciliated — that is, clothed with short pubescence over their
whole surface, but with a row of somewhat longer cilia on one side ; in the
other two — melitastes and heliotes — they are glabrous (devoid of pubescence),
but simply ciliated on one side.

l(j Transactions.

Pterophorid^.
Platyptilia aeolodes, Meyr.

Described (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1902, 278) from the Chatham Islands ;
but Mr. Philpott has now sent me two specimens from Invercargill — a very
interesting record. It is allied to falcatalis, but smaller and darker, and
distinguished by the prominent angulation of termen of second segment of
forewings (in falcatalis the margin is somewhat bent but not angulated),
and the principal dorsal scale-tuft of hindwings being hardly beyond the
middle, whereas in falcatalis it is much broader and is considerably beyond
the middle.

Platyptilia isoterma, n. sp.

<? . 18 mm. Head white mixed with dark reddish-fuscous, frontal tuft
moderately long. Palpi brownish irrorated with dark fuscous. Antennae
grey, above with a blackish hne. Thorax whitish irrorated with dark reddish-
fuscous, metathorax suffused \%'ith black and edged with white. Abdomen
dark reddish-fuscous sprinkled with whitish, and mixed with blackish on
sides towards middle. Legs reddish-fuscous sprinkled with white, tibiae and
tarsi banded with white and dark fuscous. Forewings cleft from beyond f ,
segments broad, termen of first sinuate, of second bowed in middle ; red-
dish-fuscous closely irrorated vnth whitish and sprinkled with dark fuscous,
anterior f transversely strigulated mth white, especially towards dorsum ;
costal edge suffused with dark fuscous and strigulated with white ; a tri-
angular black blotch on costa at f , its apex produced and extending to before
lower angle of cleft, edged posteriorly by a fascia of brownish-ochreous
suffusion crossing base of both segments, followed by a broader fascia of
dark-fuscous suffusion, edged posteriorly by an even whitish line parallel
to termen : cilia grey, on costa dark fuscous with a white sj)ot before apex,
on termen whitish towards base with a sharply marked even black basal
line throughout, on dorsum mixed -with black scales, forming a tolerably
even hne posteriorly, at f with a flat black scale-tooth preceded and followed
by whitish patches. Hindwings cleft firstly from middle, secondly from ^,
segments moderately broad, termen of second subsinuate ; grey ; ciha
light grey, on dorsum mixed -wdth black scales throughout, with a moderate
elongate-triangular black scale-projection beginning at |.

AVellington ; one specimen (Hudson). Allied to falcatalis and ceolodes,
but differs from both in the strong black entire line at base of terminal
cilia of forewings. The species of this genus require careful discrimination,
and probably more remain to be found in the mountains ; their larvae are
usually attached to Compositce (feeding variously on the flowers or leaves,
or in the stems), and should be looked for.

Epiblemid.e.

Strepsicrates chaophila, n, sp.

5 . 14 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax ochreous. Abdomen grey. Fore-
• wings elongate, gradually dilated, costa moderately arched, apex obtuse,
termen somewhat sinuate, rather oblique ; ferruginous-ochreous, irregularly
mixed with white ; costa and dorsum shortly strigulated with blackish ;
a large trapezoidal blotch of partial blackish suffusion extending over costal
half of wing from base to near middle, posteriorly formed by upper part of
central fascia ; a rounded-triangular blackish spot on dorsum before tornus ;
a curved leaden-metallic stria from | of costa to tornus, forming posterior

Meyrick. — Notes and Descriptions of Neiv Zealand Lepidoptera. 11

margin of ocellus, anterior margin silvery-whitishi, ocellus limited above by
-a triangular blackish spot, and containing two or three undefined black
dashes : cilia ferruginous-ochreous, with a blackish basal line (imperfect).
Hindwings with vein 4 absent ; rather dark grey ; cilia grey, with darker
basal shade.

WelUngton ; one specimen (Hudson).

TORTRICID^.

Cacoecia sphenias, n. sp.

^ . 15 mm. Head and palpi grey ; palpi moderate, terminal joint very
short. Antennal ciliations 1. Thorax reddish-ochreous, somewhat mixed
with grey. Abdomen rather dark grey. Forewings elongate-triangular,
costa gently arched, fold occupying basal |, apex obtuse, termen shghtly
rounded, rather oblique ; reddish-fuscous, sufiusedly strigulated with light
yellow-ochreous ; costal fold strigulated with blackish ; several dark ferru-
ginous-brown dots on dorsum ; a wedge-shaped ochreous patch mixed with
dark reddish-fuscous and towards costa with orange, resting on costa from
f to 4, its apex touching .termen above tornus, preceded and followed by
undefined bands of grey- whitish suffusion : ciUa reddish-fuscous, tips whitish-
yellowish. Hindwings with 6 and 7 stalked ; rather dark grey ; cilia grey-
whitish, with, grey basal line.

Invercargill, in January ; one specimen (Philpott).

Dipterina crypsidora, n. sp.

(? . 12 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax brown mixed with dark fuscous ;
palpi under 2, whitish-ochreous towards base ; antennal ciliations 2. Abdo-
men dark fuscous. Forewings elongate-oblong, costa anteriorly moderately
arched, apex obtuse, termen slightly rounded, somewhat oblique ; dark
purplish-fuscous, irregularly strigulated with blackish-fuscous ; a narrow
blackish-fuscous fascia from middle of costa to | of dorsum, slightly curved,
somewhat expanded towards costa ; the dark strigulation tends to form
two or three spots towards apex : cilia dark fuscous, towards tips paler
and somewhat mixed with orange-ochreous. Hindwings dark fuscous, more
blackish posteriorly ; cilia grey mixed with bronzy, with blackish-grey basal
shade, tips more whitish. Forewings beneath with, a short longitudinal
coppery - orange streak beneath upper margin of cell before middle of
wing.

Invercargill, in January ; one specimen (Philpott).

Eurythecta potamias, n. sp.

S 2 . 8-9 mm. Head and thorax brown, sometimes sufTused with
ferruginous-reddish. Palpi brownish, paler towards base. Abdomen dark
grey. Forewings elongate, narrow, costa slightly arched, apex obtuse,
termen very obHquely rounded ; 3 absent, 7 present ; in J with narrow
costal fold towards base ; varying from ochreous-brown or dark brown
tinged with ochreous to bright ferruginous, sometimes sprinkled with black,
termen always suffused with ferruginous ; in c? a more or less indicated
streak of ochreous or pale-ochreous suffusion running from base through
disc to below middle and thence curved upwards to costa before apex,
sometimes distinct and marked at f with a whitish spot, sometimes almost
obsolete : ciUa brown. Hindwings dark grey ; cilia grey.

Invercargill, abundant on short vegetation on sandhills in March (Phil-
pott) ; four specimens. This species differs from all the others of the genus

12 Transactions.

in the possession of a costal fold in ^ , but is otherwise so nearly allied that
it is clearly unnecessary to separate it generically. The genus is separated
from all others by the neuration.

Eurythecta eremana, Meyr.

This species, previously included by me in Proselena, is properly referable
to Euri/thccfa, having the same neuration as the preceding. I am much
indebted to Mr. Philpott for calling my attention to the actual structure^
and thus enabling me to correct my original error of observation. It may,
however, be regarded as the most primitive of the five known species of the
genus, and the afhnity with Proselena is real.

Phaloniad^. .
Heterocrossa thalamota, n. sp.

J ? . 17-18 mm. Head, palpi, and thorax fuscous irrorated with whitish,,
head paler and more ochreous-tinged ; palpi irrorated with blackish on
inferior half. Abdomen ochreous-grey- whitish. Forewings elongate, narrow,
costa moderately arched, apex obtuse, termen nearly straight, rather strongly
oblique ; fuscous irrorated with ochreous-whitish ; a small -pale brownish-
ochreous basal patch, suffused with fuscous on costa, limited by an inwardly
oblique black line resting externally on a ridge of raised scales ; beyond
this a dark fuscous blotch from costa reaching half across wing, its posterior
angle touching a large tuft of blackish scales below fold surrounded with
pale brownish-ochreous suffusion ; immediately beyond this a small round
ochreous spot strongly edged with blackish in disc at ^, a blackish dot above
this, and another at | above middle of disc ; an irregular light ochreous
spot in disc at f, followed by some blackish scales ; an angulated series of
blackish dots running from a dark spot on costa beyond | to dorsum before
tornus : cilia grey irrorated with whitish. Hindwings grey-whitish, slightly
ochreous-tinged posteriorly ; ciha ochreous-grey-whitish.

Invercargill, in January; two specimens (Philpott). Allied to iophcea,.
but readily distinguished by the black line limiting the pale basal patch,
the whitish hindwings, and other differences.

Gelechiad^.
Gelechia cheradias, n. sp,

^ $. 12-13 mm. Head and thorax ochreous-grey-whitish. Palpi
whitish, second joint tinged with greyish-ochreous beneath, terminal joint
shorter than second, with blackish anterior line. Antenna; whitish, sprinkled
with dark grey. Abdomen grey mixed with ochreous-whitish, in J suffused
with pale ochreous towards base. Forewings lanceolate, acute ; light
ochreous-brown, suff'usedly irrorated with whitish, tending to leave a more
or less clear median longitudinal streak of ground-colour ; a blackish mark
on fold towards base ; discal stigmata rather large, black, approximated,
plical represented by a dark fuscous or brown cloud, very obliquely before
first discal, sometimes extending upwards towards costa ; several cloudy
blackish or dark fuscous dots on posterior part of costa and termen : cilia
whitish, partially tinged with ochreous or fuscous, with an indistinct blackish
median line. Hindwings 1, light grey ; ciha ochreous-grey-whitish.

Invercargill, common in December at New River (Philpott) ; three
specimens. Quite distinct from any other.

]\Jeykic;k. — Notes and Descriptions of Neiu Zealand Lepidoplera. 13

CECOPHORID^..

Borkhausenia brachyacma, u. sp.

J . 18 mm. Head whitish-ochreous sprinkled with fuscous. Palpi
whitisli-ochreous, second joint and a median band of terminal joint irrorated
with dark fuscous, terminal joint unusually short, about half second. An-
tennae pale ochreous suffusedly ringed with dark fuscous, uniformly pubescent-
ciliated. Thorax whitish-ochreous suffused with brownish and irrorated
with dark fuscous. Abdomen grey, segments dorsally banded with golden-
ferruginous. Forcwings elongate, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed,
termen very obliquely rounded ; ochreous-whitish, closely irrorated with
brown ; a triangular brownish patch above dorsum towards base, Umited
])osteriorly by a fine inwardly obliqiie blackish line terminating beneath in
a conspicuous raised black dot above | of dorsum, preceded by some whitish
suffusion ; discal stigmata large, round, brown, edged with a few black
scales ; a small blackish spot on dorsum at |, whence proceeds a sinuate
line of scattered blackish scales near termen, angulated in middle and con-
tinued to costa at a, where it is somewhat dilated and preceded by a spot
of whitish suffusion ; a bar of brown suffusion from second discal stigma
to tornus : cilia ochreous-whitish tinged with brown and irrorated with
fuscous, at tornus with a grey bar preceded by whitish suffusion. Hind-
wings hght grey ; ciUa ochreous-whitish suffused with pale greyish.

Invercargill, in October ; one specimen (Philpott). Superficially much
like B. f/n'scata, but really abundantly distinct when examined in detail ;
the unusually short terminal joint of palpi and pubescent-ciliated antennae
are notable structural characteristics ; the large brown discal stigmata are
also a salient point. __ , ^^

Borkhausenia cenchrias, n. sp. ' '

3 . 17 mm. Head whitish-ochreous. Palpi whitish-ochreous, second
joint suffusedly irrorated with dark fuscous, terminal joint nearly as long
as second, with dark fuscous subapical ring. Antenna? whitish-ochreous
spotted with dark fuscous, simply ciliated. Thorax whitish-ochreous mixed
with light brownish. Abdomen grey, dorsally banded with ferruginous.
Forewings elongate, rather narrow, costa gently arched, apex obtuse, termen
rounded, rather strongly oblique ; whitish-ochreous suffusedly mixed with
ochreous-brown ; base of costa suffused with dark fuscous ; first discal
stigma represented by a short oblique linear black mark, followed by whitish
suffusion, second round, whitish, partially edged with black, plical black,
rather obliquely beyond first discal ; a suffused blackish dot on dorsum
towards tornus ; some fuscous suffusion towards costa at f , and towards
apex and termen ; between these are indications of an angulated suffused
whitish-ochreous subterminal line, most distinct towards costa : ciUa whitish-
ochreous, with a light fuscous sub-basal shade. Hindwings light grey ;
cilia whitish-grey.

Invercargill, in December ; one specimen (Philpott). Also belongs to
the griseata group, but quite distinct by the character of the stigmata and
subterminal line.

Atomotricha isogama, n. sp.

(? ? . 23 mm. Head and thorax whitish-ochreous, in J more brownish-
tinged. Palpi whitish-ochreous, externally with a few scattered dark-fuscous
scales. Antennae whitish-ochreous, obscurely ringed with dark fuscous.

14: Transactions.

Abdomen wMtisli-ochreous, in ^ more brownish, dorsally suffused witb
brassy-golden except on margins of segments. Forewings elongate, costa
moderately arched, apex obtuse, termen very obliquely rounded ; whitish-
ochreous, with a few scattered dark-fuscous scales, in ^ mostly suffused
with brownish except on dorsal streak ; a broad pale dorsal streak from base
to tornus, upper edge prominent near base, where there is a tuft of scales,
and about middle of dorsum ; some dark-fuscous suffusion extending above
this streak from base to f of disc, and thence upwards to costa ; stigmata
round, whitish-ochreous, edged with dark fuscous, plical obliquely beyond
first discal ; an angulated dark-fuscous line or series of dots from a of costa
to tornus : cilia ochreous-whitish, in 3- irrorated with grey, basal third
barred with fuscous. Hind wings very pale whitish-ochreous ; a cloudy
round fuscous discal spot ; apex and lower half of termen suffused with
fuscous irroration ; cilia ochreous-whitish, round apex and on lower half
of termen with a suffused fuscous shade.

WelUngton ; two specimens (Hudson). Dift'ers from both the other
described species in having the wings of 2 fully developed, and formed
quite as in S' ', the pale dark-edged stigmata are also characteristic.

Izatha percnitis, n. sp.

<? $ . 16-17 mm. Head and thorax rather dark fuscous, somewhat
sprinkled with whitish, forehead with, conical horny projection. Palpi
dark fuscous, somewhat whitish-sprinkled, terminal joint with two whitish
bands. Antennae grey-whitish spotted with dark fuscous. Abdomen dark
fuscous, two basal segments dorsally amber-coloured. Forewings rather
narrowly elongate-oblong, costa rather arched towards base and apex, apex
obtuse, termen almost straight, oblique ; dark fuscous, partially tinged
with ochreous-brown, slightly whitish-sprinkled ; some variable irregularly
scattered black dashes and dots in disc, plical stigma represented by a
blackish tuft of scales, second discal by a transverse black mark ; three very
ill-defined transverse fascise or lines of whitish suffusion, first at J, straight,
moderately broad, second median, straight, very indistinct, third at |, narrow,
curved, representing subterminal line : cilia fuscous mixed with dark fuscous.
Hindwings dark fuscous, somewhat lighter anteriorly ; cilia grey, with dark
fuscous basal shade.

Wellington ; two specimens (Hudson). Distinct by its relatively small
size and dark colouring.

^&'

PLUTELLIDiE.

Gracilaria, Hw.

1 have recently (Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1907, 54-68) recast the limits
of this genus and its near allies, from extended material. The New Zealand
species are now classified as follows : —

ConopomoT'pha, Meyr. Middle tibiae not thickened, posterior tibiae
with bristly hairs.
cyanospila, Meyr.
Macarostola, Meyr. Middle tibiae not thickened, scales sometimes
expanded at apex only, posterior tibiae smooth-scaled.
miniella, Feld.
leucocyma, Meyr.
cellornacha, Meyr.
aithalota, Meyr,

Meyrick. — Notes and Descriptions of Neiu Zealand Lepidoptera. 15

Gracilaria, Hw. Middle tibiae thickened with dense scales, more or
less rough beneath, posterior tibise smooth-scaled.
linearis, Butl.
selenitis, Meyr.
chrysitis, Feld.
chalcodelta, Meyr.

Gracilaria selenitis, n. sp.

5 . 12 mm. Head yellow-whitish, sides of crown reddish-ochreous.
Palpi yellow-whitish, terminal joint ferruginous-tinged near base. An-
tennae white ringed with blackish, basal joint whitish-ferruginous. Thorax
ferruginous-ochreous, with a yellow-whitish dorsal stripe. Abdomen rather
dark grey, beneath yellow-whitish. Legs whitish, anterior and middle
femora and tibiee mixed with ferruginous-ochreous and sprinkled with black,
tips of tarsal joints blackish. Forewings elongate-lanceolate, costa mode-
rately arched posteriorly, apex acute ; deep ochreous-yellow, more orange
towards dorsum, with a strong purple gloss, strewn throughout except
beneath fold with very numerous suffused yellow-whitish dots separated
by small dots and strigulse of dark fuscous scales ; three moderate brassy-
yellow-whitish spots on dorsum : cilia ochreous-whitish. Hindwings rather
dark grey ; cilia grey.

Mount Holdsworth, 3,000 ft. ; one specimen (Hudson). Very distinct.

Glyphipteryx, Hb.

Finding that Phryganostola, which only differed from Glyphipteryx by
the rough projecting scales or tuft of second joint of palpi, appeared to be
an artificial division, which separated nearly alUed species, I have suppressed
it, including all the species in Glyphipteryx.

Glyphipteryx codonias, n. sp.

5 . 14 mm. Head, antennse, thorax, and abdomen dark fuscous, patagia
shining bronze. Palpi black, second joint without tuft, with three white
rings, terminal joint with two white stripes. Forewings elongate, rather
narrow, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen hardly sinuate,
rather strongly oblique ; bright golden-bronze ; five variably oblique narrow
violet-silvery-metallic partly black-edged streaks from costa, first short,
slightly before middle, second angulated, reaching half across wing, third
short, fourth longer, rather dilated apically, fifth running to termen beneath
apex ; an erect similar streak from tornus, terminating in a black mark
just beyond apex of second costal streak, and a short streak from termen
below middle ; a small blackish apical spot : cilia grey, basal half bronzy,
with a silvery dot on subapical streak, on costa with white bars on streaks.
Hindwings blackish-grey ; cilia dark grey.

Invercargill, in January ; one specimen (Philpott). Resembles trans-
versella, but without the pale longitudinal streak, the silvery streaks differ-
ently formed, the second angulated, third shorter than fourth (in transver sella
longer than fourth), and otherwise distinct.

TlNEID^.

Eschatotypa, Meyr.

Under the names of derogatella, Walk., and melichrysa, Meyr., treated
as synonymous, I have hitherto confused two distinct species, which can
now be distinguished under these two names ; both are common.

16 Transactions.

Eschatotypa derogatella, Walk.

Characterized by its dull brownish-oclireoiis ground-colour, tendency to
confusion of the white markings, so that anterior half of wing is sometimes
wholly suffused with white, plentiful black strigulation. the ante-median
white fascia broadly dilated towards costa, shortly angulated above middle,
posterior part of clisc confusedly mixed with white and black scales, and
presence of distinct black sub-basal line in terminal cilia.

Masterton, Wellington, Christchurch, Invercargill (and, according to
Walker, Auckland), from December to March.

Eschatotypa melichrysa, Meyr.

Characterized by clear yellow-ochreous ground-colour, well-defined and
separate white black-edged markings, ante-median white fascia very acutely
angulated in middle, and absence of black line in terminal cilia.

Whangarei, Auckland, Nelson, Dunedin, Invercargill, in December and
January. My original description clearly included both species, but the
name (meaning " honey-golden ") is a relative definition of this one, and I
now limit it in that sense. ^

Mallobathra scoriota, n. sp.

S . 13-14 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, and abdomen rather dark fuscous.
Antennae dark fuscous, ciliations 4. Fore wings elongate, costa gently arched,
apex obtuse, termen very obliquely rounded ; 6 present ; whitish-fuscous,
strewn with cloudy dark-fuscous strigulre ; a moderately broad slightly
oblique dark-fuscous median fascia ; a cloudy dark-fuscous spot on costa
at I ; the confluence of the strigula? tends to form suffused spots in disc
towards apex, and along termen : cilia whitish-fuscous, with dark-fuscous
ante-median shade and indistinct bars on basal third. Hindwings with 6
present ; grey ; cilia grey.

Wellington (Hudson), Invercargill (Philpott) ; two specimens.

Art. III. — On a Method of carrying out the Decimal Currency.

By H. Skey.

[^Read before the Otago Institute, 11th August, 1908.]

It must be conceded by all that a revision of our tables of money,
weights, and measures is absolutely necessary. This is a true social
question, to be solved scientifically. Owing to the magnitude of the
undertaking, it would be impossible to deal with more than one of those
questions at a time, so that the general public might become conversant
with it first before undertaking the others. There is little doubt that
the commencement should be with the currency, and I think, if it can
be shown that the introduction of only one or two coins is all that is
necessary to give us the decimal system of counting, the following
nieihod is well worthy of consideration.

We have now eleven different coins in our currency ; but the decimal
currency can be effected by the use of only seven, four of which are

Skey. — On a Method of carrying out the Decimal Currency. 17

already in use. These can be made to give us all the advantages of a
binary system as well. To effect this, let these represent —

1 pound, status of the sovereign or pound (not altered).

1 florin Cnot altered) ; 10 equal 1 pound.

1 bron (a new bronze coin), the integer; 10 equal 1 florin.

1 tenny (a new copper coin) ; 10 equal 1 bron.
On all these coins the names and relative values of each should be
marked, so that if we at first forget their names and values, we would
only require to look at what is on them, and commit to memory the
following money-table : —

10 tennies equal 1 bron.
10 brons „ 1 florin.
10 florins „ 1 pound.

This is the decimal system. Now, as some may object to this
because it involves the carrying about of too many pieces for change, I
propose to retain the half-sovereign under the name of a 5-florin piece ;
the shilling, under the name of a 5-bron piece ; and have a new piece
under the name of a 0-tenny piece. These three half-way pieces lead to
all the advantages of a binary system as well ; for, taking the seven
coins, each is one-half of that which precedes it. All counting and
booking, however, has to be done in terms of the foregoing decimal table,
the values of all of which are marked thereon. (This is not done in our
present currency.) The use of these half-way pieces is only parallel to
our present use of the sixpence, as sixpences are not counted and tabu-
lated as sixpences, but are placed in the pence -column. Therefore these
half-way pieces are not included in the new money-table.

The diagram on the next page shows these three pieces, two of
which we already possess, and which merely require their names being

changed.

Four Decimal Coins.

Front

/Reverse

Silver

Front

Reverse

Bronze, =

2 Id. old,
2.5d new.

Copper,

/4 nearly

18

Transactions.

Three Half-way Pieces.

Front

Reverse

Gold.

Bronze,

= Is.

Copper.

The four highest pieces are not altered in value, and only one of them
in name. The four lowest would be made of bronze and copper, and, as
they are in the most frequent use, the wear-and-tear tliereon would not
be so costly as it now is on the shillings and sixpences.

The name " bron " was selected because of the coin being made of
bronze, which would soon become shortened to " bron."

The name of the lowest coin, the " tenny," was selected because its
first three letters form an abbreviation for the words " tenny," "tennies,"
" tence," and " tenths," which would be used as occasion requires.

Giving of Change.

A person owes 9 tence and tenders 1 florin : all there is to do is to
convert the larger sum to the term of the lower, thus : —

10 0
0 0 9

9 1

reading 9 brons and 1 tenny, which would soon be identified as 9
point 1.

If a person owes 1 bron and tenr'ers 1 pound, ther, as there are
100 brons in the pound, it would be done thus : —

£ F. B.

10 0
0 0 1

9 9

reading 9 florins and 9 brons, which would soon be identified as
9 and 9.

£ p. B.
To 2 7 1-3
add 5 9 2 8

8 6 4-1

£ F B

From 8 6 4-1
take 2 7 1-3

5 9 2-8

reading 8 pounds 6 and 4 point 1, and 5 pounds 9 and 2 point 8.

Skey. — On a Method of carrying out the Decimal Currency. 19

Bookkeeping.

Only three columns will be required, as at present, for the last
column always requires a decimal point on the line dividing the bron or
integer from the tenths (•1'3) — •

To 9

add 7

F.

5
6

B.

9
5-9

£
From 17
take 7

9

F.

6

B.

4-9
59

17

2

4-9

5

90

reading 17 pounds 2 and 4 point 9, and 9 pounds 5 and 9. This last
can be read as 959 brons, or 95 florins and 9 brons, or as 9 pounds 5 and 9,
which should satisfy the most exacting in giving change, for the figures
all adjust themselves without calculation.

1283 at 8f. 7b.
87

8981
10264

111621
reading 1116 pounds 2 and 1.

How many times is 8f. 7b. contained in £1116 2f. 1b.?

^ TJl TD

87)1116 2 l'(1283
87

246
174

722
696

261
261

The character £ requires always placing over the integer of pounds.

The word "pound" would be used after the pounds; the word
" and " after the florins ; and the word " point " before the tence.

There is nothing to militate agamst the decimal system if the tenny
coins were grouped together thus : the -2 taking the place of the half-
penny (nearly) ; the -4 taking the place of the nenny (nearly) ; the -5
already mentioned as a half-way coin ; and -8. This would provide still
jnore efficiently, if possible, for giving change. Thus could the changes
be rung on all the tennies, and provide for use a single coin, if desired,
for paying for, say, postage- stamps, tram-fares, &c.

Similarly, there is nothing to prevent the space between the bron and
the florin having a 2-bron piece inserted — for instance, one equalling 5
pence of our coinage. This would equal the 10-cent piece of the United
States, and a 4-bron piece would very nearly equal the franc of France
and her allies in currency. A 2-bron piece would soon be as popular as
the sixpence, as being near it in one coin ; of course, a 5-tenny piece
could be added to make its value sixpence.

20 Transactions.

So that every coin now in common use is represented in the new
system, but would require to be counted and booked in terms of the new
coinage.

It follows as a useful corollary that when any one of these inter-
mediate groups is in quantity, then every ten of them pass without
calculation into the next value of coin — say, "4 taken ten times gives the
same figure in brons (4), and if taken 100 times gives the same number
in florins ; thus the figures merely want passing on to left one or more
columns in book-keeping; dividing being done with the same celerity.

Advantages.

I need not dilate on the immense advantages which this system would
confer on, say, banks, firms, companies, shops, factories, &c. ; also on
the preparation of statistics, tenders, contracts, taxes, wages, price-lists
which are continually changing; and on very small levies, such as '111,
or as far as we like to go, for this system allows of extension at either
end.

As money would circulate more freely, it would tend to make business
more profitable and many commodities of life cheaper, consequently
making us all richer.

Schools.

To the advantages enumerated there is another of still greater
moment : I allude to the burden laid upon the children of our schools,
for it is little better than child-slavery to compel them to wade through
our unsystematic tables, and perform the feats they do, with the anti-
quated tools at their disposal. It is time we took off some of their useless
burdens. This system would result in their having time at their disposal
for more delightful studies in the higher branches of wisdom and know-
ledge.

Tourists.

We shall soon have foreigners on our list of tourists, and is it not
better to have a scientific currency ready for them, so that they may feel
more like ourselves? The system enumerated might also help to pave
the way for an international currency, which would be a boon that could
not be overestimated.

It is clear that if the decimal system were adopted the British cur-
rency would be the best in the world, and if any foreign nation were
revising or decimalising its currency our method would be bound to be
adopted, either wholly or in part.

Postage.

It is just possible, if the details of the international penny postage
are not yet completed, that the proposed decimalisation of our coinage
might be taken into consideration, and the value of the stamp altered to
either the 4-tenny or the 5-tenny coin, in which case all calculations
therewith would be workable on the decimal system.

Foreign nations do not appear to have as low a coinage as we have,
generally stopping, as far as I can ascertain, at or near 2M. The ques-
tion is, will tliey have this coin halved, thus making a coin close to the
o-tenny herein proposed, or will they not more likely divide it into tenths
and make a coin equal to four of them ?

In any case, the 5-bron piece, equalling 1 shilling, can still purchase
twelve stamps, and a lesser number be paid for by the 5-tenny piece for-

Skey. — On a Method of carrying out the Decimal Cnrrencij. 21

each stamp, the small difference going to the revenue ; thus ihe truly
great scheme of international postage will not be interfered with. It is
very desirable to have the value in one coin, and that a decimal.

Very few foreign nations appear to possess even an approximation to
either a pure decimal or a binary currency. This suggests the fact that
they, like ourselves, are in a transition state, and that further changes
will be made as occasion requires.

Intebnational.

It is interesting to note the number of nations which possess coins of
the same value, or very nearly the same, as those made use of in this
proposed system. Out of fifteen countries, twelve have a coin close to
the 2-4d., or the bron ; seven to the 2s., or florin; five near the double
florin ; seven near the pound ; and the Japanese have a coin at £1 Os. 6d.,
one at 2s. O^d., and another at 2^d.

If ever an international coinage conference were convened England
could not keep out of it. Is it not better to put our own currency in
order before that takes place? There would then be little danger of our
currency being interfered with.

Moreover, if we wilfully handicap ourselves by the use of antiquated
tables, surely we ought not to be jealous of other nations if they outstrip
us in commercial success.

Withdrawal op Obsolete Coins.

These could be allowed to circulate as tokens for a certain fixed time
■ — say, three years — during which time the banks would have absorbed
the bulk of them when empowered to change them into their equivalent
new coins. After this any coins left might still be allowed to circulate,
but at a depreciated value, for a further time — say, three years more—
the Id. being reduced to the value of --i, the -^d. to -2, and the :^d. to 'l.
After this any coins left might be kept as curiosities.

It is only the thi'ee copper coins that are affected by the change of
currency, and the depreciation in then* values would hasten their with-
drawal before the end of the three years. The depreciation is so slight
that the question suggests itself. Is there no means whereby they could
be retained in the currency till worn out ? They are reduced in value by
this proposed method ■^-^. Now, if tiie banks were empowered to stamp
on both sides their new values ('i), and for every ninety-six pennies thus
stamped add four more new (the Government providing these and the
labour), we should then have 100 of the "l pieces ; and the same with all
the coppers as they accumulated in any quantity in the banks.

These old copper coins are not really quite worth their weight in
copper, and might be considered as tokens, so that the change suggested
would bring them nearer to their intrinsic value ; and it would be only
right for the Government to provide the four new pieces to make the
ninety-six pennies into 100 of the 4-tenny pieces.

The threepenny bits could be called in, and with them any worn
sixpences, to purchase their equivalents in brons, and issued contem-
poraneously with the new coppers.

Thus would a cheap, gradual, and effective change be provided, with-
out inconveniencing the general public. It would not take long to get
thoroughly initiated in the new method of counting, by which time we
could begin to apply a decimal system to our weights and to our
measures.

22 Transactions.

My object is to show that there are no insuperable or even formidable
difficulties to contend with. Australia would doubtless join us, and thus
give the question an Australasian weight.

I know this is an Imperial question, and that it would be almost as
easy for the Home Government to make a new coin as to reproduce an
old one, which they are continually compelled to do ; but if the change is
not carried out a.t Home, that fact should surely not prevent us from
adopting it here if found desirable.

Akt. IV. — A List of the Hemiptera (excluding Sternorrhyncha) of the
Maorian Subregion, tvith Notes on a Feio of the Species.

By G. W. KlEKALDY.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 5th August, 1908.]

The list of Hemiptera given in the "Index Faunae Zealandiae " (1904
is so inadequate as regards the correctness of the nomenclature, and as
indicating the probable endemicity or otherwise of the species included,
that I have been tempted to prepare a new list, and to add a few notes
on one or two of the forms. The total number now enumerated of the
Heteroptera and auchenorrhynchous Homoptera — that is to say, the
bugs and leaf-hoppers — is seventy-seven species (this excludes eight
recorded in almost positive error). Of these, thirteen may be positively
assumed to be non-endemic ; of the remaining sixty-four, only about
forty may be reasonably assumed to be endemic, but a considerable
proportion of these belong to groups scarcely known yet outside the
palearctic region.

The forms which may be considered at once pretty safely as endemic
are the species of Uiiopalimorplia, Oncaco)itias, Acamhia, Anisops, most
of Cicadetta, and probably some at least of Oliarns, Gixius, and Nysius.
The rest are entirely conjectural.

The valuable contributions by Hutton, Hudson, Fereday, and others,
in the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," dealing with the
fauna of the country, lay stress on the almost entire absence of
Hemiptera, and especially of Homoptera ; but I am sure that this is
entirely a mistake.

The only other Pacific fauna of which the Hemiptera are at all well
known is that of the Hawaiian Islands. Although endemic Coccidce and
Aphidce are absent, I estimate the total number of endemic Hemiptera at
little less than 360 ; of these, 138 have already been described, over a
hundred more are in manuscript awaiting early publication, and I have at
least a hundred more before me. These figures do not include thirty-six
introduced Heteroptera and Auchcnorrhynciia, as well as over a hundred
coccids, aphids, and aleyrodids, all introduced.

In the Hawaiian fauna the following families are represented endemic-
ally : LygceidcB, Myodochidce, Nabida, Reditviidce, Antliocoridce, Miridce,
Acanthidce, TettgoniidcB, Fidgoridce, Asiracidce, and Chermida, and pos-
sibly Cimicidce, — that is, eleven or twelve out of forty recognised families.
In New Zealand all these are present, and we have to add ThyrcocoridcB,
Aradidce, Enicocephalidce, Gerridce, Notonectidce, CorixidcB, Cicadidce,

KiRKALDY. — A List of the Hemiptera of the Maorian SiLhregion. 23

CercopidcB, Aleyrodidce, and Coccidce, all of which may be (and five cer-
tainly are) endemic.

The principal Hawaiian plants, fiom a hemipterological point of view,
■eive Naiii (= Metrosideros) polymorpha, Pipturus, Myrstne, Ipomoea, Sida,
various tree-ferns, Myoporuvi, and, to a less degree, Acacia koa, Cya-
thodes, Elceocarpns, Etigenia, Freycmetia, Dodoiicea, and Bobea. Of
these, I find, on reference to Kirk's great work on New Zealand forest-
trees (the only such work I have for reference), that Gyathodes, Elceo-
carpns, Eugenia, Dodoncea, Nani, Myoporum, and Myrsine — and, I sup-
pose, Freycinetia, Ipomoea, and Sida also — are well represented in New
Zealand. It is almost impossible to believe that they too are not the
shelters or food plants of a large hemipterous fauna there.

I have estimated the total endemic Hawaiian fauna at little less than
360. Taking into consideration tiie hemipterous faunas of the Hawaiian
Islands and the British Islands, and the coleopterous and lepidopterous
faunas of New Zealand, the British Islands, and the Hawaiian Islands, I
have no hesitation in estnnating at least 750 species of endemic Hemi-
ptera for New Zealand, and I thmk that this is ideally much too little.

As it is just possible that some of the members of our Society may feel
moved to remedy our deplorable state of knowledge — or, rather, want of
knowledge — of the New Zealand HemijJtera, 1 venture to give a few hints
as to what may prove to be the best method of securing specimens.

To a considerable extent collecting in New Zealand will be not unlike
collecting in the Hawaiian Islands. In the latter, almost all the endemic
species are arboreal. They are to be obtained, therefore, by careful
beating of the leaves, twigs, and branches, especially the last, but, better
still, by searching. The wonderful native grasses, however, must not be
neglected, as they are certain to have a large fauna. When collecting
leaf-hoppers, searching is often best, but if not, then the branches should
be beaten into a large, rather deep net, as the very agile hoppers will
jump at once right out of an ordinary umbrella. It is very important to
identify the food-plants, and also the uymphal stages, of the various
Hemiptera, especially of the plant-eating kinds, which are often much
restricted in that way. In Hawaii, however, such carnivorous kinds
as Beduviolus (Nabidce) are also considerably thus restricted. In the
forests themselves " sweeping " will be of little avail, this method of
capture being reserved principally for grasses. One fruitful method
of capturing certain Miridce, Anthocorida, Ploiariince, &c., is to beat
dead trees which still retain their leaves, though these are withered ;
such trees will be found near recent forest-clearings.

Of course, these remarks are based on methods of collecting which
have been found effective in the Hawaiian Islands, but I believe they
will also be found effective in New Zealand. I have only to add that
I will be very pleased to help any one who contemplates collecting
Hemiptera in New Zealand if he will write to me at Honolulu.

Suborder HETEROPTBEA.

Fam. CiMiciD^ (= Scutelleridce, AsopidcB, Sciocoridce, Pentatomidce,
Halydidce, and Acantliosomatidce of Hutton's list).

o

CEchalia, Stal.
1. consocialis (Boisduval)= 0. schellembergii, Hutton.

This has been figured by Schouteden, 1907, Gen. Ins., fasc. 52, pi. v,
f. 12. It is scarcely endemic in New Zealand, being common almost all

24 Transactions.

over /Australia and Tasmania. The record from the Philippines is almost
certainly a mistake. In Australia, QJchalia is (at least partly) car-
nivorous, preying on the larvae of Phalcenides glycine (the vine-moth),
and of Galeruca semipullata (the figleaf-beetle).

Cermatuius, Stal.

2. nasalis (Westwood).

This also is scarcely endemic, as it is also found in Australia and
Tasmania. Schouteden figures it : pi. v, f. 6. Hudson, who figures the
nymph (Man. N.Z. Ent., pi. xx, f. 6a), notes it from "white rata"
( Metrosidcros' scandens) . I seem to have another species in my collection,
but none of the material is in good enough condition for description. I
have recorded C. nasalis from French Pass and Stephen Island.

Glaucias, Kirkaldy.

3. omyoti (White) = Nezara avioyti, {I), Hutton.

This also is an Australian species, and not endemic. I have recorded
it from French Pass.

Nezara, Am. and Serv.

4. viridida (Linn.) = jyrasina, Hutton.

Not endemic, but a practically cosmopolitan species, figured in Wolff's
Icon. Cim. 56, f. 53 (as smaragdula).

Diemenia, Spiuola(= Platycorls, Hutton).

5. imma7Xjinata (Dallas).
Another Australian form.

[Sciocoris, Fallen.

helferi, Fieber. A southern European species, recorded almost
certainly in error from New Zealand.]

Dictyotus, Dallas.

6. coznosus (Westwood) = ■poiysticticus, Hutton.

Distributed over Australia and Tasmania. I have recorded it from
French Pass.

Rhopalimorpha, ^layr.

7. obscura, Dallas.

This species seems to be autochthonous. I have recorded it from
French Pass and Chatham Island.

8. ignota, Hutton, 1898.

From the Chatham Islands.

Oncacontias, Breddin (= Anubis, Hutton).

9. vittatus (Fabricius).

Apparently also autochthonous.

[Calliphara, Germar.
imperialis (Fsihnc'ms). An Australian species, whose presence in
New Zealand requires confirmation ; certainly not endemic.
It is figured in Donovan's Ins. New Holland, pi. iii, f. 2.]

KiEKALDY. — A List of the Hemiptera of the yjnorian Snhrcgion. 25

[Scutiphora, Guerin.

pedicellata, W. Kirby. The presence of this species in New
Zealand also requires confirmation. It occurs in Papua, Aus-
tralia, and Tasmania, and is somewhat of a pest at times on
fruits in Australia.]

Fam. Thyreocorid-E (= Cydnidce, Hutton).
Hahnia, EUenrieder (= Geotomus, Hutton).

10. australi.s, Erichson = leptosjKrmi, Hutton.

Distributed over x\ugtralia, Tasmania, New Caledonia, and Ceylon.
F. B. White states that this was once found "in numbers on the sea-
beach at Sumner, either floating in salt-water pools or crawling on the
sand" (Ent. Mo. Mag. xiv, 275).

Choerocydnus, A. White {^Ghano, Hutton).

11. nigrisignata, F. B. White.
Not known elsewhere.

0

Pangaeus, Stal.

12. scotti, Signoret. Figured 1882, A. S. E. France (6), ii, pi. ix, f. 117.
Not known elsewhere.

Fam. Ar.\did^.

Aradus, Fabricius.

13. australis, Erichson.

Also from Australia, Tasmania, and New Caledonia. I have recorded
it from Chatham Islands.

Ctenoneurus, Bergroth.

14. hochstetteri (Mayr) = Crimia attcnuata and Mezira maorica, Hutton,

syn. Aneurus, Curtis.

15. brouni, F. B. White.

Fam. MYODOCHID.E (— LygmdcB, Hutton).
Arocatus, Spinola.

o

16. rusticus, Stal. = ruficolUs, Hutton.

A common Australian species. I have recorded it from French Pass.

Stalagmostethus, Stal. { = Lygaus, Hutton, syn.).

pacificics (Boisduval). Distributed over Australia, Tasmania, and
iSTew Caledonia. The record from New Zealand is doubtful.]

Nysius, Dallas.

17. MUtom, F. B. White.

I have recorded it also from Chatham Islands.

18. clavicornis (Fabricius) = zealandicus, Hutton.

19. Tanceps, F. B. White.

Metagerra, F. B. White {= Parestiris , Eeuter).

20. lialmsi (Reuter).

21. obscura, F. B. White.

26 Transactions.

Orthcea, Dallas (= Plociomerus, Huttou).

22. nigriceps, Mayr = nwrnatus, Hutton.

Also recorded from the Hawaiian Islands, Tahiti, and the Philippines.
The synonymy of this species is perhaps a little doubtful. I have
recorded the var. inornata (Walker) from Chatham Islands.

Targarema, F. B. White.

23. electa, F. B. White.

24. stali, F. B. White.

Margareta, F. B. White.

25. dominica, F. B. White.

Scolopostethus, Fieber.

26. putoni, F. 13. White.

Fam. Nabid^.
Reduviolus, W. Kirby (= Nahis, Hutton).

27. saundersi (F. B. White).

28. maoricus (Walker).

[lineatus, Dahlbom (not Dahlberg !), is a European species, and
['was almost certainly recorded in error.]

Fam. Geekid^.
Microvelia, Westwood (= Hi/droessa, Hutton).

29. macgregori, Kirkaldy.

Fam. Eeduviid^ (inch Emegida).
Peirates, Am. and Serv. (= Pirates, Hutton).

30. ephippiger (A. White).
An Australian species,

Ploiaria, Scopoli (= Emesodema, Hutton).

31. huttoni (Scott).

Fam. ENICOCEPHALID.E.

Enicocephalus, Westwood (= Henicocephalus , Hutton).

32. maclachlani (Kirkaldy).

Probably not endemic, but Australian, though not known elsewhere
than in New Zealand.

[Fam. Macbocephalid^ (= PhymatidcB, Hutton).

Phymata inconspicua and feredayi were recorded in error, or else
were introduced from America.]

Fam. Anthocorid^.
Cardiastethus. Fieber.

33. hrounianus, F. B. White.

34. consors, P. B. White.

35. poioeri, F. B. White.

KiRKALDY. — A Lnt of the Hemiptera of the Maorian Subregion. 27

Fam. Clinocorid^.
Clinocoris, Fallen (= Cimex, Hutton).

36. lectularius (Linneus).
Cosmopolitan.

Fam. MiRiD^ (= CapsidcB, Hutton).
Megaloceroea, Fieber.

37. reuteriana, F. B. White.

Romna, Kirkaldy (= Morna, F. B. White).

38. capsoides (F. B. White).

39. scotti (F. B. White).

Reuda, F. B. White.

40. maj/ri, F. B. White.

The next three species are of uncertain generic position.

41. Leptovierocoris maoricus, Walker.

42. Cajisus latictnctus.
42a. G. ustulatus, Walker,

This appears from the description to be the same as No. 42.

Fam. AcANTHiiD^ (= Saldidcs, Hutton).
Acanthia, Fabricius (= Salda, Hutton).

43. australis (F. B. White).

44. butleri (F. B. White) = hulteri ! Hutton.

45. Imlaps (F. B. White).

Fam. C0RIXID.E.
Arctocorisa, Wallengren {— Corixa, Hutton).

46. arguta (F. B. White).

[Diaprepocoris haryceph(tla, Kirkaldy, is an Australian form, and
has not been taken in New Zealand.]

Fam. NoTONECTiD^.

Anisops, Spinola.
A:l. ^oakefi&ldi, ¥.'&.. ^hv.e.

I have recorded this from Chatham Islands also.

48. aasimilis, F. B. White.

Fam. CiCADiD^.
Cicadetta, Kolenati (= Melampsalta, Hutton).

49. cassiope (Hudson) = 1 nervosa (Walker).

50. mangu (F. B. White).

51. iolanthc (Hudson).

52. sctitellaris (Walker).

63. ? arche (Walker).

A doubtful species, placed by Stal as a synonym of telxiope, but
probably in error.

54. nmta (Fabricius) (var. subalpina, Hudson).
Also on Chatham Islands.

28 Transactions.

55. aprilma (Hudson).

C. cutora (Walker) and ochrina (Walker) may beloncr to this, but

were placed by Stal as synonyms of muta.

56. cruentata (Fabricius).

C. rosea (Walker), bilinea (Walker), sericea (Walker), and muta
vars. rufesccns and flavescens, probably belong to this. Hutton and I
have recorded it from Chatham Islands.

57. cincta (Walker).

This is probably viuta var. minor, Hudson.

58. cingulata (Fabricius).

This is probably zealandica (Boisduval) and indivulsa (Walker).

59. stre-pitans, nom. nov. !

This is Cicada cingulata var. obscura, Hudson, v^'hich is a good
species. I have renamed it, as I have not been able to identify it vpith
any of Walker's species.

60. angnsta (Walker).

This is probably 7nuta var. cinerascens, Hudson.

The New Zealand species of Cicadetta much need revision, but it will

be necessary for Walker's types to be examined. Stal made a hurried
revision of them in 1862, and later notes were made by Kirby and
Distant, but their conclusions are not to be relied on, as they did not
study the ^ genitalia, the most important specific characteristic in this
genus. There are doubtless still many more species to be obtained m
New Zealand.

My remarks cited by Alfken (1904 Zool. Jahrb. Syst., xix, 582) were
written in 1899, and are to be disregarded entirely, as I had not then
studied the genitalia.

Fam. Cercopid.s;.
Cercopis, Fabricius { — Aphrophora, Hutton).

61. j acta tor (F. B. White).

Philsenus, Sta! {= Phlanus, Hutton).

62. fingens (Walker).

63. subvirescens (Butler). •

64. trimaculatus (Walker).

The type-form with two vars.- {tristis, Alfken, and IcBta, Alfken) have
been recorded from Chatham Islands.

Fam. TETiGONirD.E {= Jassidce, Hutton).
Paradorydium, Kirkaldy [= Dorydiuvi, Hutton).

65. ivestwoodi (F. B. White).

The genus of the following specimens is doubtful. I have not seen a
specimen.

66. negatus; F. B. White.

67. interior, Walker.

68. punctimargo, Walker

69. ? aspihis, Walker.

70. rufifrons, Walker.

Fam. FuLGOKiD^.
Cixius, Latreille.

KiRKALDY. — .-1 List of the Hemipceia of the Maorian Subregion. 29

Oliarus, Stal.

71. oppositus (Walker).

72. marginalis (Walker).

Fam. PfEKILLOPTERID^.

0

Scolypopa, Stal (= Ricania, Hiitton).

73. (distralis (Walker).

An Australian species, feeding on passion-vines, &c. The nymph is
green, with white filaments.

Aka, F. B. White.

74. finitima (Walker).

Semo, F. B. White.

75. clypeatus,.¥. B. White.

Agandecca, F. B. White.

76. annectens, F. B. White.

Fam. AsiRAciDjE {= Delj^hacince, Huttou).
Micromasoria, Kirkabiy (= Cojia, Hutton).

77. c(elata (F. B. White).

P.S. — Eecently I have received from Mr. A. Hamilton, Director of
the Dominion Museum, Wellington, a small box of Hemiptera, contain-
ing, with other species, a specimen of Dindymus versicolor, an addition to
the Maoiian fauna. It is distributed over Australia and Tasmania, and
is therefore not likely to be endemic, but has probably been introduced
with fruit or fruit-trees. It belongs to the family Pyrihocoridce (not
previously known from ISew Zealand), which may be recognised by the
antennae being inserted low down on the head, by the absence of ocelli,
by the numerous veins on the membrane, SiC.

In Dindymus versicolor, H.-S., the head, antennae (mostly), legs,
anterior area of pronotum, scutellum, apical margin of tegmina broadly,
pygophor beneath, black ; rest of pronotum and of tegmina brownish-red;
sterna and pleura mostly red; abdomen beneath pale-yellow. Length,
about 12 mm.

In the collection was also a specimen of Nysius auceps, White, which
belong to the subgenus Nitliecus, Horvath, if this is indeed a natural one.
The species may, as White suggests, have a macropterous form.

30 Transactions.

Art. V. — Birds on Kapiti Island.

By James Deummond, F.L.S., F.Z.S.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd September, 1908.]

Early this year, when my annual hoHday arrived, I gladly tCok ad-
vantage of an opportunity to visit Kapiti Island, which was declared a
native bird and plant sanctuary a few years ago. It is one of three
sanctuaries in New Zealand. There is the Little Barrier Island in the
north, Eesolution Island in the south, and Kapiti Island halfway be-
tween. It lies about three miles off the western coast of Wellington
Province, and at the western mouth of Cook Strait. It is about 5,000
acres in area, six miles long, and a mile and a quarter broad along its
whole length. It is a rugged, precipitous island, and is much cut up
into gorges, gullies, and creeks. Unlike the Little Barrier, however, it
has a good deal of flat land. All along the western side of the island
there are high cliffs, some of which rise to a height of 1,700 ft., near
Mount Titeremoana, the highest peak.

I spent a week on the island, from the 21st February to the 27th
February, making my headquarters at the Government cottage, on the
terrace above the Rangatira Flat, halfway down the eastern coast. This
site is very suitable for the purpose, as forest-clad hills rise up imme-
diately ^behind the terrace, and I had to go only a few paces to be
amongst the birds. I noted twenty- three species, and I have included
in the list seven others which wei'e seen by previous observers.

The v^'hitehead (CertJiiparus alhica])illus) is very plentiful. It was
the first native bird I saw on the sanctuary. I had hardly entered the
bush on the slopes of the hills behind Rangatiia wdien I heard the white-
head's noisy twittering. I heard it every day that I spent on the island.
The silence of the forests was broken more frequently by whiteheads
than by any other birds. It is satisfactory to know that this bird is
represented on Kapiti as well as on the Little Barrier, as it had been
reported to be on the verge of extinction. When I returned to Welling-
ton after my visit to Kapiti, Mr. A. Hamilton told me that he had seen
it in large numbers at Silverstream, near Welhngton City, and in Christ-
church. Mr. Edgar Stead reported its presence in Hawke's Bay, while
Dr. L. Cockayne states that he saw large numbers in the central part of
the Tongariro National Park, when he made a botanical survev there
this year.

Bell-birds {Anthornis melanvra) are also plentiful. I do not think
that there is any place in the Dominion where they are more plentiful.
The graceful flight of the tui {Prostliemadera novce-zealandic2) is a common
sight on the sanctuary. These handsome birds are seen in large numbers
on the karaka-trees. The berries were ripe at the time of my visit, and
they seemed to afford the " parson- bird " ample supplies of food. I saw
only a few fantails, but I noted that both the pied (Bhipidura flabellifera)
and the black species {B. fuliginosa) are present. I was rather surprised
to find the black one as plentiful as the pied. The pied fantail is
found all over New Zealand, but the black one is common only in the
south.

Drummond. — Birds on Kapiti Island. 31

Except for the presence of this hird, the avifauna of the island has all
the characteristics of the north : that is to say, several small birds are
distinguished by white in their plumage, as against the yellow of ihe
south. The robin (Miro australis) and the tomtit {Fetrceca toi-toi), for
instance, have the northern white breasts, and the presence of the white-
head instead of the yellowhead {MoMca ochrocephala) adds another
northern characteristic. I should say that the position of the North
Island robin on the sanctuary is an exceptionally satisfactory one. I
seldom went into the bush without seeing this bird, which displayed all
the traits that make it the most charming companion of those who visit
New Zealand forests. On some days I spent hours without seeing a
whitehead, a fantail, a bell-bird, a tui, a pigeon, or a tomtit, but I seldom
went more than a few paces without the pleasure of the company of
robins. Although the North Island tomtit is not represented as well as
the robin and whitehead, it seems to be present in large numbers.

There is one peculiarity of bird-life that is noticeable on both the
Little Barrier and Kapiti sanctuaries : the English birds and the native
birds seem to keep apart. Apparently, there is no attempt on either side
to establish relationships of any kind. I do not think that the English
birds are in any way to blame for the decrease in the numbers of the
native birds. The English birds, as far as I have been able to ascertain,
do not interfere with the natives, and the natives take no notice of the
intruders. Both have their own domains. I did not see any English bird
inside the fringe of the bush, and I saw hardly any native birds in the
open, outside of the trees, unless they were hurrying from one part to
another.

One of the most- striking phases of animal life on the island at present is
the presence of hundreds of goats. The ancestors of these herds escaped
from the whalers in the days of the whaling industry. In some parts of
the island the goats are very plentiful. Their tracks are seen all over
the hills and up and down the gullies, and there is no doubt that,
although they have not interfered m any way with the bird-life, they have
had a marked effect upon the vegetation. Sheep have also helped to
bring about changes in this direction, and a few cattle have played their
part. At the time of my visit there were a few deer on the island.
Cats have been reported there, and I saw one opossum in the forests.
I do not think that the cats are sufficiently numerous to do any serious
injury to the birds. Apart from the cats, the birds have no natural
enemies.

Between 1,200 and 1,300 acres of the island, or more than one-fifth,
are held by Maori owners, who use their land as a small sheep-station.
Their presence endangers the forests, and also, of course, the birds.
They are careless, and through their carelessness a bush-fire may spread
from their land on to the Government reserve, and sweep the island from
end to end. During my visit, which was in the heat of summer, a fire
broke out on the Alaoris' end of the island, but it fortunately stopped
just as it reached the Government's boundary. It has been suggested
that the Maoris should be offered some inducement to relinquish their
rights on the sanctuary, and that the whole island should be re-
served.

I append a list of the native birds I noted. It contains the names of
the Auckland Island flightless duck, and parrakeets from the Auckland
and Antipodes Islands, liberated by Dr. L. Cockayne at the end of 1907.
It also contains the names of a few birds which I did not see, but which

32

Transactions .

were noted by Mr. H. G. Drew, of Wanganui, a few years previously
these are marked with an asterisk.

Popular Name.

Maori Nam p.

Scientific Name.

Grey warbler

Riroriro

Psendogerygone igata.

North Island tit

Miromiro

Petrceca toi-ioi.

North Island robin ...

Toutouwai . . .

Miro australis.

Pied fantail

Tiw^akawaka

Bhipidura liahellifera.

Black fantail

Tiwakawaka

Rhipidura fnligiiiosa.

Whitehead

Popokatea . .

Gcrthiparus albkapillus.

Ground-lark

Pihoihoi

Anthus no vc?- Zealand ice.

White-eye

Tauhou

Zosterops caritlescens.

Tui or parson-bird ...

Tui

Prosthemadera novc?-.zcalandi<e

Bell-bird or mocking-

bird

Makomako ...

Anthoriiis mdanura.

Kingfisher ...

Kotare

Halcyon vagaus.

Shining cuckoo'''

Pipiwharauroa

. Ghalcococcy.r liicidus.

Long-tailed cuckoo'-

Koekoea

Urodynamis taitensts.

Kaka

Kaka

Nestor australis.

Antipodes Island par-

rakeet ...

Cyanorha mph us u n i color.

Red-fronted parrakeet

Kakarika

Gyanorhamphus eryihrotis .

Bush-hawk

Karewarewa

Nesierax australis.

Quail-hawk

Karewarewa

Nesierax novce-zealandice.

Pigeon

Kuku

Heviiphaga novia-zealandia'.

Woodhen''^

Weka

Ocydromus australis.

Blue heron*

Matuku

Demiegretta sacra.

Pied stilt*...

Poaka

Himanto'pus picatus.

White-fronted tern ...

Tara

Sterna frontalis.

Black-backed gull . . .

Karoro

Larus doviinicanus.

Mutton-bird

Oi

Puffinus griseus.

Blue penguin*

Korora

Eudyptula minor.

Gannet

Takapu

Sicla serrator.

Black shag*

Kawau

Phalacrocorax carbo.

Grey duck*

Parera

Anas super ciUosa.

Flightless duck (Auck-

land Islands)

Nesonetta aucMandica.

o

>

h
■I.
V.

y,

H

Face p. 33.

GuDEX. — Striated Stones frovi Upper Waimakariri Valley. 33

Art. VJ. — Some Striated Stones fror)i the St. Bernard Saddle, Upper

Waimakariri Valley.

By M. C. GuDEX.

Communicated by E. Speight.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd September, 1908.]

Although almost all proofs of glaciatioii are frequently met with in New-
Zealand, it is remarkable that the discovery of ice-striated stones has
been seldom recorded. In 1904 Mr. E. G. Hogg* recorded his discovery
of striated stones at Lake Wakatipu.

The St. Bernard Saddle is really the terminal moraine of an old
glacier which came down the valley of the Bealey over the Goldney
Saddle and rounded the hill west of the Cass River. x\ll the surround-
ing country bears unmistakable evidence of having been subjected to
glaciation, for small lakes, roches moutonnees, moraines, and glacier-
terraces are to be seen on every hand. Probably the most remarkable
feature to be seen from the Saddle is a series of glacier-terraces high up
on the slope of the hill to the right ; all are parallel and dip slightly to
the south, thus showing the direction of the glacier's motion. The St.
Bernard Saddle, which is the most characteristic moraine, is well exposed
in section in a great many railway-cuttings, shingle-pits, and road-cuttings.
A typical section f shows that this morainic debris has been assorted by
the action of streams flowing from the glacier, for the current- bedding is
well defined. The angular nature of the boulders, however, shows that
they cannot have been carried fai by streams. A careful search among
the stones thrown to the sides of the cuttings reveals many good speci-
mens of striated stones of all sizes. They are usually composed of
greywacke, but sometimes they are composed of blue slate. They possess
a characteristic oval or round shape with parallel striae, and this is
decisive proof of the nature of tlieir origin. The late Captain Hutton
once expressed the opinion tliat few striated stones would be found in
Canterbury ; but the opening-up of the shingle-pits and cuttings at the
St. Bernard Saddle has exposed many good, specimens. These stones
are an additional proof of the former glaciation of the Qpper Waimakariri
Valley.

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxxvii, 1904, p. 426.

t See Plate I.

2— Traus.

34 Transactions.

Art. VII. — On the Rarmonic Conic of Two Given Conies.

By Evelyn G. Hogg, M.x\., Christ's College, Christchurch.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th Jidy, 1908.]

1. Let two conies be taken — say,

Si ^ ^hyz + 2mi2a; + 2niXy = o
8.2 ^ '2l,yz + 2m.2zx + %h^y = o.
These conies are respectively the isogonal transformations of the lines

Lj ^ l-i^x + m{y + n-^z = o
L2 ^ I2X + 7n.2y + '>h^ = 0.
The tangent to Sj at any point P will transform isogonally into a conic
touching Lj at the point which is the isogonal conjugate of P.

Let a common tangent to Si and S2 touch these conies in Pi and P.^
respectively, and let its equation be

Xx -\- fxy -\- vz = 0.
This transforms isogonally into the conic

\yz + fxzx + vxy = 0,
which touches Li and L.^ in the points which are the isogonal conjugates
of Pi and P2 respectively. Hence, since this conic has double contact
with Li and L.2, its equation is of the form

L1L.2 - (px + qy + rzY = 0.
Comparing this with the form

Xyz + fjizx + vxy = 0
we have p- = l^l^, q- = niim^, r"- = n^n^, and this shows that the four
conies which are the isogonal transformations of the common tangents of
Si and So touch Lj and L^ along the four Imes

y'likx ± \' yn^nioy ± s' ihu^z = 0.
These four lines determine on Li and Lj eight points which are the
isogonal conjugates of the points of contact of the four common tangents
of Si and S2. The four points lying on Lj and the four on L, may be
regarded as the intersections of Lj and Lg with a quartic curve.
The equation of this quartic will be of the form

LjLo [ax"" + bif^ + cz- + Ifyz + 2gzx + 2hxy) + CiC^c^Ci = 0,
where c^^ v l^L^x + V-,Nj^ni.,y -}- V 11^11.2 z

C.2 ^ Vy^x — V7n{m.2y — Vn^n^z
Cs ^ — VI1I2X + Vviiiiuy — -/nii^z
C4 ^ — %'' 1-J..2X - VniiVi.yy + \ niu^z.
If we now let a = /1/2, h = miyuo, c = n{ii.2

'2f = -{m{iu + ?//oUi), 2(j =^ -{nil, + "0/1), 2// = -{lyvu^-liiih)
the quartic reduces to

{m{ii, - w.^ii^fy'^z^ + {nj, - nJifz-x'^ + (hni.2 - kni{)xY-
+ 2 [{nJ, + ^2^1) {h'>^h + y'h) xh/z + {liVi., + Imi) {m^n^ + nir/ii^ y'^zx
+ {m{i\, + m,n^ (n,], + nj^) zlry] = 0.

Hogg. — Ou the Harmonic Conic of Two Given Conies. 35

The isogonal transformation of this — on which lie the eight points of
contact of the common tangents of Si and S.^ — is the conic

{m-^n^ — uuni)~x~ + {nj.;^ — nj^)'^ jf + {liVi^ — L^m^ z^

+ 2 [(7?i/o+ wii) {linio + 4'?^]) y^ + (4^2 + ^Wi) {min., + niM^ zx

-\-hn{ii.2 + m.^i^ {n^l.^ + yijt-^) xy] = o,

which is the F conic of the two circumconics Si and S^.

The form of the above quartic also shows that on the conic F He
eight points which are the isogonal conjugates of the points in which the
four lines

VI1I2 X ± v^??JiW.2 y + ^n-{n^ z — 0
intersect the conic

F^ ^ l-^L x~ + m^in., y- + ?ii"2 ^~ — ('«i"2 + m.^h) yz

— ("i4 + ''-'^1) ■«'i' — (^iWa + Itni^) xy = 0.

If ( ^, — , — ) and ( — , — , - ) be respectively the co-ordinates of two
V /j m^ nj \ U m, nj

points Oi and 0.^, then the conic F' passes through the six points in which
the lines joining the vertices of the triangle of reference to 0^ and 0.2 meet
the opposite sides of that triangle ; but tlaese six points are the points in
which the conies

53 = \' i-^x + Vm-^y + \/niZ = 0

54 = s/lc^x -\- Vm.^j + \^n^z — 0

touch the sides of the triangle of reference.

Hence the conic F^ is the F conic of S;, and S4.

To obtain the equations of the four common tangents of Sj and S.j let
us form the four conies

Ti ^ LiLo ~ ^1^^ = 0
T2 ^ L1L2 ~ c.j'^ = 0
Tg ^ L1L.2 — C;/ = 0

T4 ^ L1L.2 — Cf = 0,

and write down their isogonal transformations, which will be the equa-
tions of the common tangents.

Let Xo = ( ^m,7?.2 — Vm.^n^)'^, Xi = ( s^m{)h^ + '/m.My'

Yo = {\/^. - W^,f, Yi = (sATJ, + V^,f

Zo = i^T^i. - V'km.f, Zi = ( v'/^2 + VT^,)\

then the equations of the common tangents of the two conies Si and S2
are .

^1 ^ Xoaj + Y^y -\- ZqZ = 0

U = X,,x + Y1.7/ + Zi^ = 0

t.^ = XjA- + Yo?/ -t- Zi^ = 0

ti = Xi.c + Yi?/ + Zi^ = 0.

These tangents constitute four of the group of eight lines represented by
the equation

(\/mi«2 + \^m^niYx + ( V'n-J,^ + Vn^liYy + ( Vl^m^ ± \ l^nii)'^ z = 0.

36 Transactions.

The remaining set of four lines may be written

l\ = Xja: + Yi?/ + Zi^ = 0
jj., = Xjo; + Yo'</ + Zo^ = 0

_P3 = Xo« + Yi?/ + Zo^: = 0
_?;, = Xo.x + YqT/ + Zi^ = 0.
Let now the equations of the following conies

F' - Ci^ = 0, FqI - c./ = 0, Fi - c^ = 0, F' - c;- = o
he formed. They are found to be respectively —

Pi = Xi?/5 + Y^zx + Z,xy = 0
Pa ^ Xi?/^; + YqZx + ZgXi/ = 0
P;^ = XqI/z + Yi2;a7 + Z^xt/ = o
P4 ^ Xgt/^; + Yo^^a; + Zixy = 0

— that is to say, these conies are the isogonal transformations of the
four lines p^ jh, Ih, Ih-

Hence the sixteen points found on F may be regarded as the isogonal
conjugates of the sixteen points in which each of the lines Ci, c.,, c^, c^ is
met respectively by the isogonal transformations of the pairs ^1, jh ! k, P-z ',

''St Pi > fit Pi-

The isogonal conjugates of the four points in which Ci is met by the
conies Ti and Pj will lie on the conic which is the isogonal transforma-
tion of Cj, hence the sixteen points on F lie four by four on the four conies

V liliyz + Viihm.iZX + S^iiii^xy = 0.
It may be easily shown that

F ^ tipi + 4 V'AjAg ( V'/iia yz + Vmjm^ zx + Vnin.^ xy)
^ hPi + 4 v^AiAa ( A//1/2 yz — VmiVi^, zx — Vn^n^ xy)
^ t-ip^, + 4 ^/AiA.2 (— \//i/.2 yz + V 7)1(111=1 z-"^ — Vnitin, xy)
^ tiPi + 4 V A^Aa (— \/ 1^1.2 yz — VviiM^ zx + V7?i«2 ^y)
where Aj and A., are the discriminants of Sj and S.j.
It also follows that

F = i {fiPi + Lp, + t,p, + ^,:p,) = i 5 (^j;) .
The conic F^ passes through the intersection of the conies

lil^x^ + m{m.,y~ + n-^v.^z'^ = 0
(miWa + ?ii2^ii) ?/^ + {ihl^ -\- njj) zx + (/i?^i.2 + /.2'7ii) «?/ = 0.
The former of these is the fourteen-point conic of the system of lines

y IJ-i X + Vm-^m.^ y + Vn-^iu z = 0,
while the latter is the isogonal transformation of the line

L ^^ {^)ii{ii., + niM^ X + (?ii/2 + «oZi) y + (/i"i.2 + 'a^"!) 5r = 0.
It may be at once shown that

F = L'- - AjA^So
where S,, is the conic x'^ y-

iyl^ m{in^ n{ii.i

= 0.

Hogg. — On the Harmonic Conic of Tivo Given Gomes. 37

It is seen on inspection that

ti+Vi = ^-2 + Ih = k-\- V-, = ii+Vi = 2L,

and it is easily proved that

^{t') = 2(/) = 4 [P + 2AAA]
t,t,y, = F' - 4AiA,SiS,

= PilhVsPi — l^Sxyzh.

It may also be noticed that the lines Li and L.^ are conjugate with
respect to all comes inscribed in the standard quadrilateral

'^likx + Vm^m^y ± ^n-^n.^z = o.
Since t^ touches each of the conies Si and S.2 we have

V^^iXq + V»hYo + x/n,Zo = 0

with similar equations of condition for t.^, t^, and ti : hence the co-ordinates
of the four intersections of the conies S^ and P4 are

(XoYoZo), (XoYiZ,), (X^YoZO, (XiY.Zo).

The common tangents ^1, ^2, ^3, t^, are the axes of homology of the isogonal
conjugates of the intersections of S3 and S4.

Let the equations of two rectangular hyperbolas S' S" referred to their
common self-conjugate triangle be

S' ^E I'x'^ -f- m'y^ + n'z"^ = 0
S" = V'x' + m\f + h",s^ = 0.
The equations of their common tangents are

X Vl'i:'{m'n"-vfn') ± y Vm'm"{ii'l!' - n"l') + z x/n'n"{l'm" ~L"m') = 0.

Let one of these tangents touch S' and S" at ^'{x'y'z') and '^"{x"y"z")
respectively, then

I'x' - k' \/l'L"{m'n" - m"n')

l"x" = k" Vl'l"{m'?i" - m"n'),
and therefore x'x" = k'k" {m'n" — m"n') ;

similarly, y'y" = k'k" {ji'l" - n"L')

z'z" = k'k" (I'no" - i",u').
Also, since V -f m' + n' = 0, I" + vi" -f 71" = 0,

we have m'n" - m"ii' = n'l" - n"l' ^ I'm" - V'm' ,

and therefore x'x" = y'y" = z'z"
— that is to say, P' and P" are isogonal conjugates.

Hence the points in which the harmonic conic of S' and S" cuts those
conies are isogonal conjugates in pairs with respect to the self-conjugate
triangle of the hyperbolas.

38 Transactions.

Art. VIII. — On certain Conic-loci of Isogonal Conjugates.
By Evelyn G. Hogg, M.A., Christ's College, Christchurch.

[Read bpfore the Philosophical Institute of Canterburij, 1st July, 1908.]

1. The locus of a point P (a^Sy) which moves so that the line joining it to
its isogonal conjugate P' ( - 7^ - ) passes through a fixed point (ao^Soyo)

\ap r/

"0 Po 70

If, however, the point (ao^Soyo) lie on either the internal or external
bisector of an angle of the triangle of reference, the cubic becomes a conic
and a straight line ; and the object of the present paper is to investigate
certain properties which this family of conies possesses. For the sake of
brevity the fixed point (ao,8oyo) through which the line joining any point
to its isogonal conjugate passes will be called the centrum of the conic.

The co-ordinates of the centrum are comprised in the system
(o-o + 1 + 1) if we limit ourselves merely to the internal and external
bisectors of the angle A of the triangle of reference ABC. The following
four types of conic exist : —

Centrum [a^ 11) a^ + /3y — aoa (^ + y) = 0 ... I

Centrum (ao —11) a^ — /3y + aoa (/3 — y) = 0 ... II

Centrum (ao 1 — 1) a' — (3y — aga {(3 — y) ■= 0 ... Ill

Centrum (ao — 1 — 1) a''^ + /3y + aoa (/S + y) = 0 ... IV

2. These conies possess the following properties : they all pass
through the vertices B and C of tlie triangle of reference ; those of
classes I and IV pass through the ex-centres L and I^ ; those of
classes II and III pass through the in-centre I and the ex-centre Ij. The
tangents to the conies at I and Ii or at L and I3 pass through the
centrum ; the tangents to the conies at B and C meet at the isogonal
conjugate of the centrum. Hence, when the position of the centrum has
been assigned, the centre of the conic can be constructed geometrically.

Furthermore, the chord of intersection of any conic of this family
with the circumcircle of the triangle of reference is parallel to either the
internal or external bisector of the angle A of that triangle. Suppose
any conic to cut the circle ABC in the points P and Q : then, since the
isogonal conjugate of any point on that circle lies at infinity in a direction
perpendicular to the Simson line of the point, the isogonal conjugates of
P and Q will be at infinity in directions perpendicular to the Simson lines
of those points — that is to say, the asymptotic angle of the conic is equal
to the angle between the perpendiculars from the centrum on the Simson
lines of P and Q.

If the position of the chord of intersection of the conic and circle
ABC is determined, the position of the asymptotes, and therefore of the

Hogg. — On certain Conic-loci of Tsogonal Conjugates. 39

axes, may be found, since the centre is known, vvhile the eccentricity of
the conic mav be deduced from the relation

e2-

2E

jj + R

where R is the radius of the cu^cumcircle, and j; is the length of the
perpendicular from the cii'cumcentre on the chord of intersection.

3. We now proceed to deal with certain particular conies of this
family. The line f3 — y — o will meet the line at infinity in the point
ib + c, — a, — a) ; with this point as centrum we have the conic

a(a^ + /Sy) + (6 + c)a(/3 + y) =0 A

which may be written

a /3y + f3ya + Ca/3 + a {aa + b(3 -\- Cy) = 0.

It is the cu'cle on IJ^ as diameter. Hence the theorem —

" Any line parallel to the internal bisector of the angle A of the
triangle ABC meets the circle described on I.^Ig as diameter in two points
which are isogonal conjugates with respect to that triangle."

The external bisector /3 + y = o meets the line at infinity in the point
ih — c, —ft, ft). This point being taken as centrum, we have the conic

a{a' - fSy) + {b -C)a{(i -y) ^0 B

which is the circle on the line IIj as diameter. Hence the theorem —

" Any line parallel to the external bisector of the angle A of the
triangle ABC meets the circle described on IIi as diameter in points
which are isogonal conjugates with respect to that triangle."

4. The line (S — y — o meets the circle ABC in the point ( — ft, b -\- c,
Z> + c) : with this centrum we have the conic

(6 +C) (a-^+ ^y) + aa(/3 + y) = 0 C.

It meets the circle ABC along the line

{b + C) (fta - CyS + by) + ft" (/3 + y) = 0,

which may be written

{b + c) (fta + 6/5 + cy) - [(/; + cf- ft-^] (/3 + y) = 0.

This is satisfied by the co-ordinates of the centre of the circle ABC.
Hence the chord of intersection is the diameter parallel to the external
bisector of the angle A. Therefore, since the Simson lines of the ex-
tremities of a diameter of a circle are at right angles to each other, we see
that the conic is a rectangular hyperbola. The tangents to the conic at
B and C are parallel to the internal bisector of A, hence the centre of the
conic is the middle point of BC.

The li)ie /3 + y = o will meet the circle KQG in the point

(ft, -b + c,b - c);

with this centrum we have conic

ih _ ,) (a2 _ ^^) + aa (^ - y) = 0 D.

Its chord of intersection with the cii'cle ABC is the diameter parallel
to the internal bisector of the angle A, and its centre is at the middle
point of BC.

iO Transactions.

5. Let D, E, F be respectively the middle points of BC, CA, and AB :
then the equations of EF, FD, and DE are

— aa + hjB -\- Cy = 0 ... ... ... ... (i)

Oa — b/3 + Cy = 0 ... ... ... ... (ii)

aa + b/^ — cy = 0 ... ... ... .. (iii)

The line ^ — y ■= o will meet the first of these lines in the point
[h + c, a, a) : using this point as centrum we have the conic

a(a'- + ^y) - (& + c)a(/3 + y) =0 E

which meets the circle ABC along the line

aa- {h + 2c) yS - (c + 26) y = o,
or

aa + &/3 + cy - 2 (/j + c) (^ + y) = 0.

This line meets the internal bisector of angle A at the point [3(6 + c), a, a\ ,
which is the middle point of the line joining A to the point in which the
internal bisector of A meets EF. Hence the conic is a hyperbola,
whose centre and asymptotes are found in the manner previously
employed.

The line ^ — y = o meets the lines (ii) and (iii) respectively in the
points [{b — c), a, a] and [—{b — c), a, a]. With these points as centra
we obtain the conies

a{a'+ f3y)~ {b-c)a{ft + y) = 0 F

a{a' + (Sy) + ib-c)a(J3+y) =0 G.

The former of these conies meets the circle along the line

aa — b(3 — (26 — c) y = 0,

which is parallel to /? + y = o and passes through the middle point of
AB. The latter conic meets the circle ABC along the line

aa + {b - 2c) fS - Cy = 0,

a line parallel to /S + y = o and passing through the middle point of AC.
Hence each of the conies F and G is a hyperbola.

6. The line /? + y = o will meet the lines (i), (ii), and (iii) of the
preceding section respectively in the points

[{b - c), a, -a], [{b + c), a, -a], [{b + c), -a, a].

Using these points as centra we have the conies

aid" - I3y) - (b - C)a{(3 -y) = 0 H

a(a--y8y) - (6 + c)a(/S -y) =0 J

a{a:'- fSy)-t{b + c)a{(3-y)^0 K.

Their chords of intersection with the circle ABC are respectively

aa + (2c - 6) /3 + (26 - c) y = 0

aa - b/3 + {2b + c) y = 0

aa -j- (6 + 2c) p — Cy = 0.

These lines are all parallel to the internal bisector of the angle A : the
first of them passes through the point [3(6 — c),a, —a], w^hich is the
middle point of the line joining A to the point in which the external
bisector of A meets EF. The second and third lines pass respectively
through the middle points of AB and AC.

Hogg. — On certam Conic-loci of Isogonal Conjugates. 41

7. If the centrum be taken at the point (Oil) in which the internal
bisector of the angle A meets BC we have the conic

a' + (3y = o L

touching AB, AC, at B and C respectively, and passing through L and I3.

This conic meets the circle ABC in the line

aa — c/3 — by = 0,

showing that it passes through the point in which the tangent to the circle
x\BC at A meets BC. This chord may also be written in the form

«a + 6/3 + Cy - (i + C) {(S + y}= 0,

showing that it is parallel to the external bisector of the angle A. It has
real intersections with the circle ABC, hence the conic is a hyperbola.

The tangents at L and I., meet at the centrum : hence the centre is the
point in which the median drawn from A meets the line joining the
centrum to the middle point of I2T3. The position of the axes of the conic
is therefore given.

8. If the centrum be taken at the point (0-11) in which the external
bisector of the angle A meets BC we obtain the conic

a2-/3y=0 M

which intersects the circle ABC along

aa -\- bfi -\- cy — {b — c) (yS — y) = 0,

a line which passes through the intersection of BC and the tangent to the
circle ABC at A. The intersections of this line with the circle ABC are
real if a^>4ibc, in which case the conic is a hyperbola. If a^ = 46c, the
conic is a pai'abola whose axis is perpendicular to the Simson line of the
point in which the above line touches the circle ABC. If a^<ibc, the
conic is an ellipse : to determine the direction of its axes, draw through
the pole of this line with respect to the circle a line parallel to it, then the
equi-conjugate axes of the ellipse are perpendicular to the Simson lines of
the two points in which this line cuts the circle ABC, and the directions
of the axes are therefore obtained.

9. The conies of this family possess the property that the isogonal
transformation of the tangent to a conic at any pomt P is a conic circum-
scribing the triangle of reference and touching the given conic at the
point P', which is the isogonal conjugate of P.

Hence one of the coumion tangents to the circles described on Ijl.,,
Ijlg as diameters will be a circumconic which touches each of these
circles at the points isogonally conjugate to the points of contact of the
common tangent.

10. Let any straight line L meet the circles described on the lines
I.^Ig, L3I1, IJ.j as diameters m the three pairs of points PiP,2, P3P4, PaP,;
respectively ; let chords of the three circles be drawn through PjP.,
parallel to the internal bisector of A, through P.^Pj parallel to the internal
bisector of B, and through P^P,- parallel to the internal bisector of C;
and let the extremities or these six chords be respectively P/P.a', P3'P4',
Pj'Pfi'. Further, let the line L cut the three circles on IIj, II.,, II3 as
diameters in the pairs of points Q1Q.2, Q3Q4, QsQe, and let chords of these
circles drawn parallel to the external bisectors of A, B, and C respectively
have their extremities at Qi'Q.2', Qs'Q4', Qs'Qe'- Tlien the fifteen points
A, B, C, the six points P', and the six points Q' all lie on the conic
which is the isogonal transformation of the line L.

42 Transactions.

11. The general form of the conic which is satisfied by the co-
ordinates of a point and of its isogonal conjugate is

a (/a + mfi + ny) + (//3y + tllya + tlaft) = 0,

the centrum of the conic being the intersection with la + ^"jS + ?iy = o
of either the internal or the external bisector of the angle A of the
triangle of reference.

The locus of a point moving so that the line joining it to its isogonal
conjugate is parallel to the line la + w/3 + jiy = o is the cubic

{mc - nb) a {ft' - y') + {na - Ic) /3 (y-" - a-) + [Ih - ma) y (a- - /3-) = 0,

which, if any two of the three quantities mc — nh, va — ic, lb — via be
equal or have their sum zero, reduces to a conic and either the internal
or external bisector of an angle of the triangle of reference. If the two
latter quantities be equal, the conic is

{na — Ic) {a? + fty) — {mc — nb) a{(3 -\- y) = o,

which, since a (w + ?t) = / (6 + c), at once reduces to the form I of
section 1 of this paper. A similar reduction occurs if the sum of the
two quantities in question be zero.

Art. IX. — The Technical Analysis of Sliped Wool.
By A. M. Wright, F.C.S.

[Bead before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury. itJi November, 1908.]

New Zealand exported in 1906 wool to the total value of £6.765,655.
weighing 154,384,5681b. Of this, 15,049,470 lb., valued at £752,639, was
sliped wool.

Sliped w^ool is the wool obtained from skins which have been washed
in water to remove the adhering sand and dirt, together with a certain
amount of the fat. After partially drying the skins in centrifugals the wool
is removed by depilation and dried.

This is the process of treating the skins of sheep and lambs killed at the
freezing-works in the Dominion. The sliped wool exported from New-
Zealand is almost exclusively a freezing-works product.

Two }-ears ago a Royal Commission was appointed by the New Zealand
Government to inquire into the cause of fires on wool-ships. Whilst some
of the evidence taken before this Commission showed that fires had
occurred in sliped w^ool, it could not be shown that this wool, either through
excessive moisture or fat, had been the cause of fire.

In order to guard as far as possible against fires originating in sliped
wool, either through excessive moisture or on account of foreign fatty
matter, and, further, to obtain a standard quality for their output of wool,
one of the largest meat-freezing and wool-export companies now requires
that samples of wools from their various factories be regularly examined
in their chemical laboratory — determinations of moisture, natural wool-
grease, other fatty matter, sand, dirt, and lime, and wool-fibie being made.

Weight. — The Technical Anabjsis of Sliped Wool.

43

The methods of analysis in a works-laboratory must of necessity be
rapid, but at the same time reasonable accuracy must be assured, otherwise
the method is valueless.

As far as the author can find, no methods of wool-analysis requiring
thejabove determinations have as yet been published, so the following
methods were devised to meet the requirements of a works-laboratory in
which the chemical control of wools is carried out.

All that is claimed for the following methods is that they meet the
requirements of a works-laboratory, and that, while they give accurate
results, they are rapid, and the condition of the wool can be reported before
a consignment is baled for shipment.

Moisture is determined in 1 gram by drpng in an air-oven at 110° C.
for one hour. After removal from the oven the sample must be placed in
a desiccator under vacuum, and, after coohng, be weighed rapidly to pre-
vent the absorption of atmospheric moisture, which, on account of the
hydroscopic nature of wool, is readily taken up.

Natural wool-fat is determined in 2 grams of the material by extraction
with hot alcohol. An aliquot portion of the liquid is evaporated to deter-
mine the total fat extracted ; in another portion determine the free fatty
acidity, using phenolphthalein as the indicator. After deducting the free
acidity from the total fats, the balance is considered natural wool-fat.

In another portion of the material extract the total fats with petroleum-
ether, and after deducting the natural wool-fat the balance is entered as
" other fatty matter." After drying the wool substance used in the pre-
vious determination, weigh. The sand, dirt, and Ume may be approximately
determined by shaking out mechanically the adhering particles after the
total-fat extraction, and, after washing in hot alcohol and drying, the loss
on again weighing is entered as sand, lime, and dirt. The remaining sub-
stance is wool-fibre, and is entered as such.

The following are examples of analysis of sliped wools carried out as
described : — -

Leicester.

Lincoln.

Three-quar-
ter-bred.

Half-bred.

Seconds.

Tliirds.

Moisture
Natural wool-fat
Other fatty matter
Sand, dirt, and lime
Wool-fibre

er Cent.

Per Cent.

12-22

13-40

5-42

3-44

1-86

1-02

5-74

6-42

74-76

75-72

Per Cent.

11-08

7-28

1-62

10-30

69-72

100-00

100-00

100-00

Per Cent.
11-70
12-06

0-72

8-14

67-38

100-00

Per Cent.

12-80

3-68

1-56

12-26

69-70

100-00

Per Cent.
12-74

11-90

19-08
56-28

100-00

It should be noted that scoured wools, or wools washed with soap, cannot
be examined for natural wool-grease by the method stated above, for the
reason that all scoured wools retain some of the soap used, which is soluble
in alcohol. The analysis of " thirds " shown above is an example of scoured
wool.

For permission to publish these results I have to express my thanks
to the Christchurch Meat Company (Limited).

44 Transactions.

Art. X. — Notes on Lepidoptera collected by H. Hamilton in various
Localities in the Queenstown District, Otago, between November, 1907,
and March, 1908.

By A. Hamilton.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, Sth December, 1908.]

In November, 1907, my son, H. Hamilton, was employed on a survey
party of the New Zealand Geological Survey, under Professor Park, and
in the course of the survey he came across a considerable number of
Lepidoptera. The specimens secured were forwarded from time to time
to the Museum, Wellington, and were then relaxed and set. I now give a
list of about sixty of the species, as a contribution towards the informa-
tion which will be necessary before the general distribution of the New Zea-
land Lepidoptera is known with any approach to accuracy. It must be
remembered that owing to his duties my son could not devote any special
time to collecting, and therefore missed many good things.

Nyctemera annulata, Gml.

This very common insect was sent up at my request, in the hope that
some good varieties might occur, but beyond considerable variation in
size there was nothing remarkable.

Metacrias huttoni.

A fine series of fourteen specimens was taken early in the season in the
upper Arrow River bed, also in the Twelve-mile Creek, Macetown.

Orthosia comma, Walk.

Five specimens, from various localities.

Orthosia immunis, Walk.

Eight specimens, in very poor condition.

Physetica cserulea, Gml.

A very battered specimen. I have since obtained a specimen which,
when fresh, exhibited a most beautiful bluish-violet tint.

Leucania moderata, Walk.

A good series of this insect, which appears to be a southern species.
I have, however, taken specimens in Wellington this season.

Leucania nullifera, Walk.

The specimens taken of this fine insect were not in good condition.
They were taken round the tent at night. I took several at a lamp about
the same time at Waiouru, on the North Island Main Trunk line.

Leucania purdii.

I was ^delighted to receive a very typical specimen of this moth. At
present it is decidedly scarce. Mr. Hudson took a specimen, at sugar, in
the Kouteburn.

Hamilton. — On Lepidoptera from the Queenstown District. 45

Leucania atristriga, Walk.

This occurred in several localities, and seems to be c^^mmon. I took
it plentifully near Dunedin, at sugar, in the middle of March.

Leucania alopa, Meyr.

Four specimens of what I take to be this insect were sent from the
neighbourhood of Macetown in February.

Leucania unica, Walk.

There is one specimen iu poor condition which may be this species.

Leucania semivittata, Walk.

Four specimens were sent from Skipper's in January, flying round the
tent in the evening.

Ichneutica ceraunias.

Five specimens of this very striking species were sent in January. One
of the specimens is very light in colour, and is probably a female.

Melanchra disjungens, W^alk.

This very distinct species was sent from Macetown. I took a very
tine series, at light, at Waiouru, on the Main Trunk Railway, and also a
few from the tussock-grass in the daytime in the same place.

Melanchra paracausta.

One specimen may probably represent this southern species.

Melanchra insignis.

Only two specimens are included in the collection. Either it was too
early for this handsome moth or the altitude was too great. It was very
plentiful, at sugar, in the Botanical Gardens in Wellington in February
and March.

Melanchra plena.

A few specimens were obtained by m}^ son, and I took a large number,
at sugar, near Dunedin in the middle of March.

Melanchra mutans.

Only five mutans were sent.

Melanchra pictula.

My son was greatly interested in the capture of a specimen of this moth,
in splendid condition, about the 30th March. He struck with the net at a
Vanessa goneriUa at rest on a tree-trunk. He missed the butterfly, but
heard a rustling in the net and found the pictula. It was probably at rest
on the trunk of the tree.

Melanchra composita.

This species was, of course, well represented.

Melanchra rubescens.

This insect appeared to be one of the early forms, and was fairly
numerous.

Melanchra umbra.

I was glad to receive in one parcel three good specimens of thi species.

46 Transactions.

Melanchra cucullina.
Four good specimens.

Melanchra dotata.

I thiuk that one specimen received in January is M. dotata.

Agrotis admirationis.

There is a fine specimen of what I take to be this species in the collec-
tion, and an inferior specimen, much rubbed.

Many other species were also collected, mostly from alpine localities.
Along the shores of Lake Wakatipu (1,000 ft.), in the month of March, the
following species were gaily sporting in the sunshine : —

Notoreas hrephos.

Notoreas peroniata.

Lijthria euclidiata.

Together with these were Chrysophamis holdenarum and an occasional
Vanessa gonerilla.

From other localities in the same district I received at various times, —
Pkrissogonus denotatus, Walk.
Hydriomena deltoidata, Walk.
,, rixata, Feld.

,, purpurifera, Fered.

Xanthorhoe orophylla, Meyr.
„ semifissata, Walk.

,, chlamydota. Walk.

„ heata, Butl.

„ adonis, Huds.

„ prasinias, Meyr.

„ cineraria, Did.

„ recta.

„ oraria.

„ eataphracta, Meyr.

Lythria euclidiata, Gml.
Dasyuris anceps, Butl.

,, hectori.
Notoreas insignis, Butl.
„ parade! pha, Meyr.
,, perornata, Walk.
,, brephos, Walk.
Selidosema suavis, Butl.

,, aristarcha, Meyr.

,, dejectaria, Walk.

Azelina fortinata, Gml.

Of the Bhopalocera, the beautiful Vanessa gonerilla was everywhere
present — first the hybernated specimens, and, later on, the new brood.
These were in splendid condition \vlien I visited Queenstown in the middle
of March.

Argyrophenga antipodum, Doubld.

I particularly asked for specimens of this species from as many localities
as possible, and I received altogether about forty specimens in good con-
dition from Macetown, Skipper's, BuUendale, and Moke Lake.

Hamilton. — On Lepidoptera from tlic Qaeenstown District. 47

Erebia pluto, var. micans.

My son writes with great enthusiasm of his first sight of this alpine
species and wired to me that he had taken some. This was early in
December, and I could hardly believe that he had correctly identified them ;
but when they came to hand I was glad to find that not only were they
Erebia, but they were in some respects different from the specimens which
I had seen from Mount Arthur and Mount Peel.

The specimens were in the best possible condition, and are evidently
much earlier in appearing than has been supposed, as Mr. Hudson* gives
January, February, and March. It is recorded in the same work as being
taken by him at Wakatipu, but there is no mention of any considerable
variation. The first box of specimens was accompanied by a note, in
which my son drew my attention to the spangling of golden scales on the
imderside hindwings, and to the intense velvet-black of the specimens'^as
contrasted with the cabinet specimens from Mount Arthur. Some of their
rich black has disappeared now that the specimens have been set, but the
golden scales are still apparent in the majority of cases, though less bright.
They are found on both male and female. By the kindness of Mr. A. McKay,
an enlarged photograph was taken of the under-surface, which showed the
brilliant reflecting scales, implanted at irregular distances, but all in the
same direction as the others, so that there is no possibility of their having
been derived by accident in the killing-bottle or in the packing from some
other species. Their appearance is very beautiful under the microscope.
I have examined the specimens in Mr. Hudson's collection and in two
other collections without finding any bright scales of this kind on the under-
surface of the hindwings. The average size of the Otago specimens is
smaller than that of the Momit Arthur ones.

From the notes that accompanied the specimens it appears that the
Erebia is found in small colonies.

From the early date at which the majority of the specimens were
obtained it is possible that the spangled form may be either an early brood
or a very local form. The usual variations are to be foimd in the number
and arrangement of the white centres to the ocelli, but they are uniformly
smaller than in the northern specimens which are available for comparison,
being in some cases barely visible. The pale spots visible on the under-
surface of the hindwings of E. pluto are in the majority of cases not to be
distinguished in this variety.

I have not examined the venation.

Of thirteen specimens from Mount Arthur and Mount Peel in the
Museum collection, I find that the maximum expanse of the forewing is
51 mm. and the minimum 45 mm. Of the thirty-five Otago specimens
in the collection, the maximum is 46 mm. and the minimum 40 mm.

Altogether this form is so different from the specimens available from
other localities that I suggest for it as a varietal name E. pluto, var. micans.

The first Erebias were caught on the upper Arrow Eiver and on Mount
Hyde, at about 6,000 ft., about the 20th November ;f one colony was
found near the Premier Mine on the 1 9th December ; and on the 30th
January they had all disappeared.

The genus is a very variable one, and in all alpine regions local forms
are very numerous.

* Hudson, " New Zealand Moths and Butterflies," p. 114.
t They were then copulating.

48 Transactions. /

/
Porina. /

Specimens of P. despecta and umhraculata were sent from time to fime,
and four specimens of a very small form, which may only be small males,
or may be the males of other species. /

Porina annulata, n. sp.

This most interesting form was received by me one day with the
following particulars : " Just returned to Skipper's after a rough trip,
which, however, I forgot all about after I caught the moth that I am now
sending. When we were up Mount Aurum I thought I saw a large moth
with a ringed body flying quickly about, just off the ground, but I could
not lay hands on one. When we had finished chaining up Stony Creek
one of these flew up and got tangled in a tussock right at my feet. I
promptly dropped the net over him. . . . I do not know if it is rare,
but it was only seen above 4,000 ft., on tussocky beds among the gentians."

This moth is at once distinguished from the other Porinas by the
distinct annulate markings on the body, the only other at all partaking
of this character being P. char acterif era, a very much larger moth,
probably belonging to a different section of the group. Both the upper
and lower wings are semi-transparent. Expansion of forevving, 50 mm. ;
lower wing, 44 mm. The forewings are sparsely covered with scales, so
as to be nearly as translucent as the hindwings of P. des-pecta. Antennae
strongly pectinate in the male. Head and thorax yellowish-brown.
Abdomen pale yellowish-grey, with seven or eight black rings, very dis-
tinct when fresh, but not so apparent when dry. The forewings are
brownish-grey, irregularly covered with markings, the majority of which
are spots of an ochre-yellow, interspersed with smaller white marks. The
hindwings are brown-grey, showing a few yellowish spots on the termen.
Both wings are bordered with dark reddish-brown cilia, longer in proportion
than those in P. cervinata.

The yellow spots on the wings and the annulated body afford the best
distinctive points for the recognition of the species.

In the specimens described the fore and hind wings are more nearly
alike in size than in most of the members of the genus, being as 50 and 44.
In my specimen of P. cervinata they are as 82 to 65. In P. dinodes the
relation is, however, about 70 to 62. In Porina the variation in size, mark-
ings, &c., are so great that a long series will be required before any weight
can be attached to the proportionate expansion of the wings.

Type in the Dominion Museum : coll., H. Hamilton.

Maclaurin. — A Bapid Method of esLimating Iron in Iron-ores. 49

Art. XI. — A Rapid and Accurate Method uj estimating Iron in Iron-ores.

By J. S. Maclaurin, D.Sc, F.C.S., and W. Donovax, M.Sc.

[Bead before the Wellington PhUosophical Society, 2nd September, 1908.]

Any one who has had experience in the estimation of iron in magnetites
and haematites must have frequently found difliculty in getting the iron
into solution within a reasonable time. Such difficulties led one of us to
subject the ore to a preliminary heating in hydrogen or coal-gas. The
iron could then be readily dissolved i!i hydrochloric acid, reduced by stannous
chloride, and estimated volumetrically. In these estimations, however,
potassium permanganate could not be used if really accurate results were
required, owing to the disturbing effect of hydrochloric acid, and conse-
quently one was driven to employ the bichromate method, which has the
serious defect of requiring an external indicator. These defects have been
entirely removed by modifying the process, which is now carried out in
the following manner : —

A weighed quantity of finely ground ore is introduced into a hard glass
bulb tube by means of a small copper scoop (made of thick copper foil bent
into the desired shape and soldered to a stout piece of copper wire). Into
the ends of the tube, corks carrying narrow glass tubes are then fitted.
Should the ore contain organic matter, air is drawn through the tube by
means of a filter pump or aspirator, and the bulb heated to redness for a
few minutes, being gently rotated backwards and forwards during the
heating. It is then allowed to cool, the air-current stopped, and a stream
of hydrogen or coal-gas substituted. This is lighted at the exit end of the
small glass tube. Should hydrogen be used, the tube may be prevented
from closing up by the use of a platinum tip, made by rolling a small strip
of platinum foil round the end of the tube. After heating for from ten
to thirty minutes, according to the nature of the ore, the tube is allowed
to cool, the stream of hydrogen or coal-gas is shut ofi, and the reduced
ore shaken into a flask containing 1 or 2 grams of sodium bicarbonate and
a little water. Any ore remaining in the tube is washed into the flask
with dilute sulphuric acid. By this means sufficient carbon dioxide is
evolved to fill the flask, and so prevent oxidation of the iron. In order
to still further guard against oxidation, the flask is closed by a rubber cork
carrying a short exit-tube, and an inlet-tube which dips beneath the surface
of the solution in the flask, through which a steady stream of carbon dioxide
is allowed to flow from a Kipp's apparatus. The flask is then heated, and
the solution boiled for from five to twenty minutes, according to the ease
with which the iron dissolves. This operation requires little or no attention,
and can be carried out while another sample is being heated in the bulb
tube.

When it is seen that all the iron is dissolved, the solution is allowed to
cool in the air, or more rapidly by closing the exit-tube with the finger,
and allowing water to flow over the outside of the flask, the carbon dioxide
apparatus being still, of course, attached. It only remains to shut off the
carbon dioxide, remove the cork from the flask, wash the tubes with a
little water, and titrate the solution with potassium permanganate.

50

Transactio)is.

This process gives very constant results, duplicate determinations
agreeing excellently. Thus, in estimating the iron in fifty-five samples of
limonite, the greatest difference in the duplicate determinations, which
were made quite independently of one another, was 0*22 per cent, of iron,
and the average difference only 0'09 per cent. In many of these deter-
minations, after titrating wdth permanganate, the solution was reduced
with sulphuretted hydrogen, the excess of this gas being removed by pass-
ing carbon dioxide through the boiling solution (Hillebrand's method). The
iron so reduced was then estimated by titration with permanganate, and
in every case the result so found agreed closely with that previously found
by our method. This agreement shows that the whole of the iron dissolved
out of the reduced ore goes into solution as a ferrous salt, and is therefore
estimated in the subsequent titration. Moreover, the residues contained
no iron. This was proved by fusing with carbonates of soda and potash
and testing for iron.

We had thus conclusive proof of the accuracy of our results, Ijut for
the sake of comparison with other methods the following determinations
on five limonites were made. The results given under A are by our method ;
those under B were determined by dissolving in hydrochloric acid and
stannous chloride, adding mercuric chloride to remove the excess of stannous
chloride, phosphoric acid and manganese sulphate to improve the con-
ditions for titration, and finally titrating with permanganate. In column C
of the table the results were obtained by dissolving in hydrochloric acid^
reducing with lead and copper sulphate, and titrating with potassium
bichromate. The results are percentages of iron.

A.

B.

Difference
from A.

Difference
from A.

44-03
49-21
36-57
26-73
3.5-.52

4.3-13
49-06
36-99
26-46
35-97

-0-90

— 0-15
+ 0-42

— 0-27
+ 0-45

43-42
49-29
36-66
26-78
36-02

— 0-61
-f 0-08
+ 0-09
+ 0-05
+ 0-50

Mean difference — 0-09

Mean difference + 0-02

The titration in the case of B is not nearly so satisfactory as in A, owing
to the presence of a large amount of precipitate, which somewhat masks
the ending. Duplicates by this method differ to a much greater extent
than do those by the A method.

In making determinations by method C the solution of the ore is very
slow, sometimes taking hours to accomplish, and, owing to the necessity
for an external indicator, the titration is not nearly so simple and satis-
factory as in the A method.

Our method is thus shown to be well adapted for the estimation of iron
in limonites. It may also be used wdth advantage for the much less soluble
magnetites, ilmenites, htematites, &c. In this case the ore requires fine
grinding, and half an hour's reduction in hydrogen — coal-gas cannot be
used, as it does not give complete reduction. If the hydrogen be made
from commercial zinc, it should be purified from antimony and arsenic,
which interfere with the subsequent titration. The purification is most
simply effected by passing through a hard glass tube wrapped in thin sheet

Maclaurik. — A Bajnd Method of estimating Iron in Iron-ores. 51

asbestos, and heated to redness by a long flat burner.^ The tube should
be from 15 in. to 18 in. long, and about J in. in diameter, reduced to \ in.
or less for 4 in. or 5 in., to allow of the ready deposition of antimony and
arsenic. It is interposed between the source of hydrogen and the hard
glass bulb tube in which reduction of the ore takes place. This treatment
removes all but minute traces of arsenic and antimony, and these may be
got rid of by passing the hydrogen through one or two wash-bottles con-
taining glass wool saturated with chromic acid.

Using this method we got the results given in column A of the following
table. Those shown under B were obtained from the same solution in the
following manner. After titrating with permanganate (for A determina-
tions) the solutions were reduced by hydrogen sulphide (Hillebrand's
method), the excess of H2S removed by CO 2, and again titrated with per-
manganate. The results so obtained are shown in column B. As a further
check on these figures, the ore was fused with sodium and potassium car-
bonates, dissolved in sulphuric acid, reduced by means of sulphuretted
hydrogen, &c., as before, and titrated with potassium permanganate, the
percentages of iron so found being shown in column C. Or it was fused as
before, dissolved in hydrochloric acid, reduced by stannous chloride, and
titrated with bichromate, the results being shown in column D.

1
A.

B.

c.

D.

Magnetite, Taranaki, N.Z.

59-62

59-90

60-02

59-75

)) J5 JJ

57-75

, ,

57-72

, ,

,, Quebec, Canada

64-34

, ,

64-12

„ France

67-17

67-24

67-34

Ilmenite, Norway

43-48

, ,

43-53

, ,

Micaceous iron-ore

57-39

, ,

57-50

Haematite, Ohio, U.S.A. . .

61-18

61-24

These figures are sufficient to show that our method gives very satis-
factory results for such refractory ores as magnetites and ilmenites. For
these ores it has the further merit of making the estimation of titanium
quite a simple matter. This is done by adding hydrogen peroxide to the
solution after the permanganate titration, and estimating the percentage
of titanium by comparison with a standard solution of that substance.
By this means 9-12 per cent, of titanium dioxide was found in the Taranaki
magnetite, as against 9-27 per cent, obtained by fusion. Moreover, it was
found that none of the insoluble residues contained more than minute
traces of titanium.

To recapitulate very briefly, the process consists of the following steps : —

1. Roasting the finely ground ore.

2. Reduction of the roasted ore by heating in coal-gas or hydrogen.

3. Dissolution of the reduced ore in dilute sulphuric acid in an atmo-
sphere of carbon dioxide.

4. Titration of the resulting solution by potassium permanganate.
The advantages of the process over those commonly employed are the
removal of any organic matter which might interfere with the subsecjuent
titration, the ease and completeness with which the ores are dissolved, the
accuracy of the titrations, and the possibility of estimating titanium in
the same solution.

52 'ri'ansactions.

Art. XII. — On a Hornblende-andesite from the Solander Islands.
By R. Speight, M.A., B.Sc, F.G.S.

\Read before the Philosophical InMitute of Canterburu, 4ih November, 1908.]

The Solanders consist of a very small group of rocky islets, the largest
about a mile long and 1,100 ft. high, lying to the south-west of New Zealand.
Their exact position is twenty nautical miles south of the south coast of
western Otago and thirty-five miles W. 15° N. of the north-west point of
Stewart Island. They are thus to the south of the western entrance of
Foveaux Strait. Between them and the mainland the sea reaches a depth
of nearly 100 fathoms, as appears from soundings on the Admiralty charts.
There are a number of " rises " in the western floor of the strait, but these
do not reach so near the surface as to be any danger to navigation ; how-
ever, a wide fringe of submerged and partially submerged reefs extends
along the northern shore of the strait. The depth of the sea between the
Solanders and Stewart Island is over 70 fathoms. The islands, therefore,
lie in somewhat deep water. From their isolated position, and on account
of the danger of landing except in the very calmest weather, they are rarely
visited now, although sealers frequently landed on them in the early days.
They have usually been supposed to be a remnant formed of rocks similar
to those on the neighbouring coasts, but this turns out not to be the
case.

When the G.S.S. " Hinemoa " was searching for traces of the lost ship
" Loch Lomond," Captain BoUons landed and brought back two small
specimens of the rock of the islands, and transmitted them to me through
Dr. Cockayne.

Instead of being a granite or gneissic rock, they are a hornblende-
andesite, quite different from any hornblende-andesite that I have met
with in New Zealand. Macroscopically they show fairly large crystals of
feldspar up to 1 cm. in length, and smaller hornblendes 0'75 cm. in length,
in a dark groundmass. The rock is somewhat vesicular, and has a low
specific gravity — viz., 2*42. When examined under the microscope the
phenocrysts are feldspar (labradorite), with the usual characters. There
is also an occasional mica flake and much brown hornblende in large
crystals, with marked pleochroism. These crystals show idiomorphic out-
lines at times, but they grade down through all sizes till they form irregular
fragments and flakes. Some take lath- and needle-shaped forms, with
parting across. The groundmass is of the hyalopilitic type, with much
brownish glass and extremely small microlites of feldspar (ohgoclase-ande-
sine), and of hornblende similar to the phenocrysts, the whole showing
at times rough flow-structure. The rock shows little sign of alteration,
and is as fresh in appearance as many of the Ruapehu andesites. It is
therefore likely to be of fairly recent date, most probably late Tertiary.

This occurrence of volcanic rocks is also interesting because no similar
type has been recorded from Otago. Dr. Marshall tells me that he saw
loose blocks of hornblende-andesite at Cuttle Cove, Preservation Inlet,
but was unable to trace them to their source. Dr. Cockayne also says
that fragments of scoriaceous and pumiceous rocks are frequently picked

Chilton. — The Fresh-water Amphipoda of New Zealand. 53

up on the shore of Mason Bay, on the west of Stewart Island. This last
occurrence has been difficult to account for, owing to the absence of volcanic
rocks on the island, but if there is any extent of submerged volcanic land
to the westward the powerful currents and heavy seas could easily explain
the presence of scoriaceous material on the west coast of Stewart Island.

The Solanders are undoubtedly the remnant of a volcanic cone of
probable recent date, a large part having been removed by powerful marine
erosion, or been buried under the sea on the land in the locality sinking.
There is evidence both from the Sounds of Otago on the one hand, and from
the drowned valleys of Stewart Island on the other, that the land was
formerly higher, and is now depressed much below its former level. There
is also evidence of a very recent elevation. It is possible that the sub-
mergence of a large block of land to the south and south-west of New
Zealand was connected not only with the formation of the valleys and fiords
of western Otago, but also with the volcanic outbursts at the Solanders.
Foundered areas, as it has been pointed out, are associated with fractures
in the neighbouring crust, which may determine the direction of valleys
to a certain extent, and thus affect the initial stages in the formation of
fiords ; and fractures are no doubt also intimately connected with volcanic
action. Their occurrence together in this case may be only a coincidence,
and not a different surface manifestation of the same deep-seated cause.

Art. XIII. — The Fresh-water Amphipoda of New Zealand.

By Charles Chilton, M.A., D.Sc. F.L.S., Professor of Biology, Canterbury

College, N.Z.

[Bead before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 4th November, 1908.]

The immediate cause of this paper was the discovery in February, 1908,
of a fresh-water gammarid at Rona Bay, Wellington Harbour, which, on
examination, proved to be the same as Phreafogammarus jnojnnquus, a species
described in 1907 from a single specimen collected by Mr. Crosby Smith
on Mount Anglem, Stewart Island. This species was of special interest
as the first species of Phreatoyammarus to be recorded from the surface
waters of New Zealand, and owing to its near relationship to P. fragilis,
a species inhabiting the underground waters of the Canterbury Plains.
During the last few years, too, several facts referring to the other fresh-
water Amphipoda have been collected, and it seems desirable to gather
them together here. This group of the Crustacea possesses considerable
interest from the point of view of geographical distribution, and for this
reason a paper on the subject was commenced and partly written out about
fifteen years ago, but was then left unfinished owing to want of knowledge
of the fresh-water Amphipoda of Australia and elsewhere. Since then many
of the gaps have been filled up, and, though our knowledge is still far from
complete, some comparison of the fresh-water Amphipoda of New Zealand
with those of other countries is now possible.

54 Transactions.

In this paper, however, I shall give only a list of the various species,
with references and notes as to their distribution, reserving more general
remarks for a future paper. The three subterranean species have been
included because it is around them that the chief interest centres, and because
two of them are now known to have near representatives in the surface
streams. The terrestrial amphipod Parorchestia sylvicola (Dana) has not
been included, because it is truly terrestrial, living far from streams, although
it is found only under decaying leaves and in other moist situations, and its
method of respiration is doubtless practically the same as that of the fresh-
water species. It is a species very widely distributed in New Zealand and
perhaps elsewhere, and there are various uncertainties and difficulties con-
nected with it that require for their solution more time than can be de-
voted to the question at present. I have, however, included Parorchestia
suhtenuis (Dana), as it seems to be usually found in fresh- water streams,
though able to live in brackish water, and perhaps also on land. There are
other brackish- water species, such as Melita incequistylis ( = M. tenuicornis)
(Dana), that I have not included, because, although they may be found in
water that at the time is almost or quite fresh, they do not appear to have
established themselves in the fresh-water streams.

I have arranged the species according to the classification in Stebbing's
" Das Tierreich Amphipoda," and have given only such references as ap-
peared necessary ; others will be found in that elaborate and exhaustive
work.

Fam. Calliopiid.e.

Paraleptamphopus subterraneus (Chilton).

Calliope subterranea, Chilton, in N.Z. Journ. Sci., vol. i. p. 44, and Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. xiv, p. 177, pi. ix, figs. 1-10 (1882). CaUiopius sub-
terraneus, Chilton in Trans. Linn. Soc. London, ser. 2, vol. vi, p. 234,
pi. xxiii, figs. 10-18 (1894). Paraleptamphopus suhterraneus, Hutton in
Index Faunae N.Z., p. 259 (1904). Paraleptamphopus subterraneus, Chilton
in P.Z.S. London, 1906, p. 704 (1906). Paraleptamphopiis subterraneus,
Stebbing in " Das Tierreich Amphipoda," p. 294 (1906).

This species was first described in 1882 from the imderground waters
at Eyreton, in North Canterbury, and was afterwards obtained from similar
situations in Lincoln and Ashburton, and at Winchester, in South Canterbury.
I have also two specimens from an artesian at St. iVlbans, Christchurch, depth
probably not more than 70 ft. ; collected by Mr. J. B. Mayne. In Novem-
ber, 1903, Dr. Cockayne brought me a few specimens, obtained in a surface
stream near the River Porter, at Castle Hill, Canterbury ; and a month or
two later I myself obtained numerous specimens from the same locality.
These specimens were quite colourless, showed no trace of eyes, and in these
and in all other respects closely resembled the subterranean forms. They
were found in a small stream issuing from a spring in the side of one of the
river-terraces of the River Porter, and I afterwards also found them in other
streams about two miles distant on the other side of the river. Later on
the species was taken by Messrs. Lucas and Hodgkin in their investigation
of the fresh-water lakes of New Zealand. Among their collections which
were submitted to me for examination there was one specimen obtained
from Lake Wakatipu (no depth mentioned) in Otago, and one from Lake
Taupo, at a depth of 700 ft., in the North Island. These specimens seem to
be practically identical with the subterranean forms first described. About

Chilton. — The Fresh-ioater Amphipoda of Neio Zealand. 55

the same time Mr. Laing also found the species in surface streams at Otautau,
in Southland, in company with the next species, P. cxndeus. The two
species were found together in two different streams in that locality, and
though very different in appearance, one being colourless — almost white —
and the other dark blue, they appeared to be living together under precisely
the same conditions. Mr. Laing thinks that probably the P. subterraneus
may have got into the surface streams from springs feeding the streams,
much in the same way as appears to have occurred at Castle Hill.

Mr. 0. A. Sayce* has called attention to the occurrence of three blind
fresh-water Crustacea in the surface waters of Victoria, and has given many
interesting facts with regard to them and their surface allies. Other examples
of the same thing have been recorded from North America also. In the
present case we have P. subterraneus living side by side at Otautau with
P. cceruleus, to which it is so closely allied that we may consider it as a
subterranean modification of that species.

Paraleptamphopus caeruleus (G. M. Thomson).

Pherusa ccerulea, G. M. Thomson in N.Z. Journ. Sci., vol. ii, p. 576 (1885).
Parale-ptamphopus cceruleus, Hutton in Index Faunae N.Z., p. 259 (1904).
Paraleptamphopus cceruleus, Stebbing in " Das Tierreich Amphipoda,"
p. 295 (1906).

This species was originally described by Mr. Thomson from specimens
taken in a small stream at the top of the Old Man Eange, in Otago, at a
height of about 3,000 ft., and for many years afterwards no further specimens
were discovered. In 1904 Mr. Crosby Smith sent me one or two specimens
of Amphipoda from the bog-water at the top of Swampy Hill, near Dunedin.
These were not in a fit state for an exact determination, but appeared to
belong to this species. In the next year Mr. R. M. Laing brought me un-
doubted specimens from a stream at Otautau, in Otago, where it had been
found in surface streams along with P. subterraneus. Subsequently I found
a single specimen among Crustacea sent to me from Ruapuke Island by
Mr. T. Horan, and in 1907 I collected numerous specimens in pools and
streams near Drummond, in Southland, and afterwards in streams near
Invercargill. All of these specimens show the dark-blue colour described
by Mr. Thomson, and this colour does not fade even after the specimen
has been kept for a long time in spirit.

As already stated, this species may be looked upon as the surface form
from which P. subterraneus has arisen.

Paracalliope fluviatilis (G. M. Thomson).

Calliope fluviatilis, G. M. Thomson in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xi, p. 240,
pi. xc, figs. 4 a-c (1879). Paracalliope fluviatilis, Hutton in Index
Faunae N.Z., p. 259 (1904). Paracalliope fluviatilis, Chilton in P.Z.S.
London, 1906, p. 704 (1906). Paracalliope fluviatilis, Stebbing in " Das
Tierreich Amphipoda," p. 297.

This species is extremely abundant in all the fresh-water streams of
New Zealand, and also in many of the ponds formed by them. I have
seldom failed to find it in such positions in the South Island, and, though
I have fewer specimens from the North Island, it doubtless occurs there

* " On Three Blind Victorian Fresh-water Crustacea found in Svirfacs Water," Ann.
Nat. Hist., ser. 7, vol. viii, pp. 558-64.

53 Transactions.

almost as abundantly — I have it from Rona Bay, Wellington Harbour, and
also from Island Bay ; and Messrs. Lucas and Hodgkin obtained specimens
from Lake Waikare. Besides being found in fresh water, however, this
species is also able to live in salt water. I have on different occasions taken
it in great abundance in Otago Harbour in the ordinary sea- water, associated
with the usual marine forms. I have also taken it at Island Bay, Welling-
ton, in a pool near high-water mark, which would doubtless be filled with
sea-water at particularly high tides, though the water was only slightly
brackish at the time I collected the specimens.

Mr. Stebbing considers Pherusa mistralis, Haswell, to be a synonym of
this species, and thinks that (Edicerus novi-zealandice, Dana, may perhaps
also belong to it. I have, however, specimens that I think undoubtedly
are to be referred to the latter species, and they belong to the (Edicerotidce,
and are appnrently the same as Carolobatea schneideri (Stebbing). I am
dealing with them in my report on the Crustacea collected by the recent
expedition to the subantarctic islands of New Zealand.

Fam. Gammaeid.^.
Paracrangonyx compactus (Chilton).

Grangonijx compactus, Chilton in N.Z. Journ. Sci., vol. i, p. 44, and Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. xiv, p. 177, pi. x, figs. 13-19 (1882). Crangonyx com-
pactus, Chilton in Trans. Linn. Soc. London, ser. 2, vol. vi, p. 220, pi. xx
(1894). Paracrangonyx compactus, Stebbing in " Das Tierreich Amphi-
poda," p. 369 (1906).

This is a subterranean species found in the underground waters of Canter-
bury Plains, and has been fully described in my paper in the Trans. Linn.
Soc. London referred to above. In that paper I stated that the subter-
ranean crustaceans, though common in the shallow wells on the Plains, had
not hitherto been found in the artesian wells of Christchurch. Since then,
however, Mr. J. B. Mayne has brought me one or two specimens of this
species from an artesian at St. Albans, Christchurch. This artesian is sunk
only to the first water-bearing stratum, and probably is not more than
70 ft. deep.

It was from the same artesian that the specimens of ParaleptampJiopus
suhterraneus already referred to were obtained, so that the two species are
associated in the underground waters at St. Albans, as they are in other
parts of the Canterbury Plains.

Phreatogammarus fragilis (Chilton).

Gammarus fragilis, Chilton in N.Z. Journ. Sci., vol. i, p. 44 (1882), and
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xiv, p. 179, pi. ix, figs. 11-18. Gammarus fragilis,
Chilton in Trans. Linn. Soc. London, ser. 2, vol. vi, p. 227, pi. xxi,
figs. 1-25 (1894). Phreatogammarus fragilis, Stebbing in " Das Tierreich
Amphipoda," p. 454 (1906).

This species is found in the underground waters of Canterbury Plains,
and has been already fully described in my paper in the Trans. Linn. Soc.
London quoted above. Its special characteristic is the possession of very
long anteunine, peraeopods, &c., and in this respect it resemble? several other
subterranean species from other parts of the world.

Chilton. — The Frcsh-icater Amphipoda of Nctv Zealand. 57

It is closely related to the next species, P. propinquus, but differs in the
gnathopods, having the 2 pairs similar in size and shape and with the propod
oval and the palm very oblique, while the carpus in each is very short and
triangular.

Phreatogammarus propinquus, Chilton.

Phreatogammarus propinquus, Chilton in Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, vol. xix,
pp. 388-90, pi. xi (1907).

This species was described in 1907 from a single imperfect specimen
collected by Mr. Crosby Smith in a small pool near the top of Mount
Anglem, in Stewart Island, at a height of about 2,800 ft. above sea-level.
In February, 1908, I obtained a few specimens from a small stream at Rona
Bay, in Wellington Harbour. The place at which they were obtained is
only a short distance above high-water mark, but the water was quite
fresh, and the species was found in association with Parorchestia tenuis
(Dana) and other fresh- water animals. I also have had for many years a
mounted specimen sent me from Greymouth by Mr. R. Helms, which I had
not previously been able to recognise with certainty, but which I can now
tell from comparison with Rona Bay specimens is undoubtedly a female
specimen of this species.

The species is of special interest owing to its relationship to the sub-
terranean species Phreatogammarus fragilis (Chilton) from the underground
waters of the Canterbury Plains. In describing P. propinquus I pointed
out that the generic characters given by Mr. Stebbing required slight modi-
fication in order to admit the species. In the specimen then described it
was impossible to say whether eyes were present or not, owing to its im-
perfect condition ; in the Rona Bay and Greymouth specimens, however,
the eyes are present and well marked, so that the character " without eyes "
included in Mr. Stebbing's generic diagnosis will also have to be struck
out, and the genus Phreatogammarus is thus shown to be still nearer to
Gammarus.

The Rona Bay specimens appear to be closely similar to the Mount Anglem
specimens originally described, except as regards the 2nd gnathopods. In a
female specimen, bearing eggs, from Rona Bay, the 2nd gnathopod is some-
what more similar in general appearance to the 1st, having the carpus mode-
rately long (about two-thirds as long as the propod) and subtriangular in
shape. The posterior margin of the carpus bears 3 or 4 short transverse rows
of long setae, and there are 2 tufts of setae on the anterior margin, one tuft
being at the distal end of the joint ; and there is a row of aboiit 7 or 8 setae
on the side of the carpus along its distal border. The propod is suboblong
in shape ; its anterior margin bears 5 short transverse rows of long setae,
the last one, at the joint of the finger, being the longest, and containing the
most setae ; the palm is slightly oblique, and is bordered by a double row
of stout setae, which diminish in size towards the base of the finger, those
at the place where the point of the finger impinges being the largest, and
fairly well defining the palm ; the posterior border bears a number of long
setae, and other tufts of setae are situated on the sides of the joint, some of
the longest being arranged close to and parallel to the palm ; the finger has
the inner margin minutely serrate, the serrations being closely approximated.
The whole gnathopod is somewhat larger than the 1st gnathopod, in which
the carpus is considerably longer, being longer than the propod, and bears
a more well-marked row of setae along its distal border ; the propod is some-
what narrow at the base, and has the palm more transverse, but in other

58 Ti'ansactions.

respects the 1st gnathopod is closely similar to tlie 2nd gnathopod. Some
or all of the setae in the transverse rows on the posterior margin of the carpus
in both gnathopods are finely serrate.

The differences in the 2nd gnathopod between the Rona Bay specimens
and the Mount Anglem one are perhaps sexual. The Rona Bay specimen
described is a female, bearing eggs in the brood-pouches, while the Mount
Anglem specimen, with the larger and more oval propod in the 2nd gnathopod,
is probably a male ; but, as the few Rona Bay specimens that I have appear
to be all females, this point cannot at present be definitely settled.

Fam. Talitrid.^:.

Chiltonia mihiwaka (Chilton).

Hyalella mihiivaka, Chilton in Ann. Nat. Hist., ser. 7, vol. i, p. 423, pi. xviii
(1899). Chiltonia mihiwaka, Stebbing in " Das Tierreich Amphipoda,"
p. 555 (1906).

This species was described from specimens found in mountain-streams
near Dunedin. During the recent subantarctic expedition specimens were
collected both at the Auckland Islands and at Campbell Island. Mr.
0. A. Sayce has described 2 species from the fresh waters of Victoria — one,
C. australis, has the 3rd uropod less reduced, and consequently approaches
more nearly to the genus HyaJella ; the other species, C. subtenuis, is more
typical of the genus as regards the 3rd uropod, and is apparently closely
related to C. mihiwaka, but differs in having shorter antenna? and a more
slender body.

The genus Hyalella, to which Chiltonia is closely related, is well repre-
sented in the fresh waters of America, particularly in South America. Many
species have been described from Lake Titicaca by Faxon,* and more re-
cently by Monsieur Edouard Chevreux.f The various species, although
all closely related, show a great variety in the form of the body, the pro-
jection of the different segments into spinal processes, and so on.

Parorchestia tenuis (Dana).

Orchestia tenuis, Dana in P. Anier. Ac, vol. ii, p. 202 (1852). Orchestia
tenuis, Dana in U.S. Expl. Exp., vol. xiii, ii, p. 872, pi. lix, fig. 1 (1853
and 1855). Parorchestia tenuis, Stebbing in '' Das Tierreich Amphi-
poda," p. 557 (1906).

This species has been frequently mentioned by previous authors, but,
as with many species of the Orchestido', it is very difficult to identify with
certainty, and considerable confusion has arisen with regard to it. It has
been recently redescribed by Mr. Stebbing, and I refer to the species (as
defined by him) specimens obtained in a fresh-water stream at Rona Bay,
AVellington Harbour, and others obtained in similar situations at Akaroa
and elsewhere. I also found it on the seashore at Campbell Island, at the
mouth of a small stream, and it seems probable that it is a species which
can live either in brackish or in fresh water, and perhaps, like many
other OrchestidcB, it may be also more or less terrestrial in habit.

* Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard College, vol. iii, No. 16 (Cambridge, Mass., 1876).
t "Les Amphipodes des Lacs des Hants Plateaux de TAnierique du Sud" (extract
from Mission scientifique, G. de Crequi Montfort et E. Senechal de la Grange).

Chilton. — Ampkipodan Genera Bircenna, Kuria, and Wandelia. 59

Fam. CoROPHiiD^.

Paracorophium excavatum (G. M. Thomson).

Corophium excavatum, G. M. Thomson in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xvi, p. 236,
ph xii, figs. 1-8 (1884). Paracorophium excavatum, Hutton in Index
Faunse N.Z., p. 261 (190-1). Paracorophium excavatum, Chilton in P.Z.S.
London, 1906, p. 704 (19<>6). Paracorophium excavatum, Stebbing in
" Das Tierreich Amphipoda," p. 664 (1906).

This species was originally described by Mr. Thomson from the Brighton
Creek (salt water), near Dnnedin. Subsequently I took it from the same
creek at a time when the water was almost fresh, and specimens lived in
some of the same water for several months. I have also specimens taken
from brackish water at Napier. Messrs. Lucas and Hodgkin afterwards
took it near Lake Rotoiti (5 fathoms), and in Lake Waikare, where, of
course, the water is perfectly fresh. It therefore appears to be one
of several species of our New Zealand Amphipoda that are able to live
either in salt or in fresh water.

So far as I am aware, it is the only known fresh-water species of the
family Corophiidce.

Art. XIV. — Note on the Amphipodan Genera Bircenna, Kuria, and

WandeUa.

By Charles Chilton, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S., Professor of Biology, Canter-
bury College, New Zealand.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 2nd December, 1908.]

In 1884 I established a new genus Bircenna for a peculiar small amphi-
pod found at Lyttelton. The genus was characterized as follows : Body
broad, coxae very shallow. Antennae subequal, upper without a secondary
appendage. Mandibles without an appendage. Maxillepedes with well-
developed plates on both basos and ischios. Gnathopoda equal, not sub-
chelate. Last segment of pleon and its appendages rudimentary. Telson
simple, not divided.

One of the most characteristic points was the greatly shortened pleon,
the 6th segment being indistinct, and the telson (as I then thought) single
and undivided.

I left the position of the genus undecided, merely pointing out that
in several respects it seemed to resemble Phlias, Guerin. The genus
remained isolated and unclassified until 1899, when Mr. Stebbing placed
it in the family PhUadidce — the position which it occupies in his report
on the Amphipoda for Das Tierreich, though the name of the family is there
written Phliantidce. In 1902, when examining the Crustacea, collected by
Mr. H. 0. Forbes at Abd-el-Kuri. Messrs. A. 0. Walker and A. Scott found
a small amphipod which resembled Bircenna in many respects, but differed
inhaving the " telson divided to the base, consisting of two subtriangular

60 Transactions.

plates set on edge." This they described as a new genus Kuria, having
Bircenna as its nearest ally, and, as they were not satisfied with the position
of the latter under the Phliadidce, they simply marked the genus " incertce
sedis.''

Mr. Walker wrote to me at the time he was examining his Kuria, giving
the points in which it differed from Bircenna, and asking for further infor-
mation as to the uropoda and telson, but as my original dissection of the
terminal segments of the pleon has not been preserved, and I had at the
time no other specimens available, I could only refer to my figure, which
showed an undivided triangular telson.

In 1906 Monsieur Edouard Chevreux established a new genus Wandelia
for a small r.mphipod found by the French Antarctic Expedition (1903-5) at
Port Charcot and Wandel Island, which he said came very close to Bircenna,
but differed from it in the uropoda, and in having the telson divided to
the base. He placed the genus in the Phliantidce, which, however, he wrote
Phliasidce, but pointed out that the completely divided telson separated
it from all the other genera of the family. M. Chevreux apparently had
not seen Mr. Walker's paper, for he makes no reference to Kuria.

As Wandelia evidently resembled Bircenna even more closely than
Kuria did, though like the latter it possessed a completely divided telson,
I was very anxious to get further specimens to see if my original description
was really correct. I did not succeed in doing this till November, 1908,
when I secured another small specimen from Lyttelton Harbour, and was
able to examine the point carefully. The last segments of the pleon are
greatly shortened, and it is difficult to make out the exact condition of the
last segment and of its appendage, but I find that the telson is distinctly
formed of two parts, and is consequently in harmony with that of Kuria and
Wandelia, and I therefore hasten to make the correction. So far as I can
make out, each half is as deep as broad, and is triangular in vertical section
as well as horizontally, and consequently the one half, which alone is shown
in my figure, is nearly symmetrical when seen from above, and therefore
aroused no suspicion that it was only half the telson ; and Mr. Stebbing,
who dissected a specimen when preparing his generic diagnosis, published
in the Trans. Linn. Soc, Zool. vii, p. 421, in 1899, seems to have been
equally unaware that the telson had been incorrectly described.

There can be no doubt that Wandelia is identical with Bircenna, and,
indeed, Wandelia crassipes is specifically not very different from Bircenna
fulva. The genus Kuria differs in a few points — e.g., in having the body
laterally compressed and the 3rd uropoda less modified — and should perhaps
be regarded as a separate genus, though evidently very closely alhed to
Bircenna.

After mentioning that Stebbing had placed Bircenna in the family
PhliantidcB, Walker says that " it seems somewhat out of place with such
genera as Pereionotus, Iphinofus, &c." In general appearance it certainlv
looks very unlike these dorso-yentrally flattened genera, and Kuria, which
is somewhat laterally compressed, is still more unlike them, and both genera
differ from the rest of the family in having the telson double or deeply cleft.
In other respects, however, they agree closely with Stebbing's diagnosis
of the family. The genus Phlias, from which the family takes its name,
also differs greatly in general appearance from the genera named above,
and resembles Kuria in having the body somewhat laterally compressed ;
but, as a small amount of lateral compression in the one case and of dorso-
ventral compression in the other make the general aspect of the two forms

Chilton. — Amphipodan Genera Bircenna, Kuiia, and Wandelia. 61

very different, it is probable that comparatively little importance should
be attached to this point.

The possession of a double telson is more important, and distinctly
marks these two genera off from the rest of the family ; but this seems
to me to point rather to the necessity for slightly enlarging the characters
of the family than for the establishment of another family, and I therefore
leave the two genera under the Phliantidce, where Chevreux placed his
Wandelia. In both species of Bircenna — i.e., B. fulva and B. crassipes—
the pleopoda have the peduncle broad and laterally produced, as in other
members of the family.

I give below the arrangement I suggest for these forms, with the
characters that appear to me most important for differentiating them.
I have shortened the diagnosis of Bircenna, as that given by Stebbing in
" Das Tierreich Amphipoda " appears to me to include some details that
are hardly likely to prove of generic value ; indeed, some of them have
to be omitted to include the second species {B. crassipes). The characters
given are, of course, additional to those of the family, and these have not
been repeated in the generic diagnoses.

Fam. PHLIANTID.E.

Phliadidre, Stebbing in Trans. Linn. Soc, London, ser. 2, vol. vii, p. 414
(1899). PJdiantidce, Stebbing in "' Das Tierreich Amphipoda." p. 200
(1906).

Genus Bircenna, Chilton.

Bircenna, Chilton in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xvi, p. 264 (1884). Bircenna,
Stebbing in " Das Tierreich Amphipoda," p. 205 (1906). Wandelia,
Chevreux in Exped. Antarctique Franjaise, 1903-5, " Crustaces
Amphipodes," p. 44 (1906).

Body broad, almost cylindrical, pleon segment 5 very short, 6th indis-
tmct. Side-plates all very shallow. Maxillipedes with inner and outer
lobes long, both reaching apex of 2nd joint of palp, which, though short,
contains 4 joints. Gnathopoda 1 and 2 slender and almost simple, similar.
Perpeopods short, the 3rd to 5th with the 2nd joint much expanded, and
the 4th joint rather expanded and decurrent. Uropoda short, 3rd uni-
ramous, lamelliform, peduncle and branch not clearly distinguishable.
Telson split to the base, each half subtriangular.

1. Bircenna fulva, Chilton.

B. fulva, Chilton in Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xvi, p. 264, pi. xxi, figs. 1, 1 a-e
(1884). B. fulva, Stebbing in "Das Tierreich Amphipoda," p. 205
(1906)..

Gnathopods similar, not longer and only slightly more slender than
the 1st and 2nd pera?opods ; 3rd joint longer than broad, as long as 4th ; 5th
a httle shorter than the 6th, which is not expanded, but a little produced
at apex, yet not enough to make a chela with the short apically toothed
finger. Uropod 1 with peduncle much shorter than the acute curved rami,
outer ramus much shorter than inner ; uropod 2 similar, but stouter and
shorter; uropod 3 apparently consisting of a single joint, bifid at end,
outer apex rounded and bearing a few setse, inner pointed and with only one
or two setce. Telson, each half subtriangular, but with apex broadly
rounded, with a small seta on each half. Length, 3 mm.

Lyttelton and Otago Harbours, New Zealand.

62

Transactions.

2. Bircenna crassipes (Chevreux).

WandeTia crassipes, Chevreux in Exped. Antarctique Franyaise, " Crustaces
Amphipodes," p. 45, figs. 24-26 (1906).

Similar to B. fulva except in the following points : Gnatliopods longer
and mucli more slender than 1st perjeopod. Uropods 1 and 2 with rami
subequal and only sUghtly longer than peduncle. Telson completely
divided into two triangular lobes, each armed with a small seta. Length,
3 mm.

Port Charcot (dredged at depth of 40 metres), Wandel Island (dredged
with sponges in 40 metres).

Bircenna fulva.

Fig. 1. — Third pleopod ; liighly magnified.

FiG. 2. — Uropoda and telson (side view) ; highly magnified.

Fig. 3. — Telson and 3rd uropoda (from above) ; highly magnified.

Genus KuRiA, Walker and Scott.

Kuria, Walker and Scott in Nat. Hist. Sokotra, p. 228 (1903).

Body laterally compressed. Side-plates not very shallow, the first 4
as deep as their segments. Maxillipedes with inner and outer lobes very
small, especially the latter ; neither reaching further than base of 2nd joint
of the 4-jointed palp. Gnathopods 1 and 2 subequal, long and slender,
with a small subchelate palm. Perfeopods short, last three with 2nd and
4th joints expanded. Uropod 3 with single ramus. Telson divided ta
ttie base, consisting of 2 subtriangular plates set on edge.

Chilton. — Ampliipodan Genera Bircenna, Kuria, and Waodelia. 63

1. Kuria longimana, Walker and Scott.

Kuria longimanus, Walker and Scott in Nat. Hist. Sokotra, p. 228, pi. xivh,
figs. 5-5n (1903). K. longimana, Stebbing in " Das Tierreich Amphi-
poda," p. 726 (1906).

Body rather plump, first 4 side-plates deeper than their segments ; last
3 segments of pleon coalesced. Gnathopods very slender, 2nd joint as
long as the next 3, 5th as wide and almost as long as the 6th, which is about
5 times as long as broad ; palm very small, oblique, defined by a spine,
finger projecting beyond palm by about one-fourth of its length. Uropods
1 and 2 with peduncles rather shorter than the rami, which are equal and
similar, and bear a few spines ; 3rd uropod with peduncle short and broad,
the single ramus about as long as peduncle, but more slender, and with
one or two spines at apex. Telson divided to base, the two subtriangular
divisions turned up on edge, the lower margin being convex and the upper
straight, with 2 or 3 setse near the distal end. Length, 2 mm.

Abd-el-Kuri.

Remarks.

In addition to the points that have been mentioned in the descriptions
given above, there are several others that I have not included, because I
have not yet been able to make a satisfactory comparison of them in the
different forms. For example, Messrs. Walker and Scott describe the last
3 segments of the pleon as being fused together in Kuria longimana ; and
Chevreux says that the last 2 segments are fused together in Bircenna
crassipes. They appear to be fused also in B. fulva, but owing to the
imperfect development of the 6th segment it is difficult to be quite clear
as to the actual state of affairs.

In Bircenna crassipes, as figured and described by Chevreux, there is no
molar process on the mandible, while in Kuria longimana Messrs. Walker and
.Scott describe the molar process as " rather large." In Bircenna fulva the
mouth parts, so far as I have been able to examine them in the single very
small specimen at my disposal, appear to closely resemble those of B. cras-
sipes. The mandible shows no molar process or palp, the cutting-end is
formed of some 4 or 5 indistinctly marked teeth, and the accessory process
is either absent altogether or very imperfectly developed. The 2 pairs of
maxillte have practically the same form as in B. crassipes, and the maxilU-
pede also closely resembles that of the same species. The upper Up is
small, and regularly rounded at the end, which bears a few very short
setae ; in the lower lip the lateral lobes are rounded and finely ciliated on
the distal border.

The 3rd pleopods are shown in fig. 1. They have the inner margin
of the peduncle much produced, and bear 2 very short coupling-spines at
its distal end ; the inner branch has a projection of its outer margin near
the base, as shown in tlie figure. The other pleopods closely resemble
the 3rd pair.

64 Transact 107}$.

Art. XV. — The Geology of the Quartz Veins of the Otago Goldfields.
By A. M. FiNLAYSON, M.Sc, A.O.S.M.

Communicated by Dr. Marshall.
[^Read before the Otago Institute, \-iih July. 1908.]

Introductiox.

The accompanying paper contains the results of investigations into the
geology of the veins of the Otago Goldfield. The area is a large one, and
the paper is not exhaustive, but the different ty^es of veins have been ex-
amined, and the features of every group described and discussed. As most
of the mines are now closed down, the district is not an ideal one for studying
vein-phenomena, and it is to be regretted that the work was not undertaken
many years ago, when Bullendale, Bendigo, and the O.P.Q. workings were
accessible.

I wish to acknowledge my great indebtedness to Professor Park, Dr.
Marshall, and Mr. D. B. AVaters, of the Otago School of Mines, for much
help and advice, both in the field and in the laboratory ; and to Mr. A. 0.
Bishop, of Skipper's, and Mr. R. Mollineaux, of Barewood, who gave me
great facilities in examining their mines.

General Description of the District.

The Otago Goldfield, as far as veins are concerned, embraces an area of
nearly 10,000 square miles, stretching from Lake AVakatipu on the west
to the sea-coast on the east, and from Cardrona in the north to La^\Tence
in the south. This district is drained chiefly by the Ciutha and Taieri
Rivers, and also by the smaller Shag River.

The country is mountainous, the various ranges running for the most
part approximately north-east and south-west, or at right angles to the
course of the Kawarau River, while the tributary streams flow between
and parallel to the ranges. This disposition is described and discussed by
Dr. Marshall in his " Geography of New Zealand."* Professor Park claims
that the ranges of Central Otago are block mountains.!

The climate of the inland districts is much hotter in summer and colder
in winter than on the east coast, but the rainfall is generally low. For
this reason the hills and valleys are practically barren of vegetation, being
clothed only in tussock. Dearth of water and absence of timber are serious
hindrances to mining in some parts of the field.

The goldfield has no centre of population, but "comprises a number of
towns which grew up in the roaring days of alluvial mining, for which the
district is chiefly noted. The principal towns are situated on the Ciutha
River, or in its drainage-basin, and stand as fingerposts indicating the

♦Marshall, "Geography of New Zealand" (Whitcombe and Tombs, 1905), p. 102.
tPark, Bull. No. 2, N.Z.G.S., 1906, p. 7; Bull. No. 5, N.Z.G.S., 1908, p. 9.

FiNLAYSON. — Geoloyy of Quartz Veins of Otago Goldfields.

65

march of the pioneer diggers from the coast inland. Communication, which
in the early days was difficult, is now good, the most remote mining districts
being connected by coach and rail with Dunedin.

Previous Geological Work.

The geology of the district has been the subject of a good deal of
notice, and a complete bibliography is given in Bulletins Nos. 2 and 5,
N.Z. Geological Survey (New Series). The quartz veins have, how-
ever, not been much studied, the chief works being by Ulrich, Rickard,
and Park. The following list includes all work written on the Otago
veins : —

McKay, Alexander —

"Carrick Antimony Lodes." Geol. Explorations, 1882, p. 80.
"Antimony on Barewood Run," Geol. Explorations, 1890, p. 54.
"Qiiartz Reefs at Nenthorn," Geol. Explorations, 1890, p. 50.
3— Tran--.

66 Transactions.

Park, James —

"Green's Reef, Ophir." Geol. Explorations, 1888, p. 17.

" White's Eeef. Old Man Range," Geol. Explorations. 1888, p. 32.

Alexandra Antimony Lode," Geol. Explorations, 1888, p. 33.
" Economic Geology of the Alexandra Sheet," Bull. No. 2, N.Z.G.S.,
1906, p. 21.

Rickard, T. A.—

"Goldfields of Otago," Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. xxi, p. 411.
Eowe, W. E.—

"Antimony Lode at Hindon," Geol. Explorations, 1879-80, p. 153.

"Antimony Lode, Waipori," Geol. Explorations, 1879-80, p. 155.

"Waitahnna Copper Lode," Geol. Explorations, 1879-80, p. 156.
Ulrich, G. H. F.—

"Goldfields of Otago": Dunedin, 1875.

" Handbook of New Zealand Mines," 1887, 1906.

Geology of the Goldfield.
(a.) Geological Formations.

The main formation of the goldfields and the country rock of the veins
is a foliated schist of considerable thickness. It varies locally, but for the
most part it is a mica-schist, more or less quartzose, and only submeta-
morphic in its upper portions.

The schists have been described by Hutton as forming an anticline
whose axis runs south-east from Lake Wakatipu to Dunedin, with a syncline
on either side of it.* Along the axis of the anticline, where denudation
has been most active, are exposed the lowest and most metamorphic beds,
while younger and semialtered slates and phyllites are preserved in the
adjacent synclines. As we pass north-east or south-west we come on
younger rocks (conglomerates and greywackes), and -finally reach fossil-
iferous beds at Kurow in the north-east, and in the Hokonui Hills in the
south-west. The former have been classed as Permo-carboniferous,t and
the latter as Triassic and Jurassic. J The age of the schists has as yet been
little more than guessed at, and no systematic attempt has been made to
ascertain their relation to the above fossiliferous beds. The quartz veins
are confined to the schistose rocks, but this is evidently an effect of the
distribution of the fissuring-force. and not due to a different age of rocks.
It will be sufficient at present to regard the gold-bearing series as of middle
and upper Palaeozoic age.

The schists are traversed by a number of structural faults, running for
the most at right angles to the axes of the folds described by Hutton, or
north-east and south-west. The faults have been mapped by McKay ,§ and
described later Ijy Park.|| It is open to question, however, if they are so
dominant and easily traced as these writers claim. This much seems
evident — namely, that the schists are much faulted, and that the faults
have roughly the direction stated.

* Hutton, " Geology of Otago," 1875, p. 30.

t Park, " Permo-carboniferous Rocks at Mount Marv," Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxvi,
p. 447.

$ Hector, '^ Outline of New Zealand Geology" (Wellington, 1S86), p. 83.

§ McKay, " Older Auriferous Drifts of Central Otago"' (Wellington, 1897), p. 107.

II Park, Bulls. 2 and 5, N.Z.G.S., 1906, 1908.

FiNLAYSON.— Geo/o(/?/ of Quartz Veins of Otago Goldfields. 67

For a goldfield, the district is poor in igneous intrusions. An outcrop
of actinolite-schist near Ophir is probably a metamorphosed dyke.* There
are, at Gibbston and Moke Creek, outcrops of serpentine-talc rock, repre-
senting magnesian intrusives of doubtful age.j Finally, there is the im-
portant middle Tertiary series of volcanic rocks developed especially round
Dunedin, and along the east coast as far north as Oamaru and inland to
Macrae's.J The rugged and little-known district between the lakes and
sounds doubtless contains extensive igneous intrusions, as judged from
pebbles picked up in the Clutha and Kawarau Eivers. .

The next formation, chiefly developed along the coast, is the Tertiary
limestone series of New^ Zealand, seen as a small patch at Bob's Cone, near
Queenstown, where it has been preserved from denudation by being involved
in a fault-line in the schists.

Then follow the Pliocene auriferous gravels and cements, shales, and
sands, which fill the valleys of the goldfield (formerly old lake-basins), and
finally the Pleistocene river and lake terraces, for the most part auriferous.

(b.) Geological History.

As far as we know at present, sedimentation was continuous, with minor
breaks, from the middle Palpeozoic, and perhaps earlier, till near the end of
the Jurassic period. During this extended time a vast thickness of sedi-
ments was deposited. Then followed, throughout the South Island, the
main upheaval of all these older beds, accompanied by the intrusion of an
important belt of granitic rocks, which can be traced from Nelson, through
Westland, and probably through western Otago, down to Preservation
Inlet and Stewart Island. At the same time the metamorphism and alpine
folding of the older rocks was mainly effected.

With elevation, denudation became active, and the younger Mesozoic
beds were removed from the central portions of Otago, where the uplift
was greatest.

Subsidence followed in the early Tertiary, and a series of coals and lime-
stones was deposited, the sea extending far into the interior. Then followed
elevation, accompanied by faulting and volcanic activity. Denudation at
the same time almost entirely removed the Tertiary deposits, and the pre-
sent drainage-system of Otago was inaugurated. Subsequent movements
are not quite clear, but there probably occurred a Phocene depression,
during which the deposits of the Central Otago lake-basins were laid down,
followed by a late Phocene and early Pleistocene elevation, accompanied
by glacial extension, and then a subsidence, with retreat of the glaciers.

The Veins.

With some exceptions, the veins are small, rarely exceeding 2 ft. or 3 ft.
in width. The filling is largely crushed and altered rock, accompanied
in the smaller ones by veins and stringers of quartz, and in the larger by
lenses or blocks of quartz, varying in size.

The predominant ore is gold, with very little silver (fineness, 960), ac-
companied by auriferous pyrite. Other minerals are scheeUte and stibnite,
which are common, and sometimes constitute the dominant ore ; also galena,
bournonite, and zincblende, which are rarfe.

* Park, Bull. No. 2, N.Z.G.S., 1906, p. 41.

t Finlayson. " Notes on the Otago Schists," Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1907, p. 76.

j Marshall, " Geology of Dunedin," Quart. .Journ. Geol. Soc, vol. Ixii, p. 422.

68 Transactions.

There are, in addition, two small copper-veins and one cinnabar-vein.

The veins may be divided into groups according to their locality and
characteristics, as follows : (1) Glenorchy, (2) Skipper's and Macetown,
(3) Carrick Range, (4) Bendigo, (5) Macrae's, (6) Waipori, (7) Barewood,
(8) copper- veins, (9) cinnabar-vein, (10) barren reefs and fault-fractures.

(1.) Glenorchy Veins.

The chief vein in this district is a scheeUte-bearing vein, which I have
■described in a previous paper.*

(2.) Skijiper^s and Macetown Veins.

The veins of this district are mineraUsed shear-zones rather than flssu^re-
veins. The country rock is a soft, finely laminated mica-schist, traversed
by broad belts of fracturing. Along these belts the rock is sheeted or divided
by several parallel fissures, the intervening schist being crushed and con-
torted, and more or less altered. These planes of fracture served as channels
for the mineralising solutions, which caused the formation of segregated
lenses or blocks of quartz. These blocks are of varying size and value.
The gold is mostly fine and free, and the adjacent shattered schist or lode-
formation is impregnated ^N-ith ppite.

The Shotover, or Nugget and Cornish, Vein. — The country rock strikes
north and south, and dips to the west at from 30° to 45°. The vein, striking
north-west and dipping south-west at about 60°, crosses the Shotover River
about two miles above Skipper's Point. At the river-bank there are two
veins, the eastern and the western, about 100 ft. apart. These two merge
into one a short distance up the hill, and the single fissure-Une has been
traced across the ranges for some miles to the north-west. On the south-
east side of the river the two outcrops are distinctly seen, but only the eastern
has been traced for any distance. This runs over the dividing-range, ap-
parently in hne with the Premier reef of Macetown.

The vein is typical of its class, two main fractures constituting respectively
the hanging and foot walls, wdth a parallel sheeting of the intervening belt
by subordinate fractures. In the western reef four blocks of quartz have
been stoped out. At the junction of the two veins a large block (the No. 1)
was stoped for a depth of 250 ft. below the surface. The blocks are generally
lens-shaped, and hmited on all sides. They are generally bounded by thin
clay partings or selvages, but not infrequently these are absent, and there

~ ' h f!

Fig. 1.
a. Quartz shoot, h. Veiu-fonuatiou of cruslied schist.

is a gradual transition from quartz to lode formation. In such cases the
quartz " makes" gradually out of the lode-formation, and passes over to
a parting or wall, where it wedges out (fig. 1).

*Finlayson, " Scheelite-deposits of Otago," Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1907, p. 110.

Fi'SLAYSON. ^Geology of Quartz Veins of Otago Goldfields.

69

The lode-formation varies in width from 8 ft. to 20 ft., and has generally
defined walls with tough clay casings. The value of quartz varies from
5 dwt. to 20 dwt. per ton. The gold is fine, hackly, and free, the extraction
being about 80 per cent, by mill amalgamation. The pyrite is auriferous,
but not by any means rich enough to warrant the treatment of the pyritic
lode-formation, as some promoters would have us believe.

In places, more especially near the surface, the lode-formation contains
bands of a soapy yellowish-grey rock, especially near quartz, and devoid of
pyrites.

The following analyses indicate the normal mode of alteration : —

H.O

SiOa
Al.Os

Fe^Os
FeO

CaO

MgO

KgO

Na.,0
Mnb
TiO,
CO.,

FeS.,

. 1.

2.

3.

4.

2-06

2-48

2-13

-f- 0-07

53-05

54-12

46-30

— 6-75

10-31

11-94

10-31

9-74

5-63

4-83

— 4-91

8-60

6-54

5-60

— 3-00

5-17

3-93

3-37

— 1-80

0-72

1-65

1-41

+ 0-60

4-74

4-73

4-05

— 0-69

2-90

4-31

3-69

+ 0-79

0-51

0-22

0-18

— 0-33

1-06

0-39

0-32

— 0-74

1-15

1-51

1-30

+ 0-15

3-43

2-94

+ 2-94

100-01

100-88

86-43

+

Unaltered country rock.
Altered lode-formation.

4-64
18-22

-13-58

Altered lode-formation, recalculated on a basis of constant alumina.
Gains and losses of altered rock.
These figures show — (1) that a good deal of replacement has occurred
injconnection mth the segregation of quartz ; (2) that the type of rock-
alteration may be regarded as partial sericitization. ■

The following analyses indicate the nature of the yellowish altered rock : —

1.

2.

.3.

4.

H,0

2-06

2-60

1-56

- 0-50

SiO.,

. 53-05

46-90

28-14

—24-91

Al,63 .

. 10-31

16-46

10-31

Fe,0, .

9-74

6-67

4-00

- 5-74

FeO

8-60

7-26

4-35

- 4-25

CaO

5-17

7-45

4-47

- 0-70

MgO

0-72

1-97

1-18

-1- 0-46

K^O

4-74

4-07

2-44

— 2-30

Na.O

2-90

2-08

1-25

— 1-65

Mnb

0-51

0-23

0-14

— 0-37

TiO.

1-06

0-27

0-16

- 0-90

CO.;

1-15

3-98

2-19

+ 1-04

FeS^

.

99-94

100-01

60-19

+ 1-50

1.

Country rock.

-41-32

2.

Yellow rock.

-

3.

Yellow rock, recalculated ^\^th constant alumina.

-39-82

4.

Gains and k

)sses.

70 Transact20?is.

It is evident from these figures that this altered rock is a kaoUiiized
variety of the normal lode-formation. The bleaching and the total removal
of pyrite are probably due to the secondary processes of descending surface
waters, accompanied by the formation of kaolin.

Present mine-workings have not yet shown what factors regulate the
occurrence of the quartz blocks. It is probable, however, that they are
connected with some local structural features. The No. 1 block, for instance,
occurred where the two reefs junction.

A common occurrence of gold in this and other veins of the district is
as fine " paint " coating the clay selvages. This is probably due to pro-
cesses of secondary enrichment, the clay partings acting as a filter to the
gold-bearing solutions. In other words, this seems to be an instance of
adsorption- — the process recently studied by Kohler.*

Microscopically the quartz occurs in coarse granules, with patches of
fine-grained quartz studded with pyrite crystals. Such patches evidently
indicate portions where replacement has occurred.

Other Veins. — The Invincible, fifteen miles up the Rees Valley from
Glenorchy ; the extensive group of veins round Macetown ; some veins
near Arrowtown ; and the BuUendale or Phoenix vein, up Skipper's Creek,
as well as other smaller veins in the Shotover Basin, all belong to this type,
and have the same characteristics.

(3.) Veins of the Carrick Range.

The northern flank of the Carrick Range, overlooking the Bamiockburn
Flat, is intersected by a complicated system of small veins, striking in various
directions. The country rock is a mica-schist of varying type, striking
north and south, and dipping to the east. The eastern flank of the range
is bounded by a well-marked fault, which passes near the veins and drags
down the schist with it, the rock along the fault-hne standing almost verti-
cally.

The veins, which are irregular and considerably disturbed, vary in width
from 18 in. to 3 ft., and the filling consists of mullock or highly crushed
schist, impregnated with pyrite, and traversed by stringers of gold-bearing-
quartz. Ulrich referred the irregularities of the veins to disturbances caused
by the intrusion of supposed dykes of " hornstone-porphyry."t As I have
shown elsewhere,! these dykes do not exist, and both Hutton and Uhich
made a peculiar mistake in failing to identify the horny sihcified gossan
of some of the vein-outcrops.

The map of the Carrick Range veins shows the interesting system the
individual members of which have been described in detail in Bulletin No. 5,
N.Z. Geological Survey. They fall naturally into four groups — the Cale-
donian, Carricktown, Young Australia, and Antimony groups.

1. The Caledonian Group. — The veins of this group, the most northerly
of all, occupy a radiating group of fissures, varying in strike from north
and south to north-west and south-east. They dip at high angles.

2. Carricktown Group. — These veins, which occur near old Carricktown,
also form a similar radiating group, opening out, however, towards the
north and west, whereas those of the Caledonian group spread out to the
south and east.

* E. Kohler, " Zeitschrift fur Pi-aktische Geologic," 1903, p. 49.

t Hutton and Ulrich, " Geology of Otago," 1875, p. 162.

I Finlayson, " Notes on the Otago Schists," Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1907, p. 72.

FiNLAYSON. — Geology of Quartz Veins of Olago Goldfields.

71

3. Young Australia Group. — This comprises a number of flat-dipping
veins lying for the most part to the south of the last group, and crossing
the country rock both in strike and dip. They occur only on the higher
slopes of the range, having evidently been denuded off the lower parts.
The Border Chief, Heart of Midlothian, and Vale of Avoca veins, lying on
the high spur west of the Caledonian group, are also members of this group,
the ridge not having been sufficiently denuded to remove them.

4. Antimony Group. — The veins of this group are similar in character
to the others, but they carry bunches of stibnite besides being auriferous.
They occur in a scattered group on the summit of the range, to the west
of and distinct from tlie other groups.

CARRICK VEINS.

Scale : 50 chains to an inch

A M. Fxnlaysun

Gold veins .
Antimony veins :

The Fissure-system. — The somewhat complicated system seems to be
best interpreted as follows : There have been two sets of radiating fissures
formed — the Caledonian and the Carricktown. Their formation was doubt-
less due to torsional stress, and the features of these groups are very well
reproduced by Daubree's experiments on the fracturing of glass by torsional
effects.* There has also been a shearing movement, which resulted in the
formation of the flat-lying fissures of the Young Australia group. To this
movement are probably due many of the disturbances in the other veins,
such as the peculiar horizontal displacements which have affected some of
the veins.

* Daubree, " Geologie Experimentale," 1879, p. 306.

72 Transactions.

The fault-lines in all the veins are gold-bearing, and often carry thin
stringers of quartz. Unless this is due to secondary enrichment, the filling
of the fissures must have extended over a considerable period of time. The
order of movement seems to have been : (1) Formation of radiating fissures ;
(2) formation of flat fissures or shear-planes, with disturbance of the radiating
fissures ; (3) final adjustment of the fissured area, with faulting of the flat
fissures. In other words, the evidence seems to indicate that the formation
of the radiating fissures was the cause of all the movements which followed,
these latter being due to forces called into play to readjust the strain on the
fissured area.

The formation of the fault on the east flank of the range, which was
subsequent to and independent of these local movements, also doubtless
disturbed the veins, but it is not possible to say to what extent.

Localisation of Ores. — A striking feature is the occurrence of the antimony-
ore limited to the extreme west of the fissured area, no more than a trace
of antimony being found in the sulphide minerals of the other veins. This
is evidently due to processes of ore-segregation beneath.

Gold. — In the oxidized zone, which extends to a depth of about 60 ft.,
the gold is free and easily extracted, and from a comparison of the very
high values which have been obtained on the surface with the much lower
value of the unoxidized ore it is evident that an immense amount of
secondary enrichment has taken place.

The unoxidized ore is impregnated with a sulphide having by analysis
the empirical formula FeAsgSg, evidently a mixture of iron and arsenical
pyrites. J. S. Maclaurin recently made a series of extraction tests on
samples of quartz from the Carrick Range,* mth the following results :
Fire assay — Gold, 17 dwt. 8 gr. per ton ; silver, 3 dwt. 3 gr. per ton. " No
gold was visible in the stone, but panning-ofF showed a little free gold."
Amalgamation — Extraction, 55 per cent. Chlorination without previous
roasting, 33 per cent. Cyanidation, 62-7 to 72*3 per cent. Cyanidation
with subsequent amalgamation, 9r3 to 96"4 per cent.

These results indicate that the gold is largely associated with sulphides,
partly as a coating, most of which amalgamation would remove, and partly
involved in the sulphides, which explains the small extraction from un-
roasted ore by chlorination. With a lens a little free gold can always be
seen in the quartz, and much more coating the sulphides in irregular strings.

Stibnite. — This is highly crystalline, often shows a marked comb-structure
parallel ■with the vein- walls, and is rather quartzose and low-grade. It
occurs in bunches easily freed from the soft lode-formation (at least, in the
oxidized parts), but requires much dressing to make it marketable.

Similar Groups of Veins. — The Old Man Range, near Alexandra, carries
on its flanks a number of small veins similar in character to those of the
Carrick Range. White's reef is the best -known. It is significant that a
small antimony-vein occurs at Alexandra, thus completing the parallel
between the two groups of veins.

(4.) The Bendigo Veins.

The veins of Bendigo lie on the north-w^est flank of the Dunstan Range,
three miles from the Clutha River. The country rock is a firm and highly
plicated quartz-mica-schist, lying almost horizontally. The veins, which
are small and narrow, occupy a series of well-defined parallel fissures running

* Government Mines Report (Wellington, 1905), p. 9.

FiNLAYSON. — Geology of Quartz Veins of Otago Goldfields.

73

east and west, and standing almost vertically. These are well shown on
the plan, and it will be seen that there is also a subordinate series of diagonal
veins crossinsr them.

The lode-matter consists of crushed and altered schist, impregnated
with pyrites and traversed by defined and continuous seams of quartz,
which may run on either or both walls, occasionally occupying the whole
width of the vein, with frequent splits and branch stringers. The quartz
seams often show a very fine comb-structure.

In the upper levels the ore was oxidized, and extraordinary values
were frequently obtained from small patches near the surface. In depth'
the ore is reported to be refractory, and sulphides — pyrite, galena, and
blende — become prominent.

The individual veins have been described in detail in Bulletin No. 5,
N.Z. Geological Survey. The group also includes the Alta scheelite-vein,
which lies about three miles to the east of the main grouj). This seems
another instance of the segregation of ores.

^'^ct.^ O*

BENDIGO VEINS

Surveys by G. F. Hosking

Si-u/f o/ Chains.

Bee Vein

Hit or Miss Vein

The Si/stem of Fissures. — The Bendigo group illustrates the sheeting of
rock by fissures, discussed many years ago by Emmons in his " Structural
Relations of Ore-deposits.''* It is also noteworthy that the best ore was
largely obtained from the neighbourhood of intersections wath the cross-
fissiires — an instance of ore-shoots at intersections. The minor cross-veins,
in fact, besides being payably auriferous, served as reliable indicators. At
the intersections a mutual displacement frequently occurred — a phenomenon
characteristic of crossing fissures, even when formed simultaneously.

The cross-veins are doubtless the result of shearing stresses set up in the
rock at the time of formation of the main fissures, the compound fissure-
lines being opened in such directions as would best relieve the strain.

* Enimous, " ScructuvAl Relations of Ore-depo iits," Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng.,
vol. xvi, p. 821.

74 Transactions.

The Vem-fiUing. — The quartz shows throughout a distinct banding,
parallel to the vein-walls. The crystal-axes of the quartz are distinctly
seen at right angles to the banding, and frequently very fine cavities with
comb -structure are to be seen (Plate II, la). Brecciation is common, the
quartz cementing fragments of country rock impregnated with pyrites,
and indicating that movement occurred subsequently to the first mineralisa-
tion of the fissures (Plate II, lb).

Chemical tests and microscopic examination of the sulphides show that
the habit and association of the gold is very similar to that of the Carrick
Range. The quartz, according to Ulrich and to the statements of miners,
occurs in shoots dipping east along the strike of the veins. This is a matter
which cannot be investigated at present, as the old workings are all closed.

The very high values which have been picked up near the grass on several
of the veins are evidently the result of prolonged secondary enrichment.

Microscopically the ore is seen to be banded in alternate lines of coarse
and fine granules, and carries also bunches of fine granular quartz thickly
studded v.dth pyrite crystals (Plate II, 2.)

Professor Park calls the Bendigo veins " immature replacement lodes,''*
but the highly drusy and crustified nature of the quartz frequently observed
argues rather for fissure-filling, and is a decided argument against Professor
Park's theory.

The deepest workings in Otago were on this group, the Cromwell shaft
having been sunk to a depth of 500 ft.

Other Veins allied to the Bendigo Veins. — The Conroy's Gully vein, near
Alexandra, is similar to these or to the Carrick veins. The group of small
east-and-west veins at Rough Ridge, now almost forgotten, are very similar
to the Bendigo type.f Lastly, the Nenthorn group, J east of the Taieri
Gorge, whose exploitation lasted for a period of two years, from 1889 to 1891 ,
may be put under this heading. They comprise a similar set of narrow
parallel veins, striking east and west, and dipping either north or south at
a steep angle.

(5.) Veins of Macrae's District.

These are an important group of scheelite-veins, which I described in
a previous paper.§ They are typical bedded or segregated veins, being the
only group of this nature in Otago.

(6.) Veins of Waipori and Southern Districts.

Ulrich has described four of these veins — the O.P.Q., Canada, Gabriel's
Gully, and Saddle Hill veins. || He states that they are characterized by
shoots or blocks of quartz which " show an endlong dip in strike." The
feature, he says, " may be considered as an oblique banded structure on the
large scale," the banding being marked by alternate blocks of quartz
and mullock. He also remarks that the gold occurs in shoots in the quartz
blocks, in the centre or on either wall.

The O.P.Q. {Otago Pioneer Quartz-mining Company's), or Shetland, Vein. —
This vein, near Waipori Township, strikes at about 160°, and dips eastward
at an angle of 56°. The country rock is a slaty quartz-schist, striking north-

* Park, Bull. No. 5, N.Z.G.S., 1908, p. 63.

t Ulrich, " Geology of Otago," 1875, p. 229.

j McKay, Rep. N.Z. Geol. Explorations. 1890, p. 50.

§rinlay.son, " Sclieelite-deposits of Otago," Trans. N.Z. List., 1907, p. 112.

II Ulrich, " Geology of Otago," 1875, pp. 159, 191.

FiNLAYSON. — Geology of Quartz Veins of Otago Goldfields.

75

east and dipping south-east at an angle between 10° and 25°. The walls
are fairly defined with seams of gouge, and the vein has been opened up
for nearly two miles along the strike, but the workings are now inaccessible.
Its thickness varies ; in places it is no more than 2 ft., but the average
distance between walls is about 10 ft. The rusty quartz from near the
surface was in patches extremely rich, while the deepest levels (200 ft.)
averaged from 7 dwt. to 12 dwt. per ton. The quartz is, in general, seamy,
and distinctly banded by parallel streaks of pyritic matter. The quartz
shoots may occupy the whole width of the vein or only a short width on
either wall. The dip of the shoots is regular and characteristic, although
they generally wedge out in lens fashion when followed down, to make
again on the same track at a greater depth.

Microscopically the quartz is mostly fine-grained, with occasional coarse
granules enclosed in it, giving a pseudo-porphyritic structure. Frequent
strings and veins of calcite are present, and the mass of fine-granular quartz
is crowded with pyrite. Evidently the quartz is very largely a result of
replacement, and the very distinct banding occasionally seen is best ex-
plained as due to progressive replacement of sheeted rock by ore.

In general the vein bears strong resemblances in structure to those of
Skipper's and Macetown. A fuller description is given by Mr. T. A. Rickard
in a very graphic article.*

Canton Vein. — This is similar to the last. It lies close to that one, and
strikes in a direction to join it, the probable junction lying in a gravel-filled
basin. These two veins in their field-relations may be compared with the
tAVO branches of the Nugget and Cornish vein.

Bella Vein. — This lies four miles from Waipori Township, in Long Gully,

a branch of the AVaipori River. It strikes
east and west, and stands almost vertically.
It has fairly defined walls, and varies from
3 ft. to 5 ft. in thickness. Where exploited,
it consisted at the surface of a shoot of
payable quartz from wall to wall. This
block was stoped out for a depth of 50 ft.

when it ran over to one wall and wedged
Ym. 2.— Section of Bella Vein, o^it, although the width between walls was

maintained. The vein carries a little scheel-
ite, which is found in some quantity in several little-known veins in this

district.
Cox^s
four miles from Waipori in a northerly direction. On the line of fissure,

Vein. — This lies on the flanks of the Lammerlaw Ranae, about

o^>

Vci )i F/S3'

Fig. 3. — Sketch-plan of Cox's Vein.

which strikes about east and west, and stands vertically, two shoots of stone
were opened out on the surface, dignified by the names '• Maori " and
" Maud," with a contraction of the fissure between them.

* Rickard, " Goldfields of Otago," Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. xxi. ]>. 416.

76

Transactions.

On the Burnt Range and Lammerlaw Range there are a number of small
veins or leaders, some carrying good gold. Their strike is for the most part
east and west, and they dip in either direction, with varying underhe. They
show similar characters to the O.P.Q. — namely, the occurrence of lenses
of quartz in the fissure-zone. The smaller veins, however, carry generally
a stronger and more continuous body of quartz than the larger.

Waifori Antimony -vein. — This occurs on the right bank of Stony Creek,
nine miles above the township. It has a strike of 105°, and a northerly
dip of about 45°. The outcrop has been proved for half a mile. The vein
is from 3 ft. to 4 ft. wide, and consists of quartz seamed with mullock, and
poor in gold. It carries frequent bunches of quartzose stibnite. At one
spot a pocket of scheelite was found and extracted, and gypsum was found
where the scheelite and stibnite were intermingled. This is no doubt a
.secondary product, formed by the oxidation of sulphur and combination
with the lime of the scheelite.

The veins at Gabriel's Gully, near Lawrence; at Table Hill, near Milton ;
and at Saddle Hill, near Dunedin, described by Ulrich in 1875, are now
all closed down.

(7.) The Barewood Claim.

This is the best-known vein in the Taieri Gorge district, which includes
several veins prospected at Hindon, Matarae, and elsewhere.

The country rock is a quartz-mica-schist, lying almost horizontally.
The vein strikes north-west and south-east, and dips north-east at an angle
of about 60°. It is worked by an underlay shaft, which cuts the vein at a
depth of 130 ft. At 180 ft. and 240 ft. crosscuts open up Nos. 2 and 3 levels,
while a winze from No. 3 level has been sunk for a further distance of 30 ft.
This is one of the few veins now being worked on the goldfield. It averages
from 4 ft. to 5 ft. in width, but widens out to 15 ft. in the upper levels. It
is composed of solid quartz throughout, divided by subordinate clay heads
or partings parallel to the well-defined wails. The foot-wall is uninterrupted,
but the hanging-wall carries small leaders (from 6 in. to 12 in. wide), which
wedge out a short distance up. These leaders generally carry good gold.

Fig. 4.- — Hangiisg-wall Leaders at Barewood.

Slickensides are often well developed, generally on the hanging-wall. In
places the quartz adjoining the walls, and also the adjacent wall-rock, are
highly brecciated. This has been seen on both walls in No. 3 level, and on
the hanging-wall in No. 1, while it is absent in No. 2.

Horizontal Distribution of Gold. — The gold, so far as workings have
disclosed, is uniformly distributed along the strike, and shows as yet no
tendency to occur in localised shoots.

FiNLAYSON. — Geology of Quartz Veins of Otago Goldfields.

77

Vertical Distribution of Gold. — The present depth of workings has
disclosed an interesting variation in value from the No. 3 level winze
to the surface. The accompanying section shows the values at different
points, taking the average value through the whole cross-section of the
vein : —

/Y.yy.

dufls.

to

^3hcin

16 \ntermediateLz\el

1^

10

20

/v'o. /. Le\.'&i

till?

V ^(

ISO'

No. ^. Level 1 80'

No. 3 Level ^40'

k <'

3 £.

} Payable Ore.^

^'^/ »

3otrreit Orz.-

Fig. 5. — Cross-section of Barewood Vein.

From the surface to a depth of 50 ft. the value rose from \ oz. to 1 oz.
per ton. From here to the intermediate level the value fell to 16 dwt.,
and then more slowly, till at three stopes below No. 1 level it was 14 dwt.
From here to No. 2 level the mean value became very low — approximately,
5 dwt. Between Nos. 2 and 3 there was an equally rapid rise, and at No. 3
it varies from \ oz. to over 1 oz. per ton, while at the foot of the winze the
assay value is uniformly over 1 oz., and rich specimen-stone, particularly
the brecciated variety, may be picked up showing much coarse gold. It
is peculiar also that at this point the gold is often dark in colour and
rusty.

At No. 3 level, below it, and for some distance above it, the gold is pretty
evenly distributed across the vein. Rising to No. 2 level, a barren block
of glassy quartz comes in, and the seamy gold-bearing quartz is pushed
over to the two walls, and divided by clay partings from the barren centre
block, which corresponds practically to a " horse " of country rock. This
block wedges out when followed in either direction along the strike, and
it also has an easterly pitch or dip along the strike of the vein. Both
these features may be seen on the accompanying plan of the workings.

78

Tronsactinns.

where it will be observed that in each level the foot-wall and hanging-
wall seams have been driven on, leaving the centre block intact.

Shclfl

Fig. 6.-

W.

-Mine-plan, Barewood.
X Barren block.

Thus in the wider portion of the vein the gold has been deposited in two
shoots along the walls. The gold-bearing quartz differs from the barren
" dog's-tooth " quartz in being seamed and mottled wdth pyritic mullock,
and under the microscope is finer in grain. These facts point to a certain
amount of replacement along the walls, while the barren block has been
formed by simple deposition in an enlarged fissure.

In places in Nos. 2 and 3 levels there occur pecuhar siliceous concretions
(Plate II, 3), cavernous and irregular in form, with a fine chalcedonic banding.
They are dark, and coated thickly with very fine pyrites. In appearance
they suggest " clinkers " in coal, or fossil forms.

Associated Minerals. — The dominant sulphide is pyrite, in fine crystals
and grains. It is absent in the clear glassy quartz, and thickly distributed
in the auriferous quartz. In the No. 3 level there was found within the
vein, and near the hanging-wall, a narrow cavity containing a cluster of
large stalactites of pyrite. Stibnite, galena, and scheelite occur occasionally.
The only one of importance is stibnite, which is becoming common in the
deeper levels.

Habit of the Gold. — The gold is largely free, the assay value of pyrite
being low. It is probable, however, that at a greater depth the ore will
become refractory.

FiNLAYSON. — Geology of Quartz Veins of Otago Goldfields.

79

Alteration of the Wall-rock. — The country rock is little altered, except for
about 2 ft. from the vein-walls, where the alteration is considerable, the rock
being soft and " muUocky." There is, further, frequently found on the
walls a type of greasy yellowish rock, devoid of pyrite, and very similar to
the corresponding rock described above in the Nugget and Cornish Mine.
It accompanies the brecciated ore, the payable seams being well developed
in No. 3 level and the winze.

The following analyses indicate the alteration of the normal rock : —

1.

2.

3.

4.

H20

1-68

2-11

1-58

— 0-10

SiO.,

. 62-02

65-30

48-97

— 13-05

AloOg ..

. 11-15

14-70

11-15

, ,

Fe,03 ..

5-58

4-12

3-09

— 2-49

FeO

7-26

2-41

1-80

— 5-46

CaO

6-11

3-76

2-82

— 3-29

MgO

0-65

0-79

0-60

— 0-05

K,0

1-71

1-28

0-96

- 0-75

Na.,0 . .

3-34

2-05

1-54

— 1-80

Mnb

0-17

0-21

0-15

— 0-02

TiO.

1-01

0-37

0-27

— 0-74

FeS^

.

3-82

2-85

+ 2-85

100-68 100-92 75-78 + 2-85

—27-75

1. Unaltered rock.

2. Altered rock. ^ -24-90

3. Altered rock, recalculated on a basis of constant alumina.

4. Gains and losses.

The alteration in this case is more intense than at Skipper's, although
more local, and the loss of material greater. It is, however, of a similar
nature — namely, sericitic.

Analyses made of the yellowish or bleached variety of wall-rock show
that, like that at Skipper's, it is a kaolinized type of the ordinary sericitic
rock, evidently formed by the action of descending waters.

Ore-shoots of Primary Origin. — The characteristic hanging-wall and foot-
wall seams described above doubtless originated during the primary de-
position of the gold, through the influence of the wall-rock.

Ore-shoots of Secondary Origin — Secondary Sulphide Enrichment. — A
number of facts indicate that the No. 3 level winze has encountered a zone
of enriched sulphides (pyrite and stibnite). These are as follows : (1.) The
occurrence of the gold in the free state, and its frequent rusty colour. (2.) The
occurrence of stalactites of pyrites. (3.) The peculiar siliceous concretions,
probably due to solution and redeposition by subsequent leaching j)rocesses.
(4.) The brecciation, signifying subsequent movement, would give readier
access to descending solutions. (5.) The kaolinization and bleaching of the
yellowish wall-rock, and the absence of pyrite in it, are evidently due to
descending surface waters, and it is notable that it occurs associated with
the brecciated ore and with the richest seams. (6.) Finally, the impoverish-
ment in the upper levels, supported by the above data, points to the work
of secondary enrichment, which has largely leached the gold out of the
upper levels and redeposited it with sulphides in the zone now being opened

80 Transactions.

up. It is probable that wlieu this zone is passed through the ore will become
lower grade and refractory, as at Bendigo and ou the Carrick Range.

(8.) Goffer -veins.

There are two veins in the district carrying auriferous chalcopyrite — one
at Moke Creek, near Queenstown, and one in Reedy Creek, near Waitahuna.
I examined the outcrop of the Moke Creek vein, but little can be seen, and
no information of importance was obtained. The ore is low grade, and the
veins are small and of uncertain ore-content. Under the microscope there
is seen to be a good deal of carbonate in the gangue (Plate II, 4), Ulrich
described both these veins in 1875, and Rowe later described the Waitahuna
vein (see Bibliography).

(9.) Cinnabar -vein.

One cinnabar-vein has been located— namelv, the Waitahuna vein, in
a gully at the foot of the Waitahuna Hills, half-way between Berwick and
Waipori. The vein is a small one, filled with pyritic mullock, which carries
bunches and veins of very high-grade cinnabar. The mineral is highly
crystalline in the frequent small cavities, the crystal form being prismatic
with rhomb ohedral terminations (/•, 1011).

Cinnabar is frequently found in the alluvial gravels throughout the
Waipori district, and there is no doubt that there are other veins of this
mineral in the neighbourhood. Such veins might escape detection owing
to their small size, and to the soft and perishable nature of the vein-
filling. The country is, moreover, unfavourable for the prospecting of
such veins, being largely worn down into rolling foothills covered with
tussock.

A good deal of alluvial cinnabar has also been found in the Nevis and
Nokomai district, and a vein doubtless exists there also, although none has
yet been found.

(10.) Fault- fractures and Barren Quartz Reefs.

The occurrences described under this head have, as far as can be seen,
no economic value.

Fault - fractures. — The faults and crush-zones which extend through
the goldfield are occasionally mineralised, and carry a few grains or more
of gold to the ton. One of these occurs about three miles to the east of
Bendigo, running about north-west and south-east.* In several places on
the line of the fault prospecting-work has been carried on, and a little
payable work done, but the irregular and very low-grade nature of the
formation caused operations to be soon suspended. The workings disclose
a belt of crushed schist traversed by small irregular veins of quartz.

Green's reef, at Ophir, described by Ulricht and by Park,} is another
instance of this type. Some years ago it gave a good return to its sole
prospector. The occurrence of gold at Green's reef is cited by McKay as
an instance of the occurrence of free gold in the schist.§

Ulrich has suggested that these " lode-formations " will, if developed,
lead to a simple defined vein in depth. I i It is much more probable that

* Park. Bull. No. 5. X.Z.G.S.. p. 56.
t " Handbook of New Zealand Mines." 1887, p. 75.
+ Park. Bull. No. 2, N.Z.G.S., p. i'J.

§ McKay, '• Gold-deposits of New Zealand " (Wellington, 1903), p. 07.
•-^ Ulrich, " Geology of Otago," 1875. |). 185.

Trans. NX, Inst., Vol. XIJ.

I'l.. II.

Z634-

QUARTZ VEINS OF OTAGO GOLDFIELDS.— Finlayson.

F<nc p. au.

FiNLAYSON. — Geology of Quartz Veins of Olago Gold-fields. 81

they will peter out altogether, and certainly their gold-content will not
justify sinking on the outcrop. That they have had their indirect value,
however, is undoubted, and they must have helped in some measure to supply
the alluvial gold of the drifts.

Barren Reefs, or Buck Reefs. — These are peculiar types, and correspond
to similar occurrences on the Hauraki goldhelds, in California, and in a great
many other vein districts. In Otago they consist of very wide, massive,
bold outcrops of " hungry " glassy quartz, often traceable for considerable
distances. They are practically barren, devoid of pyrite, and composed of
quartz throughout.

A typical buck reef occurs near the Hawksburn Homestead, six miles
south of Bannockburn. Several occur at Quartz Reef Point, on the Clutha
River, four miles above Cromwell. Another occurs at Nenthorn, and another
in the Nokomai district. An interesting buck reef occurs near Waipori, on
the road to the Waipori antimony-vein. Where it outcrops it consists of
2 ft. of quartz, much of whicli is in very fine pseudomorphs after calcite,
and preserves excellently the rhombohedral cleavage. It is, however, not
proved that this is a buck reef, as no tests have been made of the quartz.

General Observations on the Veins.
(1.) The Vein- fissures.

Nature of the Fissures. — The fissures which carry the veins of Otago
vary greatly in nature, according to the physical character of the particular
zone of schist through which they pass. Where the schist is resistant and
quartzose the fissures are simple, being narrow and defined, as at the Carrick
and Bendigo ; where the rock is softer the fissures are compound, ill-defined,
and longer, and become shear-zones of some width, as at Skipper's and
Macetown. Finally, at Macrae's the shear-zones follow the foliation-bedding
planes, so that here we have a group of bedded or segregated veins. Thus
the division of the veins into groups, first used by Ulrich, is made possible
by the above fact — the varying nature of the schist and the consequent
varying nature of the veins in different localities.

Professor Park speaks of the vein-type at Bendigo as a twin fissure
containing a band of schist between.* I can see no evidence of this, and I
regard such a vein as a single fissure filled by quartz, except where portions
of country rock have been detached from the walls of the fissure by sub-
ordinate cracks, giving the quartz vein a varying thickness.

Orientation. — The mean strike of the gold-bearing fissures is west and
east, or slightly to the north of west, although locally the strike varies
through all points of the compass, as on the Carrick Range.

Distribution. — The local distribution of fissures as shown on the map
is in part more apparent than real, for there is no doubt that the whole
goldfield is traversed by veins, even in localities where they have not been
located. This is due in part to the absence of prospecting in less inviting
districts, and in part to the fact that veins might readily be overlooked in
tussocky country where shoots or blocks of quartz did not happen to outcrop.
Nevertheless, there is evidence of a localisation of fissures into more or less
defined groups. This is probably due to local factors, such as the nature
or previous disturbance of the schist, which aided or retarded the fissuring-
forces.

* Park, Bull. No. 5, N.Z.G.S., 1908, p. (i3.

82 T ransactio7is .

It is noticeable that the vein-bearing district spreads out in a fan froni^
the head of Lake Wakatipu to Macrae's in the north and Lawrence in the-
south. This fan encloses all the known auriferous veins of Otago, although
it must be remembered that veins exist at Preservation Lilet, in the far
south-west, and also probably in the Longwood Range, in Southland. Never-
theless, the fact remains that the gold-veins of Otago proper are contained
within the area indicated.

Origin. — The fissures are evidently due to compression-forces, as they
have all the typical features of compression veins, described by Emmons^
For the cause of this compression there are two alternatives : (1.) It may
have been caused by a tectonic force acting from west to east and south-
east, with its greatest intensity at the head of Lake Wakatipu, in the near
vicinity of the belt of igneous rocks which were intruded during the Jurassic
mountain-formation. Such a compression movement would conceivably ex-
tend its area of effect as suggested by the above " fan," and would gradually
diminish in intensity as it passed towards the coast. This would be favour-
able to the formation of bedded shear-zones, as seen at Macrae's. (2.) It
may have been caused, as Professor Park claims,* by local intrusions of
igneous rocks which did not reach the surface. As against this view, it
is strange that none of the intrusives are to be seen exposed. The evidence
is not yet sufficient to decide which view is the correct one, but from a con-
sideration of the gold-bearing veins throughout the South Island there is
strong evidence for concluding that the fissures were formed during adjust-
ment of the strains set up by the alpine folding at the end of the Jurassic.

Age. — On this view the Assuring is Post-Jurassic, and probably occurred
during subordinate earth-movements following on the main extensive folding.
They may be regarded as of Cretaceous or early Tertiary age.

The fault-fissures are much younger, being, from geological consider-
ations, of late Pliocene or even younger date.

(2.) The Vein- for motion.

The vein-formation varies, as has been seen, according to the nature
of the fissures, and all gradations may be traced from quartz-filled fissures
to replacement veins. The typical quartz vein is seen at Barewood ;
Bendigo is also a good instance of fissure-filling. At Skipper's, Waipori,
and Macrae's, replacement has been the chief process.

The characteristic metasomatic alteration, as revealed by analysis, is
sericitization of the wall-rock, accompanied by a reduction of specific gravity
and a decrease in volume. A calculation of the constituents of the altered
rock at Barewood shows that about 33 per cent, of sericite is present. As
regards changes in constituents, the altered rock shows generally a con-
siderable loss in silica, greatest in the case of veins which carry segregated
quartz (Macrae's), in iron and titanium, in the earths and in the alkalies.
The added constituents are generally sulphur and carbon-dioxide. The
nature of the metasomation is somewhat similar to that of the Freiberg
gneiss, examined by Scheerer and Stelzner.f

Ore-shoots. — Nearly all those veins which have been reported to contain
ore-shoots are now unworked, and I was unable to investigate the subject.
It is therefore inadvisable to speculate or make statements based on rumour
and on records of doubtful value.

* Park, Bull. No. 5, N.Z.G.8., 1908, p. 63.

t Beckweed, " Nature of Ore-deposits," 1905, p. 397.

FiNLAYSON. — Geology of Quartz Veins of Otago Goldfielda. 83

Ckanges of Primary Ore-content in Depth. — The deeper workings appear
to show that iu most cases the gold in depth becomes largely involved with
sulphides, the free gold diminishing in proportion. The metal is still largely
free at Barewood, but this appears due to secondary enrichment, and primary
or unleached ores in Otago are all probably refractory.

In regard to variations in the sulphides at different depths, the data
are either unreliable or too meagre to indicate anything.

Paragenesis. — The following are the known cases of paragenesis in
Otago : (1) Gold, iron-pyrites ; (2) gold, iron-pyrites, stibnite ; (3) gold,
iron-pyrites, stibnite, galena ; (4) gold, iron-pyrites, galena, zincblende ;
(5) gold, iron - pyrites, bournonite, zincblende; (6) gold, iron - pyrites,
scheelite ; (7) gold, iron-pyrites, scheelite, stibnite ; (8) gold, iron-pyrites,
scheelite, stibnite, galena; (9) gold, iron - pyrites, cinnabar: (10) gold,
iron-pyrites, copper-pyrites.

(3.) Subsequent Changes in the Veins.

1. Movement along the Fissure-walls. — Subsequent movement of the
fissures is shown by the frequently brecciated ore, but there is nothing to
indicate enrichment by uprising thermal waters during the movement.

2. Secondary Sulphide Enrichment. — Gossan enrichment is best seen
at Bendigo and the Carrick, and illustrated by the manner in which workings
were largely confined to the oxidized zone. The phenomenally rich patches
of ore recovered near the surface in the early days are further evidence.

The occurrence of film or paint gold on clay selvages, as at Skipper's,
is another proof of enrichment, and the yellow kaolinic wall-rock seen here
and at Barewood is no doubt due to the same cause.

A zone of enriched sulphides occurs, as discussed above, at Barewood,
and probably in other veins as well.

3. Denudation. — During the frequently recurring periods of elevation
since the vein-formation denudation would be active, and the upper enriched
portions of the veins would be continually shorn off, the gold going to supply
the alluvial wealth of Otago, for which the district is more justly famed.
A consideration of the relative amounts of vein and alluvial gold obtained
in Otago shows that the value of the veins has been largely indirect. De-
nudation has, indeed, gone on to such an extent that the Otago veins must
be considered as practically vein-roots, and when it is possible to calculate
the amount of denudation that has taken place we will have a legitimate
field for speculating on the depth to which the veins will be payable.

4. The Source of Alluvial Gold. — The early diggers in Otago, as in all
other goldfields, maintained that the alluvial gold was derived from quartz
veins. Messrs. McKay* and Eickard,t however, claim that the quartz
veins are insufficient in quality and quantity to have supplied the gold,
and they maintain that the gold has been derived mainly from the schist.
In another paper I have pointed out that the occurrence of gold in the schist
is an unproven hypothesis.J Further, after a careful study of the great
number of veins which exist, and of the prolonged enrichment and enormous
denudation which have taken place since the veins were formed, I have
come to the conclusion that the early diggers held the correct view^ — that
the quartz veins were a sufficient source of supply, and that no other source
supplied any appreciable quantity.

* :McKay, " Gold-deposits of New Zealand " (Wellington, 190.3), p. G7.

f Rickard, " Goldfields of Otago," Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. xxi, [i. 442.

j Finlayson, " Notes on the Otago Schists," Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1907, p. 77.

84 Transactio7is.

(4.) Genesis of the Veins.

In the light of present views in regard to the genesis of ore-deposits, we
must conceive that the vein- fissures when formed gave access to thermal
waters charged with precious metals, which rose from a magma beneath,
wherein rock-differentiation and ore-segregation had taken place.

The universal occurrence of gold and pyrites, and the very frequent
presence of antimony-ore and scheelite. indicate a pretty uniform degree
of segregation beneath. The isolated occurrences of copper-ore and cinnabar
are no doubt due to some local segregations at points beneath.

Fault-fractures. — These were formed at a much later date, probably
when thermal magmatic waters had ceased their activity. Moreover, being
gravity faults, they would not extend to such a depth as compression fractures,
even allowing for a reduced thickness of the schists due to denudation.

Buck Reefs. — The explanation of these occurrences is difficult. Their
presence in so many gold-bearing districts would lead us to infer that they
have been formed by similar processes to the gold-veins, and probably at
the same time. The quartz appears to have been deposited in a wide fissure,.
or at least in a fissure which widened as it was being filled, while the solutions
were either of meteoric origin or had been robbed of their metallic content
some distance below the present surface. It is even possible that the solu-
tions were barren of metals, and that these buck reefs illustrate the extreme
siliceous product of magmatic differentiation in a portion of the magma
where the conditions were not favourable to the segregation of ores.

(5.) Future Prospects of the Goldfield.

The history and development of quartz-mining in Otago have been
sketched by Mr. Robert Mackintosh, who has also some observations on the
future prospects of the district.* The following matters may be emphasized
from the standpoint of economic geology : —

1. Timber is scarce all over the field, while water and fuel are also often
at a premium. These factors are obstacles in the way of extensive working.

2. The small size of the veins, and the fact that the ore is frequently
refractory and low-grade, are also objectionable features.

3. The uncertain occurrence of quartz blocks in the larger veins, and
their uncertain quality when found, entail extensive development, and the
returns from such workings are not likely to be highly remunerative.

4. Finally, in consideration of the fact that the veins are practically
roots, and that the ore is almost certain to be low grade after a depth of about
300 ft., deep sinking is less likely to be successful than development along
the strike. There is no doubt that a great deal of payable ore still exists
in undeveloped portions of the veins, and that the judicious exploitation
of the upper levels would maintain the field for some years to come.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Fig. L Comby quartz [a], and brecciated quartz (b), from the Cromwell vein, Bendigo.
Fig. 2. Vein-qviartz, Bendigo. The photo shows the association of coarse and fine

granules. Magnified 27 diameters.
Fig. 3. A siliceous concreticn from the No. 2 level, Barewood, formed evidently during

secondary enrichment by meteoric circulation.
Fig. 4. ChalcopjTite, from Moke Creek. The photo shows some ore (opaque) in a gangue

of quartz and twinned calcite. Magnified 27 diameters.

* R. Mackintosh, " Mineral Resources of New Zealand," N.Z. Mines Record, 16th
Jan., 1907.

FiNLAYSON, — Geology of the Beefton Gold-veins.

85

Art. XVI. — The Geology of the Reefton Gold-veins.

By A. M. FiNLAYSON, M.Sc, A.O.S.M.

Communicated by Dr. Marshall.

[Read before the Otago Institute, lith July, I'JOS.]

Introduction.

The quartz-mining district of Keefton has many claims to distinction
among the mining camps of the Dominion. Although late in development,
the mines when opened up made rapid strides, and the goldfield has
survived alike the wild-cat period and the period of booms and crashes.
The Town of Reefton was the first in New Zealand to be lit with electric
light, by power from the Inangahua River, and, although none of the mines
compare with Waihi for magnitude of operations, the field offers good
opportunities for studying the cyanidation of low-grade ores. The veins
themselves are interesting from the point of view of structural features
rather than of genesis.

I wish here to express my great indebtedness to Mr. A. Spencer, surveyor
for the Consolidated Company, for the great assistance he rendered me by
giving me access to the mines and to the mine-plans.

General Description of the District.

The district of which Reefton, a town of two thousand inhabitants,
is the commercial centre, occupies the valley of the lower Inangahua River,

Geological Map of

REEFTON GOLDFIELD

(After Alex. McKay, 1882)

Scate of Miles.

O I ? 3 -^ S

I" » x| Granite
V////^ Deuoman

Aurijerous Slates

l-~— ^ Tertiary coals. &c
I- ■■'I Recent
— Quarts Veins

which emerges from the gorge, flows past Reefton, and runs north for about
twenty miles to join the Buller River where the old Township of Lyell is

86 Transactions.

situated. The upper Inangahua flows north-west, and crosses in its gorge
the best-known part of the gold-belt. This latter further extends some
distance to the south, passing over a low saddle into the watershed of the
Grey River.

The district thus indicated lies in a valley between two granitic ranges —
the Paparoa Range on the west, and the. Victoria-Brunner Range on the
east. The Inangahua River receives in its course several tributaries, the
most important being on its right, or east, bank. The largest are the
Waitahu River, which joins it a few miles below Reefton, then Boatman's
and Larry's Creeks. In the gorge it receives on its right bank Lankey's
and Murray Creeks, and on its left Rainy and Devil's Creeks. These are
small mountain-streams, whose names are closely Unked with the early
history of the goldfield.

The mountain-slopes from the 3,000 ft. level to the valley have been
for the most part heavily timbered, and still are in the less settled parts of
the district. But the forests are being rapidly destroyed to supply timber
for the mines and for other purposes, and to clear the land for grazing.

The district is well watered by its numerous streams, and, in common
with other parts of the West Coast, it has an abundant rainfall. There
is more than sufficient water for mining purposes, and the available
water may still be turned to account as a source of power. The climate
is mild for the most part, though somewhat cold in winter, and the town
during that season is frequently enveloped for days at a time in a thick
low-lying fog.

The district is connected with Greymouth by a forty-mile train service,
and with Westport by a coach via the Lyell. Nearly all of the Reefton
traffic goes by the former route.

Previous Geological Work.

The veins themselves have never been systematically examined since
their exploitation, which is a matter for regret both from an economic and
from a scientific standj^oint. The geology of the district has, however,
received some attention from Hector,* Cox,f and notably McKay.J The
last named also has some incidental references to the veins. Murray, in
a report on deep quartz-mining in New Zealand, § has also some notes on
the Reefton mines. The only other available information is contained
from year to year in the annual reports of the Mines Department.

Geology.

The district is bounded on both sides by granite massifs, in the Paparoa
Range and the Victoria and Brunner Ranges. The space between is
occupied by a belt of slates — the gold-bearing series, considered by Hector's
Geological Survey to be the equivalents of the Maitai series. || These slates
are mucli folded into a series of sharp anticlines and synclines. and also
much disturbed by faulting. The age of the slates is not definitely known.
They have been referred to the Carbohiferous, but may be much younger.

*J. Hector, Reps. N.Z.G.S.. 1873-74. p. 85.
t S. H. Cox. " Geoloiiy of Westland." Reps. N.Z.G.S., 1875-70.
J A. McKay, "Geology of Reefton District," Reps. N.Z.G.S., 1882, p. 91.
§ R. A. F. Murray, " Report on Deep Quartz-minina; in New Zealand," parliamentary
paper C.-6, 1894.

li A. McKay, " Geology of Reefton District," Reps. N.Z.G.S., 1882, p. 132.

FiNLAYSON. — Geology of the Reefton Gold-veins.

87

The belt of quartz veins runs through them in a north-and -south direction
along their strike.

Erosion along an anticline in the slates has exposed beneath them in places
a series of cherts, slates, and limestones containing fossils of Devonian age.

As regards the relations of these three formations, the granites on both
sides are intrusive into the slates, as seen by the intense local contact-effects
in Larry's Creek and elsewhere, and to their intrusion is doubtless due the
intense folding and crushing of the included belt of slates. These latter
are claimed by Hector and McKay to rest with pronounced unconformity
on the Devonian rocks,* and from other considerations this is probably
the case, but good sections showing the junction between the two forma-
tions are difficult to obtain owing to the faulting and disturbance that the
rocks have undergone. McKay has described in some detail the Devonian
sequence exposed in the Inangahua Gorge, Lankey's Gully, Waitahu River,
and Rainy Creek.t North and south of these limits the Devonian rocks
have not been recorded.

Next in age comes the early or middle Tertiary series of coal-bearing
rocks, well developed at Boatman's and at the head of Murray Creek. In
these localities good seams of high-grade bituminous coal occur, from which
over 100,000 tons of coal has been won. This coal is a valuable asset to
the district, and is in high favour for household purposes. Accompanying
the coal-bearing rocks are auriferous gravels and cements (which have
been worked in places), sandstones, and, further north, limestones. The
base of the series is occupied by coarse greywacke breccias, well exposed in
the BuUer Gorge, on the east flanks of the Paparoa Range. The rock series
thus described as exposed in the Reefton district is typical of the great
coal-bearing series of the West Coast, whose age is still a matter of doubt.
They have been classed by Hector and McKay as Cretaceo-tertiary,J but
the Hmestone fossils indicate a much younger age. Whatever their age,
they rest with marked discordance on the older rocks, and are also deeply
involved in the 'structure of the ranges on which they occur, as is well seen
in Murray Creek.

The Inangahua Valley is occupied by gravel terraces of Pliocene or
Pleistocene age, and by recent gravel-deposits. The gravels, both in the
main valley and in the tributary streams, have yielded a considerable
quantity of alluvial gold, and are even yet in places profitably worked by
small parties.

Devonian Pocks

Fig. I. — Sketch Section across Reefton Goldfield.

The above sketch section across the district from west to east indicates
the geological structure.

* A. McKay, " Geology of Reefton District,". Reps. N.Z.G.S., 1882, p. 130.
I hoc. ciL, p. 108.
t Lor. cit.. p. 140.

88 Transactions.

Dykes.

|The granitic rocks are penetrated here, as elsewhere on the Coast, by
numerous basic and semibasic dykes, inckiding varieties ■ of diorite, por-
phyrite, camptonite, and similar types.

The slates are also intruded by a series of dykes which, so far as yet
known, are exclusively of diabase. The outcrops are difficult to locate,
owing to the extensive alteration which the dykes have undergone, some
of them being slightly schistose. They have generally been exposed in
mine-workings only, and, as many of the mines are now closed down,
observations cannot readily be made. They have been found in the
Specimen Hill, Inglewood, and Keep It Dark Mines, but the only one
that I saw was in the last-named, and its occurrence is described under
the description of that mine.

It is notable that these dykes seem confined to the gold-bearing belt,
but their intrusion seems to antedate the vein-formation. Their intense
alteration is probably due to solutions acting at this period, and their
occasional schistosity indicates that they have been subjected to considerable
pressure, probably during the period of folding of the slates. There is
thus evidence for assuming that they are the oldest known intrusives in
the district.

Petrography of Diabase.

Megascopically the diabase is a rather soft dark-green rock, full of black
cleavage-faces of small augite crystals.

Under the microscope the rock, when fresh, has the typical ophitic
structure of a diabase. It is composed of twinned laths of andesine-feldspar
containing some secondary sericite and calcite arranged evenly along the
centre of the crystals. Augite is fairly fresh and pale in colour, the crystals
filling up interspaces between the feldspars, or occurring as small detached
crystals. The individuals are occasionally twinned. The relative propor-
tions of augite and feldspar vary somewhat ; at times augite predomi-
nates, with the local disappearance of other constituents. It is then
coarse and in better-outlined crystals. Olivine is occasionally seen in some
quantity, but very largely replaced by a mesh of serpentine, without the
separation of much iron-oxide. It is probably not a highly ferriferous
variety. Of other constituents, a good deal of magnetite (both primary
and secondary), a little basaltic hornblende (often chloritized), and needles
of apatite are present.

The alteration of this rock close to the vein is well shown under the
microscope. In the first stage the feldspars become more and more replaced
by carbonates till the twinning is indistinguishable, and they practically
consist of sericite-calcite pseudomorphs. Olivine is replaced by chlorite
and serpentine, augite by magnetite (or ilmenite) and a leek-green serpen-
tine. The ophitic structure can, however, still be traced.

With further alteration all structure is lost, even the outlines of crystals
being obliterated. The rock becomes an aggregate of carbonates and
sericite, with a good deal of opaque iron-oxide, and a little quartz, probably
introduced. Strings and patches of pale-green chlorite are present at first,
but these are eventually altered to sericitic matter. Pyrite crystals are also
frequently present.

Thus we are able to trace the progressive steps of alteration. The lime-
soda feldspar is changed to carbonates and sericite; the augite and olivine
first to transitional chlorite and serpentine, with separation of iron-oxides,

FiNLAYSON. — Geology of the Beefton Gold-veins.

89

and finally to the same end-products, these two minerals composing in the
end the mass of the altered rock.

The Vein-system.

The gold-belt, which occupies a zone running nearly north and south,
passes through the broken foothill country of the Victoria and Brunner
Ranges, on the east side of the Inangahua Valley. It extends almost
continuously from the Lyell to Black's Point, near Reefton, in the
Inangahua Gorge, and, crossing the river, passes south as far as Snowy
and Blackwater Creeks, in the Grey River watershed.

The belt thus indicated is, in its broader aspect, merely a portion of
the continuous reef-bearing zone of the West Coast. Thus, passing north-
wards, we come to the reefs at Mokihinui and on the Owen Goldfield, and

Progress
Shaft B
1 690 ft

M

Fleece, Low Level

773 ft-

No. 14 1 Total Depth
353 5 ft) "4 73 ft

No III Total Depth
274 ft ( 1416 ft.

Total Depth No. 7
979 ft. 245 ft.

No. 10 Total Depth
1736 ft.

SECTION
THROUGH REEFTON GOLDFIELDS,

SHOWING SHAFTS.

APPROXIMATE SCALES:
Horizontal, 6,000 ft. to an inch.
Vertical, 800 ft. to an inch.

finally^ to Jthe^Golden^RidgeTdistrict, near CoUingwood. To the south,
wherever the belt of slates appears, we find reefs in the same line — in the
Taipo River and the Wilberforce. This belt of reefs is certainly irregular
in its course, but it cannot be geologically subdivided, as all the veins have
the same features, which will be described in detail under the next heading.
On the Reefton Goldfield, commencing at the north end, we find first
the Alpine Consols and other lesser-known claims at the Lyell. Passing
south we reach Larry's, where the Caledonian Mine is situated. Next, at

90 Transactions.

Boatman's, occur a group of small but well-known mines — the Specimen
Hill, Welcome, Fiery Cross, Hopeful, and Just in Time. Approaching
Reefton, the belt has apparently a much greater width, probably due to
the wider exposure of slates, while the veins are larger and have been
more extensively developed. On the west side occur Anderson's and the
Invincible, two properties on which little has been done. Then occurs
the Energetic - Wealth of Nations - Keep It Dark group, the most pro-
ductive on the field. The Ulster, Ajax, Golden Fleece, and Royal occur
in a line to the east of these, and lastly come the Inglewood. Victoria, and
Golden Treasure Mines. Fig. 2 shows the distribution of mines in the
Murray Creek district.

E.

Fig. 2. — Sketch-plan of Murray Creek Veins.

Crossing the gorge of the Inangahua River, we reach the well-known
Globe - Progress Mine, the vein in which runs almost east and west,
deviating widely from the usual north-and-south course. A few old pro-
perties, including an antimony-mine described by McKay,* occur to the
west of this vein. Following south, we pass in succession the Inkerman,
Sir Francis Drake, Cumberland, Golden Lead, and Al Mines, the last
situated at the head of Rainy Creek, in the Merrijigs district.

Still further south, on the Big River, lies the Big River Mine, about
twenty miles from Reefton ; and lastly, near it, the lately developed Black-
water Mine, in the Snowy Creek watershed.

Characteristics of the Veins.

The auriferous belt consists of a zone of crushed and fissured slate of
varying width (maximum, about two miles), and it is to be observed that
this zone lies parallel with the line of strike of the slates, with the granitic
intrusions on either side of it, and with the observed outcrops of the older
Devonian rocks to the east, while it practically corresponds with the line of
occurrence of the altered diabases. These coincidences have a structural
significance.

If the intrusion of diabases was the first phenomenon, it is probable
that they caused a line of weakness along the strike of the slates. Later,
with the granitic intrusions and the intense crumpling of the slates between,
this line of weakness would be the locus where crushing and faulting would
be concentrated. The junction between the soft slates and the hard
Devonian cherts would also be a line along which movement would readily
take place — in fact, the belt of resistant Devonian rocks, which were
indurated and folded prior to the deposition of the slates, would evidently
act as a central buffer during the later folding movements, and would

* A. McKay, " On au Antimony Lode at Reefton," Reps. N.Z.G.S., 1882, p. 88.

FiNLAYsoN. — Geology of the Reefton Gold-veins.

91

further concentrate movement and shattering into a comparatively narrow
zone in the slates.

The absence of veins in the Devonian rocks is not surprising, as they
would not be amenable to extensive Assuring, more especially as the relief
of strains would be readily effected by faulting of the weaker slates. More-
over, Assuring and faulting would take place where the stress due to folding
was greatest — that is, in the apex of the main syncline of the slates.

Throughout the width of the zone of disturbance there are places where
more defined fissuring has taken place, giving access to thermal solutions.
It is in these places that the veins proper occur, and the position of the
chief veins is indicated by the position of the mining claims.

Turning to the individual veins, if they can be so regarded, a vein con-
sists of a series of lenses of quartz, with constriction of the vein -walls
between. The lenses follow each other more or less continuously to
considerable depths, with short barren patches of " vein-formation " be-
tween the lenses. The vein, as indicated by its walls and the included
band of crushed slate which contains the lenses, conforms as a rule to the
bedding of the country rock, though frequently it may cut across it.

The lenses vary considerably in dimensions in different parts of the
field, the smallest occurring at Boatman's and the largest in the Inkerman
Mine. In most cases they show a steep pitch to the north along the strike
of the vein. The gold, of fineness 960, and worth over £4 an ounce, is free-
milling, and varies from coarse to fine. The former is caught on the battery-
tables, and the latter recovered by cyaniding the tailings. It is scattered
for the most part through the lenses, though occasionally it lies in shoots
on the walls. Of sulphides, auriferous pyrite is always present, the pyritic
concentrates being worth approximately £20 per ton. "Stibnite is also
very frequently present, some veins carrying a notable proportion of it.
It is mostly low grade, and mingled with quartz. When present in quantity
it occurs in seams and bunches. As an accessory it is scattered sporadically
through the stone, and greatly increases the consumption of cyanide. To
remedy this, the Keep It Dark Company now treat their tailings with a
solution of caustic soda previous to cyaniding.

Metasomatic Action. — The results of analyses made of the fresh and
altered slates show a considerable loss of silica and alkalies ; the effect of
the ore-bearing solutions on the slate has been sericitization, with a decrease
of specific gravity. The effects are thus quite analogous to those which
I have described in the case of the veins of Otago.* Both Reef ton and
Otago, it may be noted, carry a very similar class of vein and ore
throughout, although most of the Otago veins cut across the bedding of
their country rock.

Features of the Mines.

w

?« //(//

_8od^

' Welcoi?te^

^[ Fieri/ CfVAs

(1.) Boatman s Group.

The veins of this group were
characterized by quartz blocks of
small size and high value, but at
greater depths they became less
frequent and too small to extract
with profit. The position of the
different mines is shown in the

Fig. 3. — Sketch-plan of Boatman's Veins, sketch-plan.

* This volume, p. 82.

92

Transactions.

The following section (fig. 4) shows how the groups of quartz lenses
pitched strongly to the north along the strike of the vein.

Fig. 4. — Section at Boatman's.

The quartz-zones shown were the points of attack of the several com-
panies that operated in the district, each zone consisting of a series of more
or less disconnected blocks or lenses of quartz. The vein dipped uniformly
to the east, except in the Specimen Hill lease, where the dip was very
irregular. This was also the poorest part of the ground. The Welcome,
which was for many years the best dividend-payer of the group, was
worked immediately below the Specimen Hill, but apparently on a different
belt of quartz. A good deal of antimony-ore occurred in this mine, and
gold film or " paint" on clay selvages was frequently met with, doubtless
indicating secondary enrichment. Mining at Boatman's has declined very
much, and work is now limited to intermittent tributers and occasional
prospectors.

(2.) Murray Creek Group.

Energetic - Wealth of Nations Mine. — This mine is worked on a main or
hanging-wall line of blocks, with a subordinate line of quartz on the foot-

wall of the formation
or zone, about 200 ft.

''^IISI l'!!''''!''''''^'M

Fig.

-Section of Wealth op Nations Vein.

to the east. This latter

has been worked in

former times in Nos. 6,

7, and 8 levels. Both

lines are practically

vertical, av i t h local

irregularities, but the

hanging- wall line shows

a slight westerly dip in the northern workings. Further, this hanging-wall

line appears to carry two more or less definite seams of quartz, about 20 ft.

apart, with a belt of altered rock between (fig. 5).

The blocks generally run in a continu-
ous line from the surface downwards, with
frequent pinches in their course, and a fairly
uniform northerly dip along the strike (fig. 6).
The blocks show great variations and
irregularities, and are becoming smaller in
the deeper levels. They are frequently split
by " horses," and the stone is generally

Fig. 6. — Quartz Lenses, Wealth
OF Nations Mine.

mottled and seamv.

FiNLAYSON. — Geologu of the Reefton Gold-veins.

93

The gold may occur on a foot-wall (of a block), on a hanging-wall, or
right across in even value, and the appearance of the stone is little guide to

its quality. A block has never been barren
throughout, but the good blocks are more
uniform in value, and the inferior blocks
more patchy. Some very good gold was
taken from the foot-wall seam of a block
in No. 8 level. Its habit is illustrated in
fig. 7.

Keep It Dark Mine. — This lies to the
south of the last, and its vein is practi-
cally a continuation of it. though there
is evidence of a patch of barren ground
between the two. This one also dips to
the west for the most part, though with much irregularity, and with local
changes in strike. Like the Wealth, it lies steeper (practically vertical)
in the deep levels. It contains a number of blocks which vary in
width, and are generally short. They wedge out very quickly, passing
intoj mullock or " formation." The accompanying figure (8) illustrates
this change.

Fig. 7. — Occurrence of Gold.

Wealth of Nations Mine.
II. Seam of gold. b. Seams of i^vrite.

Fig. 8. — Plan of Quartz Block, Keep It Dark Mine.

The blocks pitch to the north and are similar in all respects to those
in the Wealth. The gold is free and generally fine, and the ore is poorer

in the deeper levels. Aurifer-
a . b h b a, ous pyrite runs generally in

' 1 1' ////+/ /^+%%'^/++"^tf/ /t I ^ ///////// seams and strings through the
iiniUi' 1+ + .4-.U ^.U, Ulim,/ ^^.^^ Stibnite occurs in patches

throughout the mine, sometimes
accompanying good gold, some-
times the reverse. As a rule.
the gold is evenly distributed,
though sometimes it clings to
the walls of blocks. In the ac-
companying section of a face at
the north end of No. 7 level
good visible gold occurred right
across, quite independent of the

nature of the stone. It is generally found that coarse gold indicates good

ore ; where the gold is not visible the ore is poor.

I 'i + + + JV+ +/'«■ +

Fig. 9. — Section of Face, Keep It Dark .Mine

a. Walls. h. Piig seams. c. Seamy ore.
d. White glassy ore.

94

Transoctions.

In No. 5 level (800 ft.) a dyke of altered diabase was encountered at
one spot on the hanging-wall of the vein (fig. 10).

/ian^in6u'af/ Lectder'

Cru&hed Formation
Dyke of ._ ^ • ^

W

Diabase

20

)ase <6- . ,, A

• X <. ' \ -^ / x' \' •'^ • M+ \'" ' '- '- '- A \ '

Vein , Forma.tioti

Willi nil

FootyyaU Seam
< 6-

FiG. 10. — Section of Vein and Dyke, Keep It Dark Mine.

The dyke is cut o£E from the hanging-wall leader shown by a defined
pug or clay face. Small quartz veins ramify into and through the diabase
from the leader, varying from mere threads up to 2 in. thick, and the larger
ones show a very fine comb-structure. These facts strengthen the view
that the diabase is older than the period of vein-formation. It has not,
as far as can be ascertained, influenced the gold-content in its vicinity.

Golden Fleece. — This mine was formerly worked by Kit Mace (of Mace-
town, Otago) and others, on Ajax Hill. The first five levels were driven
before the mine was taken over by the Consolidated Company, in 1897.
Then the low-level crosscut, which had been started by Government
subsidy, was pushed on, and ultimately struck the vein after a mile and
a half of driving. In its course it struck no stone and no indication of a
vein, although it was only about 500 ft. below the level of Anderson's pro-
specting drive. The crosscut leads into No. 10 level.

The vein strikes north-east and dips north-west. The blocks of ore
are irregular, and the vein in the deeper northern levels shows a tendency
to turn to the east, while the blocks generally have a northerly pitch along
the strike.

The vein stands nearly vertical on Ajax Hill, but in the deeper levels
it becomes gradually much flatter. The average width of blocks is 2 ft.
From No. 6 down to No. 14 level the blocks became much smaller, although
their value was maintained. Thus during the last few years all the levels
from 6 to 14 had to be stoped to supply sufficient ore, and working became
expensive.

The remaining line of Murray Creek veins — the Golden Treasure and
Inglewood — were of good value, but their blocks were rather small. The
Golden Treasure carried in places a good deal of stibnite

(3.) Globe- Progress Group.

This property comprises two older claims, both worked on the one
vein, which strikes approximately east and west.

Fig. 11. — Locality Plan, Globe-Progress Vein.

FiNLAYSON. — Geology of the Reefton Gold-veins.

95

The vein lies in a zone of soft crushed slate, surrounded by harder sand-
stone. Down to No. 6 level it has a dip of 60° to the south ; below that
it flattens out, and from No. 8 to No. 11 level — a distance of 400 ft. vertical
— it made 1,500 ft. of base. It is worked by two shafts — one, the eastern,

opens up 5 and 6 levels;
the other, the western,
opens up the deeper
levels. The shaft-head
is 1,600 ft. above sea-
level, and No. 11 is
1,460 ft. deep.

Except in the harder
sandstone some dis-
tance from the reef, the
country is soft, and
stands badly. The es-
timated annual cost of
timber in this mine
during the last ten
years has been £3,000.
The walls are gene-
rally poorly defined,
and rarely do a foot

1

y

--^ ,

Ve

11

\

1

I

2

6

-^

/

7

f

/6

8

-f

9

/

10

^FT-rE£g3

-^

11

Fig. 12. — Section of Workings, Globe-Pbogress.

wall and hanging-wall occur together ; they are often obscured, while quartz

merges gradually into slate.

The quartz occurs in lenses of varying size and value, frequently much
disturbed by small faults. The following varieties of ore are met with : —

(1.) Seamy : The most characteristic form. It is seamed with strings
of pyrite and mullock, and is nearly always gold-bearing.

(2.) Brecciated : This is only occasionally found.

(3.) White glassy or *' dog's-tooth " quartz : This varies in its gold-
content. In blocks of this quartz which have been regarded as poor or
barren, gold is frequently found in good payable patches. Miners claim
that it is possible to distinguish good and poor ore in this mine by means
of its appearance to the naked eye ; but this is very doubtful. Frequently
quartz set down as poor has been found to give good returns.

The difference between the seamy and white glassy varieties seems
to be largely due to processes of replacement in the former case, and to
simple deposition without replacement in the latter.

The quartz blocks are in the main low-grade throughout, and poorer in
the lower than in the upper levels. The gold is patchy in its distribution,
does not run in shoots, and is very fine. This vein carries the finest gold
on the field. It occurs both free and involved with pyrite, which is the
common sulphide.

Stibnite occurs, frequently and patchy. In places it has been found
in seams up to 30 ft. thick, but of low-grade (30 per cent.) ore. In this
mine antimony-ore is found generally to accompany poor values in gold.

The blocks or lenses of quartz follow in the main three roughly distinct
shoots, which all show a certain pitch to the south-west. They are all
fairly continuous, though with frequent pinches and makes.

The main shoot has been worked right down to No. 11 level. Between'
8 and 11 it flattened considerably, as shown in figure, and in No. 11 it lies
practically horizontal. This is the most peculiar feature in this mine.

96

Tronsactions.

The vein thus appears to occupy the limb of a syncline ; but further
development is required to test whether the other limb exists, and whether
it carries ore. Owing to the great confusion of strike and dip of the
slate I was unable to find evidence of a sj-nclinal arrangement from sur-
face observations. The flattening observed may, indeed, be only a local
phenomenon, or an irregularity in the course of the vein. At any rate, the
evidence in favour of a syncline is not yet conclusive.

In the development of this mine the diamond drill has played a con-
siderable part, sometimes with much success. Much care has, however,
been found necessary in interpreting its indications. Thus, in veins of this
interrupted type a bore may be put in and may miss a block altogether.
Again, it may pass through a block at such an angle as to give a
very exaggerated idea of its thickness. A bore was put down from a point
near the shaft-chamber in No. 11 level for a depth of 1,000 ft., or 2,500 ft.
below the surface : no promising indications were found, but the bore is
interesting as being the greatest depth reached in a New Zealand mine.
The results of other bores made have given no indication of the existence
of a synclinal vein.

The deeper levels of the mine, as of all others in the district, are con-
spicuously dry and dusty, except for surface-drainage in the vicinity of
the shaft.

(4.) Rainy Creek or Merrijigs Group.

The Rainy Creek group, particularly the Inkerman, is noted for the
large size and low value of its quartz blocks. One block in the Inkerman
reached a width of 130 ft., but averaged less than 2| dwt. to the ton. The
strike of the vein is north-east, and it dips steeply to the south-east. It
contained several large blocks — the Big Blow, the Antimony Block, and
the Balaclava Block — which all showed a slight pitch to the north-east
along the strike. Antimony-ore is common in the Inkerman and in adjacent
claims.

The zone of reefs in this part of the district follows an irregular north-
and-south line, with frequent divergences and irregularities in strike and
dip. Of the others, the Al and Golden Lead were worked for some time,
but returns were never encouraging, and mining at Merrijigs is now at a
standstill.

(5.) Big Biver Group.

New Big Biver. — This lies near the head of the Big River, about twenty
miles south of Reefton. It strikes north and south, and the main block

or series of blocks pitches to the
. north. Fig. 13 shows the dis-
position of quartz in the vein.

BlacJcwater. — This is a narrow
type of vein. It strikes north
and south, and dips to the west
at about 70-. The direction of
dip of the quartz blocks has not
yet been definitely ascertained,
as the mine is only being de-
veloped. The gold is free, evenly
distributed, and often coarse.
There are frequent blocks of
stone, mostly of uniform value, but a few patchy. The blocks have an

Fio. 13. — Section, Bkj River Vein.

FiNLAYSON. — Geology of the Rcejton Gold-vans. 97

average width of from 2 ft. to 4 ft. It is probable that, as at Boatman's,
the values here have been improved by secondary enrichment.

This is the most thriving portion of the district. The Big River mine is
undergoing vigorous development, and both mines promise to be good
dividend-payers for some time to come.

Genesis of the Veins.

The period of vein-formation probably followed closely on the intrusion
of the granite masses and the folding of the belt of slates. A zone of slate
was highly crushed and fractured (a shear-zone) along the axis of a synclinal
fold, and this gave access to thermal solutions, arising presumably as after-
effects of the granitic intrusions.

The character and occurrence of the quartz, as well as the great loss of
material suffered by the altered rock, indicate that the quartz lenses which
comprise the workable portions of the veins are due largely to replacement
of rock and segregation of silica. Further, the manner in which the quartz
gradually peters out into the lode-formation also strongly suggests replace-
ment.

McKay is inclined to believe that the period of vein-formation was prior
to the folding of the slates.* The evidence I have collected leads me, as
. I have stated, to the opposite conclusion.

As regards the dip of the quartz blocks, this feature appears to have
originated as follows : When fissuring took place differential movement
between the w^alls of the fissures would be in a direction slightly inclined
to the vertical, if there was a combination of vertical gravitation forces
and more or less horizontal minor shearing-forces. Thus, where pressure
was greatest crusliing would presumably be concentrated along inclined
lines in the fissure-zone. Subsequently, wath the ascent of the mineralising
solutions, deposition and replacement w^ould naturally follow those lines
along which crushing and comminution of the rock had been most intense.
The fact that the dip of quartz blocks is practically the same throughout
the district, indicating a uniform direction of resultant movement, seems
to support this explanation, and it is also, I believe, applicable to explain
the similar dipping quartz shoots in the various groups of Otago veins

History of Mining at Reefton.

Quartz-mining at Reefton dates from 1870, when Anderson discovered
the Invincible line. Shiel the Ajax and Golden Fleece line, and Adam Smith
the appropriately named Wealth of Nations line. Boatman's and Rainy
Creek districts were prospected in 1872. and the Globe Mine was first opened
up in 1882. The poorest of these was the Rainy Creek, which has never
given good returns, although a good deal of desultory work has been done.
The various companies at Boatman's got high returns for some years, and
the best of them — the Welcome — has only just lately closed down. The
early workers had many difficulties to contend with, owing to the absence
of roads a)id tracks, but a good deal of work was done till about 1896. when
quartz-mining reached a low ebb. About this time Mr. David Ziman took
over a large number of claims on behalf of an English company, and formed
the Consolidated Goldfields of New Zealand (Limited), which held the
Wealth, Fleece, Welcome, Inkerman, and several others, as well as a large

* A. McKay, " Geology of Reefton District," Reps. N.Z.G.S., 1882, p. 134.
4 — Trans.

98 Transactions.

interest in the Globe-Progress Mine. Since that date the yield of quartz
has rapidly increased, and reached its height about 1904.

The mines at present in operation are the Wealth, Progress, Big River,
Blackwater (Consolidated Company's mine), and Keep It Dark (dating
from 1873). Their statistics, operations, and plants are fully described in
the New Zealand Mining Handbook for 1906.

The section accompanying this paper shows the position and depth
of the principal shafts and workings in the different mines.

Future Prospects.

Any future developments will occur, as indicated, along the auriferous
zone, and prospecting is rendered difficult by the fact that reefs are not
readily located except when blocks of quartz happen to outcrop. There
can be no doubt that a great deal of payable ore still exists in many parts
of the field, but the difficulty of locating it is an obstacle which demands
considerable initial outlay in prospecting.

In regard to the prospects of deep mining, we have seen that at about
sea-level the blocks of quartz are notably smaller in all the mines, although
the gold-content is generally still payable. As the blocks get smaller the
expenses of working increase, and it seems very probable that the limit of
profitable mining will be reached not many hundred feet below the present
deepest workings. In other words, the blocks will become too few and
too scarce to justify further development in depth.

Lastly, the very high returns secured in the early days (2 oz. to 4 oz.
per ton) from the upper levels indicate secondary enrichment, and it is
therefore obvious that in any future work the upper levels will be the most
remunerative.

Art. XVII. — Geology of Rarotonga and Aitutahi.

By Dr. P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., University of Otago.

\^Read before the Otago Imtitute, \Oth November, 1908.]

Rarotonga.

But few statements have hitherto been made as to the geological nature of
this island, and they are very general. Mr. Percy Brown has lately been
good enough'to forward me specimens of rock from several localities on the
island, and from the study of these, as well as the statements of Mr. Brown,
Mr. James Allen, M.P.. and those in the Government Year-book, the following
description has been compiled.

Relatively few soundings have been made near Rarotonga, but there
is at present no reason to doubt that it is surrounded on all sides by water
between 2,000 and 3,000 fathoms in depth. It is situated to the east of
the deep trench which extends from New Zealand almost to Samoa.

The volcanic rock appears to rise directly from the ocean-shore without
any intervening fringe of raised coral rock, though the island is surrounded
with a fringing reef of coral. This appears to prove that no change in eleva-
tion has taken place since the volcanic action ceased.

In the neighbouring island of Tonga Mr. Lister has proved an elevation
of 1,000 ft., while the atoll of Palmerston and others seem to prove consider-

Marshall. — Geology of Earotomja and Aitutaki. 99

able depression in their neighbourhood, if the brilliant results acquired by
a study of Funafuti borings can be extended to other isolated atolls.

The rocks of Rarotonga appear never to have been described. Those
that were sent to me were obtained from Muri Point, in the north-west,
and Black Point, in the south-east. Between these two points is the high
laud v/hich Mr. Brown says is called locally " the dividing-ridge." This.
ridge, which at its highest point attains an elevation of 2,94:0 ft., appears to
show the features of rainfall erosion in tropical islands so well described by
Dana and Dutton in Haw^aii. Other specimens came from near the Toto-
koito Creek, and some Native weapons dug up in a plantation w^ere also
forwarded to me.

The rocks from Muri Point and Black Point are a nephelinitoid phono-
lite. The former is rather the coarser type. It contains no feldspar, but
an abundance of nepheline. At a certain stage of growth ii'girine inclusions
were gathered into the nepheline, so definite crystalline forms of the mineral
are outlined. At a later stage the aegirine material was completely crys-
tallized, and pure nepheline fills the interspaces. With the exception of a
few crystals of apatite, the only other mineral is ppgirine-augite, with an
extinction-angle of 30''. In the specimen from Black Point there is a very
small amount of feldspar.

Analysis.

SiO., .. .. .. .. .. .. 54-60

A1..0,

Fe,03

FeO

TiO„

CaO

MgO

"-to^

NaaO
H,0

17-48
5-72
1-02
0-80
3-10
1-44
9-32
5-61
1-56

100-65

From Totokoito Creek a rolled fragment of dolerite was sent. The
augite and olivine are in large crystals, as well as the iron-ore, which is
probably titaniferous. Feldspar is restricted to the groundmass. where
it is associated with augite and magnetite.

This rock recalls the descriptions of basalts from Tahiti,* though the
specimens which I possess are of a wholly different character. The oc-
currence of alkaline rocks in this island is of great interest, and perhaps
serves to suggest a relationship, with Tahiti, where nepheline syenites have
been recorded by La Croix. They are quite different from anything yet
found in New Zealand.

The occurrence of such rocks in a mid-Pacific island appears to throw
doubt upon the accuracy of Dr. Prior's generalisationf in regard to the
association of andesitic rocks with the Pacific type of coast-line, and of alka-
line rocks with the Atlantic type of coast. Occurrences in New Zealand,
as pointed out by Gregory, J are also opposed to this view.

* La Croix, "" Comptes Rendus," vol. cxxxix, p. 892.
t Prior, Rec. Antarctic Expedition : Geology.
t Nature

100 Tranmctions.

The rock here described from Muri Point would, from the complete
absence of feldspar, be classed as a nephelinite according to Rosenbusch's
scheme. It is retained here amongst the phonolites because its chemical
and mineralogical composition show much closer relationship to the phono-
lites than to the basalts.

The Native weapon forwarded by Mr. Brown is of quite different material
from the rocks described. The absence of olivine and the abundance of
feldspar place it among the augite-andesites. It is quite conceivable that
it was made from one of the Tongan rocks.

AlTUTAKI.

Mr. C. Cameron, E.M., kindly forwarded me samples of rock from this
island. The following notes were made by him on the specimens : " Sample
A, from the mainland, is fairly common, sometimes in large blocks, and was
occasionally used in ancient times for building round the priests' marae.
It is easily shattered by fire. Sample B is from a small island called Rapoka,
in the lagoon, about a mile from the mainland. It is often used by the
women for their native ovens, as it stands fire better than A, though not
entirely well."

A. A relatively coarse basaltic rock, with much olivine and an abund-
ance of idiomorphic augite, and but little feldspar, which is labradorite.
The colour of the augite shows that it is strongly titaniferous. No nephelin
could be distinguished in section, but the rock-powder gelatinises readily
on treatment with dilute HCl. and crystals of salt are formed when the
solution is evaporated.

B. Very fine grained compact rock. Olivine is very abundant, and is
often stained with limonite on the margin. Augite granular, and restricted
to the groundmass, where it is associated with much magnetite and a pre-
dominance of minute crystals of nepheline, without sharply crystalline
boundaries. The rock is clearly a nephelinite or nepheline-basalt.

The accompanying map, copied from the Admiralty chart, shoAvs the
form of the island. It is at once seen that the mainland is at the northern
side of the interior of the circular coral reef, and is situated near the margin.
Rapoka Island is near the south-east portion of the interior of the reef.

The form of the island suggests that submergence has taken place, but
it may be that the coral reef has arisen on the margin of a shoal formed
by wave-action dispersing the material of a loose scoria cone, as has been
exemplified in the case of Falcon Island, in the Tonga Group. It will be
remembered that this origin has been suggested by Mr. Lister to explain
the occurrence of atolls in the southern portion of the Tonga Group of islands,
although there is clear evidence of elevation of as much as 1,000 ft. in the
north-east portion of the group.

The rocks from Aitutaki are not closely related to any types that I have
seen in the south-west Pacific. They resemble the Auckland basanites
more closelv than anv of the others.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES III AND IV.

Pl.ATK III.

Sketch-maps of Rarotonga and Aitutaki.

PLvrE IV.
Fig. 1. Micro, section of ne])heline-phonolite, Rarotonga. Tlie clear portion is nepheline ;
the daik material is Kgirine. Jlasnified 30 diameters, ordinary light.

Trans. N.Z. Inst , Vol. XLI.

Pl. Ill

\, j^ /Vgafanaua Hr

Sea M/Zej.

Sketch Map of Rarotonga.

Sketch Map of Aitutaki.

GEOLOGY OF RAROTONGA AND AITUTAKI. -Marshall.

Face p. 100.

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Marshall. — Contact Rocks from West Nelson. 101

Art. XVIII. — Contact Rochs from West Nelson.

By Dr. P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., University of Otago.

[Bead before the Otago Institute, lOth November, 1908.]

During a visit to Collingwood and West Wanganui, Mr. E. D. Isaacson
recently collected certain rock-specimens which contain minerals formed
by contact metamorphism, hitherto not recorded from New Zealand.

All geologists who have visited this district have recognised the fact
that large granite intrusions have been forced through older (probably
Palaeozoic) sediments. The granitic masses of part of the district have
lately been accurately mapped by Dr. Bell and his assistants, Messrs. Webb
and Clarke. During the course of this work certain altered sedimentaries
were encountered near the zone of contact, and in some of them andalusite
was recognised.

The specimens now referred to are as follows : —

1. Chiastolite Slate.

Cleavage is highly imperfect. The chiastolite is not recognisable in hand-
specimens. There are irregular grey spots ^ in. in diameter, which from
their softness appear to consist of some secondary mineral.

The section shows that the greater part of the rock consists of minute
grains of quartz mingled with graphite-specks. The chiastolite crystals
are as much as 0-15 mm. in diameter, and twice as much in length. They
are perfectly fresh, and contain the characteristic inclusions of carbonaceous
matter with a cruciform arrangement. Small crystals of staurolite are
rather abundant, with the characteristic pleochroism and birefringence.
The section contains much pyrite. The areas which appear grey in the
hand-specimens become a pale-brown in section, with a high birefringence.
They appear to be pinite pseudomorphs after cordierite.

Other specimens of chiastolite slate are abundant as boulders in the
gravels of the Aorere River, but sections show that the large crystals of
chiastolite 100 mm. in length and 10 mm. broad have been completely
changed to crowded plates of muscovite.

2. Cordierite Schist,

Hand-specimen black, with distinct fractured black crystals.

Section : The greater part of the rock consists of cordierite, perfectly
clear and fresh, but crowded with minute inclusions of biotite and pyrite.
Fluid-cavities are also common. None of the inclusions are surrounded
with pleochroic halos. Some of the cordierite crystals are trillings, as shown
in the figure. The crystals are 60 mm. long and 30 mm. wide. The rest of
the rock consists chiefly of a reddish-brown biotite in irregular plates.
Regular plates of muscovite are fairly common, and there is much pyrite.
There is very little quartz.

102

Transactioi

IS.

Analysis.

SiOa .

. 59-08

Al.Og .

. 17-60

Fe;03 .

4-17

FeO .

6-69

TiO, .

0-65

CaO .

0-70

MgO .

3-20

Na^O .

3-38

K,0 .

2-42

H^O .

2-40

"

100-29

It is probable that these rocks come from the metamorphic aureole
surrounding the great granitic intrusion which extends from the west coast to
the head-waters of the Aorere River, and from the Big River to the south
of the Karamea. No doubt actual occurrences jn situ will be recorded
when the geological survey of the area now in progress is completed.

Fig-

Fig. 3

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

2. Mici'o. section of chiastolite slate from West Wanganui Inlet, West Nelson.
A large chiastolite crj^stal is showii. with characteristic carbonaceous inclu-
sions. The light part of the rest of the section is ciuartz, the darker portion is
biotite. Magnified 25 diameters, ordinary light.

Micro, section of a trilling of cordierite, showing numerous inclusions. Magnified
25 diameters, crossed nicols. Specimen from Aorere River, West Nelson.

Art. XIX. — Crater of Ngauruhoe.
By Dr. P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., University of Otago.

[Read before the Otago Institute, \Oth November, 1908.]

The earliest accounts of the crater of Ngauruhoe, by Bidwill and Dyson,
show that considerable changes have taken place since these pioneers made
the ascent of the cone. The former, in 1839, describes it as " the most
awful abyss that I ever looked into or imagined." The stones thrown in
did not strike the bottom in less than seven or eight seconds. It was im-
possible to get into the inside of the crater, as the sides seen were, if not
quite precipitous, actually. overhanging. Bidwill states that Ngauruhoe was
in a state of activity at the time of his visit, and the steam prevented him
from seeing more than 8 or 10 yards into the crater.

This description applies perfectly to the crater at the present day if
the volcano be more than usually active and the crater is reached on the
south or east side. From other statements made by Bidwill it appears
probable that he ascended the mountain on the north or west, and on those
sides at the present time the crater-floor is almost level with the wall. It
is reasonable, therefore, to suppose that the crater is now very different
in form from what it was when Bidwill saw it.

Mabshall. — Crater of Ngnuruhoe. 103

Dyson, in 1851, stood on the northern side of the crater. He says the
lip was sharp, and inside there were large overhanging rocks of a pale-
yellow colour. It was impossible to descend into the crater. This account
corroborates Bidwill's statement, and emphasizes the fact that the crater
had, in the middle of last century, steep walls all round — or, at any rate,
on the northern side.

Professor Thomas, in 1888, called attention to the form of the crater,
and recorded that Mr. Jackson Palmer, then engaged in work near the
mountain, had noticed that after a long spell of bad weather in 1888 a gap
had been formed in the east side of the crater-wall.

In 1887 Mr. Hill ascended the mountain, and at that time, and at a sub-
sequent visit in 1892, the crater was in the same condition as it was in when
I first saw it in 1891. Fig. 1, Plate V, gives an idea of its appearance. The
small north-west-rim crater, called by Mr. Hill the " yellow crater,'" was
then rather active, and steaming vigorously. The main crater had a floor
nearly level throughout. We entered the crater on the western side. Near
this side there was a violent escape of steam, though less in amount than
that which escapes from Karapiti. Smaller steam-jets were issuing in many
places, and most of them escaped from the summit of a cone of bright-
yellow sulphur 2 ft. or so in height. The effect of all these small cones
was very pleasing. It was possible at that time to walk all over the floor
of the main crater, though the ground was hot and in some places soft.

In 1893 the appearance of the crater had absolutely changed, though
the small north-west crater still remained, but steamed much less than
previously. All the small sulphur cones had disappeared, and near the
centre of the main crater there was a deep black explosion-cavity. The
explosion to which the formation of this was due had scattered mud and
volcanic ash over the floor of the main crater, and had covered up the
little sulphur cones. The explosion-cavity was then about 30 yards in
diameter, and there was level ground between it and the north-west
crater, and more between the cavity and western wall.

In 1891 a report was published by Mr. Cussen on the Tongariro
Mountains, and with it an excellent map : but it is stated in the text that
though Ngauruhoe was twice ascended, the clouds of steam that issued
from it prevented the surveyors from obtaining a clear view of the crater.
It is, however, stated that the crater was circular, and the small crater
on the north-west side is described. In the map another small crater is
indicated, on the south side. This is probably an error, for no mention is
made of it in the text, and it was certainly not there in January of that
year. Dr. Benedict von Friedlander was the first to call attention in writing
to the " hole " in the south-west of the crater. He visited the mountain
in 1896, and was unable to see to the bottom of the " hole " because of the
large amount of steam that issued from it. He does not state the extent
to which the " hole " encroached upon the crater on the north-west rim.
to which he, like all other observers, refers.

In January, 1898, I was able to walk between the explosion-cavity, or
hole " of Dr. Von Friedlander, and the small north-west crater, though
the explosion-cavity was then much enlarged, and the level ground between
it and the north-west cone was much reduced. The cavity had also extended
considerably to the west, though there was still some level ground between
it and the north-west crater. As in 1893, I was unable to see to the bottom
of the cavity, because of the large body of steam that issued from it, though
a long time was spent on its edge. The activity did not seem so pronounced

104 Tranmctioits.

as in 1893, for in that year from time to time a rumble was heard in the
interior of the mountain, and dense clouds of steam and dust were shot up.
It is probable, however, that there was not much difference in this respect,
for after returning to camp a rumble was distinctly heard, and soon after
the dark cloud rose up from the crater.

Another visit was paid in December, 1906, when the mountain was more
than usually quiescent. It was found that the cavity had extended con-
siderably towards the west, where now there was no flat ground between
it and the exterior wall of the main crater. It had also extended
towards the north-west crater, and had encroached on the small cone in
which that crater was situated. During an interval when the steam lifted
it was possible to see to the bottom of the cavity. It appeared to be nearly
200 ft. deep, with vertical walls on the east and north, but elsewhere bounded
by steep walls, which on the west were a continuation of the wall of the
main crater. The walls of the cavity were covered with jets of steam,
and were encrusted with sulphur. At the bottom was a small lake of
greenish-yellow water, on which masses of scum — probably sulphur — were
floating, and there were specially strong steam-jets near the level of the
water. At this time the crater certainly did not deserve the title of
■' bottomless pit," given to it a little later by a Press reporter.

In February, 1907, the mountain became more active, and another
visit was paid to it to find out whether the activity had caused any notice-
able changes in the crater, and also to find out the exact nature of the violent
explosions that occurred from time to time. A start was made early in the
morning, when a dark cloud was rising 3,000 ft. above the crater. The
appearance was then similar to that presented on the following morning,
when the photograph was taken. When within 1 ,000 ft. of the summit
it was found that the surface was covered with slimy mud to a depth of 1 in.
The depth of mud increased as the summit was approached, when it attained
a depth of 6 in. When 500 ft. from the siimmit the wind failed, and the
black cloud rained mud on to the surface of the mountain. We were soon
covered with mud from head to foot, but persevered in our ascent, though
inky blackness enshrouded all the mountain-summit, and the air seemed
filled with sulphur-dioxide. At the top it was impossible to see anything,
nor were the sounds very different from those we heard on previous visits.
Everything indicated that an explosive paroxysm had just ceased. The
cold wind was so piercing that it was inadvisable to remain long at the top.
We stayed as long as possible, but the air did not clear, and we had the
satisfaction of seeing after our return that the black cloud still rested on
the summit. The mud that fell on us had a strong acid character, for it
bleached the colour from a print blouse that my wife was wearing. Pre-
viously, in 1906, Mr. Flower, of Christ's College, Christchurch, had agreed
with me that the smell of sulphur-dioxide was much more pronoimced
than that of sulphuretted hydrogen, which goes to prove that the activity
of the crater was at an unusually low ebb when Dr. Von Friedlander could
detect the latter only during his visit in 1896. During this visit we were
unable to see what changes had taken place in the crater, but it was
evident from the foot of the cone that the exterior wall had suffered no
changes. The gap in the eastern wall, to which attention was then called,
was, as previously stated, formed in 1888. Although some overhanging
crags at the side of the gap are in an extremely unstable state, and might
be dislodged by the vibrations caused by a steam-explosion, no rocks have,
so far as I know, fallen from it since the year 1891, when I saw it.

Trans. N.Z. Ixst., Vol. XLI.

Pl. V.

Fig. I. Crater of Ngauiuhoe in i8gi.

Fig. 2. The same in 1907.

Face p. 101.

CRATER OF NG AU RUHOE. — Marshall.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

Pl. VI.

CRATER OP^ NGAURUHOE. Marshall.

Trans. N.Z, Inst., Vol. XL7.

Pl. VII.

CRATER OF NGA URU HOE.— Marshall.

Marshall. — Additions io List of New Zealand Minerals. 105

The photographs taken by Mr. Browne at Easter, 1907, and by Mr.
Cockayne this year, do not show any material change as a result of the rather
violent activity that was in progress when the photograph (Plate VI) was
taken. It appears, however, that the extension of the deep cavity westward
and northward has been continued to a slight extent. In all my visits
to the crater the escape of steam from it has been much more voluminous
than is shown in the photograph of the crater taken by Mr. Cockayne.*

There is one point about which I am not certain. A small mud-crater
is to- be seen on the east side of the big explosion-cavity. When it was
formed I do not know; it certainly was not there in 1891. It may have
been formed at the same time that the explosion-cavity was blown out,
though I have no note of its presence in 1893.

To sum up : —

1. The form of the crater appears to have been very different in 1839
and 1852 from its present shape.

2. In 1891 the floor was level, except where the north-west crater was
situated, which was then the most active spot.

3. In 1893 the north-west crater was less active, and the explosion-
cavity was of small diameter near the middle of the crater, and was steaming
vigorously.

4. Since that time the explosion-cavity has extended westwards and
northwards, and the activity of the north-west crater has dwindled.

5. No escape of lava has occurred within historic times.

6. The main-crater walls have not changed since 1891.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES V-VII.
Plate V.
Fig. L Crater of Ngauruhoe in 1891.
Fig. 2. The same in 1907.
Fig. 3. Tiie same in 1906.

Plate VI.
U])])er part of cone of Ngauruhoe, at 8 a.m., 14th Jilarfh, 1907. Photo taken from the
.south-east ; distance, five miles.

Pl.\te VI ^
Highest point of crater-wall of Ngauruhoe — the south-east side.

Art. XX. — Additions to the List of New Zealand Minerals.
By Dr. P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.C.S., University of Otago.

\limd before the Oltijo Instiiute, Wlh Xorei/iber, 1908.]

Ix the year 1890 Sir .lames Hector compiled a list of New Zealand minerals
for inclusion in the " Transactions of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science " (vol. ii, 1890). Since that time a large number
of papers have been written by a variety of authors on New Zealand geology.
In these papers inauy references have been made to minerals that are not
included in Sir James Hector's list. In the present paper these references

"Tongariro National P.ak" : L. Cockayne. Parliamentary paper C.-ll, 1908.

106 Transactions.

are collected together, and additions are made of other species and locali-
ties known to the author but not hitherto mentioned in any publication.

It is probable that the present list is still far from complete, but it will,
at any rate, serve as an index to the various discoveries that have been made
of late years, and may also be useful as a guide to those who may seek for
general information as to the occurrence of mineral species in the Dominion.

The arrangement followed is that adopted in Dana's " System of
Mineralogy," 6th edition, 1906.

SaLPHUR : Very good orthorhombic crystals at Rotokawa, near Lake Taupo.

Zinc (3) : It appears somewhat doubtful whether this specimen was native
or was produced by artificial means.

Gold : No important new discoveries have been made. Crystalline gold
has been recorded (8). Microscopic work has been done on some oc-
currences at Ohinemuri (2).

Silver (4) : In addition, flattened grains of alluvial silver have been found
in some diggings in the Shotover River.

Copper (9) : Crystallized copper of very recent deposition at Kawau Island.

Lead (11) : The same occurrence as that mentioned in Hector's list.

Platinum (18), (19) : The quantity of the mineral in these localities is small,
and is of no economic value.

Meteoric Iron : An analysis of the Wairarapa meteorite mentioned in
Hector's list has been made by Mr. Donovan.

Molybdenite : Large deposits in the Mount Radiant district, Karamea,
in lodes traversing granite country.

Orpiment (23), (31).

Realgar (23), (31).

Petzite (1).

Argentite (23).

Galena (23) occurs in some quantity in the Jupiter and Pluvius Mines,
Te Aroha.

Cinnabar (23) has been found at Waipori, Otago, but has not been mined
successfully.

Pyrrhotite (28). Large quantities at the Champion Mine, Nelson.

Chalcopyrite : The new discovery at Mount Radiant appears to be im-
portant.

Pyrite : Good octahedral crystals are found in chlorite-schist at Parapara.
Cubes are common in phyllite near Mount Aurum, Utago.

Nagyagite (]).

Kermesite (23), (31).

Pyrargyrite is said to occur at Puhipuhi, near Whangarei ; also 32.

Tetrahedrite (1).

Kerargyrite (23) : Several pounds' weight, from Waikoromiko Valley.

Cotunnite (1).

Quartz : The quartz of the Waihi Mine is sometimes platy in structure.
It is said to be pseudomorphous after barite.

Precious Opal has been found in small quantity at Cabbage Bay.

Hyalite : Incrustations are common on dolerite at Dunedin.

Tridymite (7), (19), (26), (27) : Quite common, but in very minute aggre-
gates, in the rhyolites of the volcanic region of the North Island.

Senarmontite (6) : Common at Mount Radiant.

Molybdite : Not uncommon at Mount Radiant.

Arsenolite (23), (31).

Marshall. — Additions to List of Neiv Zealand Minerals. 107

Corundum : A purplish-red variety, in crystals of moderate size, occurs
with green niuscovite in boulders in the sluicing-gravels at Rimu, near
Hokitika.

Ilmenite : Typical crystals, but of microscopic size, occur in nepheline-
basanite of the Domain crater, Auckland.

PiCOTITE (16).

Magnetite (15) : A chrome variety occurs in hartzbergite, Milford Sound.
Small octahedrons are common in chlorite-schist, Otago.

RuTiLE (16), (22). (28) : Microscopic crystals in granulites of south-west
Otago ; also in schists, Otago.

Pyrolusite (23).

TuRGiTE (20) : Occurs with limonite at Parapara.

GOTHITE (20).

PsiLOMELANE : Small nodules in decomposed scoria, Seaview, Dunedin.

Dolomite (32) : Pearl-spar, in the May Queen Mine, Thames.

Magnesite (15) : A decomposition product of enstatite in hartzbergite at
Milford Sound.

Rhodocroisite (23).

Arragonite : Pseudo-hexagonal crystals at Oamaru and Dunedin, in cavities
in volcanic rocks.

Cerussite (6) : Tui and Pluvius Mines, Te Aroha.

Orthoclase : Crystals with Baveno development, though not twinned,
occur porphyritically in the granite of Separation Point. The finer
portion of the groundmass disintegrates readily, and the crystals form
the sands and gravels of the beaches. The variety sanidine (5), (17),
is common in alkaline rocks, Dunedin.

MiCROCLlNE (22) : In many granites, notably at Golden Bay, Stewart
Island ; Kahurangi Point and Dea's Cove, Thompson Sound.

Albite, Oligoclase, ANDEf-ixE, Bytownite. and Anorthite : All of these
species are mentioned in various petrographical papers as occurring in
many rocks of igneous origin. No occurrences deserve any special
mention.

Anorthoclase (17) : Abundant in many alkaline rocks at Dunedin. Also
at Campbell Island.

Perthite (16), (17) : At Stewart Island and at Dunedin.

Leucite : The locality mentioned by Hector in the list quoted was ap-
parently an error. Microscopic crystals occur in a leucitophyre at
Puketoraki, near Dunedin.

Exstatite (15) : Very large crystals in a hartzbergite at Milford Sound;
also mentioned by Hutton in North Island volcanic rocks ; occurs also
at the North Cape, in a hartzbergite.

Hypersthene (16), (19), (26), (27) : Hutton has mentioned the occurrence
of this mineral at Lake Taupo, where crystals washed out of pumice
form a })lack sand. Abundant in the volcanic region of the North Island,
and in norites at Milford Sound, especially in the gravels of the Cleddau
River and at the Bluff.

Bronzite : This mineral has been referred to in geological reports on the
Dun Mountain, but it appears that diallage was mistaken foi- it.

Bastite (25) : Noted l^y Hutton in a rock at the Dun Mountain, where it
is associated with diallage. Occurs also in a hartzbergite at the North
Cape.

108 Tra?isactw?is.

AuGiTE : Good crystals are obtained from weathered tufas at Otago Peninsula
and Banks Peninsula.

^"Egibixe (5), (17) : Abundant in alkaline rocks at Dunedin. Also at Raro-
tonga, but of microscopic size only.

Hornblende : Many varieties have been recorded in different petrographical
papers. The common green variety occurs widely in the diorites of the
south-west Sounds (16) ; brown or basaltic hornblende at Dunedin and
Banks Peninsula (5), (17) ; barkevicite (17) in alkaline rocks at Dunedin.

RiEBECKiTE (30) : In granite boulders near Brunner, Westland ; also at
Campbell Island.

Arfvedsonite (29) : Small crystals in trachyte of the Cass Peak, Port
Hills, Lyttelton.

Tremolite : With garnet forming boulders in gravels at Lake Kanieri
and other Westland localities.

Actinolite (22) : Abundant in West Coast schists and in Otago.

^NiGMATiTE (Cossyritc) (17) : Quite abundant in phonolites and trachy-
dolerites at Dunedin. Also at Campbell Island.

lOLiTE : Abundant in some contact rocks near Aorere River, west Nelson.
The form of crystal composed of trillings occurs in these rocks (P. Mar-
shall, this vol., p. 101).

Nephelite (5), (17), (19), (26) : Abundant in large crystals in tinguaites,
basanites, and trachydolerites, Dunedin. Also in basanite at Auckland,
and in tinguaite boulders at Brunner (30).

SoDALiTE (17), (19) : Small crystals in phonolites and trachydolerites,
Dunedin.

Garnet (16), (18), (20), (21), (22) : Abundant in schist rocks, Otago and
Westland. A somewhat remarkable form in Otago, where a rock occurs
of a pink colour, containing a multitude of extremely minute crystals
of almandine.

Grossulaeite (24) : Occurs with diallage in a garnet gabbro of the Dun
Mountain, Nelson.

UvAROViTE (28) : Minute crystals at Dusky Sound.

Chrysolite : Forms rock-masses of dunite at Milford Sound, as well as
the other localities mentioned by Hector.

Melilite (17) : Plates in basanite at Puketiraki, near Dunedin.

Zircon : Abundant in a porphyry at Campbell Island.

Andalusite (20) : Relatively large crystals in schists.

Chiastolite : Found by Mr. Isaacson in the north-west of Nelson (P. Mar-
shall, this vol., p. 101).

Staurolite occurs with chiastolite (P. Marshall, this vol., p. 101).

Sillimanite : With tourmaline in a specimen brought by Professor Black
from Stewart Island ; also in minute needles in a mica-schist from Dusky
Sound.

ZoisiTE (18) : Occurs with epidote in schistose rocks in Westland.

Epidote (17), (18) : Abundant in quartzite and schists, especially in West-
land.

Tourmaline (19) : Large crystals at Richmond Hill, Parapara, in chlorite-
schist ; also in smaller groups of radiating crystals at the same locality.

Analcite (17) : A rock-constituent, and in cavities in caraptonite, at Dun-
edin.

M-OSCOViTE : Large crystals in granite between George Sound and Lake
Te Anau ; also widely distributed in minute flakes in schists in Otago
and Westland.

Marshall. — Additions to List of New Zealand Minerals. 109

BiOTiTE : A rock composed of large crystal plates at Port Pegasus, Stewart

Island.
FucHSiTE (28) : Also said to occur in Central Otago.
Paragoxite : A green variety, in boulders in Jacob's Eiver, Westland.
Phlogopite (21) : A mica between this and lepidolite, in the Alexandra

area.
Clinochlore : This is the variety of chlorite most commonly present in

the Otago schists.
Genthite (6).
Serpentine (18) : Often mentioned, but no new localities deserving of

special mention.
BowENiTE (18), (15) : Excellent specimens have lately been obtained from

Anita Bay, Milford Sound. At Teratama it is found with ordinary

serpentine.
Talc (18) : In schist, Westland, and at the Caples River, Lake Wakatipu.
Glauconite : Common in Miocene sandstones and limestones throughout

New Zealand.
TiTANiTE : Granite of Separation Point, and common in granulites of the

West Coast Sounds.
MosANDRiTE : Minute crystals in trachyte at Perseverance Harbour,

Campbell Island.
Perofskite (17) : In diorite. Bell Hill, Dunedin ; also in a porphyry, Camp-
bell Island.
MoNAZiTE : Small quantities have been found in sands at Greymoutk
Apatite : An earthy phosphorite, in limestones at Millburn, Otago.
Pyromorphite (6).
Hedyphane (23), (31).
ViviANiTE (6) : Earthy form common ; also good crystals in moa-bones,

Waitati.
Barite : Tabular form at the Thames.
Anglesite (6).

Gypsum : Crystals at the Thames and at Oamaru.
Epsomite (1) : Thames.
Melanteeite (6) : Thames.
Chalcanthite (6) : Thames.

Alum : In the Hot Lakes District, at Waiotapu and Orakeikorako.
Retinite : In brown coals tliroughout New Zealand.

Bibliography.

1. 1891. Park,.!.: " Occurrence of Some Rare Minerals in New Zealand."

Trans. Aust. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. iii, p. 150.

2. 1890. Haeusler, Dr. R. : " On the Microscopical Structure of the Ohine-

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3. 1891. Park, J. : '' Occurrence of Native Zinc at Hape Creek, Thames."

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4. 1891. Park, J. : " Occurrence of Native Silver at Thames Goldfield."

Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxiv, p. 386.

5. 1891. ' Ulrich, G. H. F. : " The Occurrence of Nepheline-bearing Rocks

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110 Transactions.

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10. 1902. Park, J. : " Rock-phosphate Deposits of Clarendon." Trans.

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15. 1901. Marshall, P. : " Magnesian Rocks of Milford Sound." Trans.

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20. 1907. Bell, J. M., Webb, E. J., and Clarke, E. : " Report on Parapara

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22. 1907. Park, J. : " Cromwell Subdivision." Bulletin Geol. Surv., new

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23. 1907. Fraser, C. : " Coromandel Subdivision." Bulletin Geol. Surv.,

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27. 1903. Sollas, W. J., and McKay : " Rocks of Cape Colville Peninsula."

2 vols. Govt. Printer, Wellington.

28. 1888. Park, J. : " Geological Survey Report on Dusky Sound."

29. 1907. Speight, R. : " Trachyte from Banks Peninsula." Trans. N.Z.

Inst., vol. xl, p. 176.

30. 1907. Smath, J. P. : " Alkaline Rocks from Westland." Trans. N.Z.

Inst., vol. xl, p. 123.

31. 1900. Maclaren, J. M. : "Geology of the Coromandel Goldfields."

Pari, paper C.-9.

32. 1897. Park, J.: "Geology and Veins of the Hauraki Goldfields."

N.Z. Inst, of Min. Eng., Auckland.

Cotton. — Geology of Signal Hill, Duncdin. Ill

Art. XXI. — Geology of Signal Hill, Dunedin.
By C. A. Cotton, M.Sc.

[Rend before the Otagn Institute, lOth November, 1908.]

General Geology.

The locks of Signal Hill, being all volcanic, contain no internal evidence
of their geological age. They form, however, a part of the Dunedin group
of volcanics, which are known to overlie unconforraably at Caversham and
at Sea View a calcareous sandstone of the Oamaru system.* The Oaniaru
system was placed by Captain Hutton in 1875 in the Lower Miocene, but
in his later works he classed it as Oligocene.f Hector includes the
Oamaru rocks in his Cretaceo-tertiary system ;t Park places them in the
Miocene.§

The volcanic rocks are not in any case involved in the disturbances of
the Oamaru rocks, nor have faults of any magnitude been observed in them.
A considerable amount of elevation and depression has, however, since
occurred, for the main valleys have been eroded far below the present base-
level, and at Sandy Mount and elsewhere marine terraces are found at a
considerable elevation.

Most observers have supposed the first volcanic outbursts at least to
have occurred during the same period in which the Caversham sandstone
was deposited. Professor Park, however, taking into account the erosion
of the Caversham sandstone, suggests the beginning of the Pliocene as the
first period of volcanic activity. || There was either a prolonged period of
volcanic activity, or there were two shorter periods separated by a period
of quiescence, for conglomerate to a thickness of 100 ft., containing pebbles
derived from the earlier volcanic rocks, lies in places upon the sedimentary
rocks, and is covered by the later volcanic lavas. In places, also, fine
shales with leaf-impressions occur above the sandstone and below the
conglomerate. If, as suggested by Professor Park,|| these are of Pliocene
age, the later eruptions which followed cannot be older than Pliocene. The
occurrence of the conglomerate and the evidence of two periods of volcanic
activity explains the unconformity between the earlier and later lavas of
Signal Hill.

Physiography.

Signal Hill is a flat-topped elevation, extending as a ridge from Logan's
Point in a north-easterly direction for a distance of three miles. The
ridge then bends to the north and north-west, towards Mount Cargill. The
greatest elevation of Signal Hill is 1, 21-1 ft. Less than half a mile to the

* Marshall, " Geology of Dunedin," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, Ixii, 1906.

t Hutton, " Geology of Otago," 1875; " Sketch of the Geology of New Zealand, '
Quart. .Joum. Geol. Soc. 1885; '" (Teological History of New Zealand," Trans. N.Z.
Inst., 1899.

X Hector, " Outline of New Zealand Geology," 1886.

§Park, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1904.

II Park, ■' On the Geology of North Head, Waikouaiti," Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1903.

112 Transactions.

south-east of the main peak is a steep rocky peak of about 1,000 ft. ; and
to the south-west of the main peak are several smaller peaks, all, however,
with gentle slopes. Three-quarters of a mile along the ridge to the north-
east of the main peak is a small elevation known as McGregor's Hill. On
the south and east the hill slopes down to the shallow waters of Otago
Harbour, and at the south-western end to an enclosed bay known as Lake
Logan. The gullies on the eastern and southern sides are of slight depth,
and are occupied by small streams.

A valley of considerable breadth and depth runs down to Lake Logan,
and is occupied by the Opoho Stream, which rises in a swampy area near
the summit of Signal Hill. On the north-west the ridge is bounded by
the North-east Valley Stream. This stream always carries a considerable
volume of water, and has eroded for itself a deep valley. The sequence of
the rocks appears to indicate a great antiquity for this stream-valley. The
stream has two branches, one of which rises on Mount Cargill, while the
other has worked its head back in an easterly direction, and is cutting down
the saddle to the north of McGregor's Hill. The upper part of this branch
is still eroding its bed, but the lower part, and also the main stream, have
reached base-level, and have filled the floor of the valley with alluvium.
The North-east Valley Stream is fed by numerous small tributaries, the
middle courses of which are generally through steep-sided gullies.

Occurrence op the Rocks.

The rocks of most widespread occurrence within the Signal Hill area are
the phonolite of the Logan's Point type, the trachytoid phonolite of the
Signal Hill type, and a basalt-flow which I describe as basalt No. 1. The
basalt covers the top of Signal Hill, and extends across the upper part of
the depression of the North-east Valley. The Logan's Point phonolite
extends from near the summit of the hill to Logan's Point, forms a steep
peak on the side of Signal Hill overlooking the harbour, and reaches to a
point near Burke's. The Signal Hill phonolite has rather a wide occurrence
about McGregor's Hill, and is found also in the North-east Valley.

Besides these there is a distinct variety of nephelinitoid phonolite,
occurring probably as an intrusion, on the saddle to the north of McGregor's
Hill ; and there are several other basalts. The latter vary in composition
from a very basic variety, occurring as a dyke on the Mam North Road,
which appears to be the youngest rock described, to a variety approaching
andesite, which appears to be the oldest rock exposed. The least basic of
the basalts, which I have called No. 5, clearly underlies the Logan's Point
phonolite at a point on the Main North Road a quarter of a mile from
Normanby. In the valley below this point it is not to be found, being
obscured by slips of phonolite from above. Between the phonolite and the
underlying basalt in the section exposed there is a stream-deposit, with
boulders derived from the basalt, proving an intermediate period of erosion.

The Logan's Point trachytoid phonolite mass is of great thickness on
the southern slope of Signal Hill, being continuous from below sea-level
at Logan's Point to an elevation of 1,100 ft. near the summit. Towards
the west, however, it thins out, until on the Main North Road there is a
thickness of only 50 ft. between basalt No. 5 below and the main basalt-
flow (No. 1) above.

In the valley below, the Logan's Point phonolite gives place to the Signal
Hill phonolite, but the junction is obscure. There is difficulty also in
tracinif the boundarv between the two rocks on the eastern side. It is^

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

Pl VIII.

Geologfical Map

OF

SIGNAL HILL,

DUNEDIN. N.Z.

O /O 20 30 ■to

' ' ' t i

^)itBiK df ciiairu.

Logan's Point

W.

BlffimsiE

<m^i

Section along AA (on Main North Road) explaining Sections i to 8.

{■fOC'-'^

i,ooo\ S.E.
eocn

accA

'iilliillllililiiiiiiiiiiliin iiiiiiiiiiiiimiii i|iiiiiiiiiiinr~

Section along CC.

Alluvia! and reclaimed,

Logan's Point type o/ trachyioij phonolile.
Signal Hill type of Irachytoid phonolile,
Nepheliniioid phonolile,

Basic basalt dyke*,

wm

Acid type basalt,
Jtfore basic basalt,
Baaanite.
Phonolile dyke.

GEOLOGY OF SIGNAL HILL.— Cotton.

To face p. 112.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

Pl. IX.

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GEOLOGY OF SIGNAL HILL. Cotton.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI

Pl. X.

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GEOLOGY OF SIGNAL HILL —Cotton.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

Pl. XI.

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GEOLOGY OF SIGNAL HILL.— Cotton

Cotton. — Geologij of Signal Hill, Dunedin. 113

however, practically certain, from sections exposed elsewhere — notably
that at North Head, figured by Dr. Marshall* — that the oldest rock is the
Logan's Point type, and that the Signal Hill type, which is closely related
to the andesitic type of the North Head, rests upon it. The intervening
basalt and basanite flows are not represented at Signal Hill, although a
first inspection of the sections exposed along the Main North Road might
lead to the belief that basalt intervenes between the flows of the two types
of phonolite.

Going up the road from Normanby one passes successively Logan's
Point phonolite. basalt, and Signal Hill trachytoid phonolite. A closer
inspection shows that, while the basalt overlies the Logan's Point rock, it
also overlies the Signal Hill type, and is continuous with the main basalt-
flow which covers the summit of the hill, and has the peculiar distribution
to be described later. This mass of basalt evidently filled a depression
which existed near the line of junction of the two types of phonolite, and
which may have been the result of erosion, or perhaps was caused by the
rapid solidification of the relatively acid phonolite lava. Section No. 1
gives the distribution of these rocks.

In connection with both types of trachytoid phonolite it may be stated
that, in places where the rocks are exposed in situ, the cleavage is approxi-
mately horizontal.

Above the phonolite of the Logan's Point type there occurs, on the
Signal Hill Road, about the 800 ft. contour-line, a bed of scoria 30 ft. in
thickness. From an undecomposed core in this a specimen of basalt was
obtained of a much more acid type than the main basalt-flow which followed
it. It is described as basalt No. 4.

The main basalt-flow, described as basalt No. 1, covers the summit of
the hill, and on the south-eastern side extends down only a short distance.
It continues, however, much farther in a north-westerly direction, and to
the north extends in a narrow belt across the head of the eastern arm of the
North-east Valley towards Mount Cargill. This distribution is very peculiar,
and it might be suggested that the basalt covering this area consists of a
number of lava-flows, some of which alternate with flows of trachvtoid
phonolite. This explanation, however, is not upheld by field evidence.

The sections exposed on the Main North Road, and numbered con-
secutively 1 to 10 on the accompanving map, are as follows : —

(1.) Direction, N.E.-S.W. Height above sea-level, 330 ft. Basalt lies
horizontally upon Logan's Point phonolite.

(2.) Direction, N.W.-S.E. Height above sea-level. 480 ft. Basalt lies
upon trachytoid plionolite (Signal Hill tvpe), dipping N.W. 12'.

(3.) The section is not clear, but basalt appears to overlie Signal Hill
phonolite nearly horizontally. Height above sea, 520 ft.

(4.) Direction, N.W.-S.E. Height above sea-level, 550 ft. Basalt lies
upon Signal Hill phonolite, dipping 12|° N.W.

(5.) Direction. N.E.-S.W. Height above sea-level, 580 ft. Basalt lies
upon Signal Hill phonolite, dipping 4i° N.E. The basalt is then con-
tinuous for about half a mile.

(6.) Direction, E.N.E.-W.S.W. Height above sea-level. 75<) ft. Basalt
lies upon Signal Hill phonolite, dipping W.S.W. 8°.

At (7) and (8) the sections are not clear, but between these points basalt
is continuous.

♦Marshal), " Geology of Duiiedin," Quart. Joum. Geol. Soe, Ixii, 190f>.

114 Transactions.

(9.) Direction, N.W.-S.E. Height above sea-level, 860 ft. Basalt over-
lies Signal Hill phonolite horizontally.

(10.) At Junction School. Heitrht, 920 ft. Basalt lies upon a convex
surface of Signal Hill phonolite, dipping both N.W. and S.E. at an increasing
angle.

The diagrammatic section along AA shows the relations of the rocks.

It is thus seen that the basalt-flow is everywhere later than the phonolite.
Moreover, when all the above-mentioned basalt-outcrops are followed up
they are found to be continuous with the flow covering the top of Signal
Hill, and the flow is continuous across the deep valley to the north. At
various levels, also, isolated patches of the same basalt occur on the spur-
leading down to Opoho.

It thus appears that the basalt flowed over a surface quite as uneven
as the present surface of the hill, and filled up the depressions. That the
basalt did not follow the phonolite in quick succession is proved by the
occurrence of a considerable thickness of baked soil on the surface of the
phonolite and below the basalt. No direct evidence of erosion, such as
the occurrence of phonolite conglomerate beneath the basalt, has been ob-
served, but it seems necessary to postulate a long period of erosion before
the extrusion of the basalt which then filled up the depressions, and perhaps
solidified on some of the slopes without filling up the valleys below. \i,
however, the basalt be supposed to have flowed from Mount Cargill, the
valley which then occupied the site of the present North-east Valley must
have been filled to a depth of 1,000 ft. with basaltic lava. From the lower
part of the valley the basalt, if ever it occurred there, has been completely
removed by erosion.

The ridges running down towards the North-east Valley are composed
of basalt, while the gullies are eroded in the phonolite, which at the heads
of the gullies is at a considerably higher level than the basalt at the lower
parts of the ridges. This, together with the fact that the tongues of basalt
occur in trough-like depressions in the phonolite, shows that the present
ridges occupy the sites of ancient gullies.

The basalt mass is made up of numerous successive flows. At many
points there are interbedded layers of scoria, and also red bands, which
appear to be baked surface clays. If this is correct, considerable intervals
must have elapsed between the successive extrusions of basaltic lava. These
beds or layers cannot, however, be correlated on account of their resem-
blance to one another and of the similarity of the basalt of the diiJerent
flows. The beds do not appear in any case to lie horizontally, nor to have
a uniform dip and strike.

The strip of basalt filling the upper part of the North-east Valley is
surrounded by older rocks at a higher level on all sides except in the direc-
tion of the mouth of the valley. Here the older rocks (phonolites) are at
a lower level. Hence it appears that the ancient valley into which the
basalt flowed had the same general direction as the North-east Valley. The
ancient valley was nearly as deep as the present North-east Valley, and,
if it be granted that there has been no subsequent tilting, had a gradient
not quite so steep.

A small area of basanite occurring on the Lower North Road scarcely
comes into the area discussed. Its relation to the basalt is not apparent.
It occurs at a considerably higher level than the neighbouring Signal Hill
trachytoid phonolite, and so is considered younger than that rock. It is
distant about half a mile from the clear sections on the Main North Road

Cotton. — Geology of Signal Hill, Dunedin. 115

Several intrusions of both phonolitic and basaltic rock are found. The
most striking of these occurs on the saddle north of McGregor's Hill. The
rock, which is nephelinitoid phonolite, is not found in situ, but fragments
are found on the surface over an area 40 yards by 150 yards, with its greatest
elongation in the direction W.N.W.-E.S.E. Great variations occurring in
the mineral characters of this rock in specimens collected within a few feet
of each other, and its isolated occurrence, lead to the conclusion that it is
intrusive. It is surrounded by a ring of basalt, an isolated remnant of the
basalt-flow, which is here cut down by the action of streams approaching
each other from opposite sides of the saddle. The intrusion, tlierefore, is
later than all the lava-flows.

A group of dykes of a very basic basalt occur on the Main North Road.
One is vertical, and 5 ft. in thickness ; two others are irregularly inclined,
and vary from 2 ft. to 3 ft. in thickness. Lower down the hill is a vertical
dyke of the same character, 15 ft. in thickness. The strike of these dvkes is
about east and west.

In the upper part of the North-east Valley, about 500 yards south of
the Junction School, there appears traversing the basalt a dyke of decom-
posed rock. On account of its decomposed nature, no detailed examination
has been made of tliis rocJc. It has a fine lamellar structure, developed to
such an extent that the lamelhe may be pulled apart by the hand. Its
colour is a creamy grey, and it shows numerous white crystals of feldspar
not entirely decomposed. Some of these are very large, and some of medium
size. Their occurrence gives the decomposed rock a micaceous sheen. On
account of the abundance of feldspar crystals, the rock has been tentatively
classed as a trachytoid phonolite.

Sequence of the Rocks.

From the above description the followinp' aopears to be the sequence : —

1. Basalt of an acid type.

2. Logan's Point phonolite.

3. Signal Hill trachytoid phonolite.

4. Eruptions of basaltic scoria of an intermediate type.

5. Main basalt-flows.

6. Dykes of extremely basic basalt. Intrusion of nephelinitoid phono-
lite. Dyke of rock of doubtful composition, perhaps trachytoid phonolite.

Source of the Lavas.

Nothing definite can l)e stated as to the position of the vents from which
the various lavas issued.

In the case of the Logan's Point phonolite tlie greatest thickness of rock
occurs in the southern portion of Signal Hill. On the western side it thins
out, and to the north dips below younger rocks. In the precipitous peak
on the south-eastern side of Signal Hill the cleavage-planes of the rock are
highly inclined, while elsewhere they are horizontal. Possiblv this peak mav
be the neck or plug which solidified in the ancient crater ; but the surround-
ing rock does not show signs of having flowed from this point. Similar
rocks also are described from Mount Cargill, from the opposite shore of
Otago Harbour, and from Otago North Head, where a bedded flow occurs :
but such a great thickness does not elsewhere occur as that in the main
Signal Hill mass.

Marshall, " Geology of Dunedin," Quart. Journ. Geol. See, Ixii. 190fi.

116 Transactions.

The trachytoid phonolite of the Signal Hill type does not occur over so-
great an area, nor, so far as is known, to so great a depth in the area
described, but a similar rock has a wide occurrence to the north, as
described by Dr. Marshall, and occurs also as a bedded flo^y at North
Head. It may, then, be supposed to originate at some point north of
Signal Hill.

The acid basalt underlying the phonolites does not appear to have any
close allies in the neighbourhood, although I have compared it with a large
number of sections kindly lent for the purpose by Dr. Marshall. It cannot,
therefore, be traced to its origin.

The main basalt-flow closely resembles a basalt occurring as a neck on
Mount Cargill. This may perhaps be its source. If so, the ancient valley
intervening must have been filled to a great depth. The occurrence of the
basalt at various levels on the inclined surface of the phonolites on Signal
Hill is more easily explained on the assumption that basalt overflow occurred
there, and the lava flowed down the slopes.

It is difficult to draw conclusions as to the nature of the magmas from
which the rocks were derived, but they are best explained by supposing
the rocks to be derived from tw^o magmas, a basaltic and a phonolitic. The
basalts became progressively more basic as vulca'nism died out. The
interval between the first basaltic flow and the next must, however, as
before stated, have been great.

The phonolitic magma which supplied the lava of the Logan's Point
type and the very much later nephelinitoid intrusion were similar in com-
position, and probably identical. The Signal Hill phonolite is chrono-
logically intermediate between these two, but not intermediate in composi-
tion. It is much poorer in alkalies and richer in iron, and appears to be
related to the trachydolerite of Mount Cargill.* It may have originated
from a mixture of the basaltic and phonolitic magmas.

No explanation based on the theory of magmatic differentiation i&
applicable to the alternation of types, but the basalts, taken separately,
may be conceived to be derived from a differentiating magma in its final
stages.

Petrography.

Trachytoid Phonolite (Logan s Point Type).

This rock is mentioned under the above name by Dr. Marshall. | At
the typical locality (Logan's Point Quarry) the rock is distinctly trachytoid,
and near the summit of Signal Hill even more so ; but in the south-east
peak feldspar is almost absent, and the rock should be classed as nephe-
linitoid.

Macroscopic Characters. — In hand-specimens the rock is of a greenish-
grey colour, flecked with green streaks. It cleaves readily into flakes.

Microscopic Characters. — The structure is uniformly fine-grained in
typical specimens, and holocrystalline. Flow structure is common wherever
there is a considerable development of feldspar. In the typical rock from
Logan's Point there are no phenocrysts. The chief constituent is ortho-
clase or sanidine, but in some places feldspar becomes scarce. It occurs
as bundles of fine needle-shaped crystals, some of which are of considerable

* Marshall, " Geology of Dunedin," Quart. Journ. Gcol. See. Ixii, 1906.
t Marshall, " Geology of Dunedin." Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, Ixii, 1906.

Cotton. — Geology of Signal Hill, Dunedin. 117

length — up to 0-5 mm. — but all are very narrow. Some show Carlsbad
twinning. The crystals are often bent, and generally interwoven.

The constituents next in importance are nepheline and a^girine-augite.
The nepheline is not distinguished without staining, but in a stained section
fully one-third of the rock is seen to consist of nepheline. chiefly in short
hexagonal prisms, and partly as fine allotriomorphous grains. The maxi-
mum size of the prisms is 0-1 mm. in length and breadth. Very small
isotropic spots with low refractive index are put down as sodalite. The
segirine-augite occurs as flakes and needles without definite crystal outlines
at Logan's Point. Near the summit better - defined elongated crystals
occur, which are also larger, being as much as 0-5 mm. in length.

The maximum extinction-angle is 38°.

The colour is bright green, and the pleochroism as follows : (a) grass-
green ; (6) lighter green ; (c) apple-green. With this may be compared
the pleochroism of pegirine from Laven, given by Rosenbusch :* (a) pure
green to blue-green ; (t») olivine-green ; (c) yellowish grass-green.

Associated with the segirine-augite are numerous minute crystals of
deep-brown, almost opaque cossyrite, varying in size from minute grains
or needles to crystals 0-1 mm. in thickness. The form of the crystals is
rather indefinite, but as nearly as can be made out the prismatic angle is
that of typical cossyrite (66°). The mineral exhibits a deep-brown pleo-
chroism. The grains are scattered evenly throughout the rock, being often
associated with crystals of the green segirine-augite.

Magnetite is fairly abundant, in fine grains, while apatite occurs very
rarely, in fine needles. No glass is present.

The high percentage of both ferrous and ferric oxides may be noted
as peculiar to the rocks of this district. Treatment of the finely ground
powder with hydrochloric acid dissolves a considerable amount. This points
to the presence of a large proportion of nepheline ; and the unusual amount
of ferric iron obtained in solution by this method points perhaps to the
solubility of cossyrite.

Variations of the Logan's Point Phonolite. — On the peak above Burke's
mossy aegirine-augite is very abundant, and phenocrysts also occur up to
0-3 mm. in length. Feldspar is very rare, and the rock should be classed
as nephelinitoid. Cossyrite and magnetite are abundant.

Near the top of Signal Hill the feldspar is relatively abundant, showing
flow structure. At Normanby nepheline is abvmdant, as also is tegirine-
augite, both as mossy growths and as phenocrysts of considerable size.
These phenocrysts attain a length of 3 mm. or more, but are very narrow.
They have sometimes a core of pinkish-grey augite. The extinction-angle
of the segirine-augite is 36°, and of the augite 40°. Orthoclase needles are
moderately abundant. Co3syrite and magnetite occur.

The Logan's Point rock has been compared by Rosenbusch, in a pri\'ate
letter to Dr. Marshall, with the apachite of Osann.t The chief resemblance,
however, appears to be the presence of cossyrite. According to Rosen-
busch,! ^^^ distinctiveness of the apachite type is stated by Osann to be
the richness in the younger amphibole minerals, the microperthitic nature
of the feldspars, and the presence of senigmatite. The last appears to be
the only point of similarity.

♦Rosenbusch, Mikr. Phys., 1905.
tT.M.P.M., 1896, XV, 394.
t Mikr. Phys., vol. ii, p. 823.

118

Tranmctions.

In chemical composition the Logan's Point rock is similar to a tinguaite
from Edda Gyorgis, Abyssinia,* the analysis of which is quoted for com-
parison : —

Trachytoid

Tinguaite,

Phonolite,t Losn

Phonolite,

Edda Gyorgis

Type, British

Logan's Point.

Abyssinia.

East Africa.

SiO. ..

.. 57-00

57-81

58-37

Al.,03..

.. 16-06

18-74

16-65

Fe;03 ■

. . 5-53

5-76

4-09

FeO ..

. . 3-22

0-42

3-03

MgO ..

. . 0-64

Trace

0-37

CaO ..

. . 1-51

1-28

1-66

Na.,0 . .

. . 8-00

9-35

7-28

K,0 ..

. . 6-18

4-52

5-46

H.,0 .. •

.. 2-10

1-50

2-36

Tib., ..

. . 0-39

, ,

0-21

CI

. . 0-45

The analysis is also quoted of a rock from British East Africa, called
by Prior the Losuguta- type. J This rock contains cossyrite, and its ground-
mass in particular appears closely to resemble the Logan's Point rock.
Eocks with abundant cossyrite, which occurs in a manner analogous to its
occurrence in the Logan's Point rock, are described by H. L Jensen
from Queensland. § The Logan's Point phonolite was first described by
Captain Hutton]j as an augite-andesite. ITe considered the groundmass to
be chiefl}' glass, and mentions chlorite and a purple pleochroic augite.
What he describes as chlorite is probably a>girine-augite, and the purple
augite is not to be fotnid. He evidently also mistook the cossyrite for
magnetite.

Trachytoid Phonolite {Signal Hill Type).

This rock has been so named by Dr. Marshall.^ It is certainly a trachy-
toid phonolite, with only a sinall amount of nepheline. but it contains amphi-
bole as its chief ferro-magnesian constituent. Corresponding to the large
amount of ferro-magnesian minerals and iron-ores, the content of both ferric
and ferrous oxides is unusually high, as shown by the chemical analysis,
given later. The rock is tlius an exceptional one.

Macroscopic Characters. — The colour is greyish-green, and the texture
rather coarse. Numerous cleavage-faces of feldspar are to be seen, and also
crystals of amphibole of vai'ious dimensions, some being as much as 1 cm.
in length and breadth. Sometimes a horizontal platy structure is notice-
able, but the weathering is often spheroidal, and isolated boulders have the
appearance of basalt.

Microscopic Characters. — The structure is porphyritic and holocrystalline,
and the feldspars of the groundmass in places show flow structure.

* Prior. Min. Mag., xii. p. 269, 1900.
t Contains also IVInO, 0-43 ; P.,0.,. 0-08.

+ Prior, Min. I\Iag. xiii, 61, Feb., I!i03, p. 238, and plate v, fig. 2.
§ Jensen, " Geology of East Moreton and Wide Bay'Districts, Queensland," Proc.
Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1906,' pt. i.

il Hutton, Proc. Royal Soc. N.S.W., 1889, p. 134.

^1 Marshall, " Geology of Dunedin."' Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, Ixii, 1906.

Cotton. — Geology of Signal Hill, Dunedin. 119

The largest phenocrysts arc feldspar of different varieties in slightly
corroded crystals. Anorthoclase is common in large crystals. It shows
fine lamellar twinning, crossed at right angles by another set of very fine
and rather indefinite lamellae. As will be seen from the accompanying
photograph (Plate X, fig. 2), these are too narrow and not regular enough
to be attributed to pericline twinning of a feldspar of the albite-anorthite
series. In thicker parts of the section extinction between crossed nicols is
irregular. For these reasons this feldspar is regarded as anorthoclase.

As sections parallel to the cleavage are not obtainable, the extinction-
angle cannot be verified.

Clear crystals of monoclinic feldspar with Carlsbad twinning are also
common. They are referred to sanidine.

Oligoclase phenocrysts are also common, with polysynthetic albite
twinning. Sections perpendicular to 010, having equal extinction-angles
measured from the twin line, on either side of it, extinguish at an angle of
5° from the twin line.

Perthitic intergrowths are rather common.

The feldspars all occur in broad prisms, up to 3 mm. or i mm. in length.

Numerous phenocrysts of a deep-brown amphibole occur. They have
definite crystal outlines when not entirely resorbed. Prisms and clino-
pinacoids are developed, giving hexagonal cross-sections. The crystals

are elongated parallel to the c axis. The optical characters observed are as

\ -L ,

follows: a — a, b = b, c/\c= 15°. The axis c lies in the plane of symmetry.
Pleochroism : {a) Pale yellovvash-brown ; (6) deep brown ; (c) deep brown.
These characters show it to be intermediate between barkevikite and basaltic
hornblende. The crystals are largely resorbed, being bordered, and in some
cases entirely replaced, by fringes of magnetite grains associated with augite
and a little calcite.

This amphibole has evidently been one of the first minerals to crystallize,
having probably an " intratelluric " origin. It has afterwards become
unstable in the magma owing to altered conditions, perhaps of pressure.
The feldspar needles surrounding the amphibole phenocrysts have a
fluxional arrangement.

An interesting comparison may be m.ade between this mineral and the
amphibole of a somewhat similar rock described from tlie *' Beagle " collec-
tion.* In that rock the amphibole is converted to tegirine-augite, and no
mention is made of magnetite. This is considered to be the source of all
the segirine-augite in the rock.

The size of the amphibole phenocrysts in the Signal Hill rock varies
from 0-3 mm. in length and breadth up to 1 cm. or more.

Pyroxene phenocrysts are rare, and of small size. They are augite
of a slightly sodic variety. The extinction-angle is 42°. The mineral is
rather pale in colour, with very slight pleochroism, as follows : («) pale
green ; (b) greyish, almost colourless ; (c) slightly yellowish-green.

A few stout prisms of grey-coloured apatite occur, up to 0-2 mm. in
length.

Olivine occurs rarely, and is largely altered to serpentine. A glomero-
porphyritic inclusion has been observed. In the centre is a large cross-

* Geol. Mag., March, 1907, p. 100.

120 Transactions.

section of grey augite, surrounded by a mass of allotriomorphic crystals
of lime-soda feldspar and grains of magnetite.

Groundmass. — The groundmass consists of lath-shaped feldspars, pale-
green augite, numerous magnetite grains, and interstitial nepheline.

The feldspar is chiefly orthoclase or sanidine, but oligoclase also occurs,
with the same characters as in the phenocrysts. The feldspar laths vary
in size up to 0*5 mm. in length and 005 mm. in breadth.

The pale-green ;egirine-augite occurs in irregular crystals. It has the
same characters as in the phenocrysts. The pleochroism is very slight.
The maximum size of the crystals is 0-5 mm. by O'l inm.

Nepheline does not appear without staining, but a stained section shows
a moderate amount of interstitial nepheline. Associated with the nepheline
is a little sodalite. There is no glass, and there is no cossyrite. The absence
of the latter is rather remarkable, considering its abundance in the Logan's
Point phonolite.

Chemical Composition. — The proportions of ferric and ferrous oxides are
both very high, corresponding to the large amounts of . ferro-magnesian
minerals and magnetite present. The nepheline-syenite of Red Hill, New
Hampshire, U.S.A.,* has a somewhat similar composition, excepting that
its content of ferric oxide is much lower. An analysis of it is quoted for
comparison : —

SiO^

Al.O.,

Fe.,0.

FeO

MgO

CaO

NaaO

K.O

H,0

Ti(3.,

P.O.

CI

Order of Crystallisatio)!. — (1) Some
(2) amphibole ; (3) feldspars (after this corrosion of the feldspars and re-
sorption of the amphibole took place, with liberation of magnetite) ; (4) moi'e
magnetite and pyroxene ; (5) feldspar of the groundmass ; (6) nepheline.

Nephelinitoid Phonolite.

Macroscopic Characters. — The rock varies in colour from lead-grey to
green. It is dense, and fine-grained. Specks of dark pyroxene and large
phenocrysts of feldspar, as much as ^ in. in breadth, occur. The green
kind in particular has a platy structure.

Microscopic Characters. — The structure is holocrystalline and porphyritic,
the phenocrysts, however, being rare. The groundmass in some cases ap-
pears cellular, and in other cases, where the nepheline is not so idiomorphic,
there are alternate streaks of clear, fine-grained nepheline and mossy green
a^girine. When phenocrysts occur they are large.

Trachytoicl

Nep

heline -syenite.

Phonolite,

Red Hill,

Signal Hill.

New Hampshire.

. . 54-15

59-01

. . 16-09

18-18

. . 7-35

1-63

. . 4-90

3-65

1-61

1-05

. . 3-86

2-40

. . 5-94

7-03

. . 4-41

5-34

. . 1-40

0-65

. . 0-41

0-81

. . 0-42

Trace

. . 0-40

0-12

magnetite and

all

the apatite ;

* Baylcy, B.G.S.A., iii, p. 250.

Cotton. — Geolog// of Signal Hill, Duncdin.

121

Phenocrysts. — Large clear crystals of sanidine occur with Carlsbad twinning
and cross-parting. In some cases they are elongated, and vary in length
from 1 mm. or less to 1 cm. or more.

Nepheline occurs in sharply idiomorphic short prisms, but only rarely.
They are as much as 1 -5 mm. in breadth.

Groundmass. — Feldspar is very rare. Orthoclase occurs rarely in fine
needles, showing Carlsbad twinning.

Nepheline is the chief constituent. It occurs abundantly in good idio-
morphic crystals, in size about 0*06 mm., and also interstitially. It gives
the section a honeycombed appearance.

Associated with the nepheline is abundant mossy aegirine or opgirine-
augite of a deep-green colour. It occurs in very small crystals without
definite outlines. The extinction - angle measured from the direction of
greatest elongation is in many cases low, although it is impossible to
determine it accurately. The pleochroism is from green to yellowish-green.
At least some of the mineral is, therefore, probably pegirine ; but a?girine-
augite may also be present, though to a small extent.

Magnetite grains are very rare.

No glass is present, and no cossyrite.

Order of Crystallisation. — (1) Magnetite ; (2) sanidine and nepheline
phenocrysts ; (3) mossy pegirine and the nepheline of the groundmass.

Chetnical Composition. — The analysis of a tinguaite from Alno, Sweden,*
is quoted for comparison : —

Nephelinitoid

Tinguaite

Phonolite,

Alno,

Signal Hill.

Sweden.

SiO.,

.. 53-80

50-26

Al,63

.. 18-72

20-15

Fe.,0,

. . 4-99

3-67

FeO

. . 3-59

2-62

MgO

*

. . 0-86

1-43

CaO

. . 2-80

3-28

Na^O

. . 8-82

8-09

KgO

. . 5-20

4-67

H,0

. . 1-90

3-85

TiO.,

. . 0-30

0-24

CI

. . 0-14

Basalt

No. :

I.

Numerous flows of this rock occur, making up the chief basalt mass.
All are very similar. Only one, which differs somewhat in texture, is briefly
noticed separately as basalt No. 2.

Macroscopic Characters. — The rock is black and basaltic-looking, with
numerous crystals of olivine and feldspar. No true columnar structure
is to be seen, but some weathered boulders have the appearance of square
prisms. Spheroidal weathering is general, and everywhere the solid rock
is covered by a mantle of clay with spheroidal cores.

Microscopic Characters. — The structure is holocrystalline and porphyritic.
Large phenocrysts of feldspar, augite, and olivine occur in a groundmass

* Rosenbusch, Elemente. p. 215, 1898.

1-22

Transactions.

consisting of feldspar, magnetite, and augite, without glass. Flow structure
is apparent in some localities and absent in others.

Phenocrysts. — Phigioclase phenocrvsts vary in size up to 1-5 mm., and
are abundant. Polysynthetic albite twinning is universal. The extinction-
angle of adjacent lamelLnp in sections perpendicular to 010 is 30°. The feld-
spar is therefore labradorite.

Augite phenocrvsts are large, being as much as 7 mm. or 8 mm. in length
and 2-8 mm. in thickness. The colour is grey, and the maximum extinction-
angle 41°. The crystals are idiomorphic, and some show twinning, with
the orthopinacoid as composition plane.

Magnetite occurs in crystals and rounded grains up to 04 mm. in dia-
meter.

Olivine occurs in rounded crystals up to 0-5 mm., and, more rarely,
larger. It is pale in colour. The olivine crystals are often replaced by
serpentine pseudomorphs.

Groundmass. — The groundmass consists chiefly of irregularly arranged
small needles and laths of labradorite and numerous irregular grains of grey
augite and magnetite. At some places feldspar is very abundant, with
flow structure, and at others no flow structure is to be seen, while magnetite
and augite are relatively more abundant.

Chemical Composition. — For comparison the analysis of a dolerite* from
Dyer's Pass, Canterbury, is quoted : —

SiOg

AL,03

Fe,03

FeO

MgO

CaO

Na,0

K.b

H^O

Tib 2

CI.

Basalt No. 1.

Doleiite. Dyers

Signal Hill.

Pass, Canterbury

. ■15-80

48-60

. 17-91

17-87

6-U

6-20

8-69

5-76

3-92t

4-32

8-10

9-11

4-71

4-66

1-77

2-06

2-10

1-78

0-35

, ,

0-11

, ,

Bamlt No. 2.

This basalt is not found in situ, but only as spheroidal cores in a deep
clay. It has a cubical fracture. The minerals are similar to those in No. 1.
and occur in the same proportions. The groundmass is similar to that of
No. 1, the only difference being in the phenocrysts. The feldspar pheno-
crysts are much larger than in No. 1, and the olivine is nearly all decom-
posed.

Basalt No. 3.

This rock, which occurs in a dyke, is very hard and dense in appearance.
Olivine crystals are seen in abundance.

Microscopic Characters. — In sections the rock is holocrystalline and
porphyritic. The groundmass is much more coarsely crystalline than that
of the lava basalts.

* R. Speight, Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxvi, p. 409.

f MgO appears low to be associated with such a low amouiit of SiOo-

CoTTOi^. ^Geology of Signal Hill, Dunedin.

123

Phenocrysts. — The phenocrysts are augite, olivine, feldspar, and magne-
tite. Of these, olivine and augite are by far the most abundant. The
olivine crystals are large, and are partly altered to serpentine. They are
almost colourless. The augite crystals are grey in colour and up to
J mm. in breadth. Thev have no pleochroism, and the extinction-angle
is 41°.

Feldspar phenocrysts are rare. They are of basic labradorite, chiefly
untwinned, and are about 1 ram. in length.

Magnetite grains occur up to 0-1 mm. in diameter.

Groundmass. — The groundmass is holocrystalline, and is coarser-grained
than in the other basalts .described. It consists chiefly of allotrimorphous
grey augite, with labradorite laths averaging 0-3 mm. in length. The
extinction-angle on either side of the albite twin line in sections perpen-
dicular to 010 is 32^°. There are also abundant grains of magnetite. No
glass is present.

This rock, owing to the scarcity of feldspar and abundance of augite
and olivine, approaches a magma basalt or augitite.

Chemical Composition. — The chemical composition proves that the

rock is derived from an extremely basic magma. For comparison the

analysis of a basic basalt from Punta Delgrada, San Miguel, Azores,* is

quoted : —

Dyke Basalt, Basalt, Punta Del-
No. 3, grada, S. Miguel,
Signal Hill.

SiO,

AUO3

Fe,03

FeO

MgO

CaO

Na^O

KoO

H.,0

Tib.,

PoO,

CI

MnO .. .. .. .. .. 0-36

Signal Hill.

Azores

-44-00

44-06

14-07

15-10

5-16

5-23

10-87

7-93

11-18

9-84

10-28

12-56

1-74

2-20

1-98

0-93

1-40

0-30

0-47

1-80

0-53

0-11

Basalt No. 4.

This basalt occurs in fragments in a scoria- bed on the Signal Hill
Road, lying above the Logan's Point phonolite and below the main basalt-
flow.

Macroscopic Characters. — The structure is porphyritic. the matrix being
grey and fine-grained, with numerous white phenocrysts of feldspar and
occasional black specks of augite.

Microscopic Characters. — In sections the porphyritic structure is strongly
marked, augite and feldspar occurring in two generations. No flow structure
is discernible.

*€. V, John, Jb. G. R.-A., Wien, xlii, p. 291, 1896.

124 Transaction<i.

Phenocrysts. — The most numerous and conspicuous phenocrysts are
feldspar. These vary in size from 0'3 mm. to 3 ram. They show poly-
synthetic albite twinning. The extinction-angle of adjacent lamella? in
sections perpendicular to 010 is 28*^'. The feldspar is therefore labra-
dorite.

Less numerous are phenocrysts of grey augite and small pseudomorphs
of serpentine with the form of olivine. The augite crystals varv in
size from 0-2 mm. to 0-7 mm., and the olivine has been present in crystals
1 mm. or 2 mm. in length, and regular grains of magnetite up to 0-5 mm.
occur.

Groimdmass. — The groundmass consists of small laths of feldspar with
a considerable amount of fine granular augite and magnetite. The feldspar
is labradorite. and the augite is similar to that occurring as phenocrysts.

Basalt A'o. 5.

This basalt underlies the Logan's Point phonolite on the Main North
Road, near Normanby, where fresh spheroidal cores are obtained, imbedded
in a red clay.

Macroscopic Characters. — The rock appears dense and black, with
occasional large phenocrysts of feldspar. It has a very irregular frac-
ture.

Microscopic Characters. — The structure is holocrystalline and porphyritic.
The groundmass is very dense, and the feldspar needles appear to have
flowed around the phenocrysts.

i # Phenocrysts. — Feldspar is abundant, in n-regular and lath-shaped crystals,
showing polysynthetic albite twinning. The extinction-angle of adjacent
lamellae in sections perpendicular to 010 is 27°. The feldspar is there-
fore an acid labradorite bordering on andesine. Some of the crystals,
especially the lath-siiapcd ones, are tmall; others are as much as 5 mm.
in length.

Grey augite occurs very sparingly, in rounded grains, and there is a
small amount of olivine in crystals up to 1 mm. in length.

Magnetite occurs in grains and octahedrons.

Groundmass. — In the very dense groundmass feldspar is moderately
abundant, in fine needles. The remainder consists of grains of magnetite
and augite.

Order of Crystallization for the Basalts.

(1) Magnetite; (2) olivine ; (3) augite; (4) feldspar; (5) magnetite,
augite, and feldspar of the groundmass.

Quantitative Classification of the Pochs.

The rocks have been classified on a quantitative chemico-mineralogical
basis according to the system of Cross, Iddings, Pirsson, and Washington,*
and the chemical results have also been plotted as diagrams according to
the system devised by Iddings.f and these diagrams have been combined
in a multiple diagram (Plate IX).

1903.

* " Quantitative Classification of Igneous Rocks." Chicago, 1903.

t Chem. Comp. of Igneous Rocks expressed by Means of Diagrams, U.S. Geol. Surv..

(JoTTOi!i.—GeoJ(>f/if of Signal Hill, Dunedin.
The chemical classification is as follows : —

125

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The " norm " is seen to correspond roughly to the " mode," or actual
mineral composition.

It is interesting to compare the actual proportions of feldspar to feld-
spathoid in the three types of phonolite : (1) In the Logan's Point phonolite,
where feldspar and nepheline each constitute about one-third of the rock,
silica is relatively high and alumina low, while alkalies are high ; (2) in the
nephelinitoid phonolite, where nepheline constitutes the greater portion of
the rock, silica is lower, alumina is higher, and alkalies are about the same ;

126 Transaction.?.

(3) in the Signal Hill plionolite, where neplieline is rare and feldspar of
various tvpes abundant, silica is nearly the same as in the nephelinitoid
type, alumina is low, and alkalies are also low\

EXPLANATION OF PLATES VIII-XL
Plate VIII.
Geological map of Signal Hill, with sections along lines AA, BB, CC, on map.

Plate IX.
Fig. 1. Map showing locality.
Fig. 2. Graphic representation of the chemical composition of the rocks (after Iddings).

Plate X.
Fig. 1. Logan's Point phonolite ; x 200. Shows association of cossyrite and aegirine-

aiigite.
Fig. 2. Signal Hill trachytoid phonolite ; x 45. Crossed nicols. Shows large crystal

of anorthoclase.
Fig. 3. Signal Hill trachytoid phonolite ; x 45. Shows a large crystal of amphibole

partly resorbed.
Fig. 4. Nephelinitoid phonolite ; x 45. Shows the groundmass consisting chielly of

nepheline with mossy aegirine.

Plate XI.
Fig. a. Logan"s Point phonolite overlying basalt No. 5 on Main North Road, near

Normanby.
Fig. b. Dyke of basalt No. 3, intruded in basalt No. L

Art. XXII. — Further Notes on New Zealand Starfishes.
By H. Farquhar.
Communicated by H. B. Kirk, Professor of Biology, Victoria College.
[Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, ItJi October. 1908.]

Stegnaster inflatus, Hutton. Plate XII.

This species has not been figured before : the figure now given is from
an example found at Island Bay by Mr. Stuckey, headmaster of the Island
Bay State School, and photographed by Mr. A. Hamilton, in which
R = 63 mm., and r = 52 mm.

The species is interesting as being the type of Sladen's genus Stegnaster.
In his monograph Sladen says, " I have also added in the following list
another genus, Stegnaster (n. gen.), which seems to me necessary. The type
of Stegnaster is the starfish described by Hutton under the name Pteraster
inflatus, and subsequently placed under Palmipes by Perrier. I consider
that the disposition of the papuhe, the membraneous investment of the
abactinal area (with the absence of the characteristic tufts of spines and
the presence of granules), and the simple character of the armature- of the
adambulacral plates, are sufficient to warrant the generic separation of this
form from Pahnipes. I also refer to the same genus Asterina ivessli, though
not without some hesitation, as the examples I have seen of that species
appear to be immature forms."*

* " Challenger " Reports, vol. xxx, p. 375.

Farquhar. — Further Notes on Netv Zealand Starfishes. 127

I have not been able to discover that the association of A. wessh', a West
Indian species, with Ste<jnaster has been confirmed, or tliat any other species
of this genus have been found.

Asterina neozelanica, Perrier.

The type specimen of this species is in the Paris Museum ; it was
■described by E. Perrier in the '' Archives de Zoologie Experimentale et
Generale," vol. v, p. 33 (1876), from a specimen which he found among a
number of examples of our common littoral form Asterina reguJaris. I
have collected a considerable quantity of A. regularis in the neighbourhood
of Wellington, but I have not found a specimen of A. neozelanica. (I write
the name " neozelanica " in accordance with the rule suggested by Von
Martens, and adopted by New Zealand naturalists — see Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
vol. xxi, p. 238 — that specific names should be one word only.) As Perrier's
description may not be accessible to New Zealand observers I transcribe
it here, so that specimens may be identified when found : —

" Corps de forme pentagonale, a cotes legerement echancres.

■' Jl = 20 mill, r = 13, R = | r environ.

" Plaques de la face dorsale entierement couvertes de petits tubercules
mousses, serres contre les autres et formant pour chaque plaque un groupe
tantrit distinct circulaires, tantot plus ou moins allonge. Des groupes
allonges sont generalement concaves vers le centre du disque et separes
les uns des autres par un au plusieurs groupes arrondis. Dans les groupes
allonges les petits piquants mousses ou tubercules forment au moins trois
ou quatres rangees. Ces groupes de tubercules ne dessinent pas sur le
disque de figure de forme particuli?re. Plaques marginales imbriquees et
formant autour du disque une sorte de bordure on la partie apparente
constitue une sorte de pavage a elements rhomboi'dause. La plaque
madreporique arrondie est situee a 3 millimetres du centre du disque et
entouree de groupes de granules plus allonges que les autres. Les sillons
qu'elle porte ne sont pas rayonnants autour d'un centre. En somme, sauf
le nombre et la disposition des piquants, I'ornementation de la partie dorsale
de cette espece resemble beaucoup a celle de V Asterina gunnii {A. regularis).

" La face ventrale est au contraire toute differente. Les plaques du
sillon ambulacraire portent chacune dans le sillon troits piquants divergents,
reunis en une lame un pen oblique relativement a la direction du sillon par
un repli des teguments qui n'atteint pas le sommet des piquants. En
dehors ces plaques portent en outre une rangee oblique de trois piquants,
un peu plus grands que ceux qui existent sur les autres plaques de la face
ventrale et qui sont aussi au nombre de trois ou mcme quatre, surtout au
voisinage de la bouche sur chaque plaque. Les piquants sont d'autant
plus serres les uns contre les autres qu'on se rapproche davantage des bords
du disque, o'\ ils sont frequemment aussi au nombre de quatre sur chaque
plaque. Un seul individu de la Nouvelle-Zelande, en tres-bon etat et
conserve dans I'alcool."

Asterias fragilis, Studer.

I have a manuscript copy of Studer's description of this species, kindly
furnished to me by the late Andreas Reischek ; I am also indebted to him
for the above description of Perrier's Asterina neozelanica. Studer's descrip-
tion was published in the " Transactions of the Royal Academy of Science,"
Berlin, 1884 ; and I give here a translation of it, so that the species may be
identified when rediscovered : —

128 Transactions.

Small, five-rayed, with slender body and five angular arms which branch
o£E from the flat-shaped body through a ring-like furrow. The bodv is
covered with small stumpy spines arranged in rows along the arms ; between
these lie depressions in which there are numerous papula:^. Ambulacral
spines in two rows.

R = 16 J. /• = 4. Width of arm at the proximal end. 8 mm.

The body itself is flat, but bulky, and separated from the rays dorsallv
by more or less distinct pentagonal wrinkles. At this point the arms very
easily separate themselves from the body. At the base they are somewhat
contracted, but soon widen out, and then gradually taper away. Each
arm has a perfectly flat ventral surface, two straight side surfaces, and
a back raised somewhat like the keel of a boat. The ambulacral furrow
is broad, and bounded by two rows of small cylindrical spines, the inner
row having a third fewer spines than the outer. Outside the furrow there
is a row of straight pedicellari.'p. On the back there is a row of blmatly
pointed spines, three or four together. The perpendicular side surface of
the arm is free of spines, and is clothed with a thin and soft skin, which
is pierced by a row of papulae, between which there are straight pedicellaripe.
The dorsal skeleton of the arms consists of a thick mass of lime stems and
knotted points, which are arranged in three long rows, and are raised.
These bear short blunt spines, whilst the depressions lying between bear
papul?e. The lime covering of the body is very dense, and is armed with
short stumpy spines, lying about here and there without order. Between
them there are crossed pedicellaripe and papulae, the latter in a radius equi-
distant from the central point, and the circumference of the body forming
a circle. The madreporic plate is very small, and contains few furrows.
It is nearly covered by a surrounding half-circle of 6 blunt spines, situated
close up to the disc-wall. The entire skeleton of the starfish is rigid and
inflexible. The peculiar formation of the skeleton of the arm induces me
to place this starfish next to A. sulcifern. The colour when fresh was pale
reddish-orange.

Found east of New Zealand in S.L. .35^ 21' and E.L. 175° 40'. in 597
fathoms depth.

Asterias calamaria, Gray,

In vol. XXX, page 188, of the Transactions I noted that adult specimens
of A. calamaria in Port Nicholson have 10 or 11 arms of equal length, while
" young individiuils of this species always have a number of small arms
budding out between the larger ones, or a group of small ones on one side
of the disc. . . . They appear to have only a small number of arms
at first (4 to 7), and the others are budded afterwards." Recently I and
my family were spending the summer holidays at Muritai, on the other
side of the bay, where a company of Italian fishermen draw their seine
nets ashore on fine evenings. There were always a few large examples,
10 in. to 12 in. in diameter, with 10 or 11 equal arms, and often some smaller
ones with a less number of unequal arms (the smaller the specimen the
less the number of arms), and on one occasion my son Harry found two
very young ones among the refuse of the net. These had only 2 arms each,
and measured about 1 in. between the tips of the arms. The 2 arms of
both examples were the same size and equally developed, and one specimen
had one and the other two little tubercles on the side of the disc — the
beginnings of other arms just starting to bud out. It therefore appears
probable that the young of this species have only 2 arms at first, and the

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

Pl. XII.

S.S76

NEW ZEALAND STARFISH.— Farquhar.

Face p. 128

Farquhar. — Further Notes on Neiv Zealand Starfishes. 129

number increases with age until 10 or 11 — usually 11 in Port Nicholson —
are developed.

Species which divide, and those in which the number of arms increases
by budding from the disc, usually have more than 1 madreporic plate.
Stichaster insignis usually has 4-, but examples may be found with 1, 2, or
3 ; Stichaster polyplax has from 1 to -1 ; and Asterias calamaria often has
2 or 3.

Asterias calamaria var.. reischeki, var. n.

I described a variety of Asterias calamaria in vol. xxi, page 187, of the
Transactions, which occurs freely at Nelson, under stones at low water.
Its general facies differs much from that of the form which is common in
Port Nicholson. The arms are not stout and rounded at the tips like the
Wellington specimens and the Mauritius forms as figured by Loriol, but
are more delicate, and taper evenly to a very fine extremity ; and the spines
are never coarse or truncated, but always fine, long, single, and very finely
pointed. These differences are so definite and constant that I am now of
opinion that, if not a distinct species, it is at any rate a well-marked variety,
and worthy of a distinct name. I therefore dedicate this form to the late
Andreas Reischek, who has added largely to our knowledge of the habits
and characteristics of the New 'Zealand birds. It would have been more
appropriate had his name been associated with one of our native birds,
but, as their history, as regards the finding of new species, is probably closed,
this much more humble form may serve, in a measure, to commemorate
the man and his work. Reischek's natural-history work in New Zealand
extended over about twelve years (1877-89), and the records of his observa-
tions, which are published in vols, xiv, xvii, xviii, xix, xx, and xxi of the
Transactions, show that he was a keen and good obsei-ver. He also wrote
" The Story of a Wonderful Dog," an extremely interesting little book,
published at the Star Office, Auckland, 1889, in which he gives an account
of the training of his dog " Cyesar," and his experiences in the New Zealand
" bush."

Stichaster polyplax, Mliller and Troschel.

I stated in vol. xxvii, page 208, of the Transactions that probably sub-
division takes place in S. polyplax, as in S. insignis. The latter species,
which has six arms, three of which are usually smaller than the other three,
continually undergoes a process of transverse division, each half regenerating
the parts that are missing ; but I am now convinced that this does not
occur in S. pohjplax. The young examples of S. polyplax which I and my
son have collected in the neighbourhood of Wellington always have a few
— 1 to 4 — fully developed arms, and a numl)er of smaller ones usually of
different lengths, some just budding from the disc ; and hence it appears
probable that the same process occurs in the development of the arms as
in Asterias calamaria, with this difterenee : adult specimens of A. calamaria
have 10 or 1 1 arms, while those of S. polyplax have only 7 or 8.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIL

Fig. I. Stegnaster inflntus : abactinal view ; reduced.
Fig. 2. ,, actinal view ; reduced.

0 — Trans.

130 T ransactions.

Art. XXlll.—Cnpaw Bumonf D'Urvilles Visit to ToJoga Bay in 1827.

Translated from the French* by S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.8.
[Bend before the Attckland Institute. \Hth Nnvemher. 1908.]

In the Transactions for 1907 appeared an account of Captain D'Urville's
visit to Tasman's Bay, ending up with the passage of the " Astrolabe "
through the French Pass, on the 28th January, 1827. We will now foUow
the corvette on her passage through Cook Strait and up the east coast of
the North Island, New Zealand, to Tologa Bay.

A few notes have been added in brackets [ ] where necessary to identify
places, names, &c. The voyage up the coast offers nothing remarkable,
and therefore will be summarised in a few sentences.

After safely traversing the French Pass on the 28th January, D'Urville
quickly passed through the narrow part of the Strait, with the intention of
anchoring in Cloudy Bay, in order to decide whether a suspected passage did
or did not exist between Cloudy. Bay and Queen Charlotte Sound. But, the
wind failing, the ship was brought up ofi Tory Channel, of which D'Urville
says, " At its base [of a hill he describes] a little bay seemed to communicate
by a narrow channel, obstructed by rocks, with the Bay of Queen Charlotte,
of which the calm waters were perfectly distinguishable from the mast-
head. Some great fires were also seen on the left-hand point of the opening.
Anxious to see us, it is probable the savages employed that means to attract
our attention." [These Natives were probably some of the original Rangi-
tane Tribe, of those parts, for the occupation by Ngati-Toa and Te Ati-
Awa Tribes had not as yet eventuated.]

From there D'Urville attempted in vain the following day to enter
Cloudy Bay, but was driven by a strong wind on the 29th down to Cape
Campbell, from whence he steered for the North Island, intending to explore
the coast west of Cape Palliser. " To my great regret the wind did not
permit us to gain a deep bay between Cape Poli-wero [the native name as
given to D'Urville, but now called Sinclair Head, and situated a few miles
west of the entrance to Port Nicholson] and Cape Toura-kira [Turaki-rae,
six miles S.E. of Port Nicholson], where are found some isles near the shore,
which should offer excellent anchorages."' [These isles are Barrett's Reef,
at the entrance of Port Nicholson — Maori name, Te Ure-a-Kr.pe.] Had his
efforts not been thus frustrated D'Urville would doubtless have been the first
to discover and describe the harbour of the capital of New Zealand. The
corvette continued her course, and entered and anchored on the west side
of Palliser Bay, where some canoes came off to her, and two Maoris — one
named Tehi-Noui [? Te Hi-nui], a chief, and his companion, Koki-Hore
[? Kiore] — insisted on remaining on board, being eventually carried on to
Tologa Bay. D'Urville saw Lake Wai-rarapa, which he conjectured to be
an arm of the sea. The name (as he gives it, Wai - Te rapa) he applied
to the range to the west — i.e., Tararua.

* Voyage de la corvette L' Astrolabe, execute par ordic dii Roi. pendant les
annees 182G. 1827. 1828. 1829, sons le comniaiidement de .Al. J. Duniont D'Urville
(Paris. 1833). vol. ii, )>. (iS et seq.

Smith. — Captain D'Urvilles Visit to Tologa Bay. 131

After attempting to laud, but prevented ])y the surf, the corvette
proceeded along the east coast past Cape Palliser, the name of which
(Kawakawa) is correctly given as furnished by the two Maoris, and
on the 1st February they were oft' Cape Topolopolo [Te Poroporo], the
Cape Turnagain of Cook. " At lOh. 10m. on the 3rd February we rapidly
passed at half a league's distance L'ile Sterile of Cook [Bare Island], of
which the true name is Motou-Okoura [Motu-o-Kura]. It is an escarped
rock, naked, and a mile or more from the land. A pa (or fortress) of some
size occupies the summit, and ought to be an impi'egnable position. There
were also to be seen several houses on the slopes of the isle, and by aid of
the glass we easily distinguished the inhabitants moving about their fortress,
and occupied in regarding attentively our passing. As at other points of
the coast, they had made some great fires to call our attention.. A cano6,
well armed, came from Motou-Okoura to meet us. It was reported to me
that our two Natives had uttered cries of joy on seeing it, and, charmed
to be able to offer them the means of escaping from their captivity, I laid
to. Already the canoe was but a cable-length from the side, when I
announced to them that they were at liberty to seize the occasion to go
ashore. What was my surprise to see both, at that proposition, become
desolate, cover their faces, and roll on the deck, with all the signs of
despair, declaring with energy that they desired positively to remain on
board. They then informed me that the people of Motou-Okoura were
their enemies, and that if they fell into their power they would be put to
death and devoured. They invited us in the most unequivocal manner
to fire on and kill them. The late transports of joy of our guests were only
proofs, as I soon learnt, of their persuasion that we should exterminate
the new-comers, and of their hope of a repast, which, according to their
ideas, would become the prize of victory."

After passing Cape Mata-mawi [Matau-a-Maui — Cape Kidnappers of
Cook] the corvette sailed some six or seven miles into Hawkes Bay. Re-
ferring to Scinde Island, on which is now built part of the town of Napier,
and the adjacent country, D'Urville says, " We believed we saw an island
of some extent situated close to the coast, which escaped the researches of
Cook, but which may well be only a peninsula. There is reason to presume
that between it and the mainland there may be good anchorages. In the
south-west of Hawkey Bay we were able to see a pleasant landscape, dotted
with clumps of trees, and on the edges some large basins of calm water,
but which prol)al)ly do not oft'er sufficient depth of water for anchorages.
[These no doubt were parts of Te Whanga-nui-a-Rotu (Napier Harbour)
and the lagoons near Clive.] From three or four plains disposed in amphi-
theatres the ground gradually rises up to the high moimtains of the in-
terior ; and in all New Zealand that part is witliout doubt the richest and
most attractive that has been offered to my gaze. This country seems
well peopled, as denoted by the numerous columns of smoke arising from
many points." [This is the country about Hastings, Clive, Havelock, &c.,
one of the finest in the Dominion, then inhal)ited Ijy the powerful Ngati-
Kahu-ngungu Tribe.]

After passing Portland Island, off the Mahia Peninsula (which D'Urville
calls Tera-Kako. after Cook, but the origin of which is not known), on the
4th February the corvette was off Poverty Bay. Here we shall follow the
narrative of the voyage lit rally : —

[On the 4th February, 1827] we doubled at 2 p.m. the Cape Young Nicks,
memorable for having been the first point of New Zealand seen by the

13"2 Transactions.

illustrious Cook ; we passed quickly the opening of the Bay Taone-Roa
[? Te One-roa — Poverty Bay], the lands at the bottom of which we could
only distinguish indistinctly. At 4 p.m., in 35 fathoms, we made a stoppage
at about 4 leagues from Cape Gable [Gable-end Foreland — Pari-nui-te-ra].

We know that this name was given by Cook because of its resemblance
to the wall of a house comprised betw^een the two roofs. . . . The
coast, which had retained a wild aspect from the Isle Tea-Houra [Portland
Island] up to the S.W. point of Taone-Roa [Poverty Bay], beyond that
assumed a less severe appearance. The surroundings of Cape Gable are
particularly agreeable, and there are sites where culture would make fertile
fields. There the columns of smoke again showed in greater number than
elsewhere, proof infallible of a more numerous population.

Towards 6 p.m. we approached the Tologa Bay of Cook, and I counted
on doubling it before night, when the breeze, which had already decreased,
fell entirely, and the corvette remained immovable at three or four miles
from the coast. At 7 p.m. we thought we saw a small schooner, which at
first ran along the coast, and then all of a sudden put out to sea and dis-
appeared— a manoeuvre which I could only account for by supposing that
the craft viewed our visit as not quite an agreeable one.

At 8 p.m. two canoes, which we had observed for some time paddling
towards us, came alongside without any fear, and as though accustomed
to see Europeans. They sold us some pigs, potatoes, and other objects of
curiosity in exchange for hatchets, knives, and other trifles. Forty -five days
had passed since our departure from New Holland, and all our fresh provisions
had been exhausted long since. It may therefore be judged with what
pleasure these articles were received, above all when they told us that pigs
were plentiful at Tologa, and that they would sell them at the lowest price.
Te Rangui-Wai-Hetouma, chief of the New-Zealanders who came to visit
us, announced himself as one of the principal rangatiras of the district, and
wished to send his canoes ashore tO' procure pigs and potatoes, and to pass
the night with us. I was well satisfied with this proof of confidence in us,
but, fearing for him the same troubles (sea-sickness) as those of Tera-Witi.
I refused, and obliged him, much to his regret, to re-embark in his canoe.
I promised, however, that he would find us in the same place in the morning.

Tehi-Noui and Koki-Hore appeared now to have regained their spirits,
for a copious feed of dolphin-flesh, and the prospect of another next
morning, had quite enchanted them, and in the evening a shark that had
been caught completed their delight. Overcome by this abundance, they
seemed little disposed to acquiesce in the desire I expressed to leave them
here. Koki-Hore particularly did not relish that proposition.

All night there was only a feeble breeze from the west, with superb
weather. At 10 p.m. we laid to in 53 fathoms, muddy sand.

5th February. — In the morning, the breeze having changed to the N.N.W.,
which did not permit us to continue along the coast. I decided to profit by
it to make a stoppage at Tologa. At 7.30 a.m. we steered for the bay,
and at 11 a.m. the " Astrolabe " dropped her anchor precisely on the same
spot where the " Endeavour " had anchored fifty-five years before.

The Natives came out to us at an early hour, but I did not permit many
on board. Arrived at the anchorage, we were soon surrounded by canoes
full of islanders, who came to traffic with the crew. However turbulent
and noisy in their bargaining, they showed much good faith, and we could
only felicitate ourselves on the nature of our exchanges. The usual price
for a fat pig was a large hatchet ; a small one would j^urchase a young pig.

Smith. — Captain D^hville's Visit to Tologa Bay. 133

For indifferent knives, fish-hooks, or other trifles we obtained potatoes in
profusion. It may be judged what an ample supply of fresh provisions
we obtained for the crew and our tables.

I at once sent MM. Jacquinot and Lottin to the watering-place of Cook
to observe the latitude and longitude. At 1 p.m. M. Paris departed to
sound the channel. The naturalists and the artist also went ashore to
follow their avocations. I remained on board with the other officers to
watch the movements of the Natives — a precaution which I judged more
necessary here than elsewhere, as much on account of their numbers as
their physical force and turbulent disposition.

Already I had nearly drawn upon myself the animosity of one of these
redoubtable savages — a thing I was anxious to avoid at any price, above
all on account of those persons the nature of whose work obliged them to
go ashore. Thus, as I have already said, whilst we were under sail I had
kept off all the canoes which approached the ship, and only allowed Wai-
Hetouma, who said he was chief rangatira of the place, to come on board
with another Native whom he had represented as one of his near relatives.
It is well to remark that this chief, who appeared to have received all his
insignia, to judge by the complete tattooing of his face, was a peaceable
man, easy and honest, and that he had applauded my resolution not to
let any one on board beyond himself and companion. Most of those who
presented themselves obe}'ed the prohibition against them, although with
visible repugnance ; but one amongst th m would not obey the sentinel,
and only left when trembling with rage at the peremptory order I gave
him myself. It was plain to see that from his canoe he menaced me. By
his stature and haughty mien, and the air of submission of those who sur-
rounded him, it was obvious he was a chief. Moreover, a young woman in
his canoe who spoke a mixture of English corrupted and New Zealand
did not cease to repeat to me, with an extraordinary volubility, that Shaki,*
her master, was a great chief and friend of the English, and that it was
very bad of me not to receive him. Of course, I could afford to mock at
these menaces against myself ; but I have explained the motives which
guided me in dealing with these savages, especially the chiefs. Therefore
I called Wai-Hetouma, and asked him who was this new-comer, so urgent.
He allowed that Shaki was a great chief, and soon I had reason to believe
he was superior to AVai-Hetouma in rank, or at least in influence. I then
made a sign to Shaki to come on board, and explained amicably to
him that I was unaware he was a distinguished rangatira, and gave him a
few presents, which soon effected a change in his demeanour. From that
moment we became the best friends in the world, and he was one of the last
to quit the corvette^ from which he never budged an instant whilst we were
there. This Native, who seemed hardly thirty years of age, was at least
5 ft. 9 in. high ; his form was athletic, with a martial air. He told me
he had seen many English, and had been the companion-in-arms of Pomare,
of Mata-ouwi [Matauri — Bay of Islands], that celebrated conqueror of New
Zealand. The name of Shongui-Ika [Hongi-hika] was also known to him,
luit he said he had never seen him. [Pomare, here referred to, was the
celebrated Nga-Puhi chief of that name, who made several warlike ex-
peditions down the East Coast, the principal one in 1823, when possibly
Shaki joined him.. Pomare was killed on the Waipa River in 1826.]

* We borrow from the English the form sh to represent here and in the course of
this work a sound intermediate in some sort between that of / and ch in French.

134 Traiisacfions.

In spite of my precautions, it was plain how very nearly I had made
an implacable enemy of Shaki. On returning ashore he might perhaps
have avenged on the officers or the naturalists of the " Astrolabe " what
he considered an affront offered to his dignity. This is what often
occurs to Europeans, especially among a people so irritable, so vindic-
tive, as those of New Zealand, where the chiefs are all independent, and
very jealous of one another. This latter sentiment, which renders the posi-
tion of Europeans so very uncertain, is carried beyond bounds among the
Natives ; they all want to profit exclusively in the advantages due to the
visits of strangers, and are jealous at seeing their neighbours participate
in them. We had a very extraordinary proof during our stay at Houa-
Houa [this is the nearest D'Urville gets to Uawa, the proper name of Tolosa
Bay].

Whenever fresh canoes arrived, the first-comers harassed me with re-
quests to fire on them, and kill those on board ; nevertheless, so soon as
the latter came alongside, the first-comers immediately entered into con-
versation with them, and received them as persons well known to them.
. . . . I could not refrain from laughing at this singular behaviour,
when all of a sudden a general movement, a sort of confused murmur, arose
amongst the Natives ; they cast unquiet glances overboard, and soon I
saw the trouble was occasioned by the arrival of a canoe manned by seven
or eight men only, among whom two seemed of superior rank. This time
our guests prayed and supplicated me earnestly to shoot the new-comers ;
they went so far as to demand muskets to shoot them themselves — in a word,
they employed all possible means to excite my anger against these strangers.
Far from acceding to these sanguinary wishes, I felt more inclined to receive
amicably those who were in such repute, and to assure them that they
would be well received. They appeared to hesitate for some time, and,
together with the evident desire to come on board, a shade of inquietude
and suspicion was apparent. In the meantime the conduct of the other
islanders towards them totally changed. Convinced that I would not
concede to their prayers, they assumed a very respectful manner towards
the new-comers. Shaki himself, until now so bold and most urgent that
I should fire on them, changed his tone suddenly ; he became modest and
silent, and so respectful to the two strangers that he offered them some
large hatchets which he had only acquired with much trouble, and to which
he seemed to attach as much value as to .his life. This procedure was
followed by all those who had not had time to hide what the}^ had received
from us.

The two chiefs finally decided to come on board. I examined attentively
their completely tattooed faces and their warlike and fierce attitude. I
have never observed these double qualities so pronounced in any New-
Zealander before, not even in the terrible Hihi, of Waimate. [Hihi was a
well-known Nga-Puhi warrior and a very fleet runner. Much is to be found
a})out him in " Wars of the Northern against the Southern Tribes in the
Nineteenth Century.'"] I commenced to interrogate them, after having
made friends with them hy means of some presents, when all of a sudden
they quitted me abruptly, entered their canoe, and pushed off. Having
inquired the reason of this precipitate retreat. I found that the Natives
already on board, Shaki at their head, had insinuated to the companions
of these two chiefs that my intention was to kill them, and that their lives
were not safe on board the ship, wishing at all costs to drive them away.
These cunning savages could not imagine a better means than this fiction,

Smith. — Captain D'JJrville^s Visit to Toloya Bay 135

and it succeeded. Despite this treachery, and anxious as to the conse-
quences it might have, I rebuked those who had invented the story, and
hastened to disabuse the strangers, and asked them to come aboard again.
They appeared to phvce faith in my protestations ; but, seeing that they
had been deceived, they were exceedingly furious with the Natives on board,
and although the latter were three or four times as numerous they defied
them by words and the most outrageous gestures, and I saw that they
challenged them to go ashore and render account for this insult. Those
on board, gloomy and confused, hardly offered any words in reply.

The strangers would not return on board, but demanded some hatchets
of me in a tone of authority. I replied calmly that if they would bring
some hogs on board they should not want what they desired. On that
they moved off without further communication with us. I felt a sincere
regret, for it would have been easy to have cjuestioiied them and learnt
the reason of their superiority over our first guests.

My first thought was that they belonged to a tribe at enmity ; but they
had presented themselves in too few a number to have dared to defy the
others on board as they- had done. Beyond that, the latter constantly
denied that the former were their enemies ; they ended, indeed, by saying,
on the contrary, that they were friends and relatives. I observed that my
(juestions in regard to this matter did not please them — generally they
eluded them — above all, Shaki, who did all he could to turn the conversation
to another subject.

In consequence of what I thoi learned of the manners and political
constitution of these people, the following appears to me the most probable
theory : As in all other parts of New Zealand, the Natives of Houa-Houa
[Uawa] live in small independent groups, under the direction — or, rather,
under the protection — of their own particular chiefs. Without doubt those
who first arrived belonged to some feeble tribe, whilst those of the later
canoe belonged to one more powerful, commanded perhaps by some redoubt-
able ariki like Shougui [Hongi] at the Bay of Islands, and Poro on the north
part of the Ika-na-Mawi [Te Ika-a-Maui]. The first-comers, fearing to see
their neighbours take from them, in consequence of their credit and opulence,
the treasures of Europe, and wishing to obviate loss, tried to avoid this by
at first engaging us to fire on them, and afterwards by persuading them
that my intention was to destroy them. Thus may be explained the arro-
gance of the strangers, as well as the surprising patience with which the
others listened to their reproaches and provocations. Among this people,
as everywhere, a too-powerful ally is often more feared than an enemy that
one might oppose with equal arms.

Tlie only prepared head (nioko niohai) which we saw here was brought
in that canoe, and purchased for a little silver, valued at about the price of
a few beads of coloured glass. It had Ijeen well prepared and conserved,
and had belonged to some distinguished person. It is a pity that it has not
been taken to France, for it very well illustrated the fine type of the people,
and the design of a complete tattoo.

Here we mad the acquaintance of the Pihc [D'Urville had learnt this
well-known funeral dirge on his previous visit to the Bay — it is printed in
Kendall's "Grammar"], though Shaki could only recite some portions,
M^hich he repeated uniformly, and often twenty or thirty times following.
But Rau-Tangui [Rau-tangi], a very sprightly young woman of twelve
or thirteen years, and who was singularly attached to me, recited it almost
completely, as it is found in the grammar of the missionaries. Both

136 Transactions.

were agreed in confirming the fact that it is the prayer addressed to the
grand atua of heaven when the sacred food is offered on the field of battle.
[Rather is it a dirge sung over the great dead.]

Young Rau-Tangui appeared to be intimately connected with Shaki,
but it was impossible for me to learn whether she was his slave or his sister.
Their responses to my questions varied at each instant and left me
in incertitude. With the system of adoption prevailing amongst them, it
seems possible that both were correct, and that in fact the father of Shaki
had espoused one of his prisoners, mother of Rau-Tangui. That little
girl was extraordinarily lively ; her body was in constant movement, and
her imagination was equally active, for we sav/ her laugh, then cry, and
often do both almost at the same moment. Many of hex companions offered
their favours indiscriminately to the officers and sailors for any kind of
trifle ; but it is well to be on one's guard, for the :-e ladies, following their
constant practice, not content with voluntary tributes given to them, added
all they could steal. Thus one of our gallant chevaliers saw his watch
disappear all at once, to his great consternation, and subsequently found it
in the hands of the honest Shaki, for it is ordinarily to the supreme chief
all these objects accrue.

Our two passengers from Tera-Witi [Palliser Bay] had made acquaintance
with the inhabitants of Houa-Houa [Uawa], and Tehi-Noui had decided
to remain with them. I confirmed him in that resolution, and gave him,
at his request, a cartridge of powder, in order to satisfy the rangatira
under whose protection he pretended to be, and who was to furnish
him with a canoe to enable him to return home. As a fact, after muskets
(pou) [pu], more precious than gold or diamonds amongst us, powder is
the object most essential in their eyes.

Koki-Hore appeared little satisfied with this determination, preferring
to remain on board, but honour prescribed that he should follow his chief.

All the morning it had been nearly calm, and I hoped to pass the night
tranquilly at anchor, when at 6 p.m., with a light breeze from the W.N.W.,
we found that our anchor was dragging. Twenty fathoms of chain that
■were paid out instantly did not stop us. I concluded that our anchor was
foul. We were rapidly approaching the breakers of Moui-Tera (Sporing Isle
of Cook), and I could not hope to let go a second anchor, for fear of exposing
our cable to become fouled with the chain at the turn of tide. I decided,
therefore, to get under sail and out of the bay. At the same moment our
two boats came off, and my decision was without doubt the safest.

There remained on board fifteen Natives, of whom five or six were females,
who had allowed their canoe to depart, with the intention of passing the
night with us. They were at first very much alarmed, and thought we were
going to carry them off. I endeavoured to reassure them by explaining
the reasons that forced me to quit the anchorage so hastily ; then they
resumed their confidence and gave us a representation of one of their dances
and passed the night in gaiety.

Shaki, Rau-Tangui, and tM^o other rangatiras gave me very minutely
the names of the different parts of the coast from Cape Gable (Pa-noui-Tera)
[Pari-nui-te-ra] up to the East Cape (Wai-Apou). [Wai-apu River is about
eight miles south of the cape in reality.] Sporing Island is Moui-Tera,
and White Island, on the right of the bay in entering, is Motou-Heka.
It is worthy of remark that the names of Tologa and Tegadou are quite
unknown to the Natives ; but it has long since been averred that Cook, so
full of sagacity otherwise, had little aptitude in acquiring the names of

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

Pl. XIII.

Fig. I.

Fig. 2.

J^ ■

Z690

Fig. 3.

D'URVILLE AT TOLOGA BAY. — Smith.

Face p. 136.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

Pr. XIV

Fig. I.

FlG. 2.

Fig. 3.

D'URVILLE AT TOLOGA BAY.^Smith.

Smith. — Captain D'UrviUe's Visit to Tologa Bay. 137

the peoples he visited, and, above all, in representing them in writing.*
The true name of the bay, Tologa, or, at least, of the district which sur-
rounds it, is Houa-Houa [Uawa], and it is that which we have adopted.
On the Isle Moui-Tera we were able to view at our ease those singular
arches, formed by nature or the effect of the waves, which had already
attracted the attention of Cook and his companions.

I sincerelv regretted being constrained to quit this place so promptly,
for I had promised myself much pleasure in making some excursions. To
judge by the account of Cook and his companion Banks [Sir Joseph Banks,
F.R.S.], the surrounding country is very picturesque ; and, beyond that,
the Natives of the district, still practising their original customs, and barely
as yet influenced by their intercourse with Europeans, would have been
for me a subject of interesting study and observation.

It was here that I obtained the first positive information on the subject
of the kiwi, through a mat ornamented with plumes of that bird, and which
is one of the first objects of luxury of the Natives. According to them,
the kiwi is a bird of the size of a small dindon, but, like the ostrich and the
cassowarv. deprived of all means of flight. These birds are common in the
neighbourhood of Mount Ikou-Rangui [Hiku-rangi]. It is by night, with
torches and dogs, they are caught. It is probable that these birds belong
to a genera closely allied to the cassowary, and I believe it has already
received the name of Aptenjx by some authors. M. Quoy brought me a
leaf of a species of palm which I had already observed in Tasman's Bay.
Unluckily, it had neither fruit nor flowers, so I have not been able to recog-
nise to what genus it belongs ; all I can say is that I am inclined to believe
it is allied to the Zamia or Seaforthia of Australia. It is the same vegetable
without doubt that Cook designates " chou-palmiste " [? cabbage-palm],
for there are no true " arequers '' [? areca palms] in these parts.

The latitude which results from the observations of MM. Jacquinot and
Lottin is found to be 33° 22' 32" S., which differs only 8" from that found
by Cook ; and the longitude is 176° 5' 35" E. [east of Paris].

Although we did not remain long in this anchorage, I do not consider
it other than as a good one, so long as there is no appearance of wind from
the north to the east ; only it is necessary to anchor at a cable's-length or
two more to the west, towards the bottom of the bay. I was prevented
from doing so by the double desire to make sail easily and to be nearer to
succour our people at the observatory if that became necessary.f

6th February, 1827. — A light breeze from the N.W. prevailed all night,
and we passed it peaceably, lying-to in 35 fathoms, sandy mud. At 4.5 a.m.
I sent the two smaller boats, under the orders of MM. Lottin and Dude-
maine.t to measure a base in Houa-Houa Bav, the onlv element still wanted

* This is perfectly true ; it is rare that Cook ever comes near the proper Native
names of places, either in New Zealand or other parts inhabited by the Polynesian race ;
whilst D'Urville is more often right than wi'ong.

t M. Quoy (the celebrated naturalist) saj's. in x'cgard to Cook's Cove, Tologa, " That
little bay is too open to lie much peopled. \Ve were surrounded by a considerable number
of canoes, among which were some very fine ones, containing thirty paddlers. Their
manner of i)addling is to sit, and this gives to these vessels as much elegance as majesty :
they have no outriggers, and their bottoms are made of a single tree-trunk." . . .

J M. Lottin describes his visit ashore to measure a base, as follows : " The calm
which prevailed permitted the two boats to advance rapidly towards the bay. Our
passengers attentively studied with curiosity each article in the whaleboat, and explained
to each other its use, and their reflections thereon. Our long oars at first attracted
their attention, and they followed with the head their regular movements, uttering

138 Transactions.

by tlie first of those officers to complete his plan. At the same time I sent
ashore twelve of the Natives mth whom we were still charged. Amongst
that number were Tehi-Noui and Koki-Hore, who here took leave of us,
and to whom I gave a quantity of powder — double that which I had pro-
mised. In seeing them depart I had sincere wishes for their safe return.
If they were destined to reach their own country, I felt sure they would
soon forget their ennui on board, and that they would recall with pleasure
the friendship and good treatment they had received.

There remained on board only Shaki, Rau-Tangui, and two other chiefs,
whom I was glad to retain in my power until the return of the two boats.
At this time there arrived alongside a great number of canoes laden with
provisions, which the Natives disposed of peaceably and with great good
faith. They had many pigs, potatoes, and much Phormium fibre, all of
which we bought at reasonable prices. Towards 11 a.m. the boats returned
on board, and I hastened to put to sea to get rid of the Natives, whose cries
and babbling with the crew commenced to be excessive. We parted very

cries to excite the ardour of the sailors, and presently themselves giving a hand with
noisy gaiety. They pulled so hard that, fearing to see the oars broken, I requested them
to remain as spectators of the operations. One of them, with an expressive pantomime,
undertook to demonstrate to us the superiority of their paddles over our oars ; these
last seemed to them of an inconvenient length, and required sevei-al men to move a
boat, whilst a single paddle would make a canoe fly, by using the paddle on alternate
sides. Another Native observed that each sailor turned his back to the direction in
which he was going, which made them all laugh heartily. Their attention was also
drawn to other objects. The rudder struck them particularly, and they gravely con-
sidered its utility, with frequent marks of a]>probation. The tiller was confided for a
moment to one of them, and the ]n'omptitude with whicli it changed the direction of
the boat in its rapid pace ravished them with admiration. I steered for the north point
of the bay, a route which made us pass along the reefs that separate Motou-Heka [Motu-
heka] and extend a mile and a quarter to the N.E. They form a line of rocks near which
are to be found 7 to 11 fathoms of water; we passed within a few feet. These reefs
are covered with several species of limpets, and I regretted not having time to
land. Not having more than a few moments to pass ashore, I took from its case
Rochon's micrometer. The brilliant colour of the brass suddenly attracted the atten-
tion of the Natives. I placed before the eye-piece a coloured glass, and, holding it to
the eye of my neighbour, I succeeded with some trouble in making him see the disc
of the sun. He explained at once to his companions that he saw the sun coloured red.
without being dazzled. I then replaced it with a green glass — another surprise. Lastly.
I moved the crystal prism, and the disc appearing double excited a cry of astonishment.
Each one desired to have the eye-piece in his hands, but we approached the land and
their curiosity was thus not satisfied. I wished to debark our ]>assengers before a little
village. Twenty houses and nine canoes haided up on the beach denoted a village of
abotit one hundred persons. They came running dowii to receive us withotit arms.
Some rocks bordering the coast prevented our coming close. They ottered to haul the
boat on to the shore, which usage is probably considered an honour in this country,
for our guests received the proposition with cries of joy. But I had no desire to abandon
myself to the discretion of fifty strong and jolly fellows, who were alreadj^ in the water
up to their waists. Seeing that they insisted. I made use of a ruse to get rid of them :
I traversed rapidly an inlet somewhat deep, landed the Natives, took the micrometric
distances whicli I wanted, and was in the boat again, to the great disappointment of
the crowd, which had been forced to run round the inlet, arriving just in time to see
us depart. Some young men defied us by chanting their war-song ; but we were by
that time at ease, and there was not a single stone on the rocks, which the waves clear
off each tide. I fired a shot to inform the second boat that our o]icrations were com-
plete, and it rejoined me on the way to the corvette. M. Dudemaine. who commanded
it, had been troubled by the Natives ; they, fully armed, surrounded the boat with
their canoes, endeavouring to take anything which fell into their hands, and refusing
obstinately to sell any of their arms ; the muskets, above all. excited their cupidity.
The distance from the corvette rendered them daring, and no doubt if the boat iiad
been alone they would have j)roceeded to some violence."

?■

Smith. — Captam D'Urvilles Visit to Toloqa Bay. 139

good friends, though they were much concerned to see that I would not
return to Houa-Houa.

I observed that the term " New-Zealander " is already employed in this
district ; only, in lieu of " Noui-Tireni," as the Natives of the Bay of Islands
pronounce it, they say " Noui-Tirangui " [Nui Tirangi], which gives the
word more of an indigenous sound. The word pakeha serves them to
signify all whites, whom they also call " louropi " (European). I did not
observe that they had any special name for the English. They use ariki
for a principal chief, and tohunga (prophet [sic]) appears unknown to them.

We had nothing but feeble breezes from the north to north-east, with
calms, which did not allow us to make much way. At about 3 p.m. a large
canoe, which had for a long time been approaching us, came alongside.
The principal person came on board, and accosted me with an ease and
grace which proved that he was accustomed to deal with Europeans. He
told me his name was Oroua [Te Rere-horua, in reality], and that he was
the principal chief of the pa at Toko-Malou [Toko-maru], probably the
Tegadou of Cook. This chief conserved the knowledge by tradition of the
visit of that navigator to Houa-Houa and Taone-Roa [Te One-roa — Poverty
Bay]. .

I had Oroua to dinner with me, who appeared much flattered with that
favour, and comported himself with perfect propriety. At my demand he
recited very correctly the last part of the Pihc ; we spoke much of the different
chiefs of the Bay of Islands, and he appeared well acquainted with the wars
that di\"ided the northern people. After the repast he conjured me to
anchor for at least twenty-four hours near his home. To induce me to do
so he offered me gratuitously two fine pigs. I thanked him politely, and
bought them for the ship. His canoe contained more than twenty of these
animals, but as we had bought at Houa-Houa all that we could accommo-
date no one wanted to buy there. Notwithstanding, the companions of
Oroua were very desirous of selling, so as not to have to take them back,
and therefore parted with them in exchange for knives. . . .

[From Toko-maru the " Astrolabe " continued her voyage round the
East Cape and to Whangarei without communicating with the shore. At
the latter place we propose to take up D'Urville's narrative, and allow him
to describe his visit to Wai-te-mata, the present site of Auckland. With
regard to the two Natives, Te Hi-nui and Kiore, whom D'Urville landed
at Tologa Bav, inquiries instituted in 1896 show that they finally made
their way overland to their homes ; biit they must have run great risk,
for at that time the devastating incursions of Waikato, Taupo, and Kgati-
Rau-kawa had commenced and the Hawke's Bay country was not a safe
one for strangers to travel in.]

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XIII AND XIV.
Plate XIII.

Fig. 1. Village in Astrolabe Bay, Tasman Bay.

Fig. 2. '■ L'Astrolabe" in the French Pass, 1827.
Fig. o. Te Hiuui (on the left), Kiore (on the right).

Pl.\te XIV.

Fig. I. Cook's Cove and Sporing Islands, Tologa Bay. 1827.
Fig. 2. Captain Cook's watering-place, Cook's Cove, Tologa Bay.
Fig. 3. War-dance on board " L'Astrolabe," Tologa Bay, 1827.

140 Transactions.

Art. XXIV. — Description of a Netv Species of Epilobium.
By D. Petrie, M.A.

[Bead before the Auclcland Institute, \%th November, 1908.]

Epilobium Cockaynianum, sp. nov.

E. herbaceum flaccidum csespitosum.

Caules 10-15 cm. longi, erecti v. basi decumbentes, deinde ascendentes,
plus minus ramosi, pallidi v. sub-erubescentes, bifariam puberuli, teretes,
interdum superne omnino pubescentes.

Folia floralibus exceptis opposita, conferta, 13 mm. longa, 8 mm. lata,
tenuia, late ovata v. ovato-elliptica, obtusa, glabra, remote et obscure v.
vix denticulata, breviter petiolata ; nervo medio baud prominente, nervis
secundariis nuUis.

Flores 1-3 in ramis singulis, in axillis foliorum superiorum dispositi,
circa 6 mm. longi ; calycis laciniis lanceolatis, acutis ; petalis albis v. roseo-
albis, calyce ^ longioribus.

Capsularum pedicelli fructu maturante elongantes, demum 2-4 cm.
longi, graciles, rubelli, plus minus puberuli.

Capsula glaberrima, brunnea, 2^— 3| cm. longa ; testa glabra.

Hab. : Mounts Hector and Holdsworth, in the Tararua Range, at
3,300 ft. and upwards ; very plentiful on Mount Holdsworth.

The present species is most nearly allied to E. alsinoides, A. Cunn., and
E. Hectori, Haussk. It is likely that the Ruahine Range plant referred by
Cheeseman to the latter (" Manual New Zealand Flora," p. 177) properly
belongs here. E. Hectori I believe to be confined to the South Island.

Art! XXV. — Notice of the Discovery of a Species of Burmanniacese, a
Family New to the New Zealand Flora.

By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Curator of the Auckland Museum.
[Read before the Auckland Institute, ISth November, 1908.]

The flora of New Zealand, as regards the flowering-plants, has now been so
well explored, and its composition so well ascertained, that much novelty
cannot be expected, although isolated discoveries ■will doubtless be made
from time to time. Under these circumstances, the addition of another
family of plants to those already known to occur in the Dominion cannot
fail to excite considerable interest. No apology is, therefore, required for
submitting the following notice of its discovery to the Institute.

In January, 1903, Mr. H. Hill, of Napier, so well known from his numerous
papers on the physiography and geology of the ceittral volcanic plateau of

Cheeseman. — Discovery of a Swedes of Burmanniacete. 141

the North Island, forwarded to me a single specimen of a plant found by
him at Opepe, near Lake Taiipo, which from its habit and general appear-
ance I at once provisionally referred to the Burmannincece. Positive identi-
fication, however, was quite impossible, as the whole of the interior of the
flower, including the stamens, upper part of the ovary, and the style and
stigma, had been removed through the attacks of some insect. The discovery
induced me to make a special journey to Lake Taupo, in which I was accom-
panied by Mr. Hill ; but, although a long search was made in the locality
where the first specimen had been obtained, another damaged specimen
was all that could be found. In January, 1905, I made another search
for the plant at the southern end of Lake Taupo, but entirely without
success. In January, 1907, Mr. Hill paid another visit to Opepe, accom-
panied by Mr. A. Hamilton, of Wellington. On this occasion he was fortu-
nate enough to find a considerable number of specimens in full flower, most
of which he very kindly forwarded to me. An examination of these proved
that the plant had been correctly referred to the Burmamiiacece, and that
it must be included in the subfamily Thismiece, which differs from fhe rest
of the Burmanniacecp in possessing both the inner and outer whorls of stamens,
and in the unusually large development of the anther-connective. It further
appeared that there was little to separate Mr. Hill's plant from the genus
Bagnisia, as amended by Engler in " Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien "
(vol. ii., part 6, p. 48), where it is made to include both Bagnisia and Geo-
mitra of Beccari (" Malesia," vol. i, pp. 249-50, tt. 10-12), the only differ-
ence of importance being that in Bagnisia and Geomitra three of the perianth-
segments are wanting, or reduced to mere rudiments ; whereas in the New
Zealand plant they are^well developed, being quite half the length of the
inner segments. In this respect it agrees with the genus Thismia, but
differs in the inner perianth-segments being dilated and connivent at the
tips, exactly as in Bagnisia and Geomitra. In the position of the stamens
and the structure of the anther it agrees with Geomitra ; in fact, the anther-
connective of Geomitra episcopalis, as figured by Beccari, very closely re-
sembles that of the New Zealand plant. If, therefore, Engler is to be followed
in merging Geomitra with Bagnisia, it appears to me that the New Zealand
plant should be placed in the latter genus. In a recent number of the " Kew
Bulletin " I have therefore applied the name of Bagnisia Hillii to the plant.
It gives m.e great pleasure to associate Mr. Hill's name v/ith the species,
as some slight recognition of the long-continued interest he has taken in
New Zealand botany, and of his unwearied kindness in supplying both Mr.
Colenso and myself with specimens of many interesting plants collected
during his journeys in the interior of the North Island. The* following
description will enable the species to be recognised : —

Bagnisia (Geomitra) Hillii, Cheesem. in "' Kew Bulletin," 1908, p. 420.

A minute colourless saprophyte, perfectly smooth in all its parts ; leaves
wanting or reduced to minute scales. Rhizome creeping amongst humus
at the base of tall forest-trees, sparingly or copiously branched, 5-10 cm.
long, 1-1-5 mm. thick, fleshy, naked. Peduncles springing from the axils
of minute fleshy bracts, 1-flowered, erect or curved, 0-5-1-5 cm. long ;
bracteoles 3-7, alternate, .lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, acute or acumi-
nate, the upper gradually larger, 1-5 mm. long. Flowers solitary, terminal,
large for the size of the plant, 1-1-7 cm. long, about 0-7 cm. broad, bright
rose-pink when fresh. Perianth campanulate-lanterniform ; tube obovate-
oblong, distinctly 6-12 costate ; outer perianth-segments smaller, free.

142 Transactions.

linear or oblong, at first erect but ultimately spreading, sometimes abruptly
recurved. Inner segments almost twice the length of the outer, linear-
spathulate to obovate-oblong, connate or connivent at the tips, gaping in
the middle, keeled on the back, with the keel produced into a subulate point
at the tip. Stamens 6, affixed to the throat of the perianth-tube, shortly
exserted, abruptly deflexed within the tube ; filaments very short, free ;
anther-connectives much enlarged and expanded, connate into a membranous
tube which is bilamellate at the apex ; anther-cells small, distinct, towards
the base of the tube formed by the connectives. Ovary inferior, broadly
obovoid, 1 -celled : placentas 3, free ; ovules very numerous ; style short,
thick ; stigma 3-lobed, the lobes broad, almost quadrate, concave, trun-
cate at the tip. Fruit unknown.

Hah. — Primeval woods at Opepe, near Lake Taupo ; alt., 2,000 ft.;
H. Hill. Flowers in January.

Bagnisia Hillii is usually found on the mound of decaying leaves and
humus which accumulates at the base of the trunk of the kahikatea pine
(Podocarpus dacrydioides). On account of its small size it is easily over-
looked, even in the flowering season, the flowers being often partially con-
cealed by fallen leaves. Once noticed, however, the bright rose-pink colour
of the flowers enables the observer to pick it with ease. Like many of the
Bxirmanniacefje, the flower has a most bizarre appearance. The three inner
perianth-segments, widely separated in the middle, but closing together and
connivent at the tips, give it somewhat the appearance of a bishop's mitre,
or perhaps of a lantern with three elliptical windows or openings. Li the
bud, or in the newly expanded flower, the three outer segments partly close
these openings, but they gradually spread outwards, and ultimately (judging
from specimens in formalin) become sharply reflexed. The structure of the
anthers is most peculiar, and deserves careful study. As stated in the
description, the connectives are enormously enlarged, and are connate into
a broad membranous tube, which, owing to the curious manner in which
the stamens are deflexed. lies parallel with the inside of the perianth-tube,
the tips of the connectives pointing to the base of the flower, and the minute
anthers opening into the narrow space between the connective-tube and the
wall of the perianth-tube. The connective-tube is split into two delicate
lamellfe at the apex, and the outer lamella of each connective is 2-lobed,
with a slender bristle arising from the bottom of the sinus. On the com-
missure of each connective, but on the inner face of the lamella, is a small
oblong gland. The inner lamella is very delicate, and has an undulate
margin fringed with delicate cilia.

It is difficult to see how pollination is effected, seeing that the minute
anthers, which only produce a small quantity of pollen, are hidden away at
the back of the connective-tube, in a narrow passage to which access can only
be obtained through the small openings between the short filaments, just
at the entrance of the flower, or by crawling up behind the connective-tube
from the base of the flower. It is significant that many flowers are found
partly eaten by insects. Can it be that the conspicuous coloration of the
flower and its juicy texture attract minute insects, which, while destroying
certain portions of it, pollinate the short stigma at the base of the flower ?
It is much to be desired that some local observer would work out the fertilis-
ation of the plant in detail.

Considerable attention has been paid to the BurmanniacecE of late years,
the American species in particular having been worked up by Warming,

Marshall. — Some New Zealand Fossil Cepkalopods. 143

and by Urban in his elaborate " Symbolse Antillanse." Part 2 of the
" Nachtrag " to Engler and Prantl's " NaturUcheu Pflanzenfamilien," page 72,
contains a brief sketch of a new chHssification of the family, from which
it appears that sixteen genera, with about seventy-five species, are now
known. Nothwithstanding the small size of the family, it has a wide dis-
tributioii in the tropics, its chief development being in Brazil and Malaya.
Northwards, it stretches as far as China and Japan in Asia, and Virginia in
America. In the Southern Hemisphere the New Zealand species appears
to be the only one yet detected outside the tropics.

The subfamily Thismiece, into which Bagnisia falls, now contains four
genera and about fifteen species. Seven of these are from Brazil; the
remainder come from Ceylon, Borneo, and New Guinea. The discovery
of an additional species in New Zealand, so far removed from the two
centres of distribution of the subfamily, is a decidedly unexpected and
somewhat puzzling fact in geographical distribution.

Art. XXVI. — Some New Zealand Fossil Cepkalopods.

By Professor P. Marshall, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., University of Otago.

[Read before the Otago Institute. H)th November. 1908.]

Hochstetter first discovered the remains of cephalopods in the Jurassic
rocks of Kawhia. He described the species of Ammonite as A. novo-zelandicus.
Two species of belemnites were also described.

In later years Hector has added several species of belemnites to those
named by Hochstetter. The occurrence has been frequently recorded by
Cox, McKay, and others in the rocks of the Hokonui Hills and of Kawhia.
No descriptions of these have yet been written. The species here described
were collected by Mr. R. Browne and the writer in the Hokonui Hills, behind
Mandeville, and by Mr. Browne near Te Puti Point, in the Kawhia Harbour.
The strata in the former locality have been classed as Permian or Triassic
by Hector, and in the latter they have been regarded as Jurassic by all
authorities.

Broncoceras mandevillei.

Diameter, 9J in. ; breadth, 3i in.

Surface ornamented with longitudinal and transverse striae, giving a
knotted appearance to its surface. Deeply involute. Some specimens
slightly constricted towards the ventral surface ; others flattened. Siphuncle
not discernible even in the best-preserved specimens. Siphonal lobe some-
what acute, but less so than the interior lateral lobe.

144

Tranffacfions.

Rather frequent in the Hokonui Hills. This appears to be the orgarism
called in the Geological Survey reports '" Paleenautilus."

Part of Sdtuke-line of Bi-oncoceras
mavdevillei.

Part of Suture-line of
Avceiites hokunui.

Arcestes hokonui, n. sp.
Diameter, 2| in. ; breadth,

Uin.

Deeply involute, not compressed. Surface smooth, except for distant

lines of growth.

Phylloceras kawhise, n. sp.

Diameter, 5| in. ; breadth, 2 in.

Deeply involute, somewhat compressed. Shell smooth, except for rather
distant lines of growth. No keel.

iEgoceras brownei, n. sp.

Diameter, 2 in. ; breadth, | in.

Surface marked with transverse ridges, which bifurcate near the venter.
Form Anarcestes-\\ke.

n:

Suture-line of ^F.goceras hi'OKUci.

SuTUEE-LiNE OF PhylloceraK kairhi(('.

Orthoceras brownei, n. sp.

Diameter, H in. ; length, not known.

Septa ^ in. apart. Surface smooth. Siphuncle not seen.

Orthoceras otapiriensis, Hector (?).

Diameter, 3 in. ; length, not known.

Septa I in. apart. Surface smooth. Siphuncle not seen.

This organism appears to be identical with Hector's Belemnites otapiri-
ensis, which is described as in all cases of a phragmacone without any guard.
He records this form as abundant in the Hokonui Hills, the locality from
which this specimen came.

It is remarkable that such genera as Broncoceras and Orthoceras should
be found in strata of such late periods. The former is associated with such
a curious assemblage of genera that it is extremely hard to suggest any
period to which they could all belong. Among these genera are Ostrcea,

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

Pl. XIVa.

;6 7 4

^era

NEW ZEALAND FOSSIL CEPHALOPODS. -Marshall.

Face p. 141

Broun. — Notes on Coleoptera from the Chatham Islands. 145

Grypluea, Trigoma, Halobia, and Spiriferina. Since several of these are not
known in strata older than the Jurassic, it is probably right to class these
strata as Jurassic, thereby ionoring the prosence of the archaic genera here
meutioned. This conclusion seems all the more reasonable when the present
isolated position of the Dominion is considered. It is quite possible that
another period of isolation had terminated at the beginning of the Jurassic
period. An old fauna which had lived on during the period of isolation
Avould then be mingled with the invading newer and more vigorous types.
Such an explanation might reasonably account for the rapid change in life-
forms which has caused Sir James Hector to class a conformable series of
rocks as of an age extending from Permian to Jurassic.

Art. XXVII. — Notes on Coleoptera from the Chatham Islands.

By Major T. Broun, F.E.S.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, ISth November, 1908.]

A COMPLETE list of the Coleoptera now proved to occur in these islands is
given for reference. It is just possible that some other species may have
been described by European authors, but the list includes all that were
recorded by the late Captain F. W. Hutton and those whose descriptions
follow the list.

Eighteen species appear to be purely endemic at the Chathams ; the re-
mainino- twentv-three were originallv found in New Zealand. All the genera
were instituted for the reception of New Zealand species, with the exception
of such as are more or less cosmopolitan — eight or nine altogether.

None of the genera and species recently described by me from the Auck-
land Islands are represented, so far as we are aware at present, at the
Chatham Islands, but I feel confident that some, or closely allied forms, will
be discovered ultimately.

List of Coleoptera from the Chatham Island.s.

Group Anchomenid^.

1. Anchomenus suhmetallicus, White, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 2-1.

2. ,, chathamensis, Broun, sp. nov.

Group Colymbetid^.

3. Rhantus pulverosus, Stephens, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1333.

Group Staphylinid^.

4. Creophilus oculatus, Fabricius, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 107.

Group HlSTERID.^i.

5. Sternaulax zeaJandicus, Marseul, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 162.

146 Transactions.

Group Trogositid^.

6. Leperina wakefieldi, Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 179.

Group COLYDIID^.

7. Rhitidinotus squamulosus, Broun, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 201.

Group Hemipeplid.^.

8. Diafjrypnodes tvaJcefieldi, Waterhouse, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 217..

Group LucANiD.E.

9. Lissotes capita, Deyrolle, Trans. Ent. Soc, 1873, p. 339.

10. Ceratognathus helotuides, Thomson. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 254.

11. MitophyUus reflexus, Broun, sp. nov.

Group Melolonthid.^.

12. Odontria zealandica, White, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 270.

Group Elaterid^.

13. Thoramus wakefieldi, Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 280.

14. ,, Icpvithorax, White, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 282.

15. Mecastrus convexus, Sharp, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 293.

16. Psorochroa granulata, Broun, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 773.

Group Clerid^.

17. Phymatophcea electa, Pascoe, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 331.

Group Heleid^.

18. Cilibe pascoei, Bates, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 372.

19. ,, saragoides, Pascoe.

20. ,, subcostatus, Sharp, Ent. Mag., April, 1903.

Group (Edemerid^.

21. Sessinia strigipennis, White, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 120.

22. Thelyphassa diaphana, Pascoe, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 122.

Group Otiorhynchid^.

23. Cecyropa tychioides, Pascoe, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 137.
21. Inophloeus traversi, Pascoe, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 139.

Group Erirhinid^.

25. Stephanorhynchus purus, Pascoe, Man. N.Z. Coleojit., p. 163.

Group Cryptorhynchid^.

26. PsephoJdx sulcatus, White, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 179.

27. Aldonus hylobioides, White, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 183.

28. ,, chathamensis, Sharp, Ent. Mag., April, 1903.

29. Pseudoreda tibialis, Broun, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 182.

30. Acallcs fougeri, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1897, p. 157.

Broun. — Notes on Coleoptera fro)n the Chatham Islands. 147

Group PLATYPIDiE.

-3J. Platypus apicalis, White, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 541.

Grovip Cerambycid.5.

32. Zon'nn minution, Fahricius, Man. N.Z. Coleopt.. p. 584.
:33. ,. opacum, Sharp, Ent. Mag., April, 1903.

34. Xuthodes punctipennis, Pascoe, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 580.

35. ,, divergens, Broun, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 581.

Group Lamiid^.

36. Xylotoles costatus, Pascoe, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 599.

37. „ traversi, Pascoe, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 599.

38. „ schauinslnndi. Sharp. Ent. Mag., April, 1903.

39. ,, ahnormalis. Sharp, Ent. Mag., April, 1903.

40. Hyholasius trigonellaris, Hutton, Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1897, p. 158.

41. Tetwrea ciJipes, White, Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 609.

List of Lx'iroduced Species.

Aphodius granarius \

Lacon murinus [ Recorded by the late Captain F. W. Hutton, Trans.

Otiorhynchis suJcatus |' N.Z. Inst"!. 1897. pp. 156-58.

Coccinella 1 l-punctafa '

Group Anc'homenid^.
Anchomenus chathamensis, sp. nov.

Suhoblong, slightly convex, nitid, piceous ; the legs, antennae, and palpi
rufo-piceous ; lateral margins of thorax and elytra similarly rufescent.

Head oviform and, including the large eyes, rather broader than front
of thorax ; irregularly rugose behind the inter-antennal groove, smooth
on the back part. Labrum large, entire. Antennae with the basal 3 joints
shining and glabrous, 2nd joint half the length of the 3rd. Thorax one-
fourth broader than long, its sides with well-developed margins, moderately
rounded, very gradually narrowed behind the middle, posterior angles
nearly rectangular but obtuse, the base feebly rounded towards the sides,
apex incurved ; disc moderately convex, with feebly impressed stria? across
it, dorsal furrow indistinct near the base and apex, near the front there is
an indistinct transverse impression, basal fossae large. Scutellum smooth.
Elytra oblong, slightly and gradually widened backwards, slightly sinuate
but evidently obliquely narrowed towards the apices ; shoulders a little
curvedly narrowed, yet rather wider than the base of thorax ; the suture
is somewhat elevated posteriorly, the 4 discoidal stria? on each elytron are
well marked but impunctate, the outer ones are finer, 3rd interstices tri-
puncta te.

Tarsi setose, the anterior spongy underneath, their basal 2 joints
moderately dilated and oblong, the 3rd also dilated but shorter and more
narrowed near the base, 4th small and cordiform, basal joint of the posterior
grooved along the outside. Palpi rather short, terminal articulation sub-
cylindric.

Underside shining piceous, last ventral segment very broadly rounded,
almost truncate, with a single setigerous puncture near each side at the
apex.

148 Transactions.

(? . Length, 3f lines ; breadth, 1| lines.

Chatham Islands ; February, 1907.

One example, forwarded by Dr. W. B. Benham for identification. It
is somewhat similar to A. lawsoni, but smaller and more depressed, the
sides of the elytra more explanate behind, the thorax relatively larger and
less rounded laterally ; frontal foveae indefinite, &c.

Group ^EsALiD.i:.
Mitophyllus reflexus, sp. nov.

Oblong, rather elongate ; subdepressed, subopaque, piceo-rufous, margins
of thorax and elytra and the legs infuscate red, sparingly clothed with
flavescent setae ; antennae, tarsi, and palpi red.

Head much narrowed behind the large and very prominent eyes, broadly
depressed between the greatly elevated antennal tubercles, closely punctate.
Mandibles rather small and broad, bifid at apex. Antennae well developed,
basal joint elongate, stout and much curved, 2nd very short, joints 3 and 4
ecjually elongate, 5th evidently shorter than the preceding one, 6th very
short, 7th short and slightly prolonged towards the front ; club composed
of 3 long lobes, bearing numerous slender outstanding setse. Thorax trans-
verse, anterior angles obtusely rounded, the posterior rectangular : its
sides explanate and obviously reflexed, apex subtruncate, base widely
bisinuate ; its sides almost evenly rounded, yet a little narrowed towards
the front ; its surface distinctly and closely punctured, less closely at each
side of the middle in front, and having at the base a narrow elongated smooth
space. Scutellum large. Elytra oblong, parallel-sided, with a depression
inside each shoulder ; they are closely and distinctly punctured, and exhibit
3 or 4 feebly impressed longitudinal striae. Tibiae elongate, the intermediate
curvate and finely asperate, the anterior subserrate externally, with a very
small denticle above the middle and not in the least protuberant at the
extremity. Tarsi slender and elongate, basal joint of the posterior short,
2-4 decrease in length, all however unusually long, the terminal slender
and as long as the preceding 3 united ; claws very long and slender.

3 . Length. 4^5 lines ; breadth, 1^-2 lines.

Chatham Islands.

Described from two specimens found by Professor W. B. Benham in
February, 1907. They differ in almost every detail from the typical New
Zealand species {M. irroratus). The very prominent eyes, explanate and
reflexed thoracic margins, and strongly elevated antennal tubercles are
sufficient for immediate identification.

Cilibe saragoides.

Oblong-oval, moderately convex, subopaque, piceous, elytra more
rufescent, tarsi and antennae pitchy-red.

Head closely punctate. Thorax transverse, its sides broadly concave,
with reflexed margins, gradually narrowed towards the anterior angles,
which extend beyond the front of the eyes, near the base they are straight,
the posterior angles being subacute, directed backwards, and resting on
the elytra ; base slightly and widely bisinuate, the apex deeply incurved ;
the disc finely and not closely punctured, more closely and coarsely but
not deeply at the sides. Scutellum broadly triangular, with a few minute
punctures. Elytra transversely convex, their sides very broadly expanded
and reflexed, becoming less so near the middle, still narrower behind, and

Broun. — Notes on Coleoptera jrom the Chatham Islands. 149

simple at the extremity, the base is broader than that of the thorax, tJiey
are slightly but widely giniiate before the middle femora ; the broad grooves
are opaque, with irregular punctures, so that the finely punctured interstices,
which are slightly shining, appear somewhat costiform ; the broad marginal
channels are indistinctly sculptured, there is no perceptible granulation ;
near each side, at the base, there is a broad impression, which, however,
may not be a constant character.

The broadly expanded sides distinguish this species.

Length, 5|- lines ; breadth, 2| lines.

Pitt's Island.

My specimen was presented to me over twenty years ago by the late
F. P. Pascoe, who, no doubt, had described it under the name I have attached
to it ; its description, however, I have not seen.

Descriptions of Coleoptera from the Chatham Islands, by Dr. D.

Sharp, copied from the " Entomologists' Magazine " for April,

1903.

Group Heleid^e.
Cilibe subcostata.

Nigra vel picea, minus depressa, fortiter sculpturata, opaca, elytris
evidenter subsulcatis.

Long., 1.3J mm.

This is distinguished from all the other species by the peculiar sculpture
of the elytra, which, however, is only an exaggeration of what we find in
some other forms. The front angles of the thorax are much produced,
and the sides are much explanate, their margins a little sinuate ; the hind
angles much produced backwards and markedly acute ; the punctuation
at the sides is very dense, on the disc it is scanty, but the surface is not in
the least shining. The elytra are rather short, and have a vague costation,
the very slightly elevated ribs are separated by coarse punctures ; this
sculpture sets off and makes evident the ribs.

Professor Schauinsland found a small series of this species. It is nearest
allied to C. pascoet, Bates, of Pitt's Island, a species which was also met
with there by the German traveller. C. pascoei is, however, rather more
elongate and less convex in form, and with the sculpture of the elytra
different, there being merely traces of the longitudinal ribs. Professor
Schauinsland's specimens are intensely black, being considerably darker in
colour than Mr. Bates's type. I have dissected the sexes of C. subcostata,
and do not find any external marks to distinguish them.

Group Cryptorhynchid.t:.
Aldonus chathamensis.

Ferrugineus vel piceus, setis erectis numerosis superne vestitus, hand
squamosus, rude sculpturatus ; subtus setosus, inter setas squamis perpaucis
munitus.

Long., 7|-13 mm.

Distinguished from A. hylobioides and all the other species ascribed to
the genus by the absence of scales from the surface. The rostrum is longer
than it is in A. hylobioides ; it bears fine erect hairs, but in consequence
of the absence of scales its coarse sculpture can be distinctly seen. Thorax
very rough, with tubercular sculpture, with fine, short, erect hairs, and with

150 Transactio7is .

still shorter, very slightly curved, thicker, more pallid setae, which represent
the squamosity that is so remarkable in the other^ species. The elytra are
rather deeply striate, and the stria? have very large punctures, separated
only by short intervals one from the other.
Chatham Islands ; Professor Schauiusland.

Group Cerai'BYCid.^.
Zorion opacum.

Fusco-testaceum, supra submetallico-nitens, sericeo-subopacum ; antennis
pedibusque testaceis, his femoribus basi excepta rufo-obscuris, illis fusco-
annulatis ; elytro singulo ante medium fascia pallida transversa marginem
lateralem fere attingente.

Long., 4-5 mm.

This comes very near to Z. minutum, but is distinguished by the peculiar
pallid suffused colour and the silky dullness of the surface. The thorax,
instead of being polished, is dull, and covered with a slight sculpture, a
sort of minute wrinkling of the surface. The elytra are rather longer than
in the other species.

Chatham Islands ; Professor Schauiusland. Three specimens.

The British Museum collection includes a specimen of this species said
to be from Otago. This locality I think very doubtful.

Group Lamiid.^.
Xylotoles schauinslandi.

Fusco-rufus, supra viridescens, nitidus, antennis pedibusque rufis ;
elytris tricostatis, costis at apicem fere dualis, interstitiis irregulariter
interruptim costatis.

Long.. 10 mm.

This species comes very naturally between X. traversi and A', costatus.
It is not half the size of the latter ; but is a little longer than X. traversi,
more elongate, with the sculpture more developed, and the costation con-
tinued near to the tip. Of the forms found on the mainland, it is perhaps
nearest to X. rugicoUls, but it is very different in colour, and the elytra are
singly rounded at the tip. The thorax is elongate and subcylindric, and
bears 2 transverse channels ; otherwise it is very indistinctly sculptured.
The seutellum is covered with pallid pubescence. The elytra have each
an elevated rib running along the suture, and outside this 3 others, the
space between bearing much coarse irregular sculpture ; the 3rd costa is
itself divided behind the shoulder so as to fork somewhat, and form, in fact,
2 costee. The ventral segments hav-e each a conspicuous spot of yellow
pubescence at the side.

The four specimens found by Professor Schauiusland differ but little,
and the British Museum collection has two others.

Chatham Islands ; Professor Schauiusland.

Xylotoles abnormalis.

Minutus, brevis, testaceus, pnllidus, tomentosus ; thorace fortiter trans-
versus ; corporis latera longitudinaliter fuscuscente.

Long., 5 mm.

This minute Lamiid looks like a Ilyholasius. but as it is flightless I place
it in Xylotoles, where it will come near to A'. hiiUoni. The front of the head
is very low, and the moutli much inflexed. The antenna:^ have the 3rd

Broun. — Revision of the New Zealand Cossouidae. 151

and 4th joints very elongate, the 4th a little the shorter, but quite twice as
long as the 5th ; from this to the end each is slightly shorter than its prede-
cessor. The thorax is scarcely so long as broad, infuscate at the sides and
across the middle. The after-body is short, the elytra covered with minute
tomentum, which allows, however, numerous small pits to be seen ; they
are pallid, but at each side there is a large irregular dark patch, which be-
yond the middle approaches near to the suture. Under-surface infuscate.
Femora short and thick, yellow, with dark marks.

Chatham Islands ; Professor Schauinsland. Two specimens.

Art. XXVIII. — Revision of the New Zealand CossonidiB, with Descriptions

of New Genera and Species.

By Major T. Broun, F.E.S.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, l^th November, 1908.]

Owing to the difficulties encountered by local entomologists in identifying
the numerous species, nearly all small, often without very perceptible dis-
tinguishing characteristics, and, as a rule, inconspicuous and uninteresting,
I determined to undertake the task of revision. The resolution was easy,
the accomplishment just the reverse.

Any naturalist who has really studied these minute creatures will readily
acknowledge that the work of rearranging and classifying such a complex
assemblage was an undertaking of more than ordinary difficulty.

A distinguished British entomologist, with the best typical collections
of insects and books of reference in the world easily accessible, when dealing
with about twenty species of a nearly aUied group consisting of 108 genera,
remarked that " the study of these genera is attended with great difficulties,
for they are divided from one another by no strongly marked peculiarities,"
&c. So, although he stated that these twenty species represented " a con-
siderable number of distinct genera," only two new genera were described,
all the other species being referred to the typical genus of the group, and
there. they have remained for upwards of thirty years. As the members
of that group are much larger, and differentiated by more easily seen
characters, it is unlikely that our Cossonidce would be more systematically
dealt with.

In 1873 no less than 123 genera, including five from New Zealand, were
known to occur in various parts of the world. A great many of these are
rare, and, as there is nothing very attractive about their general appearance,
most collectors during their travels make no special search for them, con-
sequently any New Zealand student will find it nearly impossible to obtain
accurately named specimens of more than a dozen of these exotic genera
for comparison with our own, so that in attempting to classify and name
our indigenous species he must carefully study the Latin descriptions of these
123 genera. Any naturalist who has made the experiment will know what
that means.

152 Transactions.

Pentarthriwi may be accepted as the typical genus of our Cossoniclce,
and to it, by European entomologists as well as by myself, over forty of our
endemic species have been ascribed within the past thirty or forty years.
These I have, so far as specimens were available, carefully studied, separated
into groups or series, and detached first one and then another as representa-
tives of new or distinct genera, until at length I had instituted seventeen
new genera for their systematic location, irrespective of thirteen I had
previously described. Only fifteen species have been left under the name
Pcntarthrum, and these are divided into three sections, so that the identifica-
tion of the older species has been much simplified.

Few are aware of the trouble involved in that process. Every specimen
in my collection was carefully set out and gummed to strips of cardboard
or mica slabs, and after the superficial examination of generic characters
had been completed it was necessary to remove each one from its original
position, so that the structure and sculpture of the under-surface might be
as carefully studied as that of the upper before the description of any genus
could be properly prepared. This removal from the cardboard, and the
subsequent replacement of the specimens in my cabinet, was a very tedious,
delicate, and risky operation, as the least carelessness would result in the
damage or loss of the type of some species which may not be found again
during my lifetime. Notwithstanding all the care bestowed, I managed
to lose one, much to my regret.

On reference to the following list, it will be seen that our CossonidcB
now consist of forty-seven genera, comprising 141 species, the descriptions
of which are attached hereto.

It must, however, be understood that the object in view was not to
monograph the species, although each one has been more or less critically
reviewed, and placed, in accordance with my own views, in its proper posi-
tion. Every genus and its typical species have been fully described by
myself, and two or three diagnostic characters of the species attached to each
genus have been given as an aid to identification, together with references
to the original descriptions. The maximum measurements are given ;
that of the length invariably includes the rostrum of all properly mounted
specimens.

During the progress of the work I found that, for the convenience of
colonial entomologists, it would be expedient to adopt some fixed standard
for purposes of comparison. Pentarthrum zealandicum, var. canaliculatiwi,
has been selected, and placed at the head of the list, because it is our typical
exponent of the Pentarthrides, and also on account of its being readily pro-
curable in the South as well as the North Island. Its generic description
has been renewed and somewhat restricted, the term " more or less elon'gate,''
appUed to the rostrum in the original diagnosis, having been deleted, so that
only such characters as are exhibited by the endemic species itself are
given.

Those who have no special knowledge of our Cossonidce should, before
attempting to classify and name their collections, carefully study the general
form, appearance, and structural details of the insect 1 have chosen as the
standard, the female as well as the male. To do this thoroughly four speci-
mens should be obtained, and one of each sex neatly set out and mounted
on cardboard with the antennae, legs, and tarsi properly displayed, and
another of each sex mounted on its back, so that differences of the under-
side can be examined. Euophryum or Torostoma may be shidied next,
noting and comparing the peculiar modifications of the rostrum and elytral

Broun. — Revifnon af the yew Zealand Cossonidae.

153

margins ; then the common pubescent Sericotrogus, comparing the form
of its head, the position of the coxpp, and structure of the lower surface
with those of the standard. The training of the faculty of observation thus
acquired will be invaluable when the specific names of. members of the more
complex or rare genera have to be decided by the examination of single
examples.

\Mien reading descriptions the inexperienced entomologist should re-
member that what is termed coarse sculpture, or vestiture, in the case of
a minute insect would be considered to be only moderate, or even fine, in
one of greater bulk. Mistakes are liable to occur through forgetfulness
to make due allowance for such details.

In the descri])tive portion of this memoir the habitat of every species,
so far as known to me, has been recorded, but, as no reference has been
made to modes of life, som.e brief remarks on this subject may be of
interest.

The greater number have been obtained promiscuously by being dis-
lodged from shrubs or branches of trees at times when special notes of their
capture could not be recorded, others were found under bark or adhering
to the underside of logs, and a few were cut out of solid wood.

Several very curious, though small, genera and species — two of them
blind, or nearly so — are only found amongst decaying leaves, on the ground.
The genus Pselactus, consisting of two species, and the last three attached
to Eutornus, are inhabitants of the sea-shore. The three species of Novitas
seem to live almost wholly on Phormiurn tenax, and one of Pklceophagosoma
was taken out of the seed-vessels of that plant.

Our native palm, Areca sapida, has yielded no less than four remarkable
genera, but in order to search for and secure these I had to cut down more
than one of the palms with my tomahawk, and to break off and carefully
examine each frond separately.

The most important genus, from a commercial point of view — Xenocnema
— occurs in Agathis [Dammara) australis. Its destructive propensities M^ere
observed by me over thirty years ago. The paper prepared regarding its
ravages will be found in vol. ix, page 366, of the " Transactions of the New
Zealand Institute."

LIST OF THE NEW ZEALAND COSfiONIDM.

No. PBNTARTHRIDES.

Pentarthrum, Wollaston.

903. zealandicum. ^^'ollastoll
2195. amicum, Broun
2189. fuUoni, Broun
1627. proximum. Brovui . .

911. hrevirostre, iSharj) . .
1304. ruficorne. Broun
philpotti. Broiui
1548. melatiosiernum, Broun
1300. puHCtirostre. Broun
planicoUe, Broun * . .

905. subsericalum. Wollaston

909. assimihttum. Broun
1298. rediictum, Broun

907. bninneiim, Broun . .
2191. nubilum, Broun

Toiiropsis, Bi'oun.
925. pi()icf((tiis, Broun . .

Page

No.

Eiiophrymn, Broiui.

Page

908.

ntfum, Broun

160

156

1301.

aspereUuni, Broiui . .

160

156

1297.

scuJpturatum, Broun

160

156

2194.

pimctatissimum. Broun

160

156

dnhitans, Broun

. 161

157

1299.

confinum, Broun

. 161

157

antennale, Broun . .

. 161

157

crassellum, Broini . .

161

1.57

1629.

■semi I urn, Broun

161

. . 157

2198.

porcatiim, Sharp

161

158

. . 157

Zenoteratus, Broun.

158
158

1549.

maciucephalus, Broun

. 162

2190.

diversus, Broun

162

158

158

2197.

cephnlotes. Sharp . .

. 162

159

Torostoma, Broun.
906. (iptcate, Broun

163

154

Transactions.

Toura, Broun. Page

hngirostre, WolLaston . . 164

fiilva. Broim . . . ■ 164

morom, Bioun . . . . 165

Merisma. Broun.

slmrfiana, Wollaston . . 165

(lurdniiaca, Broun . . . . 166

Tanysowa. Broun.

<ni(jHsia. Bi'oun . . . . 167

Stenofoiira. Broun.

exilis, Broun . . . . 167

luteritia. Broiui . . . . 168

proli.ra, Broun . . . . 168

Eukissa, Broun.

comatum, Broun . . . . 169

fascicoUis, Broun . . . . 169

Adel, Broun.

creiutlns, Broun . . . . 170

Rhinanisus, Broun.

fulmcornis, Broun . . . . 171

parvicornis, Sharji . . . . 171

contiguus, Broun . . . . 172

sagax, Broun . . . . 172

chcesemani. Broiui . . . . 172

leivisi, Broun . . . . 172

elonrjatiis. Broun . . . . 172

subconvexus, Broun . . 172

suturalis, Broun . . . . 172

confertus. Sharp . . . . 173

coitsirichis. Shar]) . . . . 173

sulcirostris, Broun . . . . 173

Camptoscapus, Broun.

sanguineus. Broun . . 174

910. planvusculus. Broun . . 174

1306. conicolUs, Broun . . . . 174

Macroscy talus, Broun.

1308. hiticoUis, Broun . . . . 175
1433. clepressus, Broun . . . . 175

1309. russulus, Broun . . . . 176

914. rcmotus, Shar]) . . . . 176
fronirilis, Bro\ni . . . . 176

920. badius. Broun . . . . 176

crenafas, Broun . . . . 176

Bceorhopalus. Broun.

1305. glabrvs, Broun . . . . 177

Selocomis. Broini.

915. ceneopiceus, Broun . . 178

Ghjphoraiiiphus, Broun.

1753. )■«(■«.«, Broun .. .. 179

Belka, Broun.

IQ2S. spadicea. Brown .. .. 180

904.

2188.
1749.

926.
2192.

1626.

2193.
924.

1748.

1431.

912.

913.

923.
1750.
2201.

2199.

2200.

Iso. Attarus, Broun. Page

iristis. Broun . . . . 181

1307. castiis, Broun . . . . 181

916. veslitus, Broun . . . . 181

Agastegnus. Broun.

1432. ruficoUis. Broun . . . . 182

922. grains. Broun . . . . 183

930. longipes. Broun . . . . 183

933. -s/w^f/rr^.s. Sharp .. .. 183

1630. roJoraius, Broun . . . . 183

1751. /ewora?rs, Broun .. .. 183
2202. nitidirostris, Broun . . 183
2421. distinctus, Broun . . . . 183

1752. sericatus. Broun . . . . 184
rufescens. Broun . . . . 184
biimpressus. Broun . . 184

Serkotrogus, Wollaston.

929. subcenescens, Wollaston . . 185

931. oi-icoIUf:, Broun . . . . 185

932. strainineus, Broixn . . . . 185

Gaurocryphus. Broun.

1302. ainicoiiius. Bvoww .. .. 186

Ei(Cossonus, Broun.

1550. couiptus, Broun . . . . 187

2419. elegans, Broun . . . . 187

2420. gmcilis, Broun . . . . 187

934. seliger. Sharp . . . . 188
7-ostralis. Broun . . . . 188

Agrilochilus. Broun.

928. prolixns. Broun . . . . 189

Dioedbnorpha, Broun.

917. uo//a6to«/«)H'm, Sharp .. 189

918. debUe, Sharp . . . . 190

Arecocryptus, Broun.

936. bellus, Broun . . • . 190

Eniimn, Sharp.

927. aberrans. Sharp . . . . 191

Mesoxenophasis, Wollaston.

935. brouni, Wollaston . . . . 192

Frocomis, Broun.

921. asperirostris, Brovm . . 192

1631. cm.w(>e.s. Broun .. .. 192

Heteropsis, Wollaston.

940. /«(c.vc<h/. Wollaston. . .. 193

Xorlfas, Broun.

938. nifum. Broun . . . . 194

939. nigruns. Broun . . . . 194
2204. dispar, Broun . . . . 194

Unas, Broun.

919. piceus. Broun . . . . 195

IWachyglyphus, Broun.

1303. rugirostris, Broun . . . . 196

Broun. — Revision of the New Zealand CossonidiP.

155

No.

M icrotrih us, Wollast on .

Page

No.

Arecophaga, Broun.

Pago

937.

huttoni, WoUastou . .

. 197

947.

furiii. Broun

205

2203.

pichnensis, Sharj) . .

. 197

Pogonorhiniis. Broun.

Idus, Broun.

946.

npaciis. Broun

. 207

2576.

ccBCus, Broun

Protogonum, Broun.

198

Exomesites. Broun.

1754.

npliiii lis. Broun

208

2196.

helmsianum, Sharp

199

Allaoriis, Broun.

COSSONIDES.

2577.

urquharti. Broun . .

209

Phloeophagosoma, Wollaston

2578.

pedatus. Broun

209

941.

corvinum, Wollaston

200

2579.

sternulis. Broun

. 209

943.

thoracicurn, Wollaston

200

2580.

omlitJS, Broun

. 209

944.

dilutum, Wollaston

. 200

788.

versutus, Broun

. 210

945.

pedatum. Wollaston

. 200

2155.

rugosus, Broun

. 210

1310.

rugipenne, Broun . .

200

2154.

pyriformis, Broun . .

. 210

1311.

nhdominale, Broun

Eutornus, Wollaston.

201

piciclnriis. Broun . .

Pselactus, Broun.

. 210

948.

dubius, Wollaston . .

202

1755.

pinictatns, Broun . .

212

949.

viciniis, Broun -. .

202

ferrugineus, Broun

212

950.

breviceps. Broun

. 202

951.

ampins, Broun

. 203

Iiwsomus, Broun.

952.
2206.

liUomlis, Broun
cylindricus, Broun . .

. 203
203

1312.

ruhpiceus, Broun . .

. 213

2207.

parindus, Broun

203

Xenocnema, Wollaston.

Stilbocara, Broun.

953.

spinipes, Wollaston

214

n.itida, Broun

204

942.

consiricticollis, Broun

204

Hectceus, Broun.

2205.

seretm, Broun

204

rubidus, Broun

. 215

Fam. COSSONID.E.

Group Pentarthrides.
Funiculus .5-articulate,

Pentarthrum, Wollaston, Trans. Ent. See, 1873.

Body convex, cylindric or fusiform-cylindric, subnitid, piceous or cas-
taneous, subglabrous.

Head globose below ; occiput usually smooth and narrowed anteriorly,
thus causing the e)^es to appear more prominent behind than they would be
otherwise ; there is no frontal line of demarcation. Thorax rather longer
than broad, triangular-ovate, constricted in front. Scutellum distinct.
Elytra subtruncate at base, as wide as thorax, subparallel, or gradually
narrowed posteriorly, their margins not incrassate near the extremity ;
apices singly rounded sometimes.

Femora moderately long, dilated, emarginate below near the extremity.
Tibiae flexuous, expanded towards the apex, with well-developed terminal
hooks. Tarsi pseud otetramerous, 3rd joint slightly expanded, cordate,
excavate above but not lobate, the terminal equals the preceding 3, with
distinct claws.

Metasternum elongate, rather longer than basal 2 segments combined,
2nd ventral segment shorter than the basal, their suture sinuate and very
fine or indistinct, both on the same plane as the metasternum ; 3rd and
4th abbreviated, with profnmid sutures. Epipleur.T linonr. Coxn? widely
separated, the anterior included.

156 Transactions.

Male. — Rostrum half length of thorax, broad, parallel, subdepressed
above, without any basal line of demarcation. Hcape medially inserted,
attaining back part of eye, straight, stout, gradually incrassate. Funiculus
5-articulate, 2nd joint longer than 3rd. the following 3 closely articulated
and subquadrate. Club ovate, not perceptibly annulate.

Female. — Rostrum cylindric, parallel, rather longer and about half the
breadth of that of the male, its base on a rather lower level than the fore-
head. Antennae m.ore slender, inserted behind the middle. Thorax more
triangular, more gradually narrowed anteriorly.

The above characters are derived from specimens in mv own collection.

beet. 1. Rostrum of male longitudinally canaliculate.

Pentarthrum zealandicum, WoUaston. 903. Trans. Ent. Soc, 1873..
(Plate XV, fig. 1.)

Subnitid, piceous, legs and elytra piceo-ferruginous or castancous, the
suture and sides of the latter piceous, tarsi and antennfo dark red ; very
indistinctly, minutely, and sparingly pubescent.

Thorax widest near the base, posterior angles obliquely curvate, disc
moderately convex, but with a slight median basal impression, deeply con-
stricted near apex, distinctly and rather closely punctate. Elytra evidently
striate-punctate, interstices with fine serial punctures and transversely
rugose.

Underside shining, piceous, scantily, minutely, and indistinctly pubescent,
finely but not closely punctured, base of prosternum somewhat transversely
rugose, metasternum medially sulcate behind, basal ventral segment broadly
impressed.

Male. — Rostrum distinctly punctate, canaliculate along the middle,
the punctuation continued to the back of the eyes, occiput with a few fine
punctures.

Female. — Rostrum slender, reddish, shining, finely and sparingly punc-
tured.

This species varies in size and coloration.

(? . Length, 2 lines ; breadth, quite i line.

Both Islands.

P. amicum, Broun. 2195. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1247.

<S . Funiculus more slender than 903, eyes prominent behind, elytral
interstices not rugose, thorax rufescent. Sparingly clothed with slender
but quite perceptible yellow hairs.

(? . Length, 1| lines ; breadth, | line.

Paparoa, Howick. Unique.

P. fultoni, Broun. 2189. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1243.

J . Rostrum broad, gradually slightly narrowed anteriorly. Scape
short. Thorax shorter than 903, sides more strongly rounded. Castaneo-
rufous, head and apical portion of elytra piceous.

S . Length, If lines ; breadth, f line.

Taieri, Otago. One of each sex.

P. proximum, Broun. 1627. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 910.

3 . Rostrum very closely punctate, very slightly, hardly appreciably,
wider at antennal insertion than elsewhere. Scape rather short. Uniformly

Broun. — Revision of the Neiv Zealand C'ossonidfe. 157

piceo-rufous. Pubescence scanty, slender, yellowish, more perceptible tlian
in 2189.

0 . Length. If lines ; breadth, quite -| line.

Tuakau, Auckland. Unique.

Sect. 2. Bostrum of male not canaliculate.

P. brevirostre, 'sharp. 911. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 512.

S . Subopaque, subdepressed, piceous.

Rostrum broad, parallel, closely punctate, interstices coriaceous. The
punctuatio)! ceases abruptly behind the eyes, so that the front of the
occiput seems depressed. Elytra punctate-striate.

,j . Length, 1;^ lines ; breadth. | line.

Whangarei. Both sexes.

P. ruficorne, Broun. 1304. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 734.

^ . Subopaque, nigro-piceous, antennse and tarsi dark red.

Thorax longitudinally impressed, and with a fine smooth central line.
Antennpe stout, 2nd joint of funiculus hardly any longer than 3rd.
Rostrum with rather shallow punctures, minutely coriaceous.

S . Length, nearly 1| lines ; breadth, | line.

Tairua. Auckland. One only.

P. philpotti, Broun. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 6, xv, p. 414.

Rostrum slightly contracted behind, very distinctly punctured. Nigro-
piceous. elytra more rufescent, antennw red.
S . Length, If lines ; breadth, f line.
Invercargill. One.

P. melanosternum, Broun. 1548. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 869.

Subopaque, eastaneous ; the apex of the thorax, the metasternum, and
basal 2 ventral segments piceous, with fine numerous suberect yellow sette.
Scajje moderately short.

o . Length, 1| lines ; breadth, f line.

Otago. Both sexes.

'&"•

P. punctirostre, Broun. 1300. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 733.

Rostrum closely and moderately punctured, and bearing some fine
yellowish hairs, like those that are distributed over the body. Thorax
longitudinally impressed along the middle. Rufo-piceous, moderately nitid.

3 . Length, If lines ; breadth, quite f line.

Wellington. One of each sex.

P. planicolle, Broun. Description being published at London.

Nitid, piceo-rufous, head and rostrum darker. Scape flexuous and
elongate. Thorax subdepressed. Rostrum slightly narrowed towards the
base. Club rather narrow and annulate.

3 . Length. 1|^ lines ; breadth, f line.

Southland. One.

P. subsericatum, Wollaston. 905. Man. N.Z, Coleopt., p. 509.

Subopaque, pale rufo-ferruginous, minutely pubescent.
J . Longth, H lines.
Incocj. Locality unknown.

158 Transactio7is.

Sect. 3. Females : Exact position doubtful

P. assimilatum, Broun. 909. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 511.

Fusiform, rufescent.

Rostrum not slender, slightly narrowed near tlie base. Eyes only
slightly prominent. Club subrotundate.
5 . Length, H lines ; breadth, f line.
AVhangarei. Unique.

P. reductum, Broun. 1298. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 732.

Convex, subopaque, piceous, legs fusco-rufous.
Eyes only slightly prominent. Elytral striae crenate-punctate.
2 . Length, Ij lines ; breadth, f line.
Napier. One.

P. brunneum, Broun. 907. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 510.

Very elongate, fusiform, thorax and elytra of almost equal width at the
base and rather closely adapted to each other. Moderately nitid, rostrum
and thorax rufescent. elytra pale castaneous.

Thorax subtriangnlar, only slightly rounded laterally. Eyes not promi-
nent.

Certainly represents a distinct genus.
? . Length, If lines ; breadth, | line.

Tairua. One, not in very good order.

P. nubilum, Broun. 2191. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1244.

Shining, rostrum and thorax dark red, elytra pale castaneous.
Eyes only slightly prominent. Near 903.
? . Length, If lines ; breadth, quite | line.
Paparoa, Howick. One.

Touropsis, gen. nov.

Fusiform, only slightly convex, shining ; bearing some fine indistinct
pubescence, which is most easily seen at the base of the thorax and extremity
of the elytra.

Rostrum about a third shorter than thorax, stout, but not broad, sub-
parallel, evidently contracted near the base. Scrobes short, as deep above
as below, extending to the upper as well as the lower part of the eyes, thus
to a great extent causing the basal contraction of the rostrum. Scape
elongate, flexuous, moderately stout, incrassate just at the extremit}^ ; it
is inserted behind the middle, and reaches to just beyond the back of the
eye. Funiculus closely articulated, 2nd joint very slightly longer than the
following ones. 3-5 transverse. Club very distinct, rather short and broad,
annulate in front. Head globose, the smooth convex occiput very sharply
marked off by an abrupt linear depression. Eyes moderately prominent
behind. Thorax triangular-ovate, deeply constricted in front. Scutellum
small, but distinct. Elytra a little biarcuate at the base, and broader
than that of the thorax, gradually narrowed backwards, apices separately
obtusely rounded. Legs sto'at, 3rd tarsal joint not lobed.

The separation of the type of this genus is necessary on account of the
peculiar scrobes, the antennal insertion, and form of the rostrum, which do
not agree with either sex of Pentarthrum. The head and rostrum are more
like those of Toura, but the structure of the tarsi is quite different. The

Broun. — Revision of the Xetv Zealand Cossonid;^'. 159

frontal limitation of the occiput is even more abruptly defined, nud the
thorax is broader and more oviform.

Touropsis punctatus, Broun. 925. Man. N.Z. Coleopt,, p. 518.

Shining, castaneo-rufous, antenna" and tarsi fulvescent.

Kostrum convex, finely and not closely punctured, nearly smooth along
the middle. Head distinctly but not closely punctured as far as the back
of the eyes ; this portion apparently on a higher level than the front of the
smooth occiput. Thorax about as broad as it is long, widest behind the
middle, Avell rounded there, nuuli narrowed and deeply constricted in front,
hardly perceptibly flattened above, the central linear space nearlv smooth,
its punctuation distinct but not coarse or close, finer but not smooth in
front, having minute coriaceous sculpture there. Elytra punctate-striate, the
punctures somewhat transversely angular, the suture and interstices with
fine serial punctures.

<? . Length, nearly IJ lines ; breadth, nearly | line.

Tairua, Auckland. Unique.

Euophryum, gen. nov.

Body transversely convex, subcyliudric. narrowed anteriorly. Rostrum
more than half the length of thorax, only moderately broad, somewhat
abruptly contracted near its base, so that the scrobes seem deep and wide ;
the sides, underneath, are swollen for the greater part of their length, and the
central carina extends from the mentum and becomes thicker near the
eyes. In the female the rostrum is more slender, and, behind the contrac-
tion, is a little expanded, so as to become as broad as the front of the eyes.
Scape inserted just behind the middle, short, stout, and incrassate towards
the extremity ; it only reaches the front of the eye. Funiculus longer
than the scape, 2nd joint slightly longer than 3rd, 2-5 gradually thickened,
5th transverse. Club ovate, of moderate bulk. Eyes subrotundate, trans-
verse rather than longitudinal, more prominent behind than in front, the
smooth occiput being somewhat narrowed anteriorly. Thorax nearly twice
as long as broad, ovate-triangular. Scutellum small, but distinct. Elytra
cylindric, sHghtly narrower than thorax, individually strongly rounded at
apex, causing a sutural gap there, their margins posteriorly expanded or
incrassate. Tarsi narrow, penultimate joint narrow, excavate but not
lobate.

The buccal cavity is well marked, and there is a minute dentiform pro-
jection of the mentum within it. The anterior coxa? are more approximated
than in Pentarthmm, with a fine curvate suture between them. The epi-
pleune are slightly thickened behind, and the dilatation seen on the upper
surface is quite evident on the lower also, but distinct from the epipleura
itself.

The characters which distinguish this genus from I'cnlarthrum are the
obviously basally contracted rostrum, deep broad scrobes, short scape, in-
crassate elytral margins, strongly singly rounded apices, and sutural notch,
these last two being quite exceptional features amongst the Cossonidcr.
The underside also differs. The more parallel outline and coarser sculpture
will also aid in the identification of the species now detached from Pen-
tarthrvm.

In the female the antenna:> are inserteci midway between the middle of
the rostrum and the eves.

160 Transactions.

Euophryum rufum, Broun. 908. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 510. (PLate XV,

fig. -^)

Subcylindric. slightly nitid, piceo-rufous. seemingly calvous, but with
some minute greyish hairs ; antennae and tarsi paler.

Rostrum distinctly and rather closely punctate ; the vertex more
coarsely. The smooth occiput distinctly marked off immediately behind
the eyes. Scape much shorter than funiculus. Thorax with obtuse hind
angles, rather gradually narrowed anteriorly, only moderately constricted
near the apex and causing a transverse impression there ; it is coarsely,
rather closely, and on some parts longitudinally confluently punctured,
very closely and rugosely at the sides, much more finely at the apex.
Elytra quite parallel, longer than but hardly as broad as the thorax ; dis-
tinctly and rather closely punctate - striate, interstices with fine serial
punctures and sometimes a little rugose.

Underside moderately shining, sparingly and minutely pubescent, some-
what irregularly, moderately coarsely, but not very closely punctured.
Metasternum slightly flattened and distantly punctured along the middle,
with a small angular fovea behind. Basal ventral segment flat, with two
slight obtuse elevations behind, separated by a broad groove; 3rd, 1th, and
5th with a transverse series of distinct punctures on each.

Female. — Rostrum more finely punctured than the male.
S . Length, nearly If lines ; breadth, f line.
Mount Manaia, AVhangarei. Both sexes in my own collection.

E. asperellum, Broun. 1301. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 732.

Nigro-piceous, antennae and tarsi rufo-piceous, slightly nitid.

Rostrum rather longer than that of 908, eyes evidently more prominent.
Thorax longer and more closely punctured, without the least trace of any
smooth median line. Elytral striae crenate-punctate, interstices rugose.

$ . Length, 2J lines ; breadth, | line.

Wellington. Unique.

E. sculpturatum, Broun. 1297. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 731.

Rufo-piceous.

Rostrum slightly narrowed from the antennae tow^ards the extremity -,
distinctly, very closely, and somewhat rugosely punctured throughout,
with a transverse impression midway between the antennae and extremity.
Scape very short. Thorax with an ill-defined smooth median line. Liner
extremity of tibia^ with an acute denticle.

3 . Length, 1|- lines ; breadth, | line.

Parua, Whangarei. Unique.

E. punctatissimum, Broun. 2194. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1246,

Near 1297.

Rostrum not narrowed anteriorly, rather shorter, more transversely
convex, not impressed near the front. Scape even shorter and thicker.
Inner angle of anterior tibiae more acutely projecting, the tibia itself some-
what curved externally, the femora slender near the base but strongly
arched above. Eyes very convex. Moderately shining, thorax dark red,
elytra obviously paler.

S . Length, 1| lines ; breadth, | line.

Howick. Both sexes.

Bkoun. — Revisio)i of the Xew Zealand Cossonidae. 161

E. dubitans, Broun. Description being printed at London.

Near 908, S-

Rostrum slightly longer, rather more finely and closely punctured. Club
distinctly longer, not much broader than 5th joint of funiculus.
3 . Length, nearly 2 lines ; breadth, | line.
West Plains, Southland.

E. confinum, Broun. 1299. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 732.

Rufo-piceus, pubescence yellowish and scanty but quite easily seen.
Eyes more prominent than those of the female E. rufum, the shape
a little more fusiform, punctuation of rostrum almost seriate, the inter-
ocular area not raised above the level of the front of the occiput as in that
species.

2 . Length, If lines ; breadth, f line.
Wellington. Unique.

E. antennale, Broun. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 6, xv, p. 415.

Pubescence slender, yellowish, quite perceptible.

Body slightly more fusiform than that of 908, scape rather longer, club
evidently narrower, punctuation on the middle of thorax more open with
larger smooth intervals.

g . Length, 1| lines ; breadth, f line.

Invercargill. Both sexes.

E. crassellum, Broun. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., August, 1904, p. 123.

Rufo-piceous, cylindric, minutely pubescent.

Club narrow, but little broader than 5th joint of funiculus. From the
female of 2194 it is distinguished by the more robust form, darker colour,
more distinctly punctured rostrum, and less rugosely sculptured thorax.
E. foratum can be separated by the absence in it of interstitial punctures
and hairs.

? . Length, 2 lines ; breadth, | line.

Picton. Unique.

E. servulum, Broun. 1629. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 911.

Differs from the corresponding sex of 908 by the more shining surface
and much finer thoracic sculpture, rather longer and more slender antennae,
less prominent eyes, &c.

$ . Length, IJ lines ; breadth, -| line.

Taieri, Otago. Unique.

E. porcatum, Sharp. 2198. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1248.

Subcylindric, piceous, nitid.

Eyes prominent. Thorax coarsely and very closely punctured. Elytra
deeply punctate-striate. Its description shows that it is the only species
of this genus without interstitial punctures and pubescence. I have not
seen it.

Length, nearly 2 lines.

Dunedin, Greymouth, and Picton.

Zenoteratus, gen. nov.

Body cylindrical, transversely convex ; pubescence minute, scanty, and
inconspicuous. Rostrum short, broad, parallel, and half the width of the
head in both sexes. Head almost abruptly enlarged and of almost equal
6 — Trans.

162 Transactions.

breadth throughout, nearly as long as the rostrum, globose below. Eyes
widely distant from each other and from the thorax. Antennfe medially
inserted in the male, behind that point in the female. Scape short, attaining
the back of the eye. Funiculus 5-articulate, 2nd rather shorter than 1st
yet evidently longer than 3rd, 3-5 transverse. Club broad, but compressed,
so that it seems hardly broader than the funiculus when examined sideways.
Thorax widest near the base, much narrowed towards the front, where it is
only moderately constricted. Scutellum small. Elytra parallel, posterior
margins expanded, the dilatation, however, is partially concealed by the
thickened lateral interstice just above it ; they are singly rounded and
slightly dehiscent at the extremity. Legs stout; tarsi narrow, 3rd joint
not lobate.

When compared with the typical Pentarthrwn, 903, the large swollen
head is very apparent, the eyes are more widely separated, the rostrum
is shorter, and in the female much shorter and broader ; the scape is
shorter. The apical portion of the elytra is manifestly different, and when
examined from the side or underneath is seen to extend downwards and
to be on an obviously different plane from the last three ventral segments,
appearing more like one of the Brenthidce. The anterior coxae are more
widely separated.

Zenoteratus macrocephalus, Broun. 1549. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 869.

(Plate XV, fig. 3.)

Piceous or nigrescent, legs and antennae piceo-rufous.

Rostrum moderately finely and closely punctured, with a slight broad
longitudinal impression behind, bearing yellow setae in front. Head convex,
not closely punctate, the occiput more finely and remotely. Thorax nearly
a third longer than broad, appearing somewhat swollen behind, the disc
moderately finely and not closely punctured, the linear median space and
apical margin nearly smooth. Elytra punctate-striate, interstices with dis-
tinct serial punctures, in some aspects appearing a little rugose.

Underside as shining as the upper surface and bearing slender but
distinct yellowish hairs, moderately punctate. Metasternum elongate,
flattened behind, with a median sulcus. Basal ventral segment slightly
impressed, its sinuate apical suture fine, 3-5 on a lower level than the
basal two.

Female. — Rostrum scarcely longer and only a little narrower than in
the male, rather more finely sculptured.

J . Length, 1| lines ; breadth, f line.

Taieri, Mount Arthur, Waikato. Both sexes.

Z. diversus, Broun. 2190. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1244:.

Shining, ferruginous, -club fulvescent.

Thorax with an indistinctly raised smooth central line, and with an
impression in front of the scutellum similar to that seen in Z. macrocephalus.
Elytra biarcuate at base, punctate-striate, the 3rd and 4th striae indistinct
near the middle, suture and interstices with fine serial punctures, interstices
not rugose, more or less elevated behind.
2 . Length, If lines ; breadth, f line.

Clevedon, Hunua Range. Unique.

Z. cephalotes, Sharp. 2197. Man. N.Z, Coleopt., p. 1247.

Subcylindric, piceous, nitid.

Thorax closely and finely punctate. Elytra very deeply striated, coarsely

Broux. — Bc'visinn of the Xew Zealand Cossonidu\ 163

and closely punctured, the punctures confluent, the interstices narrow, in-
distinctly seriately punctate.

2 . Length, nearly 1| lines : breadth, | line.

Picton. Evidently closely allied to 1549. I have not seen it.

Torostoma, gen. nov.

Robust, subcylindric, narrowed anteriorly, transversely convex, sparingly
and indistinctly pubescent.

Rostrum twice as long as broad, parallel or jiist perceptibly narrowed
anteriorly, on the same plane or slope as the head, which, at the sides, is.
slightly constricted immediately behind the eyes. The scrobes are deep
and oblique towards the lower part of the eyes. Scape medially inserted,
of moderate length, attaining to just behind the centre of the eye. Funi-
culus with the 2nd joint nearly as long as the 1st, 3-5 transverse. Club
moderate, oviform. Eyes prominent, more so behind than in front. Thorax
longer than broad, curvedly narrowed towards the frontal constriction.
Scutellum small. Elytra parallel, of the same width as the thorax ; posterior
margins rather widely dilated and appearing each as two curves ; under-
neath the dilatation is broad and distinctly sculptured from the 3rd ventral
segment to the extremity, and on an evidently higher level than the terminal
3 segments.

The margins of the buccal cavity are thick, and, in line with the cunei-
form mentum, ternainate as tubercular projections. The rostrum is broadly
concave underneath, with thick borders. The metasternum is elongate,
depressed behind, and grooved along the centre. The basal 2 abdominal
segments are on a higher plane than the following 3 ; the first is medially
depressed. Femora strongly inflated ; tibire much curved, with well-
developed hooks ; 3rd tarsal joint simj^le.

The characters of the underside as detailed above, in conjunction with
the peculiarly dilated elytral margins, distinguish this genus in an unmis-
takable manner from Pentartkrum and its allies.

Torostoma apicale, Broun. 906. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 509. (Plate XV,

fig. 4.)

Nigro-piceous, moderately nitid, legs piceous, antennae and tarsi dark
red ; sparingly and indistinctly pubescent.

Rostrum moderately finely and closely punctured, the interocular
sculpture nearly similar, occiput with many minute punctures. Antennae
pubescent. Thorax convex, moderately closely and in proportion to the
large size of the insect not at all coarsely punctured, the apex more finely.
Elytra cylindrical, moderately striate, the punctures not very coarse and
subcrenate, the suture and interstices with fine distant serial punctures,
and more or less transversely rugose : the reflexed posterior dilatation on
each assumes the form of two curves, the terminal one the larger.

Underside shining, nigrescent, sparsely clothed with fine short greyish
hairs. Prosternum usually somewhat convex and rather finely but closely
punctate in front, nearly smooth, or with some transverse rugae behind the
intercoxal suture. Metasternum more distinctly punctured near the sides
than on the middle, the sides broadly impressed. Abdomen moderately
finely, the 5th segment closelv, punctate.

Female. — Rostrum more slender, very finely punctate, antennae inserted
behind the middle, basal ventral segment simple.

3 . Length, 2| lines ; breadth, nearly | line.
Whangarei and Hunua Range. Both sexes.

164 Transactiojis.

Toura, gen. nov.

Body fusiform-cylindric. Rostrum of nearly the same length, as thorax,
nearly twice as long as that of 903. much more slender, evidently arcuate ;
very slightly, just perceptibly, broader in front than behind ; a little dilated
medially underneath ; nearly as stout but quite parallel in the female.
Scrobes elongate. Scape somewhat curved, moderately incrassate apicallv,
inserted distmctly before the middle, but only reaching the front of the
eye. Funiculus rather elongate, 2nd joint nearly as long as the 1st, joints
3-5 somewhat laxly articulated. Club indistinctly annulate, moderate.
Eyes rotundate, moderately prominent. The smooth occiput marked oft"
in line with the back of the eyes. Thorax triangularly ovate, constricted
in front. Scutellum distinct. Elytra slightly biarcuate at the base and
rather broader than that of the thorax, subfusiform. Legs elongate and
rather slender ; tibiae only a little expanded towards the extremity ;
3rd joint of the tarsi expanded and moderately bilobed.

Prosternum elongate, intercoxal suture strongly curved. Basal 2 ventral
segments as long as the metasternum. Rostrum bisulcate and tricarinate
underneath.

The nearly similar rostrum of both sexes, its upper curvature and unusual
length, the antennal insertion, different scrobes, curved scape, slender legs,
expanded and lobate 3rd tarsal joint, and more approximated front coxae
are sufficient for generic separation of Wollaston's Pentarthrmn longirostre,
which I adopt as the type of Toura. In the female the antenna? are im-
planted before the middle, just the reverse of what is the case in Pentarthrum.
It bears some resemblance to PhJceophagosoma.

Toura longirostre, Wollaston. 904. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 508. (Plate XV.

fig- 5.) ...

Nitid, piceous or nigro-piceous. legs and antennae pitchy-red.

Rostrum rather finely and closely punctate, the interocular sculpture
similar, the occiput smooth. Thorax rather abruptly contracted near the
apex, finely punctured there; disc convex, moderately coarsely punctured,
its sides moderately rounded. Elytra not perfectly parallel, slightly nar-
rowed backwards : punctate-striate, sutural stride deep, the suture and
interstices with fine serial punctures and slightly transversely rugose.

Underside a little glossy, nigrescent, with some minute hairs, moderately
coarsely punctate. Basal ventral segment broadly depressed, the terminal
one with a large transverse oviform depression which is densely and minutely
sculptured.

3 . Length, 2 lines ; breadth, nearly | line.

Parua, Whangarei. Both sexes.

T. fulva, Broun. 2188. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1243.

Shining, fulvescent, club fuscous, tarsi yellowish.

Smaller than 904. Rostrum very finely punctate. Thorax rather small,
narrower than the elytra, more cylindrical, their sides very slightly and
regularly rounded from the truncate base to the apical contraction, the
disc more finely but less closely punctured. Elytra subparallel before the
middle, gradually narrowed posteriorly, each slightly rounded at the base,
their striae and punctures finer.

? . Length, If lines ; breadth, f line.

Paparoa, near Howick. One.

Broun. — Revision of the New Zealand Cossoiiidse. 165

T. morosa, Broun. 1749. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 969.

Rostrum rather longer than that of 904, slightly incrassate medially,
the point of antennal insertion. Occiput not delimited in front. Thorax
more curvedly narrowed near the base, its sides more strongly rounded.
Humeral angles subrectangular. Nigrescent, each puncture with a minute
greyish seta. Perhaps represents a distinct genus. Male incog.

2 . Length, 2^ lines ; breadth, | line.

Howick (one). Mount Egmont (one). Both during 1884.

Merisma, gen. nov.

Subdepressed, elongate, minutely pubescent.

Rostrum almost as long as thorax, evidently but gradually narrowed
towards the middle, its frontal portion as broad as the head, the basal
narrower ; in the female it is slender, parallel, and arched. Scrobes straight
and elongate above, widened and nearly convergent underneath. Scape
medially inserted, slightly curved, gradually thickened, barely attaining
the front of the eye. Funiculus as long as the scape, 2nd joint nearly as
long as the 1st, 3-5 subquadrate, each narrowed towards the base. Club
rather narrow, oblong-oval, finely annulate, not much shorter than the
funiculus. Eyes distant from the thorax and each other, only moderately
prominent. The head, at each side, has two slight constrictions, the smaller
immediately behind the eye ; the other, about equidistant from the eye
and thorax, limits the smooth occiput from the sculptured part, which ex-
tends nearly half-way from the eye to the thoracic margin. Thorax longer
than broad, much narrowed and constricted in front, moderately rounded
laterally. Scutellum distinct. Elytra slightly biarcuate at the base, which
is rather broader than that of the thorax ; they are elongate and taper
towards the extremity. Legs relatively rather short ; inner extreiuity of
the tibi?e with a minute calcar ; 3rd tarsal joint moderately expanded,
cleft nearly to its base, and consequently strongly bilobed.

Underside plane. The rostrum with a central carina, which seems to
project into the buccal cavity. Basal 2 ventral segments combined rather
longer than the metasternum and broadly impressed, with their fine sinuous
suture quite distinct, the 5th with a rounded depression occupying half of
its area.

Female. — Antennal insertion just behind the middle.

The depressed elongated body, peculiar head and rostrum, strongly
lobate penultimate tarsal joint, and much more approximated anterior
coxfe amply justify the creation of Merisma for the reception of Wollaston's
Pentarfhrum sharpianum.

Merisma sharpiana, Wollaston. 926. (Plate XV, fig. 7.)

Elytra rufescent, thorax and rostrum somewhat piceous, moderately
shining.

Rostrum slightly transversely convex, rather finely punctate in front,
more closely and somewhat rugosely behind, the rather coarser punctuation
of the head extending backwards for half the distance between the eyes
and thorax ; there is usually a slight longitudinal impression on the vertex ;
the occiput is not quite smooth, having some fine punctures, and being,
like the rostrum and thorax, more or less densely and minutely sculptured.
Thorax moderately closely and finely punctured, with a smooth median
line. Elytra punctate-striate, the striae rather shallow, broad towards

166 Transactions.

the extremity, suture and interstices with minute serial punctures, the
2nd from the suture somewhat elevated and abruptly bent outwards at the
extremity.

Underside dark rufous, shining, nearly glabrous, the slender pubescence
most easily detected on the terminal ventral segment ; the punctuation no-
where close, rather fine, slightly coarser on the prosternum. Metasternum
with a short linear impression behind, not sulcate along the middle.

Female. — Rostrum arched above, moderately slender.

^ . Length, 2| lines ; breadth, \ line.

Tairua and Hunua Range.

Wollaston's description I have not seen.

M. aurantiaca, Broun. 2192. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1245.

Fulvescent, slightly nitid, apparently calvous.

Near 926 ; the rostrum not as broad ; scape rather more curvate ; the
thorax, behind the middle, not broader than the base of the elytra ; scu-
tellum transversal ; elytra less striate ; the tarsi shorter, their penultimate
joint less expanded.

3 . Length, If lines ; breadth, | line.

Tairua, Auckland. Unique.

Tanysoma, gen. nov.

Body slightly convex, narrow, subparallel, sparingly clothed with slender
but distinct brassy hairs.

Male. — Rostrum quite half the length of thorax, evidently but not
abruptly narrowed behind the middle, stout, its frontal portion nearly as
broad as the head. Scape inserted between the middle and apex, reaching
the front of the eye, a little curved, its apical half subclavate. Funiculus
rather laxly articulated, joints 2-4 narrowed towards the base, 5th sub-
moniliform and transverse, 2nd longer than 3rd. Club oblong-oval. Head
moderately narrowed anteriorly, but with a distinct sculptured plica or
swelling which at each side extends just beyond the back of the eye. Eyes
small, quite lateral, slightly prominent. Thorax triangularly ovate, con-
stricted in front. Scutellum small. Elytra elongate, parallel as far as the
hind thighs, slightly narrower than thorax. Legs rather elongate and
slender; tarsi densely pilose underneath, their 3rd joint cleft almost to
its base, with strongly developed and divergent lobes. Underside with short
distinct yellowish hairs, moderately finely but distinctly punctured, the
intervals densely and minutely sculptured. The prosternum elongate, the
coxee much less separated than in Pentarthrum, with a distinct suture between
them. Mesosternal suture well marked. Metasterniim shorter than the
abdomen, medially sulcate. Basal 2 ventral segments broadly depressed
medially, their suture sinuate and distinct.

Female. — Rostrum more slender, on a lower level than the vertex, por-
rect ; widest at the apex, gradually narrowed towards the middle, slightly
dilated, at or just before the middle, where the antennae are placed, its basal
half distinctly medially narrowed, almost abruptly contracted underneath.
Head without any visible post-ocular plication. Metasternal groove ab-
breviated. Abdominal depression shallow, the last 3 segments red, as in
the other sex.

Differs from Euophryum in being without any dilatation below the
rostrum, in its longer scape being inserted nearer the apex, by the presence

Broun. — Revision of the Neiv Zealand Cossonidae. 167

of the plica behind each eye, by the absence of any incrassation of the elytral
margins, and by the well-developed and divergent lobes of the penultimate
tarsal joint.

Tanysoma angusta, Broun. 1626. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 910.

Subopaque, piceo-rufous, the funicle and tarsi paler.

Rostrum quite opaque, with relatively coarse, close, shallow, rugose
punctuation, which is continued to behind the eyes, the apical portion with
fewer and much finer punctures ; the whole derm dull with dense minute
sculpture ; the occiput finely punctate. Thorax evidently longer than
broad, posterior angles curvedly narrowed, its sides only slightly rounded,
gradually narrowed anteriorly and constricted near the apex ; disc slightly
flattened, distinctly but not coarsely or closely punctured, more coarsely
and rugosely near the frontal constriction. Elytra moderately punctate-
striate, intermediate stripe shallow, interstices and suture with serial pvmc-
tures and appearing rugose.

Female. — Rostrum red, only slightly shining, its sculpture very much
finer, the thorax with the linear median space nearly smooth.

^ . Length, 1| lines ; breadth, f line.

Otago : Mount Maungatua and Dunedin. One pair.

Stenotoura, gen. nov.

Body subdepressed, very elongate and narrow, moderately shining,
sparsely and minutely pubescent.

Rostrum quite as long as thorax, arched above, slender, subparallel.
8cape inserted before the middle, elongate and slender, slightly thickened
apically, flexuous, barely attaining the front of the eye. Funiculus elongate
and slender, loosely articulated, 2nd joint longer than 3rd. Club ovate,
elongate. Eyes not prominent, moderately distant. Occiput short, more
or less distinctly marked off nearly midway between the eyes and thorax.
Thorax triangular-ovate, only moderately constricted in front. Scutellum
distinct. Elytra very elongate and parallel, narrowed posteriorly, nearly
thrice the length of the thorax. Legs moderate, tibial hooks rather small ;
3rd articulation of the tarsi a little dilated, with short lobes.

Toura differs in many details of structure. Agrilochilus may be at once
distinguished by its opaque and densely pubescent surface. Stenotoura
should be located between these genera.

Stenotoura exilis, Broun. 2193. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1245. (Plate XV,
fig. 6.) . •

Nitid, dark red or ferruginous, antennae and tarsi paler.

Rostrum very slightly, hardly perceptibly, narrowed behind, its punctu-
ation moderately fine and close, somewhat longitudinally disposed, nearly
smooth in front, a little convex but not at all carinate along the middle ;
the vertex punctate to beyond the eyes ; the occiput with a few fine punc-
tures. Thorax slightly wider behind the middle than elsewhere, basal
margin a little incrassate ; disc unimpressed, distinctly but not closely
punctured, more finely and closely in front. Elytra feebly striate but with
distinct punctures, the intervals nearly as large as the punctures, interstices
with indistinct distant serial punctures, closer along the suture.

Underside flat, shining, ferruginous, minutely and scantily pubescent,
finely yet distinctly and rather sparingly punctate. Anterior coxae dis-
tinctly but not at all widely separated, little more than half as much

168 T ransarfions.

as those of 903. Metasternum as long as tiie basal 2 segments, medially
grooved behind, these 2 segments finely and remotely punctured, the in-
tervening suture distinct and medially curved.

Length, If lines ; breadth, ^ line.

Tairua and Howick. One of each sex.

S. lateritia, Broun. 924. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 518.

Shining, pale ferruginous, apparently glabrous.

Near $ 2193, differing therefrom in having the scape more curvate,
joints 3-5 of the funiculus more moniliform, disc of thorax slightly flattened,
elytra less striate and the punctures on the interstices obsolete.

? . Length, \\ lines ; breadth, quite \ line.

Tairua. Unique.

S. prolixa, sp. nov.

Subdepressed, very elongate and angustate, glabrous, slightly nitid,
rufous, elytra paler.

Rostrum longer than thorax, arched, slender, parallel, nearly smooth
and shining near the middle, finely and distantly punctured in front, more
distinctly behind and to beyond the back of the eyes, and minutely cori-
aceous there. Scape medially inserted, flexuous ; 2nd joint of the funiculus
e-\ddently longer than broad, 3-5 obconical, club oblong-oval, not annulate.
Eyes slightly prominent. Thorax longer than broad, its sides gently rounded,
a good deal narrowed anteriorly ; disc nearly plane, moderately finely but
not c'osely punctured, intervals, especially near the sides, densely and
minutely sculptured. Scutellum small. Elytra slightly bisinuate at the
base, as wide as thorax there, subparallel or very gradually narrowed back-
wards ; moderately finely striate-punctate, striate behind, interstices with
minute serial punctures, and on some parts with minute irregular aciculate
impressions, the sutural 2 striae on each rather deep near the apices. Legs
rather short, the 2 hind pairs particularly.

More elongated than S. exilis, the rostrum evidently longer, the an-
tennal insertion a little further back, the derm more or less coriaceous
instead of being smooth.

5 . Length, 1| lines ; breadth, nearly f Hne.

Totara, Southland. A single female sent several years ago by Mr. A.
Philpott, of Invercargill.

Eutassa, gen. nov. i

Body stout, subdepressed or only slightly convex, obviously pubescent.

Rostrum a third shorter than the thorax, slightly arched in front, slightly
narrowed behind the antennal insertion, before the middle, moderately stout.
Scape moderately elongate, gradually incrassate, attaining the front of the
eye. Funiculus as long as the scape, 2nd joint nearly as long as the basal
one but more slender, 3-5 obconical, laxly articulated. Club oval, large,
indistinctly annulate. Thorax constricted in front, up to that point quite
oviform. Scutellum small but distinct. Elytra slightly narrowed posteriorly,
the base slightly curved towards the scutellum, and as wide as the middle
of the thorax. Legs rather elongate, the inner angle of the tibiae acutely
mucronate, their hooks rather slender. Tarsi elongate, penultimate joint
divided nearly to its base, the lobes elongate and divergent, the terminal
with minute claws.

Broun. — Revision of the New Zealand Cossonidte. 169

Female. — Rostrum of similar form, ratlier narrower and more finely
sculptured. Underside shining, black, the terminal 3 segments rufescent ;
pubescence brassy, fine but distinct ; evidently, but not coarsely or closely,
punctate ; the sutures between the front and intermediate coxse straight,
that between the basal 2 segments sinuate. Rostrum distinctly tricarinate.
Metasternum and basal 2 segments of nearly equal length, the former medi-
ally grooved behind, abdomen simple.

The rostrum is as stout as that of Sericotrogus, but longer, narrowed
posteriorly, and with the antennal insertion nearer the extremity. The
head is shorter, and, like the eyes, more resembles Pentarthrum. Thorax
broader, and constricted in front. The elytra are gradually attenuated
posteriorly, instead of being narrowed towards the base, as in Sericotrogus,
and the tarsal lobes are more elongate and divergent.

Eutassa comatum, Broun. 1748. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 968.

Rostrum and thorax dark red and moderately shining, elytra somewhat
fulvescent and glossy, legs and antennae infuscate red, the club and tarsi
slightly paler ; the vestiture yellow, slender but conspicuous, legs finely
pubescent, thoracic disc nearly bare.

Rostrum and head distinctly and closely but not coarsely punctured,
the former more finely in front. Thorax widest just behind the middle,
well rounded ; disc obsoletely impressed behind, its punctuation not close,
rather fine, closer and finer in front, apex nearly smooth. Elytra with some-
what indefinite sculpture, subpunctate-striate near the suture, the punctures
elsewhere seriate, interstices with serial punctures and rugulose, the 3rd
slightly elevated behind, the apices singly rounded ; on each, between the
shoulder and the middle, there is a broad shallow impression.

J . Length, If lines ; breadth, quite f line.

Howick. One pair only.

E. fuscicollis, sp. nov-

Subdepressed ; except the middle of the thorax, clothed with distinct
yellow hairs ; thorax fuscous, elytra and rostrum slightly infuscate pitchy-
red, antenn* and tarsi rufescent.

Rostrum subopaque, distinctly, rugosely, and very closely punctured ;
the punctuation continued to the slight swelling behind the eyes, pubescent
there ; occiput curvedly narrowed anteriorly, very minutely and densely
sculptured, and with a few fine punctures. Thorax longer than broad,
its sides well rounded, a good deal narrowed and contracted in front ; disc
unimpressed, its punctuation moderately fine, very scanty between the
middle and each side, close and rugose at the sides, closer and finer near the
smooth apical margin. Elytra elongate, subparallel to beyond the middle,
narrowed posteriorly, the base slightly curved towards the scutellum, apices
individually rounded, each slightly longitudinally impressed before the
middle ; they are striate-punctate ; the suture and interstices have fine
serial punctures and appear rugose, the 2nd from the suture thickened,
somewhat elevated, and sharply bent outwards at the extremity.

Underside with distinct and moderately close punctures and yellow
pubescence, basal ventral segment broadly depressed, metasternum sulcate
behind, rostrum tricarinate.

More robust than E. comatum ; rostriim rather longer, broader, more
densely sculptured, and subasperate ; the thoracic punctuation different ;
antennae stouter and implanted nearer the middle.

170 Transactions.

Ohs. — The individually rounded apices of the elytra should form part
of the generic diagnosis, as it is a distinctive character amongst the Cos-
sonidce.

^ . Length, 2| lines ; breadth, nearly ^ line.

Waitakerei Range, Auckland. Unique.

Adel, gen. nov.

Body stout, moderately elongate, narrowed anteriorly, slightly convex ;
clothed with numerous rather short and slender suberect setpe, similar to
those on Entium aberrans.

Rostrum quite half the length of thorax, not quite as broad as the head,
slightly wider near the front than it is elsewhere, a little dilated at the point
of antennal insertion, distinctly contracted near its base, moderately stout,
and bearing erect setae in front and others horizontal along each side of
the anterior half. Scrobes short, expanded towards the front of the eyes.
Scape medially inserted, moderately elongate, very gradually thickened,
attaining the back of the eye. Funiculus 5-articulate, 2nd joint but little
shorter than the 1st, joints 3-5 subquadrate, all narrowed towards the base.
Club oblong-oval. Head moderately globose, gradually narrowed anteriorly,
the outline scarcely at all interriipted, the punctuation ceasing in line with
the back of the eyes, which are flattened and nearly as far from the thorax
as they are from each other. Thorax but little longer than broad, widest
behind the middle, well rounded there, much narrowed and constricted in
front, its base truncate. Elytra rather wider than the broadest part of the
thorax, the base widely incurved towards the suture, only slightly curvedly
narrowed near the extremity. Legs moderately stout, tibial hooks distinct,
3rd tarsal joint a little expanded, concave in front, with very short indefinite
lobes.

Prosternum deeply incurved in front, the coxae widely separated. Meso-
sternal suture broadly curved between the coxae. Metasternum hardly as
long as the basal 2 segments combined, slightly convex, feebly sulcate behind.
Basal ventral segment not much longer than the 2nd, slightly transversely
impressed behind, its frontal suture nearly truncate between the coxae,
the 2nd with the fine frontal suture medially curved, the terminal rather
short.

The form of the head bears some resemblance to that of Agastegnus.
The body is rather less convex than in Pentarthrum, and the hind-body is
relatively broader throughout, whilst the rostrum and eyes are essentially
different. It should be placed between Eutassa and Agastegnus. The
scutellum is distinct.

Adel crenatus, Broun. 1431. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 804.

Shining, dark red, antennae and tarsi paler.

Rostrum finely, almost seriately, punctured, so as to appear slightly
longitudinally rugose. Thorax broadly but not deeply impressed along
the middle ; distinctly and evenly, but not closely, punctured ; the in-
tervals smooth ; apical margin submetallic. Elytra with crenate-punctate
striae, interstices with fine serial punctures.

Underside shining piceous, minutely setigerous, the punctuation distinct,
not close, and rather evenly distributed, the 2nd segment, however, more
finely punctured.

Length, If lines ; breadth, f line.

Waitakerei Range. Unique.

Broun. — Bexyision of the New Zealand Cossonida\ 171

Rhinanisus, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 805.

Subdepressed, moderately broad, finely pubescent.

Rostrum more than half the length of thorax, contracted behind the
middle in both sexes, broad in the male, cylindrical, but never slender in
the female. Head rather broader in the male ; the nearly smooth occiput
does not extend, even in the female, as far as the eyes, there being a punctate
space behind these, which are only moderately prominent. Scape stout,
rather short, gradually thickened, inserted just before the middle in both
sexes, it attains the front of the eye. Funiculus 5-articulate, 2nd joint
hardly longer than the 3rd. Club large, ovate, annulate near the extremity.
Thorax triangularly ovate in the female, broader and more rounded near
the base in the male, constricted near the front. Scutellum small. Elytra
elongate, parallel, equalling the thorax in width, apical margins simple.
Tarsi pubescent underneath, 3rd joint slightly dilated, excavate above and
sublobate, the female less so.

Underside plane, rostrum deeply grooved behind.

The species composing this genus are only about half the bulk of
Pentarthrum ; the antennal insertion, form of the rostrum, subdepressed
body, and less widely separated coxa; distinguish them from that genus.
Rhinanisus differs from Euofhryum in the much less prominent eyes,
longer scape, simple elytral margins, more lobate 3rd tarsal joint, less robust
body, and different rostrum.

Rhinanisus fulvicornis, Broun. 912. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 512.
(Plate XV, fig. 9.)

Shining, dark red, vertex piceous, antennae fulvescent ; pubescence
scanty, fine, yellowish, and quite perceptible.

Rostrum rather deeply incurved between the middle and base, the
frontal portion almost as broad as the head, more finely and less closely
punctured than the basal. Head closely and, in proportion to the small
size of the insect, moderately coarsely punctured to behind the eyes ; this
sculpture, in conjunction with the dark colour, render these organs indistinct ;
occiput shining but not perfectly smooth, narrowed in front. Thorax
longer than broad, widest and a good deal rounded near the base ; disc
somewhat flattened but not impressed longitudinally, subfoveate near the
middle of the base, moderately distinctly but not closely punctured. Elytra
punctate-striate, the striae, however, not at all deep ; interstices with in-
distinct serial punctures, and in some aspects appearing rugose.

Female. — Rostrum slightly longer, narrower, more shining, and finely
sculptured ; the thorax more gradually narrowed anteriorly.

3 . Length, 1 line ; breadth, nearly J line.

Whangarei. One of each sex.

"&""

R. parvicornis, Sharp. 913. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 513.

Subdepressed, moderately nitid, ferruginous, strongly punctate.

Thorax slightly constricted. Elytra strongly striate-punctate, interstices
fine y punctured, with very short indistinct setae. Rostrum opaque and
thick in the male ; longer, more slender, and shining in the female.

Length, 1 line.

Auckland.

172 Transactions.

R. contiguus, Broun. 923. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 517.

Near 912, J . Eostrum rather longer, more opaque, slightly longi-
tudinally impressed between the antennae and base. Thorax, narrower,
indistinctly impressed medially.

S . Length, \\ lines ; breadth, \ line.

Whangarei. Unique.

R. sagax, Broun. 1750. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 969.

Nitid, castaneo-rufous, vertex darker.

Club large. Thorax deeply constricted in front, broadly impressed along
the middle. Elytra broader than thorax. Pubescence distinct yellowish.
J . Length, \\ lines ; breadth, nearly f line.
Mount Egmont. Unique.

R. cheesemani, Broun. 2201. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1249.

Shining, castaneo-rufous, pubescence extremely slender but rather
elongate.

Thorax not deeply impressed, frontal constriction deep. Rostrum
slightly arched. Resembles the preceding, R. sagax.

g . Length, IJ lines ; breadth, nearly | line.

Mount Arthur. Both sexes.

R. lewisi, Broun. Description being published at London.

Elongate, rather slender, nitid, ferruginous, pubescence inconspicuous.

Thorax distinctly medially depressed. Elytra plane, 3rd interstices dis-
tinctly elevated and bent near apices. Paler than the j)i'eceding species ;
base of elytra more or less infuscate.

3 . Length, IJ lines ; breadth, \ line.

Broken River, Canterbury. Both sexes ; several specimens.

R. elongatus, Broun. Description being published at London.

Narrow and elongate, subopaque, piceo-rufous, antennae and tarsi rufo-
testaceous, with minute greyish setae.

Eyes not easily discernible, owing to the sculpture of the head.
5 . Length, If lines ; breadth, quite ^ line.
Ashburton. One of each sex ; mutilated.

R. subconvexus, Broun. Description being published at London.

Nitid, rufous, pubescence scanty and slender.

Rather smaller and paler than elongatus, less depressed than R. gracilis.
Scape rather short. Thorax not closely punctate. Elytra slightly convex.
3 . Length, 1^ lines ; breadth, ^ line.
Otara, Southland. Unique.

R. suturalis, Broun. Description being published at London.

Rufo-piceous, legs and antennae fusco-rufous.

Elytra distinctly striate-punctate, the suture slightly elevated. Antennae
rather elongate. Club narrow and somewhat flavescent.
Length, 1;^ lines ; breadth, \ line.
Totara, Southland. One.

i

Broux. — Revision of the Xew Zealand Cossoiiidfe. 173

R. confertus, Sharp. 2199. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1248.

Narrow, siibdepressed, nigrescent ; tlie head, rostrum, antennae, and
legs rufous ; shoulders fusco-rufous.

Rostrum elongate, cylindric. Elytra deeply striate, the striae very
closely punctured.

Somewhat similar to R. parvicornis. I have not seen it.

Length, 2| mm.

Picton.

R. constrictus, Sharp. 2200. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1249.

Narrow, subdepressed, fulvo-rufous.

Thorax longitudinally depressed on the middle, and with a slight smooth
space on the middle. • Elytra flat, coarsely punctate-seriate, interstices
impunctate.

May be placed near R. parvicornis. I have not seen it.

Length, 2;^3 mm.

Grey mouth.

R. sulcirostris, sp. nov.

Elongate, subdepressed, dark rufous, elytra a little paler, club ful-
vescent ; pubescence scanty, fine, and yellowish.

Rostrum broad in front, distinctly narrowed behind the middle, the
punctuation rather shallow but moderately coarse and rugose behind the
middle, in front with some slender longitudinal rugae and some fine punc-
tures ; a broad furrow extends from near the apex towards the forehead ;
the coarse punctuation of the head is prolonged about half-way between
the eyes and the thorax. Antennae stout ; 2nd joint of the funiculus very
slightly longer than the 3rd ; club elongate-oval, rather narrow. Thorax
moderately constricted in front ; if this portion were detached the remainder
would be quite ovate ; disc subdepressed, moderately but not closely
punctured. Elytra subparallel, the base slightly yet quite appreciably
incurved medially, and about as broad there as the widest part of the thorax,
behmd the middle ; they are distinctly striate-punctate ; near the suture,
however, on each there are two striae ; interstitial punctures distant and
indistinct. Tibiae with a slende'r mucro at the inner extremity.

In some respects like R. contiguus. The rostal furrow, narrow club, and
incurved elytral base, taken together, distinguish this species from all the
others.

J . Length, 1| lines ; breadth, J line.

Mount Egmont. One, minus a leg.

Camptoscapus, Broun. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., November, 1893.

Subdepressed, with some minute greyish hairs.

Rostrum more than half the length of thorax, moderately stout, very
slightly arched, subparallel, or gradually narrowed towards the eyes in
both sexes ; in the female rather more slender, with the antennal insertion
behind the middle. Eyes moderately jjrominent, distinctly separated from
the thorax by the short smooth occiput. Antennae moderately stout and
elongate, inserted medially. Scape not at all short, incrassate but not
abruptly clavate near the apex : this thick portion is bent backwards, the
basal slightly in the opposite direction, in both sexes. Funiculus 5-articu-
late, 2nd joint nearly as long as the basal, 3-5 transverse. Club ovate,

174 Transactions.

finely annulate. Thorax triangular-ovate, constricted in front. Scutellum
distinct. Elytra as wide as thorax, nearly parallel, gradually narrowed
backwards. Legs moderately long and stout ; tibiae slightly expanded
towards the extremity. Tarsi slender, penultimate joint hardlv at all
dilated, excavate above but not lobate.

In the Japanese Tychiodes the scape is short and flexuous, an uncommon
character apparently, but it and its immediate allies differ from Ca)nptoscapus
in other respects. From its New Zealand congeners it is readilv separated
by the peculiar form of the scape. The eyes are comparatively large, and,
though rotundate, extend much downwards.

Camptoscapus sanguineus, Broun. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., November, 1893.

Nitid, piceo-rufus, the vertex and elytra suffused with piceous ; pubes-
cence scanty, slender, and cinereous, most easily seen on the posterior
declivity.

Rostrum slightly narrowed behind the middle, moderately finelv yet
distinctly punctured, rather coarser behind, and abruptly terminating in
line with the, back of the eyes. Thorax with obtusely rounded posterior
angles, its sides moderately rounded and narrowed towards the frontal
constriction ; disc almost flat, moderately finely, distinctly, but not closely
punctured, more finely in front, the middle of apex smooth. Elytra at
the base about the same width as the middle of thorax, subparallel, very
gently narrowed posteriorly, their striae regular, moderately deeply and
distinctly punctured, interstices with fine serial punctures. Tibiae but
little dilated, not triangular, the front pair with yellow pubescence along
the inner face and near the extremity ; claws very small.

3 . Length, quite IJ lines ; breadth, nearly f line.

Mount Pirongia. Unique.

C. planiusculus, Broun. 910. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 511.

Subdepressed, moderately shining, ferruginous, the fine short greyish
hairs easily perceptible near the extremity of the rostrum and hind-body.

Rostrum moderately distinctly punctured, longitudinally rugose, more
finely and closely near the apex, the punctuation rather coarse on the vertex
and continued to just beyond the back of the eyes, the constriction or frontal
narrowing of the finely punctate occiput does not reach the eyes, which
are moderately large. Club evidently pubescent, apparently triarticulate.
Thorax longer than broad, distinctly rounded laterally, widest near the
middle, abruptly narrowed near the front, closely and finely punctate
there, but with the middle of the apex smooth ; dorsum subdepressed,
distinctly but not closely punctured, more closely near the sides, the basal
margin slightly thickened. Scutellum smooth. Elytra biarcuate at base,
distinctly punctate-striate, interstices with serial punctures and rugulose,
3rd elevated and bent outwards at the extremity, femora slender near the
base, clavate beyond.

g . Length, If lines ; breadth, f line.

Whangarei. One only.

C. conicollis, Broun. 1306. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 735.

Elongate, subdepressed, dark red.

Rostrum subparallel, shining, finely punctate ; occiput nearly smooth.
Scape quite the length of funiculus. Thorax more triangular than 910 ;

Broun. — Revision of the New Zealand Cossonidfe. 175

frontal constriction less deep and a little fnrther from the apex ; the disc
rather more closely and distinctly pimctate. Elytral striae rather deeper,
interstitial punctures more distinct.

2 . Length, if lines ; breadth, f line.

Wellington. Unique.

Macroscytalus, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 736,

Body rather broad, subdepressed, minutely and scantily pubescent.

Rostrum more than half the length of thorax, moderately stout, narrowed
behind the middle in both sexes. Occiput sharply limited at the sides close
to the eyes ; the punctuation of the head ceases abruptly in line with these
organs. Scape stout, medially inserted, subclavate near the extremity,
it attains the front of the eye. Funiculus short, 2nd joint nearly as
long as the short basal one, 3-5 compact, transverse. Club oblong-oval,
acuminate, as long as or longer than the funiculus, distinctly pubescent.
Eyes large, slightly prominent, subtruncate behind, widely separated.
Thorax rather short and broad, its sides strongly rounded ; the moderate
frontal constriction at each side extends obliquely towards the median
discoidal linear impression. Scutellum small but distinct. Elytra rather
short, subparallel or very slightly curved laterally, rather broader than the
base of the thorax. Legs moderately stout ; hooks of the tibiae well de-
veloped, inner extremity with a sharp calcar ; tarsi moderate, penultimate
joint excavate but not lobed.

This genus should follow Bhinanisus. The rather broad subdepressed
Ijody and remarkably large antennal club, apart from other details, are
characteristic.

Macroscytalus laticollis, Broun. 1308. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 737,

(Plate XV, fig. 10 )

Body moderately shining, dark red, head and thorax somewhat piceous,
club nigrescent.

Rostrum for two-thirds of its length nearly as broad as the head, closely
and finely punctured in front, more distinctly behind, and as far as the eyes,
and with a linear impression from the middle backwards. There is a slender
interocular fovea. Thorax hardly any longer than it is broad, impressed
along the middle, most obviously near the base, and with 2 oblique frontal
impressions, the surface moderately closely and rather finely punctured.
Elytra with indistinctly curvate sides, punctate-striate, interstices with
numerous distinct serial punctures.

Underside plane. Mesosternum not abbreviated. Basal 2 ventral seg-
ments broadly impressed, and equalling the metasternum in . length ; the
latter finely grooved. Coxae small, widely separated.

S . Length, IJ lines ; breadth, f line.

Parua, Whangarei. One of each sex.

M. depressus, Broun. 1433. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 807.

Shining, castaneo-rufous, the interocular area, front of thorax, and the
club somewhat piceous.

Rostrum finely punctured and shining. Interocular fovea small. Thorax
with a shallow median impression at the base only. Elytra broadly im-
pressed before the middle. Club much longer than the funiculus.

S . Length, 1| lines ; breadth, j line.

Parua. Unique.

176 Transactions.

M. russulus, Broun. 1309. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 737.

Castaneo-rufous, shining, antennpo slender, club pale fuscous.

Rostrum subcylindric, slightly narrowed behind, finely punctate and
shining. Interocular fovea very distinct. Apex of thorax shining, but
finely punctured, disc not flattened, with a small basal impression. Elytra
very slightly rounded, unimpressed, rather broad.

? . Length, 1| lines ; breadth, f line.

Tairua. Unique.

M. remotus, Sharp. 914. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 513.

Rufo-piceous, club nigrescent.

Thorax medially impressed near the base. Interocular fovea indistinct.

(^ . Length, I| fines; breadth, quite j line.

Tairua. One pair.

M. frontaUs, Broun. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., November, 1893.

Shining, rostrum and thorax rufous, elytra and legs rufo - castaneous,
club dull black.

Thorax shining and only feebly constricted in front. Literocular fovea
indistinct. Elytra indefinitely impressed before the middle.

? . Length, 1| lines ; breadth, nearly | line.

Hunua Range. One.

M. badius, Broun. 920. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 516.

Broad, testaceous or slightly infuscate.

Thorax short and broad, unimpressed, abruptly narrowed in front.

3 . Length, \\ lines ; breadth, nearly f line.

Whangarei. One pair.

M. crenatus, sp. nov.

Subdepressed, moderately nitid, rufo-piceous, the frontal half of rostrum
and the humeral area rufescent, antennae clear red and shining, club nigrescent
and densely pubescent.

Rostrum evidently narrowed behind the point of antennal insertion,
before the middle, broadly sulcate from thence to the back of the eyes,
distinctly yet finely punctate, more finely and distantly in front ; occiput
nearly smooth and shining. Thorax hardly longer than broad, considerably
narrowed and constricted in front, widest behind the middle, strongly curvate
there, the basal margin minutely prominent at the sides ; disc flat, with a
more or less evident smooth median line reaching the constriction but distant
from the base, its punctuation moderately fine and close. Elytra rather
wider than thorax at the base, very gradually narrowed posteriorly,
moderately crenate-striate, interstices with fine serial punctures, and some-
what rugose. Legs closely punctured, 3rd tarsal joint a little expanded
but not lobate. Pubescence scanty, greyish, visible only on the posterior
part of the elytra.

Female. — Rostrum more slender, shining, finely and sparingly punctured,
distinctly narrowed behind the middle.

The rostral canal and crenate-punctate elytral striae will enable this species
to ))e recognised. 1308 and 914 most nearly resemble it.

3 . Length, If lines ; breadth, | line.

Hunua Range and Woodhill. One at each.

Broun. — Revision uj the yew Zealand Cossonidse. 177

Baeorhopalus, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 806.

Subdepressed, rather broad, almost elongate-oval, glossy, glabrous.

Female. — Rostrum moderately arched, shorter than thorax, stout but
not broad, slightly dilated medially, the point of antennal insertion mode-
rately narrowed near the base. Head globose underneath, not elongated,
gradually curvedly narrowed to the same width as the rostrum, the outline
not interrupted by any prominence of the eyes, which are rather small
and nearly flat ; the occiput not distinctly marked off from the eyes or
vertex. Scape stout, much thickened near the extremity, medially in-
serted, and attaining the front of the eye. Funiculus compactly articulated,
2nd joint not perceptibly longer than 3rd. Club oblong-oval. Thorax
strongly rounded laterally, constricted in front. Scutellum distinct. Elytra
indistinctly curved at the sides, gradually narrowed behind, their base a
little wider than that of the thorax. Legs moderate, 3rd tarsal joint not
lobate. ,

Male. — Underside glabrous, nearly plane, shining, castaneo - rufous,
very finely and distantly punctured. Basal 2 ventral segments as long as
the raetasternum, broadly depressed along the middle, the metasternum
grooved behind, prosternum quite truncate in front. The mesosternal
suture and that between the basal 2 segments fine and nearly straight,
5th segment with a small impression at each side.

The natural position of this genus is, without doubt, next to Macro-
sci/talus, which, though similar in form, is distinguished by the altogether
different head, less slender rostrum, larger and more prominent eyes, larger
club, &c. The coxse are less widely separated than in Pentarthrum.

Unfortunately, this and three or four closely alUed genera are seldom
met with ; all their species are rare.

Baeorhopalus glabrus, Broun. 1305. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 735.

Glossy, rufous, elytra chestnut-red.

Rostrum with fine almost seriate punctures, the interocular sculpture
nearly similar, with a slender fovea. Thorax nearly flat, as broad as it
is long, widest just behind the middle, its sides strongly rounded, narrowed
towards the constriction, very finely and distantly punctured, with a slight
impression before the scutellum. Elytra rather flat, finely punctate-striate,
interstices moderately broad, with fine serial punctures.

The male specimen is mounted on its back.

2 , Length, If lines ; breadth, | line.

Parua, Whangarei. Two examples.

Selocomis, gen. nov.

Subdepressed, subfusiform, rather thickly clothed with decumbent con-
spicuous yellow hairs.

Rostrum nearly the length of the thorax, quite half the width of the
head, sUghtly narrowed near the base, not marked oil from the forehead,
abruptly truncate or shaved oft' at its apex. Scrobes obhque. Scape in-
serted behind the middle, attaining the centre of the eye, elongate, gradually
incrassate. Funiculus laxly articulated, rather short, 2nd joint distinctly
longer than 3rd, joints 3-5 transverse, 5th almost cup-shaped. Club com-
pact, opaque, densely pubescent, very elongate, fully the length of the
whole funiculus. Head short, narrowed anteriorly, globose underneath,
the occiput short. Eyes subdepressed in front, slightly prominent behind,

178 Transactions.

large, transversal. Thorax but little longer than broad, widest behind the
middle, well rounded there, curvedly narrowed towards the abrupt frontal
contraction. Scutellum distinct. Elytra rather broader than the thorax,
parallel to beyond the hind thighs, curvedly narrowed behind, slightlv
transversely bi-impressed above. Legs stout, only moderately elongate ;
tibise uncinate, and acute at the inner extremity. Tarsi moderately narrow,
3rd joint slightly dilated, concave in front, entire below, not lobate.
Coxaj widely separated. Rostrum, underneath, wdth two sharply defined
grooves, and therefore appearing tricarinate. Metasternum rather longer
than the basal 2 ventral segments taken together, distinctly medially sul-
cate. Mesosternal suture straight. Basal 2 segments slightly convex, their
suture distinct and a httle sinuate, the 1st transversely impressed behind.

Underside glossy, piceous, the last 3 abdominal segments rufescent,
with distinct rather evenly distributed punctures, almost quite glabrous,
having only a few minute hairs on the terminal segment, and therefore in
marked contrast to the upper surface.

Exactly intermediate between Macroscytalus and Agastegnus, having
the disproportionally long club of the former and the facies of the latter,
from which, nevertheless, it differs in having shorter and thicker legs, more
prominent eyes, stouter and differently inserted antennae, different rostrum.
&c. From Macroscytalus it is readily distinguishable by a glance at its
conspicuous vestiture.

Selocomis seneopiceus, Broun. 915. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 513.

Fusco-rufous, sUghtly bronzed ; femora piceous ; rostrum, antennae,
and tarsi rufous ; shghtly shining.

Rostrum parallel for more than half of its length, moderately closely
and finely punctured, more distantly and finely in front. Head pilose,
distinctly but not closely punctured. Thorax broadly impressed medially,
with a slightly raised smooth central line, distinctly but not closely punc-
tured, the apical margin nearly smooth. Elytra slightly broadly impressed
before and behind the middle, their striae somewhat indefinite, but with the
punctures on the suture and interstices unusually close and distinct, the
3rd thickened, elevated, and bent at the extremity, and causing an apparent
depression beyond each of them.

Length. If lines ; breadth, nearly | line.

Mount Manaia, Whangarei. One only.

Glyphoramphus, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 970.

Body subdepressed, sparingly clothed with slender yellow hairs.

Rostrum shorter than the thorax, not quite as broad as the head, just
perceptibly medially incurved, quite vertical in front, deeply concave between
the antennae. Head moderately globose ; occiput short, slightly narrowed
in front. Eyes moderately large and prominent, rotundate, widely sepa-
rated. Scape inserted near the apex, attaining the eye, slightly flexuous.
moderately elongate, slender near the base, subclavate for half its length.
Funiculus rather slender, 2nd joint nearly as long as but more slender than
the 1st, joints 3-5 laxly articulated, 5th very short. Club nearly oblong-
oval, large, indistinctly annulate. Thorax about as broad as it is long,
its sides strongly rounded, base truncate, deeply constricted in front. Scu-
tellum distinct but small. Elytra subparallel, gradually narrowed behind,
apices slightly rounded singly, the base evidently broader than that of the

Broux. — Revision of the New Zealand CossonidiX". 179

thorax. Legs stout and elongate ; femora swollen and obtusely angulate
below ; tibise moderately and gradually expanded, their hooks rather small
but quite distinct, with a slender spiniform process at the inner extremity.
Tarsi moderately narrow, terminal joint as long as the basal 3 combined,
3rd moderately expanded and subbilobed, claws small.

The form most nearly resembles that of Baorhopalus, the thorax par-
ticularly. The rostrum is thick vertically, and the scape unusually in-
crassate towards the extremity. There is no approximate genus amongst
the Pentarthrides.

Glyphoramphus rarus, Broun. 1735. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 971.

Nitid, piceo-rufous tinged with castaneous, antenna^ pale ferruginous.

Head and rostrum densely and very minutely sculptured ; the punctures
on the head are rather fine, but not close, and gradually become finer and
fewer towards the front of the rostrum. Thorax distinctly longitudinally
impressed, moderately finely and not closely punctate, the apex raised and
nearly smooth. Elytra slightly broadly impressed before and behind the
middle, regularly and moderately finely striate-punctate, striate behind :
interstices finely seriate punctate and rugose, the 3rd and the suture elevated
and sharply bent at the extremity.

3 . Length, IJ lines ; breadth, f line.

Mount Egmont. Unique.

Belka, gen. nov.

Body fusiform, moderately convex, evidently clothed with decumbent
elongate yellow pubescence.

Rostrum rather shorter than thorax, subparallel, slightly narrowed near
the base, cylindric, half the width of the head, and bearing many fine but
elongate setae along its sides ; these are most easily seen from underneath.
Scrobes prolonged to the inner and lower part of the eyes, their upper margins
sharply defined there. Scape inserted behind the middle, attaining the
centre of the eye, elongate, only moderately slender. Funiculus rather
stouter than the scape, 2nd joint longer than 3rd, joints 3-5 become shorter.
Club ovate. Head rather short, occiput strongly globose underneath,
slightly narrowed but not perceptibly marked off in front. Eyes slightly
prominent, moderately small, almost transversely oval. Thorax longer
than broad, widest behind the middle, well rounded there, a good deal
narrowed and constricted in front. Scutellum small. Elytra broader than
thorax at the base, subparallel, narrowed behind, base slightly biarcuate,
apices not distinctly rounded separately. Legs stout, femora subclavate ;
tibipe uncinate ; penultimate tarsal joint slightly dilated, concave above,
entire below, terminal rather thick, with small claws.

It would be absurd to leave the type of this genus with Pentarthrum.
The rostrum is like that of the female Pentarthnim^ (903) in length, but is
slightly stouter, and quite perceptibly narrowed near the base. The eyes
are distinctly smaller and more transversal. The scutellum is smaller.
The scape cannot reach the back of the eye. The metasternum is. shorter,
^^ ith a very short groove behind. The basal 2 ventral segments are unim-
pressed, but their suture is well marked and sinuate. The rostrum under-
neath has 2 sharply impressed grooves. The more robust body and legs,
different antennal insertion, and entirely dift'erent vestiture, &c.. distinguish
it from Attarus, near which it should be placed.

1 80 Transa c tions .

Female. — Rostrum rather longer, but not appreciably more slender.
Thorax different, widest near the base, gradually narrowed from that point ;
posterior angles quite oblique. Apt to be mistaken for a distinct species.

Belka spadicea, Broun. 1628. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 911.

Subopaque, rostrum and elytra slightly nitid, fusco-castaneous, legs of a
chocolate colour, antennae and tarsi piceo-rufous, pubescence more abundant
on the elytra than on the thorax. In the male the elytra are somewhat
rufescent.

Rostrum moderately finely and not closely punctured throughout.
Head pubescent, moderately punctate ; occiput not quite smooth. Scape
glabrous, the funiculus finely and sparingly setose. Club densely and finely
pubescent, slightly annulate. Thorax with a smooth median line, mode-
rately finely and not closely punctured, disc convex, frontal constriction
deep. Elytra as broad as the widest part of thorax, their striie rather
shallow, crenate-punctate, the punctuation becoming indistinct behind,
interstices rugose and seriate-punctate.

Underside rufo-piceous, slightly nitid, the whole derm densely and
minutely sculptured, the setae greyish and slender but numerous, the
punctuation moderately coarse but not close.

cT . Length, If lines ; breadth, f line.

Dunedin. One of each sex.

Attarus, gen. nov.

Elongate, fusiform-cylindric, slightly transversely convex, a little shining,
sparingly clothed with slender but quite perceptible pubescence.

Rostrum porrect, a little arched in front, rather shorter than thorax,
slightly narrowed behind, in front more than half the width of the head.
Scrobes linear, directed obliquely towards the lower and inner part of the
eyes. Scape elongate, only moderately stout, inserted at or before the
middle, and attaining the front of the eye. Funiculus elongate, basal joint
large, 2nd not distinctly longer than 3rd, 4th and 5th short. Club ovate,
stout, not articulated. Head rather short, moderately globose, the occiput
curvedly narrowed towards the eyes, but not constricted or marked off in
front. Eyes rotundate, only slightly prominent, lateral. Thorax longer
than broad, widest behind the middle, well rounded there, a good deal
narrowed and constricted near the front, base truncate. Scutellum minute.
Elytra subtruncate at the base, as broad as the widest part of the thorax,
gradually narrowed posteriorly, their apices individually rounded. Legs
relatively rather slender ; tibiae straight and hardly at all expanded,
uncinate ; tarsi stout, the terminal joint quite the length of the basal 3
united, 3rd a little expanded, widely concave in front, not distinctly lobate,
apparently entire underneath.

Prosternum incurved in front, the coxae more approximated than in
Pentarthnim. The metasternum elongate, nearly as long as the abdomen,
finely medially sulcate, 2nd ventral segment shorter than 1st, their suture
distinct and undulate.

The structure of the antennae and tarsi, irrespective of other charac-
teristics, is enough to prevent the association of the type of this genus with
Eucossonus. It cannot be referred to Agastegnus, which is composed of
depressed, long-legged insects. Sericotrogus has an entirely different head.
&c., and the other Pentarthrum allies also exhibit disparities.

i

Broun. — Revision of the New Zealand Cossonidse. 181

Attarus tristis, sp. nov.

Angustate, dark piceo-rufous, legs rather lighter, antennae fulvescent ;
slightly nitid, pubescence greyish-yellow.

Eostrum shining, rufescent, distantly and finely punctured in front,
nearly smooth along the middle, the punctuation becoming coarse, somewhat
elongate and rugose on the vertex ; the occiput also with some distant
punctures. Eyes much less prominent than in Pentarthrum. Thorax un-
impressed ; very coarsely, closely, and rugosely punctured at the sides ;
the disc less coarsely and closely, on the middle especially, more closely in
front ; the apical margin, however, is smooth, and of a somewhat metallic
reddish-coppery hue. Elytra a good deal narrowed at the posterior declivity,
the apical margins rufescent and evidently rounded singly ; they are regu-
larly and distinctly but not coarsely striate-punctate, quite striate behind,
the suture and interstices finely seriate-punctate and slightly rugose. Legs
with minute yellowish setse, most conspicuous along the inner face of the
front tibiae.

Length, If lines ; breadth, f line.

Paparoa, Howack. Unique.

A. castus, Broun. 1307. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 736.

This species must be detached from Pentarthrum. The rostrum is rather
longer than that of A. tristis, similarly sculptured and narrowed behind,
but along each side it bears several slender outstanding yet not very elongate
setae. Occiput smoother and more convex, and therefore more distinctly
marked oft" from the close interocular punctuation. Disc of thorax very
slightly and indistinctly flattened ; the slender yellow hairs on its sides
are quite easily seen. Scutellum small and seemingly bent downwards in
front, instead of being horizontal. Elytra with more distinct and closer
interstitial punctures ; those in the striae are more quadrate, and are sepa-
rated by short intervals only ; the yellow hairs are more numerous.

Length, IJ lines ; breadth, | line.

Whangarei. One.

'^b^

A. vestitus, Broun. 916. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 514.

Body dark piceo - rufous, tarsi and antennae red, club fulvescent ;
pubescence distinct, yellow, rather elongate and slender.

Rostrum rather broad, incurved behind the middle ; rather coarsely,
relatively, punctured and longitudinally rugose, the punctures not as close
on the head ; the occiput also wath a few punctures. Thorax with the
median line smooth, coarsely and rugosely punctured, more closely at the
sides than on the disc, very closely near the smooth coppery front margin.
Elytra subpunctate-striate, quite striate behind and at the base ; the suture
and interstices finely seriately punctate and slightly rugose.

Underside shining, rufo-piceous, with minute setae along the middle
of the breast, but on the abdomen and along the sides the setae are more
elongate and obvious ; the punctuation on the sides, the front of the pro-
sternum, and on the basal 2 ventral segments is coarser than alone: the
middle of the sternum ; base of presternum transversely rugose and
punctate.

Prosternum truncate in front. Rostrum medially grooved underneath,
the groove with sharply defined borders. Buccal cavity large. Meta-
sternum elongate, rather shorter than the abdomen, medially sulcate. Basal

182 Tranmction^.

ventral segment broadly impressed, 2nd shorter, their suture undulate,
the 5th with elongate pubescence.

The rostrum is broader, the eyes more prominent, and the antennae
shorter and stouter than in the preceding two species. The scutellum is
sunken, and does not seem to penetrate between the elytra.

The description is given in detail in case the discovery of more specimens
should make it expedient to treat this species as the representative of a
distinct genus. There can be no doubt as to its being a male.

<? . Length, 1| lines ; breadth, f line.

Parua Forest, Whangarei. Unicjue.

Agastegnus, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 805.

Body slender, pubescence conspicuous.

Rostrum rather shorter than thorax, somewhat arched, moderately
stout, rather gradually narrowed towards the base. Head globose below,
curvedly narrowed anteriorly, the contour not interrupted by the sub-
depressed eyes, the usually dark colour, and punctuation also tend to render
the eyes inconspicuous ; the occiput is short, and not at all distinctly
marked off in front. Antennse elongate. Scape slender, gradually thickened,
curvate or flexuous, inserted before the middle, in the female at the middle,
and attaining the back of the eye. Funiculus laxly articulated, 2nd joint
sometimes nearly as long as the basal one, 3-5 submoniliform. Club mode-
rately large, subovate. Thorax triangularly ovate, moderately constricted
in front. Scutellum small. Elytra broader than the base of the thorax,
parallel or gently narrowed backwards, apices slightly rounded individually.
Legs elongate and slender ; tarsi narrow, 3rd joint not perceptibly lobed,
terminal longer than the basal 3 conjointly, with small claws.

Prosternum deeply incurved in front. Metasternum longer than the
basal 2 segments.

From Pentarthrum, Ehinanisus, and cognate forms this genus is differenti-
ated by the conspicuous vestiture, long slender legs, &c., and from Serico-
trogus by the form of the head and more widely separated anterior
coxae, &c.

Agastegnus ruficollis, Broun. 1432. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 806.

Variegate, moderately shining, pubescence slender, decumbent, yellow,
distinct ; rostrum and thorax rufescent ; the head, club, and parts of elytra
piceous ; tibiae more rufescent than the pitchy femora ; antennse pale
red.

Rostrum moderately punctured, more finely and less closely in front.
Thorax rather longer than broad, widest behind the middle, where it is
rounded, more but gradually narrowed anteriorly than at the base,
slightly constricted in front ; disc broadly impressed along the middle,
moderately coarsely punctured almost to the apex. Elytra rather broader
than the thorax, feebly broadly impressed before the middle, with rather
shallow but distinctly punctured striae, interstices with minute serial
punctures, the 2nd beyond the suture distinctly elevated and bent out-
wards near the apex.

Female. — Rostrum slightly more slender, parallel, less arched above.
Thorax rather narrower, less constricted in front, its disc unimpressed.

t? . Length, 1 line ; breadth, j line.

Waitakerei Ranse.

Broun. — Revision of the New Zealand Cossonidse. 183

A. gratus, Broun. 922. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 517. •

Concolorous, testaceous, rostrum sliglitly rufescent.

Tliorax broadly but slightly impressed behind the middle. Elytra near
the middle.

$ . Length, 1 line ; breadth, \ line.
Parua, ^Yhangarei. Unique.

A. longipes, Broun. 930. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 522. (Plate XVI,

fig. 1 )

Piceous ; the thorax, rostrum, and antennae rufescent ; the dark head and
club opaque.

Thorax broadly impressed. Elytra with slightly rounded shoulders,
scutellar region depressed, slightly transversely impressed before the middle.

J . Length, \\ lines ; breadth, quite \ line.

Whangarei. Both sexes.

A. simulans, Sharp. 933. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 523.

Slender, obscure rufous, antennce testaceous, club piceous.

Thorax indistinctly impressed behind the middle, opaque, closely and
strongly punctured. Elytral striae not deep but strongly punctured. Under-
side nigrescent.

Length, If mm.

Auckland.

A. coloratus, Broun. 1630. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 911.

Eostrum, antennae, and thorax rufescent ; elytra fusco-testaceous, with
irregular dark marks ; legs of a chocolate hue ; head and club piceous.

Rostrum as long as thorax, narrowed behind the middle. Eyes slightly
prominent. Elytra with deep striae. Thorax impressed along the middle,
and with a smooth central line, which does not attain the base.

An aberrant species.
J . Length, If lines ; breadth, f line.

Tuakau, Auckland. Unique.

A. femoralis, Broun. 1751. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 970.

Shining, rostrum and thorax dark red, elytra castaneo-rufous, antennae
concolorous, club pale red.

Thorax rather finely punctured, impressed behind the middle, almost
foveiform at the base. Elytra broadly impressed before the middle. Femora
medially inflated. Pubescence unusually scanty.

? . Length, If lines ; breadth, | line.

Mount Egmont. Three.

A. nitidirostris, Broun. 2202. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1250.

iEneo-piceous, antennae shining red, club piceous, legs almost chocolate ;
rather thickly covered with pale-yellow long slender hairs.

Thorax slightly flattened. Elytra impressed before and behind the
middle.

3 . Length, 1;^ lines ; breadth, | line.

Mount Egmont. Unique.

A. distinctus, Broun. 2421. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1388.

Shining, rufous, elytra castaneo-rufous, the legs and club fusco-rufous.
Thorax evidently impressed behind the middle, finely punctured, intervals

184 Transactions.

densely and minutely sculptured. Elytra broadly impressed before and
behind the middle. Pubescence bright yellow, rather scanty.
5 . Length, nearly 1;^ lines ; breadth, quite ^ line.
Moeraki. One only.

A. sericatus, Broun. 1752. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 970.

Castaneo-rufous, legs infuscate, the head and club piceous ; pubescence
yellow, not at all scanty.

Thorax broadly impressed from the base to beyond the middle, moderately
coarsely and closely punctured relatively. Elytra paler than thorax, their
sides, however, somewhat infuscate, the base biarcuate, slightly transversely
impressed before and behind the middle.

3 . Length, 1| lines ; breadth, quite \ line.

Paparoa, near Howick. L^nique.

A. rufescens, Broun. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., January, 1907.

Shining, ■ infuscate red, elytra paler, rostrum red ; pubescence bright
yellow.

Thorax longitudinally but not deeply impressed. Elytra widest behind
the posterior femora, gradually narrowed towards the base, indistinctly
impressed before the middle. Antenn;e very elongate. Scape distinctly
flexuous.

Length, \\ lines ; breadth, quite J line.

Dunedin. One.

A. bi-impressus, sp. nov.

-Subdepressed, elongate, only slightly nitid ; rostrum, thorax, and
antennae piceo-rufous ; head, club, and elytra piceous, these last more
rufescent near the base ; knees and tarsi paler ; club quite opaque, densely
and minutely pubescent ; clothed with silky yellow hairs, most conspicuous
on the thorax.

Rostrum rather slender, gradually narrowed towards its base, its
punctuation nearly seriate, finer in front than behind. Thorax evidently
longer than broad, its sides moderately rounded, abruptly contracted
near the apex, which is sparingly puiictured ; disc with a broad shallow
impression, distinctly and rather closely but not coarsely punctured.
Scutellum small. Elytra subtruncate and evidently broader than thorax
at the base, gradually narrowed posteriorly, broadly impressed before
and behind the middle ; their sculpture indefinite, striate-punctate, sub-
striate at the base, the 3rd and 4th striae moderately distinct, the suture
and interstices with serial punctures, the 2nd and the suture somewhat
thickened and elevated near the extremity. Scape curvate, inserted
immediately lief ore the middle ; 2nd joint of funiculus longer than 3rd,
joints 3-5 moniliform. Club oblong-oval.

The nearest species is ^-1. ruficnJIis, which, however, has less expanded
penultimate tarsal joints, and only one impression across the elytra.

Length, 1;^ line ; breadth, quite ^ line.

Waiorongomai, Mount Te Aroha. Unique.

Sericotrogus, Wollaston. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 521.

Body elongate, subparallel. moderately convex, distinctly pubescent.

Rostrum shorter than the thorax, parallel, moderateh^ broad in both
sexes, slightly arched in front. Scape inserted just before the middle and
attaining the middle of the eye, straight, thickened apically. Funiculus

Broun. — Revision nj the Nov Zealand Cossonidae. 185

5-articulate, 2nd joint longer than 3rd,' 3-5 laxly articulated. Club ovate,
abruptly broader than the funiculus. Head exserted, slightly narrowed
anteriorly, abruptly wider than yet not quite twice the width of the rostrum.
Eyes moderately prominent, situated in front. Thorax elongate, subovi-
form. not distinctly constricted in front. Scutellum distinct. Elytra
slightly and gradually narrowed towards the base, apices simple. Legs
moderately elongate ; 3rd tarsal joint bilobed.

Differs from Pentarthntm in its more fusiform outline, longer and uncon-
stricted head, relatively longer and narrower rostrum, differently formed
thorax, and bilobed penultimate tarsal joint. The more approximated
anterior coxae will at once lead to its identification. The form of the head,
the thick parallel rostrum, shorter legs, and much less separated front coxse,
apart from other structural details, distinguish it from Agastegnus.

Sericotrogus subasnescens, Wollaston. 929. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 521.
(Plate XV, fig. 12.)

Elongate, subaeneo-piceous, moderately nitid ; vestiture fine but distinct,
greyish or brassy ; tarsi and antennae dark red.

Male. — Rostrum moderately and closely punctured, somewhat rugosely,
more finely towards the extremity. Thorax longer than broad, more
gradually narrowed in front than behind, its punctuation, like that of the
head, moderately close and distinct, but with the central line or space nearly
smooth. Elytra punctuate-striate, the grooves rather shallow, interstices
with fine distant punctures.

Underside shining, usually alutaceous or nigrescent, minutely pubescent,
more or less coarsely punctate. Metasternum equalling the basal 2 seg-
ments in length, 1st segment longitudinally impressed. Rostrum with a
broad basal carina, which becomes furcate in front.

Length, 1| lines ; breadth, | line.

Auckland, Wellington, and other localities.

S. ovicollis, Broun. 931. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 522.

Near 929, shining, piceous, antennae and tarsi dark red, nearly glabrous.

Rostrum longer, slightly incrassate in front. Thorax more convex in
the middle, so as to appear more depressed in front and across its base,
more distinctly punctured. Elytra slightly more oviform ; 3rd tarsal joint
rather more expanded. Club oblong-oval, longer and distinctly narrower.

J. Length, 1-|- lines ; breadth, | line.

Whangarei. One.

S. stramineus, Broun. 932. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 523.

Flavescent, slightly rufescent sometimes ; the pubescence scanty,
slender and elongate, quite grey. The punctuation of the thorax more
shallow ; the serial punctures on the interstices of the elytra indistinct.

Length, 1^ lines ; breadth, nearly f line.

Tairua. Two.

Gaurocryphus, gen. nov.

Elongate, fusiform-cylindric, subdepressed, vestiture elongate and very
conspicuous.

Rostrum slightly arched, rather thicker than that of Sericotrogus, slightly
narrowed behind the middle ; rather more slender in the female, but much
less so than in the same sex of Pentarthrum. Scape slightlv flexuous, in-
crassate at the extremity, inserted just before the middle, and attaining

186 Transactions. *

the front of the eye. Funicukis 5-articulate, 2nd joint slightly longer than
3rd, joints 3-5 subqnadrate. Club oblong-oval. Head rather short, globose
underneath, slightly constricted just behind the very prominent eyes.
Thorax triangular-ovate, evidently constricted in front. Scutellum small.
Elytra incurved at base, slightly rounded singly at the apices, parallel-
sided, rather broader than thorax at the base. Legs moderate, 3rd tarsal
joint small, excavate but not distinctly lobed.

Underside shining, rufo-piceous, sparingly and minutely pubescent,
coarsely punctate, terminal segment less distinctly. Anterior coxse less
distant than in Pentarthrum, further apart than those of Sericotrogus.
Mesosternal suture distinct, truncate between the coxae. Metasternum
moderately elongate, medially sulcate. Basal ventral segment broadly
impressed in the middle, sloping downwards towards the 2nd, the inter-
vening suture subtruncate and well marked, the terminal bent upwards
yet hardly reaching the level of the epipleurae, with a round median im-
pression ; it is rufescent.

The type of this genus cannot remain in Sericotrogus, on account of the
unlobed tarsi, more widely separated coxae, different head, &c. The superb
vestiture, more convex and prominent eyes, and the slight sexual differen-
tiation of the rostrum show that it cannot be located in Pentarthrum. A
new genus therefore is instituted for its reception.

Gaurocryphus auricomus, Broun. 1302. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 733.

(Plate XV, fig. 13.)

Piceo-rufous, moderately shining ; with the exception of the apical
half of the rostrum, thickly covered with decumbent, elongate, beautiful
yellow hairs ; in the female some of the elytral pubescence is greyish.

Rostrum distinctly longitudinally rugosely punctate almost to the
extremity ; vertex also moderately coarsely punctured, the short occiput
finely. The eyes are distinctly convex. Thorax with moderately rounded
sides, gradually narrowed from the middle towards the frontal constriction,
which is only slight in the female ; disc slightly convex, moderately coarsely
and closely punctured almost to the apical margin. Elytra punctate-striate,
the grooves, however, rather shallow ; interstices and suture with serial punc-
tures, the pubescence, however, renders the sculpture somewhat indefinite.

Female. — Rostrum rather longer, quite stout, slightly but widely nar-
rowed behind the middle and again a little expanded towards the eyes.
Antennae medially inserted.

3 . Length, 1;^ lines ; breadth, neary f line.

Tairua (one female), Waitakerei Range (one male).

Eucossonus, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 870.

Elongate, subdepressed, the whole surface dull, with dense minute sculp-
ture, and clothed with distinct yellow hairs or setse.

Rostrum rather shorter than thorax, the basal half narrower than the
frontal, arched above ; more slender in the female. Scrobes narrow near
the apex, expanded, and reaching the eyes. Head short, occiput much
narrowed and constricted in front. Eyes moderately convex, subtruncate
behind, and extending considerably downwards. Scape slender, elongate
and flexuous, inserted before the middle, and almost reaching the thorax.
Funiculus elongate, laxly articulated, the basal 2 joints of about equal
length, joints 3-5 submoniliform. Club oblong-oval. Thorax longer than
broad, deeply constricted near the front, so that the apex seems dilated,

Broun. — Revision of the New Zealand Cossonidse. 187

the portion behind the constriction quite oviform, rather fiat and medially
broadly canaliculate, its base bisinuate. Scutellum small. Elytra longer
and rather broader than thorax, base biarcuate. Legs rather long and
slender, penultimate joint of the tarsi with strongly developed lobes.

Underside nigrescent, subopaque, with some minute setne ; the punctu-
ation moderately coarse, but not deep ; the intervals densely and minutely
sculptured. Rostrum medially earinate. Prosternum elongate, deeply im-
pressed near the front. Mesosternum much abbreviated, so that the in-
termediate coxfB are nearly in contact with the prosternum. Metasternum
elongate, medially sulcate behind. Basal ventral segment with an almost
transverse impression behind, the shorter 2nd with a more shallow im-
pression.

Structurally different from Sericotrogus in almost all respects. The
form of the head and rostrum, and the frontal dilatation of the thorax, owing
to the unusually deep constriction, is remarkable. The scrobes are expanded
towards, and terminate in front of, the eyes ; in Sericotrogus they are di-
rected obliquely downwards to below the eyes. The anterior coxse are
more w^idely separated, but less so than in Pentarthrurn. In specimens
mounted on cardboard the head is sometimes retracted, and appears pecu-
liarly pinched in behind the eyes ; when more carefully set out the refuscent
globose occiput is fully exposed.

Eucossonus comptus, Broun. 1550. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 870.

(Plate XV, fig. 16.)

Subopaque, fusco-rufous, sometimes darker, antennae and tarsi fer-
ruginous ; the yellow hairs are rather elongate and decumbent on the
thorax, finer on the head, rostrum, and elytra ; on these they usually form
lines or series, on the 2nd and 4th interstices particularly.

Rostrum finely subcarinate along the middle of the frontal half, its
punctuation moderately coarse, close, and rugose. Thorax broadly de-
pressed along the middle, with coarse shallow punctures. Elytra with
somewhat ill-defined sculpture, apparently with shallow punctures in the
stria? ; interstices slightly asperate or rugose, the 2nd from the suture some-
what elevated ; the setse suberect. Legs finely setose ; 3rd and 4th joints
of the funiculus longer than broad.

Female. — Rostrum gradually and slightly narrowed backwards, slightly
nitid, moderately coarsely and closely punctured behind, much more spar-
ingly and finely in front.

S' . Length, If lines ; breadth, | line.

Waitakerei Range. Both sexes.

E. elegans, Broun. 2419. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1386.

Female. — Differs from 1550 in having the rostrum slightly dilated at the
point of antennal insertion, behind the middle. Elytra striate-punctate.

Length, H lines ; breadth, f line.

Moeraki. One.

E. gracilis, Broun. 2420. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1387.

Rather narrow.

Rostrum more slender than that of 1550, more sparingly and finely
punctate. Thorax not depressed along the middle,. simply flattened there.
Elytra rather wider near the hind thighs. Legs more slender and scape
rather shorter than in E. elegans.

3 . Length, If lines ; breadth, quite ^ line.

Moeraki. One. -

188 Transactions.

E. setiger, Sharp. 934. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 523.

Slender, narrow, very opaque, with depressed setse.

Thorax without the obvious depression along the middle as in 1550,
its punctuation obsolete. Elytra punctate-striate, but not very distinctly
so. Scrobes small and indistinct.

Length, 2J mm.

Tairua.

E. rostralis, sp. nov.

Elongate, subdepressed, opaque, fusco-rufous, fhorax rufo-piceous, an-
tenufe and tarsi clear dark red, clothed with slender yellow conspicuous
setae.

Rostrum shorter than thorax, arched, nearly parallel, dull pitchy-red,
the basal portion and the head with moderate shallow punctures and rugose,
its frontal portion with finer indistinct punctures, nowhere quite smooth.
Scape flexuous, medially inserted, and reaching beyond the back of the eye.
Joints 3-5 of funiculus moniliform. Thorax broadly but not deeply im-
pressed along the middle, the punctuation there quite distinct and rather
close, finer in front. Scutellum small, rounded, with a distinct central
puncture. Elytra indistinctly punctate-striate, interstices minutely sculp-
tured and rugose.

On comparison with each of the described species I find that the rostrum
is different. The thoracic punctures are quite definite.

Length, If lines ; breadth, quite | line.

Otago. One.

'o^

Agrilochilus, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 520.

Body linear, narrowed anteriorly, depressed, opaque, closely sculptured,
apparently minutely asperate, rather thickly covered with short slender setae.

Rostrum as long as thorax, arched, moderately slender, subparallel,
very gradually and slightly narrowed towards the extremity. Scrobes
elongate, and extending towards the lower part of the eyes. Scape mode-
rately stout and elongate, a little curved, inserted between the middle and
the apex, and attaining the eye. Funiculus very slender, its basal joint,
however, evidently thicker and longer than the following ones, 2nd longer
than 3rd, narrowed behind, joints 3-5 laxly articulated and bead-like. Club
broadly ovate. Head abruptly broader than the rostrum, porrect but not
elongate. Eyes situated in front, not convex above, more so below, where
their greatest bulk is. Thorax gradually narrowed towards the front, only
slightly constricted there, feebly bisinuate at the base. Scutellum small.
Elytra very elongate and parallel, base biarcuate towards the suture, with
simple apices. Female antennae medially inserted. Legs of moderate
length and thickness ; tibite with rather small hooks. Tarsi slender, 3rd
joint with short lobes.

Underside flat, distinctly and closely but not at all deeply punctured,
finely setose. Prosternum angularh^ impressed in front, the coxae dis-
tinctly yet only slightly separated. Mesosternum moderate, the coxal
cavities large and obliquely prolonged forwards. Metasternum very elongate
yet shorter than the abdomen, the posterior coxae hardly any further apart
than the luiddle pair. Basal 2 ventral segments with one continuous broad
depression along the middle, the terminal with a small fovea.

Abundantly distinct from all our New Zealand genera, as the first part
of its description, of itself, clearly demonstrates.

Broun. — Revision of the New Zealand Cossonid?e. 189

Agrilochilus prolixus, Broun. 928. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 521. (Plate XV,
fig. U.)

Obscure fusco-rufous, but when thoroughly cleaned and freed from sappy
matter appearing slightly nitid ; tarsi and antennae ferruginous ; the set;Te
greyish-yellow.

Rostrum with indistinct punctuation, minutely asperate or rugose, finely
setose. The occiput very short and distinctly marked off from the sculp-
tured vertex, which extends behind the eyes. Scape dull, funiculus shining
and finely setose. Thorax with indefinite sculpture, apparently closely
punctate, the apex reddish. Elytra closely striate-punctate and asperate.

J. Length, 1| lines : breaclth, J line.

Parua and Waitakerei Range. Both sexes.

Dioedimorpha, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 805.

Subdepressed, very elongate, sparsely and very minutely, cjuite indis-
tinctly, setose, and therefore appearing glabrous and moderately nitid.

Rostrum nearly as long as thorax, strongly curvedly dilated at the
extremity, where it is quite as broad as the head ; it is again, but only
moderately, dilated behind the middle, at the point of antennal insertion.
Mandibles prominent. Head subconical, longer than broad, the occiput
short and evidently narrower than the sculptured part of the head. Scrobes
short and abruptly directed downwards. Eyes not prominent, remote from
thorax. Scape stout and gradually incrassate, inserted between the middle
and the base, extending back to beyond the eye. Funiculus 5-articu-
late, joints 2-5 of nearly equal length. Club ovate. Thorax rather longer
than broad, subconical, very slightly constricted in front. Scutellum dis-
tinct. Elytra twice as long as the thorax, and of almost the same width
throughout. Legs relatively short and stout ; penultimate tarsal joint
excavate in front, but not distinctly lobed.

Underside moderately finely punctured, with some minute setae. The
coxfe more widely separated than in Agrilochilus. Metasternum very
elongate, medially sulcate. Basal 2 ventral segments elongate. Rostrum
with a distinct smooth median carina underneath.

Female. — Rostrum longer and more slender, antennae inserted near the
base.

This genus was instituted for the reception of Dr. Sharp's Pentarthrum
ivollastomanum and P. dehile. The remarkable head and rostrum are suffi-
cient for generic separation and identification.

Dioedimorpha wollastoniana, Sharp. 917. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 514.
(Plate XV, fig. 8.)

Piceous, sometimes more rufescent, antennae and tarsi rufous, club paler.

Head and rostrum moderately closely and finely punctured, the occiput
nearly smooth. Thorax a little wider behind the middle than it is else-
where, gradually narrowed anteriorly, its sculpture very similar to that
of the head, the middle of the apex smooth. Elytra finely striate-punctate,
interstices with fine serial punctures and appearing transverselv rugose.

This species is common on Rhopaloslijlis (Areca) sapida, and the in-
dividuals exhibit a considerable amount of variation not only as regards
bulk, but also in the development of the head and rostrum. The typical
specimen is a fully developed male.

3 . Length, 2| lines ; breadth, f line.

Whangarei and Waitakerei Range. Both sexes.

190 Transactions.

D. debile, Sharp. 9i8. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 515.

Ferruginous, moderately shining, minutely setose. Differs from 917 in
being more slender.

Rostrum relatively longer, but of similar shape. Antennre inserted
medially. Thorax relatively more coarsely punctured. Elytra less rugose,
more distinctly punctate, but not quite punctate-striate, and tapering
towards the extremity instead of being parallel.

S . Length, If lines ; breadth, |- line.

Parua and Howick.

Arecocryptus, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 525.

Body elongate, subdepressed, vestiture setiform, slender but conspicuous.

Rostrum evidently longer than thorax, moderately slender, a little
dilated towards the base and apex, slightly arched ; imderneath, between
the middle and base, there is a conspicuous spiniform process, which is
furcate at its apex and directed slightly backwards, and on the lower part
of the head there is another spine directed forwards. The scrobes begin
at the apex, and are prolonged backwards to the lower and front part of the
eyes. Scape very elongate, moderately stout, slightly incrassate at the
extremity, inserted at the apex, and attaining the eye. Funiculus rather
longer than the scape, very slender ; basal 2 joints very elongate, 2nd cjuite
as long as but more slender than the basal one, 3rd also elongate but shorter
than the preceding one, 5th shorter than 4th, both, however, longer than
broad. Club oblong-oval, annulate. Head remarkably short, the nearly
smooth occiput narrowed anteriorly, so that the eyes seem very convex
and prominent. Thorax longer than broad, subovate, constricted in front,
base slightly bisinuate. Scutellum small but distinct. Elytra not twice
the length of thorax and rather wider and slightly biarcuate at the base,
gradually narrowed posteriorly. Legs moderately long and slender, tibial
hooks small. Tarsi with spongelike pubescence underneath, 2nd joint
broad, the 3rd still broader, with strongly developed lobes, the terminal
very slender and elongate, with long curved claws.

Underside nearly plane, distinctly and moderately closely punctate,
with some fine slender pubescence. Coxse moderately separated. Meta-
sternum as long as the 2 basal ventral segments, the suture between these
segments sinuous.

Female. — Rostrum more slender and arched, antennse inserted before
the middle, scape more slender and flexuous,_ without spines on the head
and rostrum.

This is the most remarkable genus of the Cossonidre. The rostral and
interocular spines underneath, the long rostrum, outstanding eyes, apically
inserted antennae, and widely expanded lobate penultimate tarsal joint
form a combination without precedent.

The more appropriate name Arecocryptus has been substituted for Can-
thorhynchus. The insect lives concealed near the base of the fronds of
Rkopalostylis (Areca) sapida.

Arecocryptus bellus, Broun. 936. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 526. (Plate XV,

fig. 15.)

Subopaque, fusco-rufous, funiculus red, vestiture pale yellow.

Rostrum subcarinate along the middle, longitudinally rugose-punctate,
the coarse punctuation ceasing abruptly behind the eyes, and with an angular
fovea there. Thorax widest near the middle, rounded there, closelv and

Broun. — Revision of the New Zealand Cossoiiidse. 191

moderately coarsely punctured ; disc very slightly depressed, with an indis-
tinct central line. Elytra sulipunctate-striate, interstices rugose or slightly
asperate.

Female. — Rostrum slender, finely and almost seriately punctate.

c? . Length, 2J lines ; breadth, nearly | line.

Parua and Hunua Range. Both sexes.

Entium, Sharp. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 519.

iSubcylindric, with slender suberect hairs.

Rostrum stout, shorter than thorax, subcylindrical, slightly narrowed
anteriorly. Head moderate, gradually narrowed to the width of the
rostrum ; the outline, however, is slightly interrupted by the small longitu-
dinally oval eyes. Scape medially inserted, of moderate length, gradually
thickened. Funiculus 5-articulate, 2nd joint distinctly longer than 3rd,
3-5 small. Thorax subcylindric. Scutellum small but distinct. Elytra
elongate, rather broader than thorax, distinctly so at the base. Legs
slender, tibife linear, apical hooks very small. Tarsi small, their 3rd joint
with short slender lobes.

Anterior coxae nearly contiguous. Metasternum and basal 2 ventral
segments nearly equally elongate.

The small size, suberect pubescence, small longitudinally oval eyes,
almost unconstricted thorax, and approximated front coxae are its most
salient characters.

Entium aberrans, Sharp. 927. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 520.

Narrow, slender, subconvex, moderately nitid, piceo-rufous.

Rostrum finely punctate, minutely and densely sculptured, scantily
and minutely pubescent. Thorax a little longer than broad, its sides
slightly rounded, relatively moderately coarsely punctate, more distantly
along the middle. Elytra not striate, but with regular series of rela-
tively coarse punctures, which become indistinct near the apex ; interstices
simjile.

t^nderside rufescent, finely and sparingly punctured, with some slender
seta' ; basal ventral segment broadly impressed.

Length, | line ; breadth, J line.

Parua and Howick. Rare.

Mesoxenophasis, Wollaston. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 524.

Minute, fusiform, narrow, nitid, glabrous.

Head subglobose. Rostrum nearly as long as thorax, only moderately
thick, subparallel, slightly and gradually narrowed towards the base. Eyes
small, not prominent, placed somewhat on the upper surface. Scape inserted
near the apex, moderately stout and elongate, gradually incrassate. Funi-
culus 5-articulate, 2nd joint slightly longer than 3rd. Club rather large,
oblono-oval. Thorax oviform, obsoletelv constricted in front, base sliohtlv
uicurved. Scutellum small but distinct. Elytra fusifortn, convex, base
truncate. Legs rather long and stout, 3rd tarsal joint expanded and deeply
bilobed.

Metasternum rather short. Basal 2 ventral seo'ments suffused.

The distinct scutellum distinguishes this genus from Microtrihus. There
are no obvious sexual distinctions.

192 T ransartions.

Mesoxenophasis brouni, Wollaston. 935. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 525.

(Plate XVI, fig. 2.)

Nitid, rufous or pale castaneous, antennae red, club darker.

Rostrum sparingly but distinctly punctured. Head convex, with a
minute interocular fovea. Thorax moderately and almost regularly rounded
laterally, convex, its whole surface subopaque with minute dense sculpture,
and with fine distant punctures. Elytra convex, moderately coarsely
striate-punctate.

Underside sparingly punctate, the abdomen very finely, almost obso-
letely.

Length, 1;^ lines ; breadth, quite \ line.

Tairua and Hunua Range. Rare.

Proconus, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 807.

Body depressed ; minutely, indistinctly, and sparingly pubescent.

Rostrum as long and, in front, as broad as the head, evidently contracted
behind the middle, minutely dilated just before the antennal insertion,
broadly and subangularly depressed in front, and with a short smooth
cariniform elevation in the middle of the cavity,, at the apex, which is finely
but distinctly setose. Occiput smooth, hardly perceptibly constricted or
marked off from the punctate portion of the head, which extends half-
way between the eyes and thorax. Eyes rotundate, only very slightly
prominent, widely separated above and distant from the thorax. Scape
short and stout, considerably thickened at the extremity, medially inserted,
reaching the front of the eye. Funicultis longer than the scape, joints 2-5
gradtially incrassate. Club distinct, ovate. Thorax broad, widest behind
the middle, narrowed anteriorly, moderately constricted in front. Scutellum
distinct. Elytra nearly as wide as the broadest part of the thorax, sub-
parallel, very gradually narrowed posteriorly. Legs stout, 3rd tarsal joint
short and without distinct lobes.

Intermediate between Rhinanisus and Hetewpsis. Distinguishable at
once by the short, broad, peculiar rostrum.

Proconus asperirostris, Broun. 92L Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 516.

(Plate XV, fig. U.)

Body moderately nitid, rufo-piceous, legs pitchy-red, depressed portion
of rostrtim red, antennae paler.

Rostrum slightly asperate, more closely but not quite as coarsely ptmc-
tured as the vertex, the frontal depression nearly smooth, a little transversely
impressed near the base. Thorax longer than broad, strongly rounded
near the base ; disc very slightly impressed or flattened, with a smooth
line along the middle, its punctuation moderately close and distinct, the
intervals very minutely sculptured. Elytra moderately punctate-striate,
the strise rather shallow, the apex less distinctly sculptured ; interstices
and suture with fine serial punctures.

3 . Length, If lines ; breadth, nearly f line.

Whangarei and Helensville. Three. Female incog.

P. crassipes, Broun. 1631. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 912.

Shining, pale rufo-castaneous. Much smaller than 921, frontal impression
of the rostrum nearly similar, the thorax without any smooth median line.

^ . Length, \\ lines ; breadth, J line.

Helensville. Unique.

Broun. — Revision oj the Xeiv Zealand Cossonid;e. 193

Heteropsis, Wollaston. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 529.

Body small, narrow, subdepressed, subparallel, shining, glabrous.

Rostiunj broad, rather longer than the short head, incurved behind the
middle. Occiput marked otf in front by a linear impression. Eyes obsolete.
Scape inserted near the apex, short and stout, rather abruptly thickened
near the extremity. Funiculus 5-articulate, 2nd joint not longer than
3rd. Club ovate. Thorax elongate, ovate-triangular, slightly constricted in
front. Scutellum small. Elytra slightly narrower than thorax, parallel.
Legs short and stout ; tarsi short, 3rd joint narrow, not lobate.'

Metasternum elongate. Basal ventral segment indistinctly longitudinally
concave.

Diti'ers from Proconus by its more cylindrical almost convex body, dif-
ferent rostrum, small size, and more especially by its obsolete eyes ; this
last character places it near Amaurorrhinus, which occurs in the Madeira
and Canary Islands and southern P^urope ; its scutellum, however, is
obsolete.

Heteropsis lawsoni, Wollaston. 940. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 529.

Shining, piceo-castaneous. rufous in my specimen.

Head and rostrum finely punctate, marked off from each other by a fine
line. Thorax distinctly punctured, more closely near the sides and behind
the nearly smooth apex. Elytra lightly punctate-striate, interstices with
minute serial punctures.

Underside moderately coarsely punctate.

Length, 1-lj lines ; breadth, j line.

Auckland. One.

Novitas, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 527.

Body small, moderately elongate and convex, medially narrowed,
glabrous, or with extremely slender pubescence.

Rostrum arched, as long as thorax, moderately stout in proportion to the
small size of the insect, very gradually and slightly narrowed towards the
extremity ; in the female very slender and parallel. Head globose, usually
inmiersed almost to the eyes, narrowed to the width of the rostrum. Eyes
with coarse facets, comparatively large but not at all convex. Scape much
curved, elongate and slender, but subclavate at the extremity, inserted
distinctly before the middle and attaining the eye. Funiculus very elongate,
2nd joint as long as the 1st but more slender, 3rd oviform, 4th and 5th moni-
liforni. Club oblong-oval. Thorax longer than broad, oviform, not con-
stricted in front. Scutellum obsolete or altogether absent. Elytra widest
behind the middle, gradually narrowed towards the slightly incurved base,
which, however, is rather broader than that of the thorax. Legs long and
stout, femoia thick but not clavate, tibia' rather short, not perceptibly
uncinate. Tarsi with spongelike soles, basal joint small, 2nd and 3rd
expanded and strongly transverse, the latter with short broad lobes and
with slender projecting setae.

Prosternum incurved in front, coxa? only moderately separated. Meso-
sternum moderately elongate. Metasternum remarkably short, much shorter
than the basal ventral segment, so that the 2 hind pairs of legs are more
approximated than the intermediate and anterior. Basal segment longi-
tudinally impressed, its apical suture very fine, the 2nd, at the sides, almost
as long as the 1st.
7— Trans.

19i Transactions.

The minute size of the body, long arched rostrum, abbreviated meta-
sternum, enormously expanded intermediate tarsal joints, apparently un-
armed tibifie, and obsolete scutellum, independently of other characters,
remove this from all the genera known to me. The species live on Phormmm
tenax.

No vitas rufum, Broun. 938. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 528.

Rufous, only slightly nitid, rostrum and thorax subopacjue, antennse
and tarsi pale red.

Rostrum closely and minutely asperate, distinctly thicker at the base
than in the following species, and with less slender antennae. Thorax
densely and minutely sculptured ; distinctly, moderately finely, but not
closely punctured. Elytra moderately finely punctate-striate, the outer
striae indistinct, all more or less effaced at the extremity, apices very slightly
dehiscent, the interstices with minute sculpture like that of the thorax.

^ . Length, | line ; breadth, nearly ^ line.

Parua. Unique.

N. nigrans, Broun. 939. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 528.

Subopaque, piceo-niger, apical half of rostrum piceo-rufous, tibiae,
tarsi, and antennae ferruginuous.

Rostrum closely and minutely asperate, but nearly smooth in front.
Thorax rather longer than that of 938, more cylindrical, yet oviform ; the
derm similarly densely minutely sculptured ; its punctures fewer, coarser,
and quite distinct. Elytra rather coarsely striate-punctate near the base,
almost obliterated behind the middle, with a sutural stria on each extending
to the summit of the posterior declivity ; -the apical sculpture indistinct.

It is from this species that the generic characters were derived.

^ . Length, | line ; breadth, ^ line.

Parua (one) ; afterwards both sexes on the Hunua Range.

N. dispar, Broun. 2204. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1251. (Plate XVI, fig. 4,)

Fusco-niger or piceous ; apex of thorax and elytra and terminal 3 ventral
segments somewhat castaneous ; rostrum shining, slender, and rufescent.

Thorax with a sort of silky opacity, unusually broad in front, without
perceptible punctures but appearing as if densely minutely granulate, it
bears some slender brassy hairs ; in the female it is of the normal shape,
narrowed in front. Elytra slightly nitid, striate-punctate as far as the
middle.

Female. — Antennae inserted behind the middle.

5 . Length, | line ; breadth, J line.

Tiritiri Island. Four specimens.

Unas, gen. nov.

Body subcylindric, transversely convex, apparently nude, with minute
almost invisible pubescence only ; shining, nigrescent, coarsely sculptured.

Rostrum arched, broad, subparallel, only very slightly narrowed towards
the extremity, rather shorter than the thorax, not marked off from the
forehead. Scrobes oblique. Head globose, its sides slightly narrowed
behind the eyes. Scape medially inserted, very short and stout, still
thicker at the extremity. Funiculus compact, basal joint moderately large,
joints 2-5 transverse. Club but little broader than the 5th joint of the
funiculus, oblong-oval, annnlate. Eyes prominent, small, rotundate, less

Broun. — Revision of the New Zealand Cossonidse. 195

distant from the thorax than from each other. Thorax hardly longer than
broad, a little wider behind the middle than elsewhere, only moderately
rounded there, more narrowed in front than behind, abruptly contracted
near the apex. Scutellum very small but quite visible. Elytra subparallel,
curvedly narrowed behind. Legs stout, of moderate length, tibiae uncinate,
the anterior most distinctly. Tarsi rather short, 2nd joint transverse,
3rd moderately dilated, deeply excavate, but with short lobes only, the
terminal as long as the basal 3 combined, with short claws.

Prosternum truncate in front ; the coxae almost contiguous, separated
by the linear process only. The intermediate pair further apart, but not
at all distant ; the mesosternal suture strongly curved. Metasternum'
rather short, not as long as the basal 2 segments of the abdomen, with a
triangular impression behind, the median sulcus very slender and indefinite.
Basal segment very little longer than the 2nd, indefinitely limited behind,
broadly but not deeply impressed. Rostrum tricarinate underneath. Tarsi
with thickly setose soles.

Micratrihiis, so far as the sternal structure and contiguity of the coxse
are concerned, approaches this genus, but the general contour and sculpture,
the rostrum, tarsi, and antennse exhibit striking disparities, and, moreover,
the scutellum, like that of its four allies pertaining to St. Helena and
Caffraria, is absent or obsolete. Unas, therefore, should precede that
section, and be assigned a position by itself.

Unas piceus, Broun. 919. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 515.

Nigro-piceous, legs and antenna3 piceo-rufous, moderately nitid, with a
few minute indistinct setae.

Rostrum slightly rugosely and finely punctate, less closely along the
middle. Head with distinct punctures, the occiput smooth near the sides.
Thorax moderately closely and coarsely punctured, very closely at the
sides, finely in front, basal margin depressed. Elytra cylindrical, punctate-
striate, the intermediate striae indistinct, the sciilpture rather finer near the
apices, the suture and interstices with fine serial punctures but not rugose.

Underside shining pitchy-black, with some minute setae ; rather coarsely
but not closely punctured, the 3rd and 4th ventral segments with a trans-
verse series of punctures on each, the 5th closely and finely punctured,
front of prosternum coarsely and transversely rugose.

3 . Length, If lines ; breadth, f line.

Mount Manaia, Whangarei. Unique.

Trachyglyphus, gen. no v.

Body transversely convex, subcylindric, narrowed anteriorly, somewhat
roughly sculptured, quite opaque ; bearing erect short slender setae, which
on the elytra are disposed principally along the interstices.

Rostrum more than half the length of the thorax, broad, nearly the
width of the head, gradually and slightly narrowed anteriorly, nearly flat
above, slightly arched, not marked off from the forehead ; underneath,
longitudinally bisulcate. Scrobes expanded towards the eyes. Head
moderately globose, short, without any frontal stricture. Eyes small but
very convex and prominent, widely distant from each other. Scape very
short, much thickened near the extremity, inserted just before the middle,
hardly reaching the eye. Funiculus 5-articulate, basal joint stout, 2nd not
distinctly longer than 3rd, the last 3 transversal. Club ovate, not visibly

196 Transactions.

annulate. Thorax at the base as broad as the elytra, gradually narrowed
towards the front, where it is abruptly constricted, posterior angles oblique,
it is longer than broad. Scutellum obsolete. Elytra parallel, narrowed
near the extremity, slightly biarcuate at the base. Legs moderate, stout,
tibige uncinate. Tarsi rather narrow, penultimate joint narrow, not at all
lobate, the terminal as long as the basal 3 combined, claws distinct.

Prosternum slightly incurved and deeply constricted in front, the coxte
distant, yet less widely so than in Pentarthrum. Metasternum elongate but
shorter than the abdomen, distinctly medially sulcate. Basal ventral
segment longitudinally concave, not double the length of the 2nd, the apical
closely and finely punctate.

After carefully studying the generic diagnoses of the Pentarthrides I fail
to find any genus like Trachi/glyphus. Its allies occur in the Malay Archi-
pelago, Japan, St. Helena, and Europe. In the New Zealand list it must be
placed near Microtrihus, from which, however, it is altogether different. In
form it more resembles Inosomus.

The eyes are unusually convex and prominent, the scape much abbrevi-
ated and incrassate, the scutellum is invisible, and the rostrum is, pro-
portionally, broader than that of Pentarthrum.

Trachyglyphus rugirostris, Broun. 1303. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 734.

Opaque, piceous, legs of an obscure chocolate hue, antenn?e dark red.

Rostrum longer than broad, rather coarsely punctured and longitudinally
rugose, more finely in front, the whole of the head similarly punctured.
Thorax widest near the base, its sides only slightly curved but gradually
narrowed anteriorly ; its whole surface closely, rugosely,. and coarsely
punctured, the intervals narrow ; each puncture has a small seta, the setae
on the sides more perceptible. Elytra dull, the suture slightly rufescent ;
punctate-striate, subcrenate, the suture and interstices unusually closely
and distinctly seriate-punctate and rugose.

Underside subopaque, piceous ; the head rufo-castaneous, and, including
the legs, bearing suberect slender brassy setre ; the whole derm densely
and niinutely sculptured, rather coarsely but not closely punctured.

3- . Length, 1^ lines ; breadth, | line.

Tairua, Auckland. Unique.

Microtrihus, Wollaston. Man. N.Z. Coleopt,, p. 527.

Body fusiform, subnitid, nearly glabrous, the base of the thorax and
elytra with a few slender hairs.

Head convex. Rostrum rather long, of about the same length as the
thorax, moderately slender, parallel. Eyes small, longitudinally oval,
placed somewhat on the upper surface, only slightly prominent. Thorax
hardly longer than broad, oviform, slightly constricted in front, convex.
Scutellum obsolete. Elytra fusiform, base truncate. Antennae moderately
elongate, implanted before the middle. Scape stout, slightly flexuous.
Funiculus 5-articulate, laxly jointed, 2nd longer than 3rd, 4th and 5th
raoniliform. Club large, ovate. Legs stout and moderately long, tibial
hooks small. Tarsi with their 3rd joint expanded and bilobed.

Metasternum in the middle hardly as long as the basal ventral segment,
both broadly impressed or concave. Anterior coxae nearly contiguous.
These last characters alone remove this genus from Pentarthrum and its near
allies, whilst the obsolete scutellum necessitates its location in the 3rd section
of the Pentarthrides, along Avith four African and Atlantic genera.

Broun. — Revision of the. Neiv Zealand Cossonidse. 197

Microtribus huttoni, WoUaston. 937. Man.N.Z.Coleopt.,p. 527. (Plate XVI,

fig- 3.)

Nigro-piceous, subnitid. antemipe and tarsi piceo-rufous.

Rostrum distinctly, moderately finely, but not closely punctured, slightly
narrowed behind. Head with a fine interocular impression. Thorax
moderately coarsely but not closely punctured, the intervals minutely
sculptured ; there is usually a linear nearly smooth space along the middle.
Elytra rather finely substriate-punctate, the sutural 2 on each most distinct,
the others more or less obsolete, interstices with minute punctures and more
or less rugose, the sculpture more indefinite behind.

Underside shining, the metasternum and basal ventral segment coarsely,
2nd segment more finely, punctate.

Length, 1| lines ; breadth, | line.

Both Islands. Apparently rare.

M. pictonensis, Sharp. 2203. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1250.

Subcylindric, fusco-piceous. Rostrum short, rather thicker than in
937, closely punctate, and dull. Antennae very short and thick, inserted
behind the middle, the club small and slender. Thorax closely and strongly
punctured, rounded at the sides and much narrowed in front, where it is
only very obscurely constricted. Scutellum minute. Elytra with series
of coarse punctures at the base, but becoming more obsolete towards the
extremity, interstices sparingly seriately punctate.

Length, 3 mm.

Picton.

I have not seen this species, but the presence of the scutellum and the
different antennal insertion prove that it is not a true Microtribus.

Idus, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1493.

Minute, convex, medially contracted, nearly glabrous.

Rostrum arched, quite as long as the thorax, nearly parallel, moderately
stout. Scape strongly flexuous, apex incrassate, inserted distinctly before
the middle, moderately elongate. Funiculus 5-articulate, laxly articulated,
joints 3-5 almost equal. Club abruptly marked off, ovate, evidently an-
nulate. Head deeply immersed, globose. Thorax subcyHndrical, its sides
a little rounded, not constricted in front. Elytra subovate, convex, rather
short, widest behind the posterior femora, narrowed to about the same
breadth as the thorax at the base.

Femora long and stout, not dilated underneath. Tibiaj rather straight,
the anterior oblique at the extremity, on the inside, beyond the middle,
distinctly ciliate, not visibly uncinate ; the others with a spinule at each
angle. Tarsi narrow and elongate, their penultimate joint equally narrow,
simple, the terminal elongate.

Prosternum elongate, widely emarginate in front, the coxae contiguous.
Intermediate coxae slightly, the posterior moderately, separated. Meta-
sternum much abbreviated, so that the hind and middle coxse nearly touch
each other. Basal 2 abdominal segments depressed and elongate, their
suture fine and sinuous, the 1st the larger.

Scutellum absent. Eyes obsolete. These two important characters
would seem to indicate that the position of this genus should be in proximity
to the Australian lialorhynchus, and Pentatemnus, from the Canary Islands ;
both of these, however, according to their descriptions, are materially dif-
ferent, whilst the absence of the tibial hooks, in conjunction with other

198 Transactions.

characteristics, necessitate tlie formation of a separate section to follow-
that occupied by Halorhynchus.

Idus cfficus, Broun. 2576. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1494.

Glossy, red, legs paler, antennae and tarsi yellowish, with a few minute
setae.

Rostrum smooth, its front face apparently shaved off or obtusely truncate.
Thorax longer than broad, very slightly wider behind the middle than it
is elsewhere, depressed at the base, with rather fine but distinct moderately
distant punctures, each of which bears a very minute seta. Elytra with 4
discoidal stria? on each, these with only 8 or 10 coarse punctures, the sutural
grooves broader than the others, the posterior declivity more finely sculp-
tured ; interstices indistinctly punctate, with a few inconspicuous slender
pallid hairs.

Abdomen elongate, the basal 2 segments distantly but distinctly punc-
tured ; in each puncture there is a depressed comparatively coarse pale
seta ; there are none on the 5th.

(? . Length, | line ; breadth, quite \ line.

Mount Pirongia. Unique, unfortunately.

Protogonum, gen. nov.

Body robust, moderately elongate, sparingly clothed with minute
slender indistinct sette.

Rostrum nearly as long as and in front not much narrower than the '
thorax, curvedly narrowed to about half that width behind ; the frontal
portion is angularly dilated at each side, the apex oblique towards the
middle and with a slight emargination there. Scrobes oblique, extending
from just behind the lateral dilatations to the lower part of the eyes. Man-
dibles prominent, bifid at the extremity. Head moderately globose under-
neath, its sculptured portion extending nearly midway between the eyes
and the thoracic margin. Eyes rotundate, moderately prominent, nearly
as distant from the thorax as they are from each other. Scape stout, gradu-
ally incrassate, slightly flexuous, inserted just before the middle, and attain-
ing the front of the eye. Funiculus with slender setae, the basal 2 joints of
almost equal length, 3-5 transverse. Club oblong-oval. Thorax about as
broad as it is long, abruptly contracted in front, quite oviform behind the
constriction, base feebly bisinuate. Scutellum distinct. Elytra as broad as
the thorax, subparallel, biarcuate at the base, gradually narrowed behind,
with simple apices. Legs moderately stout and elongate. Femora slender
at the base, clavate beyond. Anterior tibiae distinctly uncinate, mucronate
at the inner extremity ; the external hooks of the other pairs are curved
forwards instead of liackwards, and the inner extremity of each projects
as an angular process. Tarsi finely setose underneath, 3rd joint deeply
excavate, but hardly at all expanded, so that the lobes are narrow.

Prosternum truncate in front, its basal portion on a higher level than the
middle. Anterior and intermediate coxfe almost equally separated, but
much more approximated than in Pentarthrum. Mesosternal suture very
distinct, and strongly curved between the coxae. Metasternum equal to
the basal 2 segments in length, medially sulcate, and with an angular im-
pression behind. Basal 2 ventral segments concave along the middle, their
suture very fine and sinuous, 3rd and 4th rather flatter and longer than
usual ; 5th with a large circular impression, closely and finely punctate
and distinctly pubescent.

Broux. — Revision of the New Zealand Cossouidse. 199

Mr. J. H. Lewis kindly placed at my disposal his unique specimen of
the type of this genus, Sharp's Pentarthrum hehnsiamim. Among the foui-
teen exotic genera of the section of Pentarthrides in which Pentarthrum is
placed, not one can be found to correspond with Protogonum in structure
or facies. I need not specify the differences between this genus and Pen-
tarthrum, as they have scarcely any part of their structure alike. The an-
terior portion of the rostrum to a slight extent resembles that of the Malayan
Megacerus, one of the Brenthidce.

Protogonum helmsianum, Sharp. 2196. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1247.

(Plate XVI, fig. 8.)

Nitid, black, tarsi and funiculus piceous, club opaque, densely and
minutely pubescent.

Rostrum finely longitudinally rugose and punctate in front, nearly
smooth at the apex, the punctuation more distinct and almost seriate behind
and continued for some distance beyond the eyes ; occiput smooth. Thorax
moderately convex, deeply constricted in front, with a slight foveiform
impression at each side near the apex, its surface moderately closely, dis-
tinctly, and evenly punctured. Scutellum with a slight median transverse
impression. Elytra distinctly but not coarsely striate-punctate, quite
striate behind, the sutural striae rather broad near the base ; interstices
with fine serial punctu^res, and, in my specimen, quite shining.

Underside black, moderately nitid, sparingly minutely setigerous. Meta-
sternum evenly but not closely or coarsely punctured, with a fovea near
each side at the middle, the basal ventral segments more finely and closely
punctured. The buccal cavity is not deep, and the rigid palpi are quite
discernible.

J . Length, 2| lines ; breadth, f line.

Greymouth.

Ohs. — This genus is placed at the end of the Pentarthrides, as I had not
seen it until after the revision had been completed.

Group COSSONIDES.

Funiculus 7-articulate.

Phloeophagosoma, Wollaston. Man, N.Z. Coleopt., p. 529.

Body fusiform or elongate subovate-cylindricum, moderately shining,
glabrous.

Rostrum as long or nearly as long as thorax, moderately stout, parallel,
rarely slightly dilated medially or basally. Eyes moderate, lateral. Thorax
usually elongate, ovate-triangular, slightly constricted in front. Scutellum
rather small, but distinct. Elytra elongate, the base wider than that of
the thorax, subparallel, gradually narrowed posteriorly. Scape moderately
elongate, stout, medially inserted, reaching beyond the back of the eye ;
2nd joint of the funiculus sometimes longer than the 3rd. Club large,
indistinctly annulate. Legs stout, inner angle of the tibiae produced, with
a spinule there. Tarsi with their 3rd joint slightly dilated, rarely sub-
bilobed, claws small.

Metasternum rather long, sharply sulcate medially behind. Anterior
coxae widely separated.

Allied to Rhyncolus, but differing therefrom in having the rostrum more
slender and elongate, more medially inserted and thinner antennae, with a
more abrupt and larger club, and less prominent eyes. From Phlosophagus

200 Transactions.

it differs in having a larger scutellum, more elongated prothorax and meta-
sternum, and the 2nd joint of the funiculus and tarsi more abbreviated.
The species are usually larger, less ovate and convex, their rostrum pro-
portionally more lengthened, and the anterior 4 coxae wider apart.
The species occur in Japan, Malaya, India, New Zealand, (fee.

Phloeophagosoma corvinum, Wollaston. 941. Man. N.Z. Coleopt^, p. 530.

Parallel-fusiform, subcylindrical, rather convex, nitid, black.

Rostrum rather long, parallel, sparingly and minutely punctate. Eyes
small, moderately prominent. Thorax triangular-ovate, very slightly con-
stricted in front, moderately finely but not closely punctured, more openly
along the middle. Elytra subcylindric, narrowed posteriorly, quite as broad
as the broadest part of the thorax, behind the middle, evidently punctate-
striate, subcrenate-punctate ; interstices moderately convex, subrugulose,
sparingly and minutely punctate, the sculpture much less distinct on the
posterior declivity. Underside lightly and distantly punctate. Antennae
rather slender, rufo-piceous, club subobscure.

Length, 2J lines ; breadth, f line.

Tairua.

P. thoracicum, Wollaston. 943. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 531.

Nitid, nigro-piceous, elytra piceous.

Rostrum subarcuate, moderately densely punctate. Thorax moderately
coarsely and closely punctate. Elytra truncate at base.

Like 941 ; thorax larger, a trifle more distantly punctured, elytra more
deeply punctate-striate and less biarcuate at the base.

Length, 2-2J lines ; breadth, f line.

Parua.

P. dilutum, Wollaston. 944. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 531.

Piceous, elytra piceo-castaneous.

Like 941 ; rather smaller and narrower. Its rostrum, in proportion to
its size, a trifle broader, and obsoletely impressed transversely between the
eyes, causing it to appear obscurely subdivided from the forehead ; and
its scape is more elongated, and extends beyond the apex of the rostrum.

Length, l|-2^ lines ; breadth, \ line.

Tairua and Parua.

P. pedatum, Wollaston. 945. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 532.

Like the preceding species ; just appreciably less fusiform or more parallel,
the vertex with a more distinctly impressed linear fovea, and the 3rd tarsal
joint very much wider and deeply bilobed.

Length, 2| lines ; breadth, f line.

Auckland and Mokohinau Island.

P. rugipenne, Broun. 1310. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 738.

Nude, shining, piceo-niger, legs and antennae rufo-piceous, anterior
tibiae along the inside distinctly clothed with fine brassy setae.

Rostrum parallel, moderately arched, finely but not closely punctured
almost as far as the thoracic margin, rather more finely near the apex, the
fovea behind the eyes minute. Thorax longer than broad, widest behind
the middle ; the sides, however, only very gently rounded ; frontal con-
striction distinct ; with a smooth central line, distinctly, rather finely, but

Broun. — Revision of the New Zealand Cossonidse. 201

not at all closely punctured. Elytra evidently striate and crenate-punctate,
interstices rugose and, like the suture, with serial punctures ; the base
distinctly biarcuate. Tarsi simple, their terminal joint rather long and
slender.

The antennte are inserted before the middle. This will lead to its recog-
nition.

Length, 2| lines ; breadth, f line.

Mount Manaia, Whangarei.

P. abdominale, Broun. 1311. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 738.

Shining, black, glabrous, legs and antenna? piceo-rufous.

Rostrum slightly dilated behind the middle, distinctly arched or convex
there, but not impressed behind, with two minute rufescent projections,
and line pale setae at the apex : finely but not closely punctured ; occiput
finely and distantly punctured, the interocular fovea minute. Eyes ratlier
large, subtruncate behind, not prominent. Antennae inserted behind the
middle. Thorax slightly longer than broad, a good deal rounded behind
the middle and narrowed but not deeply constricted in front, its sculpture
similar to that of 1310. Scutellum transverse. Elytra subtruncate at the
base, wliich is slightly wider than that of the thorax ; they are not cylindric,
being gradually but quite perceptibly attenuated posteriorly ; punctate-
striate, the intermediate stria? indistinct, interstices and suture with fine
serial punctures but not rugose. Tarsi simple.

The antennal insertion, broad scutellum, larger, depressed, and differently
formed eves are features which will enable it to be identified.

Obs. — Whilst the various members of this genus were under review I
noticed that the extreme apex, or clypeus, was more or less rufescent,
and angularly emarginate in the middle, as is certainly the case in this
species.

Length, 2| lines ; breadth, f line.

Mount Manaia. Unicjue.

Eutornus, WoUaston. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 534.

Allied to the Malayan Conarthrus, the body more fusiform and lightly
sculptured, more rufescent, &c.

S . Rostrum broad, hardly as long as the head nor as broad as it is,
subparallel. Scrobes deep, oblique, passing abruptly to the lower surface
in front of the eyes. Head globose, quite as long as broad, subparallel,
the occiput not perceptibly marked off from the head. Eyes widely sepa-
rated from each other and distant from the thorax, quite prominent, rotund-
ate, moderately large. Scape medially inserted, reaching backwards to
beyond the eye, stout, gradually incrassate, and distinctly flexuous. Funi-
culus closely articulated, the basal joint largest, joints 2-7 almost equally
transverse. Club large, ovate, or oblong-oval. Thorax subcylindrical, its
sides a little rounded, moderately narrowed and constricted in front. Scu-
tellum very small. Elytra broader than thorax, subparallel, gradually
narrowed posteriorly. Legs of moderate length and thickness, tibial hooks
well developed. Tarsi finely setose underneath, 2nd joint of the anterior
oblong or quadrate, 3rd not expanded, excavate in front, but not lobate,
terminal rather slender and hardly the length of the basal three combined.

Underside shining, nigrescent, moderately finely and distantly punctate.
Prosteruum truncate in front, the coxae only moderately separated ; the

202 Transactions.

intermediate and posterior coxae almost equally and widely separated.
Metasternum as long as the basal 2 ventral segments, medially sulcate ;
2nd segment shorter and more finely sculptured than the 1st ; both unim-
pressed.

The above description has been drawn up from specimens of Eutornus
duhius, and will, I hope, prove more satisfactory to New Zealand students
than the original one, which necessitates a careful comparison with Japanese
and Malayan genera, which he may never see. The species occur in Ceylon
and the Malay Archipelago.

The short broad head and rostrum, and strongly flexuous scape, will
enable this genus to be separated from Phloeofhagosoma.

Eutornus dubius, Wollaston. 948. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 534.

Elongate, fusiform, rather nitid, piceo-niger, elytra rufo-piceous.

Head broader than the rostrum, with a linear interocular impression,
moderately punctured, more distantly behind the eyes, nearly smooth
behind. Thorax not twice as long as broad, rather wider near the base
than it is elsewhere, but only slightly rounded at the sides, gradually nar-
rowed anteriorly ; moderately coarsely bixt not closely punctured. Elytra
truncate at base, striate-punctate, interstices with fine serial punctures and
in some aspects appearing rugose. Antennae rufo-piceous.

3 . Length, If lines ; breadth, nearly | line.

Auckland, Parua, &c.

E. vicinus, Broun. 949. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 535.

Shining, piceous, elytra castaneous, with the suture and sides piceous,
antennae and tarsi dark red, with some minute grey setae visible on the
posterior decUvity.

Differs from E. dubius in having a less flexuous scape, the rostrum about
a third longer and more finely punctate, the head more closely and finely
and without any interocular impression ; the occiput smoother and slightly
incurved between the thorax and the eyes, which are hardly at all prominent ;
the thorax more closely, scutellum more distinct ; elytra striate at the base
and alongside the sutiu^e, their interstices not rugose, and with their apical
margins a little dilated or thickened. Antennae inserted, almost behind
the middle.

2 . Length, IJ lines ; breadth, f line.
Parua. One only.

E. breviceps, Broun. 950. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 535.

Eostrum finely and somewhat rugosely punctate, with an angular im-
pression near the apex. Eyes small and subdepressed. Funiculus short,
so that the club appears to equal it in length. Thorax cylindrical, nearly
as broad in front as at the base, slightly constricted in front, much more
closely and finely (and somewhat rugosely) punctured than that of E. duhius ;
the intervals between the punctures densely and minutely sculptured, as
is also the case on the rostrum. Body rufo-castaneous.

3 . Length, 1^ lines ; breadth, | line.
Parua. Unique.

The type, unfortunately, was diblodged from the mica slab on which it
was mounted, and lost.

Broun. — Revision of the Neiv Zealand Cossonidfe. 203

E. amplus, Hroun. 951. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 535.

Rufo-piceous, moderately nitid. Larger than typical examples of E.
dubius, the head and rostrum more finely punctured, the former appreciably
longer and a little constricted midway between the eyes and thorax, antennae
more elongate, the linear interocular impression prolonged to the middle
of the rostrum, thorax more deeply constricted, the base of the elytra bi-
arcuate, the sutural strife distinct.

S . Length, 2| lines ; breadth, nearly | line.

Parua.

E. littoralis, Broun. 952. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 536. (Plate XVI, fig. 12.)

Piceo-rufous, elytra sometimes piceous, the legs and antennae red.

Of peculiarly elongate cylindric outline, with small inconspicuous eyes.
The rostrum, head, and thorax very finely, almost minutely, punctate ;
the thorax nearly cylindrical, very gradually narrowed anteriorly, and
hardly at all constricted ; elytra quite cylindric and rather finely striate-
punctate, interstices wath minute distant punctures.

Length, IJ lines ; breadth, nearly | line.

Tairua, East Coast. Under logs, on the seaside.

E. cylindricus, Broun. 2206. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1252.

Piceo-rufous or castaneous, generally of the latter colour, underside
included.

Closely resembling E. littoralis, the rostrum more distinctly marked off,
narrower than the head ; eyes transversely oval and rather more prominent ;
there is an interocular fovea ; elytra slightly narrowed near the posterior
femora so as to appear a little dilated behind, more striate, the serial
punctures on the suture and interstices closer and more distinct ; the body
itself rather less slender.

Length, If lines ; breadth, f line.

Otago. On the sea-beach.

E. parvulus, Broun. 2207. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1253.

Shining, testaceous, legs and antennae rufescent. Head and rostrum
nearly smooth, the few minute punctures distant from each other, the eyes
slightly more prominent, the thorax not constricted in front and exactly
the same width as the smooth occiput, elytra finely striate-punctate, with
but few interstitial punctures.

Length, IJ lines ; breadth, J line.

Taranaki, West Coast. One.

Obs. — The transference of E. littoralis, cylindricus, and parvulus to a
distinct genus might be considered justifiable, the eyes being different from
those of Eutornus.

Stilbocara, Broun. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., November, 1893.

Subdepressed, fusiform, glabrous, glossy.

Rostrum nearly as long as the thorax, very obviously marked off from
the strongly globose occiput, arched, subparallel, or slightly and very
gradually narrowed behind, moderately stout but not broad. Scape stout,
very short, inserted just before, in the female at, the middle ; it does not
reach backwards as far as. the eye. Funiculus closely articulated, joints 2-7

204 Transactions.

gradually become shorter and broader. Club elongate, oblong-oval. Eyes
prominent, placed at the sides of the rostrum, subtruncate behind, and
extending considerably downwards. Head much swollen behind, and ex-
tending downwards below the level of the prosternum ; above it is curvedly
contracted towards the eyes. Thorax longer than broad, its sides moderately
rounded, a good deal narrowed and constricted in front. Scutellum distinct.
Elytra biarcuate at the base and wider than that of the thorax, gradually
narrowed backwards.

Legs of moderate length, tibiae strongly uncinate, their inner angle acute.
Tarsi narrow, basal joint nearly as long as the terminal, 2nd longer than
broad, 3rd narrow, excavate but not lobed.

Underside nearly plane. Metasternum elongate, rather longer than the
basal 2 abdominal segments taken together, indistinctly sulcate, basal
segment very broadly impressed but not concave. All the coxae widely
separated. Rostrum, underneath, with a distinct median carina.

Stilbocara in its general appearance does not resemble any of our genera
of the Cossonides, but looks like Toura (904), one of the Pentarthrides.
The body of Stilbocara though subdepressed is quite unlike Arecojjhaga.
The scape is very short and thick, the tibial hooks strongly developed, and
the polished occiput is remarkably prominent in every aspect. The rostrum
though shorter is similar to that of Toura longirostre.

Stilbocara nitida, Broun. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., November, 1893.

Glossy, sparingly clothed with very minute grey setae, but appearing
quite glabrous ; castaneo-rufous, rostrum and thorax rufous, tarsi paler.

Rostrum very gradually and slightly narrowed towards the base, finely
and rather distantly punctured. Thorax unimpressed, distinctly but not
closely punctured, much more finely in front, the constriction forming
a slight depression across the front. Elytra evidently punctate-striate, the
suture and interstices with fine serial punctures, the 3rd deeply sunk behind.
Club large, opaque, but not dark, and densely pubescent. The external
hooks of the 4 hind tibiae are prolonged to the apex of the 2nd tarsal joint.

$ . Length, If lines ; breadth, f line.

Hunua Range, Clevedon. One.

S. constricticollis, Broun. 942. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 530. (Plate XVI,
fig. 5.)

Shining, almost piceo-rufous, elytra hghter.

Thorax rather shorter than in S. nitida, more coarsely and closely
punctured. Elytra with deeper and broader striae, near the suture and base
particularly ; interstices and suture seriate punctate. Funiculus more
elongate, the club rather shorter. Scape inserted before the middle.

Female. — Pale ruf o - castaneous. Thorax more gradually narrowed an-
teriorly, antennae medially inserted.

Underside shining, nigro-piceous, rather coarsely but not closely punc-
tured, 2nd segment with fewer and finer punctures, the 5th smooth in the
middle.

3 . Length, 1| lines ; breadth, f line.

Whangarei. Three.

S. Serena, Broun. 2205. Man, N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1251.

Shining, dark rufous, elytra and legs castaneo-rufous, the former paler
near the shoulders.

Broun. — Eevision of the New Zealand Cossonidfc. 205

Like S. nitida in form, the legs not as stout. The tibial hooks reach
apex of the basal tarsal joint, the minute 4th joint of the tarsi more dis-
tinctly visible. The scape more abruptly incrassate. Thorax rather shorter.
Club nearly as long as the funiculus. Occiput less swollen. Elytral striae
subcrenate-punctate.

J . Length, Ih lines ; breadth, | line.

Dunedin. One.

Arecophaga, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 533.

Body subdepressed, elongate-subovate, moderately nitid, sparingly
clothed with slender but distinct hairs.

Rostrum of about the same length as the thorax, arched, moderately
slender, cylindrical, indistinctly and gendy narrowed medially ; between
the apex and the middle with num.erous outstanding setse. Scrobes deep,
beginning between the middle and extremity, and extending underneath
to the eyes. Head globose, immersed nearly to the eyes, rounded in front,
distinctly marked off from the rostrum. Eyes depressed, large, their
greatest bulk below. Thorax about as broad as it is long, conical, abruptly
constricted in front, the apex appearing elevated, and emarginated in the
middle, its base slightly bisinuate. Scutellum distinct. Elytra slightly
sinuate at the base, which is a little wider than that of the thorax, gradu-
ally but considerably curvedly narrowed posteriorly. Scape elongate and
slender, flexuous, moderately subclavate at the extremity, inserted between
the apex and the middle and hardly attaining the eye. Funiculus laxly
articulated, elongate and slender, basal 2 joints nearly equally elongate,
3-7 rather small, the 7th largest. Club elongate - oval, quadriarticulate.
Femora medially dilated below, and notched near the extremity. Tibise
with rather small hooks, somewhat dilated medially on the inside. Tarsi
distinctly pseudo-tetramerous, slender, basal joint elongate, 3rd moderately
expanded, with a semicircular excavation so as to seem lobate.

Underside flat. Anterior coxse less approximated than those of
Phloeofhagosoma, the suture between them fine but distinct. Mesosternal
suture subtruncate. Metasternum hardly longer than the basal 2 segments,
sulcate behind the middle ; 2nd ventral segment shorter than the 1st, its
frontal suture medially curvate. Punctuation distinct, and rather close,
except in front of the mesosternum.

This genus presents a combination of peculiar characters. The sub-
depressed rather broad oviform body, slender arcuate setigerous rostrum,
and retracted head will suffice for immediate identification. The type
lives ^n Bhopalostylis {Areca) sapida.

Arecophaga varia, Broun. 947. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 534. (Plate XVI,

fig. 6.)

Variable, ranging from piceous to rufo-castaneous, the antennae and
tarsi rufescent.

Rostrum asperate, indistinctly medially carinate, and with coarse
punctures and shallow grooves behind the point of antennal insertion, more
moderately punctured in front. Eyes large, extending to below the rostrum,
occupying nearly the whole side and front of the head, not prominent.
Thorax rather closely, moderately coarsely, on some parts confluently
punctured, quite finely and very closely in front, sometimes smooth on a
central lineal space along the middle. Elytra with closely punctured stria',
interstices more or less rugose, the sutural rather closely seriate punctate.

206 Transactions.

Legs somewhat asperate and finely setose. The rostrum, underneath, tri-
carinate in front, smooth behind.

Female. — Rostrum much arched above, longer than the thorax, more
slender than that of the male, a little asperate and coarsely rugosely punctured
at the base, the punctuation more distinct, finer, and subseriate towards
the front, and bearing some short setre along its sides behind the antennae,
which are inserted just before the middle.

Var. S ■ — The coarse lateral seta? of the rostrum near the front obsolete
or absent.

S . Length, 2J lines ; breadth, f line.

Parua and Hunua Range. Both sexes.

Pogonorhinus, Brouli. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 532.

Depressed, moderately broad, subfusiform, opaque, bearing semi-erect
slender yellow set?e.

Rostrum about as long as the thorax, slightly arched, cylindrical, not
quite half the breadth of the head, and marked of? at the base by a transverse
linear impression ; at each side, from the extremity to behind the middle,
it is fringed rather thickly with long conspicuous bright - yellow setse ;
this fringe is prolonged underneath and becomes finer, and approximated
to its fellow, near the eye. Scrobes profound, beginning near the apex and
extending to the eyes, linear. Head rounded in front, immersed to the
eyes, globose underneath. Eyes not prominent, large, their greatest bulk
below, and so situated that vision must be directed nearly straight forwards.
Scape inserted between the apex and the middle, moderately stout, nearly
straight, gradually incrassate, not quite attaining the eye. Funiculus
closely articulated, 2nd joint nearly as long as the 1st, both nearly twice
as long as they are broad, 3-7 gradually thickened, transverse, 7th largest.
Club elongate, oviform, subacuminate, but little broader at its base than
the 7th joint, almost quadriarticulate. Thorax as broad as it is long, sub-
conical, abruptly contracted in front, base subtruncate, the sides well
rounded. Scutellum distinct. Elytra gradually narrowed backwards, the
base slightly bisinuate and rather wider than that of the thorax. Femora
moderately elongate, strongly arched above, widely notched near the
extremity, angulate and distinctly dentate medially below : those of the
female nearly similar. Tibi* moderately uncinate, the 2 hind pairs dilated
inwardly below the middle, the front pair prominent and finely ciliate at the
middle, but emarginated between the middle and extremity in both sexes.
Tarsi relatively slender, basal joint shorter than the terminal, the 3rd
slightly dilated, deeply excavate above and appearing lobate, but under-
neath apparently entire.

Female. — Rostrum arched, more slender, not ciliate. Scape inserted
before the middle.

Underside nearly plane, minutely setose, moderately coarsely punctate.
Prosternum deeply incurved medially in front, the coxse slightly separated,
more approximated than in Phloeophagosoma, and with much larger cavities,
and more nearly contiguous than those of Arecophaga. Mesosternal suture
truncate, and very distinct between the coxte.

This genus most nearly resembles Arecophaga, but is differentiated by
the more approximated anterior coxa3, shorter and rather stouter rostrum,
dentate femora, &c. Out of 122 genera enumerated in Wollaston's " Genera
of the Cossonidee " four only approach this one in structure. Odontomesites,

Broun. — Bevision of the New Zealand Cossonidae. 207

from the Canary Islands, comes nearest, but even in it the femoral tooth
does not exist in the female ; the male, moreover, has only a short rostral
fringe.

Pogonorhinus opacus, Broun. 946. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 533. (Plate XYI,

fig. 7.)

Fusco-rufous, sometimes more piceous in the male, legs and antennae
always rufescent, the male rostrum piceous, that of the female shining and
reddish.

Rostrum coarsely punctured, very closely at the base, indefinitely
tricarinate along the middle, longitudinally but finely rugose, and with
slender grey setse, in front. Thorax broadly but not at all deeply impressed
on the middle, very closely and distinctly, on some parts rugosely,
punctured, much more finely in front, the smooth central portion of the
apex of a somewhat metallic coppery hue. Elytra plane, closely punctate-
striate, the punctures oblong or quadrate ; interstices rugose and seemingly
punctate or finely asperate, their sculpture rather ill defined, however,
owing partly to the numerous yellow setse.

J . Length, 2J lines ; breadth, | line.

Parua and Howick. Rare.

Pogonorhinus substituted for Lasiorhinus in 1903.

Exomesites, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 971.

Body robust, nearly plane above, elongate, glossy, very coarsely and
rugosely sculptured, sparingly and finely pubescent.

Rostrum nearly as long as the thorax, stout, widely incurved between
the point of antennal insertion and the base ; the portion in front of the
antennas, more than a third of the whole length, much dilated and
subpterygiate. Mandibles prominent. Scrobes quite open above near the
apex, deep and very oblique towards the lower surface. Scape elongate,
stout, and gradually incrassate, inserted between the middle and the apex,
attaining the middle of the eye. Funiculus distinctly articulated, 2nd joint
as long as the basal one, 3-7 subquadrate, narrowed towards the base, the
iast 2 especially. Club not annulate, broadly oval, moderately large. Occiput
smooth and convex, curvedly narrowed towards the eyes but without any
line of demarcation above. Eyes moderately prominent, large. Thorax
oblong, its sides nearly straight, abruptly contracted in front, base strongly
bisinuate. Scutellum minute or obsolete. Elytra strongly bisinuate at
the base, distinctly broader than the thorax, gradually narrowed behind
the middle. Legs moderately stout and elongate, tibial hooks strongly
developed. Tarsi narrow, the basal joint rather shorter than the terminal
one, 3rd joint narrow, concave in front but not perceptibly lobed,' entire
below ; claws rather small.

Underside nearly plane, sparingly and minutely pubescent, very coarsely
punctured, the prosternum very closely, the abdomen more distantly, 2nd
segment more finely, its frontal suture obliterated in the middle. Meso-
sternal suture obsolete. Metasternum short, not longer than the basal
ventral segment, with an indistinct impression behind. Anterior coxse only
moderately separated, slightly further apart than in Pogonorhinus.

The peculiar OtiorhynchiiS'like rostrum, oblong thorax, obsolete scutellum,
and the glossy coarsely sculptured surface distinguish the handsome species
which forms the type.

208 Transactions.

Exomesites optimus, Broun. 1754. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 972
(Plate XVI, fig. 11.) /

Shining, piceous ; the shoulders, sides, and apical portion of elytra rufo-
castaneous or testaceous, the disc sometimes fuscous ; legs yellow or fusco-
testaceous, the l^ase of the femora and the knees fuscous or piceous. !

Rostrum very coarsely and closely punctured, sometimes however there
is only one interocular puncture, near the antennae there are short longi-
tudinal rugpe and striae, the apex more finely sculptured. Thorax with a
more or less evident smooth median I'ne, its punctuation very coarse but
irregular, with some smooth intervals, the punctures finer and more con-
fluent in front. Elytra somewhat uneven above, slightly impressed across
the middle ; their scu'pture coarse and irregular, punctate-striate at the
base, striate behind, interstices with fine serial punctures, 3rd, 5th, and 7th
subcarinate near the base, humeral angles slightly porrect.
Female. — Incog.

3 . Length, 2| lines ; breadth, | line.
Mount Egmont and Mount Te Aroha. Very rare.

Allaorus, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1494.

Body rather small, convex, almost elongate-ovate, shining, apparently
glabrous.

Rostrum of nearly the same length as the thorax, arched, stout but not
broad, almost parallel, usually very slightly dilated at the point of antennal
insertion, distinctly marked oil by a transverse frontal impression on the
head ; the rostrum, near its base, is more evidently arched than it is else-
where. Scrobes deep, oblique, almost convergent underneath. Scape stout,
gradually incrassate, inserted quite in front of the middle, reaching the
eye. Funiculus finely setose, basal joint stout, 2-7 distinctly articulated,
transverse, gradually thickened so that the 7th is nearly as broad as the
base of the club, which is ovate or oblong-oval ; the large basal articulation
is nearly nude, the remainder densely pubescent and indistinctly annulate.
Eyes minute but distinct, placed somewhat near the surface and the thoracic
apex. Thorax longer than broad, oviform. Scutellum minute or altogether
absent. Elytra obovate or cordiform, their base slightly wider than that
of the thorax, and slightly oblique towards the suture ; they are much
narrowed near the extremity. Femora simple, stout, and elongate. Tibiae
evidently uncinate, the anterior emarginate and ciliate inwardly below the
middle, and acute at the extremity. Tarsi slender, their basal joint as long
as the terminal, 3rd narrow, not at all lobate ; claws minute.

Prosternum deeply incurved in front, the coxae almost contiguous.
Intermediate coxae distinctly but not at all widely separated. Meta-
sternum abbreviated, not longer than the 2nd ventral segment, broadly
impressed. Basal segment large, broadly impressed, its hind suture fine
and indistinct.

Five genera, three of .which are European, one American, and the other
belonging to the Sandwich Islands, agree more or less with Allaorus, par-
ticularly as regards the abbreviation of the metasternum. Oodemas is at
once differentiated by its aeneous surface and bilobed tarsi, and Cotaster
by its short basal abdominal segment. In Aparoprion the thorax is sub-
globose and the tarsi lobate. Li/mantes is insufficiently described, but has
the thorax elongate-quadrate and the rostrum subquadrangular, two cha-
racters manifestly inapplicable to Allaorus. The other, Styphloderes, is
distinguished by its subdepressed body and broadly lobed 3rd tarsal joint.

Trans. N.Z. Inst , Vol. XLI.

Pl. XV.

Face p. 208.

NEW ZEALAND COSSONID^. — Broun.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

Pr.. XVI.

NEW ZEALAND COSSONIDiE. Broun.

Broun. — Revision of (he New Zealand Cossonidiie. 209

Alhiorus. though belonging to the same section as these five genera,
may be separated by the ahiiost contiguous anterior coxa-, abbreviated
motasternum, well-developed basal ventral segment, minute eyes and claws,
simple 3rd tarsal joint, minute or obsolete scutellum, ovifoi'm thorax, and
convex body. In the New Zealand list it should be placed near Pselactus,
which, however, has the metasternum considerablv lonoer.

Allaorus urquharti, Broun. 2577. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1495.
(Plate XVI, fig. 9.)

Shining, brownish piceo-rufous, tarsi testaceous, antennre ferruginous.

Head globose, but immersed nearly to eyes. Rostrum with some fine
distant punctures. Thorax slightly wider behind the middle than it is
elsewhere, rather narrower in front than at the base, without any apical
stricture ; very distinctly, moderately coarsely, and rather distantly punc-
tured, more finely at the apex. Scutellum very minute. Elytra widest
near the middle, much narrowed posteriorly, convex ; each with 4 series of
discoidal punctures, about 7 in each row, these hardly extend beyond the
disc ; the posterior declivity is striate. The setae are slender and indistinct.

Underside shining, rufo-piceous, metasternum and basal segment with
distinct distant punctures, 2nd with ver}^ few minute ones, 5th finely and
more closely punctate except at the nearly smooth base. The setfe slender,
scanty, and yellowish.

Length, l^ lines ; breadth, f line.

Moimt Pirongia. Four.

A. pedatus, Broun. 2578. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1496.

Shining, fusco-testaceous, apex of thorax and base of elytra darker ;
the setae scanty, very slender, and inconspicuous.

Rostrum very slightly narrower behind than in front of the antennal in-
sertion. Thorax shorter than that of 2577, widest before the middle, more
coarsely punctured. Scutellum obsolete. Elytra widest in line with the pos-
terior femora, with coarser punctures than 2577, and more deeply punctate-
stria te behind. Penultimate tarsal joint more expanded and concave.

Length, ly^n ^i'lPS : breadth, f line.

Mount Pirongia. Two.

A. sternalis, Broun. 2579. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1496.

Rufo-piceous tinged with fuscous, antennae and tarsi red, club infuscate ;
setae inconspicuous.

Thorax widest at the middle, evident!}^ more narrowed in front than
behind, coarsely and riigosely and more closely punctured than the preced-
ing species. Scutellum absent. Prosternum truncate and ciliate in front.
Metasternum nearly smooth. Basal 2 segments, combined, with 3 trans-
verse series of punctures. Mesosternum quite smooth.

Length, IJ^ lines ; breadth, f line.

Mount Pirongia. One.

A. ovatus, Broun. 2580. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1497.

Shining, fuscous, slightly tinged with red, antennae rufous ; setae indistinct.

Thorax shorter than that of 2577, the punctures rather closer and only
slightly coarser. Scutellum absent. Punctuation of elytra very irregular
and coarse, only 4 or 5 punctures in some rows on the disc.

Length, 1 Une ; breadth, f line.

Mount Pirongia. One.

210 Transactions.

A. versutus, Broun. 788. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 447.

Broad, less convex than the other species, slightly shining, testaceo-
fuscous, antennae dark red ; setae scanty and slender, most easily seen on
the rostrum and elytral apices.

Most nearly resembles 2578, the thorax not so coarsely but more closely
punctured, rather short. Elytra cordiform, more rounded, with regular
series of large punctures, the sutural 2 series, on each elytron, somewhat
depressed at the base, so that the interstice outside appears a little elevated.
Legs more robust.

Length, nearly IJ lines ; breadth, quite f line.

Mount Manaia, Whangarei. Three.

A. rugosus, Broun. 2155. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 1223.

Shining, fuscous, antennae red, club piceous, the pubescence most easily
seen on the rostrum.

Thorax apparently longer than broad ; coarsely, rather closely, and
rugosely punctured. Scutellum absent. Elytra cordate, unusually short
and broad, with irregular series of coarse punctures ; 3rd and 5th interstices
costiform, the 4th similar behind the middle, the 2nd also raised along the
posterior declivity. The most remarkable feature in this species is the
rather sharply defined sides, which almost appear marginated.

Length, \\ lines ; breadth, nearly | line.

Waitakerei Range. Unique.

A. pyriformis, Broun. 2154. Man. N.Z. Coleopt.,. p. 1223.

Robust, somewhat pear-shaped, shining, pubescence scanty and in-
distinct, piceous ; the antennae, tip of rostrum, middle of thorax, and the
base and apex of the elytra piceo-rufous.

Rostrum distinctly but not abruptly narrowed behind the antennal
insertion, almost longitudinally finely rugosely punctate. Thorax longer
than broad, more narrowed in front than behind, rather closely and rugosely
but not very coarsely punctured, with a smooth median line. Scutellum
obsolete. Elytra suboblong, wider at the base than the thorax, sides mode-
rately rounded, slightly impressed before the middle, rather closely punctate-
striate, subcrenate, interstices finely seriate punctate. 3rd tarsal joint
moderately dilated and excavate above. 2nd joint of the funiculus distinctly
longer than the 3rd. An aberrant species.

c? . Length, quite IJ lines ; breadth, nearly f line.

Mount Arthur. Two.

A. piciclavus, sp. nov.

Shining, fuscous, antennae and tarsi rufescent, club nigrescent, its pubes-
cence griseous ; setae scanty, slender, rather elongate, quite inconspicuous.

Rostrum very slightly narrowed behind the antennal insertion, mode-
rately punctate, slightly rugose, more finely and sparingly in front, and
bearing numerous slender greyish hairs. Head immersed nearly to the eyes,
which are only slightly prominent. Thorax slightly wider near the middle
than elsewhere, rather more narrowed anteriorly than behind, not constricted,
hind angles subrectangular ; disc slightly convex, coarsely, closely, and some-
what rugosely punctured, the intervals narrow, the median line nearly
smooth, frontal punctuation finer. Scutellum absent. Elytra cordiform,
base oblique towards the suture, widest near the hind thighs, much nar-

/
/

Broun. — Revision of the New Zealand Cossonidfe. 211

rowed and declivous near the extremity ; rather coarsely striate-punctate,
the punctures regular and distinctly separated, quite striate behind ; the
suture and interstices with fine serial punctures, 3rd and 5th slightly elevated
throughout, the 2nd towards the extremity only. 2nd joint of the funiculus
longer than the 3rd. Penultimate joint of the tarsi distinctly broader than
the 2nd, not lobate.

Underside shining, piceo-fuscous, minutely pubescent, rather coarsely
and irregularly punctate, mesosternura smooth in front, metasternum and
basal segment broadly impressed.

When compared with A. sternaUs, its nearest ally, the cordiform elytra
are seen to be broader and regularly sculptured, the thorax is much less
narrowed in front, with more rugose and closer punctures, the rostrum is
subopaque instead of shining, and the vestiture is entirely different.

Length, IJ lines ; breadth, nearly ^ line.

Clevedon, Hunua Range.

Pselactus, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 972.

Body robust, transversely convex, slightly nitid, sparsely but distinctly
setigerous.

Rostrum about as long as the thorax, stout and moderately broad,
parallel ; female rather more slender and elongate, but not very narrow.
Head globose, rather short, curvedly narrowed anteriorly, a little depressed
towards the rostrum, which is about half the width of the occiput. Scrobes
directed obliquely downwards. Scape short, moderately curvate and
slender, thicker at the extremity, inserted medially, a little further back in
the female, it reaches the eye. Funiculus much longer than the scape,
basal joint stout, 2nd rather longer than 3rd, joints 3-7 submoniliform,
transverse, 7th larger than the preceding one. Club oblong-oval, densely
pubescent, indistinctly annulate. Eyes placed in front of the head, widely
distant, depressed, transverse, suboval, truncate in front. Thorax of nearly
equal length and breadth, its sides distinctly rounded, obsoletely constricted
in front, base truncate. Scutellum absent. Elytra oblong, evidently
broader than the thorax, the shoulders a little curvedly narrowed, their
sides slightly rounded, posterior declivity nearly vertical. Legs moderate,
tibial hooks strongly developed. Tarsi very long and slender, penultimate
joint slightly expanded and bilobed ; claws minute.

Anterior coxse contiguous. Prosternum deeply incurved. Mesosternum
on an abruptly lower level than the metasternum, which is shorter than
the basal 2 ventral segments and somewhat angularly impressed behind,
2ncl segment rather shorter than the 1st, the suture sinuate.

In some respects similar in structure to the Crotian Cotaster, but the
thickset body, depressed transverse eyes, the short slender somewhat
arciiate scape of the male (which, however, is longer and less curved in the
female), the short rounded thorax, abbreviated metasternum, contiguous
anterior coxae, and the absence of the scutellum, taken together, prevent
its location in the vicinity of the section in which Cotaster has been placed.
The front of the prosternum, too, is angularly depressed, but in front of
and beyond the coxte an elevated area comes in contact with them, whilst
a slight angular process, apparently cariniform in the middle, projects
behind them. The seta? are suberect, slender, and in unabraded specimens
rather thickly scattered over the elytra. It is an inhabitant of the sea-
shore.

212 Transactions.

Pselactus punctatus, Broun. 1755. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 972. (Plate XVI,

fig. u.)

Piceous, slightly nitid, antennae and tarsi piceo-rufous, pubescence
yellownsh.

Rostrum with moderate, somewhat longitudinally rugose punctuation,
rather finer but not rugose in front, the occiput moderately punctured.
Thorax coarsely but not very closely punctured, more finely at the apex,
more rugosely at the sides. Elytra rather coarsely striate-punctate, the
spaces between the -punctures as large as the punctures themselves, the
suture and interstices indistinctly seriately punctured, more rugose in the
female than the male.

Underside shining, piceous, with some minute slender but quite per-
ceptible brassy setae. Front of prosternum with shallow, the metasternum
with rather coarse, punctures ; 2nd ventral segment more finely and dis-
tantly, the terminal closely and finely, punctured.

Female. — Rostrum hardly appreciably longer or more slender, its punc-
tuation fine, with four or five setigerous and more distinct punctures near
the apex.

o . Length, If lines ; breadth, f line.

Taranaki ; on the underside of logs imbedded in sea-sand.

P. ferrugineus, sp. nov.

Rostrum and thorax rufous but not dark, the elytra pale castaneo-rufous,
legs darker, antennae ferruginous, tarsi testaceous ; pubescence yellow\

Female. — Similar to the same sex of P. punctatus, but with the scape
rather shorter and more curved, like that of the male. The rostrum and
head with slightly finer sculpture. Thorax a trifle shorter, and, instead
of being nearly glabrous, bearing numerous slender yellow hairs. Elytra less
rounded at the sides and rather broader behind ; the pubescence more seriate.
? . Length, 1| lines ; breadth, nearly | line.

Taranaki. Unique.

Inosomus, Broun. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 739.

Body robust, subparallel, narrowed anteriorly but not at all behind,
coarsely sculptured, subopaque, sparingly but distinctly setose, on the
posterior declivity especially.

Rostrum short and broad, subparalle', without any basal line of de-
marcation but on a slightly lower plane than the head. Scrobes deep, ex-
panded in front of the eyes. Head short and broad, curvedly narrowed
to the width of the rostrum, strongly globose underneath. Eyes depressed,
strongly transverse, their greatest bulk below, and, though large, hardly
visible above. Scape very short and stout, still thicker at the extremity,
medially inserted, and attaining the front of the eye. Funiculus longer
than the scape, compactly articulated, basal joint as long as the following
3 combined, joints 2-7 transverse. Club broadly oval, apparently triarticu-
late, the glabrous basal joint half of the whole length. Thorax slightly
broader than it is long, truncate at base, somewhat curvedly narrow^ed
towards the front, scarcely at all constricted there. Scutellum small but
distinct. Elytra oblong, as wide as the thorax ; broadly rounded, distinctly
marginated, and denticulated behind : the base slightly biarcuate. Femora
short and stout, with 3 or 4 minute denticles underneath. Tibiae straight,
moderately slender ; the anterior with a nearly straight mucro at the ex-
ternal apex, and a minute denticle at the inner angle ; the 4 hind pairs are
prolonged externally and bifid, the inner angle of the prolongation is slightly

Broun. — Revision of the New Zealand Cossoiiidae. 213

longer than the other, and appears hooklike. Tarsi nearly glabrous, elongate
and slender, 3rd joint also rather narrow, not lobate ; claws distinct.

Prosternum deeply incurved in front, the coxa? large, prominent, almost
quite contiguous. Intermediate coxa? not at all widely separated by the
minutely margined mesosternal process ; the mesosternum itself is longer
than usual. Metasternum broadly sulcate behind, of about the same length
as the abdomen. Basal ventral segment very short at the sides, obviously
truncate behind, and on a higher level than the very short 2nd segment ;
3-5 on a still lower plane, but level with the narrow epipleurae.

Dr. Sharp stated that " this is a remarkably distinct genus, having the
appearance of a Scolytid," &c.

The Indian Himalimn has similar eyes, but the anterior coxae are widely
distant from each other. In the genus Coptorhamphus, pertaining to Borneo
and Java, the femora are armed with an acute tooth. Stenoscelis is un-
doubtedly more nearly similar, but is at once distinguishable by its obsolete
scutellum ; its species have been found in South Africa, St. Helena, and Japan.

In the New Zealand list I place it between Pselactiis and Xenocnenia.
The old name, Stenopus, has been superseded by Inosomus.

Inosomus rufopiceus, Broun. 1312. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 739. (Plate XVI,

fig. 13.)

Rufo-piceous, slightly nitid, antennae and tarsi dark red.

Rostrum coarsely longitudinally rugose, with some slender erect setae.
Head rather closely and finely punctate. Thorax convex, moderately closely
and coarsely punctured, finely near the smooth apical margin, very closely
and rugosely at the sides, which underneath are minutely dentate or crenu-
late. Elytra almost punctate-striate, the sutural striae deep but not dis-
tinctly punctured, interstices more or less rugose and near the sides and apex
studded with minute tubercles ; shoulders slightly prominent and reddish.

Underside shining, sparingly setose. The metasternum with only a
few rather fine punctures ; the prosternum and 1st ventral segment with
coarse sculpture.

Length, 1| lines ; breadth, nearly f line.

Wellington ; Otago ; Greymouth ; and at Howick, near Auckland.
Apparently rare, and without well-marked sexual distinctions.

Xenocnema, Wollaston. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 536.

Body robust, subparallel, rather broad, subdepressed above, apparently
glabrous, but bearing some slender hairs on the hind part of the elytra and
conspicuous yellow setae at the extremity of the rostrum.

Rostrum quite half the length of the thorax, in front quite as broad as
the head, without any basal demarcation, its apex depressed and emarginate
in the middle. Mandibles prominent, bifid at apex. Scrobes subapical,
deep, and linear, and extending obliquely inwards at a considerable distance
from the eyes. Scape proportionally rather slender, gradually incrassate,
inserted medially, and attaining the middle of the eye. Funiculus 7-articulate,
short and compact, the basal joint short, truncate at the apex and pro-
duced (usually) inwardly, 2nd hardly longer than 3rd. Club ovate, some-
times elongate and narrow and acuminate, quadriarticulate, the basal
joint large. Head short and broad. Eyes quite lateral, somewhat trans-
versely oval, slightly convex. Thorax subquadrate, with a deep short
stricture close to the apex, posterior angles oblique and obtuse. Scutellum
distinct, but relatively small. Elytra slightly wider than thorax at the
base, humeral angles slightly porrect ; they are subparallel or very gradually

214 Transactions.

narrowed backwards, and do not always cover the pygidium entirely. Front
coxae only moderately separated. Metasternum evidently medially sulcate.
nearly as long as tlie abdomen. Basal ventral segment truncate behind,
very distinctly separated from and on a higher level than the shorter 2nd,
3rd and 4th each not much shorter than the 2nd, all except the basal one
on the same level as the epipleurai. Legs finely setose, rather short. Tibise
somewhat laterally compressed ; the anterior, at the inner angle, with a
stout spur directed outwards, the external angle bidentate ; the 2 hind
pairs strongly curvedly expanded inwardly, and externally terminating
in a broad lamelliform process which is minutely denticulate at the ex-
tremity, the inner ends with a small spur. Tarsi sparsely rubescent, basal
joint about as long as the terminal one, which, in the posterior pair par-
ticularly, is rather slender ; claws rather small but distinct ; 3rd tarsal
joint indistinctly lobed.

This curious genus, owing to the hylastideous structure of the tibiae,
is placed last on our list, near Inosomus, from which, however, it is essentially
different. Its single exponent lives in kauri timber {Agathis australis),
and varies considerably in bulk and coloration.

Xenocnema spinipes, Wollaston. 953. Man. N.Z. Coleopt., p. 537.
(Plate XVI, fig. 15).

Piceo-rufous or piceous, moderately nitid.

Rostrum closely and rather finely longitudinally rugose and punctate.
Head finely and distantly punctured. Thorax slightly longer than broad,
its sides nearly straight, rather closely and finely punctured, the apex and
a linear median space nearly smooth. Elytra with deep, regular, closely
punctured strire ; interstices obtusely costiform, each costa with a finely
punctured definite groove along the middle, so that the interstices appear
duplicated.

Underside shining, nearly glabrous, almost regularly, moderately finely,
relatively punctured, the abdomen more coarsely, the terminal segment,
however, and the mesosternum behind very closely and finely.

Female. — Rostrum oblong, the dense punctuation of the head ceasing
abruptly behind the eyes, occiput smooth and shining, thorax gradually
narrowed anteriorly.

S . Length, 3 lines ; breadth, | line.

Auckland.

The description has been taken from specimens in my own collection.
The maximum measurements are given. Wollaston's specimen was only
half as large, If lines.

Hectaeus, Broun. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., August, 1904.

Body small, subdepressed, elongate but not parallel, finely setigerous,
shining, quite red. Lif^fe-'

Head and rostrum combined as long as the thorax. Rostrum in front
as broad as the occiput, subpterygiate there, incurved at the middle, arched ;
at its base on a lower level than the head. Scrobes subapical, quite open
and visible above. Head globose, with a frontal fovea. Scape flexuous,
finely setose, elongate and stout, gradually incrassate, inserted near the
apex, and attaining the front of the thorax. Funiculus also very long,
laxly articulated, basal joint large, joints 2-7 gradually decrease in length,
2nd longer than broad, only slightly longer than 3rd. Club oblong-oval,
indistinctly annulate. Thorax elongate, oviform, without any frontal
stricture, its base rounded, the disc nearly flat. Elytra longer than the

Broun. — Revision of the New Zealand Cossonidae.

215

thorax, rather broader, of ahnost similar form, incurved at the base. Legs
moderately long and stout ; tibise gradually and slightly expanded, sub-
truncate at the extremity, with a slender mucro at the inner angle. Tarsi
moderately stout, the anterior rather short, with their 3rd joint slightly
bilobed, but not expanded ; the corresponding joint of the other pairs
concave but not lobed, the terminal as long as the basal 3 conjointly, with
distinct claws.

Prosternum elongate, emarginate in front. Anterior coxa3 slightly sepa-
rated, placed near the hind margin of the prosternum ; the intermediate pair
distinctly, the posterior widely, separated. Metasternum short. Abdomen
elongate, basal 2 segments broadly impressed, 3rd and 4th moderately short.

The disproportionally long and stout antennae, the complete absence of
the tibial hooks and scutellum, and its apparently blind condition, the eyes
being obsolete or altogether wanting, make its position unique. In the
genus Idus these important characteristics are almost precisely similar,
with the exception of the antennse, but it belongs to the Pentarthrides.
Both genera are concolorous, and are found amongst leaves on the ground.

Hectaeus rubidus, Broun. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., August, 1904. (Plate XVI,

fig. 10.)

Nitid, ferruginous, antennfB and tarsi testaceous ; sparingly clothed with
suberect slender yellow seta?, the legs with more obscurely coloured ones.

Rostrum a little uneven, with indefinite sculpture. Thorax not twice
as long as broad, its sides gently and regularly rounded, nearly flat, mode-
rately coarsely but not closely punctured. Elytra subdepressed, their sides
rather less rounded than the thorax, evidently striate-punctate, the jDunc-
tures subquadrate and distinctly separated, substriate behind, the suture
and interstices seriate-punctate.

Metasternum and basal ventral segments distinctly but not closely
punctate.

The female, from which the orignal description was drawn up, has^a
rather narrower and less apically dilated rostrum, with filmlike slender
squamse at its base.

J . Length, 1^ lines ; breadth, nearly f line.

Broken River, Canterbury. One of each sex.

[The

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XV AND XVI.
micro-photographs were prepared by Mi". A. Waterworth, of Northcote, Auckland.]

Plate XV.

Fig. L Pentarthrum zealandicum, Wollas-

ton.
Fig. 2. Eiiophrynm rufum, Broun.
Fig. 3. Zenoteratus ■macrocephalus, Broun.
Fig. 4. Torostoma apicale, Broun.
Fig. 5. Toura longirostre, Wollaston.
Fig. 6. Sienoloura exilis, Broun.
Fig. 7. Merifima sharpiana, Wollaston.
Fig. 8. Dioedimorpha wollastoniana. Sharp.
Fig. 0. Rhinanisus fulvicornis, Broun.
Fig. 10. Macroscyialus laticollis, Broun.
Fig. 11. Proconiis asperirostris, Broun.
Fig. 12. Sericotrog us subcenescens, V^oWvinton.
Fig. 13. Gaurocryphus auricomus, Broun.
Fig. 14. Agrilochilus prolixus, Broun.
Fig. 15. Arecocryptus bellus, Broun.
Fig. 16. Eucossonus comptus, Broun.

Plate XVI.

Agastegnus longipes, Broun.
Mesoxeno pilosis brouni, Wollaston.
Microtribus huttoni, Wollaston.
Novitas dispar, Broun.
Stilbocara constricticolUs, Broun.
Arecophaga varia, Broun.
Pogonorhinus opacus, Broun.

8. PrologoHum helmsianiim. Sharp.

9. Allaorus urquharti, Broun.
Hectceus rubidus, Broun.
Exoinesiies optimus, Broun.
Eutornus litioralis, Broun.
Inosomus rufopiceus, Broun.

Fig. 14. Pselactus pmictatus, Broun.
Fig. 15. Xenocnema spinipes, Wollaston.

Fig-
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.

Fig-
Fig. 10,
Fig. 11,
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13

216 Transactions.

Art. XXIX. — A Very Rare Maori Implement — Ahao.

By Dr. A. K. Newmax.
[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 3rd June, 1908.]

Looking througli the collection of Maori curios belonging to Mr. Wilson,
of Napier, I spied this whalebone implement, shaped in all respects like an
English marlinspike used by our sailors. Mr. Wilson gave me this history
of its discovery : A man making a drain near Taradale brought it to him,
covered with moist dirt. Archdeacon Samuel Williams, who had lived
amongst the Maoris from very early European times, recognised it as a
genuine Maori implement, and called it an ahao. An old Rangitikei settler
told me he knew it — had seen one like it many years ago. Mr. Percy Smith
recognised it as a genuine Maori curio, and believed it was called a kaneha
or taneha. I left it with Mr. Skinner, of New Plymouth, a great Maori
expert, to show to some old Maoris. Plere is his letter : —

" Yesterday I met two old Maori friends and introduced them to your
whalebone implement. They recognised it, and called it a purupuru. It
is a genuine old Maori tool, and was used for caulking the holes made for
lashing the topsides of a canoe to one another and to the body of the canoe.
When the lashing was completed the hole was packed or caulked with raupo,
or the fluffy material of the flower of the raupo. Considerable force had to
be used in doing this, so as to make the canoe sea-going (watertight), and
for that reason the whalebone tool was much prized, wooden ones not
standing so long. This particular one they said was made from the jawbone
of the sperm-whale, and was a good one — so good that they advised me to
keep it and not let it go back to Wellington. The elder Maori Heta te
Kauri is an acknowledged expert on all canoe and fishing business, so you
can rest assured you have a genuine and valuable old Maori implement."

I showed it to Archdeacon AVilliams, of Gisborne, who also recognised
it. He had seen one exactly like it, but made of greenstone. This par-
ticular greenstone one was greatly prized by the Maoris. It was a sacred
article, used by the priests in religious ceremonies : they passed it through
the gills of fish offered to the gods, Avith many prayers. This greenstone
ahao was used only for holy purposes.

Its Rarity.

This implement was found in Hawke's Bay, and Archdeacon Williams
saw one of greenstone. It was used in Rangitikei and in Taranaki, and
doubtless in many other districts. No specimen exists in museums, nor
is it figured in Hamilton's great work on " Maori Art." The greenstone
one passed into the hands of Europeans, but its whereabouts is not known.

Its Structure and Ancestry.

The greenstone ahao must have been a great rarity even in old Maori
days. Common ones were made of hard wood, but they were not strong-
enough for much hard work, and were only used when they failed to get
the bone of a stranded whale.

Newman.— .4 Very Rare Maori Implement. 217

My ahao is 14 in. long. It is beautifully cylindrical in shape, smooth,
and accurately rounded. About 3 in. from one end it begins to taper to
a sharp point. Mr. Percy Smith noted that when it began to taper, and
for some distance on, it is quadrilateral — gradually its sides lessening to-
wards the point. He points to this four-sidedness as being the Maori Avay
of tapering off. Had it been made by a European it would have begun to
taper in the round. The diameter of the ahao is nearly | in. At about
one-third of the length (starting from the butt) are two parallel circular
lines about ^ in. apart. Rising from the butt to the. first of these two
consecutive circles are engraved eleven straight lines, not perpendicular,
but slanting — a rare form of Maori carving, its meaning unknown to us,
but, like all Maori engraving, certainly very ancient.

The fact that ahaos were used in Rangitikei, Hawke's Bay, Poverty Bay,
Taranaki, and doubtless in other parts w'ould tend to show that they had
been in use from very remote ages : in fact, as there is, 1 believe, no single
Maori w^ork of art indigenous to aborigines in New Zealand, it probably
was used, like all others, in the ancient fatherland, Hawaiki — it was pro-
bably a tool used by their Aryan forefathers in India. As our own Aryan
forefathers in western Asia were the forefathers of the Maoris, before our
ancestors went west into Europe and their fathers-invaded north-west India,
and thence spread to Indonesia and the isles of the Pacific, it is perhaps a
prehistoric tool : hence this Maori ahao, and its exact counterpart the
English marlinspike, may have had a common Aryan ancestral marlinspike.
Nor is this idea far-fetched, for when I showed my beautifully carved Maori
fishing-dredge or roidrilaJn to Colonel Whitney, who had never seen one,
he exclaimed, "An oyster - dredge from the Severn." and declared it
was the identical dredge. Like the big wooden Maori trumpet .used in
temples in India and old French churches, like the nasal flute, the drums,
the conch-shell, pan pipes, and hosts of other articles, this ahao probably
goes back to the old Aryan times.

Its Names.

Archdeacon Samuel Williams called it an ahao. A Maori spelt it for me
ahau. The word does not occur either in Williams's, or Colenso's, or Tregear's,
or the Hawaiian, or Nine, or Mangarewa, or other dictioiiaries, which shows
the instrument had nearly gone out of use. Hao in Maori = to do and
round, to enclose, to shut in, to encircle as a fisherman draws in a net.
This ahao draws together the gills of fishes, the top of a basket, and shuts
in the contents. Hao is a word used for hard substances- of bone ;
hahao = to put up in a basket ; sao = to collect food ; and fotao = a sharp
point. In Mangarewa ahao is to put into a basket, and taotaomu is a wooden
implement used to collect fish out of a pond. Among the negroes of Assam,
a closely allied race, dao is a sharp-pointed substance of wood or bone. In
Nine a fish-spear was taohokaika ; haohao is a fish with a beak, and fulu is
cocoanut-husk. The Taranaki Maori expert. Kauri, called it a purupuru — an
instrument used for caulking purposes. Puru in Maori is a plug or cork — to
plug. In Mangaia puru is the fibre of cocoanut, used in caulking canoes
to make them watertight. In Samoa bula (New Zealand Maori puru) is a
kind of gum used as pitch in caulking canoes. It will be noticed that
Maoris used their marlinspike exactly as did the English sailors — for caulking
purposes. The European used tow and the Maori cocoanut-fibre or raupo;
the European sailor used pitch, the Maori sailor used gum ; and centuries

218 Transactions.

ago both sailors used a similar implement to fasten planks together with
cords. European and Maori sailors alike used it mth its holes for reeving
purposes.

As the various tribes of Maoris used the same instrument, it is clear that
the names and the implement itself were known in the ancient Hawaiki.
It will also be seen that its names aliao and purupuru refer to the two main
purposes to which the tool was put.

Mr. Percy Smith recognised the implement, having known similar ones
years ago. He thought it was called a Jcaneka or taneka, words which have
not been preserved in Maori dictionaries, the idea being suggestive of the
word " piercer," which would suggest one of its uses. Aneanc or aneha
means " sharp-pointed." A tao or hao is a sharp-pointed spear. Thus in
the various Maori dialects this instrument was called by many names.

This paper, short as it is, embodies a considerable amount of research,
I having ransacked much literature and consulted many experts in Maori
lore, to many of whom the implement was quite unknown. I think this
embodies all that will ever be discovered about the ahao.

Art. XXX. — On the Trisection of an Angle.

By H. W. Segar, M.A., Professor of Mathematics, Auckland Univer-
sity College.

[Read before the Auckland Institute, 11th August, 1908.1

Three problems of an apparently simple character are famous as having
engaged the attention of the ancients, who sought in vain for solutions
by means of the straight-edge and compass. These were (1) the
trisection of an arbitrary angle ; (2) the quadrature of the circle ; (3) the
duplication of the cube.

These have generally ceased now to be objects of attack by mathe-
maticians, because it is now known that it is impossible to solve any one
of these problems by means of the straight-edge and compass. The
proofs of this impossibility are available to the English reader in the
translation of Klein's "Famous Problems in Elementary Geometry,"
published by Ginn and Company. Occasionally, however, one or other
of these problems takes possession of some person unaware of these
investigations, and with only a slight knowledge of mathematics. I was
recently approached by Mr. Viggo Hansen, of this city, who submitted to
me what he considered was a solution of the first problem — the ti'isection
of an angle. On testing his drawing I could discover no inequality in the
three parts into which his construction had divided the original angle.
Thinking that the construction happened to suit the particular angle
chosen, I carried it out for three other angles very different in magnitude
from one another and from Mr. Hansen's, with exactly the same result.
It was evident then that Mr. Hansen had obtained an approximate
solution of the problem of exceptional interest, especially as the con-
struction is very simple, and depends on the bisection of angles. The
construction was as follows : —

Segar. — On the Trisection of an Angle.

219

Let AOB be the given angle. With 0 as centre, describe a circle
meeting OA, OB, in C, D, and these lines produced through 0 in E, F,
respectively. Let G, J, be the middle points of the arcs CD, EF ; and

Fig. 1.

H, I, those of the arcs CG, GD, respectively. Now draw JH, EG, meeting
in K; and JI, FG, meeting in L. Then OK, OL, are the trisectors as
given by this construction.

We shall now proceed to investigate the degree of approximation.
We shall use the methods of co-ordinate geometry.

Take OK as the axis of x, and a line througli O perpendicular to OK
as the axis of y. Let the angle GOH be a. Then we easily obtain the
following system of co-ordinates : —

Point.

X.

y-

H

a cos a

a sin a

G

a cos (a — -]

a sin (a — -\

J

— a cos (a — ]

— a sin (a — ~ j

E

— a cos (a + -j

— a sin (« + . )

where 0 is the original angle AOB.
The equation of JH is

cos a + cos I a — ^ I
X — a cos a V 4/

y — a sin a , ■ I g\

•^ sin a + .«in I a — "1

X - a cos a / n\

■■ = cot (a-^) (1)

y — a siti a \ 8/ ^

which reduces to

220

Transactions.

The equation of EG is

X — a cos I a

(a - ^J _ cos (a - ^) + CO. (a + ^)

y
which reduces to

a sin (a - -^ J sin ( a - ^ J + sin (a + ^ J

a cos I a — - 1

= cot a.

•(2)

?/ — a S!

These meet on OK at K. Hence put y = 0 and equate the resulting
values of x. We get

cos a — sin a cot (a — -J = cos (a - - j — sin (a - -) cot a
wliieh becomes

sin -
8

sin

sin

siu a

2 sin - cos -

8 8

sin a

.■. sm a

=. 9

ji sni

(•-0

— a) COS - = sm ( - — al — sm a

.-. 2 sm a = sin (^ - a\ (3)

Now, OK being almost coincident with a true trisector, we have a nearly
equal to (l --^j — i.e., to 4-- This may also be seen from (3). Hence put

a = ±

1-2

where e is very small. Then (3) gives

2sin(A-.)=sin(| + .)
Expanding and retaining only the first power of e. we get

2 sin A — 2 e cos -^ = sin - + c cos ^

12 12 6 ' 6

and therefore

2 sin

12

sin

0

2 cos _ + cos
12 6

Here i and -i- are proper fractions. Expanding in powers of 0, and retain-
ing only the lowest power of $ that remains, we get

- _^
^ ~ 5184

This is the angle between a trisector as given by the construction and
a real trisector. The accuracy of the construction increases rapidly as
the angle diminishes, the error being approximately proportional to the
cube of the angle.

If the given angle be a right angle the error is 0'067 of a degree, for
an angle of 45° it is 0 008 of a degree, and for one of 30° it is only 0002
of a degree.

In conclusion, we shall indicate briefly how the trisection of any angle
between 0° and 180° can be derived from that of an angle not greater

Segae. — Insanity : Some Cotn/parative tStatistics.

221

than 45°, and therefore be effected by the construction of this article
with an error less than one-hundredth of a degree.

Let the angle AOB lie between 45° and 90° (fig. 2). Draw OC
perpendicular to OA, and on the same side as OB. The angle BOG will
he less than 45°. Let OD, OE, be the trisectors, OD being the nearer to
00. The trisectors OK, OL, of AOB will make angles of 60° and 30°
with OB, OE, respectively; and the angles 60° and 30° are easily con-
structed with straight-edge and compass.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Let the angle AOB he between 90° and 135° (fig. 3). Draw 00 as
before. The angle BOO will again be less than 45°. Let OD, OE, be the
trisectors, OD being nearer to OC. The trisectors OK, OL, of AOB will
make angles of 60° and 30° with OD, OE, respectively.

Lastly, let the angle AOB lie between 135° and 180° (fig. 4). Produce
AO to C. The angle BOO will be less than 45°. Let OD, OE, be the
trisectors, OD being nearer to OC. The trisectors OK, OL, of AOB will
make angles of 120° and 60° with OD, OE, respectively.

IluIlibrar

Art. XXXL — Insanity : Some Comparative Statistics.
By H. W. Segar, M.A.

[Head before the Auckland Institute, nth August, 1908.]
Introduction.

The purpose of this paper is to supply some answer to three questions :
Are the native-born of this country less liable to insanity than the remainder
of the population ? Is that portion of the population which is not New-
Zealand-born more liable to insanity than the people they have left behind
in the countries of their birth ? And have the women of this country an
exceptionally small liability to insanity ? The answers w'hich this paper
will supply to the first two questions are in the negative, and the
answer to the third, w'hile in the affirmative, will not indicate a very great
difference betw^een the women of this country and those of England and
Wales.

222 Transactions.

The answers being of so negative a character, some explanation or apology
would appear necessary to justify the existence of this paper. This is sup-
plied by the report on the mental hospitals of the colony for 1906, issued
by Dr. F. Hay, Inspector-General of Mental Hospitals. In that report are
given some remarkable deductions from the statistics of insanity in New
Zealand, and the questions above are not merely raised and answered in the
affirmative, but in each case the differences rej^resented as existing are of a
character that may fairly be described as sensational. Dr. Hay further
theorizes on the influences that have brought these differences into being, and
goes so far as to consider the advisability of Governmental action with a
view to giving these influences less free scope in the future. If, then. Dr.
Hay's deductions are more or less unfounded, it is highly important that the
fact should be clearly demonstrated, both in the interests of statistical and
sociological science and of public policy. It is the more necessary as Dr.
Hay's conclusions on two of the questions here raised are again brought
forward in the report for 1907.

The New-Zealand-born and the Immigrant.

The report represents the native-born in New Zealand as far less liable
to insanity than the immigrant. " The outstanding feature disclosed by
these calculations," it says, " is the remarkably low incidence of insanity
among New-Zealand-born." The figures finally given as representing the
situation are : —

Not New-Zealand-born . . . . 1 insane in 118-9

New-Zealand-born . . . . 1 insane in 246-9

indicating, apparently, a tendency to insanity in the immigrant more than
double that in the native-born.

Now, in spite of these figures, I may say at once that this or any similar
deduction will be shown to be absolutely unfounded in fact. But I shall
first endeavour to make clear the nature of the mistake made in the report.
Dr. Hay himself modified his figures and moderated his conclusions in com-
paring the immigrant with the native-born by allowing for the facts that
(1) there is comparative immunity from insanity below the age of twenty,
and that (2) the age of the large majority of immigrants is from twenty
upwards, nearly the whole of our population under twenty being native-born.
He did this by eliminating those under twenty and comparing only the
populations of the two classes over twenty years of age. This altered his
first figures considerably. The original figures were —

New-Zealand-born . . . . 1 insane in 613-6

Not New-Zealand-born . . . . 1 insane in 129-2

The modified figures are, as before stated, —

New-Zealand-born . . . . 1 insane in 2-46-9

Not New-Zealand-born . . . . 1 insane in 118-9

This amendment was in the right direction. It removed the influence
of that portion of the New-Zealand-born population under twenty, amount-
ing to considerably more than one-half of the total, to which corresponded
only a very small fraction of the immigrant population, and which was under
the age of substantial liability to insanity. But this manner of correction
was not carried nearly far enough. The report deals with the question as if

Segar. — Insanity: Some Comparative Statistics. 223

(1) liability to insanity were independent of age once the age of twenty is
reached, and as if (2) the age-distribution for ages above twenty were the same
for both the native-born and immigrant populations. Now, this is very far
from being the case in either particular. For instance, at the ages 20-25
there are only 13-32 lunatics to 10,000 of population ; at 65-70 there are
133-34, an increase in the ratio of 1 to 10 ; and the increase is steady from
the one age-period to the other. Again, in the former of these age-periods
the native-born population is more than five times the not-native-born ; in
the latter it is less than one-seventieth ; and again there is a steady change
from the one position to the other in between the two age-periods. Fig. 1
represents by graphs the age-distribution of the whole population and also
that of the native-born. It represents also the lunacy-rate — that is, the
number of lunatics to 10,000 of population at each age-period. The diagram
shows clearly how, as the lunacy-rate increases, the ratio of the native-born
to the whole population of the same age-period becomes less and less, until
by the time the lunacy-rate has reached its maximum this ratio is very
small. Consequently, in the two populations of over twenty, the native-born
are to a far greater degree than the others concentrated in the earlier age-
periods, in which the liability to lunacy is much smaller than in the later
ones, and consequently the number of native-born lunatics is to be expected
to be very much less than it would be if with the same populations these
differences did not exist. We have further to allow for the population not
New-Zealand-born containing a large majority of males, with their greater
liability to insanity.

In Table I, I have made an attempt to allow for these differences. The
table gives the whole population and then the native-born population in
quinquennial age-periods. The fourth and fifth columns give the latter
divided into males and females. The next two columns give the number
of lunatics per 10,000 of population for each age-period. On the hypo-
thesis of equal liability to lunacy at the same ages in both classes of popu-
lation it is now a simple matter to calculate the proper number of native-
born lunatics of each sex in each period. The results are entered in the last
two columns.

This method, it should be noted, still exaggerates the estimate of the
number there ought to be of native-born lunatics if they had the same liability
to insanity as the remainder of the population. For the condition of things
we are trying to allow for still holds for each of our age-periods. The pro-
portion that is native-born is greater in the earlier than in the later years
of each age-period, and uj) to about seventy years the liability to lunacy is
continually on the increase as the age increases, while after this age the
contribution to the number of lunatics is small by reason of the smallness
of population. It is impossible to allow for this feature with perfect accu-
racy. If we took yearly age-periods the error would be smaller, but the
problem is hardly worth this, and it is sufficient for our purposes that it
should be clearly understood that the estimate in the table is distinctly an
overestimate. The figures in the table are all taken from or based on the
census returns for 29th April, 1906. The lunacy-rates quoted here and
elsewhere are those for New Zealand as determined by this census, but their
general character is in no way peculiar. Their main feature is general —
namely, an increase in the rate up to sixty-five or seventy years of age, after
which there is a not very great reduction, due to the greater mortality of
he insane causing a reduction in their relative numbers.

224

Transactions .

Table I.

Ages.

Population.

New-Zealand- born.

Number of
Lunatics per

10,000 of
Population.

Proportionate

Sbare of

Lunatics for

New-Zea!and-

boru.

Total.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

0-5

102,745

100,117

51,229

48,888

0-19

1

0

5-10

90,288

85,827

43,542

42,285

2-18

2-02

9

9

10-15

86,758

80,875

40,778

40,097

4-56

1-40

19

6

15-20

87,117

79,587

39,955

39,632

7-46

5-83

30

23

20-25

94,608

78,849

38,478

40,371

15-39

11-05

59

45

25-30

92,448

68,388

33,278

35,110

25-74

22-95

86

81

30-35

70,419

44,087

21,975

22,112

41-80

33-72

92

74

35-40

60,123

83,026

16,610

16,416

60-32

48-93

100

80

40-45

45,381

17,945

9,096

8,849

75-66

63-54

69

56

45-50

38,427

8,504

4 , 364

4,140

86-35

92-92

38

39

50-55

31,899

4,406

2,264

2 , 142

105-26

103-96

21

22

55-60

24,942

2,458

1.268

1,190

120-85

114-07

15 ' 14

60-65

21,894

1,4.52

745

707

145-36

105-91

11

8

65-70

19,123

263

133

130

138-84

125-02

2

2

70-75

12,183

77

42

35

111-01

106-15

^ ^

75-80

6,071

40

21

19

127-10

92-71

, ,

, ,

80 and over

3,411

11

4

7

112-60

9702

Total ..

887,837

605,912

303,782

302,130

39-47

30-50

555 i 469

1

1,014

According to this calculation the numlier of native-born lunatics there
should have been in this colony at the time of the last census, if the liability
to insanity in the native-born were the same as in the rest of the population,
would be substantially less than 1,014. Now, the actual number of registered
insane of New Zealand birth on the 31st December, 1906, was 988 — a very
noteworthy agreement. We may make some allowances for the interval of
some months between the time of taking the census and the end of the year,
for the possibility of the registered insane including a small proportion of
idiots, and for some discrepancy between the census and registration returns,
and still the conclusion appears reasonable and certain that the statistics
indicate that there is no appreciable difference between those of the popu-
lation of this country that were born in New Zealand and those not born in
New Zealand with respect to liability to insanity. The argument justifying
this conclusion may be put in another form. Our investigation shows that
if the native-born has the same lunacy-rate at each age as the remainder of
the population the native-born lunatics should constitute materially less
than 0-328 of the whole : according to the numbers of registered insane on
the 31st December, 1906, the native-born insane constituted 0-311 of the
whole. There is thus absolutely no basis for any argument designed to
show that the native-born are less liable to insanity than the immigrant
population of the country.

The Immigrant and his Countrymen.

But in the report the immigrant is compared to his disadvantage not
only with the New-Zealand-born, but also with his countrymen remaining
behind in his native country. The deduction is drawn " that he is not an
average type of the country of his origin," but, on the contrary, is " below

Segar. — Insamty : Some Comparative Statistics.

225

the average of the country of his origin." This is said first of all to be
suggested by the comparison of the immigrant with the New-Zealander, in
which it is pointed out that the insane of the immigrant population above
the age of twenty is as great as 1 in 118-9. After the inquiry in the pre-
ceding section of this paper, this suggestion would appear to cease to have
any force. It is then stated to be verified " by contrasting our figures
with the English figures (only approximate) of 1 insane person below
twenty to 2,069 of the population of the same age, 1 in 173 of the popu-
lation above that age, and 1 in 283 of all ages." Now, in arguing from
these bare figures serious mistakes have been made similar to those made
in contrasting the New-Zealand-born wdth the immigrant. The remarkable
age-distribution of those of our population not born in this country, com-
bined with the increasing liability to insanity as age increases, is not taken
any account of above the age of twenty.

r

■ "T '

j 1

1 ! 1

; \
1 1

1

Fig. 1.

"> vv

/

^

/ W

N.Z. born population of N.Z. ... ; p^f^^^j^^ ._

' vS«^

VN. 1 ^ \

Number of lunatics per lo.ooo of population c ^j^ip """"'"

^^~

\ \

"■ ~ -*1

'-^■^

<N

\^

K

.

i

\

^ \,

V

1

\

k\ '

V ^

\

\

\

y-

\

^

1

V

N

\

1

V

\ \

i

\

N

\

s

s

1

1 !

X

1

' ' ^

\N

\. ^^

1

\

^

\ i \

i

>

^^o><^-- — ^

\

\>

T*''

1 ^--

^V ^ ■!

^"

^-^-

-" X

^\v

^^

-*•"". ^"^

->

i^_

^^^-Os^

, ;_._

.^..-=f<=-' ''

'

50

40

30

20

TZ^- 10

0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-65 G5-70 70-75 75-80 SOanJover..
Age periods.

To illustrate the extent of this peculiarity that has to be allowed for,
let us compare the age-periods 20-25 and 45-50. The number of lunatics
per 10,000 in the later period is more than six times as great as it is in the
earlier. Our total population in the later period is about two-fifths of that
in the earlier, whereas our immigrant population of the later period is almost
double that of the earlier. Further, whereas in the period 20-25 our
immigrant population only constitutes one-sixth of the whole population
of that age-period, in the later age-periods it practically constitutes the
whole population of the periods. We have further to take into account the
very considerable excess of males in our immigrant population, amounting
to nearly 50 per cent., and their greater rate of insanity, and also the excess
of females in older countries. In fig. 2 we have the graphs representing the
population of New Zealand not New-Zealand-born. The excess of males
stands out clearly, and a comparison of these graphs with those in fig. 1
for the whole population reveals clearly to the eye the exceptional character

8— Trims.

2 -20

Transactions.

of the age-distribution of those not born in New Zealand. The graphs
representing the rates of lunacy for the two sexes are also repeated in fig. 2,
and two other graphs are given representing how our population above
twenty years of age and not New-Zealand-born would be distributed in age
and sex if such distribution were the same as that of the population of
England and Wales as given in the census of 1901 ; or, in other words,
representing the age and sex distribution of a portion of the population of
England and Wales over twenty equal in number to that of our population
over twenty not New-Zealand-born. A comparison of these graphs with

Fig. 2.
Population not N,Z. born

The same over twenty years of age dis-
tributed in age and sex as in census
of England and Wales. 1901

I Males i
t Females -

Number of lunatics per 10. o'"© of population _

'Males _ — — .

Males _._.

■ , y"]

T^

20

lu

20

10

0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-65 65-70 70-75 75-30 80 and over.
- Age periods.

the others in the same figure again reveals clearly the exceptional character
of the age and sex distribution in question. It is obvious, then, that, in
view of the very different rates of insanity prevalent in the various age-
periods, the figures as presented by Dr. Hay cannot be accepted as any
indication of the comparative insanity of the immigrant and his country-
men at home.

In Table II I have made an endeavour to roughly measure the correction
that must be applied to allow for the features I have pointed out. The first
column gives the age-periods beginning at 20-25, the next two give the
population of New Zealand according to age-period and sex, and the
next two again our immigrant population classified in the same way. The
sixth and seventh columns give our total immigrant population above the
age of twenty redistributed in respect to both age and sex proportionally
to the population of England and Wales according to the census of 1901.
The next two columns again give the New Zealand rates of lunacy, which
have been already shown to apply generally to the New-Zealand-born and
the immigrants as a whole. The last two columns give the number of
immigrant lunatics there would be if our immigrant population of twenty
years and over were distributed in age and sex as the population of England
and Wales is distributed.

Segar. — Insanity: Some Gomparative Statistics.

227

Table II.

Population.

Not New-Zealand-bc

■

ru.

Number of
Lunatics
per 10,000.

Number of
Lunatics in

Actual.

Distributed.

Distributed
Population.

Ages.

Males.

Females.

m

a

"3

QQ

"3

a

<B

Males.

Females.

oi
O

"3

Penmles.

"3

•3

a

<B

20-25

49,370

45,238

10,892

4,867

20,542

22,994

15-39

1105

32

25

25-30

49,308

43,140

16,0.30

8,030

18,528

20,872

25-74

22-95

48

48

30 35

37,798

32,621

15,823

10,509

16,147

17,766

41-80

33-72

68

60

35-40

3-2,329

27,794

15,719

11,378

14,430

15,496

60-32

48-93

87

76

40-45

24,451

20,930

15,355

12,081

12,519

13,295

75-66

03-54

95

85

45-50

21,424

17,003

17,060

12,863

10,601

11,342

86 35

92 92

92

106

50-55

18,3.36

13,563

16,072

11,421

8,874

9,662

105 26

103 96

93

100

55-60

13,984

10,958

12,716

9,768

6,939

7,742

120-85

114-07

84

88

60-65

12,452

9,442

11,707

8,735

5,7-25

6,698

145-36

105-91

83

71

65-70

11,524

7,599

11,391

7,469

3,938

4,853

138-84

125-02

55

61

70-75

7,567

4,616

7 , 525

4,574

2,725

3,498

111-01

106-15

30

37

75-80

3,698

2,373

3,677

2,354

1,648

2,111

127-10

92-71

21

19

80 and over

1,865

1,546

1,861

1,539

977
123,593

1,494

112-60

97-02

11

14

Total . .

'284,106
520

286 , 823
,929

155,828

105,508

1.37,823

799

790

261

,416

261

416

1,589

The result is to give us 1,589 lunatics, to which ought to be added the
share of idiots to get the total insane for comparison with English figures.
But, even ignoring these, this is at the rate of 1 in 164-5 — a very consider-
able change from the actual 1 in 118-9, and approaching pretty closely to
the 1 in 173 of England and Wales which Dr. Hay takes for comparison,
especially when we remember that the dealing with quinquennial age-periods
does not make by any means a complete correction.

The design of Table II is not perfect, but perfection cannot be attained
with the statistics available. The immigrant population contains large
numbers born in Scotland, Ireland, and Australia. Those born elsewhere
are relatively so few as to make no material difference in the argument.
The Scotch differ from the English only slightly in respect to liability to
insanity, and the population of Scotland is distributed with respect to age
very similarly to that of England and Wales. Those of English, Welsh,
and Scotch birth form the great majority of our immigrant population.
Those of Irish and Australian birth are not very unequal in numbers — their
contributions to the insane when combined are about equal proportionally
to that of the other nationalities — and the age-distributions of the populations
of Ireland and Australia vary in opposite directions from that of Great
Britain, Ireland having a greater proportion of older and Australia of younger
people. So the table does not altogether fail in taking the immigrant popu-
lation of New Zealand and finding what the position would be if their age-
distributions were similar to those of the native countries of the immigrants.
The inference is that there is no appreciable evidence that in the total the
immigrant is any more liable to insanity than the people of his native land ;
and, even if there were in the mere statistics, the question would arise to
what extent the apparent differences were really due to differences of classi-
fication and of circumstances in the different countries leading to more or
less perfect returns, and differences of asylum accommodation and treat-
ment of the insane leading to greater or less longevity.

228

Transactions.

There appear to be exceptions in the particular cases of the Irish and
Australians, the former appearing to contribute far more and the latter very-
many less than their proportional share to the insane of this country. It
is possible an investigation would not prove the contrary, but it probably
would show that the situation is not as extreme as it appears. The neces-
sary statistics for such an investigation, however, are not available.

The Females of New Zealand.

The report further calls attention to the fact that the smaller number
of women relatively to men in our mental hospitals contrasts strangely with
the numbers in the United Kingdom. This is partly explained in the report
by the fact of there being 53,438 fewer women than men in this country,
and by the fact that nearly all this deficiency of females obtains in that part
of our population which is not New-Zealand-born, and to which the report,
as we have seen, attributes a far higher rate of insanity than to the native-
born. The proper statement of the case is that the deficiency of males,
being almost entirely amongst those not New-Zealand-born, conies mostly
in the age-periods where the rate of insanity is greatest. But not only is
this generally so, but in the quinquennial age-periods, as we take later periods
and the lunacy-rate becomes greater, the deficiency of females also becomes
greater, until we come to the last few periods, which do not supply any large
portion of the total. We have also to take into account in the comparison
that in the United Kingdom and other old countries there is an excess instead
of a deficiency of females, due to the greater longevity of females and the
greater loss by emigration of males, and that this excess is relatively greatest
generally in the ages of maturity, and specially in the later age-periods.
The result is that the ratio of females to males in New Zealand for the age-
periods at which the lunacy-rate is very high is less than three-quarters and
in some periods actually less than one-half of the corresponding ratio in
England and Wales.

Table III gives for quinquennial age-periods the lunacy-rates for New
Zealand, and the ratio of females to males both in New Zealand and in Eng-
land and Wales.

Table III.

Number of

Ratio in Population

Number of

Ratio in Population

Lunatics in 10.000

of Females to

Lunatics

in 10,000

of Females to

Ages.

of Poi

lulation.

Males.

Ages.

of Population.

Males.

New
Zealand.

England

England

Wales.

Females.

and
Wales.

Males.

Females.

Zealand.

and
Wales.

0-5

0-19

0-96

1-00

50-55

105-21

103-96

0-74

1-09

5-10

218

2-02

0-97

1-01

55-60

120-85

114-07

0-78

1-12

10-15

4-56

1-40

0-98

1-00

60-65

145-36

105-91

0-76

1-17

15-20

7-46

5-83

0-97

1-02

65-70

138-84

125-02

0-66

1-23

20-25

15-39

11-05

0-92

1-12 j

70-75

111-01

106-15

0-61

1-28

25-30

•25-74

22-95

0-87

1-13 1

75-80

127-10

92-71

0-64

1-34

30-35

41 80

33-72

0-86

1-10

80 and

112-60

97-02

0-83

1-53

35-40

60-32
75-66

48-93
63-54

0-86
0-86

1-07
1-06

over

40-45

45-50

86-35

92-92

0-79

107

Total

39-47

30-50

0-89

1-07

Fig. 3 also illustrates the same features. It represents the male and
emale populations of New Zealand, and also the population of twenty years

Segar. — Insanity: Some Comparative Statistics.

229

and over, redistributed iu respect to both age and sex proportionally to the
census of 1901 for England and Wales.

The question now arises, Will these differences fully account for the
deficiency of female lunatics as compared, say, with England and Wales ?
Some attempt has been made to answer the question in Table IV. In this
table is calculated the number of male and female lunatics over twenty years

1

1

1

T

\,

I

■^ ' J

Fia. 3.

1

w

y

\

Population of N.Z. . . tMales ■

1 Females

\

/^

^^ \

The same over twenty years of age dis- (

tnbuted in age and sex as in census ^^^'^

of England and >A/'alcs, 1901 jFemales

Number of lunatics per 10.000 of population '"*'««

( Females

>

\A

k.

\

\

\

. [

Ki

^

^N

i

^

>

^>.-

=tsn

•=4

1

,.-

.•^*

—•'"^

>''

---

^

^

^

.](! in

1 .'■ 1 ^

■>rl •H\

■>^ 0-,

Qn Qn

o^ <■

>-

__l

40

30 :

20

10 5

Ag. P.nods. ' ■'"'" ■'^''"' •^•'"^" ^'^■^'■' ^-^-^O ^°-^^ 55-GO G0-6u G5-70. 70-75 75-80 80 and over.

ofj[age there should have been returned at the various age-periods in the
census of 1906 if our population over twenty had been distributed in age
and sex as was that of England and Wales at the census of 1901.

Table IV.

■

Population of

The Same

Lunatics per

10,000 of
Population.

Number of

Age-periods.

New Zealand.

redistributed.

Lunatics.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

Males.

Females.

20-25

49 , 370

45,238

40,947

45 , 831

15-39

11-05

63

51

25-30

49,308

43,140

36,933

41,603

25-74

22-95

95

95

30-35

37,798

32,621

32,190

35,415

41-80

33-72

135

119

35-40

32,329

27,794

28,763

30,889

60-32

48-93

173

151

40-45

24,451

20,930

24,954

26,502

75-66

63-54

189

168

45-50

21,424

17,003

21,131

22,613

86-35

92-92

183

210

50-55

18,336

13,563

17,690

19,262

105-26

103 96

186

200

55-60

13,984

10,958

13,812

15,434

120-85

114-07

167

176

60-65

12,452

9,442

11,412

13,847

145-36

105-91

106

142

65-70

11,524

7,599

7,854

9,656

138-84

125 02

108

121

70-75

7,567

4,616

5,4.35

6,976

11101

106-15

60

74

75-80

3,698

2,373

3,144

4,210

127-10

92-71

40

39

80 and over

1,865

1,546

1,949

2,979

126-60

97-02

25

29

Total

284 , 106

236,823

246,212

274,717

1,590

1,575

520

,929

520

929

3,]

165

230 Transactions.

The result of this calculation is to give 3,165 lunatics of specified ages of
twenty years and over, of which 1,590 would have been males and 1,575
females — that is, the two sexes would have been almost exactly equal in
numbers. The number of such actually returned at the census of 1906 was
3,026, of which 1,793 were males and 1,233 females. Instead, then, of the
number of the female lunatics being 0-61 of that of the males, it would have
been 0-99, a relative increase of 62 per cent. It must further be borne in
mind here, as elsewhere, that the dealing with quinquennial age-periods
does not make by any means a complete correction, which would undoubt-
edly give an actual excess of female lunatics.

The result we have obtained does not. however, explain the whole of the
apparent difference between this country and England and Wales, for in the
latter there is returned a substantial excess of female lunatics, the numbers
recorded in the census of 1901 being —

Lunatics.

Imbecile and
Feeble-minded.

Total.

Males . . . . . . 37,583 24,480 62.063

Females .. .. 46,189 24,402 70,591

But the allowanceSjWe have made make the contrast very much less marked,
and bring it more within the uncertainties of such international statistics.
The difference remaining unaccounted-for affords a rather unsafe foundation
for argument and speculation.

In conclusion, we may consider briefly how the female really stands with
respect to the male in New Zealand in the matter of liability to insanity.
At the census of 1906 there were returned, at specified ages of twenty years
and over, 1,793 male and 1,233 female lunatics. I shall not trouble the reader
with another table ; but if, in the manner of previous tables, we allow for the
difference in numbers and in age-distribution of the sexes by supposing
there had been a female population equal in numbers and similar in age-
distribution to the male population, but retaining the female lunacy-rate at
the various ages, we find that there would have been 1,567 instead of only
1,233 female lunatics. The comparison of this number 1,567 with 1,793, the
actual number of male lunatics, is the best way of comparing briefly the
liability of the two sexes to lunacy, since in it both the inequality in the
numbers of the sexes and the dissimilarity in their age-distributions are
allowed for.

It is interestins further to notice the influence of alcoholism. In 1906
there were admitted to the mental hospitals of this country 401 males and
277 females. Amongst these cases seventy-three of the former but only
eleven of the latter were attributed to alcoholism. In 1907, again, the numbers
of admissions were 421 males and 279 females. Of these cases, seventy-one
of the former but only eleven of the latter were attributed to alcoholism. In
the two years the excess of male over female cases due to alcoholism is greater
than one-seventh of the total number of male cases. Unless the proportion
of recoveries is much greater for this class of patient than for those that owe
their insanity to other causes, these numbers would indicate that the differ-
ence remaining between the insanity of the males and females in New Zealand
that has not already been accounted for by the differences in numbers and
age-distribution is entirely explained by the greater excessive indulgence
of the male sex in alcohol, and the ravages this indulgence makes on the
sanity of the sex.

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 231

Art. XXXII. — Maori Forest Lore : Being some Account of Native Forest
Lore and Woodcraft, as also of many Myths, Rites, Customs, and Super-
stitions connected with the Flora and Fauna of the Tuhoe or Ure-wera
District. — Part II.

By Elsdon Best.

[^Read before the Auckland Institute, 18?A November, 1908.]

Harakeke {Phormium tenax).

The harakeke, or flax, as it is commonly termed, has never obtained to
any great extent in Tuhoeland, on account of its being essentially a forest
district. Only the inferior varieties of flax were here found growing, and
the better varieties were only obtained by means of cultivation. The
varieties which produce the better grades of fibre are alluded to as whitau
(sometimes hitau), while those which contain poor, weak, non-durable fibre
are termed harakeke maori, or common harakeke.

The following are the names of the varieties of flax known to the Tuhoe
Tribe, which people seem to have imported some of the better varieties
from the Waikato, for purposes of cultivation, about six generations ago : —

1. Oue. — This variety produces the best fibre, much prized in former
times for the manufacture of the better class of garments. It was not
indigenous to Tuhoeland, but was cultivated.

2. Pari-taniwha. — Produces a good fibre, which, however, requires to
be steeped in water when scutched, or it assumes a reddish colour. After
being soaked a while it is taken from the water and hung up to dry and
bleach.

3. Wharariki. — Sleeping-mats and such things are made from the green,
unscutched leaf.

i. Bataroa. — Produces a fibre of medium quality.

5. Ngutu-nui. — Nets and snares are made from the leaf of this variety.

6. Huhi. — An inferior variety. Grows in swamps.

7. Tutae-manu. — An inferior fibre.

8. Awanga (or Aoanga). — Variegated variety.

9. Taneawai.

10. Ruatapu. — Formerly looked upon as being tapu, as its leaves, or
fibre, were used in dressing the hair of chiefs.

11. Tukura. — A swamp-growing variety.

The rataroa variety is also known as motu-o-ruhi.

Shortland speaks of rongotainui, motuorui, and mangaeka as being the
names of varieties of flax {Phormium). The latter name is applied by the
Tuhoe people to the brownish-yellow strips of flax-leaf inserted in certain
Native garments, and which colour is produced by exposing the strips to the
heat of a fire. Such a garment is also termed a mangaeka. Shortland,
however, speaks of the word harakeke as though it were a specific term for
a single variety of flax, whereas it is essentially a generic term, embracing
all varieties.

The atvanga variety is used in making baskets and mats. Colenso gives
tamure as another name of this variegated variety. Te rau o Papoua is said
to be a term applied to growing flax, while te rau o Huna describes the fibre

232 Transactions.

when scutched and prepared for use. Hence the former term is applied
to a rough cape {for a), and the latter to a fine garment of dressed fibre.

Local Natives say that an edible variety of flax formerly grew at Tieke.
in the Rua-tahuna district. The leaves were dark-coloured, with reddish
edges. The base of the leaves was eaten. This plant has disappeared.
In this connection, I take the following from a newspaper item : " Mr.
McGregor said that there is an edible variety of flax in the Taupo district.
It is called kopakipaki-ika by the Natives. The main root grows to a great
length. It is white in colour, and resembles celery outwardly. It has a
sweet taste, which is a contrast to the bitter taste of the ordinary flax."

Natives profess to know two sexes of the oue variety of flax. They state
that the leaves of the male plant are more pointed than those of the female
plant. The latter leaves are shorter, and do not give so long a fibre. The
edges of leaves of the female plant are a light-reddish colour {puwhero).
Leaves of the male plant have reddish streaks, called kakaka, in them, as
you see light-coloured streaks in a leaf of toi {Cordyline indivisa). The
fibre produced by the female plant is white and soft, that of the male is
somewhat harsh and has a reddish tinge {ma pmvhero).

The Natives, in former times, often planted the commoner varieties of
flax near their dwellings, as the leaves were much used in the manufacture
of small baskets to hold cooked food, which baskets were used but once.
The varieties producing better fibre were planted usually at the edges of
cultivation-grounds. A plant would be divided and the fans planted out
in the fourth month of the Maori year — i.e., in the spring. It was considered
necessary to put two plants in each whawhama or hole dug for the purpose.
It was unlucky to plant an odd number {Mchemea ka kehe, he aitua) — the
plants would not flourish. Such a flax-plantation is termed a pa fiarakeke.
The ground around the plants was kept clear of weeds. Any old leaves
were cut away so as to promote a more vigorous growth in the plant ; also,
if the young leaves were considered too nu,merous, some of them would be
cut out. Long rows of cultivated flax were seen at Aotea by early settlers.

The withered outside leaves of a flax-plant are termed pakaivha. The
half-dressed hukahuka or thrums of a pokeka (rough cape) are known as
pureke.

In former times the Maori had some curious ideas regarding flax. When
making a flax- cultivation — i.e., setting out plants to form a pa harakeke —
the planter was careful to note what particular wind was blowing at the
time ; for when the flax was grown, and it was desired that use be made
of it, then it was considered to be necessary to cut the leaves when the same
wind was blowing as when the flax was planted, otherwise the fibre in the
leaves would be found to be of a very unsatisfactory quality — short, weak,
and brash. And if a person went to the owner of such a flax-grove and
obtained permission to take some of it for his own use, his next question
would be, " He pehea te hau i rumakina ai taua harakeke ? " (What was
the wind when that flax was planted ?) And if such wind was not prevailing
at the time, then he would wait until it did before cutting the flax. Now,
if a person went to steal some cultivated flax, he would try the condition
of the fibre in a few leaves. Should the fibre prove to be poor as to length
and quality, he would know that he had gone a-thieving during the wrong
wind. Hence he would wait until the wind changed, when he would try
again. When he found that the flax gave a long, strong, desirable fibre,
he then knew that he had hit upon the right wind — the wind that obtained
when the flax was planted.

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 233

A somewhat similar superstition to the above seems to have obtained
in regard to the mandrake-plant. In Lang's " Custom and Myth " we read,
" ' In digging the root,' Pliny says, ' there are some ceremonies observed :
first, they that go about this work look especially to this — that the wind
be not in their face,' " &c.

When the fibre of flax is prepared for weaving into a fine garment it
must be carefully looked after. There are many dangers abroad in con-
nection with the art of weaving : for instance, if that fibre be left at any
spot where a person might step over it, it is a most reprehensible act of care-
lessness, inasmuch as the fibre would never take the dye well if a person
had stepped over it.

When flax-fibre of the better grades is being prepared for the making
of garments it is deemed extremely unlucky to throw the refuse of the leaves
into a fire, for if that refuse be burned, then all the flax in the grove from
which the leaves were taken will be spoiled. They will become kakara
ivera — that is, the tops of the leaves will die first, then the whole leaf will
become affected and die. I once heard an old Native woman exclaim peev-
ishl}^, " Kiia kakara wera katoa taku pa harakeke i te mahi a te wahine ra "
(My flax plantation has been ruined by this woman). On inquiry I found
that the offending person had begged some of the flax, and had burned the
refuse of the leaves after she had taken out the fibre. You will doubtless
be relieved to hear that these restrictions, &c., pertain only to the higher-
class varieties, those termed ivhitau or harakeke muka, and not to common
varieties {harakeke maori).

The term rnakuhane is applied to short, brash flax-fibre, the same being
weak and easily broken : " Ka mahia te muka, na ka kotihe. Na te rnakuhane
i loheraka ai.'"

In former times long trumpets were made of flax by winding the green
half-leaves in a spiral manner. They lasted merely so long as the material
remained green. They were called tetere.

Some old Natives state that flax was introduced into New Zealand by
the Matatua migrants, w^hich is presumably an error.

Leaves of the flax-plant, or strips of such leaves, were often used in
certain rites of former times. When a person performed the rite known
as matapuru, in order to preserve himself from the arts of witchcraft as
directed against him by persons known or unknown, he first of all obtained
some strips of green flax-leaf, which he tied round his body and limbs,
perhaps three or four round each, in divers places. This tying-up process is
termed ruruku. He then recited an incantation to avert the shafts of magic.
This peculiar usage was often followed by persons visiting a distant village,
when doubtful of the disposition or intentions of the people thereof. It
would be carried out shortly before the travellers arrived at such village.

When about to have the wai taua rite performed over them, the warriors
of a war-party took off all their clothing, and each man tied a half-blade of
flax round his waist. Under this belt in front each man thrust some green
branchlets of karamuramu {Coprosma), which thus formed a sort of apron,
which was known as a maro taua. The officiating shaman, or priest, then
took a strip of green flax-leaf and walked into the water (stream or pond)
wherein the rite was to be celebrated. He tied a knot in the middle of the
iiax line and placed it in the water. If a stream, then the knot was placed
up-stream. The priest stood between the two ends of the flax — i.e., in the
bight of the line — while recitinsj his charms or spells. Ka kiia he kuwha
tangata taua harakeke (That flax is likened to the thighs of a person).

234 Transactions.

Again, when a Maori priest was called in to attend a sick person, one of
his acts was to proceed to a clump of flax, where he pulled out one of the
young leaves. If a screeching sound was made by the leaf as it was drawn
out — a not uncommon occurrence — that was looked upon as a good omen :
the patient would recover. This flax-leaf was placed upon the body of the
patient when the priest repeated the charms by which he drove out the evil
spirits, the cause of the man's illness. These malevolent demons were
supposed to leave the sick person's body by way of the flax-leaf : hence,
in tliis connection, it was termed an ara atua (demon-path).

In modern times various preparations from flax have been used as
medicines bv the Natives, for diarrhoea and other ills. In cases of difficult
menstruation in women a peculiar decoction is administered : it is made
by boiling four pieces of flax-root and four pieces of a plant known as al:a
taramoa. For this complaint these materials must be taken from the east
side of the plants, otherwise the medicine will possess no virtue whatever.
In making a medicine for any other complaint the materials may be taken
from any part of the plants. The roots of the huhi variety of flax are roasted
and chewed as a cure for constipation.

Scents.

Under the above brief heading we propose to give a few notes anent
the various scents used by the Maori in former times. These scents were
various aromatic leaves and gums, used for the purpose of imparting a
pleasing odour to persons or houses. Some were utilised wherewith to scent
oil, which was then used to anoint the body. Fragrant leaves of various
trees and plants were used for this purpose.

The sense of smell possessed by the Maori is certainly keen, though they
do not appear to object so strongly to foul odours as do we. The term
kakara is usually employed to denote fragrance — any appreciated odour ;
while the expression haunga would be applied to any smell not appreciated.
The word kakara is also used as meaning " savoury," as when applied to
food.

The items used as scents in former times by Natives of the Tuhoe district
were obtained from the following trees, shrubs, &c. : —

Koareare ; sya., raukuwd. Panax Edgerleyi.

Tunguru-rake. An Olearia.

Kolara. Probably Olearia Cunninghamii.

Tarata. PHtosporum eugenioides.

Pna-kaito. Celmisia spectabilis.

Kopuru. A moss.

Karetu. HierocMoe redolens.

There are other shrubs, plants, &c., that provided aromatic leaves for
the dwellers in other districts, but the above are the items that obtain
in Tuhoeland. Of these, the kotara and pua-kaito are found only at Maunga-
pohatu, in the Tuhoe district, while the koareare and the tanguni-rake are
found only on the high ranges.

The leaves of the above trees, &c., as also those of the white manuka.
were used in various ways. They were often enclosed in small bags or
sachets, usually made of bird-skin with the feathers left on, which bag
was suspended from the neck and hung down on the wearer's breast. The
skin of the toroa (albatros) was prized for this purpose. The aromatic gum
of the tarata tree was also placed in such sachets. Not only are the leaves
of this tree most fragrant when crushed, but the gum that exudes from the

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 235

wounded trunk has also • similar properties. It is obtained by making an
incision in the bark and wounding the trunk, thus causing it to bleed. The
gum, on being exposed to the air, soon solidifies, and is removed. It was
often used for the purpose of imparting a pleasant odour to oil used for
toilet purposes. The oil used was obtained from the berries of the titohi
tree {Alectryon excelsum) and from the fat of the wood-pigeon. Sometimes
this oil was scented by placing in it crushed leaves of white manuka, or of
the trees and plants enumerated above. A calabash of such oil scented
with gum {pia tarata) was termed a taha tarata. The skin of a pukeko or
other bird would be dipped in this oil and then rolled into a ball with the
feathers outward. This was known as a pona tarata, and was suspended
from the neck of the wearer. It was a somewhat greasy neck-pendant.

Chaplets of the fragrant leaves, twigs, &c., were sometimes worn by
women, and the sleeping-places or houses of persons of rank or of dis-
tinguished guests were occasionally strewed with these aromatic leaves.
The Jcotara and the pua-kaito were sometimes transplanted and grown near
the Native hamlets.

A gourd of scented oil used for anointing the hair was termed a taha

koukou, from taha, a calabash, and koukou, to anoint. In an old Native

song we find the following : — ■

• He wai tarata ra

Me patu kia kakara
Kia ingo mai ai.

The last line explains one of the principal uses of scents the wide world

over — viz., to attract the opposite sex. Women often wore belts made

of the fragrant karetu grass. The flax belts which were made double were

often filled with odorous herbs. Hence we see in song, —

Tu ake hoki, E hine

I te tu wharariki

Hai whakakakara rao hiiie ki te moenga.

We will now turn our attention to the fauna of the Tuhoe district — or,
at least, that portion of it that entered into the domestic economy of the
Natives of these parts.

Lizards.

The generic names for lizards are ngarara and moko. The following
is a list of the various kinds found in Tuhoeland : —

Tiiatara. Sphenodon puactatum.

Koeau.

Moko-ia.

Moko-haJcariki. ? Xaultiniis elegani.

Mokomoko.

Moko-tapiri. ) j, ^Yf/ »///«».:* pacificus. These three names are applied to one and

Moko-papa. - ^^^^ ,ame species.

Ngarara-papn. }

Moko-parae.

The last-mentioned {moko-parae) is possibly a duplicate name for one of
the preceding species. Again, ngaha was given as another name for the
inokomoko by one Native, while another states that ngaha is a generic term,
and includes the mokomoko, moko-parae, &c.

The tuatara was the largest of these lizards, and it was the only species
that was eaten by the Tuhoe Tribe. It is said to have been numerous on
the mainland in pre-European days, and certain places were famed for the
number of these lizards they produced. Such places were Wai-o-hau,

236 Transactions.

Tawhiu-au, and Mount Edgecumbe. The latter hill is known as Pu-tauaki
to the Maori. An old saying has it, " Ko Putauaki te maunga, he ngarara
tona kai.'"

There was no superstitious feeling among the Natives in regard to the
tuatara and mokomoho, but it was deemed an evil omen to see any of the
other species of lizards.

At the present time the tuatara seems to have been exterminated on the
mainland, and is in this district only found on the Rurima rocks, off Matata.
It is there found, say the Natives, often living in holes in the ground or
rocks wherein the kuia, a sea-bird, nests. Speaking of this bird, a Native
said, " He iro nona a te tuatara " — meaning that the bird produces, or is the
origin of, this singular lizard.

At page 152 of vol. v of the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute "
is an account of the Moutoki Islet of the Rurima Group, wherein Captain
Mair describes the haunt of the tuatara, and stat' s that two Ure-wera
lads who accompanied him showed no signs of superstitious fear of ^ the
tuatara.

The lizard known as koeau to the Tuhoe Natives is probably the same
as the kaweau of other tribes. Colenso states that it was known as tuatete
in some districts. Local Natives describe it as being larger than the green
lizard {moko-kakariki), as being light-coloured, and as living in the ground
in winter-time ; also, that it stands high up on its legs, the under-part not
sagging down on the ground as with other lizards. The body is also thicker
than in other species. Mehaka tells me that the body of this koeau looks
as though it were covered with a fine fur or down, and compared its appear-
ance to that of a newly-born kitten. It is said to be about 9 in. in length.
Another Native says that it is marked he mea ivhakairo, adding that, " When
seen it is an evil omen ; disaster follows " {Kia kitea, he aitua, he kaupapa
tahuri). It is also an evil omen to see the foeces of the koeau about your
dwelling, or on your path when travelling, for that lizard represents the
spirits of your dead relatives, who thus send you a sign to join them in the
underworld.

The koeau (sometimes called koea) is said to be extremely nimble, and
could easily escape should any person endeavour to catch it — which is,
however, the last thing a Native would think of attempting. If you take
your eye off it for a moment it will have disappeared when yovi look again.
It seems to have lived much on forest-trees. Tuhoean bushmen say that the
iro, or embryo, of the koeau was sometimes found in rua kaka — holes in trees
wherein the kaka parrot nested. It is a whitish or light colour at this stage.
The koeau grows as large as a small tuatara. and grown specimens are of a
reddish {puwhero) colour.

The Native who gave the above notes added, " It is a very bad omen to
see a koeau. Te Rangi-ua saw one, and, observe — all his elders have died."
The moko-ta is said to be another name of the moko-kakariki.
The moko-kakariki is the common green lizard. An old Maori myth has
it that this lizard originates from the bird called kakariki ; that when the
eggs of this bird are hatched out the portion of egg-matter left in the nest
develops into an iro, or maggot, from which is developed the green lizard.
The mokomoko is a small dark-hued lizard with a long tail. Buller
gives the scientific name of this species as Tiliqua zealandica in the " Trans-
actions of the New Zealand Institute," vol. ix, page 319.

The moko-tapiri, also known as moko-papa and ngarara-papa, is said to
be found in forest country, in holes in trees, &c. A carved representation

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 237

of this species on the large house Te Whai-a-te-motu, at Rua-tahuna, shows
it of a short, squat form. It is said to be of a mottled colour. One very
old man stated that it is about i in. or 5 in. in length, has a rough
{wheketvheke) skin, and is light-coloured. Natives state that this lizard
is the parent of the small cuckoo {pipiwharauroa). Another authority says
that a kind of maggot found under the young chicks of the tihe bird in
the nest develops into the moko-tapiri, which difi'ers much in appearance
from the moko-kakariki, and is much feared by the Maori people.

The moko-parae is said to be another name for the vioko-kakariki.

The tara-kumukumu is said to be a species of lizard somewhat resembling
a moko-parae, but it may be a marine creature. It has an unpleasant habit
of afflicting mankind, and any complaint that causes a swelling in the region
of the tliio'hs is attributed to it. This lizard is never seen now. It is some-
times confused with the kumukiimu, a sea-fish, but the evidence is not clear.

Lizards are said in Maori myth to be the offspring of one Punga, who
was a descendant of Tangaroa ; hence the term te aitanga a Punga (offspring
of Punga) is applied to reptiles. It is also applied to very dark-skinned
or ugly, ill-favoured persons. The immediate offspring of Punga were Tu-te-
wehiwehi, Tu-te-wanawana, and Kumukumu, the latter being a sea-fish. In
Maori fable the latter adopts the ocean as its home, while the two former,
representing lizards, keep to their land home. Hence the lizard said to the
kumukumu (gurnard), " Go on your way to the ocean, but soon I shall see
you caught and cooked for food." " Not so," remarked the latter, " but I
shall see you destroyed by fire when the fern lands are burned." The lizard
replied, " No one will injure me, for all will fear me on account of my
appearance."

Lizards are sometimes seen in the Native wood-carvings. One is so
seen on a parata on a food-store known as Te Hau-o-puanui, at Rua-tahuna.
In this case a lizard is hanging from the mouth of a carved human head,
as though it were to replace the tongue. The tail of the lizard is in the
mouth, while the fore part of the body, the fore feet, and head hang down
below the chin. In the house Te Whai-a-te-motu, hard by, is the carved
figure representing an ancestor named Kahu-tarata, which has a lizard
hanging from the mouth in the same way. This ancestor is said to have
been a noted eater of lizards.

" Kg Putauaki te kainga, he ngarara tana kai " (Putauaki is the place
where reptiles are eaten). This is an old saying applied to Mount Edge-
cumbe and its environs, on account of the scarcity of food there. Tuatara
were formerly collected for food, placed in baskets, and taken alive to the
village, where they were cooked and eaten. " If women of the party ate
of the tuatara they would suffer for it, and probably perish, for they would
be assailed by many lizards of that species." So sayeth the Maori.

" Ko te kekerewai, ko te tuatara nga kai o Wai-o-hau " [Kekerewai and
tuatara were the foods of the Wai-o-hau district), said an old Native to
the writer. The former is the small green beetle found on manuka bushes
in summer.

Lizards were sometimes selected as guardians of property or places in
former times, presumably on account of the dread the Natives had of them.
In some cases a lizard would be located on a tree much frequented by birds,
in order to guard it against poachers ; or one was stationed near the forest
mauri in order to protect or guard the same. In giving evidence in the
Rau-ngaehe Block case Te Kaha said, " Te Purewa had a tutu (tree on which
birds are snared) at Te Rua-ngarara, near Taumata-miere. A stage was

238 Transactions.

made among the branches of that tree, and a lizard was kept at its base.
Hence the place was called Te Rua-ngarara (the reptile's den)."

Lizards were often selected or looked upon as the form of incarnation
of a god or demon. Thus the god Peketahi, of whom Te Purewa was the
human medium, appeared in the form of a lizard. Another such demon,
known as Te Hukita, appeared in the form of a mohomoho ; while Tamarau,
a deified ancestor who possessed the power of flying, is represented by a
koeau.

Insects and other " Small Deer."

The generic terms for insects are manumanu and ngarara. In Native
myth they are said to be the offspring of Punga, of whom we have already
spoken — albeit some insects, &c., are credited with having other and ap-
parently more immediate progenitors. Thus the mosquito and sandfly are
said to be the grandchildren of Te Hekapona and Te Monehu, while the
purerehua sprang from Fu-te-hue (origin of the hue, or gourd), the hihihihi
from Hikawaru, the pmvereirere from Katipo, the ngaro from Moenga-nui,
its offspring being Iroiro (maggots). Earthworms originated from Pane-
wharu, whose younger relative was Mokoroa ; the next born was Whiti, and
the next Tea. The enemy of these was Tangaroa (fish). The anuhe sprang
from Nuhe. It was Nuhe who saw the fine markings of the tawatawa
(mackerel), a descendant of Tangaroa, and forcibly took some of those
markings for himself : hence the fine appearance of the anuhe. These
marks are compared to certain patterns of tattooing. The anuhe and
toronu are said to descend from the heavens — probably because their
origin is not clear to the Maori — when they appear in great numbers on
kumara plants.

We give below an incomplete list of Native names of insects, earthworms.
&c., as collected in this district : —

Anuhe; syi\., hotete. A sj^ecies of caterpillar.

Awheto. Cordiceps robertsii.

HIJiue. Hawk-moth.

Hiihu. ? Prionoplus reticularis.

Kahukum. Butterfly.

Kapowai. Dragon-fly.

Katipo. A sjiider.

Kekeremju. A bug or beetle.

Kekereivai. Small green beetle seen on manuka.

Kihikihi. Cicada.

Kikihi. Cicada.

Kowhiiiwhiti. Grasshopper.

Kuharu. An earthworm.

Kurekure. An earthworm {Tokea esculenia, Benham).

Manumanu. Generic terra for insects.

Moka. Caterpillar.

Moko-roa. A grub found in houhi, mako, and kaiweta trees.

Moko-tawliana. A caterpillar.

Mu. Probably a species of spicier.

Namu. Sandfly.

Nyarara. Generic term for insects, lizards, &c.

Xijaro. Genei-ic term for flies.

Ngata. Slug, leech.

Noke ; syn., take. Generic term for earthworms.

Noke-tai. A species of earthworm.

Ngoru. A species of earthworm.

Ngutara. Cordiceps robertsii.

Pakaurere. Winged grasshopper.

Papaka. A species of beetle.

Fepe The huhu at one stage of development. ? .Moth.

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 239

Pihareinga. Cricket. Said to be an introduced species.

Pokorita. Ant.

Pok-otea. An earthworm (Token uriwerce, Benham).

Popokorik-i. [ ^j^^g_

Popokorua. )

Purerehiia. Generic term for moths, and possibly inchides butterflies not brightly

marked.
Puwereicere. | ^ ^^^^.^
Pumjawerewere. } '
Ro ; syn., ivhe. The mantis.
Tai. (See Noke-tai.)

Tarao. An earthworm {Rliododriliti< ediilis, Benham).
Tarapoa. A large moth.
Tataka. (See description of /;»/;».)
Tititi-pounamu. Katydid.
Toke. Generic term for earthworms.
Toke-rangi. Bhododrilus besli, Benham.
Toronu. A species of caterpillar.
Tuiau. A species of midge.
Tunga. A grub.

Tunga-rakau. I g^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^^ j^^^j^^^_^
1 unga-rere. i ^

Tungoungou. The larva or chrysalis of the /ti^?/e.
Tutaeruru. Some winged insect.
Waeroa. ilosquito.
Wham. A species of earthworm.
Weri. Centipede.
Weta. An insect.
Whe ; syn., ro. Mantis.
Whiti. -A. species of earthworm.

A foolish or foolliardy person is compared to a moth that flies into a
fire.

If many moths are seen around a fire at night, such is deemed a good
night for eel-fishing.

The awheto is known to us as the vegetable caterpillar {Cordiceps rohertsii ;
also, apparently, known as C. hugelii). In its living state it is known as
ngutara. When it burrows into the earth and there dies it is termed awheto.
These creatures are collected and burned and used to make a black tattooing-
pigment. The hihue is classed as a purerehua by Natives : it is the hawk-
moth. The larva or chrysalis of this species is found underground, in which
state it is called tungoungou. When it acquires wings it is found upon the
white blossoms of the hue or gourd-plant (but not on those of pumpkins).
Natives state that it thrusts its proboscis down into the flowers in order
to draw up the liquid found therein, and that it received its name from
this act {hi, to draw up).

The huhu is a grub found in such timbers as rimu, tnatai, and kahikatea,
which it attacks at the first sign of approaching decay, as when one of these
trees has been scorched by fire. In its grub state this creature is known
as tunga-rakau ; when it ceases to bore, remains in a cell, and casts its skin,
it is termed tataka. When its legs and wings are formed, though still white,
it is known as pepe. W^hen it emerges from the tree or log and flies about,
a brown cockchafer, it is called tunga-rere. In its grub state this species
is prized as an article of food.

Butterflies are called kahukura, though possibly the name is applied
only to bright-coloured species. The katipo is a species of puwerewere, and
is found on the coast, but apparently not inland. It is often found about
tauhinu scrub. Its bite is much dreaded, and seems to cause considerable
pain. The Native cure for katipo-hiie^ is to hold the afflicted person over

240 Transactions.

a fire which is made to give forth much smoke, the process being known as
ivhakapua. They were also often laid in a stream, so that the body was
covered with water.

The l-ikihi, or Jcihikihi, or hihihitara, is the cicada or singing-locust.
Said an aged Maori to the writer, " I will give you the song of a certain
people of this world : those people are the kihikihi. They are an exceed-
ingly numerous people. During the ivaru pcdote (eighth month of Maori
year) those people cling to their ancestor, Tane-mahuta (settle on trees),
and sing lustily. Here is the song of those people : —

"Kaore te waru nei
Ka pii i ail ki ^a Tane-mahuta
Ki tokii tupuna

Til takere ! Tu takere ! lere nui au
Kohiti ko Makaro, iere au
Popo nunui. ]iopo roroa. ko wai e aha atu
Xa Tane ano au i awhi ki tua te aiorangi
l\a whiti mai ko te iwa
Ka hoki au ki raro ra ki tona kainga
Maua tahi ko taku taina ko Xuhe
I tonoa iho nei ki tona tungane, ki a Rongo
Hei manawa niona
Koia ka tumoumoutia — ha ! "

The cicada is treated in Maori fable as the personification of slothful
carelessness, and the ant as the emblem of industry and forethought.

Fable of the Ant and the Cicada.

The pokorua (ant) said to the kihikihi (cicada), " Let us be diligent and
collect food during the summer, that v^^e may retain life when the winter
arrives." " Not so," remarked the cicada ; '' rather let us ascend the
trees and bask in the sun on the warm bark." Even so, the ant laboured
at collecting and storing food for the winter. The cicada said, " This is
true pleasure, to bask in the warm sitn and enjoy life. How foolish is the
ant, who toils below ! " But when winter came, and the warmth went out
of the sun, behold, the cicada perished of cold and hunger, while the ant,
how snug is he in his warm home underground, with abundance of food !

As the cicada clung to his tree, rejoicing in the warmth of summer, he

sang, —

He pai aha koia taku pai

He noho noa

Piri ake ki te peka o te rakau

E inaina noa ake

Ki te ra e whiti nei

Me te whakatangi kau i aku paihau.

The following is said to be the song sung by the industrious ant : —

Hohoro raai e te hoa
Kanaka e whakaroa ara ra
Ka turua ta te poi)okorua
Rawe noa tangata ki whakahaiihau — c
Ki te keri i te rua mo te ua o te rangi
Mo te makariri wero iho i te po nei — e
Me te kohi mai ano i te kakano — e
Hai ora mo taniaroto, kia ora ai — e.

The term purerehua (also purehua) is applied to moths generally, and
perhaps also to butterflies of quiet colouring. Some species of purerehua
were formerlv eaten by Natives. The mokoroa is a grub found in hoiihi,
mako, and kaiiveta trees. The mu is said to be a form of spider.

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 211

The namu, or sandfly, is a relative, of the mosquito, according to Maori
fable. They are descendants of Haumia and Te Hekapona, and children
of Te Monehu (monehu, syn. mokehu, young shoots of the common fern,
rarauhe). Other such descendants are the ro and puwerewere and other
such insects. Namu-iria, a son of the namu, stole the hau, or vital essence,
of Tu (god of war and origin of man), for which he was slain by Tu. Hence
the sandfly people declared war against Tu — that is, against man. They
still assail man in this world. They are exceedingly strenuous in their
attacks upon man. The moscjuito fears but two things — wind and smoke.
The mosquito said to the sandfly, " Let us wait until evening before we
attack man, lest we be slain. Then we will attack him, and I will buzz in
his ears." But the sandfly would not consent to this. He said, " Though
myriads of us be slain, yet will we give battle in the light of day. Though
we perish, what matters it so long as we shed the blood of man ? " Even
so they went forth, and were slain in their thousands. The mosquito ob-
served this, and said, " I told you to wait until nightfall. Now see how
you have suffered."

E ki ana ahau, e taku tainaina

VVaiho kia ahiahi ka haere ai taua

Ki te riri i to tuakana

Ki rawa atu au : Waiho kia mam ahiahi

Hei wheowheo i ona taringa.

Such was the song of the mosquito to the sandfly, and to which the latter

replied, —

He ahakoa, e taku tuakana

Te mate ai au

I ana toto ka pakaru kei waho — e.

(And you, 0 mosquito, when you assail man at night, will be smoked to
death.)

Xoke and take are generic terms for earthworms, of which a good many
kinds have special names.

The papaka appears to be a kind of beetle.

The toronu is a kind of caterpillar which formerly infested the kumara
plants, and gave considerable trouble to the neolithic agriculturalist. A
day was set apart by the sorcerer priests for the destruction of this pest.
It was brought about by means of a rite known as ahi patu toronu. You
might like to know how it was that the crops of man came to be assailed
by these pests. When the kumara was first obtained by mankind it was
stolen by one Kongo-maui from Whanui (the star Vega), who seems to have
been the custodian of that prized tuber. In a spirit of revenge, Whanui
sent Nuhe (anuhe), Moka, and Toronu down to earth to destroy the kumara
cultivated by man. These are the three species of caterpillar that prey
on the kumara plants.

The tutaeruru is some form of winged insect, perhaps a beetle, which
flies around in the evening with a booming sound. This species and the
kekerewai were sometimes called the manu a Rehua. They were both eaten
in former times.

In some districts tapapa is a lizard-name, but which species it applies
to I cannot say.

MOLLUSCAN Fauna.

I have collected a good many forms of land-shells in the Tuhoe district,
the specimens being examined and named by Messrs. H. Suter and C. Cooper.
They are of small size, with the exception of one, known as pipiko to the

242 Transactions.

local Natives, which is found up to about | in. in diameter. I will not
annoy the guileless reader with a list of the above names.

The fresh-water shell-fish of this district are not numerous. The kalcahi,
or fresh-water mussel, is plentiful in Wai-kare Moana, and is also found in
i^onds at Te Papuni, Ruatoki, &c., but is not numerous elsewhere. These
formed an article of food formerly, but are very insipid. Unio zelebori,
from a pond at Te Papuni, has a very thick, heavy shell, that district con-
taining limestone, which is not seen west of Maunga-pohatu. Unio menziesi
(Gray), from a lagoon at Ruatoki, has a thin, fragile shell. Specimens
obtained at Wai-kare Moana do not seem to be the same as Unio waikarense,
described by Colenso. The latter are light-yellow, and larger than those
collected at the lake by Mr. Lucas and myself.

The koura, or small fresh-water crayfish, is not found in the Tuhoe
district, so far as I am aware, save at Te Houhi.

The fish found in the rivers and streams of the district are eels, kokopu.
marearea (syn. inanga), titarakura, papanoko, and the upokororo. The
last-mentioned has now disappeared. Duplicate names of some of these
species, as also names of varieties (from a Native point of view), will be
found in a previous article on " Food Products of Tuhoeland " in this journal.

The Kiore, or Native Rat.

The kiore maori, or native rat, is said in Maori tradition to have been
imported into these isles from Polynesia by the early migrants who settled
on these shores, and was not an indigenous animal. These small creatures
furnished a considerable amount of food to the forest-dwelling Native tribes
in former times, their flesh being highly esteemed. The kiore maori is said
to have been a clean and even fastidious eater — unlike the introduced rats —
and henc6 its flesh may well have been very good eating.

Many persons stoutly maintain that the old Maori rat is still with us.
has not yet died out ; but it seems probable that they mistake the black
introduced rat for the old-time kiore. A writer in the Canterbury Times
newspaper states that enormous numbers of Maori rats appeared in the
northern part of the South Island in December, 1884. These creatures
cannot have been the kiore maori, but must have been the black rat alluded
to above, or some other introduced species. I have never heard that the
native rat ever appeared in such migrant swarms.

The above writer refers to his native rat as Mus exulans, and says, " The
kiore is smaller than either of the two rats introduced into the colony by
Europeans, and the female is somewhat smaller than the male. Their
average weight is about 2 oz. The fur on the upper portions of the head
and body is brown finely mottled with dark-grey. The sides of the body
are lighter, and all the under parts, including the chin and the feet, are
dirty-white. The species is found throughout Polynesia. In New Zealand
it is sometimes called the ' bush-rat.' The proper name is Mus exulans.''
This article seems to have been taken from a paper by John Meeson, B.A.,
published in vol. xvii of the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute."
He states that the following species of rat are now (1884) found in New
Zealand : (1) Mus decumanus (Norwegian rat), which has driven away the
kiore maori into remote districts, if it has not exterminated it altogether :
(2) a species of Mus rattus ; (3) a smaller species (Professor Mutton's Mus
maorium). The writer believes that the migrant swarm of 1884 consisted
of the third species {Mus maorium), and that this was the old-time kior(

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 243

maori, though this statement scarcely agrees with his remarks (see supra)
on Mus decumanus. Mr. Meeson thinks that there may have been two
species of native rats.

Dr. Buller's Mus novce-zealandice (Trans. N.Z. Inst, vol. iii, page 2, 1870)
had ■' fur above bluish-black." This he claims was a specimen of the
old More maori, or native rat. But this description seems to fit a bluish-
black bush-dwelling rat now found in the Tuhoe or Ure-wera district, and
which the old Natives say is not the old native rat, but one introduced
by Europeans. My local information on this subject was obtained from
two old men of the Tuhoe Tribe — Tutakangahau, born about 1830 or 1832,
and Te Puia Nuku, who seems to be some years older. They both belong
to cannibal days, both saw the old hiore maori in their youth, saw it die out,
and the two introduced species overrun the land.

Dieffenbach, writing in 1843, said, " The indigenous rat has now become
so scarce . . . that I could never obtain one."

Tamarau Waiari, an old man of the Tuhoe Tribe, who was born in 1830,
said that the old native rat disappeared in 1838 from the Ure-wera district.
Though all the old men state that it rapidly disappeared after the im-
ported species reached this district, yet it is improbable that it was exter-
minated in the space of one year. It may have been last trapped or last seen
in 1838, or the imported rats may have first invaded this district and com-
menced to wage war against the kiore maori about that time. Anyhow, all
agree that shortly after the arrival of the imported rats in this district the
trapping of the native rat was given up, so scarce had they become.

Judge J. A. Wilson states that the hiore was unknown to the original
Polynesian people of New Zealand ; that it was not imported until the arrival
of the last migration. This seems highly probable. It appears, however,
that rat-bones have been found mixed with moa bones in the South Island,
and also in a subfossil state.

The two species of rat found about my own primitive camp in the Tuhoe
district, and which are bold and troublesome in winter-time, are the grey
Norwegian rat (so called) and a bluish-black rat which I take to be Mus
rattus. The former appears to be an omnivorous creature, and eats leather,
with relish apparently, at times, and has of late made a hearty meal off an
Angora-hair saddle-cinch.

Mr. Taylor White speaks of the kiore maori as being of a grey colour,
and smaller than the so-called Norwegian rat (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxvii,
1894).

In vol. xxviii of these Transactions, page 3, Professor T. Kirk says,
" The place formerly occupied by the Maori rat in the North Island is now
so fully occupied by its old enemy the black rat as to afford a striking
instance of complete replacement." The above writer states that the Mus
maorium of Hutton is the old-time native rat, or kiore maori, and that it
still survives at various places, north and south.

The origin of the rat, according to Maori myth, is as follows : " The
origin of the kiore maori was one Hine-mata-iti, daughter of Pani (the parent
or producer of the kumara, or sweet potato)." So said old Pio of Ngati-
Awa, of Te Teko, born about 1824. Again, he says, " The first fire given
by Mahuika to Maui was the little finger (to-iti) of her left hand. That
to-iti represenJts Hine-mata-iti, who was the matua (parent) of the kiore.''''
And again, " The ancestor of the kiore was Pani-tinaku — that is to say, a
female child of Pani's. Her descendants are the kiore, who are a very
numerous people. The reason of their being assailed (by man) was because

244 Transactions.

they began to steal the grandchildren (offspring) of Pani-tinaku — that is,
the kumara.'" And again, Pio says, " Tenei iwi te kiore, ko Hine-tnata-iti.'"
The Rev. R. Taylor, in " Te Ika a Maui," gives Hinamoki as the creative
parent, or origin, of the rat. We shall mention this term again.
We give below a list of Maori names for rats : —
Hinamoki.
Matapo.

ir .■ . - These names are known to the Tuhoe Tribe.

M unfa I. I

Poti-o-hawaiki.

Toknroa.

Hamua. Given by John White.

D ■ ■ '^ ' ■ ■ Given in Williams's Dictionary.

Mir 01. ) •'

Kiore. Generic term.

The hinamoki is said by Paitini, of Tuhoe (who was born about the year
1843), to be the name of the old-time Maori black rat. He used the term
pango to describe its colour, but this term is used to -denote dark-brown,
dark-blue, &c., as well as black. He stated that the hinamoki is extinct,
but that a pango (black, or dark-coloured) foreign rat took its place. He
himself has never seen the old Maori rat ; it was extinct before his time
— i.e., before he can remember, not necessarily before his birth. Some years
after giving me the above notes he told me that the hinamoki was a dark-
coloured rat, a bluey-black. Williams's Dictionary simply says, " Hinamoki,
a kind of rat." This is terse, and, if not sufficient for our purpose, at least
shows the cautious mind of the lexicographer. But Mr. Taylor White
(Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxvii, page 259) is not bound by earthly rules, and
says, " Investigating the structure or composition of hinamoki, we find hina,
grey hair of the head — which would seem to mean white rather than our
standard of a grey colour, as of a rat or rabbit. If .so, it seems hardly
applicable in this case. But hina is a personification of the moon, and
supposing the original form to have been mokai, rather than moki, we
have ' Hina's pet' — the animal moving about at night."

This is lovely ! But why not carry the matter out to the bitter end —
I mean, its logical conclusion ? Observe : If the original form of hina was
Paraone, and moki but a modern rendering of kau, then, on the lines of the
above reasoning we have "Brown's cows" — which, after all, may be but
an overgrown species of rat. There are endless possibilities in the hinamoki.
And, besides, I know to my bitter cost that cows do move about at night.
'Twas but Monday se'nnight that, as Parearau sagged down on Tokorangi
Hill, .they (those cows), with evil in their hearts, did make entry into my
truck-patch and work much havoc therein, strolling forth therefrom, as
the blushing sun rose, followed by divers potsherds, brickbats, and choice
profanity in three tongues. Kali! Enough! A truce to these idle jests.
Here endeth the hinamoki.

* Matapo. — Old Tamarau Waiari, of Tuhoe, told me that there were two
kinds of native rat in former times — the matapo, a black or dark-coloured
{pango) species, and the tokoroa, a grey rat. Whether these were two dis-
tinct species, or the greyness of the one simply the result of age, it is now
impossible to ascertain. Tamati Ranapiri, of Ngatiraukawa, told me that
the matapo was an old-time native rat, but he did not know the name tokoroa
as that of a rat.

Moke. — Paitini, of Tuhoe, said that the moke was a native rat, but
some years after said that it was the name of the light-coloured European
rat (Norway rat), so that his evidence is doubtful.

Bkst. — Maori Forest Lore. 245

Muritai. — This was given me by a Tuhoe Native as a name for rats, but
he said that it was not used in this district, and that he did not know
whether it applied to the native rat or an introduced species.

Akuhata te Kaha, of Tuhoe, says (27tli August, iy()8), " The muritai
is the same as the moke. This species always travelled along their runs
in single file, and closely following each other. The fur was dark-coloured
(piipanqo), but not black. He ahua fufamp nga huruhuru o te muritai.
The hinamoki was pango (black, or dark-coloured)."

Pou-o-hawaiki, sometimes pou-hawaiki. — Old Tutakangahau, of Maunga-
pohatu, a good authority, said, " I saw the native rat die out in my
youth. We called the introduced European rat the pou-o-hawaiki. When
I was a lad I went with a party to the summit of the main range at Maunga-
pohatu, in order to obtain mutton-birds. On our arrival there we found that
a new species of rat had appeared, and had eaten all the young birds."
This witness was born about 18.30.

Paitini says that the introduced black rat was named the pou-o-hawaiki
by the Maoris. Mr. White quotes several authorities in his aforementioned
paper as to the application of this Native name. Some applied it to the black
rat (presumably Mus rattus) and some to the old-time native rat, but the
best authority (old Tautai, of Taranaki) said it was the introduced Euro-
pean rat. Unfortunately it is not made quite clear as to whether Tautai
meant Mus rattus or M. decumanus. Williams does not give this Native
name, but Mr. White has its derivation all fixed up, albeit it was necessary
therefor to alter the spelling of the word from its proper form : " po= night,
hawaiki= the far country; and the combination means that the beast was
a mysterious visitor from an unknown land shrouded in darkness." Having
of late been sadly shaken by hinamoki and the identification of the ancient
Pani-tinaku with Espani (? Spanish), I cannot quite grasp this matter.
Was it the beast or the land that was shrouded in darkness, or were they
both so shrouded ?

Tokoroa. — Already referred to (see supra).

Hamua I know not, except the mention of it in John White's works as
a name for rats.

Maungarua and riroi I have not heard of among Tuhoe.
We will now give a few notes touching upon the old native rat, as ob-
tained from members of the Tuhoe Tribe.

The kiore maori, or native rat, nested in hollow trees, and also in bur-
rows in the ground. They came out only at night, remaining in their holes
in the daytime. They were more plentiful in hunua forests than in those
termed uruora — that is, they preferred the high-lying forests to those of the
valleys or other low lands. Their favourite resorts were the beech forests
which occupy the summits and upper parts of the ranges of Tuhoeland —
roughly speaking, from about 2,000 ft. altitude upwards. Their principal
food consisted of hua tawai, or beech-mast. Great quantities of these nuts
are produced by the beech forests of the high lands.

The rats came out of their holes at night, and marched in single file
along the ara kiore, or rat-runs, to their feeding-grounds. Besides the beech-
nuts, they also ate the berries of the patate {Schefflera digitata), the para
(1 pollen) of the kahikatea or white-pine, and some other items. They
appear to have been clean-eating creatures, avoiding foul matter, and re-
sembling a squirrel so far as their food was concerned. They became very
fat in winter-time, and were then trapped and snared in great numbers by
the Natives. They became quite thin in summer-time, and were not taken
in that season of the year.

246 Transactions.

The nra kiore, or rat-tracks, made by these small creatures to their
feeding-gromids always ran along the summits of spurs, ridges, or ranges,
and were often many miles in length, though it is unknown as to how
far a colony of rats would ramble from their abode in search of food.
They used the same tracks year after year. These tracks are sometimes
termed ara tahiti ( = taivhiti), or trapping tracks or runs, because the traps
for taking the kiore were set on them. These tracks or runs were about
3 in. in width, and were smooth, and padded by myriads of little feet :
thus they were quite bare, and void of vegetation. The traps — of which
more anon — were set every 3 ft. or i ft. along the run. A rat-run might be
owned by many different persons, and long ones by different hajm or sub-
tribes, each person interested having a right to a well-defined portion of
the same. Poaching on another's portion was not permitted, and would
cause trouble, possibly fighting. As a general rule, among the Tuhoe Tribe
these rat-trail privileges were acquired or retained by the female members
of a family or gens, the males getting the toroniiro trees (on which birds were
snared). When the rats, in passing along their runs, bit off leaves of vege-
tation and dropped them on the track, then it was known that they were
in good condition, fat and plump ; hence the trappers would get to work,
and the rat season was opened in due form. An experienced trapper, on
observing the above-described signs, would say, " Kua whariki te ara kiore "
(The rat-run is covered). " Na, kua momona te kiore " (Then it was known
that the rats were fat).

An ancient saying is, " Kua kitea a Matariki, a kua maoka te hinu " (When
Matariki is seen, then game is in good condition). This, I believe, applies
to the heliacal rising of Matariki (the Pleiades), which would mean that the
game-trapping season opened early in June.

It would appear that the Maori noted the heliacal rising of stars as signs
of divers events, &c. " The appearance of the Pleiades on the eastern
horizon just before sunrise, in June, marked the commencement of the
Maori year," says Tutakangahau. The appearance of Whanui on the
eastern horizon in the morning was the signal for lifting the kutnara crop.
Whanui is the star Vega.

Kiore were trapped on the dark nights of the moon. If the traps were
set on moonlight nights, then the rats sprung the snares and escaped {ka
turupanatia mja tahiti e te kiore).

In Taylor's " Te Ika a Maui " may be found some notes concerning the
kiore maori. He gives two of the karakia, or charms, used, one of which
is a taitai, but the translations thereof are doubtful. He also states that
the hunting-parties cut tracks for the rats, which tracks were made in a per-
fectly straight line up hill and down, however rough the country, other-
wise the rats would not follow them. I cannot get any old Maoris to agree
to this statement, and hence do not believe it. The kiore made its own
runs, which were assuredly not straight, for they followed the tops of ridges,
with all their dips, angles, and sinuosities, trappers made no tracks for
the rats.

The kiore maori was taken in two ways in Tuhoeland — by tahiti (trap or
snare) and by the torea (or pit). Of these, the tahiti appears to have been
the most frequently used. The most general form of this word is tawhiti,
l)ut Tuhoe always use the form above given, even as they use hitau for
whitau. Williams gives " Tawhiti = a snare, trap." Another form of rat-
trap was termed a pokipoki. These two forms we will endeavour to
describe.

Best. — Maori Forest Lore.

247

Tahiti hiore. — The two rupe are first placed in position. These are two
pliant wands. One is forced into the ground at both ends, so as to form
a small archway across the rat-track. ' The other is erected close to it, in a
similar way, but is twisted round the first one so as to leave a narrow space
between them at the top, through which space the two main turutvru, or
uprights, are passed, as also the loop snare. These rwpe are usually pieces
of 'pirita (supplejack, a climbing-plant). Twining one round the other
prevents them' from parting or becoming too loose. The two main uprights
(tunituru) are thrust down through the uppermost space between the two
rupe, one on either side of the central opening or passage, which passage
is on the rat-run. The other uprights are simply stuck in the ground out-
side but close against the rupe, and are placed close enough together to
prevent a rat from passing between them. The only space through which
a rat can pass is the central one on the track, in which space the snare loop
is suspended. The whana, a strong pliant rod, usually a piece of supple-
jack, has one end thrust securely into the ground, and to the other end is
attached the tohc or looped ^cord. This small cord is not formed into a

1. Aho. 2. Tohe. 3. Ku

rnpae.

Tahiti Kiore.
4. Taralara. 5. Tunituru.

6. Rupe. 7. Whaim.

running noose like that of a bird-snare, but has both ends attached to the

ivharia or spring stick, so that the rat is caught in the bight of the cord.

Also, attached to the end of the whana by means of a string is the taratara,

a piece of small stick about i in. in length, and with which the trap is set.

The string {aho) or cord is fastened to the taratara about ^ in. or | in. from

the end of the latter.

In order to set the trap, the operator bends down the tvhana and passes

the tohe or looped (doubled) cord down between the two rujje until that
cord nearly touches the ground, the loop being arranged so
that the cord hangs close to the two main uprights on either
side and does not obstruct the passage. The trapper then,
while holding down the spring stick with one hand, takes the
taratara in the other, and places it in a vertical position at one
side of the open space, near the upright. The projecting upper
part of the taratara is placed on the opposite side of the rupe
to that on which the securing-cord {aho) is, so that the rupe
•rests in the crotch at X. The trapper then holds the taratara
in a vertical position while he slips the kurupae, a small, short

stick, between the lower end thereof and the two main uprights. The

J

248 Transactions.

strain on the taratnra holds the kurupae in position until the latter
is forced down, and free, by a rat endeavouring to pass over it through
the space, and so along his old-time trail. The kurupae is near the ground,
so that a rat cannot pass under it. When he treads on it, the pressure forces
it down, releasing the taratara, the lower end of which flies upwards, and the
upper end slips away from the rupe. Thus the ivhana is released and springs
upwards, drawing the looped tohe up between the two rupe. But Master
Kiore is right there in that loop when it is released ; hence his body is yanked
upwards and jammed against the rupe, there still being a certain amount
of strain on the loop-cord (tohe) and ivkana. The latter cannot become
wholly free while there is any body in the tohe large enough to stop its
upward passage through the two rupe.

The strain of the whana is primarily on the aha, then on the taratara.
There is the upward pressure of the latter on the rupe and the side pressure
on the kurupae. Q.E.D. The aha passes down outside the rupe. The tohe
hangs loosely ; there is no strain upon it until a rat is caught and jammed
against the rupe. Kati. Kua marama pea !

No bait is used when setting these traps on the runs or tracks, but a
bait is used when they are set away from them, as on the feeding-grounds.
The bait used was the fruit of the patate tree. It was placed on the ground
near the trap, and on the opposite side to that from which the rats were
thought to be likely to come.

When a rat was caught by the loins it was able to move to a certain
extent, and would endeavour to free itself by gnawing the rupe or the snare
loop. These hiore kai apuapu, as they were termed, should they escape,
would never be caught again, say my informants : they became too knowing.

The ivaharua was a rat-trap having two entrances — a double trap, which
faced two ways. It w^as really two traps like the one above described,
erected a little distance apart. The side spaces between them were blocked
with little fences of upright sticks.

The tahiti ivhakaruatapu (cf. ruatapu in Tregear's Dictionary) was a
rat-trap having several entrances thereto, and a snare for each. This I
have not seen, but the others have been constructed for my benefit by several
old Natives.

When rat-trappers were setting their traps on an ara tahiti they would
carefully remove any leaves, &c., that had fallen on the rat-run.

We now come to that form of rat-trap known as a pokipoki. This form
of trap was used to take those suspicious or cunning rats that declined to
enter the ordinary trap. They seemed to object to passing over the kurupae.
Like Brer Rabbit, they were " some cautious " and " plenty scared."

In fixing this trap the rupe are fixed as before, but the turuturu — gene-
rally only two of them — are longer. They are inserted in the same manner,
and the upper parts, that project above the rupe, are bent back, half broken,
until their ends rest on the ground. The large leaves of the ivharangi tree
are then used as a lining for the little trap-house behind the rupe. These
leaves are placed over the bent-down ends of the uprights by which they are
supported. Other leaves are used wherewith to block up the front of the
trap, with the exception of the central space, where hangs the snare loop,
and through which the rat attempts to pass when it sees the bait within.
The diminutive enclosure is then covered over with some loose earth, until
it resembles a little mound, sloping downwards to the back end. This little
hut, or rua as it is termed {rua = tunnel, cave, hole, pit), is about 8 in.
long, and the bait is placed a few inches back from the entrance, inside.

Best. — Maori Forest Lore.

249

The katara, or small uprieht stick, is thrust down through the roof until
the lower end is just above the floor of the little hut. To this lower end
is secured the bait of patnte berries. One end of the ichana, or spring rod.
is thrust into the earth ; to the upper end is secured a double cord or loop,
knotted near the middle. This is the tohe, or snaring-loop. The cord
termed ivhiti is secured at each end to the rwpe, on either side of the entrance.
To set the trap, the upper end of the whana is bent down, the lower loop
being passed between the two rupe, and arranged as in the common trap.
The kunipae. a short stick, is slipped under the whiti cord and through the

1. TP7(o?io, spring stick

5. Katara. 6. Whiti cord.

Rat-trap, Pokipoki.

2. Upper loop of to/«e cord. 3. yoAe, or snare loop. 4. Kurupae.
. Rupe. 8. T'uriituru. or uprights. 9. Knot of loop.

upper loop of the tohe, the rear end resting on top of the katara. The whiti
cord is between the tohe and the katara. Thus the whiti saves the situation,
takes the upward strain of the whana until a rat, pulling at the bait, tugs
the katara outwards, thus releasing the kurupae, which flies off into space.
The bent ivhana flies up, dragging up the looped cord, and jamming the rat
against the rupe, as before. While the trap is set the strain on the tohe
is, of course, on the knot, the lower end hanging slack. When the trap
is sprung the strain is on the rat. The next act is the arrival of John
Tenakoe, who pops Mr. Kiore into his game-bag and resets the trap.

The torea, or kopiha kiore, is the pit trap for taking rats. The first of
these two names is the one in common use among the Tuhoe Tribe.

The following was the modus operandi in this district. A hole or pit
about 4 ft. deep was dug in a suitable place. Some bait was placed at the

bottom of the pit, and a piece of wood was
placed in the hole in a slanting position, and
down which the rats travelled in order to get
at the bait. After the food so placed foi
them was consumed the rats would return
above ground by the same route and go
about their other business. After the rats
had got accustomed to going into the pit for
the food the ladder was taken away, and a
number of slight sticks were stuck in a hori-
zontal position into the ground at the mouth
of the pit, so that each stick projected out
over the mouth of the pit. On the end of
each stick a bait was tied. The rats walked out on these sticks in order to

Entrance to a Torea Pit Trap

BAITED.

250 Transactions.

get at the bait, but so slight were the sticks that it was impossible for the
rats to turn or return upon them, hence they fell into the pit beneath.

Sometimes a cooked bait was used instead of berries. Presumably the
bait of cooked food was the more savoury, and attracted more rats than one
of ripe berries. Pio, of Ngati-Awa, born circa 1823, says, " This is about
rat-killing. Hine-mata-iti was the origin of the rat folk. A pit was made,
food was roasted (as" bait) in the evening, and stuck on sticks in the middle
of the pit. At night the rats go to eat it. The trappers go and iind a pit
full of rats. They are slain and placed in baskets. Two, three, or four
basketfuls may be secured in a night. I trapped rats in the days of my
youth. It was interesting work. The rats were very fat."

An interesting note was given to me by Tamati Ranapiri, of Ngati-
Raukawa, anent the genial kiore maori : " There were two ways of taking
rats — viz., by the tawhiti, and by digging a pit. A pit would be dug some
4 ft. or 5 ft. in depth, and in such a manner that the top overhung, the pit
being wider at the bottom than at the top. A peg was inserted at the bottom
of the pit, to which w^as attached the cords by which the rats descended.
Food was placed in the pit as baits, such as berries, &c. When this bait was
consumed, then more would be thrown in. That same night the trap would
be visited, and the rats slain. The trapper would know right well the par-
ticular cord by pulling which he could haul up all the cords, or aka, placed
for the rats to descend by. By pulling this cord he hauled up all the cords,
as also the peg to which they were fastened at the bottom of the pit. He
then jumped down into the pit and killed the rats. After these rats were
taken out the pit was swept and cleansed, so as to do away with the smell
of rats, and so that other rats would enter the pit when it was rebaited.
I have heard that the kiore swam from Hawaiki to Aotearoa (New Zealand),
that they swam hither together. A leader swam in front, the next rat
took the leader's tail in his teeth, the next took the tail of No. 2 in his teeth,
and so on to the last rat."

In the above we note that, among Ngati-Raukawa, cords or forest creepers
were used as rat-ladders in the pits. The final remark, about rats swimming
hither from Haw^aiki, is of interest. In an article already quoted (Trans.
N.Z. Inst., vol. xvii, page 200), Mr. Meeson mentions a swarm of rats that
swam across the passage leading into the harbour at Nelson. The lemming
of North Europe is said to have swum out to sea in hordes. Hurae Puke-
tapu and other Natives of Wai-kare Moana have informed me that in former
times, when the native rat was numerous in those parts, they sometimes
took to the water in numbers. On misty nights, when fog lay close on the
waters, the rats, frightened by the cries of the ruru owl, would swim out into
the lake until they were drowned. Some say that the native rats would
so take to water when the pollen(?) of the tawai tree lay thick on the water's
surface.

Return w^e to our tahiti kiore, or rat-traps. Te Puia Nuku, an old man of

Tuhoe, who was a fighting-man in 1852, and died on the 20th December,

1906, told me that on the opening day of the rat-trapping season all the

trappers were tapu. As a man set his first trap he would repeat over it the

following charm : —

Kiore — e — e !

Hai konei ra piko ake ai

I te whare nui, i te whaie roa

E tataia e te mahanga

Ko rua hamuti te kiore

Te mau ana.

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 251

This was repeated over the first trap set only. In Nga Moteatea another
version of the above gives the first line as " Tawhiti — e ! " which reads
better. Te Puia p\it it, " Ka oti te rafiko, la harahia i tenei,'" &c. (When
the trap was set he recited this). The words whapiko, tapiko, kopiko, and
rapiko, which seem all allied to and bear a similar meaning to whakapiko
( = to bend), are all employed to denote the forming of looped snares and
the bending-down of the ivhana in trap-setting.

The trappers, on returning to the camp or hamlet on this first day of
the season, w^ere obliged to be very careful in their behaviour. They might
not speak for the balance of the day and following night. They ate their
food in silence, and slept without removing their garments. The next
morning they went to take the rats from the traps. The tapu was then
lifted from them and their employment, and they returned to their normal
condition.

Tutakangahau stated that the tapu of opening the rat-trapping season
was similar to that pertaining to birds. When a good many rats had been
taken on the first day, and collected, a time was appointed for the huhuna
or icJiakanoa rite (lifting of the tapu, the making common, opening of the
season). This function often continued for two days. There were many
karakia (charms, invocations, &c.), says Tu, pertaining to the opening of
the rat. fish, and bird taking seasons, taking the tapu off the forest, &c.
Some of them came under the generic term of kaha. Such were the tumu-
tumu, the tuota, and the motumotu. The tuota was a very tapu charm, re-
cited in order to bring plenty of rats, birds, or fish to trap, snare, or net.
If a hunter employed this kaha he would deem it necessary, on his return
from the forest, to perform the vJuoKjai rite. This was an offering to and
placation of the atua (gods, demons). The motumotu was a noa charm, free
from tapu, and could be used by any person, but its object was the same
as that of the tu-ota. It might be asked of a fowler, fisher, or rat-trapper,
" Ko wai to kaha ? " (What is your kaha ?) and the answer would be,
" Ko tuota " (It is tuota), or " Ko motumotu " (It is motumotu), or which-
ever it was.

The following charm or invocation used in trapping rats was given by
Himiona Tikitu, of Ngati-Awa : —

Takii turupou nei

Ko whakaihi nukii. ko whakaihi langi

Ka poua nei e au

Ki runga ki a Papa-tiianuku

E whakamau atu ana

Ki te tiipua, ki te tawhito.

Pona te pou, tu te rupe

Ko te ]iou na wai ?

Ko te pou na Toi.

Ko te rupe na wai ?

Ko te rupe na Toi.

Toi i hea ?

Toi i hekeheke iho i a Maui-mua

Poua te pou, tu te rupe

Te Pu, te More, te Weu, te Aka. te Rea

Tuia a uta, tuia a tai

Poua te pou, tu te rupe

Kokoia i raro i a Papa-tuanuku

Ki a tutangatanga.

Nau mai ki roto

Poua te pou. tu te rupe

Kokoia i raro i a Tane-mahuta

I te wao kia tutangatanga

252 Transactions.

Nau mai ki roto

Poua te pou. tu te rupe

Kaiihou ariki tii hokai rangi

Tiiia i runga i te ara o Tane

Ko Pipiri te ara i heke ai

Ki raro ki Tauwhaiti

Tuia i raro i te ara o Tangaroa i uta

Ko Pipiri te ara i heke ai

Ki Tauwhaiti

Tuia ra. tuia ra !

This is said to have been a charm used by Toi, after whom Te Whaiti-
nui-a-Toi was named. The turupou mentioned was, says Tikitu, a staff
made of greenstone, that was handed down from one generation to another,
to Haeana and others.

As to the method of cooking the native rat in former times, they seem
to have been either roasted, steamed, or potted in their own fat. The
Natives say, " Ka tunua huruhurutia te More'' — by which I understand that
they were roasted with the skin and fur on.* When cooked in the hangi,
or steam-oven, it was by the IvpaH process, as the kol-opu fish are cooked.
Leaves of the pororua plant were wrapped round the rat, which was then
cooked in the oven, the leaves being also eaten. Fronds of the petipeti
fern were sometimes used as a wrapper (kopahi) in cooking rats or birds
from which the bones had been taken away. Te Puia said, " The native
rat was plucked as is a bird, the fur coming off quite easily. The tail, head,
and feet Avere taken off, and the bodies were packed in close-woven water-
tight baskets, termed poutaka, woven from green flax. These w^ere care-
fully lined with fronds of the petipeti fern, and then wath the large leaves
of the rangiora shrub, so as to exclude the water. The baskets w^ere then
immersed in the waters of a stream. When wanted, the rats were taken
out of the basket, placed in a bowl formed of half a calabash, and therein
stone-boiled."

Rats and birds when potted dowji [in their own fat are alike termed
huahua, and these fat foods are often alluded to simply as hinu.

To prepare rats for potting they were plucked like birds, which ex-
posed a clean, white skin — " me te kiri pakeha " (like a white man's skin),
said my informant. The extremities having been cut ofi, the entrails were
taken out, and the bones pulled out. The latter process is described as
kounu (cf. unu= to draw out). This is not the same process as that of
makiri, by means of which the bones are taken out of birds. In the latter
case the flesh is cut away from the bones, but in the kounu the bones of the
native rat are said to have been pulled out easily without cutting, the flesh
appearing not to cling to the bones.

The ngakau, or entrails, of the native rat were highly prized as a food
item — " the best part of the rat," says an old-timer. They were placed,
without any cooking, in calabashes, and so kept until the following spring.
They were then eaten with various greens, w'hich come under the generic
term of puwha. When the vessel was opened the entrails were no longer
recognisable as such, but simply appeared as a mass of fat matter.

The rats were placed in a wooden trough, or kumete, and there left for
some time, until much of their fat melted and collected in the trough.
Stones were then heated in a fire hard by and dropped into this fat, where
they were stirred and moved about with sticks, this process being con-
tinued until rats and fat were cooked, or sufficiently so to please the Maori

* Probably only cooked so when cooks were pressed for time.

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 253

palate. The rats were then put in calabashes, and the hot fat was poured
over them. These vessels were then carefully covered and placed in. the
food-stores for future use.

Paitini says. " Ko te huahua mnnu ka mahia hi te ahi matiti ; ko te kiore
<inake i rereke, ko tena i kohiiparatia^^ (The kohupara method of cooking
consists of wrapping the kiore or bird in an envelope of leaves, and then
cooking in a steam-oven). The Tuhoe Natives, some years ago, were in the
habit of eating the introduced rats, but I am not sure which one it was
that was so utilised. They were taken in tawhiti set around the potato-
gardens, and are said to have been very fair eating when fat on a diet of
toromiro berries, but by no means equal to the extinct kiore maori.

The Natives were in the habit of camping on ranges distant from their
forts or hamlets in winter-time, for the purpose of trapping rats and snaring
birds, but they could do so only on lands belonging to them, or where they
had been formally given a right to take game. Any unauthorised trespass
was strongly resented, and often ended in bloodshed. A party of Ngati-
Koura, who went from Eua-toki to take game in the forests near Parahaki,
were attacked by the Rua-tahuna clans on the Wai-hou tributary of the
Mimiha Stream, and severely defeated.

Kiore pao ivJiatu is a term applied to rats in poor, thin condition, while
a kiore tapapa implied a fat rat, large and in good condition. The word
hatikeke denotes the thieving propensities of rats. A pataka pu kiore is a
food-store so constructed that rats cannot gain entrance thereto. It is
supported by four posts, the tops of which are about 5 ft. above the ground-
line. Two broad slabs are placed on the tops of these posts, and the store
built on these slabs. Inverted tin milk-dishes now often take the place
of the wooden slab. No permanent step or ladder is used to gain entrance
to these stores : the notched pole or log so used is placed in position only
when in use.

" Honoa te hono a te kiore'''' is an old saying of the Maori, meaning that
those addressed should keep advancing, one after another, without cessa-
tion, as the rat was wont to march along the rat-runs. Rats were some-
times termed mho roa (long or big teeth), on account of their nibbling,
thieving habits. A tau niho roa implied a season when rats were very
numerous, and bold in attacking crops, food-stores, &c. Hence the under-
ground potato-pits are usually lined with slabs of pu-nui, or Dicksonia
fibrosa, which it is said rats cannot gnaw through.

"Me te kiri kiore'" (Like a rat's skin) is used to denote a smooth, fine
surface, as of a woven garment, &c.

On returning from setting rat-traps the trapper would speak but little,
and that in a low tone, lest he be unsuccessful in his trapping. Should
he have a tumeke, or convulsive start, in his sleep, it would thus be known
that some rats were badly caught — i.e., were caught in snares by the body
and not by the neck.

Torea-a-tai is a place-name at Maunga-pohatu, the hamlet of the Tama-
kai-moana clan at that place. (For torea, see ante.)

After setting the traps on the first day of the season, says one authority,
no trapper would partake of food until after the tapu was lifted on the fol-
lowing day. This was the occasion of one of the many ritual feasts of the
Maori.

If when a trapper examined his traps the first one was found empty
it was viewed as a sign of bad luck — but few rats would be found in the
•other traps.

254 Transactions.

Such are some items of the methods, customs, and superstitions of the
rat-trappers of Tuhoe, the hanga whapiko tahiti.

Birds.

We will now give our notes on the bird-lore of the Tuhoe district, some
account of divers ways of taking them, as also many myths, customs, rites,
&c., concerning the same. We begin with a list of names of all birds found in
the district, or that were so found in former times, many of them being
now extinct, at least so far as Tuhoeland is concerned : —

Hakoke ; syn., whekau. Extinct here.
Hakuivai. Perhaps mythical. Extinct here.
Hirorirori ; syn., riroriro. &c.
Hiu'ahvaka ; syn., phvakmmka, &c.
Horirerire ; syn., riroriro. &c.
Hitia.

Kaeaea ; syn.. karearea.
Kahci. No longer seen.
Kahu.
Kaka.

Kakapo. No longer seen.
Kakariki ; syn., porete.
Kakaruwai ; syn., pihere. &c.
Kakawariki.
Kamana ; ? syn., kaha,
Karearea ; syn., kaeaea.
Kareke ; syn., koreke. Extinct.
Karu-patene ; syn., pihipihi.
Karinvai ; syn., pihere, &c. ; also kakaruimi.
Kawau.

Kea. No longer seen.
Kerert(.
Kiwi.

Komi ; syn., kairan.
Koekoea.

Koitareke. The New Zealand quail.
Kokako.

Koko ; syn., /;//.

Kokoriliimako ; syn., korimako. &c.
Kopara ; syn.. korimako, makornako, rearea, &c.
Koreke ; syn., kareke. No longer seen.
Korirerire ; syn., riroriro. &c.
Korimako ; syn., kopara. &c.
Kotare.

Kotuku. No longer seen.
Kukvrutoki ; syn., toetoe.
Manapaii, or mnnapou.
Mata.
3Ialapu.
Maiuku.
Mimiro.
Mirorniro.
Moa. Extinct.
.Moho. No longer seen.
Moho-patatai.
Mohorungi.

Momotawai ; syn., momoutu and tolrua. No longer|'seen.
Momontu ; syn.. momotawai and loirua. No longer^seen.
Nakonako ; syn., pipiwharavroa.
Norwroheke ; syn., riroriro. &c.
Ofio.

Pakura ; syn., pukeko.
Papunqo. Black teal.
Papu, or papiia. A large cormorant.

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 255

Parera. Brown duck.

Pek/ipeka. The bat.

Pihere ; syn., karmmi, pitoitoi, &c.

Pihipihi ; syn., karn-patene.

Pioioi ; syn., whioi.

Piopio ; syn., koropio.

Pipitori ; ayn., toirua.

Pipiwharavroa ; syn., nakonako.

Pitoitoi ; syn., pihere, &('.

Piiongatonga.

Piwaiwaka ; syn., tiwaiwaka, S:c., Fautail.

Piwakcumka ; syn., tiwniwaka, &c.. Fantail.

Pohowera.

Porete ; syn., kakayiki.

Pukeko ; syn., pakura.

Eearea ; syn., korimako, &c.

Riroriw ; syn., nonoroheke, &c.

/?((/•».

Tarapo.

Tareke ; syn., kareke.

Tataeko ; syn., popqkolea, tataihore, &c.

Tataeto ; syn., popokolea, tataihore, &c.

Tataihore ; syn., popokotea, &c.

Tatangaeko ;' syn., popokotea, tataihore, &c.

Tatar uwni ; syn., pihere, toutouwai, &c.

Tieke. No longer seen.

Ti^e. No longer seen.

Tirakaraka. Fantail.

r///. Mutton-bird.

Titiporaiuji.

Tititipo.

Titiiipounamu ; syn., toirua.

Tiwaiwaka. Fantail.

Tiu-akawaka. Fantail.

Toetoe ; syn., kukurutoki.

Toirua ; syn., momotawai. No longer seen.

Totorori. See Riroriro.

Totororire ; syn. , riroriro.

Turi-whekoi-rangi. A sea-bird.

IFeA'a.

ir/^eZfrnt ; syn., hakoke.

Weweia.

Weiiceia.

Whenakonako ; syn., pipiwharauroa.

Whio.

Whioi.

We give below a few notes concerning these birds, and identify them
where possible.

The kakoJie was also known as whekau. It was about the size of the
ruru — some say larger. The Rev. H. Williams identifies it as the laughing-
owl {Sceloglaux alhifacies). The Natives say that this bird lived in holes
and crevices in cliffs. Such a place was termed a pari hakoke. A saying
often heard is " Me te pari hakoke " (Like a hakoke cliff), as in speaking of
a steep and stony cultivation-ground. These birds are no longer seen in
this district, but Paitini states that he saw them here when he was a youth
— say, in 1855. The hakoke nested in cliffs.

In vol. xviii of the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," at
page 97, Mr. Reischek states (in 1885) that he never saw the whekau in the
north, and that it was extremely rare in the south. It preyed mostly on
rats. He refers to it as Athene alhijacies. At page 63 of vol. iii of the
same journal Mr. Potts gives some information concerning this bird.

256 Transactions.

Hakuwai. — This is possibly but a mythical bird. The Native account
is that it was a large bird, very rarely seen. It flew at a great height above
the earth, in the night-time, and its cry is given as " Hakuwai, hakuwai !
Ho .' " It is probably the hokioi of other tribes. Native tradition says
that this bird had four joints in each wing, and that it lived in the sky. Old
Pio, of Nga'ti-Awa, has the pedigree of the nimble hakuwai,* which is now
no longer seen or heard. He says, " The ancestors who live in the sky
are Whaitiri, Nuhe, Toronu, Moka, and Hakuai." (The first is the emblem-
atical name for thunder ; the next three are names of three species of
caterpillar that when they appeared on the kumara plants were said to^
have come from the sky.) " Tangaroa's offspring were Makara, Tangaroa-
akiukiu, Tangaroa-a-roto, and Rona. Tangaroa-akiukiu had Tu-te-wehiwehi,
Tu-te-wanawana, Noho-tumutimiu, Moe-tahuna, Haere-awaawa, Turuki, and
Hakuai." Again Pio says, " The descendant of the star Rehua (Antares),
was Hakuai. This bird always stays in the heavens. It has four joints
(tuke) in each wing, and was heard flying at night and crying ' Hakuai,
hakuai ! Hoho ! ' It was an evil omen to see that bird. Te Rangihoki,
an ancestor of ours, came across one near Putauaki, and caught it, hence
that place is still known as Te Hakuwai." At another time old Pio said,
" Maui-mua married Te Papa-tu-rangi, who was a daughter of Maui-potiki..
Their son was Tiwakawaka. The hakuwai, who was related to Maui, heard
of this, and came and said to Tiwakawaka, ' Get on my back, that I may
carry you to the ao ma tonga, to Ka-pu-te-rangi.' So Tiwakawaka reached
that place, and married Haumia-nui, a descendant of the original Haumia.
Tiwakawaka was the permanent settler in these lands (New Zealand). In
after-days one Maku came here and found Tiwakawaka living at Ka-pu-te-
rangi (at Whakatane). This place, Aotearoa, belonged to the hakuwai^
who arranged that Tiwakawaka should reside here."

An interesting note on the hakuwai, or hokioi, may be found at page 435
of the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute " vol. v. See also
vol. vi, page 64 ; vol. vii, page 494 ; and vol. xii, page 99.

Sir George Grey gives the following as an old-time saying : " Pekapeka
rere ahiahi. hokioi rere 2>o " (A bat flies at twilight, a hokioi by night).

Hirorirori. — See Riroriro.

Hiivaiwaka. — See Piwakawaka.

Horirerire. — See Riroriro.

Huia. — Given as Heteralocha acutirostris in the Rev. H. Williams's list..
This bird was never, say my Native informants, a denizen of the Tuhoe
district, but of the Ruahine and Tararua Ranges. The long black tail-
feathers {kotore huia), tipped with white, are highly prized by Natives as
plumes for the hair.

Mr. Guthrie Smith, of Tutira, states that he heard of a huia having been
shot at Wai-reka, near Te Putere, on the Waiau tributary of the Wairoa
River ; but the Rua-tahuna Natives sav that they never heard of the birds-
as being found in those parts.

Kaeaea (also known as Karearea) (Nesierax novce-zealandice ; Sparrow-
hawk). — The male bird is known as kakarapiti.

Kaha {Podicipes cristatus ; Crested Grebe). — This bird has long dis-
appeared from this district. It was formerly found at the Wai-kare-iti
Lake, near Wai-kare Moana. The Natives say that it built its nest on
the surface of the waters of the above lake, and anchored the nest to the

* Williams queries hakuwai as the great frigate-bird.

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 257

bottom, so that the nest moved with the water but did not drift away.
For an illustration of a nest, see " Transactions of the New Zealand In-
stitute," vol. ii, page 50, and description thereof at page 74. This bird is
said to have the power of remaining a long time under water {he manu ruku
roa). (See note under Kamana.)

This bird does not seem to have frequented the rivers of this district ;
the currents thereof are probably too swift to please it.

In vol. iii of this journal Mr. Travers has a paper on the habits of the
kaha.

Kahu {Circus gouldi ; Hawk). — This bird is still common in this dis-
trict. In former times it was sometimes caught by Natives in a trap termed
a titara kahu, or tahiti kahu. When Taka-moana, of Te Kareke, was slain
at 0-pokere his enemies utilised his liver as a bait for a hawk-trap. Oc-
casionally a white hawk was seen in former times, but very rarely. They
were called kahu korako (albino hawks), and this term was often applied
to a chief. An old saying was, " Me haere i rare i te kahu korako " (Always
travel with a white hawk) ; to which the following is sometimes added :
" kia kai ai koe i te kai, kia whiwhi i te taonga " (that you may fare well
and receive presents). When a chief visited a hamlet he was regaled on the
best food, and often received presents, his companions coming in for a share
of the good fare.

John White has a singular remark at page 65, vol. ii, of his " Ancient
History of the Maori " : " The kahu was a child of Mahuika, and a god of
fire : hence the colour of its feathers."

Kaka {Nestor meridionalis ; Brown Parrot). — The kah-a and the kereru
(pigeon) are looked upon as the two most important of forest birds by the
Maori, inasmuch as they formed one of their principal food-supplies, being
taken in great numbers in former times.

The origin or parent of birds in Maori myth is Tane-mataahi. This
applies especially to the kereru and koko {tui) birds : while the origin or
parent of the kaka was one Tu-mataika ; hence these birds are sometimes
spoken of as the " children of Tu-mataika." " Kaore e rikarika te tama a
Tu-mataika e rere nei " (How numerous are the children of Tu-mataika
flying yonder !) — said of a flock of kaka.

The following names are applied to the kaka bird : tarariki, tatarariki,
tatariki. These names are applied to the leader of a flock of kaka. Each
flock of these birds, say my informants, has a leader, generally a small-
sized bird : hence the riki. This bird may also be termed a kaka whaka-
taka fokai, or " flock-assembling kaka.'''' This bird keeps on the outer
side, or edge, of the flock, and seems to shepherd them — keeps them within
bounds, and prevents straggling. It also calls the flock from one whakarua,
or feeding-ground, to another, and keeps flying around the outside of the
flock. Only one such leader will be found with a flock. A tarariki makes
the best of decoy-birds, and is said to be a female bird.

Kaka kura : This term is applied to a very rare bird, a kaka that has
very brilliant plumage, bright-red feathers — unlike ordinary birds of the
species, which are of sombre plumage of a brown colour, not possessing so
many showy red feathers. The kaka kura are said not to travel with any
flock, but such a bird keeps aloof from others, with the exception of one
companion, a bird of ordinary plumage. These kura are very rare : only
one such will be found in a district. They are sometimes termed ariki,
or leaders. Sometimes two ariki will be found in a district — one kura,
or red, and one of white plumage, an albino bird, termed a kaka korako.
9— Trans.

258 Transactions.

Albino pigeons are also termed ariki. Koraho ( = white, in the sense of
albinism, or of rarity) is an expression often applied to chiefs of the genus
homo — as kahu korako, or " white hawk."

Tawaka and Tata-apopo. — The term tawaka is said to be applied to a
large kaka. If it has a very large head it is a tata-apopo. The tata-apopo
makes the best decoy-bird for the pae method of taking these parrots, while
the tarariki makes the best decoy for the tutu system — of which more anon.
The tata-apopo is said to be the male bird, and is known by the large size
of its head.

Flock names : A flock of kaka when flying is termed a pokai kaka, but
when settled on a feeding-ground is known as a ivhakarua kaka; though
the expression ivJiakama seems to mean, primarily, a place occupied or
resorted to by a flock of birds — their feeding-ground, in fact.

A flock of pigeons (kereru) is alluded to as a tipapa kereru. The word
tipapa seems to = whakapapa. A rakau tipapa implies a tree much resorted
to by these birds, and on which they are snared.

A flock of koko birds when flying is termed a iviri koko, but when settled
on a feeding-ground is called a hapua koko. This word kapua, like whakarua,
means a hollow, and was probably first applied to a feeding-ground.

A flock of ducks {par era) is termed a kawai par era. Ta is another flock-
name, but I have only heard it applied to the tataeto (whitehead) and kokako
(crow), as a ta tataeto and a ta kokako.

In the season known as whaturua, or midwinter, many kaka become
so fat that it is difficult for them to take flight — they cannot rise in flight
from the ground. When found feeding on the ground they walk to the
nearest tree and climb up it— walk up, in fact — and are then caught by
hand. When in this state of excessive fatness they are called keketoi by
some tribes.

The cry of the kaka is extremely harsh, but it also emits a deep whistle
at times. The screeching sound made by this bird when on the feeding-
grounds grates upon the ear, but when flying their cry seems more to re-
semble a croak. This is often heard in the dead of night and at daybreak
by us denizens of the realm of Tane. Like most other native birds, the
kaka is becoming scarce, but appeared in considerable numbers at Rua-
tahuna four years ago, where, near my camp, a single Native shot about
four hundred.

The kaka utters a peculiar cry or screech when alarmed, the cry being
known as tarakeha among the Natives — ka tarakeha te kaka. A similar
w^ord is kareha ( = to cry out in alarm), of a kaka bird ; and kaiewha has
a similar meaning, as also has the term koriwhai. " Ka kite te kaka i te
kaeaea, ka koriivhai.^' All these expressions denote tangi mataku — fear
or alarm cries of the kaka.

Tarahae expresses the quarrelling of birds — the querulous or angry
sounds emitted by birds when apparently squabbling over food. Kaka-
tarahae is a place-name. Tarawhete means to chatter or mutter aimlessly —
said to have been originally applied to sounds made by the kaka, as when
sitting on a perch, but now used to denote the gossiping of persons. Ko-
whete has a similar meaning.

Kaka were often kept in captivity by the Natives, and used as decoys
in the fowling season. Such birds while kept at the hamlet were termed
mokai or maitnoa (pets), but when taken to the forest to be used as decoys
were known as timori, tirore, &c.

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 259

Tamati Ranapiri, of Ngati-Raukawa, says, " While a tame or captive
haka was kept at the village it was simply called a mohai haka, but when
taken to the forest and used as a decoy it was termed a timori " : which
amounts to saying that a tame bird was called a pet or captive at home,
but when used as a decoy was so described.

The tirore was a Tcaka used as a decoy, but it was not a tame or captive
bird. When commencing a day's snaring the first haka caught would be
used as a decoy. This bird was called a tirore, but it was not a maimoa
(pet) or mokai (captive). The fowler would make a perch for this bird
above his head where he was perched in the tree-top, by lashing a piece of
aha or climbing-plant stem to two branches. To this the captured bird
was tied by a string secured to his leg. But first the fowler would break
the beak of the bird, so that it could not gnaw the cord and so free itself.
This bird would attract others by its cries and actions. If other kaka do
not come readily, then the hapless tirore is again brutally treated, for the
fowler will break one of its wings, tear out a piece of the bone, and give it
to the bird. The bird will clutch the bone in its claws, and gnaw at it,
making sounds peculiar to it when eating. This attracts other birds, and
they hover round, and some settle on the snare-perches and are caught.
These decoys are used in a similar way in the fae method of taking birds.
The decoy that is placed above the head of the fowler is never taken home
or eaten, because it has a certain amount of ta/pu pertaining to it, having
been near the sacred head of man. That bird is left to perish miserably
in the woods. The tirore is sometimes known as a tionga. The decoy-
birds kept at a village were kept fastened to a whata kaka. This was made
by placing a wooden trough on the top of two posts, over which a roof was
put. In the sides of the trough were made holes, into which were thrust
the ends of hardwood rods, about 1 in. in diameter, termed hoka. These
hoka were about 6 ft. long, and formed perches for the captive birds, or
mokai kaka. Food for the birds is placed in the waka, or trough. If the
birds fall to quarrelling, then the old ones are each given their food in a
small netted bag, made of fiax-fibre, and termed a rohe, which is secured
to the hoka.

The birds are secured to the perch by means of a cord fastened to one
leg. A bone ring (often made of human bone), often carved, and termed
a moria {poria among other tribes), was placed on the bird's leg. On one
side it had a hole bored through it, where the cord was attached. Occa-
sionally these moria were made by plaiting the epidermis of the midrib of
the leaves of the toi, or Cordyline indivisa. I lately came across the follow-
ing in one of the innumerable songs of the poet Piki : —

E koro, Titi— e ! '

Akuanei au ka whawhati atii ki a koe

Tena tonu ra to moria toi

Kai to waewae e mau ana mai

He tauri komore no te mokai kaka

I niahue noa to turutuni. &c.

The Maoris often speak of certain stones of a reddish colour which are
said to have been often found in the crops of kaka that have reached New
Zealand shores from Hawaiki — that is, presumably, from the isles lying
north of New Zealand. These stones are known as o manapou. The kaka
are said to swallow these stones when they leave foreign parts to fly to these
shores. It seems a far cry to hale the kaka of slow, heavy flight from. I
seem to have read somewhere that manapou is the name of a Samoan tree.
In Mr. J. White's " Ancient History of the Maori " (vol. ii, page 90) we

260 Transactions.

find manapau given as the name of a tree of Hawaiki. The very same
sentence occurs in Sir George Grey's " Polynesian Mythology." Williams's
Dictionary gives " manapau, a tree," and refers it to the latter work. Old
Pio, of Ngati-Awa, made a remark to me one day, " There is a lake at Pi-
hanga, the green lake. A bird called the manapou is fomid there. It has
two topknots on its head. These birds dive to the bottom of the lake in
order to bring forth their young. There is also a bird at Rua-M^ahia, the
tirotiro, its cry being ' Ti-tiro, ti-tiro!'' "

Another old warrior says, " The manatawa is a dark-coloured stone, or
kernel, in form like that of the tawa. It is found, like the o manapou, in
the crops oi haka that fly hither from Hawaiki, but is somewhat smaller.
We believe both to be kernels of tree-fruits of Hawaiki. They are eaten
by birds there, and those birds fly here to New Zealand. In olden times
the kaka used to fly here in great numbers from Hawaiki, and would be so
exhausted on reaching land that they were easily caught by hand."

Umanga or umanganui is an expression sometimes applied to birds,
more especially to kereru and kaka, as being the two chief species from a
Maori point of view. Natives say that the term is derived from unia, the
breast, most of the meat on a bird being found on the breast. But umanga-
nui is also used in other ways, as Te umanganui o nehe ra, he ivhawhai, the
origin of which is not so clear.

The kaka nests in hollow trees, as also do the kotare, miromiro, momoutu,
niru, and tihe.

The young of the kaka were taken from the nest for food purposes when
feathers had grown on their wings, but before they could fly. They were
not taken before that age. They would be found very fat, especially so
were the puta or hollow of the tree a deep one. Paitini says that such a
deep hole or hollow in a tree in which kaka nested was termed a rua matini.
To ascertain whether or not the young birds were ready for taking, the
fowler procured a green branch and rustled it at the mouth of the hole.
If very young the birds uttered no cry, but if they squawked on hearing
the sound, then the fowler knew that they were old enough to take.

Kaka resorted to the same hollow tree year after year for breeding pur-
poses, unless they were frightened away by clumsy fowlers. These puta
kaka, or breeding-holes, were highly prized. Should a person meddle with
one to which he had no right he would be pursued and probably slain.

The term matini, or rua matini, is applied, says Paitini, to a deep hole
or hollow in a tree (apparently not to a shallow hole). It was in these deep
holes that the fattest young kaka were found. Those found in shallow
holes, such as could be reached with the arm, were not so fat. In a matini
the nest may be at the ground-line, but the opening thereto situated 10 ft.
up the trunk of the tree. An implement called a ichakawiri was used where-
with to take young kaka from such deep holes. This was a rod or light
pole, to one end of which were attached a number of loops of flax or other
fibrous leaf. This end was thrust down the hollow into the nest. The
young birds, in scrambling about to avoid it, would get mixed up among
the loops. The manipulator kept turning the rod round, so that the loops
were twisted round the bodies, legs, or wings of the birds, which could then
be drawn up. One young bird was always left to " take care of the nest,"
as the Maori puts it. This was probably done so that the birds would not
desert the tree as a nesting-place. Again, if an axe were used on the tree,
to enlarge the entrance to the hole or make a new entrance, the birds would
desert it.

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 261

W^heu young kaka are taken from these nests and cooked for food, then
it is highly essential that the ashes of the fire at which they were cooked
should be taken to the tree and cast into the hollow where the nest is situated.
If this be not done, then the parent birds will desert that tree and never
again nest therein, but will seek and select another hollow tree elsewhere,
this new nest being known as a puta tvhaka/piri. For such are the thoughts
of the Maori.

The kaka is sometimes troubled with a parasite, a kind of worm called
ngaio, and when so affected is very thin. The worm sometimes found
in the kokopu fish is called by the same name.

" He kaka kai uta, he manga kai te moana " (A kaJca on land, a barracouta
in the ocean) is an old-time saying, both being famously voracious where
food is concerned. Also, the parrot rends wood as the above fish rends
a net. The kaka is often found in the forest by the fowler hearing pieces
of wood drop from where a parrot is rending a decayed limb in order to
get at the grubs therein.

" He fakura ki te po, he kaka ki te ngaherehere " (A swamp-hen at night,
a, kaka in the forest). These two birds mark, by their cries, the passing of
the hours of darkness.

■' He wahine ki te kainga, he kaka ki te ngaherehere " (A woman at home,
a parrot in the forest). Another simile. Women and parrots, the two
noisiest creatures known to the neolithic Maori. {E tania ! Ko te ahi taica
hai whakarite.) It is with much pain that the pakeha transcriber places
this saying on record. Nothing but a stern sense of duty enables him to
do so.

When Maruru hinted to his people that it would be a good thing to slay
Tu-te-mahurangi he said, " Ka eke te kaka parakiwai, kaua e takiritia ;
ka eke te kaka kura, takiritia'^ (If a common brown parrot mounts the
snare-perch, do not snare it, but if a scarlet parrot mounts it, then snare
it). By this the people understood that they were to slay the chief, but
spare his people. This item is from Colonel Gudgeon's pamphlet on the
Ohura evidence.

Kakapo (Stringops habroptilus ; Ground-parrot). — This bird is no longer
found in the Tuhoe district, but was at one time numerous at certain places,
such as the Parahaki lands, on the head-waters of the Waiau River, and
at Te Whakatangata, and other such wild, rough forest lands. When some
members of the Ngati-Mahanga clan went a-hunting kakapo at the latter
place it was a trespassing on the lands of Ngati-Tawhaki, who promptly
slew, cooked, and ate the offenders.

Kakapo were numerous in former times at Ngatapa, near Manuoha.
Their holes were seen in long rows at that place.

Natives say that kakapo live together in flocks ; each flock has its own
range of feeding-grounds, and its own camp, or whaivharua. Each bird has
its own hole (pokorua) at the camping-place. Each flock has its leader,
called the tiaka, which is said to be always a small-sized bird. It is called
tiaka on account of its smallness (" tiaka = A^m., mother," is the only meaning
assigned to this word by Williams). At night the birds come forth from
their holes and collect on a common meeting-ground at the whaivharua.
This place is a playground for all the birds of that particular ivhaicharua.
Having all gathered together, each bird now goes through a singular per-
formance, beating its wings on the ground and making a roaring sound, at
the same time making a hole in the ground with its beak. The Maori
says that these birds collect to tangi. During the above performance the

262 Transactions.

tiaka walks round the outer edge of tlie playground, as a sort of sentry.
Near morn the tiaka leads the flock back from the feeding-grounds to the
common living-place, which is always situated in a rough, steep locality.
{Ahakoa he rau nga pokorua, ka kiia tena whenua he whawharun. Ko te
mahi a nga kakapo ki te whawharua, he patu i ona paihau ki te whenua, me
te rara a tona waha ki te tangi.)

I have before me an article on the American grouse, in which the follow-
ing occurs : " It is the custom of these birds to prepare their ballroom by
beating down the grass with their wings, and then to dance something
suspiciously like the "lancers." By twos and fours they advance, bowing
their heads and drooping their wings ; then they recede and then advance
again, and turn on their toes, swelling their feathers and clucking gently."

As to the tiaka, or sentinel-bird, a note at page 192, " Journal of the
Polynesian Society," vol. ii, says, " These birds when feeding placed one
of their number as a sentinel, which hung by its beak to the branches of a
tree, uttering a warning cry." This double performance, doubtless a some-
what difficult one, does not seem to have been performed by the kakapo of
Tuhoeland.

The Natives hunted the kakapo (as also the kiwi) at night, with dogs.
Kakara, or rattles, were tied on the necks of the dogs, and the hunters
followed the sound of these. They would be careful to approach the
whawharua on the opposite side to that from which the wind was blowing.
When the birds were assembled, and began their dance, elevating their
wings preparatory to striking them on the ground, it is said that they could
be caught by hand. But it was necessary to catch the tiaka (leader and
sentinel) first, then the others could be easily caught. If the leader was not
so caught, then all would escape. The lure-call used when hunting these
birds was made by placing the hand at the side of the movith.

Kakapo are said to collect berries of the hinau and tawa trees, and also
fern-root (aruhe), in the fall of the year, and carry such food to secluded
pools of water, in which they place it to preserve it for future use. When
summer begins the birds commence to feed on these stores of food.

The kakapo, kiwi, kaka, kereru, koko, and weka were all preserved in
their own fat in former times, and so kept for future use.

In former times cloaks were made of kakapo, the skin being stripped
off, with feathers adhering to it, for this purpose. Such garments were
known as kahu kakapo. Old Pio, in his quaint way, says, " This is another
remark ^ — a different subject: a kakapo. This ancestor was like a bird
in appearance : it had two wings. It was a bird of high rank. The
feathers and skin were stripped off to make garments for chiefs. Then it
would be said, ' So-and-so has a kakapo cloak.' "

Kakariki ; syn., Kakawariki and Porete {Cynanorhawphus novce-zea-
landicB ; Green Parrakeet). — This bird is generally termed porete by the
Tuhoe people. These birds were formerly very numerous, and appeared
in flocks about clearings and on the edges of forests, very much as the pihi-
pihi, or silver-eye, is now seen.

" The origin or parent of the parrakeet," says old Pio, " was one Hine-
porete. Her descendants are the kakariki, whose cry is ' Torete, kaurehe !
Torete, kaurehe ! ' The Maori people slay these birds in the autumn by
erecting a tanga, and using a lure-call to attract the birds. Now, there was
an ancestor named Tutunui (or Tunui), who planted a crop of kumara (sweet
potatoes) on the land of Hine-porete and her folk. When the kumara grew
above ground those porete folk came and pulled up the whole crop. Tutu-
nui observed the loss of his crop, and so he fixed a kapakapa (1) and caught

Best. — Maori Forest Lore.

263

and slew all those folk, except Hine-porete, who flew up on to a tree, a mata.
She cast her weapon, a patu mata, and killed Tutunui, thus avenging the
death of her offspring." Which ends this story.

There were three methods of taking the parrakeet — viz., the koputa,
the tanga kalcariki, and the puaka.

The koputa : A rough shed was built at the edge of a forest. Saplings
or branches were used, butt ends stuck in the ground, the tops bent over
and tied together to form a roof. Branchlets, fern-fronds, &c., used to
cover the framework. The front of the shed was left open. Inside the
sheds kurupae or perches were placed for the birds to settle on. These
perches were placed near the back of the shed. Pegs or short stakes (turu-
turu) were stuck in the ground near the perches, and to these pegs were
secured maimoa porete, or decoy-birds, to attract the flock. These decoys
do not seem to have been kept at the hamlet, as were kaka, but each trip
a fowler would first procure a few birds for this purpose by means of the
lure-call. The fowler procures some fronds of paraharaha, a fern, which he
carefully arranges in a certain manner and ties to the end of a long stick.
Upon seeing a flock of parrakeets {pokai porete) in the distance, he takes
the above pole and waves it about, which actions attract the flock, and
it soon settles upon trees near the shed. The fowler then conceals himself
just outside and near the back of the shed. He lures the porete by placing
the side of his hand to his mouth and imitating the peculiar jerky sounds
made by these birds when flitting from tree to tree. The birds soon begin
to enter the shed and settle upon the perches, where they intently watch
the decoy-birds, which are on the pegs in front of and a little below the
level of the perches. The fowler has by his side a number of short sticks,
each with a reti, or running noose, attached to one end. When he sees that
a number of birds have settled on the perches, the fowler takes up one of the
sticks, thrusts it through the frail wall of the shed, and slips the noose over
the head of a bird. He recovers arms, secures bird, and takes up another
stick, until all are used. He then disengages the nooses, sets them anew,
and continues his snaring.

Kaka were sometimes taken by means of the tari, or noose fixed on a rod.

Tanga porete, or tanga kalcariki : This is sometimes termed the pae
method, but differs from the pae used in taking kaka, koko, &c., and is like
that used in taking the pihipihi. Two upright poles are stuck firmly in the

1. Poi'.

Tanga Pokete.
2. Bongohua. 3. Cord, tuu maimoa.

earth, and to these a horizontal cross-rod is lashed. This serves as a perch
for the birds, and is termed a rongohua. Underneath the cross-piece a cord
is stretched across and tied to the pou, or uprights. Several porete are so
tied to this string that they can struggle to free themselves, and by so
struggling, and flapping their wings, attract the free birds. Thus they
serve as decoys, and soon the birds begin to alight upon the rongohua. The

264 Transactions.

fowler is half-concealed by a rude shelter of branches or fronds of tree-ferns
erected near one of the uprights. He uses a striking-stick or rod, termed
a hauhau manu, to strike down the birds with. He makes a swift strike,
running the striker along the perch, thus knocking off any bird that happens
to be sitting on it. The blow is downward. The rod is usually a light,
slight mapau.

The puaka : A 'puaka trap is made by making a sort of enclosure of an
oblong form, and several feet in length, by sticking a number of rods in the
ground in a vertical position. Small rods about 3 ft. in length are used.
In this fence-like structure four, six, or eight spaces are left for the birds
to enter by. In each space a loop snare is set. Before this trap was con-
structed, some food would be placed on the spot several times as bait, to
get the birds into the habit of coming to the place. The -pihere was also
taken in this manner.

A stronger form of the above trap is used for taking hiivi, a tahiti like the
tahiti hiore being set at each entrance.

The crop of a bird is called tenga. The same term is applied to goitre
in the genus homo. The crop of a porete is very prominent when full of food.
This crop is of a white colour inside, and of the usual rough surface. A
white sand, apparently of volcanic origin, deposits of which are common
in this district, is known by the name of tenga kaJiariki. It is said to
resemble the rough inner surface of a parrakeet's crop.

" Kakariki e tunua, kakariki e otaina,'" is an old-time saying of the Maori.
It seems to have been quoted when food was being prepared in times of
serious danger. " Never mind if the food be underdone, let us eat it as
it is and get away out of danger."

The porete was not a shy bird when in flocks, and was much easier to
take than some other species.

Kakaruwai ; syn., Pihere. — See latter.

Kaniana. — A water-bird. A Taupo name. Perhaps the same as Kaha.

Kareke. — Rev. H. W. Williams gives this bird as the marsh-rail {Porzana
afpnis). As it is no longer found in this district I could not name it, but,
from the description given by Natives, judged it to be a rail. They state
that it Avas about the size of a 7noho-patatai, another rail. One Native told
me that kareke. tareke, and koutareke are all names for the one bird. Williams
gives the two latter as names for the New Zealand quail, for which see his
list in the " Journal of the Polynesian Society." The quail was at one time
very numerous in some parts, and was taken by means of a net.

The kareke has long disappeared from these parts, but nearly all the
elder Natives say that it was a swamp-dwelling bird, and also a rnanu tohii.
It was a sign of good or bad luck to fowlers who heard the cry of this bird
on the right or left hand.

One old Native states that the kareke and kareke were the same bird ;
that it frequented fern country ; that it was larger than the kukurutoki,
and had a different plumage. This sounds like quail.

Kaivau (PhaJacrocorax carbo, P. varius, &c.). — Several kinds of shags
are known bv this name, of which koau is a variant form. (It is as well
to mention right here that I am cribbing all scientific names of birds from
the Rev. Williams's list, for which see the " Journal of the Polynesian
Society," vol. xv, page 193.)

Papu or papua is another shag-name — a large river-haunting species.
The young of this bird were eaten by the Natives in former times. They
generally roost in large numbers on a dead tree situated on some steep hill_

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 265

side or cliff overlooking a stream or lake. They will roost on the same
tree for many years, leaving it in the morning to go in search of food, and
returning to it in the evening. Such a tree, that stood on the banks of the
Wai-kohu River in the seventies, was the roost of a flock of about sixty
kawau. These shaggeries, being usually situated on cliffs or steep sidelings,
are termed pari kawau. Shaggeries were carefully preserved and some-
times rahuitia by the owners of the land, and resorted to every year for
the purpose of securing the young birds. There was a famous one at 0-
whaka-toro, and another, named Whakatangihau, near the 0-karika Stream.
Both of these were mentioned in Court by Natives establishing their claim
to those lands. Kawau moe roa is a term applied to bird-snares, eel-pots,
and such nets as are left in the water (not merely dragged). Apparently
these are likened to the " long-slumbering kawau " that sits quietly for
hours on a log in a river, but is wide awake when a fish heaves in sight.
The nest of this bird is a rough affair.

Captain Cook speaks of broiling and eating some shags at Whitianga.
" They afforded us an excellent meal," he says. But, after all, what is
the matter with a beefsteak, or even stewed pigeon ? And that is all
right.

A small species of cormorant is known as the kawau tatarariki. These
smaller kawau are said to represent or be the form of incarnation of an atua
maori termed Waerore.

I'^When a shag is about to take flight it stretches out its long neck stiff
and straight, and so flies. Hence the saying, " Ka maro te kaki o te kawau "
(The neck of the kawau is stiffened), applied to a person or party just about
to start on a journey. The expression kawau maro, as applied to several
columns of troops joining together to form a solid column for the war-dance,
has a similar origin.

Kea. — The kea, says Paitini, has disappeared. It was a bird that lived
in open country. It was smaller than a kaka, and had a different sort of
bill. He mea ahua whero taua manu (Of a brown or reddish colour).

Kereru {Hemiphaga novce-zealandice ; Pigeon). — We have not much to
say about this well-known bird until we come to describe the methods of
taking the three principal food-supply birds — the kereru, kaka, and koko.

It is known to most of us that rupe is a kind of emblematical name for
the pigeon. The local Natives cannot distinguish the sexes of this bird —
at least, they have no names for the two sexes. Occasionally nests of the
pigeon are found in this district, but not often. They are mostly found
in small trees, and about 10 ft. or 12 ft. from the ground. To find a pigeon's
nest is looked upon here as an omen of ill fortune, of death or sore affliction
for the finder. It is also an evil omen to hear a pigeon calling at night.
He tatai mate tena, he aitua.

A tree much frequented by pigeons is termed a rakau tipapa {ti= whaka,
a causative prefix). Such a tree is usually a taumatua, for which see post,
under " Snaring."

When these birds become fat in winter the expression " Kua whaturua
te kereru " is heard, meaning that the birds are in good condition, having
plenty of fat on the intestines. They get very fat in some seasons when
there are plenty of toromiro berries, &c. Both the pigeon and kol;o {tui)
are very fond of the berries of the white inaire {maire rau nui), hut do not
fatten thereon. They were often snared on those trees. The koko also
•eats the berries of the maire roro, but the pigeon never does so. When
pigeons are feeding on leaves, as those of the kowhai, puruhi (houhi ongaonya,

266 Transaction a.

Plagianihus hetulinus), &c., they get very thin, and the skiu gets covered
with a kind of scurf [maihi).

In some districts the pigeon is called huhu and kukwpa. " He huhu hi te
kainga, he kaka ki te haere " (A pigeon at home, a parrot abroad) is a favourite
apophthegm of the Maori. It may be applied either to a person who is
dowdy, careless of personal appearance at home, but who puts on fine feathers
when going out, or to a person who is quiet at home but talkative when
abroad.

Mr. J. White has preserved (" Ancient Maori History," vol. ii, page 78)
an old-time myth as to how the pigeon became possessed of wings, and how
its legs and beak acquired their red colour.

I have seen but one specimen of an albino pigeon in this district : it
was shot at Tarapounamu some years ago by Mr. C. Anderson. The
jjlumage, however, was not white, but had a pale pink tinge.

Kiwi {Afteryx). — This bird is still fairly numerous in some parts of
Tuhoeland. At Parahaki and about Tara-pounamu they are common,
though, of course, not often seen. When camped at Hei-pipi, near the
latter place, their cries were often heard at night in winter, especially so on
wet nights. Several were killed by us, and I noted that the fat seemed to
be confined to a layer under and adhering to the skin, the rest of the bird
being quite thin. The skin is very thick. One good skin I intended to
preserve, but old Tutaka, who was camped with me at the time, came across
it, and promptly roasted it at a fire and ate it. He rejected the larger
feathers.

Kiwi are rare or unknown in some parts of this district. I have only
heard one near Rua-toki. As observed, kiwi were sometimes caught with
a tahiti, but the usual method of taking them was to hunt them with dogs
at night. Kakapo were hunted in the same manner. This seems to have
been about the only useful work that the native dog was capable of. The
dogs were taken after dark to a place frequented by kiwi, and a lure-call
was often employed by the hunters to cause the birds to reply thereto.
The dogs were released to find, pursue, and catch the birds, but a kind of
rattle was fastened to the dog's collar so that the huntei-s might be able
to follow the sound thereof. A dog-collar was made from flax-fibre. When
tied up, a stick, called a potete, was secured to the collar at one end, and had
a cord attached to the other end by which to tie the creature up. The
dogs tried to free themselves by gnawing the stick — hence its use. A muzzle,
termed a ponini, was semetimes used on dogs. The rattle, called kakara
by Tuhoe, was composed of several pieces of wood {mapara, the resinous
heart-wood of the kahikatea tree), or of bone, sometimes whale-bones. These
pieces were about 4 in. long, and about four of them were tied to a dog's
collar, and rattled when he moved. Major Mair states that these rattles
are termed tatara by the Whanganui Natives, and rore at Wai-kato.

The word ivhakangangahu seems to define the luring of kiwi by means of
a call^ — " Me haere ki te whakangangahu kiwi ma tatau." The word whaka-
ngau is here only applied to the hunting and taking of pigs with dogs. The
deep whistling sound made by a kiwi hunter to cause the birds to answer
him, and so disclose their whereabouts, is termed whakahihi. It is one of
the sounds known as koroivhiti, in making which the bent finger is placed
in the mouth. The former name is applied only to the kiwi lure-call.
'■' Ka ivhakahihitia te kiwi e te tangatay

Parties of people used to go a-hunting the kiwi in former times. It was-
cold work in winter for these bushmen, who possessed but little clothing.

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 267

Hence the death of Moe-tere and her husband among the snows of drear
Huiarau.

The cry of the female Tiiivi is rendered by the Maori as " Poai, poai ! "
and that of the male bird as " Koire, koire ! " or, as some render it,
" Hoire ! " The cry of the male bird resembles a deep, hoarse whistle —
such a sound as is termed korowhiti. As old Tutaka put it, " Mehemea ka
poai, he uwha taua manu. Mehemea ka korowhio, penei me te korowhiti, a
he tane tena.''''

If the kiwi hunter has no dog he takes a firebrand along. He then sounds
the lure-call above mentioned, which closely resembles the cry of the male
bird. If the birds are not together, but roaming about singly, such a lone
bird will approach the hunter, attracted by the call. The merry fowler,
on seeing the bird approach hun, waves his firebrand vigorously until it
bursts into flames, whereupon the kiwi thrusts its beak into the earth, and
is easily caught by the hunter.

If the birds are roaming in pairs they will not come to the lure-call.
The bird is said to be afraid of the fire when it blazes up (perhaps
its eyes are dazzled by the bright flame), hence it sticks its beak into the
ground so as to shade its eyes.

The kiwi makes its nest in holes among roots of trees, or under over-
hanging banks, or holes on steep sidelings. Often they are made under
the roots of tawai {Fagus) trees. The Maori has an idea that the bird leaves
the eggs to hatch themselves and does not sit on them (awhi). This is
such a long process (two seasons, some say) that the tree-roots sometimes
grow over the egg and prevent the hatching or escape of the young bird.
We note a reference to this in a song composed by one Mihi-ki-te-kapua,
a prolific song-composer of the early part of the nineteenth century : —

Engari te titi e tangi haere ana — e

Tail tokoiua rawa raua

Tena ko an nei, e manu — e

Kai te hua kiwi i mahue i te tawai

Ka toro te rakaii kai runga — e

Ka hoki mai ki te pao

Ka whai iiri ki ahau.

Cloaks or capes of kiwi feathers are still made by Tuhoe and some other
tribes. The feathers are woven into and securely fastened to a woven flax-
fibre garment. These are termed kahu-kiwi.

Koekoea {Urodynamis taitensis ; Long-tailed Cuckoo). — This bird and the
pipiwharauroa {Chalcococcyx lucidus) were somewhat of a puzzle to the
Natives, who never seem to have understood their habit of migrating.
Hence the Maoris have cherished two peculiar myths in regard to these
birds. One is that they appear from the ground in spring, having buried
themselves in the earth or mud in the fall of the year and remained there
throughotit the winter ; the other is that these birds are in some way the
offspring of the lizard called ngarara-papa.

The cry of the koekoea is short, and is rendered by Natives as "Hoi!"
It emits a hoarse whistling sound, often heard in the dead of night. This
cry may be heard from about the time the manuka blossoms until the white-
pine has ceased to shed pollen.

The local Natives state that the young of the koekoea and pipiwharauroa
are fed by the tataeto (syn., tataihore). The pipiwharauroa appears at
Rua-tahuna about the end of October, or early in November. It is also
known here as nakonako and whenakonako, on account of the peculiar
markings of plumage. The first of this species heard by me at Ruatoki

268 Transactions.

ill 1904 was on the 11th October ; but in 1906 I heard one near Whakatane
on the 28th September. In 1903 at Rua-tahima the first I heard was on
the 15th October. The koekoea appears soon after the nakonako. When
an old Native at my camp saw the first koekoea of the season in that locality
he said to me, " Kua puta te koekoea, waineku ana te ahua, ara e ahua poko-
rehu ana''' — by which he seems to have meant that the plumage of the bird
W8S pale or dingy. Possibly it was a young bird, the markings not yet
distinct.

Both the above species are 'said to deposit their eggs in the nests of the-
tataeto (whitehead, Certhiparus albicillus), or tataihore as it is termed at
Te Wairoa, Hawke's Bay. The young birds are fed by the tataeto along
with its own.

The koekoea, it is said, does not eat berries, but lives on insects, lizards, &c.
The nakonako also eats insects. The koekoea attacks and eats the young
of the koko, and is chased and attacked by the parent koko birds. The
former does not show fight, but escapes by swift flight. The koekoea were
formerly taken to provide plumes for the head-dresses of the Maori. The
tail-feathers were so used.

The term koekoea is sometimes applied to lazy, shiftless folk : " E ! kua
rite koe hi te koekoea." It fits well a wanderer or vagabond.

In an old ivhakatakiri, or song sung while dandling a child, we find the
following : —

Ko te uri au i te whenakonako,

I te koekoea

E riro nei ma te tataihore e whangai.

A substance known as tnimi koekoea, apparently the excrement of that
bird, is eaten by the Natives. It is found on leaves, and is said to be dropped
by the bird when flying. It is licked off by the Maori, who says that it has
a sweet taste.

The cry of the nakonako, or pipiwharauroa, differs from that of the koe-
koea, and it also gives different forms of its cry. These are rendered by the
Maori as " Kui, kui! Tioro, tioro, tioro/" Another as " Whiti o, whiti a,
whiti of'' But its principal cry is given as" Kui, kui, kui ! Whitiwhiti or a ! "
When the cry of this bird is heard, then it is known that the summer is near.
When the first cuckoo is heard in the spring the Maori children are heard
addressing it as follows : " E manu, tena koe ! Kua tae tenei ki te mahana-
tanga. Kua puawai nga rakau katoa. Kua pa te kakara ki te ihu o te tangata,
Kua puta ano koe ki runga tioro ai, tioro i te tvhitu, tioro i te waru. Me tioro
haere ano e koe tenei kupu e whai ake ki te marae o tama ma, o hine ma. Kui,
kui, kui I Whitiwhiti ora!''' (0 bird, I greet you! The warm season has
now arrived. All trees are blossoming. The fragrance is scented by man.
Once more your resounding cry is heard above, sounding in the seventh
[month], sounding in the eighth [month]. Go forth and sing the following
song o'er the homes of lads and lasses — ' Kui, kui, kui! Whitiwhiti or a ! ')

At page 113 of vol. xxxvi of the " Transactions of the New Zealand
Institute " may be found a long and interesting paper on the koekoea.

The koitareke, or native quail (Coturnix novcB-zealandice), has long dis-
appeared from this district. The younger Natives, who have never seen
this bird, often confuse its name with that of the kareke, a rail. (See also
under " Quail.")

Koknko {Glaucopis wilsoni ; Blue- wattled Crow). — This bird is known
as honge among the Ngati-Tipa and probably other tribes. It is now very
scarce in the Tuhoe district, a few being occasionally seen among the wild

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 269

forest ranges of Parahaki, on the head-waters of the Waiau River, where
no man liveth. In former times they were taken by means of a call-leaf
by fowlers, but not in great numbers. They were, of course, eaten by
these bushmen. The blue wattles of this bird are termed werewere kokako,
a name also applied to a blue-coloured fungoid growth that is found growing
on trees. Natives say that when a crow sees this blue object he goes and
rubs the sides of his head on it.

A flock of crows is termed a ta kokako. An old saying is " Te ta kokako
a Ira-motumotu " (The crow flock of Ira-motumotu)^whereby hangs a tale.
Ira-motumotu was an ancestor of the Tuhoe people, and it fell upon a
certain fine night that Ira's wife went a-fishing for the simple kokopu. She
brought some home alive in her puivai, or fish-basket. Ira opened the
basket and the fish promptly jumped out. Here endeth the first canto.
Anon, in days that followed, Ira went a-fowling, and snared some crows,
the which he secured alive in a basket and carried home to his wife. He
told her to cook them, and she, simple creature, opened the basket, where-
upon the crows all escaped, and flew away far beyond all beck and call. She
made wild clutches at the escaping birds, but never again did she handle
those crows. Hence Ira's ta kokako has passed down the changing genera-
tions as a synonym for the unattainable. Again, when Te Whakatohea
raided Rua-tahuna they pursued one Manu-ka-tiu with the pious intention
of slaying, cooking, and eating him. One who knew Manu's fleetness of
foot said, " You will never catch that man. Just think of his name — ' the
Soaring Bird.' " One replied, " Ka rere ia ki hea i te ta kokako a Kotikoti "
(How may he escape from the crows of Kotikoti ?) However, the Soaring
Bird did escape, and warned Rua-tahuna ; hence the night attack on and
defeat of Te Whakatohea at Tatahoata, .where their chief, Te Piki, furnished
a breakfast for the Child of Tamatea.

Anent the origin of the kokako — it was in this wise : In Maori myth
both the kokako and the pakura (syn., pukeko) are the offspring or descend-
ants of an old-time tipua (supernatural being) known as Wairua-kokako,.
or Hine-wairua-kokako.

Koko ; syn., Tui {Prosthemadera novcB-zealandice ; Parson-bird). — The
origin of this bird was a singular one, according to Maori myth. The koko
bird and the inanga fish (under various names) are both said to be the
offspring of Rehua (Antares). In one sense the name Rehua is applied to
the constellation Scorpio, except the Scorpion's Tail, which is Te Waka o
Tama-rereti. For Rehua is often alluded to as a bird. The curved line
of stars extending eastward from Antares is one of his wings — the unbroken
one, or paihau ora. The other wing of Rehua is broken, as may be seen
if you look at the broken line of stars just westward of Antares. This is
the paihau tvhati or broken wing of Rehua. Old Pio, of Awa, said, " There
is an ancestor roaming across the heavens : it is Rehua. That ancestor
is a bird, and has one broken wing and one sound one. His children are
the koko bird and the inanga. Those are the offspring of Rehua. The koko
bird is with his ancestor Tane {i.e., is a denizen of the forest). This bird
provides food for man, the rich huahua, only eaten on important occasions
or by chiefs, often kept for ritual and social feasts. You cannot equal
huahua as a food ; it is unrivalled."

In the mythical story of Rupe we may note that when that hero visited
Rehua in the uppermost or tenth heaven Rehua shook the koko birds out
of his hair, where they fed upon parasites (kutu), and had them cooked as
food for Rupe.

270 Transactions.

The above stones are difficult to understand until we note an explanation
given by Mr. .Tregear in a very interesting paper on " Polynesian Folk-
lore " (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xix, page 490), wherein he states that lehua
{ = rehua in Maori) is an ancient name for a forest in the Hawaiian dialect.

The Tuhoe Tribe have two names for each sex of the koko. The male
bird is known as kopurehe and the female bird as kouwka from the time of
the flowering of the kotukutuku until the fruiting of the hinau. During
the balance of the year the male bird is termed kokouri and the female
kokotea (cf. parauri in Tregear's Maori Dictionary).

The term kouwha seems to equal uwha, and is applied to female animals
and female blossoms or trees.

The Natives say that towards the autumn the koko will, in some seasons,
wake up in the night and "talk" for a few minutes, and then again be
silent. This is said to be a sign of a fruitful season coming — all forest food
products will be plentiful.

The koko was, apparently, the only bird taught to talk by these Natives,
and the only one kept as a pet. The mokai kaka were kept for use. When
a bird was caught which it was proposed should be kept and taught to
speak, it had a piece of its long tongue cut oft". This bird is a honey-sucker.
A famous talking koko kept at the Hei-pipi hamlet years ago was named
Tauaiti, after an ancestor of those parts. It was tohia (end of tongue cut
off) by Pirimona, of Maunga-pohatu.

The bird was then placed in a covered place. Two pieces of supplejack
were fixed in the ground as hoops, one at right angles to the other, to serve
as a framework. This frame was covered with a mat or old baskets. Food
was placed at one end and water at the other end of this structure, and
the bird soon learned to find them. After some time the bird would be
put in a cage made of thin twigs of manuka. A small opening was left at
each end of the cage, and a small wooden trough, sometimes ornamented
with carving, was fixed outside the cage, just under the two apertures.
Food was placed in one, and water in the other. These cages were hung
in the porches of the houses. After the birds had learned to talk they would
begin to air their eloquence very early in the morning. Old-time residents
of Pori-rua, of forty or more years ago, will remember such a bird, the pro-
perty of hale Jimmy Mitchell. That koko was a past-master in the delivery
of the Maori tongue.

The tongue of a koko, or the ends thereof, are termed puhihi by Natives,
a word also used to denote rays of light, as from stars, &c., and also the tail
and side streamers of a kite. These ends of the bird's tongue were cut so
as to enable the creature to speak distinctly. If they were not so cut, then
the bird's enunciation would be very poor. The koko emits some curious
sibilant sounds at the end of each " set piece," which sound much like a
person spitting.

We here give a few^ specimens of these songs or recitations taught to the
koko in former times : —

He Ako Koko.

Kiki tai pari, kiid tai pari

Whakataka horohoro ki tua o Maketu

Maranga mai — e — u — e. E — u — e

Ka ki te tai, ka heke te tai

Ka whakarara koa nga tai o te awa

He tai tana — e, elie ! ehe !

Kai tiiha !

\^ Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 271

He Ako Koko- . ,

1.

Uia te niannhiri me ko wai. Uia te manuhiri me ko wai. Ko Tu koe, ko Rongo
koe, ko \Miakamau-tarawa. Tahia te wananga — e. Ko INIatiti, ko Matiti-kuia, ko
Matiti-aro.

2.

Ko Tupato, ko Hikairo, te Kviti, te weia, te rapa, te haua. E, ko Apanui, Apamii
— e ! Alau ki te hoe. Tutaki — e ! Man ki te hoe. Ko te hoe nui, ko te hoe roa, ko
te hoe na Matatua. Tikina ra, kaua te tai o Pakihi, kai hika mokai ko koe. Moi,
moi — e ! Haere mai ! Ehe ! Ehe ! Kai tiiwha !

3.

E ai ana, tataki ana te waha o to puta. Ka riire te wahine — e ! Te wahine takiri
tohetohe. e rere tana. Korihi ake te ata. Karangatia, e ! Haere mai ! Haere mai,
e te manuhiri tua-rangi. Kaore he kai o te kainga. Kai tawhiti te kai. Moi, moi — e !
Haere mai ! Ehe ! Ehe ! Kai tinvha !

4.

Koka — e ! Tahia te marae. Koka — e ! Me tohutohu tu te kai. Me tohu te rua
iti. Me tohu te nia rahi. Koi tae ki te whitu, me te waru. Tukutuku karere ki raro
ki te whakahawea na. E ! Haere mai ! E te manuhiri tviarangi. Kaore he kai o te
kainga. Kai tawhiti te kai. Moi, moi, e ! Haere mai ! Ehe 1 Ehe! Kai tuwha !

5.

Ko te when, ko te whare. Te whare patahi — e ! Hui te rangiora. E rongo ki
waho, e ! Haere mai ! Haere mai ! E te manuhiri tuarangi. Kaore he kai o te
kainga. Kai tawhiti te kai. Moi, moi — e ! Haere mai ! E)he ! Ehe ! Kai tuwha.

On comparing a number of versions of the above Icoho speeches I find
that part 5 is the latter portion of part 1, and should be added thereto. It
will be seen that these birds were taught to cry a welcome to visitors, and
to give orders that the plaza of the hamlet be swept and made presentable.

Tamati Ranapiri, of Ngati-Raukawa, states that Maoris know the sexes
of some birds, and can distinguish them — i.e., the haha, kereru, tui (koko),
kokomako (syn., rearea, kopara), and huia. He says also that manu tute
(quarrelsome birds) and manu tawpua are always males, no matter of what
species.

Manu tute is a term applied to birds that bully and drive other birds
away from a food-bearing tree, as the koko are sometimes seen to drive
pigeons away from a tree {tutetute = to jostle).

Manu whakakenakena is an expression applied to a bird when it causes
its neck-feathers to stand up like a frill, as the koko sometimes does.

The Maoris have a belief that when the koko becomes excessively fat,
as it sometimes does, it is in the habit of pecking its breast so as to cause
much of the surplus fat to exude. I must decline to guarantee the truth
of this statement.

That the koko is a somewhat strenuous and interfering sort of creature
we know well. It has not much use for birds of other species. Some months
ago, when ascending a bush-clad hill near my camp I heard a series of angry
shrieks and (apparently) shocking oaths, and presently came upon a strange
scene. A gentle ruru (morepork owl) was standing on the ground, and a
koko was wheeling and making swift dashes at it, and evidently trying to
frighten or drive it away by means of these attacks and discordant shrieks.
At last the ruru fled down a gully, pursued by its assailant, who again attacked
it as it sat on a branch, and the owl again fled. This process was repeated
until I got tired of following them, and probably longer. The owl seemed
to make no attempt to retaliate or defend itself.

272 Transactions.

The skins of the koko (and also those of some other birds) were used
as pohoi, or ear-pendants. The skins, with feathers on, but minus heads,
wings, and tails, were prepared by inserting a round stick in them, and
hanging them up to dry. Thus the skins assumed a cylindrical form. They
were suspended from the ears.

Besides being potted and steamed in an earth-oven, the koko was often
cooked after being wrapped in leaves. A favourite method was roasting
before a fire. A green stick with one end cleft, split doAvn the middle, was
used as a spit. It was termed a rapa or korapa, whereas an unsplit stick
used as a spit is called a kohuki. Five or more koko or other small birds
were stuck in the cleft of a korapa, and the spit was stuck in the ground
near a fire.

When fowlers were counting a day's takings they did not count two koko
as a brace, but reckoned two birds as one, or, in some places, three as one.
Hence a pu koko, or brace of koko, consisted of four birds, or, in some parts,
of six birds. This was on account of their small size.

Tahei koko, or snares for taking this bird, were set all over the top branches
of trees frequented by them. When visited again by the fowler, he would
often find dozens of birds caught on one tree. Then would be heard the
saving, " Me te raparapa tuna.'^ So many birds were hanging from the
snares that they looked like a lot of eels hung on a stick to dry. Another
such simile was applied to pigeons when so caught in large numbers : " Me
te rau rangiora " (Like rangiora leaves). In this case the birds are compared
to leaves of the rangiora, which are white on the under-side.

"■ He koko kai kohe " (A kohe-eating koko). When these birds are feeding
on the berries of the kohe tree they become very fat. This saying is applied
to a stout person as a simile. He is compared to a koko that has fattened
on kohe berries. Both the koko and pigeon eat these berries.

" He koko ivhakamoe, ka mate te tangata " (When like a benumbed koko,
men perish). Applied to sleepy-headed, lethargic persons who do not keep
a good watch at night ; hence they are surprised and slain by enemies.
The koko gets so benumbed on frosty nights as to be unable to fly, and is
then taken by hand.

" Me he korokoro tui " (Like a tui's throat) is said of an eloquent speaker.
This is given by Sir George Grey in his " Maori Proverbs." I have not heard
it used among Tuhoe.

Kotare {Halcyon vagans ; Kingfisher). — The kingfisher is not numerous
in the Tuhoe district ; a few are seen, usually on the outskirts of the forest
region. I have seen them pecking into dead, half-decayed tree-trunks
in order to form their nests. At a place called Te Puta-kotare, at Whiri-
naki, these birds used to make holes for nests in a blufl' overlooking a lagoon :
hence the place-name. The Natives say that these birds eat lizards, and
hence some persons will not use them as food. The young were in former
times taken from the nest just before they could fly, and eaten by those
who were not too deeply imbued with superstitious dread of consequences.
Kotuku {Herodias timoriensis ; White Heron). — This bird is no longer
seen in these parts, and seems to have been only occasionally seen in former
times : hence the saying, " He kotuku taunga kotahi.'''

In olden days the kotuku is said to have frequented a pond or lagoon
at Manuoha, a very wild spot and remote, and also the Kaipo Lagoon,
which is the source of the Mokau Stream, at W^ai-kare Moana.

The plumes of the kotuku were highly prized by the Maori in former
times, being used by chiefs for sticking in their hair. These feathers or

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 273

plumes were known by several names, the three kinds used for the above
purpose being the ivhaitiri, tatara, and titapu (or rau o titapu). The tatara
were the outside plumes. Another Native states that the bird has four
of these prized long plumes in each wing : the first one is called a kapu, and
the other three are kira. Women were not allowed to wear these plumes :
they were only permitted to wear the shorter ones, which had a distinctive
name. If a woman were to wear one of the long plumes, all her hair would
fall off. Or, as another Native put it, if a man wearing kotuku plumes is
sitting among us as we partake of food, no woman may come and join in
the meal. If one does so, then all her hair will fall off. But if the plume-
wearer takes it out of his hair and lays it down, then women may join in
the meal. These hair-shedding episodes must have been truly annoying
to the fair sex of neolithic New Zealand.

Tutaka states that the titapu was a very tapu object. Perhaps that
was why it acted as a depilatory.

The aive kotuku are even now much prized. These are very fine and
graceful feathers, of delicate texture and appearance, that overlap the
tail-feathers of the kotuku.

Kukurutoki ; syn., Toetoe, &c. {Sphenoeacus punctatus ; Fern-bird). -^This
bird is usually termed toetoe by the Tuhoe Tribe, and kukurutoki by Ngati-
Awa. It is seen flitting among the fern (bracken) and about the edges
of swamps. Its ordinary cry is rendered by the Maori as " Te, te, te I "
but it has other cries which are regarded as tokens of approaching good
or bad fortune by Natives. For this bird is a manu tohu. By its cry we
can foretell the success or failure of an expedition, or hunting-trip, or kai
taonga {muru) raid. If you hear the toetoe cry " Kore ti, kore ti ! " you
will not be successful — not at all. That cry is a puhore (token of non-
success). But if the cry of that bird is " Toro ki, toro ki, toro ki f Kuri,
kuri ! " that is a sign of good luck : you will gain your object. When its
cry resembles " Kuri ivhatia I " that is a sign of disaster or death ; while
the cry " Kuri ora ! " is a token of life, peace, and prosperity.

Matapu. — A large bird, says my informant, of black (or dark-coloured)
plumage. It is like a kaivau in appearance, but has a shorter neck. It
frequents forest-streams.

Matuku [Botnurus pceciloptilus ; Bittern). — Sometimes called matuku-
hu-repo, because its peculiar booming cry is heard in swamps. Several
auguries are drawn from the cry of this bird. Thus it gives notice of an
approaching wet season, when floods are to be many.

Old Pio, of Awa, rambles on anent birds in his usual style : " In the
tenth month (April) the sun changes its course and returns to the ocean,
to his winter wife, Hine-takurua (Winter Maiden). The sun has many
descendants out on the ocean. These are Hine-karoro (origin and personifi-
cation of the karoro, or black-billed gull), the next born being Hine-tara
(the tara, or tern) ; the next is Hine-tore. The last born of that lot was
Punga, the origin of lizards. This Punga also had Haere-nui, then Noho-
tumutumu (origin of the kawau), then Moe-tahuna (origin of the parera,
duck). The next born after Punga was Matuku (origin of the matuku, or
bittern). I will speak of this person, of how he makes the booming sound.
There are two signs in the call of this bird — it calls to its parents, and also
gives certain tokens regarding the months and seasons. This person, the
matuku, goes wandering about in the swamp. It sees a hole, and thrusts
its beak down into that hole. The food it contains is an eel. The bird
thrusts its head down into the mud and seizes the eel. Then the bird gets

274 Transactions

out of breath, its fundamental orifice opens and emits a booming sound.
Such is the cry of the matuku."

The bittern is now scarce in this district, but few are heard.

Mimiro. — See Miromiro.

Miromiro ; syn., Mimiro, Tarapo {Petroica toitoi ; Pied Tit). — These
little birds are still fairly numerous in the forests of Tuhoeland. The sexes
are known by their different colours, the male bird having black and white
plumage, while that of the female is of a dingy pale (koma) colour. The
female bird is called tarapo.

There are two items to record in reference to the miromiro. When Maui,
the famous hero of Maori myth, went in search of his mother, he reached
Paerau, where he found the folk of that place busily engaged in planting
their crops. Maui transformed himself into a bird, a miromiro, which biixl
perched itself on the whakamarama (crescent-shaped handle) of a ko (digging-
implement) and sang a tewha, or planting-song. After divers adventures,
Maui assumed the form of a kereru, or pigeon, and finally found his mother.

Again, the miromiro bird was often employed to carry love-messages to
a sweetheart or absent wife or husband. There was a certain amount of
ritual pertaining to this practice. Certain charms, termed iri or atahii,
were recited, and it is said that they were very effective. The bird would
go forth and find the desired person, however distant, and perch itself on
him or her. At once such person would be seized with a great desire to go
to the sender of the bird messenger. Runaway wives or husbands were
often brought back by such means, the bird being the active medium em-
ployed. I am informed that the above statements are quite true — and who
am I that I should doubt them ?

" Ma te kanohi miromiro " is a saying preserved by Sir George Grey.
(It will take a sharp eye to see or find something mentioned — an eye as
quick as that of the miromiro.)

Missionary Taylor states that the miromiro " generally flies about graves."
After having known this bird for nearly fifty years, I have come to the
conclusion that it gets along very well when there are no graves handy.

Moa. — This creature is no longer met with in the forests of Tuhoeland,
I may observe, but it has at one time roamed far and wide over the steep
forest ranges of this district. Moa bones have been found near the sum-
mit of the Tara-pounamu Range, at an altitude of quite 2,500 ft. above
sea-level, and probably 2,700 ft. These were found by road-workmen at
the base of a rimu tree, on a steep sideling. A leg-bone was sent to the
Auckland Museum. Natives report moa bones as having been seen in caves
or rock shelters in the wild forest country at the head of the Tauranga River
(called the Waimana by us), and near the summit of Maunga-pohatu — viz.,
at Nga Whatu-a-maru. A moa skeleton was found in a chasm near Awa-
awaroa, at Wai-kare Moana, by Mr. McGrath.

Native tradition speaks of the moa having lived on the Poho-kura Block
in times long past away, and also of a lone 7noa that lived on the Tawhiu-
au Range, at Galatea. Presumably these upland moa were mountaineers,
for they certainly roamed in very rough high-lying country.

The word moa is often found to occur in place-names, but whether or
not these names have any connection with the bird it is now impossible to
ascertain : thus, Moa-whara is a place-name on the upper Whakatane
River ; Tapuae-moa, a place near Te Teko ; Moa-nui, a place on the Waio-
eka River ; Whanga-moa, on the shores of Roto-kawa ; while rau-moa is
a plant-name.

Best, — Maori Forest Lore. 275

Tradition states that a moa was killed at Whakatane by one Ngaliue,
a very early voyager to New Zealand, who returned to the isles of the north.
Mr. Percy Smith heard this same tradition repeated by a very old Native
of Karotonga.

Pio, of Awa, born about 1823, has his little budget of notes concerning
the moa : " There were certain folk on this island in ancient times. They
were like birds in appearance, and also resembled man in structure. They
had two legs, two arms (?), and a head, and a mouth too, but they could
not speak. They stood on one leg and held the other up — drawn up. It
always kept its mouth open, because it lived on air (or wind). It always
stood facing the wind, no matter whence it blew — north wind, south wind,
east wind, all were food for those folk. Those creatures had fine plumes,
like birds' plumes, that grew under their armpits. These plumes were
called rau o piopio, and were worn by chiefs in ancient times. They were
also used, together with huia and kotuku plumes, when dressing the hair
of a dead chief for the lying-in state. A certain ancestor of ours, whose
name was Apa, came across one of those folk on the western side of Pu-
tauaki (Mount Edgecumbe). It looked like a man standing there. Apa
struck a blow at the leg it was standing on, whereupon the creature kicked
Apa so violently with the drawn-up leg that he was hurled over a cliff and
killed. Hence that place has since been known as the Takanga-o-Apa.
Those folk of that tribe were called moa. I say those folk who stood on
one leg and held the other up are lost : our ancestors killed them. Those
moa are no longer seen, but their bones are found — huge bones, like those
of cattle or whales in size. They were descendants of Tutunui. They were
all slain in ancient times. It was said that sui'vivors of the moa were living
on high ranges, on precipitous places, in gullies, at Tawhiuau and elsewhere.
I saw some of their bones at the base of Tawhiuau (near Galatea). After
Christianity was introduced, a party of Maoris went with a European to search
for moa at Tawhiuau. They did not find any."

The above, is the only tradition concerning the moa that is known by
the Natives of these parts. The ancestor Apa here mentioned flourished
about four hundred years ago. The tribe Ngati-Apa, of Putauaki, were
apparently of the early inhabitants of New Zealand. The Tuhoe people
have preserved no other traditions concerning the moa. Their history,
legends, folk-lore, songs, &c., are silent as to the moa, save for the few notes
given here. And Tuhoe are truly of the old-time people of New Zealand,
who were in camp here long centuries before the last migration of Poly-
nesians to these shores.

A very singular statement appears at page 494 of vol. vii of the " Trans-
actions of the New Zealand Institute." It is quoted from a letter written
by the late Judge Maning : " There is no subject, except perhaps the his-
tory of their wars and migrations — none on which the traditions of the Maori
are so numerous and particular as those regarding the moa," &c. This
is somewhat startling w^hen we know that early European settlers and
sojoiu-ners in New Zealand could gather but very little information anent
the moa from Natives then living, or from song, story, and legend. Colenso
is correct in his statement that scarcely anything anent the inoa has been
preserved save a few fabulous stories. He made inquiries at Te Whaiti
and Te Reinga, and many other places, in 1841, but could gain nothing
authentic. The Reinga Natives spoke of a lone moa that lived in a cave
(guarded by a reptile) at Whakapunake. They also stated that a few years
before Colenso's visit in 1841 they had been raided by the Ure-wera Tribe

276 Transactions.

and forced to fly to the rugged Whakapunake Mountain for refuge, and
where many of them were slain by the Ure-wera (Tuhoe) raiders ; but they
saw no moa in those wilds. Colenso never met with the moa in Maori legend,
save in that of Ngahue, given above. He collected nine old-time aphorisms
concerning the moa, and a few references in poetry, but very little else.
There was no more moa.

" Na te moa i takahi te rata " (The moa trampled on the rata), or " He
rata te rakau i takahia e te moa," is an old saying that I first heard from
Ngati-Hau, of Whanganui. That tree sometimes grows far from upright,
and is said to have been forced into that position by a moa treading on it.
Sir George Grey has preserved " He mihiau te kohatu i taona ai te moa "
(The mihiau stone was used for cooking the moa).

The expression moa kai hau, or "air-eating moa," is sometimes met with

in poetry, as —

Kia noho atu au i konei

Hai moa kai hau ki Whakapunake ra.

Moho. — Tutaka states that the moho was a flightless forest-bird, but is
now extinct ; also that the mohorangi was a flying-bird found in open
country, in fern and swamp. Williams gives moho-fatatai as the land-
rail {H ifpotcenidia philippensis). The moho-patatai, says Paitini, is a long-
legged bird with a small body. It is no longer seen in the Tuhoe district.
The last one here seen was caught at Te Whaiti about the year 1890 or
1892.

Momotawai. — Given by Williams as the bush- wren {Acanthidositta chloris).
I have been told by Natives that momotawai, momoutu, tititipounamu, and
toirua are all names for the bush-wren. But others say that the momoutu
is smaller than the momotawai, and the latter has disappeared, while the
former is still seen ; also, that both are distinct from the toirua and tititi-
pounamu. Another ruffian says, " The toirua resembles the momoutu,
but is larger, and has no tail. It is the same as momotawai." Te Pouwhare
also says that the toirua and momotawai are one and the same bird. The
toirua is said to be also known as jnpitori.

To take the momoutu the fowler imitates the cry of the bird, and takes
a leaf in his fingers, which leaf he shakes and twirls about. This attracts
the bird, so that it comes close enough to be caught by hand, even perching
on the hand of the operator. Natives say that it mistakes the twirling
leaf for its own young. It is a dark-coloured bird.

Nakonako. — See under Koekoea.

Nonoroheke. — See under Riroriro.

Oho ; syn., Oho-mauri. — Given in Williams's list as the land-rail, same
as moho-patatai, &c. My Maori notes say : A bird of light-coloured, marked
or patterned plumage. A difficult bird to take. It has a habit of appearing
suddenly by the roadside as one passes : hence its name, "the startler."

Pakura. — See Pukeko.

Papango [Fuligula novce-zealandice). — Black teal.

Papua or Papu. — A species of kawau (cormorant).

Parera {Anas superciliosa ; Grey Duck). — A flock of parera is termed
kawai parera when in the water, but pokai parera when flying. When young
ducklings take to the water, which they do early in life, they are called
kawaiwai. When the parera and ivhio are moulting they are extremely
fat, and were in former times caught in large numbers with dogs and even
by hand at such times. At other times they were snared. A long cord,

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 277

termed Jcaha, was stretched tightly a little above the surface of the water,
being fastened to stakes thrust into the bed of the lake or stream. To this
cord were attached innumerable loop snares {tahei, tahere), which were
attached to the main cord so as to hang down and bring the open loop just
above the surface of the water. In swimming to and fro the ducks were
caught by the neck in this running noose. Favourite feeding-grounds
of the duck in lakes or wide river-mouths, &c., were sometimes entirely
surrounded with a ring line of snares.

Maoris do not appear to have been in the habit of taming birds, or
keeping them as pets, save in the case of the koko. The kaka were so kept
for use as decoys. Occasionally one hears of other birds being tamed, or
partially so. For instance, one Tohi-ariki so kept a parera as a mokai or pet,
and named it Korotau. On going a journey he left the bird in care of his
wife. She neglected to feed it : hence it left the hamlet for pastures new.
When Tohi returned he composed the following lament for his lost bird : —

Kaore te arolia ki takii nei manu

Titoko tomi ake i te ahiahi

Ka tomo ki te whare taknate kaix an

E whae ma. e !

Tirohia atii nga parera e tere atu ra

Ehara tena, he manu maori.

Waiho me titiro ki te huruhuni whakairoiro

Mai no tawhiti.

He rang! an e tatari akuanei

He raro an e tatari apopo

Kai hea Korotan ka ngaro nei

Tena ka riro kai te katokato i te ran pohata

Ka whakataiore tn nni ki te po me te ao

Ka oho ai an

E waiho ana koe hai tiaki hanga

Hai korero tana ki tona tanraata

Waiho me ui ake te iwi ngaro.

Pekapeka (Bat). — The bat is termed a bird by the Maori. They are
not often seen in this district.

The pekapeka was eaten in former times by the Natives. They usually
are foixnd living in hollow trees, and in former times, it is said, large numbers
frequented such holes. To take them, a fire was kindled in the hole, and
the entrance stopped up in order to prevent the escape of the birds. Thus
the birds were stupefied by the smoke, and fell to the bottom of the hollow
of the tree, where the merry fowler secured them. These resorts of the
bat have a powerful and evil odour. The Natives were careful to kill the
first bat caught, as this insured a good bag. If this first one escaped, then
but few would be taken.

Pihere ; syn., Karuwai, Kakaruwai, Pitoitoi, Tataruwai, Toutouwai {Miro
australis : Robin). — This bird was called pitoitoi on account of its cry
(which is rendered by the Maori as " Pitoi-toi-toi"), and karuwai (watery
eye) because small drops of water are seen exuding from its eyes. Ngati-
Awa and other tribes call these birds pitoitoi ; Tuhoe style them pihere ;
while Ngati-Kahungunu, of Te Wairoa, use the name karuivai. Tuhoe call
the female of this species mokora.

The robins practically disappeared from the forests of Tuhoeland years
ago, and were rarely seen, though numerous in pre-European days. But
in the summer of 1901-2 they reappeared in limited numbers at Rua-
tahuna, as also did the rearea, or bell-bird. Mr. R. C. L. Reay, surveyor,
writing from Wai-maha, east of Maunga-pohatu, in 1903, stated, " The

278 Transactions.

piloitoi are numerous in the Hangaroa district. They come near our camp,
and follow along the survey-lines we cut. They appear to be darker in
plumage than the pitoitoi I remember north of Auckland many years ago,
and without the white lumps at base of beak."

When in going hunting or fowling in the forest you hear the cry of the
pitoitoi far in the forest-depths, that is a sign of non-success : your trip
will be a failure.

The pihere is taken by means of a trap termed a horapa, or wTiakarapa.
To make this trap a piece of supplejack is bent so as to assume a U shape.
Across the two ends a stick is lashed so as to cause the supplejack to retain
its shape. It is now like a capital U with a closed top. Dried strips of
flax are netted on this frame so as to form a net with a mesh small enough
to hold such small birds as the miromiro. The trap now resembles an
enlarged section of a snow-shoe — not the ski, but the Canadian snow-shoe.
The straight cross-piece is termed a hurupae, and its ends project a few
inches on either side of the trap. The trap is placed in a vertical position
on the ground, the hurupae resting thereon. Two pegs are thrust in an
oblique manner into the ground just above and resting on the projecting
ends of the kurupae, and on that side of it on which the trapper takes his
stand. The trap will probably be held in an upright position by the pegs ;
if not, then a slight stick will be used to prop it up. A cord some 30 ft-,
in length is attached by one end to the top of the frame of the trap. This
cord is passed through a small hoop of supplejack, like a diminutive croquet-
hoop, fixed in the ground just in front of the trap. The cord is carried on
to the fowler's stand, he holding the end in one hand. In the other hand
he holds a stick, with which he keeps striking a block of wood lying on the
ground by his side. This tapping attracts the birds. The Natives say that
the birds think it to be caused by some person chopping grubs {huhu) from
a decayed tree, a common practice in Maoriland. It is a fact that the robins
will collect around persons working in the bush, as I know full well, having
often watched and fed them under such circumstances.

A bait of berries, earthworms, or huhu grubs is placed on the ground
immediately in front of the standing trap, and close to it, so that the trap
covers it when it falls. The birds, attracted by the tapping sound, draw
near, and soon espy the bait and flock to it. When many are collected
round the bait the fowler pulls the cord, which causes the trap to fall upon
the birds and thus imprisons them. The cord, being passed under the little
horowhiti, or hoop, holds the trap down close and prevents the birds escaping.
All the fowler has to do is to retain his strain on the cord when he advances
to secure the birds.

Other small birds, such as miromiro, &c., are taken at the same time.
It is not the pihere alone that is attracted and so taken. No bird is too
small to serve as food for the Maori, as witness the taking of the pihipihi.

Pihipihi ; sy n., Karu-patene {Zoster ops ccerulescens ; Blight-bird, Silver-
eye). — This bird appeared in this district before there was any fighting
with Europeans in Tuhoeland. It was known here at first as karu-patene
(? button-eye). This bird is taken in great numbers in the Rua-tahuna
district by the call-leaf and striking process, exactly similar to that method
of taking parrakeets termed tanga porete and tanga kakariki, for which see
under Kakariki.

The decoy pihipihi are tied by the beak to the cross-cord with a
short string. The fluttering and struggles to escape attract other birds,
which perch on the cross-rod, and are struck down by the fowler, who

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 279

is half-concealed within a shelter of branches or fern-fronds. A call-
leaf is also used by fowlers. These birds are preserved in fat in great
numbers in the interior of Tuhoeland. They are not carefully plucked —
many feathers are left on — and they are not cleaned. But that matters
not. The hardy Tuhoean bush-folk crunch up the birds — head, bones,
inside, remaining feathers, and all — with great zest. But the pakeha looketh
sideways at this delicacy.

Piopio ; syn., Koropio {Turnagra tanagra ; North Island Thrush). —
The North Island thrush is almost gone from the forests of Tuhoeland.
There are said to be some still in the Parahaki district, a wild uninhabited
tract of rough forest country but seldom visited by Natives, and which but
few Europeans have penetrated. These birds are said to have been numerous
in former times all over the Tuhoe district, and fowlers used to take them
in considerable numbers, attracting them by means of a lure-call. A leaf
was generally used whereby to make most of these lure-calls. The plumage
of this bird is described by Natives as pakaJca, or ivhero popouri, in regard
to colour. (See Pohowera.)

Pipitori. — Said to be another alias of the toirua.

Pipiwharauroa. — See under Koekoea.

Pitoitoi. — See Pihere.

Piwaiwaka ; syn., Tiwaiwaka, Piwakawaka, Tiwakawaka, Tirakaraka,
Hirairaka (Pied Fantail). — This is the bird that caused the death of Maui,
the hero who endeavoured to gain eternal life for man, and failed at the
task, as many others have. In this and some other myths birds are alluded
to as Te Tini o te Hakuturi, though it would sometimes appear that the
term is applied to fairies. In like manner the expression Tini o te Mahoihoi
is sometimes explained by Natives as being a sort of general term for birds,
though others state that it is applied to plants, &c.

Pohowera. — I have heard this name applied to the piopio, but I do not
know that it is a genuine name for that bird. Pohoivera is certainly the
name of a sea-bird. This bird is also found a certain distance inland at
times. If its nest is found in a kumnra cultivation the eggs are carefully
counted, for it is, or was, believed that the field will produce twenty baskets
of kumara (sweet potatoes) for each egg the nest contains.

Porete. — This is the most common name for the parrakeet among the
Tuhoe Tribe. (See under Kakariki.)

Pukeko ; syn., Pakura {Porphyno melanonotus ; Swamp-hen). — These
birds were never numerous in the Tuhoe district, which is essentially a forest
country, the realm of Tane. I have not yet seen this bird hereabouts. In
former times they were numerous in the Ngati-Awa district, which contains
a great area of swamp-lands. They were snared in a similar manner to that
employed in taking ducks, except that the apparatus was fixed on land.
A long cord was stretched tightly from stake to stake, and from this cord
hung many loop snares, at such a height above ground that a pukeko, in
walking, w^ould be likely to thrust its head into the loops. The expression
kawau moe roa, oi "long-slumbering shag," was applied to all such snares
as were so left, unattended by the fowler, for the birds to catch themselves
in. It was also applied to eel-pots and all such nets as are left in the water.

The pakura, or pukeko, was a troublesome bird to the Maori agriculturalist,
for it entered the fields at night and scratched out and ate the tubers of
the kumara (sweet potato).

As we have seen, the pakura and kokako are sprung from a mythical
being known as Hine-wairua-kokako, a tipua, or supernatural being. Say&

«?

280 Transactions.

Pio, " The pakura are a troublesome folk. They are the offspring ot Hine-
wairua-kokako. Most evil are the actions of that ancestress and her off-
spring in pulling up and devouring the food of the Maori people. When
seen assailing the crops a person goes to hiehie them (to drive them away
by shouting at them). This is the ivhakahiehie : —

Hie ! Hie !

Haere ki te huhi

Haere ki te repo

Haere ki a Hine-wairua-kokako.

Hie ! Hie !

Haere ki a Hine-wairua-kokako

Hie! Hie!

The sign by which the Maori kriows the approach of daylight comes from
the pahura. Its cry is heard about midnight, again later on, and again a
third time. The third cry tells us that daylight is at hand."

Quail. — The New Zealand quail was known in this district, but disappeared
many years ago. It was once numerous in open country, and was taken
with nets. It is Coturnix novce-zealandice. The Native names of the quail
given by Williams are koreke, koikoiareke, koitareke, kokoreke, koutareke, and
tareke.

Bearea ; syn., Korimako, Korihimako, Kopara, Kokomako, Kokorimako
(Anthornis melanura ; Bell-bird). — The rearea was sometimes speared, and
also taken by means of a puaka, which is an enclosure made by thrusting
sticks or branches into the ground so as to form a sort of fence. Small
openings were left by which the birds entered to eat the bait placed inside.
Loop snares were arranged in these open spaces, by which the birds were
caught. The porete was also taken in this manner.

The bell-bird had long disappeared from Rua-tahuna when I first visited
those sylvan wilds in 1895, but reappeared there in the summer of 1901-2.
I often heard them near my camp in that year ; but they were not numerous.
It was not like the delightful clamour heard in the bush of the Wellington
District in the early sixties : that was something to remember.

Riroriro ; syn., Nonowheke, Nonowheko, Horirerire, Hirorirori, Korire-
rire, Totororire {Totorori ?) {Pseudogerygone igata ; Grey Warbler). — This
is a manu toJiu tau of the Maori. It shows them what the coming season
will be bv its manner of building its nest. If its snug little roofed nest is
built with the side entrance thereto facing the north, then the prevailing
wind of the coming season will blow from the south, and vice versa. If the
Oldening of the nest faces the muri wind a tau tokerau will follow — that is,
easterly winds will prevail, and it will be a pleasant, prolific season. If
the nest faces the east, that means a tau hauauru, he upoko maro — a westerly
and cold, inclement season : crops and forest products will not be satis-
factory. The muri is a wind that blows from the coast up the Whakatane
Valley. This wind betokens good fishing weather. It is styled a hau aroha,
a favourable wind. Upoko maro is a term used to denote cold weather —
the cold south winds, or to7iga kokoti.

The cry of this bird is rendered by the Maori as "Biro, riro, 'rirof'
When this cry is heard in winter or early spring it is a sign for man to
be up and doing — to commence the work of preparing cultivations for
crops, &c. It is urging the Maori people to commence the work of the
year.

Two authorities give me totorori as a name of the riroriro. Another
Native says it was a bird similar in size and appearance to the riroriro, but
not the same ; that it was a forest bird, but is no longer seen.

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 281

Ruru [Ninox novce-zealandice ; Morepork). — This well-known bird is some-
times known as Jcoukou and peho. As Mihi-ki-te-kapua of old sang, when
left lonely in her old age at Wai-kare Moana, — •

E peho, e te nini, he tokoiua ano
Tena ko au nei, he kotahi.

If a ruru is heard to utter its cry at a junction of two tracks it is looked
upon as a sign that a hostile party is approaching — a war-party is at hand —
look out for squalls. As old Pio put it, " I begin another subject — the warn-
ing given by the ruru when danger is nigh. If a war-party approaches a
hamlet, this bird gives warning of its coming. It calls out to the people
of the place in this way : ' Kou, kou ! Whero, whero, tvhero ! ' Then the
people arise and fly to the forest. The enemy assaults an empty place."
So much for the wise owl.

A Native states that the morepork has four different calls, and that
if a person imitates the bird's cry it will answer him. Its first cry is " Kou,
kou ! " hence the bird is in some places termed koukou — an example of
onomatopoeia. The next cry is " E — e — e ! " which is he tangi aroka ki te
tanxjnta — a kindly greeting to man. Another cry is " Whe. u'he, toJie ! "
and then " Peho, peho ! " which latter is thought to betoken anger. Pio,
of Awa, says that the bird will answer a mimic call three or four times :
" Ko te ruru, tana korero, kou, kou ! Ka utua e te tangata, ka tahi pona,
kou, kou ! Ka rua pona, kou, kou ! Ka torn pona, ka vhakarere. Ka
wha pona ranei, ka whakarere.^'

These birds were, and are still, eaten by Natives. They are simply
knocked down with a stick, or snared by means of a slip-noose on the end
of a stick. The fowler takes a leaf between the thumb and one finger of
his left hand, and twirls it in order to attract the attention of the bird as he
slips the noose over its head.

Native children will cook and eat a morepork, or any other bird, wherever
they happen to kill one.

I have a friendly ruru at my camp here, beneath the frowning defences
of the old Hau-kapua pa. On cold winter mornings, when the frost is keen,
this bird comes forth from the bush as soon as the sun rises, and perches
himself upon my garden-fence, where, with closed eyes, he suns himself for
an hour or more. Though very close to the camp he does not get alarmed,
knowing by experience that he will not be molested.

In only one case have I heard of a ruru being looked upon as the form
of incarnation of an atua maori. Karukaru, an atua or demon of the Natives
of the Whanganui River, was brought to this district some years ago {i.e.,
his cult was so brought, I presume). The aria of Karukaru is a ruru. This
was the familiar demon of Matoru, a would-be shaman of these parts, whose
nose was put out of joint by Rua the keka. This demon, Karukaru, guards
his human mediums from danger, warns them when any one is attempting
to bewitch them, &c. One evening old Paitini returned to his home at
Heipipi and found a ruru perched under the porch of his cabin. The bird
was startled and flew away to an open shed, where it perched itself upon a
buggy that old Pai had bought. The old man at once suspected something
was wrong. A most superstitious man, your elderly Maori. He suspected
the poor ruru to be the worthy Matoru's demon, sent for no good purpose.
He went to the shaman and made inquiries. Matoru told him that he had
sent his familiar demon to take possession of the buggy, which was hence-
forward to be the property of the dread Karukaru. Pai was also told that
if he did not quietly give up possession of the buggy, then both he and his

282 Transactions.

wife would die — that is, be slain by black magic. Hence this couple were
much disturbed : they washed neither to die nor yet lose their buggy. At
this juncture the godless pakeha stepped in, and, with incisive vocabulary
and impious disregard for gods or demons, broke up the game.

Tarapo. — Williams gives this as a name of the kakapo. Akuhata te
Kaha, of Tuhoe, says it was a forest bird, smaller than a kakapo, and no
longer seen. Te Pou-whare states that tarapo was the name of the female
miromiro.

Tataeto ; syn., Tataeko, Tataihore, Tatangaeko, Popokotea, Tatariheko
(Certhiparus alhicapiUus ; Whitehead). — These birds are still seen in the
Rua-tahuna district, though not numerous as of yore. I have come across
flocks of them in remote places there — or, rather, they have come across
me. They move in flocks, flitting quickly from tree to tree. Natives say
that the tieke and tike birds join flocks of whiteheads and accompany them ;
a few will be seen with each such flock. A flock of whiteheads will some-
times set on to a ruru and chase it about, even as the koko does.

A flock of whiteheads is termed a ta tataeto by Tuhoe and taki tataeko
by Ngati-Awa. Ngati-Kahungunu, of Te Wairoa, call this bird tatai-hore.

Tieke {Creadion carunculatus ; .Saddleback). — This bird has entirely dis-
appeared from the forests of this district, albeit there are here hundreds
of thousands of acres of wild forest lands, within the shades of which man
is but seldom seen. The Natives say that bees have destroyed the tieke by
occupying the holes and hollow trees where the bird was wont to breed.
This is absurd. Such holes and hollow trees are here by the million in this
great forest, but bees' hives are scarcer than in any other part of the Island
I have camped in. In the fair vale of Whare-kopae, Poverty Bay, I found
nine hives within half a mile of my tent. To find one in the Tuhoean forest
would need about a day's search.

When going a-hunting or fowling, if you hear the cry of a tieke on the
right-hand side of the track it is a marie, or token of good luck — you will
be successful ; but if you hear it to the left, that is a puhore, or sign of non-
success.

At Repanga, or Cuvier Isle, there are said to be two tieke birds, named
Takereto and Mumuhau, which are atua, or supernatural beings. They
are claimed by the migrants of both the " Matatua " and " Arawa " canoes.

In taking the tieke — for all forest birds were food for these bushmen —
in some cases a fire was kindled. This is said to have attracted the birds.

Tike {Pogonornis cincta ; Stitch-bird). — The male bird is termed tihe-
wera. Its plumage is described by Natives as being whew manaeka (? yellow-
ish-red). The female is called tihe-ioai. This bird disappeared years ago
from the forests of this district. It was taken by means of the puaka
snare-trap.

Titi. — This sea-bird was formerly found in large numbers on the rugged
ranges of this district, where they had breeding-places to which they came
every year. The Natives used to visit these places every year to take the
birds, both young and old. These were preserved in fat in great numbers.
They were placed in calabashes by the inland people, but those who had
access to the coast used vessels made of a large species of seaweed or kelp.
These latter vesssels were called poha. The advent of the Norway rat
put an end to this food-supply, for they devoured the young birds ; hence
the titi ceased to come to these parts to breed.

Places where these birds were taken by fowlers are known as ahi titi
{titi fires), because a fire was always kindled on such occasions. The tops

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 283

of cliffs, hills, and ridges seem to have been selected as places whereat to
take the titi. A net about 20 ft. or 30 ft. in length was set up on the edge
of such cliff or slope. This net was fastened to poles or stakes inserted in
the ground. Each pair of stakes was lashed together at the top, thus form-
ing an inverted V — so A Where these two stakes crossed and were lashed
was termed the mata tauira. The upper rope of the net was called the
fama-tane, and the rope on the lower edge the tama-wahine. The net was
made of flax-fibre. Old persons, past their hard-working days, spent much
of their time in making nets, snares, &c. These birds were taken at night-
time, about November. A fire was kindled in front of the net and a little
distance from it. Behind the fire, and immediately below the net, the
fowlers were seated, each having a short stick in his hand wherewith to
strike down the witless birds. The birds, attracted by the fire, flew to it,
and came into contact with the net. Ere a bird recovered from the shock
it was struck down by the fowlers. A foggy or misty night was considered
best for taking these birds. Two men only remained standing : their
task was to strike down the high-flying birds that flew against the mata
tauira. Should the first bird taken chance to fly against the tama tane, or
mata tauira, that was looked upon as a sign of poor luck — but few birds
would be taken that night ; but should it strike low down the net, at or
near the tama wahine, that was an excellent omen — many birds would be
taken. If a menstruating woman chanced to be among the party of fowlers
a very poor bag was the result — the birds would fly about, screeching loudly,
but keep clear of the net. Also, the fowlers were careful not to cause any of
the birds to bleed. If any blood were drawn, then no more birds would
come near the fire.

Great numbers of these birds were taken by such means in former days,
before the European rat appeared on the scene. The birds were plucked,
cleaned, and the bones taken out ; then they were prepared at the ahi matiti
for potting.

A large number of places are pointed out here as former ahi titi, mostly
on the higher ranges, as those of Huiarau, Maunga-pohatu, &c., and at
Wai-kare Moana, 0-tukopeka, Te Rua-ngarara, Taumata-miere, and count-
less other places.

Titiporangi. — The only note I have anent this bird is, " A forest bird,
smaller than a titi. It has disappeared from this district. It was dark-
coloured on one side and light-coloured on the other." This is the render-
ing of the original Maori. Williams gives titiporangi as a name of the black
teal.

Tititipo. — This was given me as a bird-name, but more 1 cannot say.

Tititipounamu. — See Toirua .

Tiivaiwaka, Tiival-aivaka. — See Piivaitvala.

Toetoe. — Same as kuJiurutoki. (See latter.)

Toirua. — See under 3Iomotawai.

Totorori. — See under Riroriro.

Totororire. — See under Riroriro.

Turi-whekoi-rangi. — A sea-bird.

Tuturiwhatu {Ochthodromus obscurus ; Dotterel). — The name of this bird
is connected with that of one of the sisters of Taukata — he who brought the
knowledge of the kumara to Whakatane. The two brothers, Taukata and
Hoaki, had two sisters, Kanioro and Tuturiwhatu. These were the children
of Rongoatau, of Hawaiki, and descendants of Pani and Rongomaui. This
Tuturiwhatu met with an accident and had her chest burnt. The bird

284 Transactions.

of the same name is said to be her, or represent her. It has no place in
this list, save the fact that it is sometimes seen on the river-beds of this
district.

Welca (Wood-hen). — These birds are not numerous in this district, but
are said to have been so formerly. In those days they were snared, and
also hunted with dogs.

Whehau. — See Hakoke.

Weweia {Podicipes rufipectus ; Little Grebe). — Natives state that a pair
of these birds are always seen in a crateral pond on the summit of Mount
Edgecumbe by those who ascend that isolated cone.

Whenahonako. — See under Koekoea.

Whio [H ynienokemus malacorhynchus ; Blue Mountain-duck). — One often
sees these birds when traversing the rough streams of the high-lying in-
terior, as at Rua-tahuna. These birds were taken at night, the fowlers
carrying torches, which they flashed suddenly on the birds when near to
them. This is said to cause the birds to settle, whereupon they are struck
down and secured.

Whioi {Anthus novce-zealandiw). — Ground-lark.

The following is a list of the birds that have disappeared from the Tuhoe
district, and several other species may be marked as doubtful, as the kokako,
piopio, and others. It must be remembered that nearly the whole of this
district is covered with dense forest, with few clearings, and that the Native
population is small, and residing principally on the outskirts.

Hakuwai.

Kea.

Moho-patalai

Hnkolce, or ivhekau.

Koilareke.

Moho-rangi.

Kaha.

Kotuku.

Momotaicai.

Kakapo.

Moa.

Tieke.

Kareke.

Moho.

Tike.

Cutting out the hakuwai and nioa, we have here a list of thirteen species
that have disappeared from this district since the coming of Europeans to
these isles, whilst some others have almost, if not quite, disappeared. The
species that have survived have almost all become greatly reduced in
numbers.

The koroire is said to have been a water-bird, a species of duck. Mr.
C. E. Nelson tells me that he got the name from an old Native of Ngati-
Whatua, who had seen it in his youth. It has not been seen for many
years. This was the origin of the place-name 0-koroire.

We will now endeavour to explain the Native theory or belief as to the
cause of the disappearance of native birds — for they firmly believe that it is
primarily due to certain ancient customs and faiths having been abandoned
by themselves, the Maori people of these isles. They believe that the de-
generation of the Maori, and the serious lessening of the Native population,
have been brought about by their forsaking ancient customs and old-time
cults — by their having become noa, or free from tapu — debased, in fact —
through contact with Europeans. And they hold a very similar belief in
regard to the cause of the disappearance of birds, or the lessening of their
numbers.

The old-time Maori was, or believed himself to be, an extremely tapu
person. His system was, as it were, imbued or permeated with a highly
sacred, semi-volatile, and all-pervading non-material ichor, a spiritual and
intellectual essence or ether. And it was this that preserved man from
death or disaster of certain kinds. When speaking of a person's hau or
kawa ora, it is this that is in the speaker's mind. It is the tnauri ora of

Best. — Maori Forest Lore. 285

man. Even land possesses this quality, as we shall see anon. It is the
very essence of vitality. If lost or debased in any way, the person, or
tree, or forest, or land is in a truly bad way, and armourless against shafts
of magic or other evil influences. Broadly speaking, the above state may
be termed tapu; but there are many inner terms and definitions which
cannot be understood by the pakeha.

Said Ngahooro te Amo, of Ngati-Mahanga. " Birds were exceedingly
numerous in former times, before Europeans came. In the days of my
youth, at Te Whaiti, when the multitude of birds were singing in the early
morn, a person's voice could scarce be heard in the forest, so great was the
noise. Birds were numerous so long as we cooked them in the ancient
manner — that is, in a hangi (steam-oven) ; but when we began to cook
them in the kohua (iron pots) obtained from Europeans, then it was that
the evils of the tmvhanarua came upon us. For it was unlucky and of evil
omen. Then it was that birds began to decrease in numbers."

The word tawhanarua means '' to cook a second time." When cooking
birds, should they be found to be underdone when the oven was opened,
then the proper thing to do was to use them in that state, and not attempt
to recook them. If they were cooked again, then the birds of the adjacent
forest would surely disappear. So sayeth the Maori.

Said Himiona Tikitu to the writer, " In olden times birds were always
cooked in the evening. If cooked in the daytime, then all birds would
desert the forest. They would be heard flying away in myriads in the
night-time, migrating to other parts. The tawhanarua or tao rua (second
cooking) would have the same effect, as also would the use of Euroj)ean
cooking-vessels. Because the forest and its denizens became tamaoatia
(defiled) by these things. Hence the birds would disappear, even as we
Maori people did after we became noa (defiled, free of tapu) by washing in
water heated in the cooking-vessels of the white men. But remember that
the above restrictions only obtained during the busy part of the bird-taking
season — that is, while the birds were being potted down for future use.
When this labour was ended, then the above restrictions were removed."

In the above remarks we see how the life principle, the vitality, of man,
birds, forest, and land were seriously affected and endangered by certain
simple acts of omission or commission.

The scarcity of birds now so remarkable in this forest district became
most marked about the middle eighties, though they had been gradually
decreasing in numbers for many years before that time.

When forwarding my first contribution of these notes on forest-lore,
I remarked that the balance must lie over for another year. Alas for human
hopes ! — for there is still a balance, and a bulky one, I ween. Peradveii-
ture we may prepare that balance ere the sun again returns to Hinetakurua,
the Winter Maiden, and send it forth as an amonga to the modern whare
takiura, whose priests are the men of the linotype.

It was Kuha-tahi, the husbandman, who cried, " Hoatu, hoatu ! He ra
tapahV^

286

Transactions.

Art. XXXIII. — A Contribution to our Knowledge of the Physiological Action

of Tutin*

By Frank Fitchett, M.D. Edin.
[Read before the Otago Institute, 10th November, 1908.]

A. Historical.

1. General and descriptive

2. Botany of the tiitii plant

3. Work of jjrevious observers

4. The active principle . .

B. Original Work.

1. General action of tutin on mammals —

(«.) Cats

(b.) Rabbits

(c.) Gninea-pigs..

2. Action on birds

3. Action on rejitiles

4. Action on amphibia . .

5. Action on fishes —

(a.) General action

(b.) Comparison of action of tutin and picrotoxin

(c.) Effects of tutin hydrolysed by hydrochloric acid

(d.) Action of alkalies on tutin

(e.) Influence of " surviving " organs

6. Action on insects

7. Action on larvse

8. Action on molluscs . .

9. Action on infusoria and amoebae

10. Action on putrefactive bacteria

11. Action on yeast

12. Action on germination of seeds

13. Action on tissues —

(a.) Action on primitive protoplasm

(6.) Ciliated epithelium ..

(c.) Action on striped muscle and nerve-terminations

14. Action on the different systems — ■

(r/.) i\limentary system . .

(6.) Hoemopoietic system

(c.) Circulatory and respiratory systems

(d.) Urinary system

(e.) Genital system

(/.) Nervous system

ig.) General nutrition

15. Fate of tutin in the body

16. Imnnmity or tolerance

17. Pharmacological relationship of tutin . .

18. Action of remedies

19. General summary
Protocols of experiments
Literature references

Page.
287
291
293
294

295
298
299
299

304
304

306
309
311
313
314
314
315
315
315
316
316
317

317
317
318

319
320
320
323
323
323
326
327
327
328
329
332
333
365

* Being a thesis presented to the University of Edinburgh, for which the degree of
Doctor of Medicine was granted.

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin. 287

A. HISTORICAL.
1. General and Descriptive.

On the 20th May, 1773, at Queen Charlotte Sound, Captain Cook sent
on shore a ewe and a ram which he had brought from the Cape of Good
Hope with a view to stocking New Zealand with sheep. On the 22nd he
" received the unpleasant intelligence that the ewe and ram which with
so much care and trouble he had brought to this place were both of them
found dead. It was supposed that they had eaten some poisonous plant,
and by this accident all the Captain's hopes of stocking New Zealand with
a breed of sheep were instantly blasted " (1). He tried again, however,
wnih. goats, but with Uttle better result.

Cook's supposition that the flora of New Zealand includes a plant
possessing highly toxic properties was well founded. That his ewe and
ram shared the fate that has since been meted out to many thousands of
sheep and cattle, and to not a few human beings, is in the highest degree
probable.

The poisonous plant whose existence was suspected in 1773 has long
since been identified as a Coriaria, and is known throughout the Dominion
by its Maori name tutu, or, as Europeans often pronounce it, " toot."

The difficulties met with by Cook in his attempts to stock the country
were again encountered by the early settlers. Large numbers of their
flocks and herds were destroyed by eating the leaves and succulent young
shoots of this attractive shrub, for it abounded everywhere, and grew most
profusely where the soil, by its richness, offered an inducement to the pioneer
to settle.

Animals hungry and in poor condition were particularly prone to succumb
to the effects of the poison ; and, as these conditions prevailed with most
of the beasts landed from the ships, it will be understood how great an
impediment to stocking the country this noxious plant proved. The very
first issue of the Lyttelton Times (2) notices the death of three out of five
eows that had just been landed — one fell over a cliff, and two others were
poisoned by eating tutu. The newspaper, in warning settlers of the danger-
ous properties of the plant, says, " It is impossible to take too much
care in landing cattle at this place. To beasts just out of a ship the tutu,
of which there is abundance here, is certainly fatal."

The damage done to stock was enormous, as may be gathered from the
following quotation from Dr. Lauder Lindsay's article " On the Toot Plant
and Poison of New Zealand " (3) : " In the course of a tour through the
New Zealand provinces during the latter part of 1861 and earlier months
of 1862 I was everywhere struck by the abundant evidences of devastation
produced among flocks and herds from their feeding on the ' toot ' plant,
one of the most widely distributed and familiar indigenous shrubs of the
country. One settler friend told me of his having lost by ' tooting '
two hundred and fifty sheep ; another, eighty to a hundred sheep of a flock
of four hundred ; a third, seven of sixteen bullocks ; a fourth, six of twenty-
four cattle ; a fifth, twenty-four cattle ; a sixth, six of eight cattle — each
of these instances in a single night. Another flock-master lost four hundred
sheep out of a flock of two thousand, twenty-five being frequently dead of
a night. In other words, he seemed a fortunate farmer or runholder who
had not lost more than 25 per cent., or one-fourth, of his stock from toot
poisoning ; while in some instances the losses were so high as 75 per cent.,
or three-fourths. Some of the colonists had suffered so severely from losses
of bullocks by toot poisoning that they were at the trouble and expense

288 Transactions.

of attaching a boy to each of their bullock-teams, solely for the purpose
of preventing their animals feeding on this pest of the colony. Such inci-
dents I found were of daily occurrence. I met few settlers who had not
at some period had occasion from this cause to mourn the loss of sheep or
bullocks — the former sometimes by the hundred, the latter by the dozen."
These remarks of Lindsay serve well to illustrate the deadly nature of the
plant, and the embarrassment it offered to the pioneers of the country.
They also point to the importance and great desirability of an investigation
of the physiological action of the poison being made, in order that the treat-
ment of its effects may be conducted on rational lines, and as the first step
towards the discovery of an appropriate antidote.

But while sheep and cattle have been the chief victims, human beings
have not proved exempt, and he was a lucky farmer who lost only his cows
or his sheep. Too often one of his children succumbed to the effects of
eating the berries or young shoots. Nor is this strange, for the shrub in full
fruit is a very striking and attractive object. The numerous racemes of
richly coloured, tempting-looking berries — at a glance not unlike black
currants — could hardly be overlooked or neglected by the child or thirsty
traveller ignorant of their dangerous properties.

Numerous cases of poisoning must have occurred, but the recorded
deaths from this cause are not many. The following are all that occur
in the literature that has been laid under contribution : 1. Thomson (4),
in 1859, mentions that up till that date several children had died from eating
the berries. 2. Lauder Lindsay (3) mentions the case of twelve French
sailors who were poisoned by eating the berry ; four of them died. 3. The
Otago Colonist (5) records the death of one of two children in 1861 who had
eaten the shoots. 4. The Otago Daily Times notices the death of a young
man in 1862 from eating the shoots (6). 5. Easterfield and Aston (7) put
on record the following cases : A girl in 1854 55, from eating the berries ;
a bov in 1860, from eating the berries ; two cases from eating the berries —
one died, the other recovered, with impaired memory.

For the purposes of this paper the writer asked of the Registrar-General
a return of all cases of death from tutu poisoning that occur in the records.
In his reply the Registrar-General stated that he was unable to make a
return, as cases of this kind are classed in the vital statistics under the
general heading " Accidental Poisoning." He had had the statistical tables
relating to inquests examined for thirty years back, and found that only
four deaths occurred from eating poisonous berries, one in each of the years
1889, 1891, 1896, and 1902. It is probable that the berry in each of these
cases was the tutu-berry, but in only one case — that of 1889 — was it stated
to be so.

Effect of the Plant on Animals.

Horses. — Statements vary as to the effect on horses. It is said that
they have been known to eat freely of the plant without injury (8), and,
again, that C. thymifolia is highly poisonous to them (9). They are said
to refuse the young shoots, but have been known to eat the berries (3). If
they escape, it is probably because they do not eat enough of the plant ;
that they eat freely without evil result is not credible.

Birds are regarded as immune. They certainly eat freely of the berries
without ill effect. The cjuestion of their immunity will be considered later.

Babbits are said to be immune (10), (11). and certainly the tutu does
not seem to have checked their increase. They probably do not eat the
plant.

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tiilin. 289

Elephants. — Sir Julius von Haast (12) records the death of an elephant
from tutu-poisoning. The animal was marched inland by its owner for a
considerable distance, and on arriving at a suitable halting-place, where the
vegetation was abundant, was allowed to feed. The grass had been burnt
off during the previous season, and had shot up again, together with a large
crop of tutu-shoots. The elephant fed for four hours, and then drank freely
from a neighbouring stream. It then began to reel, fell on the ground, and
died in three hours.

Sheep and Cattle. — The following extract from a letter received from the
manager of a large sheep-station gives an excellent account of the effects of
tutu upon sheep : " The effect on sheep is that they will stand still, trembling
as if palsied, froth at the mouth, with their jaws going continually, and their
teeth grinding. Suddenly they will fall over, with their limbs rigid, as if
suffering from strychnine poisoning. If assisted on to their legs they are
absolutely mad, and will rush against a fence or over a precipice, and will
pay no attention to man, or dog, or animals of their own kind. With animals
that have eaten less of the plant, symptoms do not appear unless they are
disturbed, and then the effect is shown with terrible suddenness ; a bark
from a dog or a sudden run for a few yards will be almost certain to start
the poison to work. In cases like the above, however, the affected sheep
generally recover if left alone." In their wild career they often injure
themselves against obstacles, or rush into creeks and are drowned. More
frequently they die in convulsions.

Cattle are similarly affected, but the wild delirium is even more marked
in their case. Popularly they are said to go mad ; and the wild way in
which they wheel round and round, gallop aimlessly about, kicking, charging,
and rushing blindly against rocks and other obstacles, lends colour to the
popular opinion. The wild career continues until the animal, overcome
by exhaustion, falls to the ground, becomes comatose, and dies in con-
vulsions.

In the light of this account, the symptoms displayed by one of Captain
Cook's animals is interesting : " The ram was taken with fits, bordering
on madness. . . . One night he was seized with one of these fits and
ran headlong into the sea, but soon came out again, and seemed quite easy.
Presently after he was seized with another fit, and ran along the
beach . . . and was never seen more " (13).

Animals are frequently found distended with gas, " blown " after death.
This is probably due to rapid fermentation of the leaves ingested, and is
similar to the condition met with in cattle after eating freely of clover.
As with clover, it is more pronounced when the tutu is eaten wet.

Effect on Human Beings.

The symptoms of poisoning by the plant in the human subject include
vomiting, giddiness, delirium, great excitement, stupor, coma, and con-
vulsions.

In a fatal case reported in the Otago Colonist of the 25th October, 1861,
the physician who attended the case stated in his evidence at the inquest
that he found the child perfectly pale, with teeth clenched. The breathing
was difficult, the lips livid, and the pupils much dilated. For about five
minutes the rigidity went off. and the pupils contracted ; but a relapse
occurred, the teeth were set again, and the child gradually sank back,
" without any symptom of convulsion or suffering." In this case it was the
10— Trans.

290 Transactions.

young shoots that had been eaten. The jury appended the following rider
to their verdict : " The jury would recommend the Provincial Government
to keep up a standing advertisement in the pubUc prints warning persons
of the poisonous nature of the tutu plant, the young sprouts as well as the
berries, and also giving descriptions of the same " (5).

Lauder Lindsay (3) records several cases that had been reported to him.
In one case about half a pint of berries were eaten shortly after the evening
meal. No effect was produced until 6 o'clock next morning, when, on
attempting to rise as usual, the subject suddenly lost consciousness till
11 a.m. He was then conscious for a minute or two, but almost immediately
relapsed into stupor, which continued for about twenty-four hours. When
he came to himself he had lost his memory, and for half a day was unable
to say where he was, or what he had been doing for the previous forty-
eight hours. He gradually recovered, and there were no subsequent bad
effects. Throughout the illness he had had no pain.

In another case two young men partook of some tutu-berries, about
4 p.m. One swallowed the berries, the other sucked' them but spat out the
seeds. The latter was unaffected, but the former was seized with con-
vulsions about 9 p.m. The convulsions continued for about forty minutes,
and then the patient gradually passed into a state of coma, which continued
all next day. On recovering consciousness he was utterly oblivious of the
particulars of his illness, and denied having eaten the berries. He was
drowsy for a few days, but gradually recovered.

In a third case, retching, vomiting, and convulsions were the prominent
symptoms. This case did not recover completely. A mental change,
which was permanent, remained after the acute symptoms had subsided.

In a fourth case, in which particulars were given by Dr. Stewart, of
Tuapeka Hospital, insomnia was one of the earliest symptoms. This was
followed by tonic and clonic spasms, with coma, lasting for two days.
During recovery, entire loss of memory was observed. The patients — there
were two — did not know where they were, why they had been brought to
hospital, or what their occupation was. They did not recollect having
eaten tutu.

In a case noted by Dr. Hocken, the symptoms included tonic and clonic
spasms lasting two days, coma, and loss of memory.

Considering the highly toxic nature of the plant, it is surprising that so
few deaths from poisoning are on record. In the early days probably many
fatal cases occurred of which no record was made. Nowadays cases of
poisoning are rare. This may possibly be accounted for by the very dis-
tinctive appearance of the plant and the widespread knowledge of its poison-
ous nature. No one who has once seen tutu is likely to mistake it for any-
thing else, and every school-child knows that " toot " is poisonous. More-
over, near the large centres of population the plant is not often now met
with in places readily accessible to young children.

Among flocks and herds the mortality has also fallen, not because, as is
sometimes supposed, the animals have acquired immunity or tolerance,
but because in the more highly cultivated districts tutu has been largely
exterminated. Sheep and cattle when moved from place to place are now
sent by rail rather than driven. This alone has considerably reduced the
mortality, for driven animals are particularly prone to sufier, and tutu is
the commonest roadside plant in many districts.

The farmer, too, taught by experience, has become learned in the ways
of managing his stock in relation to tutu. He takes care to avoid " toot "

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin. 291

countr}' ill the early spring, when the too tempting and especially toxic
young sprouts are appearing. If sheep are to be turned out where tutu
abounds they are first fed freely on English grass, for a well-fed sheep only
nibbles tutu as he happens to meet it. and escapes ; while a hungry sheep,
finding it difficult to resist so ready a means of appeasing its appetite, fills
its stomach, and succumbs. Indeed, it is a constant observation of farmers
that tutu introduced into an empty stomach is more lethal than when taken
into a stomach that already contains food. Cross-breds are said to be less
readily affected than the more active and restless merino, and are therefore
selected for distribution to tutu-infested areas.

But, in spite of these precautions, accidents, through the ignorance of a
shepherd, or the chance of an open gate, occasionally happen, and a heavy
loss is experienced, as witness the following instance reported in 1905 :
" A settler left sixty bullocks about four years old in a field of swedes. In
his absence thev escaped from the paddock into a gully full of tutu {C rusci-
folia), where, on his return, he found forty-three of them dead. Mr. Clayton
found the rumen packed with tutu leaves and branchlets " (14).

2. Botany.

The tutu plant belongs to the natural order Coriariece, a small order
of very doubtful relationship possessing but a single genus, Coriaria. The
genus includes some eight or ten species, and has a rather remarkable dis-
tribution, species being met with in south Europe, South America, China,
Japan, north Africa, India (Himalayas), and New Zealand.

The European species, C. niyrtifolia, is well known to possess toxic pro-
perties. Its leaves have been used to adulterate senna with fatal effect,
and numbers of cases of death are recorded from eating the berries. In.
1862 several persons were said to be poisoned by eating snails that had been
fattened on its leaves and young shoots (15). The symptoms of poisoning-
include vomiting and convulsions, and, on the Avhole, closely resemble those
of tutu poisoning. In 1863 Riban (15) investigated the chemistry of this
species, and separated a glucoside which he named " coriamyrtin." The
physiological properties of this compound will be referred to later.

The Himalayan species, C. nepalensis, is stated to be non-toxic, but, as
the same has been said both of tutu and of C. myrtijolia, the statement must
be accepted with reserve. The fruit is said to be eaten with impunity.

The American species, C. thymijoUa. and the New Zealand species are
said to be identical, and this statement has been used to prove a former
land-connection between the two countries. It is more Likely, however,
that the order is a very ancient one, which has died out everywhere except
in those places in which it is now found (8). Moreover, the identity of the
two has been questioned.

The species met with in New Zealand are given by Cheeseman (16) as
three in number — (1) C. ruscifolia, (2) C. fhymifolia, (3) C. angustissima.
The first is known locally as the " tl-ee-toot," the second as the " ground-
toot," and to both the name " tutu " applies. The Maoris have no name for
G. angustissima.

There seems to be some division of opinion as to whether these three
really constitute separate naturally distinct species, or whether the two last
are merelv varieties of the first. Lauder Lindsav, who in 1868 described,
though with hesitation, four species — (1) C. arhorca, (2) C. tutu, (3) C. thymi-
joUa, (4) C. angustissima — says, " If only typical species be examined the

292 Transactions.

student will have little difficulty in accepting the foregoing as good species
well distinguished from each other by habit, but if he extend his observations
to . ■ . . forms in the living state over wide areas, he will not fail to find
them connected by transition states which he will frequently be puzzled
to refer to one book species rather than another, partaking as they do of the
characters of two or more of these species " (17) ; and he suggests that it
might be preferable to regard them as mere forms of a most variable single

Cheeseman says of C. thymifoha that in its ordinary state it is distinct
enough, but that the large-leaved forms pass directly into C. niscifoUa,
and narrow-leaved varieties into C. angusiissima (16).

G. M. Thomson (18) regards C. angustissitna as a mere altitudinal variety
of C. thymijolia.

The botanical characters of C. ruscifolia, as given by Cheeseman, are :
" A shrub or small tree with spreading 4-angled branches, very variable
in height and degree of robustness, sometimes attaining 25 ft. with a trunk
10 in. diameter, at others not more than 2 4: ft., with almost herbaceous
stems. Leaves 1-3 in., ovate or oblong-ovate, acute or acuminate, rounded
or cordate at the base, sessile or very shortly petioled, 3 -5-nerved. Racemes
drooping, many-flowered, 4-12 in. long or more, slightly pubescent. Pedicels
slender, ^-^ in., bracteolate at the base. Flowers small, green, |-J in.
diameter, strongly proterogynous. Sepals broadly ovate, subacute. Fila-
ments elongating after fertihsation. Fruit globose, purplish-black, of 5-8
cocci, enveloped by the persistent enlarged juicy petals " (16).

The herbaceous-stemmed shrub form of this is the more common. It
takes this form in the open country and where the soil is dry. The roots
creep and interlace below the surface, and in the spring stems shoot up from
every part of the root, sometimes forming an almost impenetrable jungle.
The stems may grow 10 ft. to 15 ft. in a single season. The tree form often
grows solitary in the bush that lines the banks of streams. Shelter and
moisture seem necessary to the attainment of this form.

C. ruscifolia occurs abundantly in all three islands of New Zealand, the
Kermadec Islands, and the Chatham Islands, and is met with from sea-
level to a height of 3,500 ft. C thjmifolia occurs only in the North and South
Islands of New Zealand ; and C. angustissima is still more restricted in its
distribution, occurring only in subalpine localities in the Provinces of Otago
and Canterbury. These two species differ from the former chiefly in the
size of the plant and of the leaves, and in their annual habit. All three
forms are met with in abundaik'e in the immediate neighbourhood of Dunedin.
The tree form of C. ruscifolia may be found in the bush that lines the banks
of the Water of Leith and its tributaries ; while C. thymifolia and C. angustis-
sima are plentiful on the hills that encircle the town.

All parts of the plant are poisonous, but the young shoots are more
toxic than the leaves and fruit. The same has been noted of C. imjrti-
folia (15).

In the case of human beings it is usually the so-called berry that is eaten,
though the shoots too are sometimes eaten by children. Of the berry, only
the seed is poisonous. The strained juice is harmless, and from it the Maoris
and early settlers made a non-intoxicating wine that was drunk in large
quantities (19). Indeed, in the very early days the tutu was known as the
wine-berry shrub. This wine, however, has not always proved to be above
suspicion. Canon Stack (20) relates that on one occasion after partaking
of some tutu-wine he was seized with alarming symptoms ; he lost all feeling

FncHETT.— Physiological Action of Tutin. 293

in his extremities, a mist came over everything, and he thought that he was
poisoned. The symptoms soon passed off, however, and he was none the
worse.

Cattle and sheep are especially fond of the young, tender, asparagus-like
shoots, but they also eat the leaves and branchlets with readiness.

3. AVoRK OF Previous Observers.

When one considers the harmful influence that this noxious plant has
had upon the development of the country, it is remarkable that until recent
years little effort was made to determine the nature of the poison.

In 1869 Skey (21) investigated the chemistry of C. ruscifolia. He showed
that the poisonous principle is not an alkaloid, as was commonly thought,
and with ether extracted from the seeds a green-coloured oil, 5 minims of
which when given to a cat quickly produced the symptoms characteristic
of tutu poisoning. Its highly toxic nature, together with certain peculiar
chemical properties possessed by it, inclined him to the opinion that this oil
was the active principle.

A year later, 1870, Hughes (10) attempted to separate an alkaloid, using
the ground-shoots, and did indeed succeed in obtaining a crystalline sub-
stance, but failed to identify it. He thought that a heavy olive-coloured
oily fluid which he also obtained and proved to be toxic might be the active
principle and " a liquid alkaloid similar to conia." He showed that lime
destroyed the activity of the poison, and advocated its use as an antidote.
In conjiinction with Dr. Acheson, he conducted a series of experiments on
cats and dogs, but more with the object of proving the toxicity of his ex-
tracts, and of determining the value of lime as an antidote, than with
any idea of advancing our knowledge of the physiological action of the
poison.

Hughes's results were adversely criticized by Skey (22), who held that
the temperature used in Hughes's experiments was such as must have pro-
duced many side-products by destructive distillation, and among others
acetate of ammonia, the presence of which, he thought, would sufficiently
account for the reactions attributed by Hughes to the presence of an
alkaloid.

Twenty years elapsed before any further investigation was undertaken,
and then, in 1890, W. L. Christie (11) examined the physiological action
of the oil that had first been extracted by Skey. He made a series of ex-
periments on mammals, including one upon himself, and briefly summarised
the conclusions he arrived at as follows : '(1) That tutu acts on the nerve-
centres after absorption into the blood ; (2) that the grey matter of the
motor cortex is the part chiefly aft'ected, and that this peripheral action
{sic) causes epileptiform convulsions ; (3) that vomiting is chiefly due to
central causes, and that by its means, and perhaps by the renal secretion,
the poison is removed from the body ; and, lastly, (-t) that dyspnoea is due
to poisoning of the respiratory centres, and when death ensues it is due to
asphyxia from this cause or tetanus of the respiratory muscles — both may
however, I believe, occur from coma."

The chief interest in Christie's work, however, lies in the experiment
upon himself. He took, in all, 9 grains of an extract made from the leaves
gathered in the spring. He calculates that each grain of extract represents
100 grains of leaf ; but, in the absence of data regarding the amount of tutin
in tutu-leaves at different times of the year, and of details as to the exact

294 Transactions.

method of making the extract, it is impossible to calculate what dose of
tutin was taken in this case. The first dosB (4J grains) was taken at 2.20 on
F^ida^• afternoon, and a second dose of the same amount at 4 p.m. An hour
or two later he felt sick and faint, and began to vomit. The vomiting oc-
curred at frequent intervals, and continued for twenty-four hours. At
8 p.m. he felt slight twitches in the legs and arms ; and at 10.40 p.m. the
medical student who was acting as clerk of the case noted that " all the
muscles seemed to get tight, and there was foaming at the mouth." At
10.50 the pulse-rate was 102 and the breathing heavy. Twenty minutes
later the pulse was still 102, but the breathing was normal, and there was
profuse perspiration. At 11.24 p.m. the clerk noted that " the subject
spoke in a collected manner ; getting right, but drowsy." The vomiting
continued till 8 p.m. on Saturday. The following day (Sunday) he felt
sick and dull, but, though shaky, managed to attend to his duties. He
states that sensation was dulled and spirits below par for seven or eight days.
For a month he was not in good tone, and then for the first time he felt a
sensation of " pins and needles " in his fingers and toes, and felt the floor
of his bedroom woolly when he rose in the morning. He could feel accu-
rately with his fingers, but experienced a heavy, stiff, numb sensation when
he used them, and this symptom lasted a month.

4. The Active Principle.

The first substantial advance in the investigation of the chemical pro-
perties of tutu was made in 1900, when Easterfield and Aston (23) suc-
ceeded in isolating a crystalline glucoside, to which they gave the name
" tutin." All three species of Coriaria Avere experimented upon, and
crystals of tutin were obtained from each. The young shoots were found
to yield a greater quantity (0-03 per cent.) than either the berries or the
leaves.

Preparation : In the case of C. ruscifolia, " the fresh young shoots were
finely divided, the juice expressed, filtered, and evaporated to a syrup nearly
neutralised by carbonate of soda and shaken up with ether. The ether
on evaj)oration deposited crystals of tutin. These were recrystallized from
alcohol until the melting-point was constant."

Properties : Tutin is described as a colourless, odourless, intensely bitter
compound, which separates from alcohol in oblique-ended prisms, and
from hot concentrated solutions in water in characteristic acicular forms.
It is perceptibly volatile, sublimes readily at 120° to 130° C, and melts at
208° to 209° C. (uncorrected). It contains no nitrogen, and reduces Fehling
solution after inversion by acid. The compound is therefore to be con-
sidered a glucoside, but the hydrolyzed substance yields with phenylhydra-
zine an amorphous precipitate which is not phenylglucosazone. Examination
by Zeissl's method for methoxyl groups gave negative results. Strong
sulphuric acid added to a few drops of a saturated aqueous solution of tutin
gives a blood-red coloration.

Solubility : 100 grams water at 10° C. dissolve 1-9 grams tutin ; 100
grams ether at 10° C. dissolve 1-5 grams tutin ; 100 grams alcohol at 10° C.
dissolve 8-2 grams tutin. It is very soluble in acetone, sparingly soluble
in chloroform, and soluble in benzine and carbon-disulphide.

The optical activity has been determined by Marshall. The substance
is dextrorotatory, and the specific rotatory power is -f- 9-25°. Easterfield
and Aston found that when solutions of tutin were evaporated to dryness-

FiTCHETT. — FJiysioloijical Action of Tutin. 295

with slaked lime the tutin underwent decomposition, and could not be
recovered. This fact recalls Hughes's statement that lime destroyed the
activity of the tutu poison.

The close relationship of the New Zealand tutu to the European ('.
myrtifolia, together with the fact that Lauder Lindsay (17) and others have
thought it probable that the active principle of tutu is coriamyrtin, lends
interest to the following table of differences existing between the two bodies,
as given by Easterfield and Aston (2.3) : —

Coriamyi'tin. Tutin.

Melting-point . . . . 220° C. (according to 208° C.

Merck. 229° C.)

Carbon . . . . . . 64-1 per cent. 60-7 per cent.

Hydrogen . . . . . . 6-6 per cent. 5-8 per cent.

With hydriodic acid and potash (lives fuchsia-red Gives nil.

colour

Solubility in 100 parts of water 144 at 22° C. 1-9 at 10° C.

Effect on pupil . . . . Contracts it Dilates it.

It may be said here, and will be shown later, that tutin has little, if any,
action on the pupil when applied locally.

The physiological activity of the new compound was put to the test
by Mr. Gilruth (23), then Chief Govermnent Veterinarian in New Zealand.
He administered to a pig weighing 17 kilograms, 0-129 grams of tutin, dis-
solved in water and mixed with half a pound of pollard. In half an hour
uneasiness and spasmodic movements of the jaws were observed ; then
the breathing was noticed to be accelerated, and vomiting occurred. The
symptoms gradually increased in severity, until the animal was seized with
tetanic convulsions. The convulsions were at first separated by intervals
of about fifteen minutes, but they gradually increased in severity and fre-
quency until they became almost continuous. Each convulsive seizure,
after beginning with a tonic spasm that lasted half a minute, was accom-
panied by screaming and stertorous l)reathing. Finally the animal died
in a convulsion five hours after the poison had been administered.

Further experiments on cats testified to the marked toxicity of the com-
pound— e.g., a dose of 0-01 gram killed a kitten weighing 1 kilogram in
forty minutes ; 0-001 gram administered to a cat weighing 2 kilograms caused
a fit in three hours and illness for the next twenty-four hours. The same
cat was afterwards killed by a dose of 0-003 gram. A dose of about a milli-
gram caused nausea, vomiting, and incapacity for work for twenty-four
hours in a full-grown, healthy man.

B. ORIGINAL WURK.

(For full details of the experiments, see Protocols;)

1. General Action of Tutin on Mammals.

[a.) Action on Cats.

The effect of various doses upon cats will be shown first.

Effects of a large dose : 9-8 mlgm. tutin (3 mlgm. per kilo body- weight)
were injected under the skin of a full-grown female cat, weighing 3-28 kilo-
grams (Exp. 1). The animal was placed in a hutch, and watched continuously-
Four minutes after the injection it was noticed that respiration was very
rapid (48 to the quarter-minute). The animal seemed sleepy and dazed,

296 Transactions.

and curled itself down as if to sleep, but at once raised its head, opened
its mouth, and panted for breath, like a dog on a hot day. It moved its
head slowly from side to side in a dazed, stupid way. Seven minutes after
the injection, thick, ropy saliva began to pour from the open mouth, the
respirations were even more rapid, and were now audible, almost stertorous,
and the whole body was shaken with the force of the respiratory effort.
The pupils at this stage were moderate. Ten minutes after the injection
the animal got up and began to walk cautiously about the hutch, picking
its way like a cat crossing a muddy street. Half a minute later it was sud-
denly seized with a violent convulsion, which in every respect resembled
a typical epileptic fit. The animal fell on its side, and all the muscles of
the body were thrown into intense tonic spasm. The head was bent firmly
backwards, the back hollowed, the fore and hind limbs rigidly extended,
the digits widely separated, the claws extruded. The hairs of the tail
became erect, urine and fax-es were shot out with considerable violence, the
pupils were widely dilated, respiration entirely ceased, and the nose became
cyanosed. This tonic spasm lasted thirty seconds, and was followed by
clonic spasms affecting the neck, jaw, limbs, and respiratory muscles, which
lasted twenty-five seconds more. As the fit passed off, the pupils contracted,
the respirations became deeper and slower, and the nose recovered its normal
appearance. An interval of five seconds was followed by another fit like
the first, but the tonic stage did not last so long, and the clonic spasms
were more marked. Fit succeeded fit in rapid succession. There were no
voluntary cries, but the violence of each seizure caused a choking noise as
the air was driven through the glottis. Between the fits the pupils always
contracted, and they began to dilate just before each convulsion occurred ;
during the fit they were dilated to the widest possible extent. This alterna-
tion happened so invariably that a commencing dilatation of the pupil could
be taken as an indication that a convulsion was imminent. As the animal
became exhausted the fits diminished in severity and frequency, the re-
spirations became irregular, infrequent, and gasping, and finally death
occurred thirty-one minutes after the injection. From the first the animal
gave no indication that it suffered any pain, and from the onset of the con-
vulsions it was unconscious, without either ear or conjunctival reflex. The
temperature at death taken in the rectum was 102-4° Fahr. On fosi mortem
examination the right horn of the uterus was found to contain a nearly
full-sized foetus, which looked as if it had also been aft'ected with convulsions ;
one hind leg was twisted over the other, the right forepaw was behind the
right ear, and the claws were extruded. Beyond some small haemorrhages
in the lungs and a marked congestion of the brain and cord there was nothing
noteworthy.

In the next experiment (Exp. 2) the dose was reduced to 2 mlgm. per
kilo body-weight, 7 mlgm. of tutin being injected under the skin of a cat
weighing 3-5 kilograms. The first symptom noticed (ten minutes after the
injection) was trembling of the head and fore part of the body. This was
followed, fourteen minutes after the injection, by rapid breathing (56 to
the quarter-minute) and by salivation. At twenty-one minutes, slight
twitching of the eyelids and ears was noticed. At twenty-four minutes
the animal defax-ated, discharging a large quantity of ffeces. At twenty-
five minutes the twitching, which had been gradually getting more marked
and more extensive, was severe. At each attack the pupils dilated, but
returned to the normal size when the twitching ceased. The respirations
were irregular, exaggerated, and suggestive of the Cheyne-Stokes type.

FiTCHETT.—Phjjsiolocjical Action of Tutin. 297

At twenty-nine minntes the animal was seized with a general convulsion,
the tonic stage lasting thirty seconds. From this point the convulsive
movements continued almost without intermission until the end. The
clonic spasms were the more in evidence, but every now and then a tonic
seizure would arrest the movements for a few seconds. Gradually the
movements became more and more feeble, the respiration slow, irregular,
and gasping, and finally the animal died in a tonic spasm fifty- one minutes
after the injection had been given. In this case the symptoms appeared
more gradually, and the cerebrum seemed less affected than in the first
cat. The animal was less dazed and stupid, and frequently " miaued "
in a plaintive way, especially after the twitching began. The twitching
was a marked feature ; it began in a small way, affecting only the eyelids
and ears, but the attacks increased in frequency and in severity, and
gradually more and more muscles became involved. In the earlier stages,
when only the face and neck muscles were afEected, the cat at each attack
presented the appearance it might have done had it been held and a rapid
series of electric sparks discharged close to its face. Later, when the muscles
of the shoulders and fore legs were involved, the twitching caused little
springs into the air and down again with the fore part of the body, suggesting
the appearance of a puppy pouncing at play. When the twitching had
got the length of involving the shoulders, it very soon took the form of a
general convulsion, and in this case, once convulsions had set in, the svmp-
toms which followed were much the same as seen in the first cat.

In the next experiment (Exp. 3) the dose was considerably reduced,
1-7 mlgm. being injected under the skin of a cat weighing 2-394 kilograms.
This is equivalent to 0-75 mlgm. per kilo body-w^eight. Nothing was
noticed for half an hour, and in that time the cat looked quite normal. It
then began to swallow rather frequently, as if swallowing saliva, and then
suddenly got up and defsecated. It then began to breathe rapidly, saliva
could be seen dripping from the mouth, and it vomited. It again attempted
to empty the bowels, and now looked miserable, and kept up a constant
complaint, though if spoken to it would come forward and purr. Twitching
of the face did not appear till thirty-five minutes after the injection, and
the first convulsion occurred at forty-one minutes. It lay on its side for
a few minutes after the convulsion, and then got up and walked about the
cage. Its condition now was much improved on what it was before the
convulsion occurred. The breathing was easy, salivation seemed to have
ceased, and the twitching which had so annoyed and alarmed the animal
was not noticed ; but the improvement was not for long. In about a quarter
of an hour it began to breathe quickly again, and the twitching returned,
and gradually got more and more severe till it culminated in a general con-
vulsion at seventy minutes after the injection. This was a most severe
tonic spasm, which lasted four minutes and a half by the watch, and during
that time the animal w^as not seen or heard to draw a breath. From this
onwards convulsions continued with intervals of only a few seconds till
death occurred, one hour and forty-nine minutes after the injection. In
this cat the cerebrum seemed less affected than was the case with the other
two. It continued alive to its surroundings almost to the end, and " miaued "
voluntarily five minutes before death. It never rose after the second seizure,
though it once or twice attempted to do so, and was thrown down by a
convulsion. In the intervals between the attacks, running or swimming
movements were noticed.

In the next animal experimented upon (Exp. 4) the dose was reduced

298 Transactions.

to 0-375 mlgm. per kilo of body-weight, 1 mlgm. of tutin being injected
under the skin of a cat weighing 2-688 kilograms, and, curiously, symptoms
made their appearance earlier in this case than in the last. It defsecated
and began to breathe quickly within twelve minutes of the injection ; saliva-
tion was noticed at fourteen minutes, and at twenty-four minutes it was
panting with its mouth open, and vomited. Twitching appeared at thirtv-
two minutes, and the first convulsion occurred at fifty-five minutes. Con-
vulsions were severe and frequently repeated, and it was thought that the
cat would die. It had a severe convulsion at 6.5 p.m., and it was not seen
again till 7-15 jj.m. It then appeared rather tremulous, and was easily
startled, bu.t presented no further symptoms, and was quite well next day.
It would seem that 0-375 mlgm. per kilo is very near the minimum lethal
dose.

In the last three cats the constant symptoms were defsecation, rapid
breathing, salivation, twitching, and general convulsions, and these generally
made their appearance in the order named. The first cat did not defaecate
voluntarily, and neither of the first two vomited. The vomiting in the
last two occurred only once in each case. In the first convulsion in each
case the tonic stage was the more pronounced, and was invariably of the
opisthotonic type. Later, clonic spasms were more in evidence, and with
lethal doses, when the case was making towards a termination, movement
was hardly absent for a moment. With the larger doses the effect upon the
mental activities of the animals vras very marked. From the first they seemed
dazed, and once general convulsions had set in they were oblivious of everv-
thing. With the smaller doses the cerebrum was little affected, and often
after the most severe and prolonged convulsions, in the case of the cat that
recovered, the animal would rise and behave as if little had happened, answer-
ing when spoken to, and even purring.

(6.) Action on Babbits.

Kabbits are less readily affected by the poison. The largest hypodermic
dose recovered from was 2 mlgm. per kilo (Exp. 5), (in a cat, 0*75 mlgm.
per kilo proved fatal). A dose of 2*5 mlgm. per kilo was fatal in two hours
and a half (Exp. 6), and doses larger than this killed rather rapidly (Exps. 7,
139). By oral administration a much larger dose than this is required to
kill — e.g., in Exp. 8, 7'5 mlgm. per kilo proved fatal in two hours ; in
Exp. 9, 6 mlgm. per kilo was fatal in twelve hours ; while in Exp. 10,
5 mlgm. per kilo was recovered from. In one case (Exp. 161) death preceded
by typical symptoms followed the instillation of four drops of a 0"5-per-cent.
solution into the conjunctival sac.

Attempts to poison rabbits with fresh tutu-leaves failed, for the animals,
though deprived of all other food for several days, steadfastly refused to eat.

Symptoms. — No important symptoms appear that have not been men-
tioned as occurring in cats. After a lethal dose the animal at first appears
dazed, tends to assume unnatural attitudes — e.g., lies on the abdomen,
with the legs projecting in front and behind — and the gait is altered.
Eespiration soon becomes very rapid, and there may be salivation, though
it is not so marked a symptom as it is in cats. Alteration in the size of the
pupil is not so noticeable. Twitching of the eyelids, lips, ears, and fore-
paws occurs, and is followed by general convulsions. In the convulsion
the tonic spasms are not so evident as they are in cats, but they do occur,
and are of the opisthotonic type. As a rule, after the first violent con-
vulsive movements are over, the animal continues lying on its side, and

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin. 299

shows almost constant movement, either clonic spasms or running-move-
ments, chiefly of the fore paws, until exhausted. Urination occurs during
the convulsions, but, of course, vomiting was not observed. The animal
utters no cry, and indicates in no way that it suffers pain. In the later
stages it is comatose, and usually dies from exhaustion.

(c.) Action on Guinea-pigs.

No series of experiments was made to determine the minimum lethal
dose in these animals, but it would appear to be rather smaller than in
rabbits. A dose of 2 mlgm. per kilo caused symptoms in thirty minutes
and death in seventy minutes in one case (Exp. 11), while a dose of 1 mlgm.
per kilo caused convulsions, but the animal recovered (Exp. 167).

A young guinea-pig was killed by a dose of 1 mlgm. per kilo, while another
•of the same age (five days) showed symptoms with 0'75 mlgm. per kilo,
but recovered. It would appear from this that the young guinea-pig is
more easily affected than the adult.

By oral administration a dose of 1*5 mlgm. per kilo was insufficient to
produce obvious symptoms, but a dose of 2 mlgm. per kilo repeated in
forty-eight hours caused death (Exp. 13).

The symptoms are very like those shown by rabbits — viz., unnatural
attitudes, rapid breathing, twitching, general convulsions, and running
movements of the limbs. The spasms are more clonic than tonic. When
convulsions first appear, the animal tumbles and tosses about in every direc-
tion, but soon takes up a position on its side, and then continues in constant
inovement until exhausted (Exps. 14, 167).

2. Action on Birds.

It is the common opinion that birds are immune to the tutu-poison.
It were not strange did a relative immunity exist, for the plump, sweet,
attractive-looking berries seem to have been designed by nature for the
especial purpose of inducing birds to eat ; and that they do eat them freely
and without injurious effect is certain. Mr. Maning, author of " Old New
Zealand," quoted by Lauder Lindsay (3), says, " Many kinds of birds live
entirely on the tutu-berries when in season. . . . The tui {Prosthemadera
novce-zealandice) I have kept tame and fed for months on nothing else."

Again, birds differ from mammals in having a higher rate of oxidation,
a higher temperature, and a peculiar metabolism, which results in the
excretion of urates instead of urea in the urine — features which might
conceivably have an important bearing on the question of their possible
immunity.

Christie (11), as the result of experiment, inclined to the general opinion
that birds are immune. He injected in all 40 minims of an ethereal solution
of " oil of tutu " into the " chest cavity " of a young rooster. Beyond
some slight symptoms which were attributed to the ether, and a marked
increase in the frequency of defsecation, no characteristic effect was noted.
He observes that " there was no twitching, although the dose (40 m.) is
twice as much as is necessary to convulse a cat " ; and concluded that the
bowels are chiefly affected in birds, and that, therefore, they are saved by
rapid excretion by this channel. When the above statement is more closely
examined it is found that Christie administered probably not more than
1 mlgm. of pure tutin per kilo. The symptoms were wanting because the
dose was inadequate.

300 ■ Transactions.

Experiments that have been made by the present writer on pigeons
prove that birds are not immune to tutin. The minimum lethal dose by
mouth, however, was found to be high, and this probably accounts for the
apparent immunity, the ingestion of very large quantities of berries being
necessary to produce toxic symptoms.

In the first experiment (Exp. 15) it unfortunately happened that the
pigeon used displayed a peculiar tolerance to the poison. This misled
to the belief that the minimum lethal dose was much higher than it really
is. The bird, weighing 314 grams, was subjected to successive doses,
equivalent to 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20 mlgm. per kilo of body-weight. The
solution of tutin was given by the mouth, and the experiment extended
over a period of ten days. The smaller doses had little effect. For a few
hours after each dose the bird was dull, apathetic, and disinclined to eat
or move about. It stood in a corner of the cage, with its feathers pufiecl
out, blinking heavily, and presented the appearance of a bird that had
overeaten itself, and was trying hard to go to sleep, but was too uncomfortable
to succeed completely. The last dose (20 mlgm. per kilo) was given on an
empty crop, and as no ill effect was anticipated — it being thought at this
time that in all probability birds really were immune — it was not closely
watched. But forty-five minutes later attention was attracted by the
flapping of its wings, and it was found lying on its back in convulsions.
One hour after the administration of the poison it was dead. Its weight
at death was 345 grams — a gain of 31 grams in ten days, which would seem
to indicate that tutin has no injurious influence on general metabolism.
That the bird actually received the doses stated is quite certain. The
sokition was very carefully measured in a hypodermic syringe having a
running-nut on the piston-rod, and dropped into the beak, which was held
open by the finger. There was no difficulty in the administration, and
every particle of the fluid was swallowed.

As 20 mlgm. per kilo was obviously too great a dose, it was decided to
give to the next bird 1 mlgm. per kilo in excess of the largest ineffective
dose on the first bird. To this end a dose equivalent to 17 mlgm. per kilo
was administered by mouth to a fasting pigeon weighing 319 grams
(Exp. 16). In this case toxic symptoms — viz., twitching and tremulousness
of the head and wings, and attempts to vomit — made their appearance
within two minutes, violent convulsions appeared in four minutes, and
death occurred sixteen minutes after the administration.

In contrasting these two experiments, it will be noticed that the " time
to kill " was greater in the first case by forty-four minutes, although the
dose exceeded the dose in the second case by 3 ml^m. per kilo. This
observation, taken in conjunction with the fact that symptoms did not
appear in the first case with a dose of 16 mlgm. per kilo, suggested the
possibility of the first pigeon having acquired some degree of immunity or
tolerance by the poison having been administered in gradually increasing
doses over a lengthened period. To test the validity of this supposition,
another pigeon was treated in the same way (Exp. 17). The experiment
extended over a period of three weeks, and a maximum of 10 mlgm. per
kilo was reached without the appearance of any marked symptoms, but
12 mlgm. per kilo proved fatal.

The rapidity with which syihptoms ensued after a dose of 17 mlgm.
per kilo, and the speed with which a fatal termination was reached, pointed
to the dose being well above the lethal minimum. A dose equivalent to
15 mlgm. per kilo was therefore given by mouth to a pigeon weighing

FiTCHETT. — Physioloyical Action of Tutin. 301

357 grams (Exp. 18). No symptoms followed beyond those that generally
appeared in the first experiment after a non-lethal dose had been adminis-
tered. One hour and three-quarters later the bird was apparently normal,
and on the day following the experiment was quite well. Here a dose of
15 mlgm. per kilo was without efTect. It was noted that the crop in this
bird was full, but, though this was recognised as probably influencing the
result in some degree, the fact that the first bird was unaffected by a dose
of 16 mlgm. per kilo was so striking that it was thought likely that 15 mlgm.
per kilo was below the lethal minimum. It was therefore decided to give
a dose equivalent to 16 mlgm. per kilo to another pigeon (Exp. 19). In
administering the poison to this bird, by an accident a few drops of the
solution were lost, and the deficiency was made good by an allowance of
5 extra minims (Exp. 15). In three minutes the bird was in convulsions,
and in nine minutes was dead. As no satisfactory conclusion could be
drawn from this experiment it was repeated (Exp. 20), but the subject became
convulsed within a minute and a half, and died five minutes after the
administration.

It was then decided to repeat the dose of 15 mlgm. per kilo, using the
bird that had previously withstood this dose, but taking care that its crop
should be empty (Exp. 21). At 5.14 the dose was given. No symptoms
appeared till seven minutes had elapsed, when it began to retch. In twenty
minutes convulsions appeared, and in thirty-five minutes it was dead. It
was noted that the onset of symptoms was slower and the time to kill longer
in this case than in the case where 16 mlgm. per kilo were given (thirty-five
minutes as against five minutes). It was therefore thought worth while
to repeat the dose of 15 mlgm. per kilo, using a bird that had not been
starved. This was done (Exp. 22), with the result that the bird died in
twelve minutes.

It being now clear that the minimum lethal dose was much exceeded,
two pigeons were taken (Exps. 5, 23, 24), and to one was given a dose equiva-
lent to 13 mlgm. per kilo, to the other 12 mlgm. per kilo. In the case of
the bird with the larger dose, death resulted in nineteen minutes ; but the
bird that had received 12 mlgm. per kilo showed a very gradual onset of
symptoms, and did not die till two hours and sixteen minutes after the
administration. This bird was a young one (still squeaking), though it
weighed 363 grams. It was thought that the age in this case may have
influenced the result, so a dose of 12 mlgm. per kilo was given to an adult
bird. Death occurred, however, in forty-six minutes — a hundred minutes
earlier than in the case of the young bird (Exp. 25).

A drop in dosage was now made to 9 mlgm. per kilo, and the bird that
received this dose was not affected (Exp. 26). The same result was noted
in a bird receiving 9'5 mlgm. per kilo (Exp. 27) ; but the next bird, which
received a dose of 10 mlgm. per kilo, died in forty-five minutes (Exp. 28).
This was a young bird (squeaking), weighing 330 grams. The same dose
(10 mlgm. per kilo) was therefore given to an adult bird (Exp. 29), which
recovered after exhibiting symptoms such as vomiting and slight convulsive
movements of the wings.

Of the four birds that had received 10 mlgm. per kilo, one only (a young
bird) had died. A dose of 10*25 mlgm. per kilo was therefore given to an
adult bird, with the result that it died in seventy-five minutes (Exp. 30).

The results of these experiments are tabulated on the following page
(Table 1).

302

Transactions.

Table I.
Pigeons. — Minimum Lethal Dose.

Exp.

Ko.

Weight.

Mlgm.
per Kilo.

Crop.

Age.

1
Result.

Time to
kill.

Grams.

Minutes,

15

1

314

2,4,6,8,10,
12, 16, 20

Half-full ..

Adult

Died

60

16

2

319

17

Emptv

// • •

// • •

16

19

8

374

16

Half-full ..

// • •

n • •

9

20

4

319

16

Full

N • •

w • ■

5

18

5

357

15

// • •

„ • •

Recovered

, ,

21

6

345

15

Empty

// • •

Died (same
bird as

No. 5)

35i

22

7

203

15

Half.full ..

// • •

Died

12

23

8

375

13

Full

Young

// • •

19

24

9

863

12

w • •

w • •

136

25

10

386

12

// • •

Adult

«

46

17

11

870

1-5,2,4,7,
9, 9-5, 10,
12

Half-full ..

// • •

// • •

(?)

30

12

315

10-25

,^

, ^

,/

75

28

13

830

10

Full

Young

// • •

45

29

14

368

10

ff • •

Adult

Recovered

27

15

365

9-5

„

f> • •

„

26

16

305

9

Empty

"

ti • •

••

It will be seen that the highest dose recovered from was 10 mlgm. per
kilo, and the lowest dose that killed was 10-25 mlgm. per kilo. It may be
taken as proved, then, that birds are not really immune, as has been sup-
posed, but they are able to withstand a very high dose of the poison by
oral administration.

In noting the current opinion that birds are immune, Easterfield and
Aston state (7) that cases have come under their notice in which domestic
fowls have been poisoned by eating tutu-berries. This seems barely credible.
The lethal dose by the mouth in birds is so high, the percentage of tutin in
the seeds so low, the size of the berry in proportion to the size and number
of the seeds it contains so great, that it may be doubted if the crop of the
ordinary fowl could comfortably accommodate the large number of berries
that would be required to provide a lethal dose of tutin. For example,
Easterfield and Aston found (7) that the dried seeds of C. ruscifolia contained
22-8 per cent, of a green oil, of which 0-18 gram administered to a small
kitten produced only very mild symptoms of poisoning. Assuming that this
0-18 gram contained 0-0003 gram tutin — a dose which the present writer
has found to be feebly toxic to a cat (Exp. -i) — the amount of tutin in the
dried seed must be about 0-038 gram in 100 grams. The minimum lethal
dose by the mouth in birds is just over 10 mlgm. per kilo, so that in order to
get a fatal result, a bird weighing 0-3 kilo (the average weight of a pigeon)
would require to eat a little more than 8 grams dried seed, or 150 grams —
over 5 oz. — of the fresh fruit. (This statement is based on the relative
weights of seeds and berries.) An average-sized domestic fowl would require
about 1 lb. of the fruit, and that, of course, assuming that all the tutin would
be extracted from all the seeds. To throw light on this point, 5 grams (all
that was at hand) of cleaned dried seeds bound with a Uttle moist flour were
fed into the crop of a pigeon weighing 314 grams (Exp. 31). It displayed

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin. 303

no symptoms, was quite well the next day, and continued well. Apparently
unchanged seeds were recovered from the faeces.

An attempt was made to induce a domestic fowl to eat some of the fresh
fruit (Exp. 32). After being deprived of food for two full days, it was
offered a heaped plateful (5 oz.) of berries. After eating about 1 oz, to 1^ oz.
it desisted, and ate no more, although it had no other food given it for two
days longer. It displayed no symptoms.

The immunity of birds from poisoning by the seeds under natural con-
ditions may be explained perhaps by — (1) The large number of seeds that
must be ingested in order .to provide a lethal dose ; (2) the seeds being small
and hard, and probably passing through the animal unchanged, as was noted
to be the case in Exp. 31. Their relative immunity may possibly be ac-
counted for in some measure by — (1) The higher rate of oxidation ; (2) the
fact that the kidneys in birds are able to secrete substances in a semi-solid
condition, certain normal constituents of the urine — urates and uric acid —
having been observed by Bowman (25) in the cells of the tubules. This would
suggest that the excretory power of the tubule cell for insoluble substances is
greater in birds than in mammals. If this suggestion be applied to the case
of a poison that is with difficulty soluble in water circulating in the blood, it
may be conceived that this special power of the tubule cell in birds will
allow of a more rapid elimination of the toxic body, and so confer a relative
immunity. This, of course, applies where the poison is gradually received
into the blood, as when absorbed from the alimentary tract. Where, on
the other hand, the toxic body is rapidly introduced into the blood, as when
given hypodermically, the cells of the tubules have not an opportunity
of exercising their special power, and so the relative immunity is not so
marked, or does not obtain. This may be illustrated by Exp. 53, where a
dose of 5 mlgm. per kilo was given hypodermically to a pigeon weighing
335 grams, with the result that convulsions appeared in twenty minutes,
and continued without intermission till death occuiTed, forty-two minutes
after the injection.

The question of the relation of the Hver to a glucoside like tutin is an
interesting one, and especially so in this connection. In birds the veins from
the crop are branches of the jugulars, and therefore a toxic body absorbed
from the crop, as must have been the case in the experiments cited, enters
the circulation direct. In mammals, on the other hand, the gastric vein
discharges the blood from the stomach — which, so far as the absorption of
poisons is concerned, corresponds to the avian crop — into the portal vein,
and therefore the toxic body must pass through the liver before it enters
the general circulation. Has the liver-substance any power to increase
or decrease the toxicity of tutin ? To determine this, experiments were
made on fish. The result was doubtful, but the indications are that the liver-
substance does increase the toxic power, possibly by separating the glucose
part of the compound from the poisonous part, and so freeing the latter of
an innocuous encumbrance.

Symptoms in Birds. — With a massive dose the animal is almost immedi-
ately, with hardly any premonitory symptoms, seized with general convul-
sions. The wings are rigidly extended to the full, and are flapped violently.
The head is retracted till it lies firmly pressed against the back between
the wings, and the bird is thrown over backwards. It turns over and over,
and flops about in every direction until exhausted. This period of violent
movement does not last more than a few minutes. A final somersault lands
the bird on its back, and it lies, with its head drawn back beneath its body,

304 Transactions.

in continuous movement — flapping its wings and clawing at space with its
feet. Respiration is spasmodic, and the forcible expulsion of air from the
lungs is distinctly audible. The pupils are widely dilated — no iris being
visible — and the bird is in a state of coma, obUvious to everything, and
apparently suffering no pain. In the later stages the head is brought for-
ward, the eyes are kept closed, and the movements, which have continued
without intermission from the onset, gradually become more and more
feeble, and finally cease at death almost imperceptibly. The legs continue
in movement longer than the wings.

With a smaller though still lethal dose the first change is a heaviness
and drowsiness, giving the bird a peculiar sleepy, stupid look. The eyes
are blinked heavily, and seem to be kept open only with the greatest
difficulty. This is succeeded by attempts to vomit, and, if the crop contains
anything, by actual vomiting. Then follow tremulousness of the head and
wings and sharp spasmodic blinking of the eyes. The head is frecjuently
drawn back sharply, and one or other or both wings are involuntarily ex-
tended for a moment. These seizures of the head and wings recur at frequent
intervals, and gradually become more severe, making it difficult for the bird
to keep its feet. In the more severe seizures it is thrown back on to its tail,
and sits there for a moment until the clonic movements of the extended
wings have ceased. At last the bird is thrown over on to its back, and,
with continuous convulsive movement, the case hastens to a termination.

With non-lethal doses little is to be observed beyond the initial drowsi-
ness and tremulousness, and perhaps vomiting and slight convulsive move-
ments of the wings. In none of the experiments did any of the birds recover
that reached the stage of being thrown over on to the back.

In none of the birds experimented upon was Christie's observatioii
repeated that there is increased frequency of defsecation.

3. Action on Reptiles.

The only animals of this class available for experiment were three small
lizards of the species Lygosoma moco, the common lizard of New Zealand.
They are very small animals, these specimens weighing 4, 5, and 7 grams,
and are not very suitable for experiment.

(Exp. 33.) The first lizard (4 grams) was given a dose 5 mlgm. per
kilo by hypodermic injection, and it became convulsed, and died in about
two hours.

The second lizard (7 grams) (Exp. 34) received 4 mlgm. per kilo hypo-
dermically, and died four hours and three-quarters later, after showing
severe and oft-repeated convulsions. Opisthotonos was well marked, the
animal bending backwards till head and tail met. There were also very
definite clonic spasms of the limbs. For over an hour the animal was in
almost constant movement, contorting itself and twisting in every direction.

(Exp. 35.) To the third lizard was given a dose of 3 mlgm. per kilo,
but beyond exaggerated respiratory movements it displayed no symptoms,
and was quite normal on the day following the injection.

Lizards are therefore affected in the same way as other animals. The
lethal dose is between 3 and 4 mlgm. per kilogram.

4. Action on Aimphibia.

The frogs experimented upon belong to the species Hyla aurea. This
is not the native frog of New Zealand, but has been introduced from Aus-

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tut in.

305

tralia, and is now the common frog. They were kept till wanted in a large
wooden box, in a cool, dark cellar, and supplied with water and fresh grass-
sods, but no special provision was made for feeding them. Under these
conditions they lived well, and remained healthy.

Sijmptoms (Exps. 54 to 58 inclusive). — With a lethal dose, the first symp-
tom usually noticed was increased frequency of the respiratory movements.
To this succeeded lethargy and muscular enfeeblement, the animal crawling
in a laboured way, and trailing its hind limbs. If touched now it would
attempt to hop, but made little progress from inability to draw the hind
limbs completely beneath the body. If left alone it would lie prone on the
belly with the limbs extended, and make no effort to move. When con-
vulsions occur, as they usually do, though they are not such a marked feature
as in mammals, tonic spasms are as a rule more apparent than clonic, and
the hind limbs more affected than the fore limbs. Often the animal raises
itself rigidly to the full extent of the fore limbs, and opens its mouth spas-
modically two or three times in succession. If handled much, or compelled
to undergo severe muscular exertion, such as struggling violently to recover
the normal position when placed on the back, convulsions appear at once.
This recalls the fact that a " tooted " sheep often displays no very obvious
symptoms until it is " worked."

A series of experiments was made to determine the minimum lethal
dose (Exps. 36 to 52 inclusive), and the results are presented in tabular
form below (Table II). In the early experiments the animals, after receiving
the injection, were placed under bell-jars on the laboratory-table. Here
they were deprived of moisture, and exposed to a strong light. Under
these experimental conditions the results were confusing, frogs with larger
doses displaying no symptoms, while animals with lesser doses died. The
method was therefore improved upon. Each frog after receiving its in-
jection was placed in a small box containing a moist grass-sod in a cool,
dark cellar, and a striking uniformity in result was at once obtained.

Table II.
Frogs. — Minimum Lethal Dose.

Exp. No.

Weight.

Dose.

Eesult.

Remarks.

36

27-5 grams

1 mlgm. par kilo

Died

Unfavourable surroucdings.

39

17-3 „

1

Recovered

„

37

28-4 ,.

2

Died

^,

40

25-1 „

2

tf • •

„

38

33-7 „

3

Recovered

,^

41

32

3

«

//

42

31

4

„

Under improved conditions.

43

41

5

„

„

44

40

7

,,

,,

45

18

9

^^

„

47

36

9

//

^^

49

23

9

,^

„

46

38

10

Died

„

48

31

10

Recovered

„

50

39

10

//

,^

52

40

10-25 „

Died

„

51

30

11

"

"

Table 11 shows that the highest non-lethal dose attained w^as 10 mlgm.
per kilo. Doses of 10-25 mlgm. and over were invariably fatal. Of the frogs

306 Transactions.

that received 10 mlgm. per kilo, one died, and both the others showed con-
vulsions and were very ill for more than twenty-four hours. Severe symp-
toms were also present with 9 mlgm. per kilo. It was noticed that frogs
experimented upon in the winter were more susceptible to the poison than
those used in the summer.

The relatively high lethal dose of tutin in frogs may have some connection
wdth their mode of respiration. To a large extent this is cutaneous, and
therefore a drug such as tutin, which owes its lethal power largely to its in-
fluence on the respiratory centre, might a priori be expected to be less lethal
to these animals than to those that have only a lung-respiration. The fact
that lizards, which have a dry skin and presumably only a slight cutaneous
respiration, succumb to about one-third the lethal dose for frogs points in
this direction.

Even with large doses the course of events in frogs is comparatively slow.
For example, in Exp. 54, where about 60 mlgm. per kilo was given, the
animal lived for an hour and a half.

5. Action on Fishes.
(a.) General Action.

There is an advantage in using small fishes to test the pharmacological
action of drugs, because large numbers can be dealt with, and thus the
factor of idiosyncrasy, which so often confuses results, is in great measure
eliminated. Moreover, fishes can be placed in a watery solution of the
drug, and the symptoms and time taken to kill easily noted. Eecently
SoUmann (26) has used funduli and sticklebacks in this way, and suggests
that the method might be used to study the antagonism of diaigs.

In the first experiments of this kind undertaken by the present writer
young trout prociu'ed from a fish-hatchery were used. The fry were kept
till required in a trough with an overflow, placed beneath a running tap, and
were fed on fresh minced liver. The experiments were carried out in the
following way : 60 or 100 c.c. of tap-water, to which a solution of tutin had
been added in definite quantity, were placed in a small wide beaker, and
the fish transferred to it. Several beakers containing various strengths of
tutin, and one beaker containing tap-water only, as a control, were set on
together, and watched at intervals during the day.

Symftoms. — The young trout were about 1 in. to 1^ in. long, and in
good condition. When first placed in the test-beakers they became very
excited if the tutin solution were strong. After a period of excitement,
during which rotatory movements on the long axis of the body were fre-
quently seen, they became quieter, and then it was noted that the gill-
movements were much exaggerated. After a time they lost their power of
maintaining equilibrium, and lay on one side gasping. From this position
they would frequently spring up and swim round the vessel, still on the side,
and then resume their position on the bottom. Shortly before death they
often turned belly upwards.

Minimum Lethal Dose. — In order to determine the minimum lethal
dose, solutions of different strength were tried, and the results are given in
the next table (Table III).

In these experiments the quantity of fluid used was small. Death
frequently occurred in the control when the experiment lasted over twelve
hours. But the results show that the fatal effects begin when the per-
centage is about 0-001, and are very definite at 0-004 per cent. This cor-

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin.

307

responds to a dose of 10 to 40 mlgm. per kilo. For example, if we consider
that a dose of tiitin — say, 10 mlgm. per kilo — injected under the skin of a
mammal becomes rapidly and equally diffused through all parts of the
body, its concentration at any point would be 001 gram (10 mlgm.) per
thousand. In the case of a fish floating in a solution of tutin, the amount
of the fluid is so much larger than the fish that the diffusion of the tutin
into its body will not materially reduce the concentration of the poison in
the fluid, and so the tissues of the fish will be subjected to the action of
0-001 per cent., or 10 mlgm. per kilo. The fatal dose in fish may there-
fore be said to be about 40 mlgm. per kilo under these experimental condi-
tions.

Table III.
Fishes (Trout-fry). — Minimum Lethal Dose.

Exp.
No.

Percentage of Tutin in Water.

Volume.

Number
of Fish.

Time necessary to kill.

59

C.c.

10 drops of saturated solution 100
in 100 c.c. (about 01 per
cent.)

One ..

About 43 minutes.

60

0-125 per cent. .

60

/f • •

19 minutes.

61

0-0625

60

/.

27

62

0-03125

60

w • •

50

63

0-0156

60

w

40

64

0-0078

60

« •

56

65

0004

60

//

111 „

66

0-001

50

»

4^19 hours.

67

000075

50

„ . .

4^-19 „

68

0-0005

50

//

Alive 15 hours 48 min. later.

69

0-00025

50

tt • •

w n

70

0'03125

50

/.

50 minutes.

71

0 004

'. 50

w • •

About 8J hours.

72

0003

. i 50

/.

„

73

0002

50

M

Between 8^ and 18J hours.

74

0-001

. I 50

It • .

19| hours.

75

0-00075

50

// • •

About 30 minutes.

76

00005

60

Two ..

One died between 8^ and 18J

hours ; the other lived, and

was alive and well four days

later.

It was intended to use trout-fry in experiments that were made to com-
pare the action of tutin with that of other members of the same group,
and to test the effect of remedies ; but the supply suddenly failed, so re-
course was had to another small fish, known locally as the minnow, which
aboiinds at certain seasons of the year in the waters of the Otago Harbour
and Lake Logan. This fish [Galaxias attenuatus) is peculiar to the South
Island of New Zealand, Tasmania, and Tierra del Fuego (33). It mea-
sures 1-3J in. long, is equally at home in brackish and fresh water, and will
live in a trough in the laboratory for weeks if fed on Liver and supplied
with fresh running water. It is semi-transparent, and the heart can be
seen beating. After a great many experiments it was found that the best
results were obtained when three fish were used, and placed in a fairly wide
(7-in.-diameter) enamelled bowl, containing 1,000 c.c. fluid. It was found
necessary to almost completely cover the top of the bowl with a piece of
wood, for if left uncovered the fish were apt to leap out. This happened
several times, andjwas often more aggravating to the experimenter than

308 Transactions,

disastrous to the fish, for if discovered within an hour or so, wiped clean,,
and returned to the water it would recover completely. Three of these
fish will live in 1,000 c.c. of water from thirty-six to forty-eight hours or
more, and are apparently quite comfortable, even when the water is much
fouled with their own excreta.

Sollmann states that 0-001 per cent, picrotoxin is fatal to fundulus in
five to nine hours. His specimens (5 cm.) were not much smaller than the
minnows used in the experiments recorded here. He used only 150 c.c.
of water to each fish, and admits that occasionally one of the controls would
die. It is probable that the amount of water used by Sollman was too
small, for in the experiments made by the present writer to compare the
effects of tutin and picrotoxin, it appeared that in the early experiments,
where a small quantity of water (200 c.c.) was used, death occurred in four
hours when the concentration was 0-001 ; whereas in the later experiments,
with three fish in 1,000 c.c. fluid, 0-001 was fatal to only one fish of the
three in twenty-four hours. This shows the importance, when using fish
in this way, of allowing a sufficient quantity of water.

Symptoms. — The symptoms shown by the minnows when three were
put together in 1,000 c.c. of a lethal percentage (0-005) of tutin were as
follows : After two to four hours, with no symptoms, the fish began to
swim near the surface of the fluid, and became excited in their movements,
swimming vigorously about, and even leaping repeatedly out of the water.
At this stage they were frequently observed to emit bubbles of gas from the
mouth. This discharge of gas, and the inability to sink, point to a derange-
ment of the function of the swim-bladder. Later they lose their power
of maintaining the normal position, and swim about near the surface,
turned on the side. Now and again they recover the upright position, and
swim excitedly about for a minute or two, and then fall back on the
side. Later on they lie at an angle with the surface of the fluid, often with
the head down, and swim about feebly in this position ; and later still they
lie on the side on the bottom of the dish, and the gill-movements are
laboured. At intervals they spring up from this position, and swim round
on the side, while appearances suggesting convulsions are seen — viz., bend-
ing of the trunk, accompanied by shuddering movements. At death it was
invariably noticed that the gill-movements ceased before the heart stopped
beating. (For protocol of symptoms, see Exp. 108.)

Table IV shows that under the above-mentioned experimental conditions
a percentage of 0-001 was necessary to cause symptoms to appear, but was
not necessarily fatal unless other deleterious conditions, such as too small
an amount of fluid, were present {e.g., Exps. 77, 78, 79 in Table IV show-
fatal results within six hours, but under improved conditions 0"0035 was
fatal to only one fish out of three) ; while a percentage of 0-005 caused
symptoms within a few hours, and was generally fatal to all three fish
within twenty - four hours. Between these limits various results were
obtained : thus in 0-0035 per cent, two of the three fish recovered and one
died, while in 0-003 per cent, and in 0-004 per cent, two of the three
died and one recovered. But in these experiments, Nos. 89, 91, and 95,
tin dishes were used, and the water became rusty before the end of the
experiments.

In order to insure a lethal effect, the dose was therefore raised to 0-005
per cent., and experiments were made to test the effect of various reagents
in increasing or diminishing the toxic power of tutin. The effect of tutin
was also compared with that of picrotoxin.

FiTC'HETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin.

309

Table IV.

Effect of Tutin Solutions on Galaxias attenuatns. — Minimum Lethal Dose.

Percentage

Volume

Number

Time of Onset

Time

^$

of !

of

of

of

Result.

of

S'^

Tutin used.

Fluid.

Fishes.

Symptoms.

Death.

•c.c.

Hours.

79

0-0005

200

One

5^ hours . .

Fatal

6

78

0-00075

200

// • *

5

f/ . .

6i

77

0001

200

// • ■

Not observed

w • •

4

83

0-001

1,000

Three— (a) . .

Slight symptoms at

Not fatal

9^ hours

, ,

(6) and (c)

No symptoms

j

87

0-00125

1,000

Three

// . •

ff

86

00015

1,000

Three— (a) ..
(6) and (c)

1 hour

No symptoms

Fatal
Not fatal

If;

88

0-00175

1,000

Three— (a) . .
(6) and (c)

4J hours . .
No symptoms

Fatal
Not fatal

n

90

0-002

1,000

Three

// • •

fi

89

0-003

1,000

Three

(a) ..
(b} ..

2f hours

9*

Fatal '
j to all 1

7
12

(c) ..

10 „

11-23

l{a) ..

4

Fatal

H

91

0-0035

1,000

Three-

(b) ..

(c) ..

Slight symptoms from

7 to 10 hours
No symptoms

Not fatal

Ua) ..

(b) ..

1(c) ..

3j3j. hours . .

Fatal

12

95

0-004

1,000

Threes

8 „ ..

// • •

84

Slight symptoms at

Not fatal

12 hours

106

0-005

1,000

((a) ..

Three j (6) ..

{(c) ..

(la) ..

7i hours ..

7*

64 „ ...

] Fatal
to all

12-22
12-22

24

21 hours . .

Fatal

124-25

108

0-005

1,000

Three ^(6) ..
i(c) ..

H

// • •

12

(106 used a

54 „ ..

Not fatal

second time)

,

(b.) Comparison of Action of Tutin and Picrotoxin.

SoUmann's statement that 0-001 per cent, picrotoxin causes death in
four to nine hours was tested by the improved method (see Table V, No. 85).
Three fish were put into 1,000 c.c. of 0-001 picrotoxin at 11 a.m. Up to
8.30 p.m. no symptoms were seen, though the fish were under observation
all day. At 8.30 they began to swim more frequently near the surface,
and when seen next day one was dead, but the others were unaffected, and
were returned to the trough at the end of twenty-four hours. A 0-001 per
cent, of tutin (Exp. 83) showed almost similar results. Previous to this
an experiment where 0.00075 per cent, and 0-0005 per cent, picrotoxin
and the same strengths of tutin were tested gave doubtful results, because
the amount of fluid was too small (Table V, Nos. 81, 82, 78, 79).

In other experiments picrotoxin was compared with tutin in a strength
of 0-004 per cent. All the picrotoxin fish died — two at twelve hours and
one at 294 hours (Exp. 100) ; while of the tutin fish two died — at twelve
hours and at eight hours and a half — and one recovered (Exp. 95). With
a 0-005-per-cent. solution of picrotoxin all three fish died — viz., at 3| hours,
at llf hours, and at 12f hours (Exp. 107) ; while tutin of the same strength
caused death to all at 22|^ hours and at twenty-three hours (Exp. 106) : so
it would appear that picrotoxin is more lethal than tutin in equal per-
centages.

310

Transactions.

Table V.

Picrotoxin and Tutin compared.

Exp.
No.

Percentage

Volume

Number

Time of Onset

Time

of

of

of

of

Result.

of

Drug.

Fluid.

Fishes.

Symptoms.

Death.

C.c.

«

Hours.

80

Piorotoxin, 0-001..

200

One ..

Not observed

Fatal

4

81

Picrotoxin, 0-00075

200

K . .

5 hours

/y • •

6

82

Picrotoxin

200

f/ • •

IJ „

// ■ •

4

77

Tutin, 0-001

200

H • •

Not observed

„

4J

78

Tutin, 0-00075 . .

200

// • •

5 hours

tf • •

6i

79

Tutin, 0-0005

200

w • •

5 „

« • •

6

Control to the above fishes under the same conditions (200 c.c. fluid)
showed symptoms of asphyxiation in four hours.

Exp.
No.

Percentage

Volume

Number

Time of Onset

Time

of

of

1 of

of

Result.

of

Drug.

Fluid.

Fishes.

Symptoms.

Death.

C.c.

Hours.

85

Picrotoxin, 0001..

1,000

Three

9§ hours

Fatal to one

22 (about).

83

Tutin, 0-001

1,000

w

9J „

All recovered

, ,

100

Picrotoxin, 0-004..

1,000

Three—
(a) ..

3i „

29i

{b) ..

3^ „

Fatal to all ■

12

(c) ..

6^ „

12

95

Tutin, 0-004

1,000

Three—

(a) ..

3| „

Fatal

12

(6) ..

8 „

// • •

8^

}

(c) ..

Slight symp-
toms at 12
hours

Recovered . .

107

Picrotoxin, 0-005..

1,000

Three -
{a) ..

11 hours . .

(

3*

(b) ..

Fatal to all -

llf

(c) ..

12|

106

Tutin, 0 005

1,000

Three—

{a) ..

7J hours

] f

22^

(b) ..

6^ „

•Fatal to ain

23

(c) ..

H .

1 1

22J

105

Picrotoxin, 0-0132

1,000

Three—

■h

(a) ..

n „

/

3

[b) ..
c) ..

^^ .

•Fatal to all-

6^
2i

It was then resolved to compare picrotoxin with tutin in equimoleciilar
solutions. The molecular weight of tutin (Ci^HjoOy) is 336, and that of
picrotoxin (C4 5HgoOi9) is 887; hence equal weights of tutin and picro-
toxin contain by no means the same number of molecules. Accordingly
two solutions were prepared, one of 0-005 per cent, tutin and one of 0-0132

per cent, picrotoxin ( 0-005 x

887
336

and the experiment was carried out as

before, three fish (one large, one medium, and one small) being added to
each bowl (Exps. 105, 106). The fish in the picrotoxin solution began to
show symptoms first. The small fish came to the surface after fifty
minutes, and in sixty-five minutes it was on its side. The medium fish also
was much excited. In an hour and a half the large fish was found swimming

FiTf'HETT. — Physiological Action, of Tutin. 311

near the surface and emitting air-bells, while at this time the other two
fish showed quivering movements of the trunk. In two hours and three-
quarters the small fish was dead. In three hours the larger one was dead,
and the medium-sized one died in five hours. So that 0-0132 per cent,
picrotoxin killed all the fish in five hours. Meanwhile the fish in the equi-
molecular solution of tutin began to show symptoms at the end of three
hours and three-quarters, which continued till late at night — twelve hours
after the exj)eriment was begun. The next morning two were found dead
(between twelve and twenty-two hours after the experiment was begun),
and the last one (medium-sized) died at twenty-four hours (Exp. 106). So
the result shows that in equimolecular solutions picrotoxin is more lethal
than tutin.

One must be cautious, however, in applying these results to the case of
mammals. In fishes the swim-bladder regulation is disturbed both by
picrotoxin and by tutin, and of the two, picrotoxin seems to have the
greater influence, for air-bells are more frequently seen to be emitted by
fish subjected to the action of this drug. The swim-bladder — of such para-
mount importance in the case of fishes — has no analogue in mammals, and
it is therefore quite probable that the lethal power of these poisons may be
reversed in this class of animals. Indeed, the experiments on cats (Exps. 4,
168, 169, 171) justify this statement.

(c.) Effect on Fishes of Tutin Solution that has been hydrolysed.

It has been a constant observation in the case of both lower animals
and of human beings that tutu poisoning is more lethal when the stomach
is empty. This suggested the possibility of the toxicity of the tutin being-
increased by the action of the hydrochloric acid in the stomach. Experi-
ments on fishes were therefore undertaken to test this. To 8 or 10 c.c. of
a 0-5-per-cent. solution of tutin an equal amount of 0-4 per cent, hydro-
chloric acid was added, and the mixed fluid kept at a temperature of 37° C.
for different lengths of time in difierent experiments. It was then exactly
neutralised with a solution of soda of corresponding strength, and made up
to 1,000 c.c.

In the first experiment (Exp. 92) of this kind 7 c.c. of tutin solution was
so treated (0-0035 per cent, tutin), and a control (Exp. 91) of a solution
of untreated tutin in corresponding strength was used. In the hydro-
lysed tutin solution one fish showed symptoms at three hours and three-
quarters, which continued till it died, at seven hours and a half. Another
began to show symptoms at eight hours and one-third, and died between
ten and twenty-two hours ; while the third showed symptoms at nine hours,
and died at 22| hours. In the control of untreated solution one fish showed
symptoms at four hours and died at four hours and a half, and the other
two, of which one showed symptoms from the seventh to the tenth hour,
recovered.

Another experiment of the same kind was then made, a slightly higher
percentage of tutin being used — viz., 0-004 instead of 0-0035. Two test-
tubes were taken, each containing 8 c.c. of a 0-5 per cent, solution of tutin.
To one, A (Exp. 94), 8 c.c. of 0-4 per cent. HCl were added ; so that the
total percentage of HCl in the fluid was 0-2. This mixture was kept at
37° C. for one hour, then neutralised and made up to 1,000 c.c. To the
S'c.c. tutin solution in the other test-tube B (Exp. 95) the same amount
of HCl was added, but it was immediately neutralised, and then kept at
37° C. for one hour, and made up to 1,000 c.c. In each of these two solu-

312

T ransactions.

tions three fish were placed, and they were observed at frequent intervals
during the day- In B (control), symptoms began in three hours and three-
quarters in a fish which died in twelve hours ; and at eight hours in a fish
which died in eight hours and a half. The third fish showed slight symp-
toms when last seen at night, twelve hours after the experiment was begun,
and was apparently quite well the next day. After thirty hours this fish
was removed, the fluid filtered, and three other fish placed in the solution.
This second group of fishes was affected as follows : When last seen at
night, two hours after the experiment was begun, they seemed unduly
excited, and next morning all three were dead — i.e., within sixteen hours
of the commencement of the experiment (Exp. 98). (In order to test
whether a second use of the solution would influence the result, a control
of 1,000 c.c. water that had been used the day before was also filtered, and
three fishes placed in it. These fish were quite unaffected at the end of the
experiment, so that one may disregard the fact that the control solution
mentioned above was used twice.)

Table VI.
Effect of Hydrolysis by 0'2 per Cetit. HCl on the Toxicity of Tutin.

Exp.
No.

Strength of
Tutin.

Hydrolysed
or not.

Volume

of

Fluid.

Number

of
Fishes.

Onset

of

Symptoms.

Result.

Time

of
Death.

Per Cent.

C.c

Hours.

92

0-00.35

Hydrolvsed

1,000 ■ Three—

30 min. at37°C.

(«) ..

3J hours

) Fatal (

u

{b) ..

8i „

1 *^°

10-22

(c) ..

9 „

) all 1

22^

Three-

93

0-0035

Not hydrolysed

1,000

fa) ..

4

Fatal . .

H.

(control to 92)

(6) ..
(c) ..

Slight symp-
toms, 7-10
hours

No symptoms

Recovered
Not fatal

94

0-004

Hydrolysed

1,000

Three—

1 hour at 37° C.

[a) ..

{b) ..

(c) ..

Three—

5 hours
8 „

Died . .
Recovered

25J
28

97

0-004

Same fluid as 94,

1,000

a) ..

3

Died ..

16

filtered

b\ ..
Tciree —

16 „

No symptoms

"

221

95

0 004

Control to above

1,000

(«) ••

3^\ hours . .

Died ..

12

(6) ..
(c) ..

8

12 „

Recovered

8*

98

0-004

Same fluid as 95,
filtered

1,000

Three
Three —

2

Fatal to
all

16

111

0 005

Hydrolysed

1,000

{a) ..

6| „

Fatal

13t

1 hour at 37° C.

(b) ..

5i „

■ to 1
all

8*

(c) ..

5J „

9^

Three—

106

0 005

Untreated

1,000

(«) ••

7J „

Fatal

22J

(6) ..
(c) ..

6i „ ..

to
all

23
24

Now, with regard to the hydrolysed tutin (Exp. 94), to which the foregoing
served as control experiments : In the first set of three fishes, one showed

FlTCliETr.--Physio[u(/ical Action of Tulin.

313

symptoms at the end of five hours, and died in 25J hours ; a second showed
symptoms at the end of six hours and a quarter, and died at twenty-eight
hours ; and the third showed slight symptoms at the end of eight hours,
and recovered. The fluid was filtered, and three fresh fishes introduced,
and of these one died within sixteen hours, one at 22J hours, and one re-
covered (Exp. 97).

A third experiment (Exp. Ill) was made with U-()05 per cent, tutin in the
same way. Symptoms appeared in two of the fish at five hours and a third ;
these died at eight hours and a sixth and nine hours and a sixth respectively.
The third showed symptoms at six hours and two-thirds, and died at
13f hours. Usually fish live in a 0-005-per-cent. solution of tutin for an
average of seventeen hours.

To summarise the results of these three experiments : Twelve fish were
subjected to the influence of hydrolysed tutin (0-0035 per cent, to 0-005 per
cent.). Of these, ten died at an average period of fourteen hours ; the
other two showed symptoms, but recovered. In the corresponding control
solutions, of the twelve fish, nine died at an average period of 16-9 hours
two showed symptoms, and recovered ; and one showed no symptoms
It would seem to follow that In^drolysed tutin is more toxic than tutin itself
but the rise in toxicity is not great, and in marked contrast to the action
which takes place in dilute alkali at corresponding strength.

(r/.) Action of Alkalis on Tulin.

Attention having been arrested by the fact that animals poisoned by
tutin are frequently reduced to a state of coma, which may possibly con-
tribute towards a fatal termination, the use of alkahs as a remedial agent
suggested itself. Hughes had found that lime destroyed the activity of the
tutu poison, and Easterfield and Aston were unable to recover tutin after
a solution treated with lime had been evaporated to dryness.

Table VII.
Effect of Alkali on the Toxicity of Tutin.

Exi).

Percentage

Treatment by

Volume

of
Fluid.

Number

of
Fishes.

Time of Onset

of

Symptoms.

Result.

Duration
of

No.

of Tutin.

Alkali.

Experi-
ment.

C.c.

Hours.

96

0-004

Treated with 0 2
percent. NaOH
at 37° C. for 1
hour

1,000

Three

No symptoms

All lived

30

99

0-004

Ditto ..

1,000

"

"

"

27

101

0-005

Treated with 0-2
percent. NaOH
at 37° C. for 20
minutes

1,000

"

"

„

25

102

0-005

Ditto, for 40 mi-
nutes

1,000

"

"

'■

25

109

0005

Ditto, for 10 mi
nutes

1,000

"

"

30

112

0 005

Ditto, for 5 rni-

1,000

,,

^^

„

26

nutes

The experiments were done in the same way as in the case of HCl : 10 c.c.
of a 0-5-per-cent. solution of tutin was rendered alkaline with the solution

314 Transactio?is.

used in the foregoing experiments to neutralise the weak liydrochloric acid.
The alkaUnitv used was equivalent to 0-2 per cent. HC'l. or a little over
0-2 per cent." It was found (Exps. 96, 99. 101, 102. 109, 112) that tutin
solution kept at 37° C. in the presence of that amount of alkali completely
lost its toxic power. In the first experiment the time allowed for the alkali
to act on the tutin was one hour, and the three fish that were subjected
to the action of the solution were unaffected after thirty hours. The fluid
was filtered and three other fish introduced for twenty-seven hours, but
without effect.

In other experiments the time allowed for the alkali to act upon the
tutin was shortened successively to forty minutes, twenty minutes, ten
minutes, and five minutes, but the result was the same in each case — the
tutin had completely lost its toxic power.

In this connection the following experiment on a cat may be cited
(Exp. 113) : 8 c.c. of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin was treated with 1 gram
of lime [CalOHg)] for one hour at 37° C, and thereafter for one day at
room-temperature. The lime was removed by passing CO2 and filtering,
and the fluid was evaporated to about 2 c.c, and injected under the skin
of a cat weighing 2-4 kilograms. It displayed no symptoms, and remained
well.

(c.) Influence of " Surviving '' Organs on Tutin.

In considering the explanation of the relative immunity of birds to tutin
poisoning by oral administration, it was suggested {vide ante) that the inter-
position of the liver in the usual path of absorption in mammals might
account for some increase in the toxicity of the tutin in their case. To test
the influence of the liver-substance on tutin, an experiment was carried out
as foUoW'S : A rabbit was killed by chloroform, a canula was tied into the
aorta, and the blood-vessels washed free of blood by a stream of warm saUne.
The liver and kidneys were rapidly excised, 9 grams of each weighed out,
minced, and bruised rapidly in a \varm mortar. To each mass 10 c.c. of a
0-5-per-cent. solution of tutin in normal saline was added. The mixtures,
in small wide beakers, w^ere placed in the oven at 37° C. for one hour. An
equal volume of absolute alcohol was then added, to stop further action.
The mixtures were then evaporated on a water bath, and kept there for some
hours to coagulate the proteids. A watery extract of each was then made,
filtered, and made up to 1,000 c.c. with tap-water. Three minnows were
placed in each of these solutions, and the results were as follows : —

Liver and Tutin (Exp. 103) : One fish showed symptoms at two hours
and a third, and died in five hours and a half ; one showed symptoms in two
hours and a third, and died in six hours ; and one showed symptoms in four
hours and a half, and died in seven hours and three-quarters.

Kidney and Tutin (Exp. 104) : One showed symptoms at an hour and
a half, and died in four hours and a half ; one showed symptoms at four
hours and a half, and died in seven hours and three-quarters ; and one
showed svmptoms in four hours and a half, and died in twenty-seven hours.

The course of events in the latter case is just similar to that of a 0-005-
per-cent. solution of tutin, so that we may suppose that here the tissue had
no effect on the tutin ; but, on the other hand, it is difficult to avoid thinking
that the liver-substance increased the toxicity of the tutin,

6. Action on Insects.
Insects are susceptible to the action of the poison. Weak solutions
(0-1 per cent.) have no influence. A number of flies lived in perfect health

FiTCHETT. — Phi/siological Action of Tut in. 315

for a week on a solution of cane sugar in 0-1-per-cent. solution tutin (Exp.
115) ; but a 0-5-per-cent. solution quickly produced symptoms, and caused
death in half an hour or so (Exp. 116).

The symptoms were very like those that characterize the action of the
poison in higher animals — namely, an initial lethargy, followed by isolated
tonic spasms of the wings and legs, exactly resembling the appearance met
with in pigeons in the early stages of poisoning, when one or other wing
is extended in rigid spasm for a moment ; then marked clonic spasm of the
wings recurring at intervals, and finally general convulsions, in which the
insect tossed and buzzed about until exhausted. In the latest stages the
flies lay on their backs, showing only occasional movements of the legs.
After death, distention of the abdomen was an invariable finding, and in
the case of a blowfly the exudation of a considerable drop of clear fluid
from the proboscis occurred.

7. Action ox Larv^.

(Exp. 117.) The eft'ect of the poison on maggots was tested by placing
some mince that had become infected by blowflies in solutions of tutin
of different strength for one hour, and then draining off the fluid. The
experiment was controlled by a portion of the mince being placed in normal
saline for the same period. On the day following, the maggots in the control
had hatched out, and were very active ; but in the mince subjected to the
action of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin no movement was seen, and only
one or two larvae were found moving in the mince that had been soaked
in tutin solutions of lesser strength.

Experiments that were made on full-grown maggots showed that con-
finement for forty-eight hours in tutin solutions of strengths graded up to
0-05 per cent, had apparently no influence. As immersion in a 0-05-per-cent.
solution is about equivalent to a dose of 500 mlgm. per kilo, or 0-5 gram,
tutin is seen to be very inactive.

8. Action on Molluscs.

(Exp. 11-1.) Two cockles of about the same size were placed one in
sea-water and the other in a 0-5-per-cent. solution of tutin in sea-water,
freshly prepared. Equal volumes of fluid were aUowed. The cockle that
had been placed in the tutin solution, in five minutes opened its shell and
extruded its body. If touched it immediately withdrew, but came out
again at once. It kept opening and closing its shell, but did not withdraw
its body as the valves came together. It continued Uke this for twenty-
four hours, responding more sluggishly to a touch as time went on, and then
died. The control meanwhile had displayed no symptoms, but behaved
in exactly the way the other had done when it, in turn, was placed in the
tutin solution, and it also died.

9. Action on Infusoria and Au(ebm.

The action on infusoria and amoebae was examined in the following
way : —

A drop of hay-infusion, containing infusoria, amoebae, monads, and
bacteria, was placed on a slide ; a drop of 0-1-per-cent. solution tutin was
added, and the specimen observed for an hour. A drop of the infusion to
which nothing had been added was used as a control. Another drop to
which a drop of normal saUne had been added was used to test the influence

316 Transactions.

of tlie saline in which the tutin was dissolved ; and a fourth drop, to which
a drop of a 0-1-per-cent. solution of quinine-sulphate had been added, was
used for the sake of comparison (Exp. 118). In fifteen minutes no para-
moecia were found moving in the quinine preparation, but monads were
still in motion. In the three other specimens no change was observed.
In thirty minutes all movement had ceased in the quinine preparation.
In the tutin preparation paramoecia could still be seen moving, but their
movements seemed to be somewhat irregular ; amoebae, bacteria, and monads
were still moving. In one hour one or two paramoecia could still be seen
moving in the tutin preparation ; they were by no means so numerous as
at first, and rather difficult to find. Many of the monads were as active as
ever, and amoebae were still throwing out pseudopods ; but the preparation
did not present the same appearance of general activity that it did at first.
The saline preparations and the control were as active at the end of the
experiment as they were at the beginning.

A further experiment (Exp. 119) was made by covering a drop of hay-
infusion with a cover-glass, and then placing a drop of 0-1-per-cent. tutin
solution on the edge of the cover. It was observed that such paramoecia
as swam out into the drop of tutin solution remained in that drop, displayed
irregular movement, and in a few minutes came to a standstill, and appeared
to undergo internal disintegration, whicli reduced them to unrecognisable
masses. The experiment was repeated with a drop of a 0-5-per-cent. solu-
tion tutin in distilled water, with similar results (Exp. 120).

It would appear, therefore, that paramoecia are injuriously affected by
the poison, but not in so great a degree as they are by quinine. On amoebae,
dilute solutions (about 0-05 per cent.) have very little influence. Monads
are affected in a lesser degree than paramoecia.

10. Action on Bacteria.

(Exp. 121.) This was tested by placing pieces of fresh mince in test-
tubes containing solutions of tutin of different strength (0-1 to 0-5 per cent.)
and a piece in a test-tube containing normal saline alone. The tubes were
left open to the air for twenty-four hours, and then corked and placed in
an incubator at 37° C. Two days later the tubes were examined, and it
was found that the tube containing saline was very offensive, but the tubes
containing tutin solution were not at all offensive, and smelt rather like
stomach-contents.

When subjected to microscopic examination, it was found that all the
solutions contained bacteria, but in the slide prepared from the normal
saline the bacteria were very much more numerous, and showed a greater
variety of form and size. It Avould appear, therefore, that tutin has a
deleterious action on certain forms of bacteria, but not on all.

That some forms of bacteria are certainly not affected by tutin is shown
by the following observation : A 0-5-per-cent. solution of tutin in normal
saline which had been allowed to stand for six months in the laboratory
was examined microscopically, and found to contain fairly numerous large
motile bacilli resembling B. suhtilis. A green growth that had developed
and formed a layer at the bottom of the bottle was found to consist of small
rounded yeast-like cells tinged with chlorophyl.

11. Action on Yeast.

The action of tutin on the fermentation of glucose by yeast was studied
in a few experiments (Exps. 122, 123, 124). It was found that fermentation

FiTCHETT. — Physiuloyical Action of Tut in. 317

proceeded vigorously in the presence of even 04 per cent, tutin. Some
slight differences in the rate of fermentation that were noted were probably
due to differences in the amount of yeast added. (For details of experi-
ments, see protocols, Exps. 122, 123, 124.)

12. Germination of Seeds.

The action of tutin on the germination of seeds was tested by soaking
mustard-seeds in solutions (in normal saline) of various strengths (0-1, 0-2,
0-3, 04, and 0-5 per cent.) for twenty-four hours (Exp. 125). The seeds
were then sown on pieces of felt in separate tin boxes, appropriately labelled,
and kept moist with water. An equal number of seeds was sown on each
piece of felt, and the experiment was controlled by seeds that had been
soaked for the same length of time in normal sahne. The day following,
all the seeds had germinated, and they were therefore replaced in their
respective tutin solutions for a further period of twenty-four hours, and
then sown again. During the next week the progress made by the seedlings
was observed, and the effect of the tutin on their development noted.

It was found that the seeds progressed more or less in order of the weak-
ness of the solutions in which they had been soaked : thus, the growth of
those that had been soaked in normal saline, in 04 per cent., and in 0-2 per
cent, tutin was the most vigorous, while those that had been soaked in
0-3, 04, and 0-5 per cent, made slow progress, and all the seedlings in these
lots did not continue to grow. In a fortnight, however, little difference
was to be noted in any of the seedlings that had developed at all, one or
two of the 0-5-per-cent. seedhngs that were growing being as well developed
as those that had been soaked in saline.

This result may possibly be due to the effect previously noted on bacteria,
certain forms of bacteria being necessary to the growth of plants. From
experiments on invertebrates, bacteria, &c., it may be inferred that tutin
is toxic to any given form of life in proportion to its complexity of organiza-
tion. Wherever a nervous system is sufficiently developed, the toxic action
is greatest; but that it has some injurious influence on primitive protoplasm
may also be seen from its effects on paramoecia, bacteria, &c.

13. Action of Tutin on Tissues.
From the symptoms observed when studying the general action of the
poison on mammals, it seemed very evident that the nervous system was
the part chiefly affected. Nervous tissue will be considered later, and the
action of tutin on otlier tissues will be recorded first.

(a.) Action on Primitive Protoplasm.
As is shown in Exp. 118, tutin, as compared with quinine, is not a strong
protoplasmic poison. That it has some deleterious action on living proto-
plasm is shown by the experiments on putrefactive bacteria, on the germina-
tion of seeds, and on paramoecia (Exps. 121, 125, 119), though it is doubtful
if the action here is more than might be exerted by any foreign substance.

(b.) Ciliated Epithelium.
The action on ciUa was tested in the following way : A few bars from
the gill of a cockle were placed on a slide in a drop of sea-water, and ex-
amined with a power of 80 diameters. In the first experiment, the prepara-
tion was covered with a cover-glass, but in the later experiments cover-

318

Transactions.

glasses were not used, in order to allow of ready interchange of O2 and COj.
The results are shown in Table VIII (Exps. 126 to 134 inclusive).

Table VIII.
Action of Tutin on Cilia.

Exp.

No.

Source of Material.

Strength of
Tutin.

Effect.

Time.

Eemarks.

Per Cent.

126

Cockle-gill
Same preparation

0-1 in saline
0-2

0-3

No change
Retarded (?)
Slowing
Ceased

7 min.

4 „
1 „

8 „

Control specimens
- in normal saline
continued active.

127

Cockle-gill

0-3

Slower
Ceased

1 „
5 „

128

0-2

Practically
ceased

7 „

Movements restored
by 1 in 1,000 KOH.

129

//

0-2

No change

9 „

Same preparation

0-3 „

Less active

10 „

//

0-5

Still moving

15 „

130

Cockle-gill

0-2

Slowing

7 „

Accelerated by infu-
sion with sea- water.

'

Slight retard-

5 „

131

Rock-oyster gill . .

05

ation (?)
Still active
Exagger-

1^ hours.
2 min.

132

Cockle-gill

0-5

ated (?)
Still active

1^ hours.

133

Ciliated epithe-'
Hum of frog's
gullet

01
0-5

No change

1 hour.
1 „

(Exp. 13-1.) The rate of progress of a small fi'agment of cork along the
surface of the gullet was noted before and after applying tutin (0"3 per cent.
in saline). Average rate before = 50'4" for 1 cm. travelled ; average rate
after = 34-8" for 1 cm. travelled. The method presented many difficulties,
as it is impossible to keep the fi'agment moving on the same line each time,
and the mucus secreted clogs its movements.

From these results it is impossible to draw a definite conclusion, for
although in some specimens taken from sea-water animals the ciliary action
ceased on the application of tutin, in other specimens from the frog's gullet
tutin had little or no action.

(c.) Action of Tutin on Striped Muscle and Nerve-terminations.

This was tested by determining the strength of stimulus just sufficient
to cause contraction of a nerve-muscle preparation before and after the
application of tutin. The preparation (gastrocnemius - sciatic) was made
from the frog. An induction-coil with one Daniell cell and mercury-key
was used. The muscle in each case was placed first in normal saline
(0-75 per cent.) and the strength of the minimal stimulus determined. The
tutin solution was then substituted for the saline, and the excitability tested
from time to time.

Four experiments were made (Exps. 135 to 138 inclusive). In three of
these the one muscle was placed in 0-025, 0-05, and in 0-5 per cent, tutin
solution, while the other muscle was placed in normal saline. In another
experiment the muscle of one preparation was placed in 0-5-per-cent.
solution tutin, and the nerve of the other in 0-5-per-cent. tutin. (Exp. 136).

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin. 319

In the first experiment (Exp. 135)^0-025 per cent, tutin — there was a
diminution in excitability : thus, the muscle in saline contracted with the
coil at 18 cm., three hours after the experiment began, while the corre-
sponding muscle in tutin contracted only at 15 cm.

Where 0-05-per-cent. solution tutin was used (Exp. 137) the muscles
were equally excitable after two hours, but the muscle in the tutin had
been the more excitable of the two before immersion in the tutin. Thus,
before tutin was apphed it contracted at 30-5 cm., and two hours after
the application of tutin at 25-5 cm., while the control contracted at 25-5 cm.
and at 25 cm.

Another experiment where the muscle was placed in 0-05-per-cent. solu-
tion tutin gave the following results (Exp. 138) : Before immersion in
tutin solution — A contracted at 36 cm. ; B (control) contracted at 32 cm.
Two hours after immersion in tutin solution — A contracted at 21 ; B con-
tracted at 23.

In the experiment with 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (Exp. 136) the
minimal stimulus before the apphcation of tutin for A was 28 cm., for B
34 cm. The muscle of B (control) and the nerve of A were then placed
in the tutin solution, and an hour and a quarter afterwards A contracted
at 33 cm. and B contracted at 27-5 cm.

(For details of these experiments, see protocols.)

The inference to be drawn from these few experiments is that tutin
has no striking action on nerve or muscle fibre ; but there seems to be a
diminution in the excitability in the muscle placed in tutin solution, due
either to an action on the nerve-terminations or to an action on the muscle
fibre. This would help to explain the weakness and loss of tone seen in the
later stages of tutin poisoning, especially well seen in frogs.

It is possible that the action is one on the nerve-endings, for instances
are known of a poison {e.g., strychnine) acting as an irritant to nerve-cells,
and having at the same time a paralysing action on motor-nerve endings.
Nussbaum (27) states that picrotoxin in small doses stimulates, and with
slightly higher doses depresses, the activity of the peripheral nerve-termi-
nations. The same may be the case with tutin.

1-1. Action on the Different Systems.
(a.) Alimentary System.

Salivation is a marked feature in animals poisoned by tutin. It is an
early symptom, and usually precedes the vomiting, though it may be
present when vomiting is absent, as in Exps. 1 and 2. It is most profuse
where the dose is large, and in these cases is a source of danger in the later
stages by obstructing the respiratory passages. As a rule, it diminishes
when vomiting has occurred, and is not a marked feature in those animals
(rabbits and guinea-pigs) that do not ^'omit. Probably, therefore, it may be
an exaggeration of the saUvation which usually precedes the act of vomiting.
The saliva is thick and ropy, and hangs from the mouth in long tenacious
strings. 8ahva of this consistence suggests stimulation of the sympathetic.

Vomiting is also an early symptom. It is not an invariable symptom,
being present in only two of the cats and in three or four of the pigeons
experimented upon. It is more hkely to occur if the dose be small.

The salivation and the vomiting could both be explained as due to
stimulation of the vomiting-centre in the pons. That it is due to stimu-
lation of the centre is shown by the fact that it occurs when the poison is

320 Transactions.

given hypodermically. But in ordinary cases of poisoning by the tutu
plant there may be irritation of the gastric mucosa as well. Christie's
assertion (11) that tutin is excreted by the stomach, and so causes vomiting
by local irritation, is unsupported. No tutin could be extracted from
the gastric and small-intestine contents of a rabbit which had been killed
bv intravenous injections of large doses of tutin during a blood-pressure
experiment.

Stomach. — In cases of herbivora poisoned by tutu, accumulation of
gas in the stomach is a marked feature. This is probably diie to the
rapid fermentation of the leaves ingested, though possibly it may be due,
in part, to air swallowed during the convulsions.

To test the fermentability of tutu-leaves, a mash of minced leaves with
a little water was placed in an incubator at 40° C, and examined after the
lapse of an hour. On stirring the mixture it was seen to be permeated
with bubbles of gas, but it was not determined how far this was due to the
expansion of imprisoned air.

In the experiments with the pure substance, distension by gas was not
observed. Pure tutin and artificial gastric juice when incubated in a fer-
mentation-tube gave no appearance of gas-development.

The action of hydrochloric acid in hydrolysing tutin has already been
referred to under " Fishes." It was found that the toxicity was slightly
increased.

Intestines. — The action on peristaltic movement was not investigated
experimentally, but from observations made on animals killed by tutin,
where the abdomen was opened immediately, it was clear that there was
no diminution of peristaltic movement. That it was even increased was
inferred from the frequency with which defsecation occurred. The stools
were often loose, and were expelled with some violence.

{b.) HcBmopoietic Si/stem.

In one experiment, where a rabbit received a fatal dose of tutin and
died in one hour, blood-films were taken before the injection of tutin and
just before death (Exp. 139). The only point of difference seemed to be
that the leucocytes appeared fewer in number after tutin. They seemed
to be quite normal in regard to granules and staining-power.

(c.) Circulatori/ and Respiratory Systetns.

Previous observers have noticed that the tutu poison has no depressing
influence upon the circulation. Christie (11) found that the heart con-
tinued beating after the respiration had ceased. In one of his experi-
ments (on a cat) he opened the thorax immediately on the cessation of all
movement, and observed the heart to beat for twenty-two minutes after
the last respiratory gasp. In his own case, where he took 9 grains of an
extract made from the leaves, the pulse-rate rose to 102. and this observa-
tion led him to conclude that the action of the poison was to accelerate
the beat of the heart. In attempting to bleed poisoned animals by open-
ing veins and by slitting the ears he found that the blood did not run
readily, and concluded that the arterioles were contracted. He noticed,
also, what had been observed previously in cases of accidental poisoning —
that at first the respirations were increased in frequency and in force, and
that later they became feeble and irregular, and finally ceased before the
heart stopped beating.

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tut in. 321

Marshall (24) found that tutin diminished the number of heart-beats
and increased the frequency of respiration.

As coriamyrtin belongs, pharmacologically, to the picrotoxin group,
and is therefore closely allied to some of the decomposition-products of
digitalixi — e.g., digitaliresin (30) — it was expected that tutin, which is so
closely related to coriamyrtin, might show the tonic action on the heart
that is characteristic of the digitalis bodies. In frogs and in mammals,
where the heart was examined after the breathing had ceased, it was found
invariably to be still beating. In one experiment on a cat (Exp. 153) the
heart-beat was distinctly audible with the stethoscope for two minutes and
a half after respiration had ceased.

As it had been observed that tutin has apparently no action on_ striped
muscle (Exps. 135 to 138), and as no proof was forthcoming that it has
any action on unstriped muscle, it was not considered likely that it would
manifest any direct action upon cardiac muscle. As it might, however,
have some action on the extrinsic and intrinsic nervous mechanism of the
heart, it seemed best to begin the study of its action upon the circulation
by observing its effect upon the heart of a pithed frog, where one has to
consider muscle and intrinsic ganglia only. A number of experiments
were undertaken to determine this. Tracings* of the frog's heart-beat
were taken in the usual way with a lever arranged to write against a
blackened revolving cylinder. In some cases the tutin solution was painted
on the surface of the heart ; in others it was injected into a vein or into the
heart itself. The results obtained show that the rate of the beat was
slightly diminished : thus, in Exp. 140 the rate fell from 37 to 35 beats
per minute : in Exp. 141 from 32 to 30-8. then to 28-8. and then to 26-4
per minute ; and in other experiments from 20 to 14 and from 20 to 16.

After injection of tutin the force of the heart-beat was increased, and
the beat was not impaired even with a concentration of tutin solution
greater than could possibly be reached by absorption of the poison from the
stomach in cases where the plant has been eaten.

An irregularly beating heart was generally improved, the beat becoming
regular. So that it may be concluded that tutin has a purely beneficent
influence on the heart's contraction.

Action on Mammalian Circulation. — This was studied by taking tracings
of the blood-pressure from one or other carotid arte^ry, and noting the effect
of injections of tutin solution into the jugular vein. The animal was anaes-
thetised (chloroform and paraldehyde) during the experiment, and was
not allowed to regain consciousness. It was found that injections of tutin
solution (0-5 per cent.) caused a rise of pressure : thus in Exp. 143 the
initial pressure was 3 in. ; in the course of an hour, during which the
animal received nearly 10 mlgm. tutin, the pressure rose gradually to
4|in."ln some cases the vagi were divided before the drug was injected,
but without affecting the result. The rate with which the blood-pressure
rises is proportional to the size of the dose given. In one experiment
(Exp. 145), where the abdomen had been opened and its contents handled,
a reflex cardiac inhibition seemed to be set up, for the tutin injection in
this case caused a marked fall in pressure, which was followed by a rise
on division of the vagi. It appears, therefore, that tutin increases the

* As the tracings had to be sent to Edinburgh with the original thesis, it is im-
possible to reproduce them here, and this portion of the work has therefore been sum-
marised, and technical details have been omitted.
11— Trans.

322 Transactions,

excitability of the medullary centres, and the stronger reflex effects from
these usually lead to a rise of blood-pressure ; but in cases where some
reflex cardiac inhibition already obtains, this is increased by tutin, and a
fall in pressure results. That tutin acts specially on the centres in the
medulla was also shown in several experiments where Traube-Hering curves
and Cheyne-Stokes type of respiration occurred simultaneously. When
twitching and general convulsions set in, the blood-pressure curve became
markedly irregular, due probably to mechanical obstruction to the flow
through the vessels.

The action of tutin on the vagus-endings in the heart was investigated.
The strength of stimulus just necessary to inhibit the heart slightly and
cause a fall of blood-pressure was determined both before and after the
injection of tutin. No marked difference was obtained, so it was con-
cluded that tutin has no influence on the excitability of the nerve-ending
in the heart.

In some of the later experiments a spring manometer was used to mea-
sure the blood-pressure instead of the ordinary mercurial manometer. This,
by recording each heart-beat on the tracing, enabled the rate to be accu-
ratelv determined. It was found that there was no increase, but in rabbits
the rate is already so high that one could hardly expect much change.

A curious periodicity in the heart's action was observed in spme cases
towards the end of the experiment when the animal was dying, one or two
beats being missed at each inspiration. The explanation of this was not
at first clear, but in a subsequent experiment on a cat (Exp. 153), where
the heart was auscultated as the animal was dying and breathing in the
way shown in the tracing, it was noticed that towards the end of each in-
spiration the heart missed two or three beats. The explanation of this
seemed to be that as the respirations were infrequent and deep, and the
respiratory passages obstructed by quantities of mucus and saliva, the
deep forcible inspiration created so much negative pressure in the thorax
that the heart was unable to beat until the pressure was relieved by expira-
tion. That the variation was due to respiratory influence, and not to any
action of the drug upon the circulation, was shown in the case of this cat
by the fact that when respiration had ceased the heart continued to beat
regularly for two minutes and a quarter.

With regard to Christie's statement that the arterioles are contracted,
no direct experiments were made, but some perfusion experiments on frogs
showed that there was no marked or constant change. Further, the
action on the heart is sufficient to account for the rise in blood-pressure.
Were the arterioles also constricted, one would expect a much higher rise
than occurs. Any influence that tutin does exert on the calibre of vessels
is exerted through the vaso-motor centre in the medulla, as seen in the
Traube-Hering curve already mentioned.

Action on the Respiratory System. — The rate and amplitude of the
respiratory movement is markedly increased by tutin. After the first
injection in the anaesthetised animal the rate may be doubled. During
convulsive seizures the spasm of the respiratory muscles is very marked,
and respiration appears to be brought to a complete standstill — e.g., in a
cat (Exp. 3), during an interval of four minutes and a half, no visible or
audible sign of breathing could be noticed. Doubtless this is a frequent
cause of death in animals poisoned by a large absorption of tutin.

That respiration ceases before the heart was a constant observation.
It was seen in fishes and in all animals where such an observation could be
made.

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin. . 323

Breathing of the Cheyne-Stokes type occurred in some experiments, the
climax of the period of respiratory activity corresponding to the highest
point of the Traube-Hering curve, which appears simultaneously.

{d.) Urinary System.

Micturition was a marked feature in cats poisoned by tutin. It occurred
voluntarily several times before convulsions occurred, and during the con-
vulsions (and this is true also of rabbits and gmnea-pigs) involuntary
discharges of urine occurred. In the majority of cases the bladder was
found distended after death, even where a free discharge of urine had taken
place during the convulsions. This points to an increased secretion of
urine. Attempts were made to estimate the rate of flow in anaesthetised
animals (Exps. 144, 145). but without satisfactory results.

This increased secretion pointed to the possibility of tutin being elimi-
nated in the urine, and so an attempt was made to recover tutin from the
urine of poisoned animals. The urine was collected by incising the bladder
after death. It was evaporated to dryness and exhausted with ether, but
no crystals of tutin could bei detected on evaporating ofT the ether. The
residue from the ethereal solution was in one case dissolved in saline and
injected under the skin of a frog (Exp. 151), but with negative results.
The urine was in several cases examined for abnormal constituents, but
none was found.

{e.) Genital System.

Many of the animals experimented upon were pregnant females in
different stages of pregnancy, but in no case was abortion observed, although
the animal was under the action of the poison long enough for it to occur.

(/.) Nervous System.

The symptoms that appear in animals poisoned by tutin point clearly
to the central nervous system as the part of the body that is specially affected
by the action of the poison. The two cardinal symptoms are convulsions
and a dulling or blunting of the mental faculties that in the early stage
makes the animal appear dazed and stupid, and in the later stages passes
into actual coma.

Convulsions. — The convulsions are obviously of central origin. They
bear a close resemblance to an ordinary epileptic fit, which is generally
held to originate in the cortex. Whether the tutin convulsions originate
in the cortex or not, it is certain that the nerve-cells in the basal ganglia,
pons, medulla, and cord are profoundly affected. This is shown by the
action on the vomiting centre, respiratory centre, and cells of the cord.
Among the first symptoms to appear are twitching of the ears, blinking of
the eyes, and movements of the lips. These are followed by jerking of the
head and movements of the fore and hind limbs. These movements may be
attributed to irritation of the cells of either the upper or the lower motor
neurones. In order to determine more accurately the site of action the
follo^^'ing experiment was made :• —

(Exp. 152.) The right cerebral hemisphere was exposed in a cat and
a large dose of tutin injected hypodermically. When general convulsive
movements had developed, the right cerebral hemisphere was removed.
Now, had the convulsions been cortical in origin, one would expect them
to have ceased on the left side of the body ; but they continued as before.

324 Transactions.

affecting botli sides equally. The left hemisphere was then removed, but
the movements were unaffected, and continued on both sides equally. So
it may be concluded that the convulsions may originate in the cells of the
lower neurones, or, at any rate, that the upper neurone is not necessary for
their development. Further observations made in this experiment lend
support to this suggestion. After the cerebrum had been removed, the cord
was divided at the level of the fifth dorsal vertebra. Four minutes after-
wards tonic and clonic spasms of the hind limbs were observed, and con-
tinued intermittently for a quarter of an hour. As the cells of the cord
were now completely cut off from the higher centres, these movements
must have originated in the neurones of the spinal cord itself.

Post Mortem. — The chest was opened just after all respiratory move-
ment had ceased, and the heart was seen to be still beating. The bladder
was full. The cerebral hemispheres were found to be entirely removed.
The cord at the seat of section was examined, and it was found that division
was complete, but there had been some crushing of the tissue on either side
of the section, and the dura mater was still intact. Although satisfied
that division was complete, it was thought that the crushing of the cord
may have caused irritation, which might possibly be held to account for the
movements observed in the hinder part of the body. It was resolved, there-
fore, to repeat the experiment. This was done as follows : —

(Exp. 153.) A cat was chloroformed, the cord exposed, and completely
and cleanly divided in the mid-dorsal region. Five mlgm. of tutin were then
injected into the peritoneum, and chloroform anpesthesia discontinued.
Ten minutes later no reflex could be elicited from the left hind foot, while
the left fore foot responded normally. Fifteen minutes after the injection
of tutin twitching of the ears and jerking of the head began, and became
very distinct at twenty-four minutes. Two minutes later a convulsive
movement of the fore part of the body occurred, and was accompanied hy
a movement of the tail. These convulsive movements of the fore part of the
body continued for nearly an hour, and the animal died an hour and seven-
teen minutes after the injection of tutin. About half an hour after the cord
had been divided and tutin injected, reflexes could be obtained from the
hind limbs ; and ten minutes later a stimulus applied to one hind limb
caused movements of both. During the last half-hour of life the move-
ments of the tail became more and more marked. They generally appeared
just at the beginning of each convulsive seizure of the fore part of the body,
but they also occurred independently. Sometimes the whole tail was
moved from the root, at other times there was only a slight movement of
the tip. One hour after section of the cord convulsive movements (tonic
and clonic spasms) of the hind limbs occurred, and were accompanied by
defaecation and erection of the hairs of the tail. These convulsive move-
ments were frequently repeated. By this time the fore part of the body
had become almost quiescent, but the spasms of the hind limbs increased
in severity until death. It was in this experiment that the heart was
observed to beat intermittently during the long-drawn, obstructed inspira-
tions. When respiration had ceased, it continued to beat regularly for two
minutes and a quarter.

The conclusion to be drawn from these two experiments is that the con-
vulsions that occur in tutin poisoning may originate in the lower centres of
the pons, medulla, and cord. The action on the cord is a late appearance,
and this corresponds to the finding of Gottlieb (28) that picrotoxin can elicit
convulsions below a section of the spinal cord, and that these appear later

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of TuHn. 325

in the hinder part of the body. This result does not agree with the state-
ment made by Marshall (24) that the spasms in tutin poisoning are not
produced below a section ol the cord.

Like other convulsants, tutin raises the excitability of the reflex arc.
This is shown in the last experiment, where crossed reflexes could be
obtained soon after section of the cord. This rise in excitability might
explain the severity and frequent repetition of convulsive seizures when once
they begin, for it is known that in strychnine poisoning, where the reflex
excitability is raised, the afferent, probably painful, impulses coming from
the convulsed muscles originate further convulsions, and thus a sort of
vicious cycle is set up. In this connection it may be noted that it has long-
been known to farmers that if " tooted " sheep are left undisturbed no
symptoms may appear ; but once the symptoms are initiated — say, by the
bark of a dog — they continue, and are from the outset severe. The ex-
planation given above would account for the apparently sudden onset of
severe symptoms.

It seemed of interest to determine whether the reflex time was shortened.
Florence Buchanan (29) and others found that strychnine in small doses
did not perceptibly shorten the reflex time. It was impossible in this
case to use the same elaborate method, so recourse was had to the simple
but less accurate method of Turck. The results of the experiments, with
details of the method, are given in the protocols, but they may be shortly
summarised here.

Six experiments were made. In three of these (Exps. 154, 156, 157)
the reflex time was shortened from 6 to 4, from 6 to 5. and from 6-1 to 3
respectively ; while in three others (Exps. 155, 158, 159) the time was
lengthened from 8 to 12-2, from 8-3 to 22, and from 8-5 to 44. From these
results it will be seen that no definite conclusion could be drawn. The
one thing that did appear in these experiments was that the amount of
movement was increased after the injection of tutin, the stimulus as a rule
now causing general movements of the body. Thus, though the effect of
tutin upon the reflex time remained doubtful, its effect in increasing reflex
excitability seemed to be clear.

In frog 157 the injection of tutin caused a typical convulsion, and in
this case it was found that the optic lobes had not been pithed. In cases
where the pithing destroyed all parts but the cord no convulsions occurred.
Although this dift'ers from what was found in mammals where tutin pro-
duced ,spasms below a section of the cord, it agrees mth Gottlieb's (28)
finding that in picrotoxin poisoning m frogs convulsions did not occur
below a section of the cord.

The second important svmptom of tutin poisoning is the comatose
condition that is so invariable an accompaniment. This occurs in various
degrees according to the dose, and it deepens as the case advances. In the
recorded cases of poisoning of human beings, referred to above, complete
loss of consciousness and subsequent loss of memory was frequently
observed. Loss of memory appears to occur also in lower animals, for
shepherds have observed that a " tooted " lamb which has recovered does
not know its own mother, and the ewe may be seen following her lamb and
striving to excite recognition.

Another proof that abrogation of sense-perception obtains is the marked
absence of any evidence of pain. The animals utter no cry of pain, although
the convulsions are very severe, and would, were this condition not present,
be most painful.

326 Transactions.

From the examination of sections of the cerebrum, meduHa. and cord
there is evidence of great congestion of these parts in tiitin poisoning.
The central nervous system was examined in several cases after death, and
congestion of the membranes was found in all. In one case the grey matter
of the cord when seen on section was distinctly reddish. Pieces of cord,
medulla, and cerebrum were fixed in 8 per cent, formol. and sections were
made and stained by Nissl's method, and also by Muir's eosin and methv-
line-blue method. On microscopic examination the Nissl granules showed
no obvious change, but there was very evident congestion, shown especially
well by Muir's method. The capillaries and small vessels seemed more
numerous than normal, because they were rendered visible by being crowded
mth red blood-corpuscles. At several places there were collections of cor-
puscles, pointing to small extravasations of blood. These changes were
present in the grey matter of the cord, medulla, and cerebral cortex. The
appearance at once suggested that more or less permanent damage would
have resulted had the animal lived. It has been observed in cases of tutu
poisoning that sometimes the victim does not completely recover, a per-
manent mental alienation remaining as an after-effect.

Lauder Lindsay (3). in one case of poisoning he records, in which con-
vulsions were a prominent symptom, notes that the subject never com-
pletely recovered, " there remaining to this day a peculiar form of nervous
irritability not observable prior to this toot-poisoning." The present
writer has knowledge of another case, although, unfortunately, no authentic
details are available, where two children were poisoned by tutu. They were
both very seriously ill, and one died. The other recovered, but incom-
pletely, mental enfeeblement and a squint remaining as after-effects.
Sequelee of these kinds may possibly be explained as resulting from per-
manent damage done to the nervous tissue by the extreme congestion and
the small haemorrhages which occur in the cerebral cortex as well as through-
out the whole grey matter of the central nervoiis system.

Sympathetic Nervous System. — This was not speciallv examined b} ex-
perimental methods, but that the nerve-cells here were also affected was
shown by the viscid character of the saliva secreted by cats, by the dilata-
tion of the pupil that occurred during convulsions, and by the erection of
the hairs of the tail.

In short, it is probable that tutin affects every kind of nerve-cell ; the
fact that the medulla is seen to be specially affected being due to the sen-
sitiveness of the cells in that region.

Effect on the Pupil and Conjunctiva. — When dropped into the eye of a
rabbit, tutin solutions cause no local irritation and no change in the size
of the pupil (Exps. 160, 161). The same holds good for the cat (Exp. 162)
and for the excised eye of the frog (Exp. 163). During convulsions in the
cat and in pigeons dilatation is well marked.

The action of coriamyrtin was studied in the same way. because it is said
by Riban (15) to cause contraction of the pupil in rabbits when applied
locally. It was found to cause contraction in the excised eye-ball of the
frog, but the results of applying it to the eye of a rabbit and of a cat were
negative (Exps. 164, 165).

(f/.) Action of Tutin on General Nutrition.

It is not an uncommon opinion among farmers that animals that eat
the plant in moderation thrive well on land where tutu abounds. To test
whether tutin had any injurious influence on general nutrition, a young

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin. 327

rabbit (Exp. 166) was given small doses of tutin by the mouth every third
or fourth day for nearly two months, the dose being gradually increased
up to 7 mlgm. per kilo (6 mlgm. per kilo is a fatal dose by the mouth in
rabbits). During this time the animal grew and developed normally, and
it increased in weight from 777 grams to 1,154 grams. This shows that
tutin does not retard growth.

Another experiment was made on a guinea-pig (Exp. 167), the animal
being treated like the rabbit. A second guinea-pig, as a control, was kept
in the same hutch, and abundance of food was supplied. In thirteen days
the animal subjected to the influence of tutin gained 16 grams, and the
control in the same time gained 38 grams. The animals, however, were
not of the same age ; the control, being younger, apparently gained more.

From these data it looks as if tutin had no injurious influence on general
metabolism (c/. Exp. 15, on a pigeon).

15. Fate of Tutin in the Body.

It is impossible to trace in the body the fate of a substance which, like
tutin, contains only C, H. and 0 ; but that the tutin is not rapidly destroyed
or eliminated was shown by the following experiment (Exp. 13) : A guinea-
pig was given by mouth on alternate days a dose of tutin which was near
the minimum lethal dose ; thus, 1-5 mlgm. per kilo was given on the 17th,
on the 19th. and on the 22nd February. No symptoms appeared, so the
animal was able either to oxidize or to excrete this amount (1*5 mlgm. per
kilo) in two days. On the 24th it received 2 mlgm. per kilo, and a similar
dose w^as given on the 26th. On the 27th it was found dead. From this it
appears that a guinea-pig is unable to dispose of 2 mlgm. per kilo within
two days. Enough tutin must have been still present in the body on the
afternoon of the 26th, when the second dose of 2 mlgm. per kilo was given,
to raise the total amount present to the lethal dose.

16. Immunity or Tolerance.

Several experiments were made with the object of determining whether
tolerance of the effects of the poison can be estabUshed.

A pigeon (Exp. 15) that had been subjected to gradually increasing
doses by mouth over a period of ten days withstood 16 mlgm. per kilo.
The minimum lethal dose in pigeons by oral administration is about
10"25 mlgm. per kilo. A second pigeon (Exp. 17), treated in the same
way for over three weeks, succumbed to 12 mlgm. per kilo. A guinea-pig
(Exp. 167), which was being treated in the same way, and had received
several small doses, was killed by a dose of 7*5 mlgm. per kilo given by
mistake, so that no great degree of tolerance had been estabUshed. A
rabbit, already referred to above when considering the effects on general
metabolism, received small doses, gradually increasing to 7 mlgm. per
kilo, over a period of two months. A dose of 8 mlgm. per kilo then caused
severe symptoms ; so that it would appear that a slight degree of tolerance
had developed, for the lethal dose, by oral administration, in rabbits is
about 7 mlgm. per kilo. Five days later this rabbit succumbed to a dose
of 11 '6 mlgm. per kilo per os.

The general conclusion reached was that tolerance can be established
only in a very slight degree, if at all.

328 Transactions.

17. Pharmacological Eelationship of Tutin.

Sclimiedeberg (30) placed coriamyrtin in the picrotoxin group of nerve
and musc-le poisons. This group is closely allied to the camphor and
digitalin groups, which include a number of the strongest non-nitrogenous
poisons found in the vegetable kingdom. Other members of the group are
circutoxin, a resinous substance derived from the water-hemlock ; oenan-
thotoxin, from the Avater-dropwort ; digitaliresin and toxiresin, decom-
position products of digitalin and digitalein respectively ; and oleandresin,
from oleandrin. These substances, by their action on the medulla ob-
longata, all cause general and respiratory convulsions, slowing of the pulse^
and a rise in blood-pressure.

Tutin, as has been shown, possesses these actions common to the group.
Some experiments were made to determine its toxic power as compared
with picrotoxin and coriamyrtin (a very small quantity of the latter —
11 mlgm. — dissolved in absolute alcohol was kindly supplied by Mr. Aston,
of the Agricultural Department of the New Zealand Government ; he. in
turn, had obtained it from its discoverer, Monsieur Riban).

Ttitin compared with Picrotoxin. — In the experiments on fishes already

cited it was found that picrotoxin was more lethal than tutin when equal

percentages of the two were used, and in equimolecular solutions it proved

much more lethal. In mammals, on the other hand, tutin was found to be

more fatal than picrotoxin. In Exp. 4 a cat received 0-375 mlgm. per

kilo of tutin ; it developed severe symptoms, but recovered. Two days

later it received exactly the same weight of picrotoxin (Exp. 168) without

the development of any symptoms. The solution of picrotoxin used had

been made seven months previously, and, lest it had deteriorated, a fresh

solution was made and the same dose repeated five days later (Ex. 169) ;

beyond defsecation and occasional swallowing-movements, no symptoms

appeared. It was therefore concluded that tutin was more poisonous to

mammals than picrotoxin. Following the procedure adopted in the case

of fishes, the two were then compared in equimolecular strengths, and

883
0*375 X — mlgm. per kilo given hypodermicallv to the same cat (Exp. 170).
336

It developed twitching, vomiting, and other symptoms resembling those
seen with tutin. Only one general convulsion occurred, however, whereas
the dose of tutin had caused very numerous convulsions. It recovered in
a shorter time, and the whole effect was much less severe ; so that, in con-
tradistinction to fishes, mammals may be said to be more susceptible to
poisoning by tutin than by picrotoxin.

Tutin and Coriamyrtin. — The quantity of coriamyrtin mentioned above
was insufficient for an extended series of experiments, and only one cat
was subjected to its influence (Exp. 171). The symptoms were very similar
to those of tutin poisoning ; twitching and convulsions were very marked.
In the convulsions the tonic spasms were not so prolonged as in the case
of tutin, the clonic element being more in evidence ; emprosthotonos
appeared instead of the opisthotonos, which is so invariable a feature of
tutin convulsions. Salivation, vomiting, respiration, erection of hairs of
tail, and dilatation of the pupil were all present, as in turin poisoning. A
strict comparison of its toxic power can hardly be drawn from one case ;
but if the time taken to kill be proportional to the toxic power, tutin is the
more lethal of the two, for 3 mlgm. per kilo of tutin killed a cat (Exp. 1) in
thirty-one minutes, while this cat with the same dose of coriamyrtin died
in forty-two minutes.

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin. 329

(Exp. 172.) Twelve mlgm. per kilo proved fatal to a frog. It displayed
tlie symptoms seen in tutin poisoning. The time of death could not be
noted, so no strict comparison can be made with tutin. The minimum lethal
■dose of tutin in frogs is between 10 and 11 mlgm.

On the whole, the impression left on one's mind is that there is com-
paratively little difference in the toxic power of the two substances ; but
the mental effects seemed more marked in the case of the cat poisoned by
tutin.

18. Action of Remedies.

Although not strictly within the scope of the title of this paper, notes
of some experiments made to show the influence of remedial measures will
be included here. These experiments were made from time to time while
the physiological action of tutin was being examined, and before the experi-
ments on the action of alkalis on tutin had been undertaken. They are
necessarily, therefore, incomplete ; but some points have been investigated
-and some observations made which it is hoped may prove of value in the
treatment of cases of poisoning.

In tutu poisoning various remedies have been suggested from time to
time, and the rationale of some of these is difficult to understand. With
shepherds, bleeding is a favourite method of treatment. It is usually done
by slashing the ears or tail, or by incising the roof of the mouth. It is said
to be of special advantage in young sheep, but in older sheep it is regarded
by some as being dangerous, and as tending rather to hasten the end than
to promote recovery. Carbonate of ammonia is also used, a lump about
the size of a walnut being dissolved in water and poured down the animal's
throat.

In 1870 Hughes advocated the use of lime as an antidote. He was led
to do this from the observation he had made that lime destroyed the activity
of the poison. Cases in human beings have been treated with lime, and, it
is said, successfully.

The Maoris depended largely upon partial asphyxiation as a means of
treatment. This was effected either by holding the patient under water
till he was nearly drowned, and repeating the immersion as soon as he
showed signs of returning life, or by suspending him head downwards over
the smoke of a fire. Another method (31) was to bury the patient in the
ground up to the neck, apparently with the object of restraining the con-
vulsive movements.

Professor Marshall (32), in a report made to the Agricultural Depart-
ment of the New Zealand Government, recommends bleeding and the
intravenous injection of chloral-hydrate. In connection with the use of
chloral-hydrate it may be noted that Crichton Brown (34) states that he was
able, by the administration of chloral-hydrate, to prevent death in a rabbit
which had received five times the minimum lethal dose of picrotoxin.

It will be noticed that in a rabbit (Exp. 17-1) which received a lethal
dose (3 mlgm. per kilo hypodermically) death was prevented by 0-6 gram
of chloral-hydrate. It should be stated that the chloral was given first
by the rectum, and the tutin administered hypodermically as soon as the
anaesthetic effect of the chloral was established, so that every chance was
given to the action of the chloral. In two rabbits where 4 mlgm. of tutin
per kilo was given (Exps. 173, 175) death occurred. The one received
1 gram of chloral per rectum in one dose, and the tutin hypodermically
immediately afterwards ; it died in six hours, in tutin convulsions. The

330

Transactions.

other received 0-6 gram chloral per rectum, and while asleep, ten minutes
later, the tutin was given hypodermically ; symptoms of tutin poisoning
came on in less than two hours, and continued for an hour and a half ; as
the animal seemed likely to succumb, a further dose of 0-6 gram chloral
was given, and in about a quarter of an hour the symptoms subsided, and
the animal apparently recovered ; next day it was suffering from diarrhoea,
and the following day was found dead ; possibly it died more from the
after-effects of the chloral than from tutin, and it looked as if a little care-
ful nursing would have led to its recovery.

The results of some experiments made with chloral as a remedy in tutin
poisoning are given in Table IX.

Table IX.
Action of Chloral in antagonising Tutin.

Dose of

Exp.
No.

Animal.

Tutin in

Mlgm.

per Kilo.

Usual
Result.

Remedy
used.

Result.

Remarks.

Chloral.

167

Guinea-pig

7-5 ..

Death within
1 hour

0-5 grm. ..

Died in 45
hours

Died apparently
from chloral.

173

Rabbit . .

4 ..

Death within
2^ hours

0-6 grm., fol-
io wed by
a second
dose of 0 6
grm.

Died between
24 and 48
hours.

174

// • •

3 ..

Death within
3 hours

0-6 grm. ..

Recovered
completely.

175

ff • •

4 ..

Death within
2^ hours

1 grm. given
simultane-
ously

Died in 6
hours

Tutin symptoms.

177

Prog

12 ..

Death

0-012 grm.

Died.

178

//

11 ..

// • •

^^

/'

179

V • .

12 ..

„

//

„

176

'/ • •

No tutin

"

Lived.

was given

A guinea-pig (Exp. 167) which had received 7-5 mlgm. tutin per kilo
by mistake, and was then given chloral per rectum, died in a somewhat
similar manner. It recovered fully from the tutin convulsions, but became
paralysed in its hind quarters, and died on the second day after the tutin
It also had diarrhoea.

Frogs (Exps. 177, 178, 179) which were given just over the lethal dose
of tutin (11 and 12 mlgm. per kilo) were not saved by chloral in moderate
doses given hypodermically at the same time. Control Exp. 176.

On the whole, the use of chloral seems to be justified, and in cases of
poisoning in man, where the symptoms can be more accurately observed
and interpreted, and dangers more easily circumvented, it should prove
of great value. The beneficent action of tutin on the heart would allow
of the use of larger doses of chloral than are usually employed.

Paraldehyde and Chloroform. — In the experiments on blood-pressure,
where the animal was under a large dose (1*2 to 1*5 c.c.) of paraldehyde,
convulsions nevertheless appeared, and the mode of death was that of tutin
poisoning. From such a dose of paraldehyde a rabbit may recover (Exp.
181), but the dose is a massive one, and is apparently unable to prevent
the development of tutin symptoms. In these experiments, when it was

FiTCHETT. — Phijsiological Action of Tutin. 331

desired to keep the animal quiet it was found that chloroform-inhalation
was sufficient for this purpose. The amount required seemed to be great,
but there was no available means of accurately gauging the quantity. It
was noted in some cases that the convulsions did not cease until the blood-
pressure began to fall, and this, taken in conjunction with the fact that
reflex excitability of the nervous system is raised, and that tutin therefore
increases the effect of any reflex cardiac inhibition which may be present,
points to the need of caution in its administration in cases of tutin
poisoning ; in fact, in one case of tutin poisoning in a rabbit, when
urethane and sodium-carbonate had had no effect in easing the symptoms
{Exp. 180), the administration of chloroform caused sudden cessation of the
breathing, which could not be restored, although the heart continued beating
and artificial respiration was carried out.

Urethane, tried in one case (Exp. 180) just mentioned, was ineffectual.
A dose of 1*5 grams was given to a rabbit weighing 1'4 kilograms, and
4 mlgm. tutin was then administered. The ordinary tutin symptoms
developed, though a little later than is usual with so large a dose.

Morphine. — | grain injected intravenously at (25) on tracing of Exp. 148
had no effect on the convulsions of a rabbit under paraldehyde. A severe
convulsion folloAved very shortly after the injection.

Atropine. — J^ grain given in the same way at (23) on tracing of Exp. 148
had no effect.

Hyoscine hydrohromate (Exp. 182) was found to be curiously inactive as
regards rabbits, y^^ grain in all was given to a rabbit weighing 1*5 kilo-
grams, but apparently it had no effect at all, so its influence on tutin
symptoms can be disregarded.

Bleeding is frequently used in cases of tutin poisoning, and is said to do
good ; but it is very difficult to judge of the value of the evidence. In the
experiments on blood-pressure the animals were frequently bled to death
slowly, but no cessation of the tutin spasms was observed in any case.

Restraint of the movements was tried in one experiment on a pigeon, but
without influencing the result in any way.

Suspension of a rabbit under the influence of tutin by the ears or hind
legs had no effect on the spasms.

Partial asphyxiation, by blocking the nostrils with a damp cloth — (26)
on tracing of Exp. 148 — had no effect on the convulsions ; but a stream of
CO 2 directed against the nostrils seemed to render the breathing more
regular (27).

Alkalis (Lime, &c.). — Hughes's discovery of the action of lime on tutin,
although generally discredited at the time and since, may possibly be utilised
to some extent in a modified form. Alkalis in general have been shown
in the foregoing pages to have a very distinct action on the toxicity of tutin :
thus 0*2 per cent. NaOH in five minutes at 37° to 40° C. completely destroyed
the toxicity of a 0"5-per-cent. solution of tutin, and possibly the same result
would follow in a shorter time and with a weaker alkali.

Since this is so, the treatment of stock poisoned by the tutu plant may
be greatly improved. It is impossible to fully wash out the stomach in herbi-
vora, so there is no way of getting rid of the leaves, &c., swallowed by the
animal ; but the introduction of a quantity of weak sodium-hydrate, or
lime-water, or a watery suspension of magnesia simply poured down the
throat, or, better, introduced by a stomach-tube, would lead to the neutrali-
sation of the tutin present in the stomach, and so give the animal a better
-chance of recovery. The accumulation of gas would at the same time be

332 Transactions.

diminislied by the^absorption of the CO 2, wliich no doubt forms part of the
mixture of gases present, so the distension that so frequently occurs in these
cases would be diminished.

The comatose condition which forms part of the symptoms of tutin
poisoning suggested the possibility of some form of acid poisoning being
present, and, if this be so, the injection of alkalis should prove of benefit.
Sodium-carbonate was tried intravenously in one of the blood-pressure
experiments, but no apparent effect was observed. In another case sodium-
carbonate was injected into the rectum of a rabbit that seemed likely to die-
of tutin poisoning, but here also it was ineffective. So that for the present
one can only say that alkali would render unabsorbed tutin non-toxic.

19. General Summary.

1. Investigations made on the action of the pure principle tutin
(C17H20O7) confirmed the results of previous observers that it is in itself
sufiicient to account for the main bulk, if not the whole, of the symptoms
of poisoning by the tutu plant.

2. These symptoms, as they occur in cats, have been fully described,
and the differences which appear in other animals noted.

3. Tutin, or its metabolic products, acts mainly on nerve-cells, producing
first increased excitability and then exhaustion. It specially affects the
cells of the respiratory centre, causing increased rate and depth of respiration.

4. Death may occur during the phase of increased excitability (asphyxia
during convulsions) or in the phase of exhaustion. Various reflex acts —
vomiting, defalcation, micturition^ — may occur during the stage of increased
excitability. A comatose condition, possibly due to exhaustion of the cells
of the cerebral cortex, is a marked feature in proportion to the strength of
the dose. It deepens as death approaches. Small haemorrhages 'into and
congestion of the grey matter of the brain and cord are marked features in
fatal cases. The Nissl granules seem unchanged when death occurs in a
short time.

5. In strong solutions tutin has a slight deleterious action on tissues less
highly specialised than nerve tissue — e.g., ciUated epithelium and muscle. It
retards the growth of some forms of bacteria, and injuriously affects para-
moecia and other low forms of life in relatively strong solutions.

6. The symptoms of poisoning by tutin are in a general way similar in
widely different forms of life (flies, pigeons, cats, (fee), and can all be referred
to an action on nerve-cells.

7. The minimum lethal dose in milHgrams per kilo of body-weight for
different classes of animals is as follows : —

Hypodermically.

Per Os.

[mmersion in.

Mlgm.

• Mlgm.

Mlgm.

Cats

. About 0-75

, ,

Eabbits

„ 2-5

About 6

Guinea-pigs .

„ 2

• «

Birds

Less than 5

Between 10 and 10-25

Lizards

. Between 3 and 4

• •

Frogs

10 and 10-25

• •

Fishes

• • •

*• •

About 50

8. The effects on the various systems can all be referred to the influence-
on their nerve mechanisms — e.g. : Alimentary system, salivation, vomiting
(on hypodermic injection). The circulatory system is not injuriously afl'ectedi

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin. 333

by tutin. Cardiac inhibition does not occur, and the heart beats forcibly
up to the time of death. Respiration is quickened and deepened. The
pupil is not aft'ected by local appUcation, but dilates during the tutin fit.
General metabolism is not affected.

9. From experiments on birds and rabbits, some slight degree of tolerance
seems to be acquired. The natural relative immunity of birds is discussed.

10. Accumulation of the drug, or of its effects, may occur. Thus a guinea-
pig was found to be unable to dispose of 2 mlgm. per kilo per os adminis-
tered every second day.

11. The toxic action of tutin was compared with that of other members of
the picrotoxin group. It was found to be more toxic than the sample of
picrotoxin employed. The action of coriamyrtin was found to be very
similar to that of tutin.

12. Attempts were made to antagonize the action of tutin with chloral-
hydrate and other drugs, with a slight degree of success.

Attention is drawn to the powerful action of weak alkalis on tutin.
The toxic power of tutin is completely destroyed by 0"2 per cent, sodium-
hvdrate acting upon it for five minutes at 37° C, and possibly the action
of weaker alkalis — e.g., lime and magnesia — would be equally destructive.

The suggestion is made that weak alkali should be used to destroy the
tutin in the stomach in the case of stock poisoned by eating the tutu plant.

I may state here that the bulk of the work was done in the physiological
laboratory of the Otago University, and I gladly take the opportunity of
acknowledging my great indebtedness to Professor Malcolm, both for this
privilege and for the essential aid he has afforded me by advice and criticism.
I wish also to acknowledge my obhgation to Mr. Aston for supplies of tutin
and coriamyrtin, and for several references ; to Dr. Hocken, for the use of
his invaluable library ; to Professor Benham, for the identification of
specimens ; to Mr. Deans, of the Acclimatisation Society, for suppHes of
trout-fry ; and to Nurse Stronach, of the Infectious Diseases Hospital, Lake
Logan, for supplies of minnows.

PROTOCOLS.

Exp. 1.

P.M. Cat (female). Weight, 3-28 kilograms.

5.25. Gave 33-4 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution of tutin in 0-75 per cent, saline

(3 mlgm. per kilo body-weight), under skin of back.
5.29. Respiration rapid (48 to the quarter-minute) ; hypersalivation ; keeps mouth

agape ; panting vigorously.
5.32. Lying on bottom of cage panting, respirations audible ; mouth open ; thick

ropy saliva pouring from mouth ; whole body shaking with respiratory effort ;

j)upils moderate.
5.35. Becoming restless ; walks cautiously about cage.
5.35^^. iSuddenly seized wdth violent convulsion ; tonic spasm affecting all muscles,

lastmg 30 seconds, succeeded by clonic spasms ; pupils widely dilated ;

defaecation ; micturition ; nose cyanosed ; unconscious, conjunctival and ear

reflex absent.

5.44. Almost constant convulsion since last note ; now becoming exhausted ; re-

spiration slow, irregular, spasmodic ; pupils dilate during convulsions, con-
tract in intervals.

5.45. Respiration infrequent and jerky ; fits in abeyance ; lies full stretched on

side ; twitching of individual muscles.
5.47. Fit after three mimites' interval ; tonic spasm not succeeded by clonic.
5.49. Occasional gasping respirations ; writhing- movements of body.
5.51. Clonic spasm, with a few involuntary cries.
5.53^. Clonic spasm.

334 Transactions.

P.M.

5.54. Mistaken for dead, but still respiring feebly, and at rare intervals.

5.56. Respiration ceased ; heart inaudible with stethoscope ; pupils dilated ; dead.

Temperature in rectum, 102° Fahr.

F.M. — Rigor mortis extremely well marked ; no sign of fluid at point of injec-
tion ; blood very dark and fluid.

Abdomen : Right horn of uterus contains one foetus nearly full size, which looks
as if it had died in spasm ; one hind leg twisted over the other ; right paw behind
right ear ; claws extruded.

Gall-bladder contained bile. No obvious abnormalities.

Thorax : Great veins and right side of heart distended \vith blood : left side con-
tained some dark blood ; lungs showed small hemorrhages, as also did the thymus.

Brain and cord : The membranes seemed somewhat injected ; grey matter of
cord appeared distinctly pinkish to the naked eye.

Microscopic : The cord and medulla were hardened in 8 per cent, formol, and
carried through into paraffin, and sections cut. The sections were stained by Nissl's
method with toluidin blue. On examination the granules were found to be present and
normal in appearance. A marked feature was the congestion of the grey matter.
Capillaries can be seen close up to the nerve-cells c^uite full of corpuscles. At other
places the collections of corpuscles suggest that minute hsemorrhages had occurred.
The cord, medulla, and cerebrum show these appearances, but the congestion of the
medulla is the most marked.

Exp. 2.
P M_ Cat (female). Weight, 3-50 kilograms.

5.0. Gave 23-8 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution of tutin in 0-75 per cent, saline

(2 mlgm. per kilo body-weight), under skin of back.

5.1. Gave a deep sigh.

5.6. Lying in a normal attitude on bottom of cage ; looks sleepy ; respirations, 21 to
the half-minute ; pupils moderate.

5.10. Still lying down; looks sleepy, and is tremulous.

5.14. Opening mouth wide; cries loudly; respirations panting, 56 to the quarter-
minute ; has got up ; salivating.

5.19. Lying down ; mouth wide open ; panting; salivatmg.

5.21. Slight twitching of muscles of face ; cries at intervals ; pupils moderate.

5.22. Twitching of head.

5.23. Twitching of head, followed by loiid cries, as if alarmed, without knowing at

what.

5.24. Deftecation, large quantity of solid faeces ; twitching of head.

5.25. More marked twitching of head, extending to shoulders and fore paws ; twitch-

ing is now almost without interval, and rapidlj^ becoming more severe ; pupils
dilated, but not full ; respirations irregular, suggestive of Cheyne-Stokes.

5.29. General con\nilsion, pupils widely dilated, tonic stage lasting 30 seconds.

5.40. Has continued lying on side since first convulsion ; is imable to see ; conjunctival
reflex sluggish ; convulsions have continued with intervals of only two or
three seconds since last note ; seems unconscious ; pupils contract in inter-
vals.

5.45. Becoming exhausted, convulsions becoming feebler and rarer ; respirations
slow, irregular, gasping.

5.51. With a fuaal spasm and choking invokmtary cry, died.

Exp. 3.

P.M. ("at (female). Weight, 2-394 kilograms.

2.32. Gave 5-9 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin in normal saline (0-75 mlgm.
per kilo body-weight), under skin of back.

2.55. Sitting purring ; pupils moderate ; keeps swallowing, as if swallowing saliva ;

respiration, 48 per minute ; '' miauing " plaintively ; made water ; defsecatecl

(diarrhosa and flatulence), did not finish act, but walked away with discharge

still pouring from anus ; looks sick.
3.0. Keeps mouth open ; pantiiig respiration ; salivation ; vomited, vomit shot

out without retching.
3.3. Straining at stool and " miauing " ; looks ill and miserable, and disinterested

in its suiToimdings.
3.5. Begun to purr ; has laid down curled up, as if to sleep.
Z.l. Has got up ; sitting on haunches purring ; twitching of muscles of face ; still

swallowing saliva.

FiTCHETT.^ — Physiological Action of Tutin. S35

P.M.

3.9. Lies down again ; twitching of face getting more marked, and extending to
shonlders ; each attack of twitching followed by loud " miauing," and, as it
gets more marked, by growling ; pupils dilate with each attack.

3.13. General convulsion lasting one minute ; saliva pouring from mouth ; loud
voluntary crying after convulsion ; conjvmctival reflex present, pupils widely
dilated ; can see ; respiration laboured ; keeps lying on side.

3.19. Stands up and looks round cage ; breathing easier ; pupils not so large.

3.21. Walked to another corner of the cage, and sat down ; looks frightened and
uneasy ; has been no twitching for some time ; breathing quite easy, and
only a little hurried ; salivation seems to have ceased ; constant loud crj-
ing ; pupils moderate.

3.32. Has been quiet since last note ; looks as if it might recover.

3.34. Now crying loudly, and showing slight twitching of head.

3.35. Twitching getting more severe; loud prolonged plaintive cries; sitting up on

haunches, looking round.

3.36. Walks across cage with cautious unsteady steps.

3.40. Twitching getting much more marked and more extensive, as if another general
convulsion were about to occur ; loud crying ; whole body tremulous ; re-
spiration hurried and exaggerated, panting with mouth open ; put its head
into the drinking-bowl, but did not lap ; is restless.

3.42. Most severe general convulsion, lasting 4^ minutes, then a long-drawn inspira-

tion.

3.50. Convulsions have continued almost without interval, but now becoming less

severe ; much frothing at mouth ; gave a cry in an interval.

3.51. Choky cries occur in the intervals between the conv\dsions ; respirations ir-

regular and gasping.

3.55. A longer interval, with loud crying ; respirations in the interval, 14 to the quarter-

minute.
4.2. Has been in almost continuous convulsive movement, with comparatively

quiescent intervals of only a few seconds, since 3.43 ; in a longer interval than

usual attempted to rise, but knocked down again by a convulsion.
4.4. Seizures shorter ; intervals longer, about 20 seconds to 5 seconds.
4.6. After a more severe convulsion than usual respirations are now very slow,

irregular, and gasping.

4.9. No convulsions since last note ; respirations more rapid ; running or swimming

movement of limbs ; attempts to rise, but knocked down by a convulsion.
4.15. Gave a voluntary cry.

4.20. Continues in constant more or less voluntary movement. Has been no. con-

vulsive seizure since 4.9 till now.

4.21. No respiratory or other movement since last fit. Is dead.

Exp. 4.
P.M. Cat. Weight, 2-686 kilograms.

3.46. 3-4 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (0-375 mlgm. per kilo), injected under

skin of back.
3.58. Defsecated, hard motion, covered it up ; begimiing to swallow ; does not look

so bright as it did ; is quiet ; no change in pupils ; breathing more marked ;

beginning to look sleejiy.
4.2. Swallo\^ing repeatedly ; looks very sleepJ^

4.10. Opening mouth and panting; vomited freely and forcibly, a large quantity

of stomach-contents being ejected ; micturated.

4.20. Twitching of eyelids and ears.

4.30. Has shown twitching of face, head, and neck at short intervals ; " miaus "

occasionally.
4.40. Twitching becoming exaggerated, involving shoulders, fore limbs, and back.

4.43. General convulsions, severe.

4.47. Gets up after convulsive movements have gradually subsided.

4.50. Looks very ill ; sitting on jiaunches ; tremulous breathing exaggerated :
answers when spoken to ; twitching beginmng again ; salivating.

4.56. Respirations 48 to the quarter-minute ; lying quiet.
5.15. Twitcliing gettmg more marked; cries after each attack.
5.19. Still twitching.

5.21. Twitching involving more muscles.

5.30. Twitching getting very marked ; at each attack animal almost springs into the
air ; loud crying ; breathing very exaggerated ; opens mouth occasionally,
and pants for a few seconds.

336 Transactions.

P.M.

5.34. General convulsion.

5.36. Up again ; takes no notice when called ; lying panting, with mouth open.
6.0. Has continued twitching every few minutes since last note ; now getting verj-
marked.

6.5. Severe general convulsion, lasting 1 minute.

6.6. Rose again ; pupils widely dilated when convulsed, diminish in size in the

intervals.
7.15. The cat has not been seen since last note till now ; it is sitting on its haunches,

tremulous, " miaus " when approached.
7.40. Same.

8.30. Sitting quietly ; easily startled.
9.30. Apparently recovered ; no symptoms noticed.
Next day, 9 a.m. Seems quite well.

Exp. 5.

A.M. Rabbit. Weight, 0'729 kilograms.

10.43. Gave 5 minims of a 0'5-per-cent. solution tutin (2 ralgm. per kilo), hypodermically.
11.15. No apparerrt change.
12.0. Standing in middle of cage ; does not appear at ease.

P.M.

12.10. Animal near front of cage ; semi-dazed ; starts when disturbed.
1.10. Much the same, quiet and dazed-looking.
2.10. Seems normal.
3.0. Gave some food.

5.0. Food untouched, but no obvious symptoms.
Next day. Quite well.

Exp. 6.
A_]VI, Rabbit. Weight, 962 grams.

9.56. Gave 8'2 minims of a 0"5-per-cent. solution of tutin in normal saline (2"5 nilgm.

per kilo).
11.0. Noticed to be in convulsions ; last seen about 10.30, was then quiescent.

11.10. Sitting \ip ; dazed-looking.

11.11. Another convulsion began, fell on side, clonic spasms; head bent back, ears

twitching.
11.17. Still in convulsions.
11.32. Con^Tdsions.

11.52. Lying on side, head bent back ; running-movements.
12.22. Died.

Exp. 7.
A jj Rabbit. Weight, 788 grams.

10.4. Gave 8 minims of a 0'5-per-cent. solution tutin (3 mlgm. per kilo).

10.50. Slow, deliberate winking.

10.55. Lying on right side ; breathing laboured.

11.4. In clonic convulsions, with movements of jaw and exposure of teeth.

11.15. Still in almost constant convulsion.

11.20. Dead.

Exp. 8.
p_jj_ Rabbit. Weight, 1-507 kilograms.

5.12. Gave 38-4 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (7-5 mlgm. per kilo), per os.

Was not watched constantly, but at —
5.45. Was found to show great rapidity of respirations ; alteration in gait — e.g., moved

forward with difficulty, with body elongated, and abdomen trailing on floor ;

then lay on abdomen, with hind legs projecting behind, twitching of eyes and

ears.
6.5. Was found in severe general convulsions, head retracted, tonic spasms well

marked ; running-movement of legs between fits ; was held up by the ears,

but this did not influence the convulsions, and no influence when suspended

by hind legs.
6.25. Constant movements, either convulsive seizures in which the head is always

firmly retracted, or running-movements ; is quite unconscious ; eyes wide

open, and, as it lies on its side, rubs the open lower eye into the sawdust during

seizures.
6.45. Dead.

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin.

337

Has evidently died from

Exp. 9.
p jyj Rabbit. Weight, 1-16 kilograms.

6.0. Gave 6 mlgm. per kilo, by mouth.
7.25. Respirations seem more rapid than usual.
Next day, 9 a.m. Dead. Rigid, in oposthotonic posture,
tutin.

Exp. 10.
P ji Rabbit. Weight, 1-069 kilograms.

3.6. Gave 17-5 minims of a O'o-per-cent. solution tutin (5 mlgm. per kilo), per os.
3.45. Has displayed no symptoms.
Next day. Quite normal. .

Exps. 11, 12.
Two guinea-pigs, A and B. Weight of A, 624 grams (Exp. 11) ; weight of B, 684 grams
(Exp. 12). To A, gave 2 mlgm. per kilo body-weight ; to B, gave 3 mlgm. per kilo
body-weight.

P.M.

3.20. Gave to A 4-2 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin, under skin of back.

3.40. Gave to B 7 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin, under skin of back. Both

pigs were placed in the same cage, but B attacked A so viciously that it was

necessary to separate them.
3.50. A seems tremulous.

3.55. A obviously affected, twitching and starting.
4.0. B affected in the same way.
4.5. Both in violent and continuous convulsions.
4.10. B removed from cage, and 17 minims of a 0-05-per-cent. solution of chloral- hydrate

injected (equal to 0-011 grams per kilo).
4.15. B dead ; killed in 35 minutes. Mouth and nostrils found blocked with sawdust

from the bottom of the cage.
4.15. A still in constant convulsions ; becoming feebler.
4.30. A dead ; has continued in constant movement since convulsions appeared ;

killed in 70 minutes.

Result. — A killed in 70 minutes by 2 mlgm. per kilo ; B in 35 minutes by 3 mlgm.
per kilo.

Exp. 13.

Guinea-pig. Weight, 751 grams.

Feb. 13. Gave 4 minims of 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (1-5 mlgm. per kilo), per os.
Weight, 768 grams. Gave 4 minims of 0-5-per-cent. solution, per os.

17.
19
20
22
24

824 grams.

Gave 5-2 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution (2 ralgm. per

Gave 4 minims of 0-5-per-cent. solution, per os.
Has displayed no symptoms.
Weight, 809 grams. Gave 4 minims of 0-5-per-cent. solution, per os.

,, 823 grams. Gave 5-5 minims of 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (2 mlgm.
per kilo), per os.
No symptoms.
Weight, 767 grams.

kilo), per os.
Found dead in the morning.

Result. — Was able to eliminate 1-5 mlgm. per kilo given every second day, but
unable to eliminate 2 mlgm. per kilo in two days.

In this experiment the influence of the prolonged administration of tutin on the
weight of the animal was tested by keeping a second guinea-pig under similar conditions
as a control. The weights of the two animals as taken during the course of the experi-
ment were as follows : —

A

26.

27.

Feb.

13
17
19
22
24
26

(Control).
Grains.

595
589
607
627
633

B.

Grams.

751

768
824
809
823
767

Result. — Control gained 38 grams ; tutin animal gained 16 grams.

338 ' Transactions.

Exp. 14.
Giiinea-pig. Weight, 1 lb. Fed up to this morning.

10.53. C4ave 5 minims of 0-5-per-cent. tutin ; injected into mouth, and fluid was readily-
swallowed.
10.55. Animal seems quite as usual, though easily frightened.
11.0. Same.

11.10. Still same ; trying to chew straw in cage.
11.20. Gave it some wet green grass, which it ate greedily.
11.45. Quiescent ; has not eaten much grass ; apparently normal.

P.M.
12.5. Seems still quite normal. Gave other 5 minims in same way (about 3-5 mlgm. per

kilo).
12.20. Stretching-movements (? normal).
12.30. Normal.

12.33. Sudden onset of symptoms ; convulsive movements ; stood on liind legs till fell
over backwards ; rushed several times round cage ; then tonic spasm, lying on
side ; respii'atory movement increased ; twitching of ears and fore part of
body. Then became quiescent, lying still on right side.
12.40. Resumed usual sitting-position.
12.48. Still quiescent.

12.50. Moved slowly round several times against dii'cction of a clock.
1.3. Another fit began, with twitching of head backwards and upwards ; then running-
movements of limbs. It ran to front of cage, got its nose into one of the meshes,
and tried, as it were, to run forward rapidly ; then ran towards another corner,
but fell on its side, and went into a clonic spasm, moving its fore and hind legs
vigorously ; then came a more tonic spasm of whole body ; fine ti'emors ;
swallowing and gasping movements ; mouth open. By 1.7 it became quiescent
again.
1.10. Another fit; lying on side and working its fore and hind legs ; head bent back

on body, but whole body not rigid.
1.15. Still same, but movements slower.
1.40. Same condition.

1.50. Movements continue practically without cessation.
1.55. Same.

2.0. Same, slight cries.
2.5. Same.

2.15. Movements less frequent.
2.17. Quiescent; dead.

2.30. Rigor mortis seems to be setting in already.
2.45. Rigor distinct.

P.M. (3.30). — Rigor well marked ; abdomen opened ; some grass observed in
stomach and intestines, but no great accumulation of gas.

Exp. 15.
Pigeon. Weight, 314 grams.

Jan. 14. Gave 2 mlgm. tutin per kilo body- weight, per os.
15. No effect, so gave 4 mlgm. per kilo, per os.

18. No effect, so gave 6 mlgm. per kilo, per os.

19. Bird seemed dull and heavy for a few hours after the dose ; took no food, and
moped in a comer, with feathers puffed out. Is quite well to-day.

20. Reweighed ; same weight. Gave 8 mlgm. per kilo, per os.

21. A repetition of symptoms noted pre-\'iously. Is quite well to-day, so gave
10 mlgm. per kilo, per os.

22. Same symptoms as before. Quite well to-day, so gave 12 mlgm. per kilo, per os.

23. Same symptoms as before. Quite well to-day, so gave 16 mlgm. per kilo, per os.

24. Same symptoms as before, but quite well to-day ; so at 12 noon gave 20 mlgm.
per kilo, per os, on an empty crop. At 12.45 p.m. bird found lying on back in
convulsions ; marked retraction of head, and constant movements of feet and
flapping of wings. At 12.50 p.m. movements becoming feebler and slower.
At 1 p.m. dead ; weight, 345 grams, an increase of 31 grams.

P.M. — Crop noted to be empty ; nothing abnormal detected.

Result. — 16 mlgm. per kilo non-lethal ; 20 mlgm. per kilo killed in one hour.

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin. 339

Exp. 1(5.

A.M. Pigeon. Weight, 319 grams.

10.6. Crave 18-3 minims of 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin in normal saline (17 mlgm. per
kilo body-weight), per os.

10.8. First appearance of symptoms, tremulousness and jerking of head ; sudden slight
expansive movements of the wings.

10.10. General con^n^lsions ; marked opisthotonus; bird turning over and over, head
firmly retracted on back, wings widely extended, genei'al convulsive move-
ments.

10.13. Has been no cessation, of convulsive movements since onset ; now becoming more
feeble.

10.21. Movements very feeble ; bird apparently been unconscious since onset.

10.22. All movements ceased.

P.M. — Crop opened ; found empty, except for a small amount of grumous fluid con-
taining small yellow particles. Sour smell, and distinct acid reaction. No abnormality
observed.

Result. — Death in 16 minutes from 17 mlgm. per kilo.

Exp. 17.

Pigeon.
JFeb. 7. At 6 p.m. gave 2 mlgm. of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (about 1-5 mlgm.
per kilo), per os. At 7.5 p.m., apparently normal. At 10.45 p.m., same.
8. Quite normal. Gave 3 mlgm. of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (about 2 mlgm.
per kilo), per os.

10. At 6 p.m. pigeon weighed 396 grams. Gave 5-3 minims of a 0-5-per-cent.
solution tutin (4 mlgm. per kilo), per os.

11. Normal.

14. Weight, 408 grams. Gave 9-7 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution (9 mlgm.
per kilo), per os.

15. Normal.

17. At 6-3 p.m. weighed 388 grams. Gave 11-8 minims of 0-5-per-cent. solution
tutin (9 mlgm. per kilo), per os.

18. Normal.

19. Weight, 342 grams. Gave 10-8 minims of 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin
(9-5 mlgm. per kilo), per os.

20. Normal.

24. Weight, 343 grams. Gave 11-6 minims of 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (10 mlgm.
per kilo), per os.

25. Normal.

26. At 6 p.m. weighed 370 grams. Gave 15-4 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution
tutin (12 mlgm. per kilo), per os. At 6.20 p.m. squatting on floor of cage ;

very tremulous about head and neck ; blinking repeatedly.
,, 27. Found dead in the morning.

Result. — No tolerance developed. Death from a dose of 12 mlgm. per kilo.

Exp. 18.
Jan. 28. Pigeon. Weight, 357 grams.

P.M.

5.45. Gave 18-2 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin in normal saline (15 mlgm.

per kilo body-weight), per os.
7.30. Beyond some dullness and. heaviness, no symptoms.
Next day. Quite normal.

Result. — Recovery from 15 mlgm. per kilo.

Exp. 19. .
P.M. Pigeon. Weight, 374 grams.

6.7. Intended to give 20-3 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (16 mlgm. per

kilo body-weight), but a few drops were lost, so gave 5 minims more.
6.10. General convulsions; marked extension of wings arui bending- backwards of the

body, so that the bird rests on its tail.
6.12. Lying on back, in constant convulsive movement.
<3.16. Dead.

P. 31. — Crop half-full. No abnormality detected.

Result. — Death in 9 minutes from a dose of about 16 mlgm. per kilo.

340 Transactions.

Exp. 20.
P.ji. Pigeon. Weight, 319 grains.

5.6. C4ave 17-3 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (16mlgm. per kilo body-

weight), per OS.

5.7. Appearance of symptoms.
5. 7 J. Clonic convulsions began.

5.11. Movements ceased ; pupils dilated ; dead.

P.M. — Crop full of half-digested food. No abnormalities observed.
Result. — Death in 5 minutes from a dose of 16 mlgm. per kilo.

Exp. 21.

P.M. Pigeon. Same as used in Exp. 14. Weight, 345 grams.

5.14. Gave 16-8 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (15 mlgm. per kilo body-
weight), per OS. Had received no food since the day before.

5.20. Seems quite normal ; is preening its feathers.

5.21. Attempting to vomit.

5.22. Retching.

5.23. Retching.

5.24. Retching ; drowsy-looking ; tremulous about head.
5.24.^. Retching.

5.25. Squatted do\\^l on bottom of cage.
5.25.K Retching.

5.2(i. Very tremulous about head and neck; dazed and sleepy looking; retching

every half-minute or so.
5.29. Twitching of muscles of neck ; head being drawn back with sharp jerks.
5.36. Slight convulsions affecting the fore part of the body ; wings rigidly extended,

and marked clonic movements of tail and neck ; remains standing between

the attacks ; blinks its eyes heavily, as though onlj' keeping awake with the

greatest effort ; pupils contracted.
5.40. A more severe convulsion ; bird thrown over on to its back, but recovered its

position again.
5.43. A most severe convulsion, bird thrown over backwards ; lies on back, with head

bent back beneath body ; all muscles in continuous clonic spasm.

6.49. Convulsions have continued without intermission since last note ; movements

now becoming feeble.

5.50. All movements ceased ; dead.

P. 31. — Crop empty. No abnormality observed.

Besvlt. — Ivilled in 35 minutes by a dose of 15 mlgm. per kilo,

Exp. 22.
P.M. Pigeon. Weight, 203 grams.

5.13. Gave 10-3 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (15 mlgm. per kilo), per os.
5.20. Lying on back, in continuous convulsive movement.
5.25. Gave 10 minims of a 1-in-l solution chloral-hydrate, equal to 0-6 gram chloral,

per OS.
6.25. Dead.

P.M. — Crop half-full. No abnormality observed.

Result.- — Death in 72 minutes from 15 mlgm. per kilo. Life evidently prolonged
by the chloral.

Exp. 23.
P.M. Pigeon (young). Weight, 375 grams. (Fed at 1 p.m.)

3.49. Gave 15-5 minims of 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (13 mlgm. per kilo body-weight),

per OS.
3.52. Slight attempts at vomiting.

4.0. Lying on back, in convulsions ; convulsive movements continued till death.
4-8. Death.

Result. — Death in 19 minutes from 13 mlgm. per kilo.

Exp. 24.
P.M. Pigeon (young). Weight, 363 grams.

3.46. Gave 14-8 minims of 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (12 mlgm. per kilo body-weight),
per OS.

3.50. Vomiting repeatedly, bringing up quantities of grain.

4.48.

FiTCHETT.- — Physiological Action of Tutin. 341

P.M.

4.8. Is tremulous and unsteady.

4.14. Slight convulsive movements, affecting the wings and head ; vomiting.

4.20. Vomiting.

4.25. Defecated ; a more severe convulsion ; body bent forward till breast touches
ground, head bent back, wings rigidly extended, perhaps one more than the
other. The bird was here taken out of the cage and placed on the floor of the
laboratory ; it did not attempt to fly away, and kept pretty much to the place
where it was set dowia ; it moved away a little if approached. On the whole,
seemed more acute mentally than birds that had received a larger dose.

4.28. Convulsion, but still able to keep its feet ; pupils widely dilated during convul-
sion.

4.33. Retching.

4.35. I

4.36. \ Convulsions.
4.361 J

4.38. Vomiting and convulsions.

4.39. Convulsion, still affecting chiefly the fore part of the body.
4.42. Vomiting and convulsions ; pupil continuously dilated.

4.46. Most severe con\iilsive attack yet, tail involved, and clonic as well as tonic spasm
present. The bird was thrown dowTi, but recovered its feet again.

4.49. Retching.

4.50. )

4.51. Convulsion.

5.10. Since last note have been frequent convulsions, affecting the neck, wings, and

tail, but the bird has kept its feet. They are getting more severe, and last

longer.
5.12. Most severe convulsive seizui'e, bird tumbling and somersaulting about the floor

of the laboratory.
5. 14. Lying on back ; all the muscles in constant clonic spasm.
5.16. Short interval, during which voluntary squeaking.

5.20. Lying on back ; convulsions continue ; legs as much affected as wings.
5.42. Has been lying on back in constant movement since 5.16.

5.51. Movements becoming more feeble ; they never entirely disappear, but increase

in severity at intervals. In the intervals, gasping inspirations.
6.2. All movement ceased ; dead.

Result. — Death in 136 minutes from a dose of 12 mlgm. per kilo.

Exp. 25.

P.M. Pigeon (adult). Weight, 386 grams,

4.45. Gave 15-7 minims of 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (12 mlgm. per kilo), per os.

5.30. Lying on back, in continuous convulsive movement.

5.31. All movement ceased ; dead.

Result. — Death in 46 minutes from a dose of 12 mlgm. per kilo.

Exp. 26.
P.M. Pigeon (adult). Weight, 305 grams.

5.52. Gave 9-3 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (9 mlgm. per kilo), per os.
Next day, 4 p.m. Quite normal. Displayed no marked symptoms.

Result. — Recovery from a dose of 9 mlgm. per kilo.

Exp. 27.
P.M. Pigeon (adult). Weight, 365 grams.

4.30. Gave 11-7 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (9-5 mlgm. per kilo), per os.
Next day, 4.30 p.m. Quite normal. Has displayed no marked symptoms.
Result. — Recovery from a dose of 9-5 mlgm. per kilo.

Exp. 28.
P.M. Pigeon (young). Weight, 330 grams.

4.45. Gave 11-2 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (10 mlgm. per kilo), per os.
5.10. Lying on back in convulsions.
5.30. Dead.

Result. — Death in 45 minutes from a dose of 10 mlgm. per kilo.

342 Transactions.

Exp. 29.
P m_ Pigeon (adult). Weight, 368 grams.

4.56. Gave 10-6 minims of a 5-per-cent. solution tutin (10 mlgm. per kilo), per os.

5.14. Vomiting.

5.21. Slight convulsive movements of wings.

5.45. Restless.

8.30. Apparently normal.

Result. — Recovered from a dose of 10 mlgm. per kilo.

Exp. 30.
P ji. Pigeon. Weight, 315 grams.

2.50. Gave ir2 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (10-2o mlgm. per kilo), per os.
3.18. Tremulous; jerking of head ; restless; blinking.

3.20. Tonic spasm of wings ; paroxysms of difficult breathing, during which bird turns

round and round in one place.
3.40. Retching.
3.48. General convulsion, lasting 30 seconds, in which bird tumbles about in every

direction.

3.51. Lying on side, trembling and breathing very rapidly ; pupils normal.

3.53. General convulsion ; pupils wide.

3.54. General convulsion.

3.56. Recovered upright position, and sat for a few seconds on its tail ; was then
seized with severe convulsions, which continued without intermission till
death.

4.5. Died.

Exps. 31, 32. (See text.)

Exp. 33.
P_5i_ Lizard (Lygosoma moco). Weight, 4 gi-ams.

5.15. Gave 3 '4 minims of a 0'01-per-cent. solution tutin (5 mlgm. per kilo), under the

skin of the abdomen.

6.15. Apparently normal.

7-10. Quiet when first seen ; then took tits of abnormal activity, contorting itself, hold-
ing its fore limbs wide stretched, and resting on belly.

7.55. Lying quiet, with mouth partially open.

8.5. Seems quite dead ; mouth still more widely open.

Exp. 34.
pji. Lizard. Weight, 5 grams.

3.0. Gave 2-5 muiims of a 0'01-per-cent. solution (3 mlgm. per kilo), under the skin of

the abdomen. The breathing became exaggerated almost immediately, and

the animal puffed itself up as a frog does.
7.30. Nothing remarkable has been noticed.
Next day, 9 a.m. Apparently normal.

Exp. 35.

pyi Lizard. Weight, 7 gi'ams.

4.35. Gave 5 minims of a 0'01-per-cent. solution of tutin (4 mlgm. per kilo), hypo-

dermically.
7.20. Remarkable convulsive effects, opisthotonus and twisting into a ball with tail

up to mouth, then clonic spasms of limbs ; after this was quiet for a time, and

then movements began again ; lies on back biting at its own tail and hind

limbs.
7.45. Has been quiescent for last five minutes ; now puffing itself up ; lying in normal

position.
7.58. Another severe fit coming on suddenly ; animal twists rapidly into every possible

attitude.
8.2. Still in constant movement, now more often on its back.
8.15. Quieter again.
8.25. Another period of restlessness.
8.35. Has quiet intervals.
8.55. Occasional movements.
9.15. Seems quite dead, but gave reflex response from limbs, and did not move after

that.

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tiitin. 343

Exps. 36, 37, 38.

Thi-ee frogs (Hyla aurea). Weights: (1) 27-5 grams (Exp. 36); (2) 28-4 grams
Jan. 15. (Exp. 37) ; (3) 33-7 grams (Exp. 38).

P.M.

4.25. Gave to frog (1), 4-1 minims of 0'01-per-cent. solution tutiu (1 mlgm. per kilo);
to frog (2), 3'4 minims 0'025-per-cent. solution tutin (2 mlgm. per kilo) ; to
frog (3), 6-8 minims 0'025-per-cent. solvition tutin (3 mlgm. per kilo). In each
case the solution was injected into the abdominal cavity, and the frogs placed
vmder bell-jars on the laboratory-table.
7.30. Frog (3) seems affected ; crouches in a sitting-position, and is blown out with air.
No apparent abnormality in frogs (I) and (2).

10.0. No sign of convulsion in any when stimulated. Frog (3) seems more excitable
than the others.

Jan. 16.

A.M.

8.55. All three appear to be affected ; are sluggish, and lying prone on their bellies, with

legs extended. Frog (2) is almost dead.
10.0. Frog (2) dead (2 mlgm. per kilo) ; died between 9 and 10 a.m.

Jan. 18. Frog (1) found dead in the morning (1 mlgm. per kilo) ; weight, 18 grams, a loss
of 9 grams. Frog (3) (3 mlgm. per kilo) is still alive, and seems quite normal.
No sign of convulsion noticed in these frogs. The two that died seemed extremely
thin and emaciated. Frog (1) looked very much thinner on the 17th than on the two
days before. The weather was cold on the 16th. On the 17th the temperature was
12° C. in the morning, but this does not explain why frog (3), with 3 mlgm. per kilo,
seems unaffected. Loss of weight might be due to drying ; but the air has not been
drj'. The weather is cold and wet.

Exps. 39, 40, 41.

Thi-ee frogs. Weights: (1) 17-3 grams (Exp. 39); (2) 25-1 grams (Exp. 40);
Jan. 16. (3) 32 grams (Exp. 41).

P.M.

4.40. Gave to frog (1), 2-6 minims of a 0'01-per-cent. solution tutin (1 mlgm. per kilo) ;
to frog (2), 7"5 minims of a 0"01-per-cent. solution tutin (2 mlgm. per kilo);
to frog (3), 5-7 minims of a 0-025-per-cent. solution tutin (3 mlgm. per kilo). In
each case the solution was injected into the abdommal cavity, and the frogs
placed under bell-jar on the laboratory- table.
10.0. No change observed.

Jan. 17. No change observed.
,, 18. Frog (2) was foimd dead in the morning ; weight, 18 grams. Weather cold.
Frogs (1) and (3) were ajiparently normal.
In the two experiments above, the number of minims m 1 c.c. was taken as 15 ; in
the subsequent experiments as 17. The doses per kilo body- weight above are therefore
smaller than as stated.

Exps. 42, 43.

Two frogs. Weights : (1) 31 grams (Exp. 42) ; (2) 41 grams (Exp. 43).
Jan. 21.

P.M.

5.0. Gave to frog (1),- 4 minims of a 0"05-per-cent. solution tutin (4 mlgm. per kilo).
5.15. Gave to fi'Og (2), 7 minims of a 0-05-per-cent. solution tutin (5 mlgm. per kilo).

In each case the solution was injected under the skin of the back, and the frogs were
placed imder bell-jars, with moist grass and earth, in a cool dark cellar.
7.30. Frog (1) gave a long cry when touched; seems very excitable. Frog (2)

apparently normal.
10.30. Could detect nothing abnormal in either.
Jan. 22.

A.M.

9.30. Both apparently well.

P.M.

2.30. Both quite normal.
Jan. 25. Quite normal.

WiAl

344 Transactions.

Exp. 44.

Jan. 22. Frog. Weight, 40 grams.

P.M.

3.0. Gave 9-5 minims of a 005-per-cent. solution tutin (7 mlgm. per kilo), injected
under the skin of the back. The frog was placed under a bell-jar, with wet
gi'ass, in a cool cellar.
4.45. Api^arently normal.
6.30. No obvious effect.
10.30. No obvious effect.
Jan. 23.

A.M.

9.0. No obvious effect.

P.M.

4.30. No obvious effect.
Jan. 25.

A.M.

9.30. Apparently quite normal.

Exp. 45.
Jan. 28. Frog. Weight, 18 grams.

P.M.

3.35. Gave 5'5 minims of a 0"05-per-cent. solution tutin (9 mlgm. per kilo), injected
under the skin of the back. It was placed in a cellar, with moist grass and
earth.

6.10. Not normal ; squats fiat on belly ; muscular weakness of hind legs ; respiration
exaggerated.

7.30. Hind limbs show spastic spasms ; unable to progress ; lies sprawling on belly.
Jan. 29.

A.M.

10.45. Seems much improved ; sits in normal position ; hops away unsteadily when

touched.
Jan. 30. Seems weak, but in other respects is quite normal.

Exp. 46.
Jan. 29. Frog. Weight, 38 gi-ams.

P.M.

5.33. Gave 13 minims of a 0*05-per-cent. solution tutin (10 mlgm. per kilo), injected
under the skin of the back. It was placed in a cool cellar, with moist grass.

6.10. No change.

7.9. Apparently vinaffected.

9.40. Frog foimd in severe spasm, chiefly affecting the hind limbs, which are fully
extended ; is very excitable ; gave cries when touched, and climbed to the top
of the bell-jar ; no muscular weakness manifest.
Jan. 30.

A.M.

9.0. Very lively and excitable ; no distinct convulsions when touched ; is still noisy.

P.M.

2.30. Just dying ; mouth open ; could not obtain reflexes.
3.15. Dead.

Exp. 47.

Frog. Weight, 36 grams.
Jan. 31. Gave 11 minims of a 0'05-per-cent. solution tutin (9 mlgm. per kilo), injected

imder the skin of the back. It was placed in a cool cellar, with moist grass.
Feb. 3. Quite normal.

Exp. 48.

Feb. 3. Frog. Weight, 31 grams.

P.M.

6.15. Gave 10*5 minims of a O'Oo-per-cent. solution tutin (10 mlgm. per kilo), injected
imder the skin of the back. As before, it was placed in favourable surround-
ings.
Feb. 4.

P.M.

3.45. Seems weak, but shows no marked symptoms.
Feb. 5. Apparently quite normal.

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin . 345

Exps. 49, 50, 51.

Three frogs. Weights : (1), 23 grams (Exp. 49) ; (2) 39 grams (Exp. 50) ; (3), 30 grams
Feb. 18. (^^P- ''^-

P.M.

6.20. To frog (1) was given 7 minims of a 0-05-per-cent. solution tutin (9 mlgm. per kilo).
().24. To frog (2) was given 13'2 minims of a 0-05-per-cent. solution tutin (10 mlgm. per

kilo).
6.31. To frog (3) was given 11-2 minims of a O'OS-per-cent. solution tutin (11 mlgm. per
kilo).
Ill each case the solution was injected under the skiu of the back, and the frogs
were placed in favourable suiroundings.
Feb. 19.
P.M.

4.0. Frog (1) affected; Ij'iug prone on belly, with legs extended ; great muscular
weakness. Frog (2) presented the same appearance. Frog (3) was found dead
at 9 a.m.
Feb. 20. Frogs (1) and (2) apparently normal.
■ ,, 21. Both frogs quite well.

Exp. 52.
Feb. 20. Frog. Weight, 40 grams.

P.M.

5.0. Gave 14 minims of a 0-05-per-cent. solution tutin (10-25 mlgm. per kilo). The
solution was injected undei the skin of the back, and the frog placed in a cool
cellar, with moist grass and earth.
Feb. 21.

P.M.

2.0. Sprawling on belly ; hind legs extended ; abdomen distended ; twitching of toes ;
fibriliary twitching of muscles of thighs. On being handled, was seized with a
convulsion, affecting chiefly the hind legs ; the mouth was opened wide and
kept open, the animal croaking loudly.

4.25. Dead.

Exp. 53.

P.M. Pigeon. Weight, 335 grams.

5.30. Gave 5-6 minims of a 0-o-i3er-cent. solution tutin (5 mlgm. per kilo). The injec-
tion was made under the right wing.

5.45. Very sleepy-looking ; narcotic effect is most marked ; tremulous about head ;
retching.

5.50. General convulsions.

6.5. General convulsive movements have continued since last note ; are now becoming
feebler; bird on its back.

6.12. All movement ceased ; dead.

Result. — Death in 42 minutes from a hypodermic dose of 5 mlgm. pei kilo.

Exp. 54.
P.M. Frog. Weight, 20 grams.

4.55. Gave 6-8 minims of a 0-1-per-cent. solution tutin (20 mlgm. per kilo), under the

skin of back.
5.0. Breathing exaggerated ; keeps opening mouth wide.

5.15. No further .symptoms ; gave other 7 minims.

5.16. Rapid breathing ; mouth-opening movements.

5.26. Gave other 7 minims.

6.0. Lying prone on belly ; shows occasional slight twitchings, chiefly of hind legs ;

if touched, is seized with conv^ulsions, and pupils dilate ; respirations irregular

and exaggerated ; makes a sucking noise occasionally.
6.9. Turned on back ; cannot recover, and struggles violently and continuously in its

efforts to do so.
6.11. Most severe convulsions; mouth spasmodically opened to fullest extent; cries

loudly ; spasms occur every 4 or 5 seconds. (This change has occurred since,

and apparently as a result of, violent voluntary efforts to recover position when

placed on back.) Heart can be seen beating through abdominal wall ; rate,

44 per minute.

346 Transactions.

P.M.

6.15. Respirations ceased.

6.20. Heart-movement not so visible ; rate, 32 per minute. ]\Iuscles still show occa-
sional twitches and spasms.
6.30. Seems quite dead ; no reflexes.

This frog received about 60 mlgm. per kilo.

Exp. 55.

p jj Frog (female). Weight of frog, 38 grams ; ovaries, 57 grams.

4.12. Gave 1 minim saturated solution tutin. injected under skin of back.

4.30. Remains crouching ; if turned on back, recovers position slowly.

4.35. Turned on back ; recovers position with difhculty ; convulsive movements fore
and hind limbs ; lies prone on belly ; if legs extended, does not retract them ;
respiration feeble and irregular ; convulsive movements of limbs if turned on
back.

4.40. Attempted to crawl, but unable to advance ; pricking skin of limb, no response.

4.45. Respiration imperccjjtible ; if turned on back, recovers position with dilhcidty,
then tonic spasm in extension and a few vigorous respirations.

4.55. \\Tien turned on back, quickly recovered, and made three or four vigorous hops ;
crying loudly, with jaws spasmodically 0]>ened, then lay on belly, and at inter-
vals of 10 to 15 seconds opened jaws widely and extended limbs in tonic spasm.

5.15. \Mien turned on back, laj' so, occasional tonic spasm of fore limbs, irregular
feeble movement of hind limbs ; respiration at rare and irregular intervals —
two or three respirations, and then a more or less prolonged pause ; helpless,
lying on belly, reflexes still present ; makes no attempt to swim when placed in
water ; unable to rectify position in water ; lying on back at bottom of basin.

6.7. Under bell-jar, makes occasional kicking-out movements ; still on belly, and
swollen-looking.

7.40. Very similar ; makes less movement than before ; lies in practically any position
if gently handled, but reflex action still marked ; pupils dilated.
10.15. No spontaneous movement, and no reflexes (some movements, got on turning
over or letting fall, seem due to direct stimulation of muscles) ; pupils dilated ;
no respiration seen.
Next day, 9 a.m. Dead ; stifl: in position it was in for greater time after injection.

Exp. 56.
P.M. Frog (small).

3.0. Gave 1 minim semi-saturated solution tutin, injected under skin.
3.3. Attempting to jump, but movements already enfeebled.
3.15. Respiratory movement exaggerated ; abdomen distended.
3.20. Slowly extended hind legs and advanced fore legs, and lay on belly ; respiration

quickened and exaggerated ; occasionally raises fore part of body in spasm to

full extent of fore arms, and respiration ceases.
3.25. Twitching of toes.
3.35. Attempting to crawl flat on belly ; unable to make progress ; conjunctival reflex

active ; skin reflex sluggish ; pupils dilated.
3.40. Spasm of all four limbs ; restless; raises body stiflSy, with hind limbs extended.
3.45. Continuous struggling-movements ; twice turned on back, and slowly and with

difficulty recovered position.
3.50. Placed on back, unable to recover ; twitching of muscles and successive tonic

spasms ; respiration rare and convulsive ; has opened mouth spasmodically

once.
4.10. Reflex action abolished, except conjunctival, which is sluggish.
4.15. Repeated spasmodic opening of mouth.

4.. 30. Can still see ; lies on back ; occasional movements of fore limbs.
5.5. On letting fall, slight reflex in fore limbs ; conjvmctival reflex still present.

Exp. 57.

P.M. Frog (small).

4.30. One drop of a semi-saturated solution tutin in conjunctival sac.

4.45. Movements of fore limbs to eyes ; conjunctival irritation ; restlessness ; ex-
aggerated respiration.

5.0. Opisthotonic movements ; weakness of liind limbs ; crawls slowly ; hops with
difficulty.

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin. 347

P.M.

7.5. When light turned on. was foiind to be in a .state closely resembling clonic stage
of epileptic fit ; this soon subsided, but could be initiated to a lesser degree by
pulling animal about by hind leg. Pupils wide ; respiratory movement excited
and irregular.
10.30. Dead.

Exp. 58.

P.M. Frog (small). Weight, 12*5 grams.

12.35. Gave 1 minim of a 0-05-per-cent. tutin solution in 0'76 per cent, saline, injected

mider skin. Motionless, on bellj^.
12.42. First movement, lifted head.
12.45. Sprang forward ; increased respiratory rate.
12.50. Attempted to spring, but moved sluggishly, and did not advance ; emptying of

cloaca, urine, and faeces.
12.55. Raised on all four limbs, and sank slowly back on belly.
1.0. Raised himself on all-fours, and remained sitting up with fore limbs extended ;
irregular crawling-raovements, chiefly in fore limbs ; feeble attempts to spring ;
hind limbs seem weak ; pupils dilated.
1.10. Restless ; attempting to crawl up side of bell- jar ; movements incoordinate and

feeble.
1.43. Sitting motionless; pupils more dilated than at beginning of experiment; can
leap fairly well when toe pinched, but seems feebler, and does not resent inter-
ference so much as in a normal frog.
2.3. Leaning up against side of bell-jar ; left hand partially closed, as if grasping a

twig ; right extended against glass.
2.43. Lying quiet ; recovers position fairly quickly when turned on back ; also shows

occasional voluntary movements.
3.13. Same; pupils wider than previously.
4.13. As before, but respirations (taken from movement of floor of mouth) 40 for one

half-minute, 30 for another half-minute, and rather irregular.
4.50. Lying prone on belly, with legs extended from sides ; if turned on back, recovers
with difficulty ; able to advance across table by short halting leaps ; hind legs
drawn up slowly to jumping-position after each effort ; no convulsive move-
ments noted so far ; seems to be a general muscular enfeeblement. most marked
in hind legs.
5.0. Makes continued efforts to jump, but fails to advance, as cannot flex legs suffi-
ciently beneath body.
CO. Lying prone on belly ; turns over when placed on back, though with difficulty.
7.35. Ljnng sprawling on belly ; limbs extended ; moves feebly when disturbed ; pupils
dilated (? due to darkness) ; while being observed it had something like a weak
convulsive fit. It lay on belly and kicked out repeatedly but feebly with hind
legs, and moved fore limbs as if attempting to swim.
9.35. Sprawling on belly as before, and motionless till distiu'bed. Weakness more
marked ; cannot turn over when placed on back ; makes several efforts, accom-
panied by deep breathing, and then lies still.
Next day, 9 a.m. Found dead, in same position as left in last night ; pupils firmly
contracted ; lower limbs extended ; fore limbs flexed, and digits closed, as if
grasping twig ; no swelling of abdomen.
P.M. — Gall-bladder distended ; intestines distended ; cloaca full ; intestine, some
dark grumous licpiid; stomach empty, except for mucus; kidneys apparently normal;
no abnormality at seat of injection ; central nervous system nothing abnormal, except
seems too pale ; no ecchymosis ; blood seems fluid, and animal as a whole seems more
bloodless than normal ; blood-film squeezed out of heart and tissues presents many
leucocytes, possibly dvie to mode of obtaining it.

Exp. 59.

P.M.

5.45. Small trout, in 100 c.a water, with 10 drops saturated solution of tutin (about

O'l per cent.).
5.49. Movement very excited ; breathing exaggerated.
6. 18. Breathing more laboured.
6.28. Swimming on side, near s\irface.

6.30. Shuddering- movements ; spasmodic movements of gills, which then ceased.
Control, in same amount of water, showed no change.

Exps. 60 to 76.
These experiments were very like the above (see Table III).

348

Transactions.

Table of Experiments

on Fishes.

6

Per-

o

"S .

Drug.

centage
of

Modification
of Drug.

S!S

•2 2

Time of OiLset
of Symptoms.

Result.

Time of
Death.

^

Drug.

■gER

h^

f^

>

^

C.c.

77

Tutin

0001

200

Died . .

4 hours.

78

0-00075

200

5 hours

6i „

79

0-005

200

^

5 „

6 „

80

Picrotoxin

0-001

200

))

4 „

81

0-00075

200

5 hours

6 „

82

))

0-005

200

li ..

J3 • •

4 „

Control to the above fishes under the same conditions (200 c.c. fluid)
showed symptoms of asphyxiation in 4 hours, and the fishes in tutin and picrotoxin
died practically in order of their weights.

d

Per-

o

o .

ft

Drug.

centage

of

Modification
of Drug.

ume
'luid

n

Time of Onset
of Symptoms.

Result.

Time of
Deatli.

X

Drug.

>

■

C.c.

83

Tutin

0-001

^ .

1,000

3

9^ hours

Recovered

84

Tutin and
chloral

0-001 )
0-128 i

1,000

3

Not observed . .

1 died . .

About 22 hours.

85

Picrotoxin

0-001

1,000

3

9 J hours

»» • •

*)

86

Tutin

0-0015

1,000

3

1 horn-

)> ■ "

1| hours.

87

»» • •

0-00125

1,000

3

No symptoms

All lived

88

»» • •

0-00175

1,000

3

4A hours

(1.) 2f hours..

1 died . .
Died . .

4| hours.
7 hours.

89

>» • •

0-003

1,000

(m.) 9J „ . .

>J • •

12

i

(s.) 10 „ ..

i»

11-23 „

90

»> • ■

0-002

1,000

3

No symptoms
(1.) 4 hours . .
(m.) S 11 g li t
s y m p 1 0 m s

All lived
Died . .
Recovered

4i hours.

• •

91

))

0-0035

1,000

3 -

from 7-10
hours
(s.) No symp-
toms

0-0035 -'

Digested with
HCl 30 min.
and then
neutralised

1,000

(1.) 3J hom-s . .

) Fatal (

(1.) 7i hours.

92

») • '

3

(m.)8i „ ..
(s.) 9 „ ..

to -
1 all I

(m.) 10-22 „
(s.) 22* „

93

»J • •

0-003

(

Already once
used, filtered
H y d r 0 1 ysed

1,000

1

1*

(

4| hours

(1.) 5 hours . .

Died . .
Died

6f hours.
25J „

94

>f • *

0-004 ■!

with HCl 1

r 1,000

3 \

(m.)6i „ ..

3 J • •

28 ,,

(A)

I

hour at 37° C.

1

(

(s.) 8 „ ..

Recovered

(

0-004 "

Control to 94 ;

'

(l.i 31 „ ..

Died . .

12 hours.

HCl added,

(m.)8 „ ..

»» • *

H ;

95

l» * *

and imme-

-1,000

3 J

{s.)SUght symp-

Recovered

(B)

diately neu-

toms at 12

,

tralised

hours

96

)» • •

0-004

Treated with

1,000

3

No symptoms

All lived

(0)

0-2 per cent.
XaOH for 1
hour at 37° C.

0-004 -

- 1,000

■

(1.) 3 hours

Died

About 16 hours.

H y d r o 1 vsed

(m.) Symptoms

)) ■ ■

„ 22J „

97

»» • •

with HCl 1

3 -

at 16 hours

(A)

hour at 37° C.

(s.) No symp-

Lived . .

, ,

toms

98

»» • •

0-004

Control to A.

1,000

3

2 hours

All died

About 16 hours.

(B)

HCl imme-
dately neu-
tralised

99

»» • ■

0-004

Treated with

1,000

3

No symptoms

All lived

(C)

0-2 per cent.
NaOH for 1
hour at 37° C.

(1.) 3ihoiu-s..

Died

29J hours.

100

Picrotoxin

0-004

1,000

3 ■

(m.) 3i „ . .

») * •

12 „

(s.) 6J „ ..

J) • •

12 .,

* Fish used In this experiment was Cheimarrichthys fosteri.
fatal to three minnows.

Tutin solution, 0-003 per cent., was not

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin.

349

Table of Experiments on Fishes — continued.

d

Per-

o

Drug.

centage
of

Moditication
of Drug.

a-6

Time of Onset
of .Symptoms.

Result.

Time of
Death.

Drug.

r

biM

1

Co.

101

Tutin

0-005

Treated with
0-2 per cent.
NaOH for
20min.

1,000

3

Xo symptoms

All lived
25 hours

■

102

%>

0-005

Treated with
02 per cent.
NaOH for

1,000

3

No symptoms

All lived
25 hours

40 min.

103

»»

0-005 -

Acted on by
living liver-
cells for 1
hoiu-at37°C.

Acted on by
living kid-

)
:- 1,000

j

(

3

I
(

(1.) 2} hours..
(m.)2i „ ..
(s.) 4i „ ..

(1.) li hours. .

I All (
j died

■ Ditto -

5 J hours.
6' „

7 J „

Of hours.

104 i „

0-005 -

ney-cells for

- 1,000

3

(m.) 2j „ ..

7i „

1 hour at

i

(s.) 4J „ ..

27

37- C.

'\

(1.) U „ ..

1 J

3

105 Picrotoxin

0-0132

. ,

1,000

(m.) IJj „ . .

6J „

(

(s.) 1 „ ..

) " I

2i „

)

i

(1.) 7i „ ..

) 1

About 22i hrs.

106 ' Tutin

0-005

1,000

3

(

(m.) 6J „ . .

23 hours.

(s.) 7i „ ..

) " 1

About 22i hrs.

3i

(1.) If „ ..

) 1

3.V hours.

107

Picrotoxin

0-005

, ,

1,000

(m.) If „ . .

Hi „

(

(s.) If „ ..

1 " '(

12s ,.

108

Tutin

0-005 '

Had been used
once before

[ 1,000

3-1
(

(1.) 2| „ ..
(m.) 4? „ . .
(s.) H „ ..

Recovered
Died . .

12| hoiu-s.
12i-25 hours.

109

»» • •

0-005

Treated with
02 per cent.

1,000

3

No symptoms

All lived
30 hours

-•

! NaOH for

10 minutes

110

j» • •

0-005
I

Ditto
Treated with

1,000

)

3

))

Ditto . .

0-2 per cent.

(

(I.) 6f hours..

) (
- All died j

135 hours.

111

»r • •

0-005 J

HCl for 1

1- 1,000

3-'

(m.) 5i „ . .

sl „

hour at 37^ j i
C. )

(

(s.) 5i „ ..

9J „

112

it • •

0-005

Treated with
0-2 per cent.
NaOH for 5
minutes at
37° C.

1,000

3

No symptoms

All lived
26 hours

Fluids 94 (A), 95 (B), and 96 (C) filtered and tried over again.
(1.), (m.), (s.) = large, medium, small.

A.M.

8.43.

9.40.
11.. 30.
11.50.

P.M.

12.10.

12.49.
1.5.

2.15.
3.10.
3.22.

4.0.
5.0.
6.20.
7.20.

Exp. 108.

Three minnovt's (large, medium, and small).
Placed in 1,000 c.c. fluid of 0-005-per-cent. solution.
Xo symptoms.

Large fish on side, emitting air-bells.
Large fish now upright, but keeping near surface.

Large fish on its side ; movements feeble. As yet the otiiei- two fish are un-
affected.

Large fish upright again ; near surface.

Large fish on side near surface. Medium fish in excited movement near surface,
emitting air-bells. Small fish excited.

Large fish same ; medium and small both on the side near the surface.

■ Same.

All markedly affected, and keep more or less on side, near the surface.

Same.

All swim near surface, excitable, but feeble ; now swimming upright.

All keep close to surface, and emit air-bells.

350 Transactions.

P.M.

8.20. Gill-movements have ceased in medium-sized fish ; heart-movement still visible.

Large and small fish both deeply affected.
9.15. Large fish dead. Small fish deeply affected ; swimming upright, but very feebly,

near surface.
Next day. Small fish apparently well.

P.M. Exp. 114.

3.55. Two cockles, of about the same size, were placed — one in sea-water, the other in
a 0-5-per-cent. solution of tutin in sea-water. Equal volumes of fluid were
used.

4.0. The cockle in tutin solution has opened its shell.

4.10. The cockle in sea-water has not moved. The one in tutin solution keeps opening
and closing its shell at intervals of a minute or two.

4.15. Portion of the one in tutin solution is now extruded from its shell ; the shell
every now and then shuts down sharply, but without the extruded portion
being drawn back ; when touched with a needle the extruded portion is with-
drawn, but is pushed out again after a short interval.

4.25. The one in tutin solution continues extruded, but withdraws when the glass
container is tapped with a pencil.

Next da3^ 9 p.m. The one in tutin solution is dead ; throughout the day it has remained
with shell open and body extruded ; at noon to-day was alive, and withdrew
sluggishly when touched with a needle. The one "in sea-water is still alive,
with the shell firmly closed ; it has not been observed to open the shell through-
out the experiment ; on being ]ilaced in the tutin solution it opened its shell
in a few minutes, and behaved as the other had done.

Exp. 115.

Jan. 21. At 8 p.m. two flies — a large blowfly and an ordinary house-fly — were placed
in a cage with a watch-glass containing a solution of sugar in a 0-1-per-cent.
solution tutin. Both were observed to partake freely of the solution on
several occasions.

,, " 22. At 8.30 p.m. both flies are active, and apparently quite normal ; they fre-
quently feed from the watch-glass.

,, 23. At 12.15 p.m. the house-fly is dead. The blowfly is active, and apparently
normal.

,, 24. Blowfly quite well ; allowed to escape.

Exp. 116.
Mar. 1. About twenty house-flies were placed in each of two cages. Into one cage

was put a solution of sugar in a 01-per-cent. solution tutin m normal saline;

into the other a solution of sugar in normal saline. The flies, being thirsty,

at once crowded rormd both watch-glasses, and partook freely.
,, 4. All the flies are alive, and quite healthy. The flies with the tutin solution do

not feed so readily as those with the normal saline ; they frequently approach

the watch-glass, merely taste the solution, and retire ; now and again one

will remain feeding.
,, 7. Flies still all alive, and quite healthy ; diu'ing the week the solution has dried

lip once or twice, and more 01-per-cent. solution tutui has been added.

Despite the concentration by evaporation, they have displayed no symptoms.

P.M.

6.40. A few drops of 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin in distilled water added to the watch-
glass, which had become dry.

7.0. On returning, found four flies on their backs, but not dead ; moving their lega
occasionally. Three other flies were affected. Every now and then wings
violently buzzed for a second or two, lifting flies on to tip-toes. They walk
rather incoordinately.

7.5. One of the affected flies spinning round and round on its back, wings buzzing
continuously ; movement ceases for a short interval, and is then repeated.

7.8. Both the other flies similarly affected.

7.15. All three are now lying quiescent on backs, with occasional movements of legs.
Mar. 8.

A.M.

10.0. Ten flies dead ; several others seem unaffected. A large blowfly introduced
into the cage, and observed to drink the solution for 15 minutes.

10.30. Blowfly not so active ; does not fly away when probed ; shows what seem to
be involuntary movements of the legs.

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin. 351

A.M.

10.40. Blowfly very lethargic ; walks heavily ; can be pushed along without offering
to fly ; every now and then one or other wing extejided to full extent, and
held there a moment ; this is not a voluntary movement ; does not seem to
have proper control of legs when walking — one or more legs move irregularly,
and not in a suitable direction.

11.0. Blowfly allowed to escape from cage ; remained in one position on table till

touched, and then flew heavily on to window, crawled into a corner, and was

siibsecpiently lost sight of. Two other blowflies introduced into cage ; one

immediately fed from the watch-glass, and in 15 minutes showed symptoms;

lethargic, and disinclined to move.
P.M.

12.0. Second blowfly has been observed to drink but sparingly. First blowfly show-
ing moie marked symptoms ; tonic spasms of wings and uncontrolled move-
ment of legs ; allowed to escape, but on attempting to fly seized with a
general convulsion, buzzing round and round on back ; was attacked with
seizures of this kind imtil exhausted.
1.0. Lying on side, dead. Quite a considerable drop of clear fluid has exuded from
proboscis.
Mar. 10. All the house-flies are dead, and all show marked distention of abdomen.
Blowfly apparently luiafl'ected, so allowed to escape ; flew about on window
for few minutes, and was then seized with convulsions and died, as the others
had done.

Exp. 117.

Jan. 30. At 4.30 p.m. some mince was allowed to become infected by blowflies. A
small portion of the meat containing the larvae was placed in each of four
watch-glasses, and covered with a 001-per-cent., a 0025-per-cent., and a
005-per-cent. solution tutin, and with normal saline respectively. In each
case the larvae began to wander and coil up in the fluid. After one hour
these fluids were poured oft', and each watch-glass covered with another, to
prevent evaporation.
,, 31. At 4.45 p.m. the watch-glasses were examined. In the one treated with
normal saline only the larvae ai'e numerous, have grown, and are very active,
crawlmg all over the surfaces of both watch-glasses. In the 001-per-cent.
and 0.025-per-cent. solution only one or two larvae are to be seen in move-
ment ; they are very small, and have not wandered from the mince. In the
005-per-cent. solution no movement is to be seen.

Exp. 118.
A drop of hay-infusion, containing paramcecia, amcebae, monad.?, and bacteria,
was placed on each of four slides, labelled A, B, C, D.

P.M.

5.49. One drop normal saline added to B.

5.50. One drop of a 01-per-cent. solution tutin in saline added to C.

5.51. One drop of a 01-per-cent. solution quinine hydrobromate in normal saline

added to D.

6.5. B : No change. C : No change. I) : No paramcecia to be seen, but monads
and bacteria still moving.

6.30. B : No change. C : Paramcecia may still be seen moving, but their move-
ments are irregular ; the monads are collecting at the surface and edge of the
drop; this may also be seen in A and B. Another drop of a 01-per-cent.
solution added to C. D : No movement.

6.50. A and B : No change. C : Still one or two paramcecia moving ; are not so
easy to find ; many monads still active, others stationary ; amoebae still
moving ; field does not look .so lively as it did.

Exp. 119.

7.30. A drop of hay-infusion placed on a slide, and covei-ed with a cover-glass, and
a drop of a 01-per-cent. solution tutin normal saline placed at edge of cover.

7.35. 8ome paramcecia have swum out into dro]i of tutin solution ; at once display
irregular movements ; remain in the drop of tutin solution.

7.40. Movement of paramcecia in drop of tutin solution, which at first were excited,
now becoming slower and very irregular ; they roll over and over like rotifers.

7.45. Paramcecia at a standstill in tutin solution : they appear to disintegrate in-
ternally, and are no longer recognisable ; paramcecia under the cover-glass
quite normal.
Experiment repeated, using a 0-5-{3er-cent. solution tutin in distilled water, with
similar results.

352 Transactions.

Exp. 120.

This experiment was essentially similar to Exp. 119.

Exp. 121.

Jan. 28. Six test-tubes wei-e taken and labelled — '' 0-5 per cent, tutin," " 0-4 j^er cent,
tutin," "0-3 per cent, tutin," "0-2 i^er cent, tutin," "01 per cent, tutin,"
and " normal saline." The volume of fluid in each tube was the same.

P.M.

5.0. A small piece of fresh mmce was added to each tube, and the tubes left open
to the air.
Jan. 29. At 5-45 p.m. the tubes were corked, and placed in an incubator at 40° C.
„ 31. Tubes opened and examined. The tube containing normal saline was very-
offensive. None of the other tubes had the offensive smell of putrefaction ;
the smell was rather like that of stomach-contents.
Feb. 1. Contents of tubes examined under microscope ; all show moving bacteria,
but the drop taken from the tube containing normal saline was much more
crowded, and the bacteria in it showed a gi-eater variety of form and size.

Exp. 122.

Four fermentation-tubes were filled — (1) with glucose solution and tutin (0-25
per cent, of the latter) ; (2) glucose solution, with 0-1 per cent, tutin ; (3)
glucose solution alone ; (4) water. A few drops of a yeast emulsion were added
to each.

P.M.

5.45. Tubes placed in inciibator.

7.10. Fermentation in (1) and (3).

7.45. Fermentation in (2) as well, but only half as much gas developed as in (1).

9.30. (]), (2). and (3) fully fermented.

Exp. 123.

4.40. Two fermentation-tubes set on — (1) with glucose alone ; (2) with 0'05 per cent.

tutin.
5.10. No change.
6.10. Both equally fermented.
8.30. Both fully and equally fermented.

Exp. 124.

Four fermentation-tubes filled with the following : — A : Water (16 o.c), 25 per cent,
glucose (4 c.c.) ; B: Water (20 c.c.) ; C : Water (8 c.c), jilus 0-5 per cent,
tutin solution (8 c.c.) plus 25 per cent, glucose (4 c.c.) (equals 0-2 per cent, tutin
in mixed fluid); D: 0-5 per cent, tutin (16 c.c), plus glucose (4 c.c.) (equals
0-4 ])er cent, tutin in mixed fliiid). A few drops of freshly procured emulsion
of brewers' yeast added to each ; D received rather more than the others.

P.M.

3.30. Tubes placed in incubator.

4.40. Small bubbles forming in A, C, and D.

5.10. Same.

6.0. Fermentation most distinct in D.

7.10. Most fermentation in D ; slight in C ; little or none in A and B.

7.30. Added another drop of yeast emulsion to A.

8.0. Fermentation now as great in A as iii D.

This shows that the amount of yeast added exerts a greater influence on the amount
of fermentation that occurs than does the presence of tutin.

Exp. 125.

Five test-tubes were taken, containing a 0-1-per-cent., a 0-2-per-cent., a 0-3-per-
cent., a 0-4-per-cent., and a 0'5-per-cent. solution tutin in normal saline ; and
one test-tube containing normal saline alone. Equal volumes of fluid in each
test-tube.

Jan. 23. At 4.30 p.m. twelve miistard-seeds were placed to soak in each test-tube.
,, 23. At 4.30 p.m. the seeds from each test-tube were sown on moist felt placed in

separate tin boxes, correctly labelled.
,, 24. All the seeds in each box have germinated.
,, 25. At 10.10 a.m. the same progress has been made in each case. All the seeds

were replaced in their respective sohitions.

Fttchett. — Phijsiological Action of Tutm. 353

J a 1. 26. The seeds were resown in the tin boxes.

,, 30. All have grown more or less. The seeds soaked in normal saline have made-
most progress, and ai-e closely followed by those soaked in 0-1 per cent, and
0-2 per cent. Those soaked in 0-4 per cent, and 0-5 per cent, are growing, but
only two or three seeds in each, and the growth is not so vigorous as in the
others. Since the 26th the felt in the boxes has been kept moist by the
addition of water.
Feb. 3. All the seeds soaked in normal saline have grown, and are growing vigorously.
In the boxes labelled ''0-1 per cent." and "0-2 per cent." three or four seeds
are growing vigorously, and have made nearly as much progress as in the box
labelled " normal saline," but the others remain stunted, and one or two have
made no progress since being resoaked in the tutin solution. In the boxes
labelled "0-4 )ier cent." and "0'5 per cent." one or two seeds have made
good progress, but most of the others are stunted, or have not grown at all.

Exp. 126.

A few bars were taken from the gill of a cockle, and mounted in sea-water, and
observed xnider the low power.

P.M.

4.0. Normal saline perfused under cover-glass.

4.35. No appreciable difference.

4.38. 0-1-per-cent. tutin solution perfused under cover-glass.

4.45. No change.

4.46. 0-2-per-cent. solution tutin perfused under cover-glass.

4.50. Seems to be a slight retardation, but doubtful.

4.51. 0-3-per-cent. tutin solution ])erfused under cover-glass.

4.52. Obvious slowing ; many cilia stationary, others moving feebly.
4.59. Ciliary movement practically ceased.

Exp. 127.

5.10. Fresh specimen taken in 0-3 per cent.

5.11. Movements slower.
5.13. Very feeble movement.
5.15. ^lovements ceased.

Normal saline and afterwards sea-water were then perfused under cover-glass, biit
recovery did not take place.

Exp. 128.

5.30. Fresh specimen taken, and a 0-2-per-cent. solution tutin perfused under cover-
glass.
5.37. Movements have practically ceased, except for a few cilia here and there.
5.45. All movement apparently ceased.

A solution of j-^-^^ KOH in sea-water perfused under cover-glass, and ciliary
movement immediately resuscitated.

p.m. Exp. 129.

5.54. Fresh specimen taken, and a 0-2-per-cent. solution tutin applied.

6.5. Cilia still moving ; movement confined to the apices of the cilia. A di'op of

0-3-])er-ccnt. solution tutin applied.
6.15. Still moving, but less actively. A drop of 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin applied.
7.30. Still moving.

As this piece of gill was rather large, a fresh specimen was taken from a mxissel.

P.M. Exp. 130.

7.45. 0-2-per-cent. solution tutin ajjplied.

7.52. A distinct slowing has occuiTed, biit the cilia are still able to cause a movement
of particles. This only occurs in sheltered places. The cilia are at a standstill
on the edges.
7.57. A drop or two of sea-water applied, and many cilia restored to action.
In every case a control mounted in sea-water was used for comparison.

Exp. 131.

Two or three gill-bars from a small rock-oyster were taken and mounted in sea-
water raider a cover-glass. Two preparations were made, and one used as a
control. (Low power.)

12— Trans.

354 Transactions.

P.M.

2.30. A drop or two of a 0-5-per-cent. solution in sea-water tutin perfused under cover-
glass.

2.35. Appears as if there was a slight slowing of cilia in exposed situations, but doubtful.

2.40. Cilia still moving ; more 0"5-per-cent. solution tutin i>erfused under cover-glass.

3.0. Most cilia in active movement ; here and there a few are motionless, or moving
feebly.

4.0. Still moving.

Exp. 132.

A fresh preparation was made from the gill of a cockle, and examined with the
low power without a cover-glass. A control was used.
P.M.

3.10. A drop of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin a))plied.
3.12. If anything, movements seem exaggerated.
3.20. First drop tutin solution dried off. and a second drop added.
3. .50. No effect observable.
4.30. Still in active movement.

Exp. 133.

i Three preparations of ciliated epithelium from the gullet of a frog. No. 1 was

mounted in normal saline without a cover-glass, and used as a control ; No. 2
was moiuited in a drop of a 0-1-per-cent. solution tutin, without a cover-glass:
No. 3 was mounted in a drop of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin, without a cover-

! glass. Three microscopes were used, and the s])eciraens examined inider the

low power, with the draw-tube out.

1.

2,

3.

5.14.

Moving.

No

effect.

No change.

5.20.

No change.

>!

5.25.

>»

,,

5.30.

)?

JJ

5.35.

f?

9?

5.40.

>»

9J

6.10.

The'spe

;cimens

had partif

illy dried, and

only.

Exp. 134.

The gullet of a frog was exposed, and the rate of progress along it (by ciliary
action) of a small fragment of cork was observed. A centimeter scale was
arranged to lie parallel with the gullet, and the time the cork took to travel

1 cm. noted as follows : —

Gullet bcitlied with
Normal. a 03-per-cent.

Solution Tutin.
52" 32"

47" 38"

61" 38"

51" 29"

51" 37"

Average, .'iO-4" Average, 34-8"

Exp. 135.

Two frogs' nei've-muscle preparations made. Muscles placed in watch-glasses
with normal saline. Nerve laid on frog-plate, and kept moist with saline, and
stimulated with break shocks. A (in saline), minimal stimulus found to be with
coil at 17 cm. B (in saline), minimal stimulus at 21-5 cm. B was then placed

solution tutin in normal saline

in

a watch-

-glass cor^

^a^ning a 0-025-per-cent

at 5.54 p.m.

P.M.

A.

B.

5.55.

Contracts at

20 cm.

20 cm.

6.8.

20 cm.

18 cm.

6.17.

21 cm.

19-5 cm.

7.15.

19-5 cm.

18 cm.

7.35.

19 cm.

17 cm.

8.10.

19 cm.

16 cm.

8.52.

18 cm.

15 cm.

9.35.

18 cm.

12 cm.

FiTCHETT. — Physiol oy teal Action of Tuhn. 355.

Exp. 136.

In this experiment, the nerve of the one preparation (A) was i>laced in tiitin sohi
tion (0-5 per cent.), and the muscle of the other (B) in the same. Before ])Iacing
in tutin solution, A contracts at 28 cm., and B at 34 cm.

P.M.

6.3. Tutin solution ajiplied as above.
A. B.

6.6. Contracts at 31-5 cm. 28-5 cm.
6.17. „ 30-5 cm. 30 cm.

7.22. „ 33 cm. 27-5 cm.

Exp. 137.

One muscle in saline (B) and one in a 0-05-per-cent. solution tutin (A). Nerves
exposed to air, and kept moist. Stimulated as before. Before tutin applied.
A contracts at 30-5 cm., and B at 25-5 cm.

P.M.

6.15.

Placed in tutin solution.

A.

B.

6.20.

Contracts at

28-5 cm.

25 cm.

6.28.

)j

28-5 cm.

24 cm.

7.25.

>)

24-5 cm.

22-5 cm.

8.20.

>>

25-5 cm.

25 cm.

Exp. 138,

Same as previous experiment. Before tutin (interrupted current), A contracts
at 36 cm., and B at 32 cm. ; single shocks, A contracts at 27 cm., and B at
25-5 cm.

A.M.

10-56. A placed in a 0-05-per-cent. solution tutin in normal saline. B left in saline.

A.

B.

11.2.

Contracts at

27 cm.

26 cm.

11.20.

»?

26-5 cm.

25 cm.

P.M.

12.20.

*»

24 cm.

24-5 cm,

1.0.

»)

21-5 cm.

23 cm.

Exp. 139.
Rabbit (young). Weight, 804 grams.
Blood-films were taken, dried in the air, and fixed with Jenner's stain ; and next
A.M. morning at —

11.36^. Gave 25 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (lOmlgm. per kilo), hypoder-

mically.
11-56. Shaking-movements of head ; pvipils normal.

11.58. Shaking and rocking of whole body ; lying prone on belly.

11.59. Twitching of ears.

P.M.

12.0. Twitching of hind limbs and then of fore limbs.

12.1^. Severe convulsions; kicking-movements ; head drawn back; clawing-move-
ments ; convulsions lasted 2 minutes ; pupils did not dilate ; cornea damaged
by rubbing open eye on floor in convulsion.
12.3^. Lying on side, with head bent back ; hind and fore limbs show running-move-
ments.
Clonic convulsion.

Convulsion passed, but running-movements of legs continue.
Clonic convulsion.

Convulsion passed ; running-movements continue ; head bent well back.
Convulsive movements of jaw and ears, gradually merging into a general con-
vulsion.
Momentary quiescence.

Jaw and limb movements continue. The lower jaw is pushed forwards, and
then clenched so that lower incisors lie outside upper incisors, then they slip
inside the upper incisors with a grating sound.
12.22. Movements still continue ; no cry has been uttered by the animal as yet ; respir-
atory movements are not much in evidence ; movement of limbs, jaw, and
retraction of head most prominent.

12.4i.

12.

6.

12.

,8.

12.

11.

12.

13.

12.

,15.

12,

,18.

356 Transactions.

P.M.

12.32. Same ; lying on left side, with occasional kicking-movements.

12.34. All movement ceased, except that heart can be seen beating by movement of

hairs over precordial region.
12.36. Dead.

P.M. — Stomach not distended ; contained only food ; blood-film taken from the
left ventricle only ; heart had ceased beating ; lungs not congested ; bladder full.

Result. — 10 mlgm.. per kilo caused death in less than one hour.

Exps. 140-151.

Experiments 140 to 151 inclusive referred to the blood-pressure work, details ot
which are omitted.

Exp. 152.
P.M. Cat. Weight, 3-52 kilograms.

3.(). Chloroform administered with a Skinner's mask. The skin was reflected, the

cranium trephined over the right parietal region, and the bone removed with

bone forceps until the greater part of the right cerebral hemisphere was exposed.

4.10. 50 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin was injected hypodermically, and the

administration of the anaesthetic discontinued.
4.24. As no symptoms had ajipeared, 25 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin was

injected into the peritoneum.
4.32. Slight twitching of the head and ears noticed, followed in a minute or two by con-
vulsive movements of the paws. The right cerebral hemisphere was imme-
diately scooped out. The con-\ailsive movements continued as before, affecting
both sides equally. The left cerebral hemisphere was then removed. The
convulsive movements continued. The breathing was greatly exaggerated, and
at intervals large quantities of urine were shot out with considerable force.
4.45. The spinal cord was then divided at the level of the 5th doi'sal vertebra.
4.49. Spasmodic movements of the hind limbs ; the limbs were rigidly flexed on the

abdomen and shaken with clonic spasms.
4.54. Movements of fore paws.

^.56. Slow spasmodic movements of hind limbs, the slow rigid movement towards

the abdomen ending in clonic spasms. The reflexes in the hind limbs are

exaggerated, the legs being quickly drawn up, and showing clonic movements.

6.0. The fore limbs have been quiescent for some time ; movements occiuring in the

hind limbs only.
5.3. Reflexes still markedly exaggerated (clonus) in the hind limbs, but cannot be

elicited from the fore limbs.
5.9. All respiratory movements ceased, and reflexes absent.

P. 31. — The chest was opened at once, and slight heart-movements fo\uid to be still
present. The bladder, notwithstanding the large quantities of urine ejected during the
experiment, was full. The cerebral hemispheres were found to be entirely removed ;
the corpora quadrigemina were intact ; the cord was found to be divided within the dura
mater at the level of the 5th dorsal vertebra ; the cord was crushed through rather than
cut through (scissors, not too sharp, having been used to divide it), but its continuity
was completely destroyed.

Exp. 153.

P.jl, Cat. Weight, 2-4 kilograms.

2. .50. Chloroform anaesthesia induced, and spinal cord exjwsed, and completely divided

in the mid-dorsal region ; 1 c.c. of a 0 5-per-cent. solution of tutin was then

injected into the peritoneum, and chloroform discontinued.
3.0. No response to electric stimulus applied to left hind foot, but marked response

when applied to left fore foot.
3.5. Slight twitching of ears and jerking of head.
3.14., Distinct tutin twitches of head and fore limbs,
3.16, Convulsion of fore part of body, accompanied by movement of tail ; hairs of tail

have not become erect ; great salivation.
3.20, Convulsive movement of fore part of body continues ; a movement of the tail

near the tip ; 1 c.c, of a 0-5-per-cent. tutin injected into peritoneum,
3.22. Swishing-movement of tail from side to side ; reflex response to pricking left hind

leg with a knife distinctly obtained during conATilsion of fore part.
3. 28. Movement of tail during convulsion of fore part,
.3.29. Severe convulsions of fore part, accompanied by marked lashing -movement of

tail.

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin.

357

P.M.

3.32.

3.42.

3.45.

3.46.
3.47.

3.50.
3 52.
3.54.

4.4.
4.5.

4.6.

4.6^.

4.7."

More convulsions, with lashing of tail ; movement of tail sometimes occurs quite

apart from any movement in fore part of body, but occurs also with marked

regularity at the beginning of each fit of fore part.
Several movements of tail, with no convulsion of fore part ; tail sometimes moved

from root and sometimes only the tip ; movement is mainly from side to side,

but now and then the whole tail i s lifted upwards. Reflexes present in the hind

part ; movements of both limbs on tapping one.
Movement of tail becoming more marked, while fore part more quiescent.
Defgpcation occurred.
Hind limbs spasmodically dra\vn up to abdomen several times ; then a slight

lit of fore part occurred, and movements of tail, with tetanic movement of

hind limbs.
Tonic and clonic spasm of hind limbs ; claws extruded.
Respirations slow and gasping.
Heart-beat vigorous ; as heard by stethoscope, 72 per minute. Twitches of fore

\rA\\s and tonic spasm of hind limbs, with erection of hairs of tail.
Clonic movements of left hind limb.
Distinct tonic and clonic spasm of both hind limbs ; limbs fully extended, with

claws extruded ; respiration infrequent and difficult, owing to obstruction of

air-i)assages by saliva and mucus ; heart intermittent, mis.ses one or two beats

towards the end of inspiration.
More movements of hind limbs, fore part motionless; respirations about four

])er minute.
Another spasm of hind c|uarters.
Respirations ceased : heart audible by stethoscope, beating regularly for two

minutes and a half after last respiratory gasp.

Exp. 154.

A frog {Hyla aurea), jjithed in the ordinary way three hours previously, was sus-
pended by the head. At intervals of a few minutes its feet (as far as the ankle) were
dipped into dilute sulyihuric acid, of a strength of 1 in 1,000. After each dipping the feet
were carefully washed in fresh water. The time was taken by a seconds-clock, and the
result was as follows : —

Fro2 A

it Foot.

Left Foot

8"

9"

6"

8"

6"

4"

6"

4"

4"

6"

6"

6"

6"

6"

6"

6"

Average . . . . . . 6" 6"

6-3 minims of a 0-1-per-cent. solution tutin (11 mlgm. per kilo) was then injected
under the skin of the back, and after an interval of 30 minutes the feet were again dipped
in the acid : —

Right Foot. Left Foot.

Frog A .. .. .. ..5" 4"

4" 4"

..6" 6"

..8" 8"

Average . . . . 5 '8" 5-5''

Here a further dose of 10 minims was injected, and after an interval of 15 minutes
the feet were dipped as before : —

Eight Foot. Left Foot.

Frog A . . . . . . . . 4" 4"

4" 4"

4" 4"

4" 4"

Average . . . . . . 4" 4"

Each time the feet were withdrawal together, and, it was thought, more actively tlian
before the tutin was injected.

358

Transactions.

Exp. 155.

The experiment was repeated with a second frog, pithed in the same way four hours
previously. The result was as follows : —

Bight Foot. Left Foot.

Frog B . . . . . . . . 6" 7"

..10" 11"

..8" 8"

..8" 8"

..8" 8"

..8" 8"

..8' 8"

..8" 8"

Average .. .. .. 8" 8-3'

10 minims of a 0*l-per-cent. solution tutin was then injected under the skin of the
back, and after an interval of half an hour the reaction-time again tested. The time when
movement first took place only was noted.

Twitched at 2" ; wthdrawn at 4"

frog B . . . . . . . . . . . . 6"

6"
6"
14"
14"
20"
16"
22"
14"

Average . . . . . . . . . . 12-2"

At 22 seconds there was a slight twitch, but no further movement took place,
although 70 seconds were counted. Pinching or pricking a foot met with an immediate
response, but the acid had no influence. Five minutes later no reflex movement could be
elicited by any means, and the heart could no longer be seen beating through the chest-
wall.

Frog A was then tested again, and foimd to respond as actively as before.

Exp. 156.

A third frog, pithed one hovir previously, was treated in the same way.

FrogC .. .. 10"\

5"
5"

5"
5"

5 y

Right leg only withdrawn. Frog
removed from acid as soon as
first movement took place.

Average . . 6"

2 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution was then injected under the skin of the back,
and 10 minutes were allowed to elapse before the feet were dipped again.

Frog C . . . . . . 6" \

.. sr

.. 5" '

5"

Both legs withdrawn.

Average
1 minim of a 0'5-per-cent
FrogC

solution tutin was then injected into the heart.

5"

6"
6"
6"

Average

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin.

359

Exp. 157.
A fourth frog, pithed one hour previously.
FrogD

7"
6"

5"

„ V Movements of lower limbs onlv.

Average

6

6"

6"

6"

6"

6-1"

5 minims of a 0-1 -per
the skin of the back, and

Frog D

cent, solution tutin (10 mlgm. per kilo) was then injected under
six minutes later the test reapplied.

2" Very extensive general movements.
Arms moved as well.

Legs and subsequent movements of arms.
Legs, spreading to arms.
Legs, arms not moved so vigorously.
Both legs only.

Legs only, response more sluggish.
Legs only.

4"
2"
1"
2"
4"
5"
4"
4"
2"

Legs and arms.

Average 3"

Exp. 158.

The experiment was repeated a fifth time. In this case the frog had been pithed
in the usual way one hour previously, but it appeared to retain some })ower of voluntary
movement, and was so restless that it was suspected that the cerebrum had not been
completely destroyed. Extensive general movement followed each application of the
acid.

Left Foot. Right Foot.

FrogE .. .. .. ..2" 2"

4" 4"

3" 4"

. . 12" 4"

. . 14" 7"

.. 11" 8"

. . 12" 9"

.. 9" 11"

8" 6"

Average

8-3"

6-1"

1 minim of a 0-5 per-cent. solution tutin was then injected (about 12 mlgm. per kilo)
under the skin of the back, and 15 minutes later the feet were again dipped into the acid ;
but before this was done a typical tutin convulsion occurred.

Frog G

ft Foot.

Right Foot.

13"

20"

9"

9"

50"

70 seconds were counted,

but the right foot was

not withdrawna.

38"

38"

20"

15"

Average . . , , . . 22"

On examination the optic lobes were found to be intact.

20"

360 Transactions.

Exp. 159.

The experiment was repeated with a sixth frog. This was beheaded a Httle in front
of the anterior border of the tympanic membrane, so as to sever all in front of the top
of the medulla.

Frog F

Right

Foot.

Left Foot.

7"

ii"

7"

1"

9"

9"

8'

9"

..14"

12"

.. 15"

13"

Average .. .. ..8-5 9-1

1 minim of a 0-5-per-cent. solution was then injected under the skin of the back, and
8 miniites later the test reapplied.

Right Foot. Left Foot.

Frog F . . . . . . . . 10" 10"

-.38" 38"

..84" 84"

Average . . . . . . 44" 44"

As a result of letting the frog fall on the table, a typical tutin sjjasm, with croaking,
occurred here. Seemed to require severe irritation to induce a spasm. A spasm occurred
on striking sharply with a glass rod.

250 seconds were counted, but feet not withdrawn. Slight twitches occurred,
however, at 58", 71", 86", 94", and 120". 100 seconds more, but no effect.

Although the acid had ceased to have any influence, it was still possible to elicit
reflex action on painful stimulation — e.g., pinching.

Ten minutes later reflexes could not be elicited in any way. The thorax was then
opened, and the heart found to be still beating. The auricles were distended. Twitcliing
occurred as the cord was being pithed.

Exp. 160.

A few drops of a solution of tutin were introduced into the right eye of a young
rabbit. Within a few minutes there seemed to be a very slight dilatation. In an hour
and a c[uarter the right pupil was thought to be slightly the larger by an observer ignorant
of which eye had been subjected to the test, but the difference was so very slight, if
existing at all, that the result was regarded as doubtful.

Exp. 161.

Four small drops of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin were introduced into the left
conjunctival sac of a rabbit. It was observed for 15 minutes, and no change in the size
of the pujiil was noted. No hyper£emia of the conjunctiva resulted, nor did the con-
junctiva become less sensitive.

This rabbit died twenty-four hours later, after exhibiting symi^toms of tutin
poisoning.

Exp. 162.

2.50. Two droits of a 0-5-per-cent. solution of tutin introduced into the right eye of a

cat.
2. 52. No apparent effect.
2.55. No change.
3.0. No change.

3.5. Pupils are the same size, and react equally to light.
3. 10. No effect.
4.0. Pupils equal.

Exp. 164. .

3.25. 0-5 c.c. of a 0-5-per-cent. solution of coriamyrtin was instilled into the right eye of

a rabbit.
3.30. No ai>parent effect.

3.35. Difficult to say if any effect ; the right eye may possibly be slightly contracted.
3.40. An observer ignorant of which eye had been treated was unable to distinguish

any difference between the two pupils.
4,0. Pupils appear equal, and react to light with equal readiness. No appearance

of irritation of conjunctiva.

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin. 361

P.M. ^^- 1^^-

3.14. Two drops of a 0"5-per-cent. solution of coriamyrtin introduced into the left eye

of a cat.

3.16. No change in size of pupil observed.

3.22. No change.

3.30. Pu])ils equal, and react to light with equal readiness.

4.0. Pupils appear to be ec^ual.

4.30. No change.

Exp. 166.

Rabbit. Weight, 777 grams.

Jan. 24. At 4.50 gave 13-2 minims of a 0-1-per-cent. solution tutin (1 mlgm. per kilo),

hypodermically.
„ 25. No obvious effect.

,, 27. Gave 13-2 minims of a 0-1-per-cent. solution, per os.
., 28. Normal, so gave 13'2 minims of a 0'1-per-cent. solution, per os.
,, 30. Repeated dose of 13-2 minims of a 0'1-per-cent. solution, given jier os.
f'eb. 4. Weight, 848 grams. Gave 21-6 minims of a 0-1-per-cent. solution (1-5 mlgm.

per kilo), per os.
,, 8. Normal. Gave 4 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (1-5 mlgm. per kilo),

per OS.
,, 11. Weight, 879 grams. Gave 2 mlgm. per kilo, per os.
,, 12. No symptoms ; normal.
., 14. Weight, 862 grams. Gave 7-3 minims of a 0"5-per-cent. solution tutin (2-5 mlgm.

per kilo), per os.
„ 17. Weight, 922 grams. Normal, so gave 7"8 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution

tutin (2-5 mlgm. per kilo), per os.
„ 20. Normal.
„ 24. Weight, 958 grams. Normal, so gave 9 "7 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution

(3 mlgm. per kilo), per os,
,, 27. Weight, 983 grams. Gave 11-6 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution (3 mlgm. per

kilo), par os.
Mar. 3. Weight. 991 grams. Gave 13-4 minims of a 0"5-per-cent. solution (4 mlgm.

per kilo), per os.
,, 7. Normal. Gave 5 mlgm. per kilo, per os.
,, 9. Normal.
,, 12. Weight, 1,154 grams. At 2.40 p.m. gave 23-5 minims of a 0"5-per-cent. solution

tutui (6 mlgm. per kilo), per os. At 4 p.m. shows symptoms ; extends fore

and hind limbs, and lies on belly ; ears and head tremulous.
,, 16. Weight, 1,181 grams. Gave 7 mlgm. per kilo. Not continuously observed.

Recovered.
,. 19. Weight, 1,176 grams. Gave 8 mlgm. per kilo. In 3| hours showed symptoms

(twitching of ears, chewing-movements, &c.). Recovered.
,, 24. Gave 11-6 mlgm. per kilo, per os. Result, death in two hours.

Exp. 167.
Jan. 24. Guinea-pig. Weight, 627 grams.

P.M.

5.0. Gave 10-2 minims of a 0'1-per-cent. solution of tutin (1 mlgm. per kilo), hypo-
dermically, with antiseptic })recautions.
6.30. Convulsive movements of jaw ; animal standing in unnatural attitude.
Jan. 25. Apparently normal.
,. 27. Gave 10*2 minims of a 0-1-per-cent. solution tutin (1 mlgm. per kilo), per os.
,. 28. Showed no symptoms ; normal to-day, so repeated dose, 10-2 minims per os.
,, 30. No symptoms ; repeated dose, 10-2 minims, per os.
Feb. 4. Weight, 644 grams. At 5.36 p.m. mtended to give 17 minims of a 0-1-per-cent.
solution tutin (1-5 mlgm. per kilo), per os, but syringe not set before giving,
and so probably less than 17 minims given.
Feb. 8.

P.M.

5..50. Intended to give 17 minims of a 0-1-per-cent. solution tutin, per os, but 17 minims
of a 0-5-])er-cent. solution was given by mistake. Mistake discovered, and
0-5-per-cent. gram chloral-hydrate'given, per rectum, at 6.5 p.m. Immediately
on withdrawing nozzle of syringe a few pellets of f^ces were discharged, but
very little fluid returned.

362 Transactions.

P.M. •

6.20. Is under the influence of chloral, but showing twitches of fore limbs.

7.5. Apparently still under chloral ; is quite limp. • \Y

9.0. Awake, and easily startled ; ears cold, and whole body shivering ; was wrapped

in towel.
9.20. Will not remain covered up. Shivering not so marked.
10.0. Same.
Feb. 9.

A.M.

9.0. Apparently normal, quite warm, breathing is regular.

P.M.

2.0. Does not seem to have eaten ; seems dazed.
II. 0. Did not try to escape when went to lift it, but resents being handled ; otherwise

appears normal.
Feb. 10.

A.M.

9.0. Seems stiff in the hind quarters ; moans when touched ; has not eaten. Noticed
moist condition of uroanal opening.

P.M.

2.30. Completely paralysed, and cold in hinder half of body ; breathing thoracic ;
eyes kept wide open ; moans when liandled, and showed some convulsive
movements of fore limbs and head.
3.0. Found dead.

P.M. — Stomach distended with gas ; intestines contain mixed gas and fluid contents ;
jieritoneum much injected ; appearance suggestive of general peritonitis.

Exp. 168.
Feb, 27. Cat. Weight, 2-686 kilograms.

P.M.

5.12. Gave 13 minims of a 0-13-per-cent. solution of picrotoxin (0-375 mlgm. per kilo),

hyjjodermically.
5.22. Quite normal ; cleaning itself.
5.30. ,
5.35.
540' ' '^3'™^- ^o departure from the normal.

6.30. )
Feb. 28. Quite normal.

Exp. 169.
Mar. 3. j; if. Same cat. Weight, 2-699 grams. Fresh solution of picrotoxin.

P.M.

4.0. Gave 6-8 minims of a 0-25-per-cent. solution picrotoxin, freshly prepared (0-375

mlgm. per kilo), hypodermically.
4.16. No symptoms.
4.20. Has defaecated, and swallows occasionally, but seems so well that these may be

normal appearances.
5.15. No apparent abnormality.
5.40. Same.
Mar. 4. Has displayed no symptoms, and seems jjerfectly well.

Exp. 170.
Cat. Weight, 2-699 kilograms.
This cat previously received 1 mlgm. tutin, and recovered ; will now receive an

equimolecular solution of picrotoxin, ||^ x 1 mlgm. picrotoxin = 2-66 mlgm.

picrotoxin = 18 minims of a 0-25-per-cent. solution picrotoxin.
P.M.

5.20. Gave 18 minims of a 0-25-per-cent. solution of jjicrotoxin.
6.0. No symptoms as yet, beyond occasional swallowing.
6.7. Salivating; mouth open, panting, vomited; vomiting repeated several times;

breathing slower after vomiting ; defaecated
6.10. Retching; this a more marked symptom "than with tutin. Animal looks much

less disturbed than with tutin at this stage.
6.15. Every now and then spasmodic contraction of diaphragm, suggesting hiccough;

looks sleepy.
6.20. Twitching affecting fore paws only ; no face or ear twitching.
6.25. Twitching again, more marked, causing a little spring with fore ]iart of body;

is very easily startled- y ■ '^ ^ j~

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tutin. 363

P.M.

6. 27. Another nioie marked twitch ; sudden spring, with fore arms bowed, giving

appearance of trying to cling to the ground ; cat more alarmed and astonished

at the twitching than in the case of tutin ; cerebrum seems less affected ;

twitches at the slightest noise — e.g., tap of foot on floor, or turning page of

note-book.

6.32. Much more marked twitching ; cat stands in unnatural attitude, afraid to move ;

every movement causes a sharp spasmodic contraction of muscles ; breathing
very rapid.

6.35. General clonic convulsion, lasting a minute and a half ; no tonic stage noticed ;
rose immediately seizure had passed ; stands in unnatural attitude, afraid to
move ; twitching of eyelids noticed for first time ; seems quite clear mentally.

6.40. Very cautiously assumed a sitting-position, on haunches ; continuous twitching ;
looks up at once if spoken to ; twitching has not been so general since the con-
vulsion, nor is it so easily excited by stamping the foot ; not so much salivation
as with tutin ; watching with interest movements of a rabbit in a cage opposite.

6,50. Twitching only very occasional and slight ; sitting with eyes closed, as if dozing ;
breathing normal.

6.55. Twitching more marked again, and is again easily induced by a sudden noise.
7.12. Sitting on haunches, in normal attitude; gives occasional uneasy starts; head

drawn back quickly, or to one or other side.
7.22. Still tmtching a little ; eyes half- closed most of the time ; no sign of pain.

7. 33. Came to front of cage, and rubbed itself against wires ; then sat down as before ;

is still disturbed by twitchings of fore limbs and head, but it is slighter than it

Avas,
7.43. Drowsy, but wakes up with a start.
8.0. Starts are much less frequent, and very slight.

8.22. Apparently asleep, sitting on haunches ; no further twitcliing noticed.
8.30. Same.

9.0. Apparently normal.
9.35. Same.
Next day. Quite recovered.

Exp. 171.
pjyj_ Cat. Weight, 3 kilograms.

4.38. Received 10 minims of an emulsion of coriamyrtin (3 mlgm. or 1 mlgm. per kilo).
4.48. Twitcliing fli-st noticed ; saliva dripping from mouth ; mouth open.

4.50. Vomited ; breathing greatly exaggerated.

4.51. Deffficated.

4.54. Breatliing still rapid ; twitching increases.

4.56. General convulsion, mostly clonic, lasted 30 seconds ; pupils dilate with each

twitching.

5.0. Panting hard and twitching constantly.

5.1. General tonic and clonic convulsion, emprosthotonos, almost standing on head;

breathing suddenly became normal after convulsion ; then lay with face pressed
on floor, breathing heavily ; minor twitching continues.

5.7. Clonic convul.sions, chin bent down on chest, limbs spread-eagle on either side ;

stands in an elongated crouching attitude, pressing forehead against floor ;
respirations, 160 per minute.

5.8. Clonic convulsions, emprosthotonos, pupils return to normal size in intervals.
5.10. Another convulsion; pupils dilated, as usual.

5.11. I

5 12 '

5" 14' '" General convulsions ; intervals very short.

5!l6*.j

5.20. During a fit, tail rigidly arched over back ; died in tliis convulsion. Heart in-
audible to stethoscope immediately after.
P.JI. — Three hours afterwards. Membranes of cord and brain markedly congested ;
intestines pale ; heart, right side enlarged, left side contracted ; hjemorrhagic patches in
lung ; urinary bladder empty ; gall-bladder moderately full ; uterus contained three
foetuses ; pieces of cord and brain fixed in 8 per cent, formal sections, made by paraffiia
method.

Feb. 11. Exp. 173.

P_5i Rabbit. Weight, 1-264 kilograms.

4.47. Gave 0-6 grams of a 1-in-I solution chloral-hydrate, per rectum. Slight loss of

the fluid.
4.57. Is amesthetised ; gave 17-1 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution of tutin (4 mlgm.
per kilo), hypoderlnicallJ^

364 Transactions.

P.M.

6.25. Recovered consciousness ; mai-ked twitching of head and ears ; sitting up.
7-15. Sitting erect on fore paws ; sahvating freely ; convulsive movements of jaws.
7.25 Seizures almost continuous ; placed on a table ; it raises itself by straightening
to its fore paws, and pushes its body further and further back, then sinks forward
7.45. apparently exhausted, so that the fore limbs are spread out at right angles to

the trunk ; meanwhile jaws are grinding together, and saliva seems to be

swallowed ; pujjils moderately dilated, but as daylight nearly gone tliis may

be natural.
7.57. As condition continues, gave another rectal dose of 0-6 gram chloral. After

getting this it showed the symptoms described by Marshall, of pushing itself

back till it actually fell backwards over its tail. The puj^il was dilated, and

would not contract when a match was held close to it.
8.7. No cessation of symptoms ; fell over tail again ; interval between seizures varies,.

about one minute ; no general con\'ulsion, as is the case when chloral is not

given.
8.15. Has been quieter the last few minutes, as if dozing as it sits.
8.30. Lying on side, apparently under chloral ; breathing very shallow ; no twitching.
8.40. Respirations extremely feeble.
8.45. Spontaneous movements ; tried to rise ; raised head, and fell over on the other

side.
9.0. No further tutin symj^toms ; moves occasionally, especially if touched.
9.30. Still the same ; has passed urine ; is sitting with nose in a corner of cage, as if

dozing ; eyes half-shut ; does not mind being touched or handled ; ears cool.
10.0. Same, but has changed its position several times.
10.40. Moving about more freely ; seems to suifer from ii'ritation of the anus ; is more

like normal than it has been since 7 p.m.
10.50. Same ; has jjassed some pellets of fseces and some thin fascal matter ; behave?

normally when approached, and seems wide awake ; can use all its limbs.
Feb. 12. At 5 p.m. seems normal, except that it is suffering from diarrhosa.
., 13. Found dead in the morning.

Exp. 174.
P.m. Rabbit. Weight, 1-455 kilograms.

5.45. Gave, per rectum, 0-6 gram chloral -hydrate.
5.55. Gave 13-8 minims of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin (3 mlgm. per kilo), hyi^o-

dermically.
6.10. Animal apparently fully ansesthetised ; wTapped in a soft towel to maintain

temperature.
0.25. Same.

7.5. Dazed and sleepy looking ; no movements other than respiratory ; eyes open.
7.35. Made starting-movements with head, and moved hind limbs ; is still uTapped

in towel ; removed towel.
8.0. Has had frequent startings, but is very quiet most of the time.
8.25. Sitting up, apparently dozing ; has been somewhat restless, but no sign of con-
vulsion ; covered it up with towel, and noticed that it has passed urine.
8.55. Sitting in a corner of cage, quite awake, but does not seem at ease ; still frequent

startings ; breathing slow and deliberate.
0.7. Seems to feel some irritation at anus, possibly from the rectal injection ; put its

head down, as if to lick anxis.
9.20. Apparently normal.

lO.O. Has been continuously observed, but no sign of convulsions.
11.0. Apparently quite normal ; resists having its ears pulled ; has passed some

fseces.
11.30. No further change ; sitting with eyes wide open ; easily startled.
Next day. Apparently normal.

Exp. 175.
P.ji. Rabbit. Weight, 1-534 kilograms.

3.15. Gave 1 c.c. (1 gram) of a solution of chloral-hydrate, per rectum, and 20-8 minims

of a 0-5-per-cent. solution tutin, hypodermically (4 mlgm. per kilo).
3.25. Lying on side, under chloral anaesthesia ; respiration, 42 ]}ev minute.
3.45. Still sleepy imder chloral ; breathing the same ; no tutin symptoms.
3.49. Turned over on to tJie other side ; respirations, 40 per minute ; blinks eyes once

or twice in succession occasionally.
5.0. Twitching and convulsive movements.
5.15. Same convulsive movements.
6.30. Same, but more feeble.
9.20. Died.

\

FiTCHETT. — Physiological Action of Tntin. 365

Exps. 176, 177, 178, 179.

Four froths. Weights : A, 27 grams (Exp. 176) ; B, 37-5 grams (Exp. 177) ;

C, 28 grams (Exp. 178) ; D, 34-5 grams (Exp. 17!>)-

p. M.

6.0. To each frog was given 0-012 gram chloral-hydrate, hypodermically. It was
intended to give 0-008 gram chloral-hydrate to frog.s C and D, but by mistake
they received the same dose (0-012 gram) as A and B.

6.5. B received 15-3 minims of a O-OS-jier-cent. solution tutin (12m]gm. per kilo),
hypodermically ; C received 10-4 minims of a O-05-per-cent. solution tutin
(11 mlgra. per kilo), hypoderraic^iliy ; D received 14 minims of a 0-Oo-per-cent.
solution tutin (12 mlgm. per kilo), hypodermically.

Next day. A is normal, B is dying, C is dead, D is dying.

Exp. 180.

yjj Rabbit. Weight, 1-4 kilograms.

5 55. Gave 1-5 grams urethane, by stomach-tube.

G.20. Apparently under, very sleepy and limp. Gave 4 mlgm. tutin per ld!o, hypo-
dermically.

7.30. Symptoms first observed ; they were not present at 7.15 p.m.

8.0. Twitching of ears and head, and starts of fore part of body ; no salivation ; was
handled a little roughly in trying to see if salivation present, and went into a
typical fit ; it lay on one side, and fit succeeded fit in rapid succession ; move-
ments chiefly clonic ; no tonic phase could be detected.

8.30. As fits still continue, and animal seemed doomed, tried about 1 e.e. of a 10-per-
cent, sodium-carbonate, per rectum. While giving injection noticed involun-
tary urination.

8.45. Sodium-carbonate had produced no obvious effect, so tried chloroform ; ad-
ministered it as carefully as possible, ^vith a Skinner's mask ; breathing was
shallow and rapid ; under influence of chloroform animal became cjuiet, move-
ments of limbs ceased, head moved slowly backwards, and breathing ceased
suddenly without the least warning ; the heart could not be felt beating, and
artificial respiration had no effect.

Exp. 181.

Feb. 4. Rabbit was chloroformed, stomach-tube passed ; 0-85 e.c. paraldehj^de (1-2 e.e.

p.m. per kilo), dissolved in 10 c.c. water, given.

5.0. Noticed that reflexes had returned.

6.15. Asleep.
Feb. 5. Recovered.

Exp. 182.

p_jj_ Rabbit. Weight, 1-551 kilograms.

4.48. Gave ^^ grain hypodermic tabloid of hyoscine hydrobrom, hypodermically.

5.15. Apparently no effect, so gave a second dose of 5-J„ grain, per os.

6.5. No effect.

Next day. Normal.

Eeferences to Literature

1. " Life and Voyages of Captain James Cook." By Andrew Kippis,

D.D., F.R.S. London : George NeAvnes (Limited) ; 190L P. 179.

2. Lijttelton Times. Vol. i, No. 1, p. 6 ; 11th January, 1851.

3. " On the Toot Plant and Poison of New Zealand." By W. Lauder

Lindsay, M.D., F.R.S. Edin. British and Foreign Medico-Chirw-
gical Review, No. Ixxi ; Julv, 1865.

4. " Story of New Zealand." By A. S. Thomson, M.D. 1859.

5. Otago Colonist. 25th October, 1861.

6. Otago Daily Times. 15th November, 1862.

7. " Studies on the Chemistry of the New Zealand Flora." By T. F.

Easterfield and B. C. Aston. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxiii (1900).

8. " Plants of New Zealand." By R. M. Laing, B.Sc, and E. W. Black-

well. New Zealand, 1906. P. 228.

366 Transactions.

9. " Art Album^f New Zealand Flora." By Mr. and Mrs. E. H. Featon.
London, 1889. Vol. i, p. 104.

10. " On Certain Properties of the Tutu Plant." Bv H. G. Hughes, M.P.S.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. iii (1870), p. 237.

11. " On the Physiological Action of Coriaria rusci folia, the Tutu Poison

of New Zealand." By W. Ledingham Christie, M.D. NeAv Zealand
Medical Journal, July and October, 1890.

12. Trans. N.Z, Inst., vol. ii, p. 399,

13. " Narative of Second Voyage." Vol. iii of General Voyages, p. 245.

London, 1821.

14. Annual Report, New Zealand Department of Agriculture, Chemical

Division, p. 79. Wellington, 1905.

15. " Sur le Coriamyrtin et ses Derives." By M. J. Riban. " Comptes

Rendus," p. 746. Paris, 1866.

16. " Manual of the New Zealand Flora." By T. F. Cheeseman, F.L.S.,

F.Z.S. Wellington, 1906, P. 105.

17. "' Contributions to New Zealand Botany." By W. Lauder Lindsay,

M.D., F,R.8,E., F.L.S. London, 1868. P. 83.

18. George M. Thomson, F.L.S., M.P. Private communication.

19. " On the Botany of the North Island." By W. Colenso. Trans. N.Z.

Inst., 1868.

20. " Through Canterbury and Otago with Bishop Harper in 1859-60."

By Rev. J. W. Stack. P. 14. Printed at Akaroa Mail Office (no
date).

21. " On the Extraction of the Poisonous Principle of the Tutu Plant."

By W. Skey. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. ii (1869), p. 153.

22. Footnote to paper " On Certain Properties of the Tutu Plant." By

H. G. Hughes. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. iii (1870), p. 243.

23. " Tutu : Part I." By T, H, Easterfield and B, C. Aston. Wellington,

1900.

24. Note in the Proceedings of the Physiological Societv, " Journal of

Physiology," vol. 34, 1906. P. xxix.

25. Phil. Trans. London, 1842. Quoted from " Text-book of Physiology,"

edited by E. A. Schafer, Vol. i (1898), p. 653.

26. " American Journal of Physiology." Vol. 16 (1906), p. 1.

27. Quoted by C. R. Marshall in " Text-book of Pharmacology and Thera-

peutics," edited by W. Hale White. London, 1901. P. 646.

28. Arch. f. Exp. Path. \i. Pharmakol. 30, 1892 (quoted by Schmiedeberg,

Grundriss der Pharmakologie, 1906, p. 263).

29. Proc. Roy. Soc, B. 79, p. 503.

30. Grundriss der Pharmakologie, 1906, p. 263.

31. Tutere Wi Repa, M.B. Ch.B. Private communication.

32. " Tutu ; Part II." By T. H. Easterfield, Ph.D., F.C.S., and B. C.

Aston, F.C.S. Wellington. 1901. P. 3.

33. W. B. Benham. D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Biology, Otago University.

Private communication.

34. Crichton Browne. Brit. Med. Journ., vol. i, p. 410. London, 1875.

'• On Medicinal Plants." By C. C. Baber. Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xix (1886).
" On the Ink-plant of New Granada." By Dr. Jamieson. Proc. Linn.

Soc. vol. vii, p. 120.
" Maori Medical Lore." By W. H. Goldie, M.D. Trans. N.Z, Inst., vol.

xxxvii (1904).

Stuckey. — Neio Zealand Actinian, Bunodes aureoradiata. 367

\

Art. XXXIV. — Notes on a New Zealand Actinian, Bunodes aureoradiata.

By F. G. A. Stuckey, M.A.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, Mrd June, 1908.]

The family Bunodidce was established by Gosse for the reception of forms
" the surface of whose column is studded with persistent tubercles, and
which is not provided with marginal spherules or with jDerforations of the
integument." Among other genera it included Tealia and Bunodes. The
latter genus included one species, B. coronata, which was provided with
acontia,* structures which are now recognised as denoting sagartiad affinities.
Among the " Challenger " material Hertwig found a Bunodes (B. minuta)
" whose structure approaches that of Sagartia more closely than that of
Tealia." Considering, therefore, that Bunodes and Tealia should be widely
separated systematically, he placed the genus Bunodes among the sagartiads,t
and established the family Tealidw, taking T. crassicornis as its type. He
made the presence of a strong endodermal sphincter muscle the leading
characteristic of the family, also regarding of importance the presence of
a large number of perfect mesenteries, and including forms with both smooth
and warty columns. Later| he changed the name of the family, restoring
the older name Bunodidce.

Referring to Gosse's description of various species of Bunodes, we find
the hexamerous condition to be constant, the tentacular formulae beinu
6 + 6 + 12 + 24 = 48, 6 + 6 + 12 + 24 + 24 = 72, or 6+6+12+24
+ 48 = 96. Again, in Delage and Herouard the number of mesenteries
in Bunodes is stated to be 24 pairs, 12 of them being perfect. Gosse's
description of T. crassicornis states the tentacular formula as 5+5+10
+ 20 + 40 = 80. Again, Bourne§ gives the mesenterial arrangement of
T. crassicornis as follows : 10 pairs complete and apparently primary,
]0 pairs secondary, 20 pairs tertiary. There appears to be reasonable
g.ound for thinking that the hexamerous and pentamerous forms should
not be associated in the same family. Bourne separates them, and,
"provisionally accepting" an ingenious suggestion made by Boveri in his
" Development and Phylogeny of Zooantharia," makes Tealiidce one of his
families in which the hexamerous arrangement is obscured by precocious
development of the secondary and succeeding cycles of mesenteries.

In a paper (1901) which I have not seen, but which is referred to by
Torrey, II McMurrich unites in a new family, Crihrinidrp, Ehrenberg's genus
Cribrina, which he thinks synonymous with Bunodes (Gosse), Bunodactis
(Verrill), and Evactis (Verrill). As I do not know his reasons for this change,
I propose for the present to retain the older name of the family — namely,
Bunodido'.

Fam.' BUNODID^.

Tentacles digitate ; pedal-disc present, acontia absent ; sphincter strong,
circumscribed, endodermal ; numerous perfect mesenteries ; column gene-
rally covered with warts.

* " Actinologia Britannica," p. 204. § " Treatise on Zoology," ed. Ray Laii-

t " Challenger" Rejiort, Zoology, vol. vi. kester.

X Supplement to " Challenger" Report. i| Proc. Wash. Ac. So., vol. iv, p. 390.

368 Transactiojis .

Genus Bunodes.

Bunodidce with tubercles arranged in vertical series. Only the series
corresponding to the mesenteries of the 1st cycle run the full length of the
column. Marginal spherules on edge of disc. 24 pairs of mesenteries,
12 of them perfect, and all fertile except the directives.

Bunodes aureoradiata, n. sp.

Specific Character. — Yellow radii in 6 groups of 3.

Pedal-disc. — Adherent ; slightly wider than the column ; the edge
undulate to correspond with the vertical rows of tubercles. On each undula-
tion are 2 or sometimes 3 perforations, through which, when irritated,
the animal projects nematocysts torpedo-fashion, and in such a manner
as at first sight to suggest feeble acontia.

Column. — Cylindrical. In full expansion it is higher than the breadth.
The lower half is light or yellowish-brown, upper half greenish-brown.
There are 24 vertical rows of tubercles or verrucee : near the bottom of the
column these become mere markings ; they increase in size as they ascend
the column, culminating in a row of 24 white beads at the bases of the outer
cycle of tentacles. The rows of tubercles correspond to the endocoeles of
he mesenteries ; they consist of evaginations of the body-wall, and contain
ctoderm, mesogloea, and endoderm ; they are perforated, and probably
are able to act as suckers. The ectoderm of the column contains numerous
nuclei, fairly regularly arranged. Cell outlines are indistinguishable in my
preparations, but the nuclei are so arranged as to suggest that they belong
to long narrow cells. The mesoglcea consists of fibres imbedded in a struc-
tureless vacuolated matrix, in which are also a few other immigrant cells
from the ectoderm and the endoderm. There are no nematocysts. The
endoderm here, as in all parts of the body, contains symbiotic zooxanthellse,
which are present in very large numbers. The circular muscle of the wall
does not appear to be regularly developed through the whole length of the
wall.

Tentacles. — Conical and gently tapering. Pore at tip. Colour bronze-
green, like that of the oral disc. The tentacles are very sensitive, and
completely and quickly retractile ; they number 48, and are arranged in
4 cycles, the formula being 6 -|- 6 + 12 -t- 24 =^ 48. The ectoderm of the
tentacles is thinner than that of the column. The epithelial layer contains
numerous nuclei, but no cell-walls are distinguishable. There are numerous
nematocysts. The nervous layer of the ectoderm appears as a fibrous net-
work, with here and there what are apparently nerve-cells. The longitudinal
muscles of the tentacles appear as pleatings of the mesogloea. The meso-
gloea is not so distinctly fibrous as that of the column ; it is thin and vacuo-
lated. The structure of the endoderm is almost completely obliterated by
the great numbers of zooxanthell;^ that are present. A few folds on the
ondodermal side of the mesogloea indicate the circular muscles of the
tentacles.

Sphincter Muscle. — In transverse sections of the upper part of the column
the sphincter appears as a ring *ly^ng in the angle formed by the wall of
the oral disc. In cross-section it is seen to be well developed, endodermal,
and of the circumscribed type, not unlike the sphincter of Cradactis digitata
figured by McMurrich.*

* ■■ Scientific Results of Explorations by the United States Fish Commission Steamer
' Albatross ' " (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. xvi, pi. xxxiii).

Tkans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XL

I'L. XVII.

"ii|

'^^

^.*«^:^^

^■'

A NEW ZEALAND ACTINI AN. -Stuckey.

Fiicc p. 36S.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

I'l. XVIIl.

ANEMONES. — St uckey.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLl.

Pl. XIX.

%f--'

^^.^.J^^

»%%*'-^

ANEMONES. — Stuckey.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLl.

Pl. XX.

^!J

V

.y;^-

-t ,o;

-' 1 ^

'\':

1'

A'

3 Tf

ANEMONES. — Stuckey.

Stuckey.— Ncir Zealand Actinian, Bunodes aureoradiata. 369

Oral Disc. — The ectoderm resembles that of the tentacles. The nuclei
are large, and there are fewer nematocysts. The radial or ectodermal
muscles are strong, and are carried on deep pleatings of the mesogloea.
The mesogloea is i imilar to that of other parts. The endodermal or circular
muscles are weaker than the ectodermal. The " mouth " is borne on a
prominent peristome surrounded by a broken circle of yellow, from which
■extend 6 groups, each consisting of 3 radiating yellow lines with a shorter
yellow line between each 2 groups. These yellow radii correspond to the
first 3 cycles of tentacles, the tentacles of the 4th cycle being set opposite
to the interspaces.

.Esophagus. — The colour is greyish-white. There are 2 siphonoglyphs,
with inconspicuous tubercles. The insertions of the mesenteries are shown
by white markings. Each side of the cesophagus is thrown into 2 large
lobes. Outgrowths of the mesogloea, with corresponding foldings of the
•ectodermal lining of the oesophagus, give a much folded appearance, which
in cross-sections somewhat resembles an exaggerated starfish.

Mesenteries. — There are 24 pairs of mesenteries, of which 12 pairs are
perfect, 2 pairs being directives ; they are arranged quite regularly — a
pair of imperfect mesenteries in each exocoele of the perfect pairs. Strong
retractor muscles are borne on the faces of the mesenteries. On the im-
perfect mesenteries they extend from near the body-wall to the inner end
of the mesentery. The cells of the endoderm are spindle-shaped.

Gonads. — None present in any of the specimens sectioned.

Dimensions. — Oral disc 12 mm. wide in a good specimen. Height in
full expansion rather more than 12 mm. The longest tentacles are about
8 mm.

Locality and Habits. — The only specimens I have seen were procured at
Oriental Bay by Professor Kirk. The animal lives between tide-marks,
almost completely buried in sand and mud. The presence of the zooxan-
thellse probably enables it.to adopt this habit. It lives well in captivity.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII.

Fig. L Directive mesenteiies (cross-section) ; x 04.
Fig. 2. Sphincter muscle (cross-section) ; x 270.

370 Transactio7is.

Art, XXXV. — On Tivo Anemones found in the Neighbourhood of Wel-
lington— Leiotealia thompsoni and Sagartia albocincta.

By F. G. A. Stuckey, M.A.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 2nd September, 1908.]

Leiotealia thompsoni.

This anemone was first described by Professor Coughtrey* under the
name Actinia thompsoni. Professor Hutton| threw doubts on the cor-
rectness of the classification, and Mr. H. FarquharJ suggested that it would
form the type of a new family of the Artheadce. The strong endodermal
character of the sphincter muscle, however, taken with the smooth body-
wall and numerou.s perfect mesenteries, determine its place in the genus-
Leiotealia. This genus, which belongs to the family Bunodidce, was erected
by Eichard Hertwig, 1882, for the reception of what were practically smooth-
walled Tealidce. This is referred to more fully in my account of Bunodes
aureoradiata. McMurrich's family Crihrinidce, there mentioned, would con-
tain the genus Leiotealia. Torrey§ considers that Leiotealia is equivalent
to Efiactis (Verrill), and gives the older name priority. I have, however,,
retained Hertwig's name. With the definition of Bunodidce given in the
note referred to above I define Leiotealia as follows : " Bunodidce without
verrucse or acrorhagi, usually with the mesogloeal folds of the sphincter
arranged pinnately, and often with longitudinal furrows in the outer surface
of the wall."

L. thompsoni is one of the finest anemones found near Wellington, its
stout tentacles and bright colours making it a very beautiful object when
fully expanded. •

Pedal-disc. — Adhesive to rocks and boulders. I have found one speci-
men adhering to an ascidian which was itself fixed to a piece of seaweed.
When the animal is detached, the pedal-disc is often dilated to a great
extent. Its substance is thin, plainly showing the insertions of the mesen-
teries. It is rather wider than the column. It presents all the general
characteristics of the body-wall, processes of the mesogloea running outward
in the manner to be presently described.

Column. — Cylindrical in shape. Its height can be varied in a rather
marked manner in proportion to the diameter of the oral disc. The colour
is white and red in alternate longitudinal lines, which, however, are not
generally entire, as stated in Professor Coughtrey's description. The colours
are deposited in patches, the red in small irregular spots, the white marks
being more or less elliptical. This gives the surface of the column a some-
what chequered appearance under a lens of low power. The white markings
appear to correspond to the endocoeles, the red to the exocoeles of the mes-
enteries. There is a distinct ridge or collar round the top of the column.
The colour of preserved specimens completely disappears, when the wall is

* Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. vii. 1874.

t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xi, 1878.

J Lon. Soc. Journ. Zool., vol. xxvi, p. 528.

§ Proc. Wash. Ac. Soc, vol. iv, 1902, pp. 391-92.

Htuckfa'. — Aiieinoiic^ found in Neighbo2irhoo(l of Wellmgton. 371

seen to be thrown into parallel ridges which lie close together, running round
the body of the animal like hoops round a cask. Each of these folds is
wrinkled or pleated, the pleats being so close together and so nearly in line
as to almost present the appearance of longitudinal ridges. The result is
that both in cross-section and in longitudinal section the wall presents the
appearance of being covered with numerous papillae, into which the mesogloea
runs, often branching or folding in them (Plate XIX, fig. 1). Occasionally
the folds grow together and fuse, so that here and there we have in the me-
sogloea pits lined with ectoderm (Plate XIX, fig. 2). In cross-sections these
appear as more or less circular spaces. The ectoderm peels off in the manner
described by McMurrich in his account of Leiotealia badia. It presents the
usual histological features. Nuclei are numerous, and crowded towards the
outer part, while below this the outlines of the cells form a network. The
fibrils of the nervous layer form a more or less continuous line. Nematocysts
are present in great quantities, and there is great development of large
gland-cells, some of which are lenticular, others pyramidal in shape. The
mesogloea presents a wavy appearance, and has a few large scattered cells.
Fine processes of the mesogloea project inwards, carrying the circular muscle
of the wall. This muscle is not. continuous all round the body, but is in
bands, which overlap each other. The actual endoderm of the body-wall
is thin, and does not present any unusual features.

Tentacles. — These are arranged in three cycles — 10 in the first or inner,
20 in the second, 30 in the third. This arrangement gives the appearance
of their being placed in groups of six, thus ; : • Each tentacle is conical in
shape, and very stout. All the tentacles are equal in size. In colour they
are of a dull white, with a mauve tip. In a few specimens, which, it is
worth noting, were all obtained from Island Bay, the mauve tip w^as wanting,
and in these cases the longitudinal markings of the body-w^all appear to be
entire. One specimen had light-brown tentacles. There is a pore at the tip
of each tentacle. The tentacles of the first two cycles communicate with
the endocoeles, those of the third cycle with the exocoeles of the mesenteries.
There is a strong longitudinal muscle borne on numerous fine branching
processes of the mesogloea (Plate XIX, fig. 3). Outside this is the nervous
layer in the form of a distinct reticulum. The endodermal or circular
muscle of the tentacle is not particularly strong.

Sphincter Muscle (Plate XVIII, fig. 2). — This is very strong, and endo-
dermal in character. It projects into the coelenterm, and forms a rounded
cord, easily seen by the naked eye in a dissection. With a good light behind
an expanded specimen the sphincter can be seen through the body-wall. A
transverse section of the sphincter presents the same pinnate appearance as
that described by McMurrich in the sphincter of L. hadia. The endoderm sur-
rounding it is thin. The muscular fibrillar are seen in cross-section as small
swellings on the sides of the branching mesogloeal processes. In a longi-
tudinal section of the sphincter we see the fibres of the mesogloea running
in wavy parallel lines, while beside them are the muscular fil)res with their
nuclei cut at various angles.

Oral Disc. — The colour is reddish-brov,^n, marked in radiating lines by
the insertions of the mesenteries. The mouth is set on a darker-coloured
prominent peristome, round which is a depression. There are two siphono-
glyphs marked by pink tubercles. The structure of the disc recalls that
of the tentacles, except that the nervous and muscular layers are not so well
developed.

372 Transactions.

(Esophagus. — The colour is a dull white, with brighter lines at the in-
sertions of the mesenteries. Bourne* states that the sulcar and sulcular
siphonoglyphs do not differ in size and structure, but in my preparations
one siphonoglyph appears much deeper than the other. This is a feature
that frequently appears in sectioned anemones, and may be the result of
treatment. On the other hand, it may mark the position of the sulcular
directives, which, being the first pair of directives, and having less to pull
against than the second pair, may draw the stomodfeum unduly towards
them. In my sections of L. thompsoni the deeper siphonoglyph is curiovisly
folded, being bent on itself some six times almost at right angles. The
cilia of this siphonoglyph are strong, and stained distinctly with hsema-
toxylin.

Mesenteries. — There are 30 to 32 pairs, all perfect. Two pairs are di-
rectives (Plate XVIII, fig. 1). On all the mesenteries both retractor and
parietal muscles are very strong ; indeed, the whole animal is remarkable
for its great muscular development. The central fold of the mesenterial
trefoil stands well out beyond the lateral folds.

Gonads. — These appear in the usual place in the mesenteries. In one
of the animals sectioned no ovaries appeared, but the body-cavity contained
developing ova and embryos from the 2-chambered to the 12-rayed stage.
It is interesting to note that one such embryo had 5 chambers. The young
develop between the mesenteries until, at any rate, the 12-rayed stage is
reached. They then appear to be ready for an independent existence, as
I have found none beyond that stage in the body of the parent.

Dimensions. — A good specimen would be as much as 6-7 cm. in height
and 4-5 cm. in breadth ; tentacles, 2-5 cm.

Locality and Habits. — The species is apparently littoral, being found just
above and below low-water mark, attached to the rocks and to loose stones.
It is apparently fairly well distributed on the coast of New Zealand, but
is not very numerous in any locality. It is more plentiful at Plimmerton
than at any other place so far as I know. It has been found at most places
along the coast between Plimmerton and Wellington. Professor Coughtrey's
specimens were found in Otago Harbour.

Sagartia albocincta.

This anemone was first described by Professor Huttonf as Gregoria
albocincta. Gregoria was one of Gosse's genera of the family Sagartidce.
As it was erected for a single specimen, which Gosse himself thought might
have been immature, and as no specimen has since been found, recent workers
have agreed in dropping the genus. In reclassifying this animal I ha^'e
adopted McMurrich's definition of Sagartia^ : " SagartincB with smooth
column destitute of verrucas, and with, no special arrangement of the cin-
clides ; margin tentaculate ; tentacles concealed in contraction, the sphincter
being fairly strong."

Pedal-disc. — This only slightly exceeds the breadth of the column, and
is about equal to the height. It is strongly adherent, and the animal can
hardly be removed without damage. The usual histological structures
are present. The three layers are all very thin, the mesogloea especially so.

* ■' Treatise on Zoology," ed. Ray Lankester, pt. ii, Anthozoa, p. 38.

t Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. ii, 1878.

X Pro.^ U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. xvi, p. 176.

Stuckey. — Anemones found in Neighbour} iood of Wellington. 373

Column. — The shape is cylindrical. The colour is deposited in alternating
vertical stripes, pink and white, pellucid brown and white, brown and yellow,
or green and yellow. The upper part often assumes an orange, the lower a
greenish tinge. In full expansion the body-wall is semi-transparent. The
wall is pierced by a number of irregularly arranged cinclides, which are
easily made out in a fresh specimen. They have thickened margins. The
wall is traversed by longitudinal ridges, which appear in cross-sections as
papillse-like projections. Neither ectoderm nor endoderm present any
departure from the ordinary structure. In sections, especially in longi-
tudinal sections, the mesogloea presents numerous spaces, each containing
a deeply staining particle. There is a feebly developed circular muscle in
the wall.

Tentacles. — These are all opaque, white, and rather fine. They are
regularly arranged in four cycles, 12+12 + 24-1- 48. They can be wholly
retracted, though the favourite position of the animal when not distended
is one in w^hich the tentacles are partially withdrawn, the tips forming a
white central mass. In shape the tentacles are conical and pointed. They
are subequal, the longest being J to | of the full diameter of the disc. The
mesogloea and endoderm of the tentacles are thin and the musculature
weak. The nervous layer is well developed. Nematocysts are present.

Sphincter Muscle (Plate XX. fig. 3). — This is mesogloeal in character, and
is represented by a clavate swelling of the mesogloea. The thin end points
downwards, and tapers off into the mesogloea of the wall. In the thickened
part run anastomosing strands of the supporting layer, forming irregular
cavities, in which are seen the muscle-fibres, which here, consequently, are
arranged in bundles.

Oral Disc. — The disc is bright orange in colour, with radial markings.
The mouth is set on a peristome. On the inner side the mesogloea bears
short stout processes, giving it a notched appearance. The processes bear
the endodermal or circular muscle of the disc. The ectodermal muscle
is hardly perceptible.

(Esophagus. — The oesophagus is dull white, wdth brighter vertical lines.
There are 2 siphonoglyphs, and sections show the oesophagus to be much
folded. Th^ mesogloea is thick compared with that of other parts, and
has a very striking reticular appearance, which recalls the structure of the
sphincter.

Mesenteries (Plate XX, fig. 2). — These number 24 pairs, of which 2 pairs
are directives. Of these 24 pairs, I take 6 pairs to belong to the first and
6 to the second cycle. These are all perfect, reaching the oesophagus, as also
do some of the third cycle of 12 pairs. In addition, there are a few rudi-
mentary mesenteries of a fourth cycle just showing. The retractor muscles
on the perfect mesenteries are narrow, except on the directives, where they
are strong, and placed close up to the oesophagus.

Acontia are emitted through the mouth and through the cinclides already
mentioned. Some specimens emit the acontia much more reluctantly than
others.

Gonads. — Only on one of the mesenteries did I see in my preparations
any indication of a gonad — in this case an ovary.

Dimensions. — Height, 10-12 mm. ; and diameter, 7-10 mm.

Habits and Locality. — This anemone is found on rocks, stones, and the
roots of seaweed. It is very firmly attached, and can only be removed
with difficulty. It opens freely in captivity. It is common in the neigh-
bourhood of Wellington, and is also recorded from Lyttelton. Hutton's
original specimens were found at Dunedin.

374 Transactions.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XVIII-XX.

Plate XVIII.

Fig. L Leiotealia thompsoni. Directive mesenteries, parts of four other mesenteries,

body-wall, and siphonoglypli.
Fig. 2. Leiotealia thompsoni. Cross-section of sphincter muscle.

Plate XTX.
Fig. L Leiotealia thompsoni. Body-wall, showing the ridges into which the outer

surface is thrown (cross-section).
Fig. 2. Leiotealia thompsoni. Body-wall, showing the mesoglcea pits lined by ectoderm.
Fig. 3. „ Part of tentacle (cross-section).

Plate XX.

Fig. L Leiotealia thompsoni. Showing embryos developing within the body of tbe
parent ; one embryo at the " 2-chambered " stage, the first pair of mesen-
teries just developing ; the other advanced to the 12-mesenteried stage.

Fig. 2. Sagariia albocincta. Directive mesenteries.

Fig. 3. ,, Ci'oss-section of sphincter.

Art. XXXVJ. ■ — A Revieiv of the New Zealand Actiniaria known to
Science, together with a Description of Twelve Netv Species.

By F. G. A. Stuckey, M.A., Wellington.
[Bead before the Wellington Philosophical Society, 1th October. 1908.]

Introduction.

This paper was written under the supervision of Professor H. B. Kirk.
M.A., of Victoria College, Wellington, to whom I desire to express my deep
sense of gratitude and obligation for instruction in biological method during
a three-years course of study, and particularly for his advice and assistance
in preparing the present paper. My thanks are also due to Mr. William C.
Davis, for instruction in the art of micro-photography ; and to Mr. H.
Farquhar, who assisted m-e in the identification of species known to him,
and also supplied me with a list of works on the subject.

Historical.

Considering the richness of the actinian fauna of New Zealand and the
attractiveness of the work, it is strange that so few workers have studied
this subject. Up to the present date, only three New Zealand workers
have published accounts of Actiniaria : 1874 — Coughtrey ; one species.
1878 — Hutton ; nine species (five new ; one previously described in the
account of the Dana Exploration Expedition ; two described by Quoy and
Gaimard, voy. " Astrolabe " ; and one previously described by Coughtrey).
1 898 — Farcjuhar ; seven new species. The first two writers gave only
external characters, but Farquhar described the internal anatomy of one
of his species.

With the exception of Minyas viridula, all the species so far described
are littoral. It is a remarkable fact that there were none of our New Zea-
land species in the " Challenger " material. So far as I can ascertain from
a careful scrutiny of Hertwig's lists, the expedition took no actinans in

Stuckey. — A Revieiv of the New Zealand Actiniaria. 375

New Zealand waters, a circumstance which seems to point to the conclusion
that there are in this region no abyssal or pelagic forms.

Methods.

Killing. — Several methods were used.

(1.) Electrocution with a strong current (14 amperes) was tried, but the
results were fair only. I am of opinion that this method is not good for
histological purposes, on account of the destruction of tissue brought about
by electrolysis.

(2.) In another method the animals, after being expanded in a minimum
of sea-water in small glass vessels, were dropped (vessels and all) into a
boiling saturated solution of perchloride of mercury.

(3.) The animals were stupefied with magnesium-sulphate in sea- water
(Tullberg's method), and then either chloroformed or dropped into boiling
perchloride of mercury.

The last two methods yielded the best results.

Fixing, Imbedding, and Cutting. — All specimens were fixed by immer-
sion for a longer or shorter period, according to size, in perchloride of mer-
cury. The larger specimens were filled with the fixing fluid through the
mouth by means of a glass syringe immediately after death. The mercui'v
having been removed with iodine, the specimens were dehydrated in the
ordinary way, and finally imbedded in paraffin. Sections were cut with a
Cambridge rocking microtome, and, in the case of some of the large species,
with a sliding microtome.

Staining. — Mass staining with borax-carmine yielded results which were
satisfactory, but not so good as those obtained by staining on the cover -
slip. Saffranin and methylin blue yielded good results, the nuclei staining
well. Fuchsin was found a fine stain for nuclei and nematocysts. Kleinen-
berg's hsematoxylin gave good definition of mesogloea. The best results
were got with Erlich's hfematoxylin. This was used full strength (Squire's
formula), or diluted with water in various proportions. All yielded ex
cellent results. After staining on the cover-slip the sections were washed
in " tap " water, in some cases being immersed in the water for several
days. I am convinced that the best results with this stain are obtained bv
using it full strength, and then washing out for four or five days in water.

List of Species described.

Grade I. PA RAM ERA.
Order EDWARDSIIDEA.
Genus Edwardsia (Qua tref ages).

1. Edwardsia tricolor (Farquhar), nom. nov,

2. Edwardsia ignota, sp. nov.

Grade IJ. CRYPTO PARA MERA.

Order ACT INI IDE A.

Suborder MALACACTINIiE.

Group HEX ACTINIA.

Fam. Anthead^.

Genus Actinia (Browne).

3. Actinia tenebrosa (Farquhar),

376 Transactions.

Genus Anemonia (Risso).

4. Anemonia olivacea (nom. nov.), Hutton.

Fam. Sagartidje.
Genus Sagartia (Gosse).

5. Sagartia albocincta (nom. nov.), Hutton.

6. „ nutrix (sp. nov.).

7. „ vagrans (sp. nov.).

Genus Thoe (Wright).

8. Thoe alhens (sp. nov.).

Genus Halcampactis (Farquhar).

9. Halcampactis duhia (sp. nov.).

Fam. Paractid^.
Genus Paractis (Andres).

10. Paractis feraz (sp. nov.).

Genus Tealidium (Hertwig).

11. Tealidium cinctum (sp. nov.).

Fam. CORALLIMORPHID^.

Genus Corynactis (AUman).

12. Corynactis haddoni (Farquhar).

13. „ gracilis (Farquhar),

14. „ m,ollis (Farquhar).

15. ,, albida (sp. nov.).

Fam. Phyllactid^.
Genus Cradactis (McMurrich).

16. Cradactis plicatus (Hutton), nom. nov.

17. ,, magna (sp. nov.).

Fam. BuxoDiD.^:.
Genus Bunodes (Gosse).

18. Bunodes aureoradiata (sp. nov.).

19. Bunodes inconspicua (nom. nov.), Hutton.

Genus Leiotealia (Hertwig).

20. Leiotealia thompsoni (nom. nov.), Coughtrey.

Fam. Aliciid^.
Genus Phlyctenactis (gen. nov.).

21. Phlyctenactis retifera (sp. nov.).

22. ,, morrisonii (sp. nov.).

Genus (?).

23. Species (?).

Stuckey. — A Review of the Xew Zealand Actiniaria. ^11

To this list I append, for the benefit of other workers, the following
list of other New Zealand species which are at present known, but more or
less inadequately described. I have not seen any of these species : —

24. Edwardsia neozealanica (Farquhar).

25. Halcampactis mirabilis (Farquhar).

26. Paractis momlifera (Drayton, Milne-Edwards, Hutton).

27. Actinia striata (Quoy and Gaimard, Hutton).

28. Phymactis pohjdactyla (Hutton).

29. Minyas viridula (Quoy and Gaimard, Milne-Edwards, Hutton).

30. Sagartia crocata (Hutton).

31. Peachia carnea (Hutton).

General Results.

One new genus has been erected and one abandoned genus re-established.
Twelve new species have been described, four species have been placed in
other genera than those in w^hich they were placed by their original de-
scribers, and one species has received a new specific name. For all these
changes reasons are given in the text.

In general, the anatomy of all species is normal. Actinia tenehrosa shows
great variation in the number and arrangement of its mesenteries.

The histology of the Actiniaria has been so fully worked out by the
Hertwigs that little remains to be said on the subject. The structure of
ectoderm and endoderm showed no departure from the normal type, with
the exception of the ectodermal pits found in Leiotealia thomfsoni. The
mesogloea, however, showed some considerable variation. In the majority
of cases it presented the usual features — namely, " a homogeneous matrix
in which fibres are imbedded." In other cases lacunae were found to a
greater or less extent, especially in the tentacles of Phlyctenactis retifera,
where the mesogloea was found to be highly reticular. There are fine
sphincter muscles in Leiotealia thompsoni and Cradactis plicatus, more
especially in the former.

A peculiar arrangement of the " trefoil " of the mesenterial filament
was noted in Actinia tenehrosa and Corynactis haddoni.

With regard to gonads, it is a common occurrence for observers to fail
to find them in their specimens, either because the animals are immature,
or because the reproductive cells are found at certain seasons only. In
the papers enumerated hereunder, describing British anemones and those
collected in various expeditions, out of 163 species described gonads were
found in sixty-nine only. Of the twenty-three examined by me, and de-
scribed in this paper, gonads were located in nine. In two cases the animals
were found to be viviparous : one had ova in brood-pouches ; another was
observed to divide in a manner for w^hich I suggest the name " lateral
fission." __

Books and Papers referred to in this Paper.
Andres, A. " Le Attinie." " Fauna und Flora des Golfes var Naepel."

1883.
Bourne, G. C. " Treatise on Zoology." R. Lankester. 1900.
Coughtrey, M. " Description of a New Species of Actinia." Trans. N.Z.

Inst., vol. vii. 1894.
Delage and Herouard. " Traite de Zoologie Concrete." 1901.
Dixon, A. F. " Arrangement of Mesenteries in the Genus Sagartia." Proc.

Roy. Dub. Soc, vol. vi, n.s., pt. 3. 1888.
Dixon, G. Y. " Remarks on Sagartia venusta and Sagartia nivea." Ibid.

378

Transactions.

Dixon, A. F. and G. Y. " Notes on Bunodes thallia, Bunodes verrucosa, and

Tealia crassicornis.'''' Proc. Roy. Dub. Soc, vol. vi, n.s., pt. 6. 1889.
Duerden, J. E. " The Actiniarfan Family Aliciidce." Ann. and Mag.

Nat. Hist., 6th series, No. 115. 1897.
Farquhar, H. " Preliminary Account of some New Zealand Actinians."

Linn. Soc. Journ. Zool., vol. xxvi. 1898.
Gosse, P. H. " Actinologia Britannica." 1860.
Haddon, A. C. " Revision of the British Actinice,'' Part I. Trans. Roy.

Dub. Soc, vol. iv, ser. ii. No. v. 1889.
Haddon, A. C, and Shaekleton, A. M. " Revision of the British Actinice"

Part II. Trans. Roy. Dub. Soc, vol. iv, ser. ii. No. xii. 1891.
Haddon, A. C, and Shaekleton, A. M. " Report on Zoological Collections

made in Torres Strait." Trans. Roy. Dub. Soc, vol. iv, ser. ii, No. xiii.

1891.
Hertwig, R. " Report on the Actiniaria dredged by H.M.S. " Challenger "

during the Years 1873-76." " Challenger "" Report, vol. vi. 1882.
Hertwig,R. Supplement to Report, &c. "Challenger" Report, vol. xxvi. 1888.
Hickson, S. J. " Cambridge Natural Historv," vol. i.
Hutton, F. W. " The Sea Anemones of New Zealand." Trans. N.Z. Inst..

vol. xi. 1878.
McMurrich, J. P. " Report on the Actinian Collections made by the U.S.

Fish Commission steamer ' Albatross ' during the Winter of 1887-88."

Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. xvi. 1893.
Moseley, H. N. " On New Forms of Actiniaria dredged in the Deep Sea."

Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., Zoology, ser. ii, vol. i, pt. 5. 1877.
Parker, G. H. " Longitudinal Fission in Metridium margenaUimy Bull.

Mus. Har. Coll., vol. xxxv, No. 3. 1899.
Torrey, H. B. " Anemones, with Discussion of Variation in Metridium.''''

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. iv. 1902.

Description of Species.

Genus Edwardsia (Qua tref ages).

1. Edwardsia tricolor (nom. nov.), Farquhar, 1898.

This species (fig. 1) was described by Farquhar under the name
Edwardsia elegans. I have changed the specific name to
tricolor, the name elegans having been
in use for another species since 1849.
Mr. Farquhar has fully described the
external appearance of this species, so I
shall only briefly state my own obser-
vations. The body is brown, wrinkled,
and covered with a rough cuticle, which
is thin at the upper end. It is marked
longitudinally by 8 double brown lines.
There is a strong constriction between
body and capitulum. The lower part of
the capitulum is bulbous, and is divided
into 8 segments by double 'white lines,
continuous with the brown lines of the

C'^v^/ scapus (fig. 2). In colour each segment

is brown, with a large white spot.
Fig. 1. Above this is a narrower white portion. The tentacles

Fig. 2.

Stuckey. — A Review of the New Zealand Actiniaria.

379

are in two cycles, 8 in each, those of the outer cycle corresponding to the
white lines, those of the inner cycle to the interspaces. The tentacles are
transparent, yellowish-brown in colour. Cross-sections show that there are 8

,,Ol'^"'r

fnoloderm -^\S

Mesoff/oe a

rct0^.rrr,WMm

\\M\^ — £ndocJerm
^^^Sr — Mesoj/<x.a.

[ M^^^^TiT yVeryous /oyer

£atoderm { ^^^ Sp,/-heha./ /aye'

Fig. 4.

Pig. 3.

mesenteries which reach the stomodseum above, and are short and dendri-
form below, as shown in the sketch (fig. 3). There is nothing unusual in the
histological structure of the body-wall. The ectoderm is thick, the meso-
gloea thin and homogeneous. The endoderm is thicker than the mesogloea,
but not so thick as the ectoderm. In cross-sections of the tentacles the

most noteworthy feature is the nervous
layer, which is well developed, and
reticular in form, with long processes
running to the muscular layer, appa-
rently one process passing between
each of the mesogloeal folds carrying
the muscle (fig. 4). It was not pos-
sible to locate the position of the re-
productive organs in my specimens, but in all that were sectioned there were
masses of ova in almost all parts of the body, including the stomodaeum
(Plate XXII, figs. 1 and 2).

Distribution. — Of the genus — almost cosmopolitan. Of the species —
Island Bay, Ohiro Bay.

2. Edwardsia ignota (sp. nov.).

The body is of the usual Edwardsian type, the physa, however, being
rather reduced. The colour is a dirty white or light grey. The capitulum
bears 8 light-brown lines. The tentacles are 8 in number, short and blunt.
The disc is flattened and the mouth prominent. The scapus is naked, and
the physa thin and rounded at the extremity. The animal collapsed when
taken out of the water, but the capitulum was not introverted. Only one
specimen was found, and on coming to section it I discovered that the body
was full of sand, so that it was impossible to obtain any sections.

Distribution of the S'pecies. — -Island Bay.

380 Transactions.

Fam. ANTHEAD^.

HexactinicB with long marginal tentacles. Sphincter muscle slightly
developed or entirely absent. Numerous perfect mesenteries, and all (?)
furnished with reproductive organs.

In the above I modify Hertwig's definition with respect to the sphincter
muscle, which I found to be absent in Actinia tenebrosa, and the non-ability
to cover the disc, which the same animal does completely and readily. There
still appears to be doubt as to whether all the mesenteries bear gonads.
McMurrich ("Albatross" Report) in describing Actinia infecunda says, " The
ova appeared to occur on a few of the larger perfect mesenteries." In
A. tenebrosa I found ova on what were apparently some of the mesenteries
of the second or third cycles.

Genus Actixia (Browne).
" Antheadce with acrorhagi."

3. Actinia tenebrosa (Farquhar).

Pedal-disc. — Adherent. Rather wider than the column. The ectoderm
is thick, and secretes a thin cuticle. The nervous layer is fairly well de-
veloped. The mesogloea is thick, and in cross-section appears very fibrous.
The whole mesogloea of this animal is remarkable for the large number of
cells it contains, and is certainly the most highly developed mesogloea that
I found in the species I examined. The endoderm is thinner than the
mesogloea, and contains many gland-cells.

Column. — The column is smooth. Its colour is brown, in shades varying
from reddish-brown to brownish-black. Mr. Farquhar records that he
found a specimen which was " yellowish-white, with a slightly greenish
tinge." He ascribes this colour to the absence of light. I have found these
yellowish-green specimens in such large numbers as to make me think that
they may possibly constitute a distinct variety of the species.

The column forms a fairly well-developed collar under the bases of the
outer tentacles. On this are placed the marginal spherules, which are of
a whitish colour, with a blue or lavender tinge.

The ectoderm of the column is similar to that of the pedal-disc. The
nerve-layer is more noticeable, and there are large nerve-cells. The mesogloea
is noticeably fibrous in appearance.

Tentacles. — These are conical, and about half the diameter of the oral
disc in length. Their colour is dull red. They are placed in three cycles,
very crowded and numerous (200 or more). Their ectodermal muscles
are very strong, the processes of the mesogloea on which they are borne
being long and straight, lying side by side, parallel and not branching at all,
or only very slightly. There is a very thick nerve-layer between these and
the epithelial cells. The outer part is crowded with nematocysts, and there
is a thin cuticle. The mesogloea is about one-third as thick as the ectoderm,
while the endoderm is very thick, almost filling the cavity. The endodermal
musculature is only very slightly developed.

Oral Disc. — The colour is the same as that of the tentacles. The mouth
is set on a prominent peristome. In structure the disc closely resembles
the tentacles, except that the mesogloeal processes which carry the ecto-
dermal muscles anastomose rather freely. The disc and tentacles can be
completely covered in contraction.

Stuckey. — A Revieiv of the New Zealand Actiniana. 381

Stomoda'um. — The stomod;eiim is not commonly everted. Cross-sections
:.show it somewhat strongly folded, and with 2 siphonoglyphs.

Sphincter Muscle. — This is wanting in the present species, but there is
at one place on the column (about one-third of the way down) a rather
stronger development of the endodermal muscles. This probably fulfils
the function of a sphincter.

Mesenteries. — There are 2 pairs of directives. The normal number of
mesenteries appears to be 48 pairs, arranged in three cycles (12 + 12 + 24),
but the number is very variable. In one section I counted 56 pairs. In
this section, instead of 12 pairs of perfect mesenteries, there are 15 pairs
that reach the stomodfeum, and there is a superfluous development of the
mesenteries of the third cycle. Not only so, but the members of the same

pair are sometimes unequal. Both these features
appear in the micrograph (Plate XXIII, fig. 1).
The musculature is very w^eak on all the mesen-
teries. The mesenterial filaments show the usual
structure. In the middle lobe of the " trefoil "
the mesogloea expands into a cup - shaped mass
(Plate XXIII, fig. 2). A. very curious feature is
noticed in this species. Before reaching the " tre-
foil " portion the mesentery divides into three, each
division ending in a trefoil. In many cases in my
sections it happened that only o»e of the three trefoils
Fig. 5. was cut truly transversely, the others being cut at

various angles, so that the mesentery showed a pair
•of curious comblike structures and a median trefoil. It will be easily
seen that such a comblike appearance could be produced by cutting the
free edge of a filament more or less longitudinally. All doubt, however,
was removed by the discovery of several cases where the mesentery bore
three unmistakable trefoils (fig. 5).

Distribution. — Of the genus — English Channel, Atlantic, Mediterranean,
Torres Strait, Abrohlos Islands (Delage and Herouard) ; also New Zealand.
Of the species — Cook Strait, Queen Charlotte Sound (Mr. Grant), Eobiu
Hood Bay (Mr. Skelley), Stewart Island (Miss E. Morrison).

Genus Anemonia (Risso).
" Antheadre without acrorhagi."

4. Anemonia olivacea (Hutton).

This species was described by Hutton as Anthea olivacea. It is referred
to as Anemonia olivacea by Farquhar, who is probably right in so naming
it, the older generic name having precedence.

Pedal-disc. — Ectoderm and eudoderm are thin. The mesogloea is thick
and fibrous, the fibres being arranged in wavy branching lines. Numerous
nuclei appear in the mesogloea.

Column. — Smooth. Colour, olive-green. There are light longitudinal
lines near the base. The ectoderm and endoderm present the usual cha-
racters, and the mesogloea resembles that of the pedal-disc. It varies in
thickness, thick and thin places alternating in my sections.

Tentacles. — About 50 in number, arranged in four cycles. In colour
they are pellucid-green, of the same shade as the body. There is a slight
constriction near the end, and the tip is darker in colour. They are conical
and slender, and their length is equal to the diameter of the oral disc. They

382 Transactions.

are not completely retractile. The ectoderm and endoderm are thick and
the mesogloea thin. The musculature is very weak.

Orcd Disc. — The colour is brownish-green. The mouth is set on a slight
elevation, from which radiate yellowish lines. The structure of the disc
closely resembles that of the tentacles.

Stomodceum. — This is pinkish-white in colour, and there are 2 siphono-
glyphs. In cross-section the stomodseum is seen to be strongly folded.

Sphincter. — Weak, endodermal. Its shape in cross-section is semi-ovate,,
the flattened side closely appHed to the body-wall.

'Mesenteries. — There are 24 pairs, every second pair being perfect. Two
pairs are directives. The musculature is strong, especially on the perfect
mesenteries. The muscle-banners extend almost from wall to stomodaeum^

Gonads. — None seen in my specimens.

Size. — Diameter, about 20 mm. ; height, rather less.

Habits. — This species is found in rock-pools, often inhabiting quite small
" pot-holes " on the upper part of the rocks. Its colour is strongly pro-
tective.

Distribution. — Of the genus — English Channel, Atlantic, Mediterranean,,
Patagonia, Torres Strait, Pichelingue Bay (Delage and Herouard) ; also
New Zealand. Of the species — Dunedin (Hutton), Cook Strait.

Fam. SAGARTID.E.

" Hexactinim furnished with acontia."

In thus defining the Sagartidce I have followed what seems to be the-
general tendency of recent authors. Hadden has somewhat fully discussed
the classification of sagartians, though he arrived at no very definite con-
clusion. In using the term " sagartians " he says, " By the latter term I
include all those Actiniw which possess acontife." McMurrich (" Albatross "
Report, 1893) says, " It seems at present convenient to associate all Actinice
with acontia in a single family." Most authors, however, in defining the
family still include the provision " sphincter muscle mesogloeal." I shoiild
like to point out, on the authority of G. C. Bourne, that Actinoloba, a sagartian
genus, has an endodermal sphincter.

Subfam. SAGARTIN.E.
" Sagartidce with naked ectoderm. Cinclides usually preSent."

Genus Sagartia (Gosse).
" Sagartidce with smooth column ; no verrucae ; no special arrangement
of cinclides ; margin tentaculate ; tentacles concealed in contraction, the
sphincter being fairly strong " (McMurrich).

5. Sagartia albocincta (nom. nov.), Hutton.

A description of this species is published at p. 372 of this volume.

Distribution. — Of the genus — Arctic Ocean, North Sea, Enghsh Channel,
Atlantic, Mediterranean, Cape Horn, Pacific coast of South America, East
Indies, Australia (Delage and Herouard) ; also New Zealand. Of the
species — Dunedin (Hutton), Plimmerton (H. B. Kirk), Cook Strait.

6. Sagartia nutrix (sp. nov.).

This is the brown sagartian mentioned by Farquhar as probably forming
the food of the butter-fish. It is found only on Lessonia, where it establishes
itself in colonies.

Stuckey. — A Review of the New Zealand Actiniaria.

383

Pedal-disc. — The ectoderm is thin and folded, with straight mesogloeal
processes. It is covered by a thin cuticle, which is also found on the column,
but becomes less distinct as it ascends. The mesogloea is thin, and contains
lacunar The most prominent feature is the endoderm, which is thick and
regular, the cells being straight and fine.

Column. — The colour is, in general, deep brow^n, but there is some varia-
. tion. I have collected some specimens that were greenish, some blue, and
some yellow. The whole animal is iridescent. Preserved specimens become
light brown. The ectoderm resembles that of the pedal-disc, though slightly
thicker, and without the mesogloeal processes. Exceedingly slight ecto-
dermal elevations or papillte appear in cross-sections. No cinclides are
present. The mesogloea is fibrous.

Tentacles. — These are short and fine, and placed at the edge of the disc
in three or four crowded cycles. The mesogloea is distinctive. Though thin,
it contains numerous spaces, each with a darkly staining particle. The pro-
cesses that bear the ectodermal muscles branch and slightly anastomose.
The muscle-fibres themselves show very distinctly on these processes. There
is a very noticeable fibrous layer below the epithelial layer, which is itself
covered with a cuticle like that of the pedal-disc and column.

Oral Disc. — The colour is generally iridescent green, but it is ver}* variable.
The moutli is pink or magenta, and there are radial markings. The structure
•of the disc resembles that of the tentacles, but the musculature is weaker.

Sphincter Muscle. — This is mesogloeal in character. There is a club-
shaped swelling of the mesogloea in the upper part of the wall, tapering
gradually at the lower end, and coming almost to a point suddenly at the
upper end (Plate XXI, fig. 2).

Mesenteries. — There are 24 pairs, every second pair being perfect. Two
pairs are directives.

Gonads. — I saw no reproductive organs in my cross-sections, but ova
appeared on a mesentery in a longitudinal section. They were close up to

the sphincter. I was unable to

determine to what cycle the
mesentery belonged. Presum-
ably the young of this species
are retained in the body till
fully formed, for I found one
specimen which had twelve
young ones attached to the out-
side of the body-wall in a regular
transverse circle about one-third
of the height of the wall from
the foot. This is shown in fig. 6
of the text, and in Plate XXI,
fig. 1. If the young are not re-
tained till they are considerably
advanced, it is difficult to see
how they can become attached in this manner unless there are external
Ijrood -pouches. I have seen no evidence in support of the latter view.

Acontia. — These are emitted from the mouth readily, but not in great
iuimbers.

Dimensioyis. — Height, 12 mm. ; breadth, about the same.
Distribution of the Species. — Island Bay, Ohiro Bay.

Fig. 6.

38-i Transactions.

7. Sagartia vagrans (sp. iiov.).

Pedal-disc. — The ectoderm is thick, and presents no unusual feature.
The mesogloea is much " vacuolated," and the endoderm is thin.

Column. — The colour is dirty-white and ohve-brown in alternate longi-
tudinal lines, or the whole may be dirty-white, or grey, or even pink. There
is a circular muscle in the wall throughout its entire length carried on regular
folds of the mesogloea.

Tentacles. — These are very fine and threadUke. Their colour is salmon-
pink, though in som.e specimens they are white. They are of different lengths
in the different cycles. There are several cycles, but the tentacles are so
numerous and crowded that it is impossible to make out how many cycles
there are. Judging from cross-sections I should say there are four cycles.
In structure the tentacles resemble those of the last species [S. nutrix),
but there is a specially well-developed iiervous layer.

Oral Disc. — Colour olive-brown generally, but there is considerable
variation. The structure is identical with that of the tentacles, and closel}^
resembling the same part of S. nutrix.

Stomodceum. — The colour is a rich pink, with darker-coloured red longi-
tudinal lines. The inner edge of the mouth is also red. The stomodaeum
is freely everted, when the red lines, together with the edge of the mouth,
form a rosette-like design on the disc. There are 2 siphonoglyphs.

Sphincter Muscle. — This is mesogloeal in character. There is only a slight
thickening of the mesogloea under the bases of the tentacles, but the whole
body-wall has the character (more or less) of a diffuse mesoglceal sphincter.
In contraction the tentacles and oral disc are much infolded, the wall com-
pletely overarching them.

Mesenteries. — There are 48 pairs, 12 pairs being perfect, the arrangement
of the cvcles being 6 -F 6 -f 12 -h 24 = -18. Two pairs are directives..
(Plate XXVII, fig. 2.)

Gonads. — None were present in my specimens.

Acontia. — These are extruded through lens-shaped cinclides, which are
invisible except at the time of discharge. These cinclides appear to be on
the white lines only, and to be limited to a zone encircUng the middle third,
of the body.

Locality. — Professor H. B. Kirk has brought me specimens from PHm-
merton. I myself have found the species in large numbers on the breast-
work of the Thorndon Esplanade, Wellington Harbour, and on the piles
of the baths. This anemone adheres so strongly that it is impossi-ble to
remove it without damage. It is attached also to shells of mussels, and this
makes it possible to obtain good specimens.

Habits, dc. — This animal lives well in captivity. Some that I kept in
an aquarium wandered about at will.

Size. — My largest specimens were 40 mm. high and 20 mm. in diameter,
but I am told there are larger ones on the piles of the Queen's Wharf, Wel-
lington.

Affinities. — Probably closely allied to *S. cdbocincta.

Distribution. — Of the genus — As above. Of the species — Plimmerton.
(H. B. Kirk), AVellington Harbour.

Genus Thoe (Wright).

On page 122 of the " Actinologia Britannica," Gosse, after referring
to the genus Sagartia, says, " A group less typical I consider to be formed

Tkans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

Tl. XXI.

I.

REVIEW OF NEW ZEALAND ACTINIARIA.— Stuckey.

Face p. 384.

Tkans. N.Z. Inst., Vol XLI.

Pl. XXII.

REVIEW OF NEW ZEALAND ACTINIARIA. — Stuckey.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

Pl. XXIII.

'P

REVIEW OF NEW ZEALAND ACTINI ARIA.— Stuckey.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI,

Pl. XXIV.

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V ,. - \ ■ ■

N

REVIEW OF NEW ZEALAND ACTINIARIA.— Stuckey.

Tkans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

Pl. XXV.

\

!'

REVIEW OF NEW ZEALAND ACTIN lARIA.— Stuckey.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

Pl. XXVI.

J

REVIEW OF NEW ZEALAND ACTINIARIA. — Stuckey.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol XLT.

Pl. XXVII.

REVIEW OF NEW ZEALAND ACTINIARIA.— Stuckey.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

Pl. XXVIII.

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REVIEW OF NEW ZEALAND ACTINIARI A.— Stuckey.

Stuckey.^ — A Review of the New Zealand Actiniaria. 385

by the following species : sphyrodeta, pallida, piira — to which will be added
most of the species which I defer to the appendix. These have no con-
spicuous suckers, discharge acontia less and less abundantly, are in general
destitute of positive colour, and have a tendency to a colourless trans-
parency. . . . Should a generic name ever be required for this group
I propose for it that of T^oe."

(I have above ascribed the name Thoe to Wright, and it would appear
that this is correct, since he described the genus in 1858, while the date
of the " Actinologia Britannica " is 1860. It should be noted, however,
that that work was published in parts, the publication extending from
March, 1858, to January, 1860.)

Sphyrodeta has a smooth column ; substance pulpy — features which it
possesses in common with pallida and pura. Sphyrodeta and pallida each
have rings of colour round the bases of the tentacles ; pura has the bases
of the tentacles more opaquely white than the rest of the body.

On Lessnnia at Island Bay occurs a small sagartiad anemone which
strikingly exhibits features in common with the species above named. The
discovery of this form has induced me to re-establish Wright's genus by
accepting Gosse's suggestion.

The genus would contain the following species : —

Thoe sphyrodeta (A. Candida, Gosse, 1853 ; S. sphyrodeta, Gosse, 1858 ;
A. Candida, Tag well, 1856 ; T. sphyrodeta, Wright, 1858 ; S. sphyrodeta,
Gosse, 1860).

Thoe pura {A. pellucida, Alder, 1857 ; S. pelhicida, Gosse, 1858 ; T. pura,
Wright, 1858 ; S. pura, Gosse, 1860).

Thoe pallida {A. pallida, Holdsworth, 1855, and Milne-Edwards, 1857 ;
.S. pallida, Gosse, 1858, 1860).

Thoe alhens, sp. nov.

And also, with less certainty, the five species enumerated by Gosse
(Act. Brit. p. 354) : ahleri (Cocks), pellucida (Cocks), yarrcllii (Cocks),
bellii (Cocks), and hastata (Wright).

The genus will be defined thus : " Sagartincn without conspicuous suckers ;
cinclides absent, or visible only on the discharge of acontia ; body- wall smooth
or with inconspicuous suckers ; acontia discharged reluctantly ; generally
without positive colour or with only local deposits of pigment ; substance
of body pulpy."

8. Thoe albens (sp. nov.).

This species in expansion is opaque-white, but is so pulpy that in con-
traction it looks Hke a small shapeless mass of transparent jelly. This
makes it difficult to kill well, and extremely difficult to riake good histo-
logical preparations of the animal.

Pedal-disc. — Adherent to Lessonia, below low-water mark. The ecto-
derm and endoderm are thicker than the mesogloea. The latter shows the
fibrous structure characteristic of most actinians. It also contains a num-
ber of lacunae. The nerve-layer of the ectoderm is very well developed.
The disc spreads out a little beyond the column, the outspread portion
being marked with golden-yellow radial lines.

Column. — Similar in structure to the pedal-disc, but thinner. It has
the appearance of having a mesogloeal circular muscle throughout its whole
height. It is smooth, with no suckers or verrucse. Neither are there any
13— Trans.

386 Transactions.

visible cinclides except when the acontia are ejected. The colour is
white.

Sphincter Muscle. — There is a spindle-shaped thickening of the meso-
gloea in the upper part of the column, causing a slight bulging of the wall.
In the sphincter the muscle spaces are very close together, but otherwise
this muscle is of the usual sagartian type.

Tentacles.— There are 96, in four cycles, 12 + 12 + 24 + 48 = 96.
In colour they are opaque-white, like the column ; in shape, conical and
tapering. The length is rather more than half the diameter of the disc.
At the base of each tentacle is an incomplete ring of yellow pigment, the
open part directed inwards and the outer circumferences of
/ \ the rings close together, so as to make an almost continuous

^ (§)(§) I'i^g ^^ yellow round the top of the column under the ten-
tacles (fig. 7). Nematocysts are numerous in the tentacles.
Fig. 7. 'pj^g ectoderm and endoderm are relatively thick, the me-

sogloea being reduced to a mere streak. The muscle-bearing
processes on both sides are few in number. The nerve-layer is compact, and
appears almost as a line in cross-sections. There are numerous large
irregular spaces in the ectoderm.

Oral Disc. — Colour white, as in the tentacles and column. Mout'j is
set on a peristome. The stomodseum is white, and there are 2 siphono-

Mesenteries. — Owing to the difficulty of killing and fixing this species
I was unable to determine accurately the number and arrangement of the
mesenteries.

Acontia. — These are emitted reluctantly, some
through the mouth, others from cinclides which are
placed on the column just under the yellow line at the
bases of the tentacles. The acontia are long, and con-
tain very large numbers of nematocysts, together with
many nerve-cells. The processes of the nerve-cells run
between the closely packed nematocysts (fig. 8).

Habits. — This species lives in the chinks among the -piG. 8.

" roots " of Lessonia. It is impatient of light.

Dimensions. — In full expansion it is 12 mm. high and 10 mm. in dia-
meter. The pedal-disc is rather wider than the column.

Distribution. — Of the genus — British Isles, New Zealand. Of the species
— Island Bay.

Genus Halcampactis (Farquhar).

This genus, which I consider to be closely allied to Ch and r actinia or to
Paraphellia, will probably become the type for a new subfamily of sagartiads.
By its author it is ascribed to the family Halcam/pidw. At the same time
he considers it as constituting a link between that family and the Sagartidce.
I have not been able to find Farquhar's Halcampactis mirahilis, though I
made one search in company with Mr. Farquhar, and have been out several
times myself and with Professor Kirk, the original discoverer of the animal.
I have, however, seen the original sections of H. ■mirabilis, but until I have
been able to rediscover the species described by Farquhar I prefer to simply
place the genus provisionally in the Sagartidce. While searching for Hal-
campactis mirabilis I found three specimens of the species to be now described,
a species which probably belongs to the same genus.

Stuckey. — .4 Review of the New Zealand Actiniaria. 387

9. Halcampactis dubia (sp. nov.).

The body is pink in colour and vermiform in shape. The epidermis
is smooth, with very minute papillfe on the upper portion. The body is
divisible into capitulum, scapus, and physa, the division between the last
two being slight. A red line marks the division between scapus and capitu-
lum. The capitulum, which is capable of being entirely invected, bears
24 pink tentacles, in two cycles. The scapus is marked by 6 double longi-
tudinal white lines. The physa is adherent and flattened. It is thin,
the filaments and acontia being plainly visible through it. The animal
does not emit the acontia, but if a slit be made in the body they stream
out readily. They are of the usual character, and the nematocysts are
closely packed. T have not yet worked out the anatomy and histology
of this species.

Dimensions. — The largest specimen was 25 mm. long and about 3 mm.
in diameter.

Distrilndion. — Of the genus — The coast near Wellington. Of the species
— Island Bay.

Fam. PARACTID.E.

I adopt Hertwig's definition as modified by McMurrich : " Actinice
usually with numerous perfect mesenteries ; circular muscle strong, im-
bedded in the mesoaloea ; acontia wanting."

Genus Paractis (Andres).

" Paractidre with smooth body-wall, without papillae or marginal spher-
ules ; tentacles slender, and not exceptionally numerous ; nearly equal in
length and strength ; margin not lobed ; sphincter widening somewhat
abruptly in its upper part, and occupying, near the margin, nearly the entire
thickness of the mesogloea."

10. Paracti,s ferax (sp. nov.).

Pedal-disc. — Adherent to the under-sides of stones, or to rocks, in dark
places. The chief histological feature is the thick mesogla?a, which is indeed
a noticeable feature of the whole animal. The fibres are wavy, and there
are many lacuna^. The ectoderm is of the usual type, about half as thick
as the mesogloea. The endoderm is thin.

Column. — It is generally cylindrical in shape, but is occasionally con-
stricted at various parts, giving the animal a vase-shaped contour. The
column bears, especially in contraction, fine transverse wrinkles. Its height

can be varied very considerably, but
is generally equal to two or three
times the diameter. The colour is
^ milky white. In contraction the ani-

mal is drawn into a hard rounded
ball of the size of a small marble. The ectoderm and
endoderm are of the normal type. The mesogloea is
thick, about equal to the ectoderm, but at intervals it be-
comes thin, as shown in fig. 9. This feature seems to be
characteristic. In other places, numerous enough for the yig 10
structure to be considered characteristic, the mesogtoa forks,
sending out a process which is lined on both sides by ectoderm, and
which Hes close to the body-wall (fig. 10).

388

Transactions.

Tentacles. — These are conical in form, tapering to a fine point, and reduc-
ible to thin filaments. In colour they are white, with brown markings. Each
has a brown tip. They are arranged very evenly in four cycles, the inner
two nearly equal. Each of these two contains 6 tentacles ; the third contains
12 slightly shorter ; the fourth contains 24, shorter still. The ectodermal
muscles are strong, and are borne on long processes of the mesogloea. The
mesogloea is very fibrous, and contains a large number of nuclei. There are
numerous nematocysts.

Oral Disc. — The disc is white, mth a sUght brownish tinge. Some
specimens have radiating brownish lines. There is a pair of opaque-white

lines radiating from the siphonoglyphs to
the edge of the disc. The mouth is some-
what depressed, and the siphonoglyphs are
not prominent. The stomodaeum is not
readily everted. The histological characters
of the disc closely resemble those of the
tentacles.

Sphincter Mxiscle. — This is mesogloeal in
character, consisting of a thickening of the
mesogloea in the upper part of the column,
the thickened portion containing numerous
muscle-spaces. The whole mesogloea of the
wall is muscular, producing, no doubt, the
strong contraction which is so characteristic
of the animal.

Mesenteries. — There are 32 to 36 pairs,
2 pairs being directives. The musculature
is very strong, the muscle-banners appear-
ing as great rounded masses, but slightly
attached to the mesentery (fig. 11).

Gonads. — The mesenteries are all fertile,

except the directives. All the animals

sectioned happened to be females, and all

showed remarkable fertility. Ova appeared

at nearly all stages. At first they occupy a

position imbedded in the mesogloea (fig. 11).

but as they advance in maturity they form

ereat masses, almost filling the intermesen-

terial spaces (Plate XXIV. fig. 1). Finally

they may become detached

^ii>^ from the mesenteries and

form globular masses,

showing in cross - sections

as rounded discs

(Plate XXVjI-).

bryos were seen.

Habits. — All my speci-
mens were found in dark
Fig- 11- places, never more than

four in one place, usually single specim ns. The species seems rather
uncommon.

Dimensions. — .2-18 mm. in diameter, 25-45 mm. in height.

or rings
No em-

Stuckey. — A Review of the New Zealand Actiniaria. 389

Distribution. — Of the genus — Mediterranean, Red Sea, Indian Ocean,
Atlantic, Tierra del Fuego, New Zealand, Pacific, China Sea. Of the species
— Island Bay, Ohiro Bay.

Genus Tealidium (Hertwig).

ParactidcB having the tentacles placed in several rows of uniform size
in the same row, and having the body-wall covered with fine papilla?. All
mesenteries perfect and gonophoric except the directives. (Hertwig's
definition modified.)

This genus was erected by Hertwig for the reception of a form found
in the " Challenger " material, a form which agreed with Paractis except
in the warty character of the body- wall. In Hertwig's species (Tealidium
cingulatum) the wall bulges outwards, forming a girdle below the tentacles.
This he attributes to the great development of the sphincter. In the species
described below the same thing is seen, though I have no direct evidence
that it arises from the cause ascribed by Hertwig. Probably this feature
may come to be regarded as of generic value.

11. Tealidium cinctum (sp. nov.).

• Pedal-disc. — Adherent in cleft of rock, making the animal difficult to
remove. The mesoglcea is fibrous, and contains numerous lacuna?.

Column. — The upper part is brownish in colour, the lower part dirty-
white. The upper part is covered with verrucae in vertical rows ; small
shells, &c., are attached to these verrucse. The lower part, which is im-
bedded in a cleft of the rock, is without the verruca>, and is channelled by
fine furrows. The verrucse act as suckers, by which the animal covers itself
with bits of shell and other debris. In full expansion the column bulges
outwards, forming a circular swelling just under the bases of the tentacles.
The ectoderm is somewhat irregular, and there appear here and there spaces
between the cells. The nerve-layer is feebly developed. The mesoglcea
is well developed, and contains small lacunae. It runs into the ectoderm
in the form of conical papillae.

Tentacles. — These are 48 in number, apparently in four cycles. Length,
about 16 mm. They are pellucid, with a mauve-pink shade. There are
white transverse markings on the inner sides. The ectoderm is of the same
irregular character as that of the column, but the intercellular spaces are
smaller. The nervous layer is well developed, being several cells deep.
There is a fair development of the ectodermal muscles, but the endodermal
musculature is w^eak. The lumen of each tentacle is filled with what appears
to be hypertrophied endoderm.

Oral Disc. — The colour is pale brown, with a ring of green round the
mouth, and a broken ring of yellow round the green. The histological
features resemble those of the tentacles.

Sphincter Muscle. — This is mesogloeal and diffuse, extending through
the whole wall of the column. There is, however, a decided thickening
under the edge of the disc, and this probably constitutes the true sphincter.
Hertwig describes a similar sphincter in Antholoba reticulata.

Mesenteries. — There are 24 pairs, 2 pairs being directives. All reach
the stomodaeum, and are about equal in development. All are gonophoric
except the directives. I have made this a generic feature, since Tealidium
cingulatum (Hertwig), the only other known species, has all its mesenteries
perfect and gonophoric (? directives). The musculature is well developed.
(Plate XXIV, fig. 2.)

390 Transactions.

Gonads. — Placed much, as in Paractis ferax, and form large masses between
the mesenteries.

Dimensions. — Height, 40 mm. ; diameter, 30 mm.

Distribution. — Of the genus — Antarctic Ocean (Delage and Herouard) ;
also New Zealand. Of the species — Island Bay.

Fam. CORALLIMORPHIDiE.

" Hexamerous Actinice with a double corona of tentacles, a corona of
marginal principal tentacles, and a corona of intermediate accessory tentacles.
Mesenteries slightly differentiated and all gonophoric. Muscular system
weak in all parts of the body. No sphincter."

Genus Corynactis (Allman).

The tentacles are all knobbed. They are arranged in radial series, so
that more than one communicate with each inter- or intra-raesenterial space.

Farquhar described three species of Corynactis from the neighbourhood
of Wellington. These are C. haddoni (with seven varieties), C. ■mollis, and
C. gracilis.

In external form these species are all very similar, their chief apparent
difference being in the matter of colour. I think it not unlikely that the
species and varieties enumerated by Farquhar may prove on investigation
to belong to only one species. I have not yet, however, been able to collect
specimens of all the species of C. haddoni, and have therefore to defer the
investigation. To the species mentioned above I add a fourth, C. albida.
In external appearance this corresponds closely to C. haddoni, except in
colour, which is pure white, without any deposit of pigment. The principal
tentacles are very long and slender, inclining slightly outwards in expansion.
The accessory tentacles stand upright.

Farquhar has so carefully described the external appearance of his species
that there is no need for repetition here. I have not yet fully worked out
their anatomy and histology, but have made the following notes : —

12. Corynactis haddoni (Farquhar).

13. ,, gracilis (Farquhar).

14. ,, mollis (Farquhar).

15. ,, albida (sp. nov.).

Mesenteries. — In all four species there are 24 pairs, of which 12 pairs
appear, typically, to be perfect. There is scarcely any indication of retractor
muscles in any species, but the parietal muscles are generally fairly well
developed. On the filaments in some sections I noticed the same appearance
of three trefoils as I have described in Actinia tenehrosa.

Sphincter Muscle. — On account of the complete infolding of the tentacles
Farquhar supposes the sphincter to be well developed, and in this belief
he is supported by Delage and Herouard. A large number of longitudinal
sections of the four species under survey failed, however, to show the slightest
indication of a sphincter.

C. haddoni : Though there is no sphincter, there is a fairly distinct circular
muscle in the wall. This consists of a few fibres running on the endodermal
side of the mesogloea. The mesogloea is homogeneous. The ectoderm is
the thickest of the three layers, the other two each being about half its
thickness.

Stuckey. — A Review of the New Zealand Actiniaria.

391

C. gracilis : The mesogloea of the column contains a single row of spaces,
more or less round. This feature, however, may prove to be the result of
treatment.

C. mollis : The mesogloea is very slightly fibrous. The stomodaeum is
much folded, and into it run processes of the mesogloea. The musculature
of the mesenteries is stronger than that of the other species.

C. albida : As in C. mollis, the stomodfeum is much folded, and has
mesoglceal processes projecting into its ectoderm. Each of these processes
is opposite to the attachment of a pair of mesenteries. The outer parts of
the mesenterial spaces are filled with hypertrophied endoderm.

Reproduction. — No gonads appeared in any of my sections, but masses
of ova and young animals appeared in the bowl with the animal that divided
in the manner to be described below. This was a specimen of C. haddoni
taken on the 31st August, 1908. It was on a small stone, and attracted
attention on account of the fact that it had spread itself out in the form
of a flattened elliptical disc, the length of which was four or five times the
diameter of an ordinary specimen, while the breadth was half the length.
It was so flattened that the oral and pedal discs were almost in contact.
The mouth gaped wide, having been stretched in the same way as the body.

© ©

VII

Fig. 12.

The mesenterial filaments were plainly visible. The tentacles were almost
completely retracted, only the knobs showing. The animal, on its stone,
was placed in an aquarium, and closely watched. In two or three days
the wall became thin at one extremity of the minor axis of the ellipse, finally
splitting at that point. The free ends began to retreat, as it were, in a
direction parallel to the major axis. As they approached the vertices of
the ellipse they began to curl inwards. A second split occurred about the
place marked x in the diagram, and the first daughter organism became
free. The two ends gradually curled round, and finally coalesced. In the
meantime the last-freed ends began to curl inwards, and another split began
to form at the place marked y. The second and third daughter organisms
closed up as the first had done. Thus three organisms were formed by a
process of fission, which I have called " lateral fission." The whole process,

392 Trai inactions.

to the complete formation of the last daughter organism, occupied about
seven weeks. In addition to this, a bud appeared, at an early stage, on the
foot of what became the last-formed organism. This bud increased in size,
and a constriction began to be formed, cutting it off from the parent. This
illustrates the process of pedal gemmation mentioned by Farquhar. The
method of asexual reproduction which I have called " lateral fission "
appears to be different from any of those described in the " Cambridge
Natural History," and it also appears to differ from the method called by
Delage and Herouard (p. 476) " scissiparite longitudinale." It is an interest-
ing fact that during the process of fission ova were released and developed
into embryos about \ mm. in height. This nascent colony would doubtless
have yielded interesting results, but it was unfortunately destroyed through
the neglect of a laboratory attendant, who allowed the water to be polluted
by dead molluscs. The drawings illustrating the process described above
are only diagrammatic " ground-plans," as it were. (Fig. 12.)

Fam. PHYLLACTID.^.

" Hexactinice with simple conical tentacles at some distance from the
apparent margin ; between them and the margin are low tentacu^lar or
foliose structures (fronds). Sphincter endodermal, more or less circu.mscribed,
lying in the interval between the tentacles and the frondose or tentacular
structures. From two to several cycles of mesenteries perfect."

Genus Cradactis (McMurrich).

" Ph/IlactidcB with, the fronds represented by bunches of simple or slightly
branched, short, tentacle-like structures. Sphincter aggregated or circum-
scribed. Column with verrucse."

16. Cradactis plicatus (nom. nov.), Hutton.

This anemone was first described by Hutton as Oulactis plicatus. He
described the margin of the disc, when expanded, as " thrown into five
deep folds." Though I have observed raany specimens, both in their natural
home and in an aquarium, I have been unable to observe this feature. At
the same time, I have no doubt as to the identity of the species. Hutton
placed this anemone in the genus Oulactis, but I have been led by the character
of its fronds to place it in McMurrich's genus Cradactis.

Pedal-disc. — Adherent and somewhat thin, the insertions of the mesen-
teries being plainly visible through its substance. AVhen removed from
the rocks the " flange " round the base becomes very noticeable. The
ectoderm is comparatively thick, and is curiously strengthened by strands
of mesoglcea which in places appear to have lost their connection with the
main part of the mesogloea. These strands are not fibrous like the rest of
the mesogloea, in which the fibrous structure is particularly noticeable.

Column. — This is cylindrical, generally wider than high, and with only a
slightly expanded lower portion. Verrucse are present, arranged in vertical
rows. They are absent on the lower part of the column. The upper ver-
ruc3e act as suckers, by means of which the animal covers itself with stones
and shells, so that, when retracted, it resembles a small pile of stones.
The colour of the column is yellowish-brown, passing into dirty v/hite below.
The mesogloea is prolonged into the ectoderm in pinnate processes. These
are arranged in regular vertical rows corresponding to the verrucse.

Tentacles and Fronds. — The simple tentacles are conical, and are more
than the radius of the disc in length when the whole animal is fully expanded.

Stuckey. — A Revieiv of the New Zealand Actiniaria. 393

Their colour is pellucid pale brown, like the colour of thin shavings of horn.
They are barred with white on the oral aspect. At the bases of the tentacles,
and sending points between them, is a zigzag circle of yellow, with a sug-
gestion of pink. The ectodermal and endodermal muscles are both well
developed, more especially the former. The nervous layer and the epi-
thelial layer are both thick. Outside the simple tentacles, and just on the
edge of the disc, is a single row of " compound " tentacles or " fronds,"
48 in number, structures which McMurrich regards as differentiated acror-
hagi. These are white in colour and multilobed, each often having as many
as twenty lobes. They form a wide frill round the animal, giving it a fine
appearance when fully expanded. One of the lobes of each frond is con-
stantly pigmented with a pink spot or knob. The lobes of the fronds are
able to act as suckers. They are not sensitive to tactile stimuli. All the
elements of the body-wall enter into the composition of the fronds, except
the nervous layer of the ectoderm.

Oral Disc. — The margin is raised, as is also the peristome, giving the disc
a concave form. The colour varies, yellow, crimson, and deep velvety
brown being the chief varieties. The edge of the mouth is generally lighter
in colour than the rest of the disc, and is ringed by a deposit of pigment.
There are also radiating lines of an orange colour, and there is a broken circle
of yellow round the bases of the tentacles, as already mentioned. There are
well-developed ectodermal muscles, but the endodermal muscles are weak.
On the under-side of the disc — that is, the roof of the coelenteron — are spaces
each of which encloses a developing ovum. These spaces are apparently
brood-pouches.

Sphincter Muscle. — This is endodermal and circumscribed. In cross-
section it is heart-shaped. It is placed under the fronds. (Plate XXV,
%. 1.)

StomodcBum. — There are 2 prominent siphonoglyphs, each marked ex-
ternally by a yellow tubercle with a pink top. The stomodfeum is grey in
colour, and shows the edges of the mesenteries. Cross-sections of the animal
show the siphonoglyphs to be deep and narrow. In addition, the stomo-
dseum is folded into 10 other grooves. The ectoderm is provided with a
large number of gland-cells.

Mesenteries. — There are 48 pairs, two of them directives ; twelve pairs
reach the stomodseum. The muscles are strong, the " banners " occupying
the larger part of the mesentery. There is strong development of parietal
muscles. (Plate XXV, tig. 2.)

Gonads. — In one specimen testes were seen on the imperfect mesenteries.
In another, ova were found, as described, in brood-pouches. These were the
only cases in which I saw sex-cells.

Habits, &c. — The animal adheres strongly, the lower part of the column
often being placed in a chink of the rock. Its colour is protective, and, in
addition, its habit of covering itself with bits of stone and shell helps to
conceal it. The concave disc, also, is often covered with sand, so that
nothing shows but the mouth and tentacles.

Dimensions. — Variable. The largest specimens are 6 cm. in diameter
and rather less in height.

Distribution. — Of the genus — Delage and Herouard give " Cape Horn,"
but this does not agree with McMurrich, who locates his species in the Ber-
mudas and " Station 2766, lat. 36° 47' S., long. 56° 23' W.," that is just
south of the Kio de la Plata. Of the species — Dunedin, Cook Strait.

394 Transactions.

17. Cradactis magna (sp. nov.).

I have not seen this species alive. I give the following notes of the
gross dissection of a preserved specimen : The base is adherent. The
column has about 100 rows of verrucae. The ectoderm is thick, and peels
off readily. Not only does the animal attach pieces of shell to itself, but
these even become imbedded in the ectoderm. At the oral end of the
column is a ring of foliose structures. The tentacles and disc are strongly
infolded, suggesting the presence of a powerful sphincter. The mesoglo?a
throughout the animal is thick and strong. The tentacles are very nume-
rous, and apparently in four rows ; each has a pore at the tip. There are
96 pairs of mesenteries, the first and second cycles being perfect, and each
apparently consisting of 12 pairs ; 2 pairs are directives ; all appear
normally to be fertile. In contraction the animal is 7 cm. high and 5 cm.
broad. Its size when expanded could not be less than 10 cm. in height,
and not much less in diameter. This species is found at Plimmerton.

Since the above notes \vere prepared I have seen four specimens alive.
The column varies in colour, being respectively brownish-yellow, pinkish-
yellow, yellowish-green, and pale green in the four individuals respectively.
The disc is radially marked with brown streaks, with regular white patches
between. The tentacles are short, and arranged in four cycles. They are
bicoloured, being in three of the specimens deep purple at the proximal
end, bright claret at the distal end. In the fourth the colours were orange
and yellow. The number of lobes in the fronds is great ; they are dull grey
in colour, not so prominent as the same structures in C. plicatus. The pink
spot of C. plicatus seems to be represented here by a white one. The ver-
ruese are somewhat cylindrical. The stomodseum is white. There are
2 siphonoglyphs.

Fam. BUNODID^.
Genus Bunodes (Gosse).

18. Bunodes aureoradiata (sp. nov.).

This is fully described in this volume at p. 368.

Distribution. — Of the genus — Norway, English Channel, Atlantic, Medi-
terranean, Bahamas, Indian Ocean (Delage and Herouard) ; also New Zea-
land. Of the species — Wellington Harbour.

19. Bunodes inconspicua (nom. nov.), Hutton.

This species was named, by Hutton, Phymactis inconspicua. The ver-
tical arrangement of its verructe, however, gives it a place in the genus
Bunodes.

Basal Disc. — Adherent, rather wider than the column. The ectoderm is
twice as thick as the mesogloea. The latter contains lacunae.

Column. — Cylindrical, slightly widening towards the base. Verrucse m
vertical rows, long and short rows alternating. Towards the lower end
of the column they become less numerous and smaller, at last becoming
mere marks. The colour of the column is whitish below, olive-brown
above. The column closely resembles that of Bunodes aureoradiata. The
ectoderm and endoderm are normal, the latter containing zooxanthella?.
The mesogloea runs out into the ectoderm, taking part in the constitution of
the verrucse. Under the tentacles is a ring of white tubercles or " mar-
ginal beads," each one being placed at the top of a vertical row of warts.

Tentacles. — These are placed in four cycles, and are about 120 in number.
The largest is equal in length to the diameter of the disc. They are conical.

Stuckey. — A Review of the New Zealand Actiniaria.

395

and taper to a fine point. In colour tliey are olive-brown, with from 2 to
6 white spots on the inner side. They are completely retractile, and very
sensitive. The nerve-layer is distinct, and the ectodermal muscles are
strong. The endomermal muscles are weak. The lumen is tilled with
zooxanthellfe.

Oral Disc. — Flat ; peristome raised. Colour olive-brown. Stomodteum
white, often everted. The histological features resemble those of the
tentacles.

Sphincter Muscle.- — Endodermal. Closely resembles that of B. aureo-
radiata.

Mesenteries. — Closely resemble those of B. aureoradiata.

Gonads. — I saw none in my preparations.

Dimensions. — My largest specimens were 15 mm. high, and about the
same in diameter, but I am told they grow much larger.

Distribution. — Of the genus — -As above. Of the species — Dunedin,
Wellington.

Genus Leiotealia (Hertwig).

20. Leiotealia thompsoni (nom. nov.), Coughtrey.

This species is described in this volume in a separate paper.

Distribution. — Of the genus — Magellan Strait, Chili, Kerguelen Island,
Arctic Ocean (Delage and Herouard) ; also New Zealand. Of the species —
Dunedin (Coughtrey) ; Cook Strait, from Plimmerton to Seatoun.

Fam. ALICIIDiE.

" Hexactinice with large, flat, contractile base. Tentacles simple, sub-
ulate, entacmseous. Column with simple or compound hollow outgrowths
or vesicles over more or less of its surface, arranged mostly in vertical rows.
No cinclides. Sphincter muscle endodermal and diffuse, variable in amount
of development. Perfect mesenteries few or numerous. No acontia."
(Duerden.)

Up to the present time this family contains four genera — Alicia,
Cijstiactis, Bunodeopsis, and Thaumactis. I have several specimens of a
form taken at Island Bay and one specimen taken at Stewart Island. Both
these forms certainly belong to the Aliciidce, but do not seem to be referable
to any one of the hitherto recognised genera. They differ from Alicia
in their larger number of perfect mesenteries ; from Cijstiactis in the large
number of short tentacles ; from Bunodeopsis in the disposal of the
phlyctenia over the whole of the column ; from Thaumactis in the lenticular
form, and absence of a pedal-disc in the latter genus. For these reasons I
propose for these two species a new genus, Phlyctenactis. The differences
between this genus and the other four are shown by the following table : —

Table of the Gknera of the Family Aliciid^.

Genus. Tentacles.

1

Mesent. ^^^^^^^

Column.

Pedal-
disc.

Alicia

Cystiactis . . . . '' Few ; long

Bunodeovsis . .

Thaumactis . . . . \
Phlyctenactis (gen. nov.) Many ; short

6 pairs

On pioximal
part
. .
12 pairs All ovtr

i column

Lenticular
Cylindical

Absent
Present

396 Transactions.

Genus Phlyctenactis (gen. nov.).

AliciidcB of large size, with numerous short tentacles arranged in several
cycles. Column entirely covered with simple vesicles, sessile or on short
pedicles, arranged more or less in vertical rows, and communicating with
the intermesenterial spaces. More than six pairs of perfect mesenteries.

21. Phlyctenactis retifera (sp. nov.).

Pedal-disc. — Lobed, wider than the column. Only slightly adherent,
the animal being able to " crawl " about on it, and to become free and
float away at will. The colour of the pedal-disc is yellowish-orange.

Column. — Cylindrical in form, and covered with large blisterlike vesicles,
which in the contracted state of the animal lie in contact, but in expansion
are separate. Their longitudinal arrangement is not evident, except when
the animal is expanded. They open by small openings into the coelenteron.
They appear to assist in the flotation of the animal. The colour of the
column is dark velvety brown. The mesogloea of the wall is very thick,
appearing as a homogeneous mass, bordered on each side by parallel fibres,
and crossed by oblique transverse fibres. I have seen no definite sphincter,
but the circular endodermal muscle of the wall is developed through its
whole length. The ectoderm and endoderm of the wall are not so well
developed as the mesogloea. The vesicles contain all the elements of the
wall.

Tentacles. — Very numerous and crowded, in about six cycles. They are
simple, and conical in shape. Their colour is pale yellow. Their histology
is interesting. Next to the ectoderm comes a thin layer of homogeneous
mesogloea, followed by a thick layer of highly reticular mesogloea, then a
thin homogeneous layer, under which is the endoderm. (Plate XXVI,
figs. 1,2.)

Oral Disc. — The disc is flat, with the mouth on a large mound-shaped
peristome. The colour of the disc is light yellow, that of the peristome very
dark brown or black. The mouth bears two bright-yellow tubercles.

Stomodceum. — This is white in colour, and has a very thick layer of
ectoderm. There are 2 siphonoglyphs.

Mesenteries. — There are 12 pairs of complete mesenteries, which are all
sterile, and 36 pairs of incomplete ones, which bear gonads. Two pairs of
mesenteries are directives. The muscixlature is very weak on the complete
mesenteries, stronger on the incomplete.

Gonads. — Only ova were seen. These are borne in the usual way, on the
imperfect mesenteries.

Habits. — This anemone frequents quiet pools among the rocks, but is
sometimes seen floating at the surface, oral disc downwards. Rather un-
common.

Dimensions. — Fully expanded the animal is 18 cm. in height and 10 cm.
in diameter.

Distribution. — Of the genus — New Zealand. Of the species — Cook
Strait.

22. Phlyctenactis morrisonii (sp. nov.).

This species was sent me (one specimen) from Stewart Island by Miss E.
Morrison, M.A. It had been some time in spirit, and was not well preserved.
It agreed in most respects with spirit specimens of the last species, and I
have no doubt that the two belong to the same genus. It differs from the
last in one important respect. The ova (which were very numerous in the

Stuckey. — A Review of the New Zealand Actiniaria. 397

specimen) are borne on much-reduced mesenteries, and appear, indeed, to
spring direct from the body-wall. They are arranged in plates or lamelk>,
each plate consisting of a large number of strings of ova lying side by side
(Plate XXVJI fig.l). In some of the tentacles I found small stones of the
size of a pea. These probably came there by accident. On the other hand,
they may serve a hydrostatic purpose. The colour of the specimen was
purplish- blue.

Distribution. — Of the genus — As above. Of the species — Stewart Island.

Genus (?).

23. (?) species.

This anemone, which I have been unable to classify, was found alive in
the radial canal of a large acraspedote medusa at Plimmerton. It was very
badly preserved when handed to me, having lain for some days in sea-
water before being placed in spirit. It was good for neither dissection nor
histology. The length is about 25 mm., shape cylindrical, colour white.
It is not quite as thick as a lead-pencil. It was impossible to ascertain
anything about the tentacles or disc. There is no indication of division
into capitulum, scapus, and physa. The aboral end, however, was rounded.
The column is divided by 12 longitudinal furrows.

Species not seen by me.

24. Edwardsia neozealanica (Farquhar).

25. Halcampactis mirabilis (Farquhar).

These species are known to exist in the neighbourhood of Wellington,
but I was unable to find them, though both Mr. Farquhar and Professor
Kirk (their original discoverers) accompanied me in my searches.

26. Paractis monilifera (Drayton, Milne-Edwards, Hutton),

Andres regards this species as not belonging to Paractis, but to some
other (unnamed) genus.

27. Actinia striata (Quoy and Gaimard, Hutton).

The description of this species as given by Andres does not mention
the presence of acrorhagi. He says, " II Milne-Edwards la menziona con
dubbio." It probably belongs to some genus other than Actinia.

28. Phymactis polydactyla (Hutton).

The disposal of the verrucse, as given by Hutton, is different from that
generally given in the diagnosis of Phymactis.

29. Minyas viridula (Quoy and Gaimard, Milne-Edwards, Hutton).

Andres places this species in the genus Acerominyas, which he describes
as an uncertain genus. The absence of tentacles is curious, and he suggests
that they may have been torn off. Apparently only one specimen has been
found.

30. Sagartia crocata (Hutton).

31. Peachia carnea (Hutton).

These are given in the " Index Fauna)," but the references are incorrect,
and so far I have been unable to find Hutton's descriptions.

Fig.

1.

Edwardsia tricolor.

Fig-

2.

91

Fig.

3.

)J

Fig.

4.

»9

398 Trajisactions.

EXPLANATION OF TEXT-BLOCKS.

One segment of the capitulura.
Musculature of a mesentery.

Diagrammatic representation of portion of cross-section of
a tentacle.

Fig. 5. Actinia tenebrosa. Diagram showing manner of division of mesenteric filament
into three branches.

Fig. 6. Sagartia nutrix. Young attached to body-wall. Animal expanded.

Fig. 7. Thoe albida. Diagram to show manner of deposit of pigment round bases of
tentacles.

Fig. 8. Thoe albida. Portion of an acontium. (From a rough slide — diagrammatic.)
Tlie nerve-cells appear to be on one side, the nematocysts on the other.

Fig. 9. Paractis ferax. Part of a cross-section of body-wall to show the characteristic
thinning of the mesogloea at intervals.

Fig. LO. Paractis ferax. Showing forking of the mesogloea in the body-wall.

Fig. 11. ,, A mesentery in cross-section, sliowing parietal muscle, retrac-

tor muscle, ova, and mesenterial filament.

Fig. 12. Corynactis haddoni. Diagrams to illustrate the steps in lateral fission.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXI-XXVIII.

Plate XXI.
Fig. 1. Sagartia nutrix photograph on a piece of seaweed. Animal partly contracted.
Fig. 2. ,, Cross-section of sphincter.

Plate XXII.

Fig. 1. Edwardsia tricolor. Part of a cross-section, showing some of the mesenteries

and ova in the body-cavity ; x 50.
Fig. 2. Edwardsia tricolor. Longitudinal section of capitulum, showing ova in stomo-

dseum.

Plate XXIII.

Fig. 1. Actinia tenebrosa. Part of a cross-section, showing one pair of directives and
one siphonoglyph ; also, unequal development of mesenteries. On the
right— Dirs. III. II, III, I ; on the left— Dirs. Ill, II, III, II, III, I.

Note. — The junctions of the two ])airs of ]irimaries with the stomo-
dseura do not show clearly in the micrograpli. though tliey were clear
enough in the preparation.

Fig. 2. Actinia tenebrosa. " Trefoil " of mesenteric filament.

Plate XXIV.

Fie. 1. Paractis ferax. Part of a cross - section, showing a mesentery with ova in an
advanced stage.

F'g. 2. Tealidium cinctum. Part of a cross-section, showing directives and other mesen-
teries, and part of siphonoglyph.

Plate XXV.

Fig. 1. Cradactis plicatus. Cross-section of spliincter.

Fig. 2. ,, Part of a cross-section, showing directives and other mesen-

teries, and one siphonoglyph.

Plate XXVI.

Fig. 1. Phhjctenactis retifera. Cross-section of tentacle, showing reticular structure of

the mesogloea. CJreatly magnified.
Fig. 2. Portion of the same, more highly magnified.

Plate XXVII.

Fig. 1. Phlyctenactis morrisovii. Portion of a longitudinal section, showing body-
wall, ova, and one vesicle.

Fig. 2. Sagartia vagrans. Part of a cross-section, showing directives and other mesen-
teries, and part of stomodanim.

Plate XXVIII.
Paractis ferax. Section below the stomodaeum, showing mesenteries, witli ova and
mesenterial filaments ; also masses of ova between the mesenteries.

Cockayne. — Some IHtherto-unrecorded Plant-hahitats. 399

Art. XXXVII. — Some Hitherto-unrecorded Plant-hahitats (IV).

By L. Cockayne, Ph.D.
{Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, \th November, 1908.]

FiLICES.
Trichomanes reniforme, Forst. f.

This is an extremely rare fern in Stewart Island. Kirk (Trans. N.Z.
Inst., vol. xvii, p. 230) gives Paterson Inlet and Half-moon Bay as its
habitats, writing, " Restricted to a few square yards above high-water
mark in each locality." Mr. J. W. Murdoch informs me it occurs at Kai-
pipi Bay, Paterson Inlet.

Trichomanes strictum, Menzies.

Recorded by Kirk for Stewart Island only on Ulva. I have also noted
it in a moist gully in the forest west of Half-moon Bay.

Dryopteris Thelypteris (L.), A. Gray, var, squamulosum (Hook, f.),
Schlecht.
In swamp of dunes near Waikanae, Wellington. L. C. !

Blechnum Patersoni (R. Br.), Mett., var. elongatum (Mett).
Forest, Kaituna Valley, Banks Peninsula. L. C. !

POTAMOGETONACE^.

Potamogeton ochreatus, Raoul.

Natural pond near the River Turakina, not far from its mouth. L. C. !

Potamogeton pectinatus, L.

Sluggish stream near mouth of River Raugitikei, L. C. !

Cyperace^.

Eleocharis neo-zelandica, C. B. Clarke.

In hollows of dunes between Manawatu and Rangitikei Rivers. L. C. !

Carex dissita, Sol., var. monticola, Kuk.

Subalpine meadow, Mount Anglem, Stewart Island. L. C. !

Liliace^.

Phormium Cookianum, Le Jolis.

(1.) Hollow in dune near mouth of River Turakina, Wellington, in
company with P. tenax ; L. C. ! (2.) On cliff-faces. River Waitotara ;
L. C. !

Iridace^.

Libertia ixioides, Spreng.

Very common in all the swampy ground amongst the dunes of the west
coast of Wellington. L. C. !

400 Transactions.

Orchidace.^.
Thelymitra uniflora, Hook. f.

Mount Grey, Canterbury. T. Keir !

Urticace^.
Urtica ferox, Forst. f.

Outskirts of forest, Taumarunui. L. C. !

Elatostemma rugosum, A. Cunn.

(1.) Waipoua Forest (accidentally omitted from list of species in " Eeport
of Botanical Survey of Waipoua Kauri Forest "). (2.) Gullies in forest
near Waitotara ; L. C. ! (3.) Eeserve on bank of River Manawatu,
Palmerston Nortb ; L. C. !

LORANTHACE^.

korthalsella salicornioides (A. Cunn.), Van Tiegh.

Parasitic on Leptospermum scoparium, old dunes, Waikanae. L. C. !

POLYGONACE.^.

Rumex neglectus, T. Kirk.

Gravelly shore, Ruapuke Island. L. C. !

Caryophyllace^.
Stellaria Roughii, Hook. f.

Takitimu Mountains, Southland. J. Crosby-Smith ! Mount Torlesse is
the southern limit in Cheeseman's Manual;

Colobanthus Muelleri, T. Kirk.

Centre Island and Dog Island, Foveaux Strait. L. C. !

Scleranthus biflorus (Forst.), Hook. f.

Dog Island. L. C. !

Ranunculace^.

Ranunculus Monroi, Hook, f., var. dentatus, T. Kirk.

(1.) Mount Somers ; R. M. Laing ! (2.) Puketeraki Mountains, Can-
terbury ; L. C. !

Ranunculus aquatilis, L. (Introduced.)

Very plentiful in lake near mouth of River Rangitikei. L. C. !

Crucifer^.
Cakile maritima, Scop. (Introduced.)

Dunes, New Brighton, Canterbury. L. C. ! Not previously recorded for
New Zealand.

Cunoniace^.
Weinmannia racemosa, L. f.

Forest, Mount Grey, Canterbury. T. Keir !

RoSACEiE.

Geum parviflorum, Sm.

Takitimu Mountains, Otago. J. Crosby-Smith !

Cockayne. — Some Hitherto-unrecorded Flant- habitats. 401

Geum uniflorum, Buch.

Takitimu Mountaiiis, Otago. J. Crosby-Smith!

OXALIDACE^.

Oxalis magellanica, Forst.

Mount Matthews, Rirautaka Range. H. H. Travers !

Rhamnace^.
Discaria toumatou, Raouh

Dunes, west coast of Wellington. L. C. !

Malvace^.
Hoheria sexstylosa, Col.

Forest near Greymouth. H. H. Travers !

Violace^.
Viola Cunninghamii, Hook. f.

Swampy ground of dunes near mouth of River Turakina. L. C. !

Hymenanthera dentata, R. Br., var. angustifolia, Benth.
Bank of river, Otautau, Southland. L. C. !

Hymenanthera dentata, R. Br., var. alpina, T. Kirk.

Through an oversight, I stated (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xl, p. 310) that
Hymenanthera was not recorded for Stewart Island in Cheeseman's Manual.
This is incorrect ; but the Stewart Island plant is there referred, on the
authority of Kirk, to H. crassifolia, Hook. f. The plant under consider-
ation occurs on Mount Anglem, but is much more abundant on the flattish
ground near the stream flowing into Crooked Reach, Port Pegasus.

Myrtace^.
Metrosideros Colensoi, Hook. f.
Forest near Waitotara. L. C. !

ONAGRACEiE.

Fuchsia excorticata, L. f.

Accidentally omitted from " List of Species of Waipoua Kauri Forest."

HALORRHAGIDACEiE.

Halorrhagis uniflora, T. Kirk.

Dog Island, Foveaux Strait. L. C. !

Gunnera arenaria, Cheesem.

Very plentiful in sandy hollows of dunes from Waikanae to Patea.
L. C. !

Araliace^.

Nothopanax simplex (Forst. f.). Seem., var. parvum, T. Kirk.

Waimarino Forest, near Ohakune. E. Philipps Turner I

402 Transactions.

CORNACE^.

Corokia Cotoneaster, Raoul.

(1.) Forest, Taihape ; E. Philipps Turner ! (2.) On old weathered
rock amongst dunes near shore, a few miles south of Wanganui ; L. C. !

Myrsinace^.
Suttonia nummularia, Hook. f.

Almost at sea-level, near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island. L. C. !

CONVOLVULACE^.

Calystegia Soldanella, R. Br.
Ruapuke Island. L. C. !

BORAGINACE^.

Myosotis Goyeni, Petrie.

By a slip of the pen I wTote Myosotis Cheesemannii for the above \n
Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xl, p. 313. The habitat is cliffs, Broken River, Can
terbury.

SCROPHULARINACE^.

Mazus pumilio, R. Br.

Abundant in damp ground near the coast from Waikanae to the Wai
totara River. L. C. !

Veronica Petriei (Buch.), T. Kirk.

Takitimu Mountains, Southland. J. Crosby-Smith !

CampanulacejE.
Pratia perpusilla, Hook. f.

On damp sandy ground amongst old dunes between Rangitikei and;
Turakina Rivers ; not common. L. C. !

Isotoma fluviatilis (R. Br.), F. von Muell.

Margin of Lake Letitia, and other places on wet ground in neighbourhood
of Mount White, Waimakariri district, Canterbury. L. C. !

COMPOSITiE.

Lagenophora pinnatifida, Hook. f.

(1.) Beech forest, Paradise, Otago Lake district ; L. C. ! (2.) Beech
forest {Nothofagus cliff ortioides), Kowai Bush, Canterbury ; L. C. !

Olearia Colensoi, Hook. f.

Near summit of Mount Matthews, Rimutaka Range. H. H. Travel's '.

Olearia nitida, Hook, f., var. capillaris (Buch.), T. Kirk.
Waimarino Forest, near Ohakune. E. Philipps Turner !

Olearia fragrantissima, Petrie.

(1.) Port Hills, Canterbury ; L. C. ! (2.) Bank of creek, Otautau,
Southland ; L. C. !

Cockayne. — Some Hitherto-nnrecorded Plant-hahitats. 403

Olearia Hectori, Hook. f.

Bank of creek, Otaytau, Southland. L. C. !

Olearia virgata, Hook. f.

Common in many swamps amongst dunes between the Manawatu and
Turakina Eivers. L. C. !

Celmisia Lindsayi, Hook. f. (?)

\i I am mistaken in my identification, the plant is very close to the
above. Mount Franklin, Southland. J.Crosby-Smith!

Celmisia Lyalli, Hook. f.

Takitimu Mountains, Southland. J. Crosby-Smith !

Celmisia viscosa, Hook. f.

Takitimu Mountains, Southland. J. Crosby-Smith !

Gnaphalium trinerve, Forst. f. (?)

(This mav be a form of G. leriense, A. Cunn., but it seems to me best
placed as above.) On low cliff, mouth of Ototoka Stream, Oheku, near
Wanganui. L. C. !

Gnaphalium Lyallii, Hook. f.

Abundant in large sheets on face of cliffs near mouth of Waiongoro
River, Taranaki. L. C. !

Raoulia australis, Hook. f.

On rock, and also on sandy ground covered with stones near shore,
south of mouth of River Waitotara. L. C. !

Senecio bellidioides, Hook. f.

Canterburv Plain, at from 70 m. above sea-level, near Waimakariri
River. L. C.'l

Senecio latifolius, Banks and Sol.

Margin of Waimarino Forest, Waimarino Plain. L. C. !

Senecio elseagnifolius, Hook. f.

Mount Matthews, near summit. H. H. Travers !

Senecio cassinioides, Hook. f.

Mount Franklin, Southland. J. Crosbv-Smith ! . ''

4U-i Transactions.

Ar'J'. XXXVIII. — On a Collection of Plants from the Solanders.

By L. Cockayne, Ph.D.

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Ganlerbury, -ith November, 1908.]

The Solanders are two small islands lying in the Tasman Sea, twenty-two
miles south of the southward coast of the South Island, and W. ^ 8.
thirty-five miles from the north-west end of Stewart Island. The largest
island, . Solander Island, is nearly a mile in length, and rises abruptly
from the sea to a height of 1,100 ft. The other island, much smaller, lies
a mile to the westward.

On the 22nd October, Captain J. BoUons, of the Gr.s.s. " Hinemoa," while
searching for a missing vessel, landed on the main island, and, eager as he
always is to advance our knowledge of New Zealand natural history, made,
together with Mrs. Bollons, a collection of the plants. This he was so kind
as to hand over to me, and I hasten to bring before your notice this first
collection of plants made on this isolated island.

As seen from the appended hst, nineteen species were collected, of which
four are ferns. The vegetation is evidently closely allied to that of the
outlying islands of the Stewart Island group, on the one hand, and, more
distantly, to the coastal scrub of the West Coast Sounds, on the other. Poa
foliosa and Senecio Stewartiw also connect it with the Snares. Neither of
these two plants has been found on the South Island, nor has the Senecio
been recorded from Stewart Island itself, though it is fairly common, I under-
stand, on the small outlying islands. The Stilbocarpa differs from that of
Stewart Island, being much more hairy, of a rather dull green, and the
small veins on the back of the leaf are much raised, making it almost lacu-
nose. It increases by means of runners, as does the Stewart Island plant,
and consequently differs altogether from the Snares plant, with its massive
rhizome and no runners.

A more searching examination than Captain Bollons was able to give
will probably show that other plants are present. One would certainly
expect Olearia angustifolia, Scivpus aucMandicus, S. cernuus, Gentian a
saxosa, one or two species of Hydrocotyle, and probably certain common
coastal plants ; also, the higher parts of the island not visited should have
species not found at a low level.

LIST OF PLANTS,
Pteridophyta.

Asplenium obtusatum, Forst. f.

,, lucidum, Forst. f.

Blechnum durum {Moore), C. Ckr.
Histiopteris incisa (Thhg.), J. Sm.

Poa foliosa, Hook. f.
,, Astoni, Petrie.

Carex trifida, Cav.

Speraiophyta.
GraminecB.

Cyperacere.

Cockayne. — On Aerial Rhizomes. , 405

JuncacecB.

Luzula campestris, D. C, var. australasica, Buchen. (?)

Orchidacece.
Thelyniitra uniflora, Hook. f.

* Aizoacece.

Mesembrianthemum australe, Sol.

Crcissulacece.
Crassula moscliata, Forst. f.

Araliacece.
Stilbocarpa Lyallii, J. B. Armstg.

Umhelliferce.
Apium prostratum, Lab.
Aciphylla intermedia {Hook. /.).

Boraginncece.
Myosotis capitata, Hook. /., var. albiflora, J. B. Armstg.

ScwphularinacecB.
Veronica elliptica, Forst. f.

Compositce.
Olearia Colensoi, Hook. f.
Senecio Stewartife, J. B. Armstg.

„ rotundifolius {Forst. /.), Hook. f.

Art, XXXIX. — Note, on Aerial Rhizomes in Cordyline australis.

By L. Cockayne, Ph.D.

\Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterhury, ith November, 1908.]

As is well known, the common New Zealand cabbage-tree {Cordyline aus-
tralis) sends deep down into the ground a continuation of its ordinary up-
right-growing trunk, from which it differs in its positive geotropism, pos-
session of roots, and rudimentary scale-like leaves. This rhizome functions
not merely as an anchor for the plant, which is kept in place by the spread-
ing horizontal or semi-horizontal roots ; but it serves as a storage-organ
for food, on the relative amount of which depends, doubtless, the blooming
of the tree. If the trunk be cut oft' below the level of the ground, new aerial
negatively geotropic shoots will be produced, and, vice versa, if the cut-oft"
aerial portion can be induced to grow, a new positively geotropic shoot
(rhizome) will be produced at its base. Frequently the trunk will put forth
from any part ordinary leafy shoots, and occasionally near its base small
positively geotropic rhizomes will be developed.

Some years ago the Hon. E. C. J. Stevens, M.L.C., called my attention
to a fine specimen of Cordyline australis growing in the grounds of the Christ-
church Club, which had a profusion of aerial rhizomes issuing from its trunk,
not from near the base, but at a considerable distance from the ground.

406 Transactions.

The trunk of this tree is at the present time about 34 cm. in diameter, the
actual base being swollen and wider. At 1-8 m. from the ground it oives
off four erect branches, and it is at this point that the bunches of rhizomes
are situated, though not merely at the forking, but to within 1-25 m. from
the base of the tree. Plate XXIX gives a far better idea of the appearance,
&c., than any detailed description. The largest bunch of rhizorrrt's is 38 cm.
long and 18 cm. deep. These bunches arise from lateral branches being
freely produced, and which, through their positive geotropism, are brought
close together. A rather large branch measures 18 cm. in length and 17 mm.
in diameter. Short rudimentary lateral roots pass off horizontally from
their sides.

Eegarding the cause of this abundant growth of aerial rhizomes I can
say nothing. The tree is at present rapidly dying, and the growth may be
in the first instance pathological. It is not altogether dependent on the
branching of the tree, since some of the rhizomes are given off far below the
forking ; others, again, where there is no branching, on one of the primary
branches. It is evident, however, that under certain conditions — at present
unknown — Cordyline austraUs can put forth from presumably the same
tissue either an ordinary leafy ascending shoot or a rhizomatous descending
one.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIX

Aerial rhizomes growing high up on trunk of Cordyline australis.

Art. XL. — The Wellington Tide-gauge.

By C. E. Adams, M.Sc, A.I.A. (Loud.), F.R.A.S.

[Read before the Wellington Philosophical Society. 1st July. 1908.]

The Wellington tide-gauge differs materially from all other tide-gauges, and,
as its design avoids most of the sources of error in the usual patterns, an
account of its great advantages is now submitted ; but in order to appre-
ciate these advantages it will be necessary to refer briefly to the essential
features of the usual forms.

In vol. xvi* of the G.T. Survey of India it is stated that " the object
aimed at in any complete system of tidal observations is to obtain the height
of the tide above some fixed m.ark or datum for every instant of time during
a more or less extended period. . . . This object is attained graphic-
ally by causing the rise and fall of the water to communicate its motion,
by mechanical means, to a pencil which traces a line on paper wound round
a drum turned by clockwork once in twenty-four hours. . . . An
instrument such as above briefly described is called a self-registering tide-
gauge, and of these various forms have from time to time been constructed.
The best form is, according to the opinion of Sir William Thomson, one in
which the drum is inclined to the vertical, as this enables the friction between
the pencil and the paper to be nicely regulated. The pattern almost ex-

* " Details of Tidal Observations," p. 9.

y,

o
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'f.
z

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-rJSfc^^-V^.JSlR^^

c

o

in

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m
D
<

2
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u

2

O

m
W

o

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Face p. 406.

Adams, — The Wellington Tide-gauge.

407

clusively used in India is that known as Newman's pattern, in which the
drum is horizontal, the only exception being a small gauge at Prince's Dock,
Bombay, where the drum is vertical."

Full details of the Indian gauges are given in vol. xvi, while a description
of the Newman gauge is also given in Baird's Manual.* The horizontal
drum of the Newman gauge is 5 ft. 3 in. long, and exactly 21 in. in circum-
ference. The drum revolves by clockwork once a day, and has attached
to it the record-paper. A pencil moves in a slide along the top of the drum,
and to the pencil-carriage a wire is attached which is actuated by the float
through cog-wheels. In this arrangement there are many defects : " First,
the drum for the diagrams was not quite circular in section, the ellipticity
in some cases being very marked. Secondly, the drum was not stable in
every position of its revolution — i.e., when disconnected from the clock and
turned by hand it assumed a certain position of its own accord."

To overcome the first defect it was necessary to make the clerk in charge
mark the exact position of the pencil on the diagram at four different times
of the day, then to redivide the diagram from these marks. Thus the whole
advantage of a ruled diagram was lost, as also many of the advantages of
a self-registering gauge, as constant attention of the clerk in charge is
required. The second defect was ingeniously overcome by a special back-
lash w^eight. There were many other defects, particularly in the adjust-
ment of the drum in relation to the clock, and to overcome all these defects
so many additions were necessary as to render the gauge a complicated piece
of mechanism requiring skilled attention.

In the Indian gauges constant attention is required to prevent the error
of the clock becoming serious. The duties of the clerk in charge of an
Indian tidal observatory involve constant attendance at 7 and 10 a.m. and
4 and 6 p.m. daily, and where labour is cheap (£2 to £2 10s. per mensem)
this attention can be easily arranged for ; but in other parts of the w^orld
gauges requiring less attention are necessary.

Fig. 1.
(Scale, l,OOO.ft. to an inch.)

The Wellington tide-gauge was designed by Mr. William Ferguson, M.A.,
M.Inst. C.E., formerly Engineer and Secretary to the Wellington Harbour

*"A Mamial for Tidal Observations," by Major A. W. Baird. London: Taylor
and Francis, 1886.

408

Tratisactioiis.

Board. It was erected in 1887, and is at present situated in N shed, on
Jervois Quay, Wellington, as shown in fig. 1.

The general design of the gauge is shown in fig. 2. The cylinder or
drum is 4 ft. long and 0-4 ft. in diameter.* It is horizontal, and carries a
wheel 2-4 ft. in diameter on the end of its axle. The float is attached by
a band to the circumference of the wheel. A smaller wheel carries a
counterweight to keep the float-band always taut. The pencil-carriage
moves horizontally at a uniform rate, and is in train with the driving-chain
of the eight-day lever clock. Its motion is approximately 6 in. a day, so
that one week's record is obtained on the drum.

It will be seen that the design of this gauge avoids all the defects of the
Newman and other forms of gauge. Thus, owing to the smaller diameter
of the drum, it can be readily turned truly circular, and, as it is the amount
of motion under the pencil that has to be measured, small ellipticity of

3f<

Floit

ScsU of Feel

Fig. 2. — The Wellington Self-eegistering Tide-gauge.

section does not vitiate the record, and, althovigh the drum is naturally
turned as evenly as possible, any defect in balancing is immaterial, as the
counterweight can be adjusted to overcome it. It is, however, in the ad-
justment of the time that the greatest improvement becomes apparent.
The clock is wound up once a week, and when wound up the pencil-carriage
is drawn to the left end of the drum. A new record-paper is attached to
the drum, which is then revolved underneath the pencil, and on the line so
drawn the correct local mean time is written, independent of what time is
shown on the clock. At the end of the week the drum is again turned round,

* Tiie range in Wellington is about 4 ft. or 5 ft., so that wlien used elsewhere the
ratio of the diameters of the drum and wheel must be altei-ed to keep the record within
practical limits.

Adams. — Tit" Wellington Tide-gaiiye.

409

so that the pencil draws a second line : the correct local mean time is written
on this line, and again no record is made of the time shown on the clock.
In fact, the sole purpose of the clock is to give uniform motion to the pencil,
and so long as the clock's rate does not materially vary the record will be
correct. And at any time during the week a check line can be similarly
drawn, and the correct local mean time noted on it. A check on the rate
of the clock is obtained by measuring the distance between the end lines
on the record.

Fig. 3 shows a portion of the record of this gauge, beginning 1908,
July 11. The first line was drawn at 9.55 a.m., and a check line is shown
at 11.45 a.m. The last line (not shown) was drawn on July 18 at 9.20
a.m., while other check lines (not shown) were drawn on July 14 at
12.40 and 13.00. The lines showing midnight are drawn in by scale from
the first and last lines on the diagram.

^Feet

Vertical Scale

Fig. 3.

Particulars of the Wellington gauge were recently sent to Sir G. H.
Darwin, who replied, " I never heard of a tide-gauge such as that you
describe, but there seems no reason why it should not work very well."

Harmonic Tidal Constants.

Through the courtesy of Mr. Thomas Wright, of " Lyndhurst," Victoria
Drive, Eastbourne, Sussex, the harmonic tidal constants for Wellington
and Auckland are here recorded. Mr. Wright states, " They have been
obtained by the aid of Grovernment grants from the Royal Society, and were
deduced by methods devised by Sir G. H. Darwin, and will be presented
for publication in the Proceedings of that Society. The constants for Wel-
lington were obtained from twelve months' observations, the epoch to which

410

T rcnisactions .

the figures refer being 1901, January, 1 d. 0 h. The constants for Auckland
were obtained from observations covering a period of the same length, the
epoch being 1900, May 1."

New Zealand Ports. — Harmonic Tidal Constants for Auckland and Welling-
ton (deduced from High- and Low-water Observations).

Auckland.

WelUnetou.

Epoch 1900, May 1.

Epoch 1901, January 1.

H.

K.

H.

K.

Tide.

Feet.

Degrees.

Feet.

Degrees.

Tide.

S2

. 0-6.33

266

0-11

308 .

Sa

Ma .

. 3-826

205

1-70

123 .

M.,

0

Neglect.

0-13

194 .

0

Ki •

. 0-265

169

0-18

275 .

Ki

K2 .

. 0-172

266

0-03

308 .

K2

P

. 0088

169

0-06

275 .

P

L

. 0-164

196

Neglfct.

L

N

. 0-778

175

0-45

S3 .

N

Sa .

. 0-354

139

007

295 .

Pa

Ssa ■

. 0-224

242

0-20

212 .

Ssa

Ao = 5-871 ft.

Ao = 37-74 ft.

Art. XLI. — A Natural Classification of English Poetry.
By Johannes C. Andersen.

[Read before the Philoso'phical Institule of Canterbury, 5th August, 1908.]

The discovery of the law guiding the formation of verse-lengths suggested
in the paper on " Origins of English Metre," read last session, has made
it possible to scheme out a natural classification of the whole of Englisli
poetry.

For purposes of classification it is necessary to fix on some characteristic
common to all species — a characteristic which, whilst it varies, does so in
a regular manner, so that, whilst the characteristic itself is not perfectly
constant, each variation is constant in itself. In poetry the problem has
been to detect such a characteristic in the midst of an apparent maze of
variations. One classification attempted has been according to quality —
that is, all lyrics, including songs, odes, sonnets, have been grouped together ;
didactic poems, narrative, epic, dramatic, and so on : but this is similar
to classifying flowers by their hues and scents. Again, another classification
has been according to the number of stresses in a line as printed ; so that
one class included one-stressed or two-syllabled lines, another three-stressed,
another four-stressed, and so on : this, too, is artificial, though it is nearer

Andkesen. — Natural Classification of English Poetry. 411

the true classification : as in the system of Linnaeus, the true organs have
been taken, but classification has been by their number instead of by their
development. •

Under the breath-law, the various poetic forms in use aroup themselves
into certain evident classes. This law indicated the first great characteristic
— the length of line ; and this gives two distinct classes — lines of five stresses
and lines of eight stresses, each of which two classes I have named after
their predominant types, Heroic and Ballad respectively. Setting aside
the internal syllabic variation of verse, the places of greatest variation are
at the beginning and end of lines. Variation at the end being the more
pronounced, this has been taken as the distinguishing feature of the various
ballad forms into which the Ballad class has been divided, and the varia-
tion at the beginning as the feature of the subvariations of the different
forms. Thus in Romance Metre, or Parent Ballad, the line-end may lose
a stress-unit, or foot, and become Popular Ballad, of seven instead of eight
stresses. In the Popular Ballad, again, there are two variations — in one
the stressed syllable at the end of every half-line is dropped, in the other
the whole unit at the end of every half-line. These two forms would have
been kept as subvariations of the Popular Ballad were it not for the fact
that the former constitutes the normal ballad-metre of Denmark and Ger-
many— and from the epic of the Nibelungen Noth being written in it I
have called it the Nibelungen Metre — and the latter constitutes the ballad-
metre of France, and has already been called the Alexandrine, from its
forming the metre of a French epic on the deeds of Alexander.

The stress-unit at the beginning of the line can be varied only in two
ways. In its normal form it consists of two syllables, the first unstressed,
the second stressed. The unstressed syllable may be dropped, or it may
be preceded by an extra unstressed syllable : from these variations are
produced the subvariations in each of the Ballad forms.

Minor variations are formed by adding or dropping syllables at the
line-ends. Thus, in Romance Metre an unstressed syllable may be added,
when what is called a feminine or weak ending is produced. If it drop a
syllable, it produces feminine Popular Ballad ; if it drop two syllables, it
produces ordinary Popular Ballad. If Populai' Ballad drop a syllable
at the half-line end. it produces Nibelungen. If Nibelungen drop a syllable
at the half -line end, it produces Alexandrine ; if it add a syllable at
the line - end, it produces either feminine Nibelungen or feminine Alex-
andrine.

Though these comprise the whole of the variations, except the internal
syllabic variations which are rather to be considered as scent and colour,
it will be seen that they include all regular formations outside lines of five
stresses. These latter form the second great class, the Heroic. This does
not show nearly the amount of variation of line-end shown by the former ;
its lines contain within themselves other and more subtle means of variation,
such as pause, overflow, &c. — features practically denied to Ballad. Its
subdivisions will be more readily seen. Firstly, the Common Heroic includes
all poems in riming couplets, with a sub variation including riming stanzas,
such as Spenserian, Sonnet, Rime Royal, &c. Secondly, Blank Verse in-
cludes two divisions — Epic, Narrative, and Didactic poems ; and the Drama,
rimed or unrimed. A third class, which I have called Irregular, includes
the Ode, poems in which the length of line follows no one of the preceding
classes exclusively, Metrical Tales, and Songs ; a subdivision I have called
Prose Lyrics, to include much of Walt Whitman's poetry ; another division

412 Transactions.

will contain those eccentricities, once popular, where poems are \vritten
in the shape of diamonds, crosses, pyramids, and so on. A subclass will
contain Exotics, such^ as the Rondeau, Rondel, Ballade, Villanelle, &c.

The following table shows the classification in a concise manner, the name
of a specimen poem being quoted with each by way of illustration : —

Class I. — Ballad.

A. Native.

1. Eight-stressed lines (16-syllabled) = Romance Metre (Parent Ballad) —

(a.) Continuous. (Gower's " Confessio Amantis.")
(6.) Stanzaic. (Burns's " Ye Banks and Braes.")

2. Seven-stressed lines (14-sylIabled) = Popular English Ballad —

(a.) Continuous. (All old ballads before printing.)
{h.) Stanzaic. (Coleridge's " Ancient Mariner.")

3. Seven-stressed lines ( 1'3-syllabled) = German Ballad : Nibelungen —

{a.) Continuous, (ffihlenschk'ger's " Hrolf Krake.")
(&.) Stanzaic. (Macaulay's " Horatius.")

4. Six-stressed lines (12-syllabled) = French Ballad : Alexandrine —

{a.) Continuous. (Drayton's " Polyolbion.")
[h.) Stanzaic. (Shelley's " Indian Serenade.")

B. Exotic.

1. Six-stressed lines (syllables indefinite) = Greek Ballad : Imitation of
Hexameter. (Longfellow's " Evangeline.")

Class II. — Heroic. (All fines of five stresses.)

1. Heroic Couplet —

{a.) Continuous. (Pope's " Essay on Man.")

(6.) Stanzaic. (Rime Royal, Spenserian Stanza, Sonnet, Ottava
Rima, &c.)

2. Blank Verse—

(«.) Epic, Narrative, Didactic, Descriptive. (Milton's " Paradise
Lost," Browning's " The Ring and the Book," Young's " Night
Thoughts," Thomson's " Seasons.")

(&.) Drama. (Shakespeare, Marlowe, &c.)

Class III. — Irregular.

A. Native.

1. The Ode—

(a.) Ode, Song, Metrical Tale. (Dryden's " Alexander's Feast,"

C. Rossetti's " Echo," Southey's " Curse of Kehama.")
(&.) Prose Lyrics. (Whitman's " President Lincohi's Burial Hymn.")

2. Artificials —

Poems in shape of diamonds, crosses, &c. (Herrick's " Cross,"
Withers's " Diamonds.")

B. Exotic.

Rondeau, Rondel, Triolet, Ballade, Villanelle, Virelai, Pantoum, &c.

Andtrsen. — Natural Classification of English Poetry. 413

Lost those subdivisions appear at first sight very limited, the further
subdivisions of Division 1 of the Ballad may be shown : —

Division 1 of Class I, Ballad.
(a.) Continuous.
(].) Long Verse. (Tennyson's " Locksley Hall")
(2.) Split— " '

{a.) Ordinary (iambic). (Butler's " Hudibras.")
(h.) Abrupt (trochaic). (Shelley's " Lines written
Euganean Hills.")
(3.) Trisyllabic. (Goldsmith's " The Retaliation.")

(b.) Stanzaic.

among the

IT.

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(1)

/

(2)

/

(3)

/

(4)

/

(5)

/

(6)

/

(7)

/

(8)

/

(9)

/

/

(10)

/

(11)

/

• (12)

/

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/

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/

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(15)

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41tl: Transactio7is.

In the above table the units, of which there are eight in the Romance
Metre, are divided ofi by the /, the syllable preceding the bar bearing the
stress in every case : each . represents a syllable.

Example (1) is then ordinary duple, or iambic metre ; (2) is ordinary
triple, or anapestic metre, with iambic opening ; (3) is ordinary quadruple
with iambic opening ; (4) is pure triple ; (5) is quadruple with triple open-
ing ; (6) is ordinary duple, the second half-line beginning abruptly, or with
a stressed syllable ; (9) is ordinary duple with a feminine first half-line,
producing a triple unit in the middle of the verse.

Class B, (12) to (22), is exactly the same as Class A, (1) to (11), except
that all the varieties in the former have feminine verse-ends.

Class C (23) may be extended in a similar way of Classes A and B ; it
differs from them in the verse ending with a double feminine, but this is
of such rare occurrence that, unless specimens are actually found or made,
it is unnecessary to cite the various varieties, all of which are, however,
possible, and occur often enough in isolated couplets in eccentrics such as
the " Ingoldsby Legends."

Group II, again, is similar to Group I, except that throughout the former
the beginning of the verse is abrupt — that is, it begins with a stressed syllable ;
so that, whilst Group I contains the so-called iambic and anapestic metres,
Group II contains the trochaic and dactylic.

Those above tabled are the main variations. There are intermediate
forms ; for example, betw^een (1) and (2) the following form often occurs : —

_../ .../ .../ .../ ../ .../ ._../ .../
where both half-lines of the triple metre begin with a duple unit. The
extremes of variation only are given in the table, intermediate forms readilv
falling into their places.

It must be noted, however^ that it is as much the exception as the rule
to find verses entirely in any one of the above varieties. They may change
from one to another, or hover around several of the forms in each of the
Divisions A, B, and C, but they can always be readily assigned their place
in the scheme. For instance, Shelley's " Sensitive Plant " is a mixture of
duple and triple metre : —

A Sensitive Plant in a garden grew,
And the yoi ng winds fed it with silver dew,
And it opened its fan-like leaves to the light.
And closed them bereath the kisses of night.

This, divided into units, reads, —

A Sen/sitivo Plant/ in a gar/den grew/, and the young/

winds fed/ it with sil/ver dew/.
And it o/pened its fan-/like leaves/ to the light/, and
closed/ them beneath/ the kis/ses of night/
or

../.../.../ ../.../ ../.../ ../

.../.../ ../ .../ ../.../ ../.../

It will be seen that it hovers between (a) and {d) — (1) and (4) — of Group I,^

Class A, Division 1.

The various divisions of the table have been made, as there is a vast

number of poems that can be wholly placed in one or other of them. In

the quotations following, the numbers correspond with the numbers of the

variations in the table : —

(1.) Ye banks/ and braes/ o' bon/nie Doon/, how can/ ye bloom/ sae
fresh/ and fair ?

Andersen. — Natural Classification of English Poetry. 415

(2

(3.

(4.

(5.

(6.

(7.

(8.

(9.
(10.
(11.
(12.
(13.
(15.
(16.

;i7.

(20.
(21.
(22.
'23.

,24.
(25.
(27.
(28.
(29.
(31.

Our bu/gles sang truce/ for the niglit-/C'loud had hnvei'd/. and
the sen/tinel stars/ set their watch/ in the sky/.

An' half/ our buUicks per/ished when the drought/ was on the
land/, an' the burn/in' lieat that daz/zles as it dan/ces on the
sand/.

The Assy/rian came down/ like a wolf/on the fold/, and his co/-
horts were gleam/ing in pur/ple and gold/.

And the bush/ hath friends to meet/him and their kind/ly voices
gi-eet/ him in the mur/mur of the breez/es and the riv/er on its
bars/.

Since when/ all songs/ for jo/ vial souls/ hav/ing no/thing,
thought/divine/.

As gay/ as a lark/, and as blythe/ as a bee/, hand/some,
gen/erous, spright/ly, and young/.

I have read/her roman/ces of dame/and knight/; she/was my
prin/cess, my pride/, ray pet/,

Wlien love/ly wo/ man stoops/ to fol/ly, and finds/ too late/ that
men/ betray/.

Then up/ with the Bau/ner, let fo/rest winds fan/ her, she has
blazed/ over Et/trick eight a/ges and more/.

Of the mail/ cover' d ba/rons, who proud/ly to bat/tie led their
yas/sals from Eu/rope to Pal/estine's jilain/.

And is/ she dead ?/ and did/ they dare/ obey/ my fren/zy's"jea/-
lous ra/ving ?

The pine/ boughs arc sing/ing old songs/ witli new glad/ness, the
bil/lows and f oun/tains fresh mu/sic are fling/ing.

At the dance/ in the vil/lage thy white/ foot was fleet/est ; thy
voice/ 'mid the con/cert of maid/ens was sweet/est.

And the daugh/ter3 of the Var/dens — they_ are beau/tiful as
Gra/ces — b\it the bal/cony's deser/ted, and they rare/ly show
their fa/ces.

Awake 1/ my love/, the sun's/ bright ray/, hill/ and yal/ley's
now/adorn/ing.

Her voice/ did cpii/ver as/ we part/ed, yet knew/ I not/ that

heart/was brok/en. _,

The soul/ speaking eyes/ are the lan/guage of bliss/es, and we'll
talk/ with our eyes/ amidst si/lent kiss/es.

Though thy beau/ty must fade/, yet thy j'outh/ I'll remem/bcr;
that thy May/ was my own/ when thou show/est Decem/ber.

The coach/man then held/ the door fast/ in his hand/, to let/ me

get out/ he was not/ at all wiU/ing. sirs.
Oh, I'm/ call'd the Ja/nus, the pride/ of gentil/ity. as jus/tice I

act/. I'm sure/, with abil/ity.
As the wise/, brave, and good/, of thy frowns/ seldom shape/ any,

witness brave/ Belisa/rius, wlio begged/ for a ha'-/)ienny.

Aske/ me why/ I send/ you here/ this sweet/ Infan/ta of/ the
yeere ?/

Bird/ of the wil/derness, blith/some and cum/berless, light/ be
thy ma/tin o'er wood/land and lea !/

Must/ thou go/ my glo/rious chief/. se/ver'd from/ thy faith/-
f ul few ?/

Hie/ upon Hie/ lands and low/ upon Tay/, bon/nie George

Cara]3/bell rode oiit/ on a day/.

God/ be with/ thee, glad/some o/cean ! how glad/ly greet/ I

thee/ once more !/ .;

There's/ a wo/man like/ a dew-/drop, she's/ so pur/er th.an/
the pur/est. ^

'<^/-^ -^.•-^ V ^

luIlIBRAR Y 1^

416 Transactiom.

(32.) F?ir/ stood the wind/ for Fi'poUce, when/ we our sails/ advance,
nor/ now to prove/ our chance iong/er we tar/ry.

(34.) My/ dear Mis/tress has/ a heart/, soft/ as tliose/ kind looks/
she gave/ me.

(35.) Howl/ not, ye winds/, o'er the tomb/ of the brave/ ; roai'/ not,
ye waves/, at the foot/ of the monn/tain.

(3G. ) 1/ will an/swer. These/ discov/er what faint/ing hopes/ are in/
a lov/er.

There are several intermediate forms, of w^hicli entire poems are composed,
and it might be found advisable to make divisions for their insertion. For
example, the following form the scheme of well-known poems : —

Between (1) and (2), —

0, young/ Lochinvaa-/ is come out/ of the West/ : through all/ the
wide Bor/dor his steed/ was the best/ ;

Between (12) and (13),—

Oh, say/ not, sweet Anne/, that the Fates/ have decreed/ the heart/
which adores/you should wish/ to dissev/er ;

Between (24) and (25),—

Bright/est and best/ of the sons/ of the morn/ing 1 dawn/ on our
dark/ness and lend/ us thine aid/ ;

Between (31) and (32),—

Where/ shall the lov/er rest, whom/ the fates sev/er from/ his true
maid/en's breast/, parted for ev/er ?

There are fitrther irregular variations, as when Romance Metre mixes with
Ballad or Alexandrine. Ballad with Alexandrine or Nibelungen, &c. The
table shows only regular forms ; the irregular, whilst they could be classified,
are hardly of sufficient importance to warrant more than one general sub-
division. Poems in regular structure vastly predominate, and it is, indeed,
only because this is so that it has been found possible to compile the table.

Each of the other Ballad forms — Ordinary, Nibelungen, and Alexandrine
— vary in the same wav, though not to the same extent, as the Romance
Metre.

The stanza form has not been taken as a standard of classification, as
it varies in a manner altogether arbitrary : the line formations follow a
definite law, and their variations from this law can readily be perceived.
The stanza, on the other hand, appears to follow no fixed law, though it is
a curious fact that the normal stanza of. all the Ballad metres is composed
of eight half-lines, and the parent Ballad line of eight stresses. The forma-
tion of the line is primarily rhythmical, then syntactical ; the formation cf
the stanza appears to be primarily syntactical.

A few normal stanzas are quoted, to show the variation of form that may
take place within the same metrical scheme : —

Variation (1).

Ye banks and braes o' bonnie Doon,

How can ye bloom sae fresh and fair ?
How can ye chant, ye little birds.

An' I sae wea,ry, fu' o' care ?
Thou' It break my heart, thou warbling bird.

That wantons thro' the flowering thorn :
Thou minds me o' departed joys,

Departed, — never to return.

(Burn«, " The Banks o' Doon.")

Andersen. — Natural Classification of EngJ,ish Poetry. 417

She's mounted on her milk-white steed,

And she's ta'en Thomas up behind ;
And aye, whene'er her bridle rang,

The steed gaed swifter than the wind.

0 they rade on. and farther on.

The steed gaed swifter than the wind ;
I'litil they reached a desert wide.

And living land was left behind.

(" Thomas the Rhymer.")

From Oberon, in fairj^e land,

The king of ghosts and shadows there.
Mad Robin I, at his command,
Am sent to viewe the night-sports here.
Wliat revel rout
Is kept about.
In every corner where I go,
I will o'ersee.
And merry bee.
And make good sport, with ho, ho, ho I

("Robin Good-Fellow.")

With deep affection.
And recollection,
[ often think of

Those Shandon beUs,
Whose sounds so wild would.
In the days of childhood,
Fling round my cradle

Their magic spells.
On this I ponder
Whene'er I wander.
And thus grow fonder.

Sweet Cork, of thee ;
With thy bells of Shandon,
That sound so grand on
The pleasant waters

Of the river Lee.

(P. Mahony, " The Shandou Bells.")

Variation (2).

Our bugles sang truce, for the night-cloud had lower' d.

And the sentinel stars set their watch in the sky ;
And thousands had sunk to the ground, overpower' d,

The weary to sleep and the wounded to die.
Wlien reposing that night on my pallet of straw,

By the wolf -scaring fagot, that guarded the slain,
In the dead of the night a sweet vision I saw.

And thrice ere the morning I dreamt it again.

(Campbell, "The Soldier's Dream.* ,,

(Half-stanzas.)

The glad birds are singing.
The gay flowrets springing,
, O'er meadow and mountain and down in the vale ;
The gi-een leaves are bursting ;
My spirit is thirsting
To ba'sk ir the sunbeams, and breathe the fresh gale.

(Barton, "Spring.")

By love and by beauty,
By law and by duty,
I swear to be true to
My Eppie Adair !
14— Trans.

418 . Transactions.

I A' pleasure exile me,

Dishonour delile me.
If e'er I beguile thee.
My Eppie Adair !

(Burns, " Eppie Adair."'

>^_' " Variation (4).

(Half-stanzas.)

The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold,
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold.
And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea,
\Vlreu the blue wave rolls nigltly on deep Galilee.

(Byron, "The Destruction of Sennacherib.")

'Tis the last rose of summer

Left blooming alone ;
All her lovely companions

Are faded and gone ;
No flower of her kindred
No rosebud, is nigh,
■^ To reflect back her blushes

Or give sigh for sigli.

(Moore, " The Last Rose of Summer.")

It will be seen that the same rhythm runs through all these examples, the
variations being external — as it were in the matter of scent and colour.

Besides showing poets and others what forms had been much or little
used, a classification of English poetry on these lines might lead to the dis-
covery of yet more laws guiding its growth.

Art. XLII. — Development of Four-syUabled Metrical Unit in the Australian

Modification of the English Ballad.

By Johannes C. Andersen,

[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterliury, 5th August, 1908.]

Between every two beats or stresses which distinguish poetry from prose
there are found a comparatively regular number of syllables ; and each
stress, with the syllables between it and the adjoining stress, either behind
or before, constitutes the most elementary unit in verse, usually called a
"foot." These feet, which will be hereafter called "stress-units," or
"units," have been classified, according to the position of the stress, and
according to whether they contain two or three syllables, as iamb, trochee,
anapest, amphibrach, and dactyl. As pointed out in the paper of last
session, these may be resolved to two fundamental units — the iamb, and
its extension the anapest ; and the stress is always on the last syllable
of the unit, which I have therefore called "stress-unit" in preference
to "foot." For the purposes of the present paper it is necessary only
to state that so greatly do two- and three-syllabled, or dissyllabic and
trisyllabic, units preponderate in English poetry that they are commonly
held to be the only units, though the existence of a four-syllabled unit
is admitted. As, however, when such units do occur in good verse it is

Andeesen. — Development of Four-syUahled Metrical Unit. 419

almost always in isolation, they have been regarded as accidental rather
than intentional. They may be found in the old ballads, in Shakespeare and
in Milton ; but they have such a " rapid " effect that except in very few
cases they are displeasing.

Whilst there is no doubt that it has never been extensively employed
as a basic unit in the poetry of Britain, the case is different as regards the
poetry of Australia, where it has become the basis of the most popular of
the colonial metres. The poetry most in favour in Australia is that which
in spirit approaches the old English ballad, though it must be confessed
it is the degenerate ballad that has exerted most influence — the " Robin
Hood" type rather than the " Glasgerion," "Clerk Saunders," or "Wife
of Usher's Well " type ; but there is this to be said : that it is rather the form
of the type than its matter that has exerted the influence.

Three-syllabled units constantly occur in even the best ballads, and,
where artistically used, with most pleasing effect : they impart a " rapid "
movement to the metre ; and when the themes become more common-
place, more humorous, treating as they do of the lighter rather than the
tragic side of life, this rapid movement becomes more and more marked,
until many of the ballads are entirely trisyllabic. Though the four-
syllabled unit is more rapid even than the three-syllabled, it did not
evolve from the three-syllabled, and is more rarely found in that metre
than in the two-syllabled.

The popular poetry of Australia is undoubtedly humorous, and it was
to be expected that the humorous metre of England would exert its influ-
ence on the Australian poet, on account of its lively movement if for no
other reason ; and in Lindsay Gordon, who has been called the father of
Australian poetry, out of his sixty-seven collected poems forty-five are
three-syllabled, whilst only eighteen are two-syllabled. In four poems
there can be traced the germ of what was to become a dominant metre :
these four are '" Unshriven," " Whisperings in Wattle Boughs," " A Hunt-
ing Song," and the well-known poem " The Sick Stockrider." The new
metre is most likely to result from poems MTitten in what are called tro-
chaics, or two-syllabled feet stressed on the first syllable : in such cases
the first and every alternate stress are dropped. In the poems of Kendall,
the most truly poetic of the older Australians, there are twelve in these
trochaics ; but in no instance does the metre lapse into the metre under
discussion, the four-syllabled.

It is different when we turn to later writers, well-known favourites such
as Paterson and Lawson. Paterson's first book opens with and takes
its name from a piece in this very measure, "The Man from Snowy River."
Here the beat is much more distinct than in Gordon : —

There was movement at the station, for the word had passed around

That the colt from old Regret had got away,
And had joined the wild bush-horses — he was worth a thousand poimd,

So all the cracks had gathered to the fray.
All the tried and noted riders from the stations near and far

Had mustered at the homestead overnight,
For the bushmen love hard riding where the wild bush-horses are.

And the stock-horse snuffs the battle with delight.

The usual reading of this stanza would require a stress on the first, third,
and every odd syllable ; but on an actual reading a very different result
ensues. The first two Hnes are read —

There was move/ment at the sta/tion, for the word/ had passed around/
That the colt/ from old Regret/ had got away/.

420 Transactions.

There is a slight stress on " passed," " old " and " got," but otherwise
the lines fall perfectly naturally into four-syllabled units, giving lines of
alternately four and three stresses — nothing more than English ballad-metre :
in fact, the whole stanza is a perfect bal'ad stanza, but with four-syllabled
units.

In Paterson's two volumes of poems, out of their eighty-one pieces there
are twelve in the four-syllabled metre ; in Lawson's two volumes, out of
ILi pieces no less than twenty-eight bear the unmistakable stamp of this
metre ; Ogilvie has eleven out of a hundred ; Boake four out of thirty-
two ; Brunton Stephens the high average of twelve out of fifty-seven.

Two pieces may be taken as contrast. In Kendall's imaginative poem
^' Hy-Brasil " occur the lines, —

There iudeed was singing Eden, where the great gold river runs
Past the porch and gates of crystal, ringed by strong and shining ones !
There indeed was God's own garden, sailing down the sapphire sea —
Lawny dells and slopes of summer, dazzling stream and radiant tree I

Here it is impossible, except perhaps in two instances, to slur the stressed
odd syllables ; but read in the same way the following stanzas from Law-
son's " Australian Bards and Bush Reviewers," and instead of humorous
they are ridiculous : — ■

If you sing of waving grasses where the plains are dry as bricks.
And discover shining rivers where there's only mud and sticks ;
If you picture " mighty forests " where the mulga spoils the view —
You're superior to Kendall, and ahead of Gordon too.

Two British poems containing suggestions of the metre are the Hon.
Mrs. Norton's " Bingen on the Rhine," and S. Ferguson's Irish ballad " The
Fairy Thorn." A stanza from each follows : —

A soldier of the Legion lay dying in Algiers —

There was lack of woman's nursing, there was dearth of woman's tears ;

But a comrade stood beside hiiu while his life-blood ebb'd away,

And bent, with pitying glances, to hear what he might say.

The dying soldier falter'd, as he took that comrade's hand.

And he said. " I never more shall see my own, my native land ;

Take a message and a token to some distant friends of mine.

For I was born at Bingen — at Bingen on the Rhine."

They're glancing through the glimmer of the quiet eve.

Away in milky wavings of neck and ankle bare ;
The heavy-sliding stream in its sleepy song they leave.

And the crags in the ghostly air.

Scott has a rare example of the metre appearing in three-syllabled sur-
roundings : —

He is gone on the mbnntdin,

He is Uist to the ibyefit.
Like a .sTonmer-dried fbautnin.

When our need was the sorest.
The fount reappear/n.*/

Fr(wi the ?v(U)-drops shall hbrrow,
But to lis comes no cheermg.

To Duncan no morrow !

When found in three-syllabled metres its existence can be shown to be
accidental rather than intentional. The poet has made feminine or weak
rimes at the half-line or line-endings, as in the example given, and, an ana-
pest following, a four-syllabled unit results. A line from the Irish ballad
" Mary le More " shows this :—

As I stray'd o'er the common on Cork's rugged hbrder,
IJ hile the rfejc-drops of morn the sweet primrose array'd.

Andersen. — Developvient of Four-syllabled Metrical Unit. 421

It is usually avoided by making the first unit of the line an iamb instead
of an anapest, as in the last line in the example from Scott, and in most
lines of the ballad " Mary le More."

Longfellow's " Belfry of Bruges " would receive strange handling from
a four-syllabled Australian. Instead of — ■

In the market place of Bruges stands the belfry old and brown ;
Thrice consumed and ihrice rebuilded. still it watches o'er the town.
As the summer morn was breaking, on tl:at lofty tower I stood,
And the world threw off the darkness, like the weeds of widowhood.

it would be read —

In the nn\r/ket place of Bru/ges stands the bel/fry old and brown ;/
Thrice consumed/ and thrice rebnild/ed, still it watch/es o'er the town
As the sum/mer morn was break/mg, on that lof/by tower I stood,/
And the world/ threw off the dark/ness, like the weeds/ of widowhood.

Now, it was at one time considered that the three-syllabled unit could
never be made the basis for true poetic, work. In the old ballads, in the
romance metre of Gower, it gives a beautiful variation to the iambic, but
it is only in the degenerate ballads that it predominates. Guest, one of the
great writers on English metre, calls it the " tumbling metre," and speaks
of it with contempt ; indeed, the three-syllabled unit was, after the date
of ballads, avoided by poets generally until Cowper revived it, and in these
later days Swinburne and other masters have shown what excellent har-
monies it is capable of producing. So it is with the four-syllabled unit :
at present, except in isolation, it is outside the pale of true poetry ; but
there are indications that it may yet exert as great an influence as the three-
syllabled, and produce as distinctive a music. Already it has been used
in British poetry for its heightening effect, as the three-syllabled unit was
first used, and there is no doubt that it also will produce a type of its own,
crude at first, but gradually soaring into true music.

It was no doubt the rapidity of the motion produced by the four-
syllabled unit that first attracted the Australian writers : poets accustomed
to horse-riding, as the popular Australian poets all were and are, preferred
a galloping metre ; and, finding one even faster than the three-syllabled,
they instinctively adopted and developed it — still retaining the ballad
form whilst they modified its internal structure. The following lines
from Paterson's " Clancy of the Overflow " give a faint echo of no mean
music : —

And the bush hath friends to meet him, and their kindly voices greet him

In the murmur of the breezes and the river on its bars,
And he sees the vision splendid of the sxinlit plains extended,

And at night the wondrous glory of the everlasting stars.

One fact greatly in favour of the Australian ballad is its breezy joviality
and good humour : and what is now contemptuously looked on as mere
unpoetic jingling will, I feel sure, prove to be the preliminary tuning-up of
a new string to the lyre of Apollo.

422

Transactions.

Art. XLIII. — yew Zealand Bird-song.
By Johannes C. Andersen.

[Bead before the Philosophical Institute oj Canterhury, ith Novemher, 1908.]

I SPENT a week in December of last year in the neighbourhood of a clump
of thirty or forty acres of native bush near Stony Bay, Little Akaroa ;
and as this was my first time of being for any length of time near the
bush, I occupied myself in recording the notes of such birds as happened to
be there.

The most elusive notes I found to be those of the bell-bird (korimako
• — Anthornis melanura). I could catch and fix individual notes, but it was
some days before I could be sure of their sequence. The reason will be
seen on referring to the records following : —

&VO.

>

&va..

(J)

-¥M^

<:» (2)

^ rV^JJ^

8i/a .

&ia

t-3)

(6)

iv^ .

(t)

f 7 f 7 [T'-Tr^^

or 0)

^^

^^^

[• V k*"' i< I' — V-

r^j V \/ i- i*. i i>

and so on. The pitch of the initial note of the phrases (1) and (2) varied
from d to c, as shown in (3). The consequence was that on checking the
notes taken one day with notes taken the next I found they differed, often
to a wide degree. I was not able to discover if the variation in pitch was
due to the song being sung by different birds, or if one bird was able to
vary it as it pleased. The most usual phrase was (1) : the notes follow one
another very quickly, the two concluding the phrase being most distinctive
and characteristic. A variation where these two notes are discarded is
shown in (2). Here the whole phrase is lengthened, and two notes of differ-
ent pitch introduced — the two last, which are sustained longer than those
preceding. These concluding notes are very pleasing, the last especially
being deep, full, and melodious. I only heard this variation as a continu-
ation of (1), and then only when the two distinctive notes were discarded.
The difference between the day-song and the even-song was very marked :
in the latter the notes were sung more deliberately, and, whilst the general
theme of the day-song was followed, the intervals were slightly different.
The parallel of the more usual day-song was also the more usual even-
song (4) : it will be seen that a pause approximately twice the length of the
note was made after each note, and the distinctive note uttered only once,
the interval between the acciciatura and the main note being also less. The
variation of the even-song (5) ended on the same note as the variation of
the day-song, I more than once saw a bell-bird on the top of a dead tree
at the edge of the bush repeating one or other of the phrases (4) and (5) in

Andersen. — New Zealand Bird-song. 423

the evening, at intervals of perhaps half a minute, and for five or more
minutes at a time. As twilight deepened a new theme was taken up : the
tree-top sentinel disappeared, and from the dark bush came the quickly
uttered notes shown in (5). These would be continued, with the slight
variations shown occurring now and again, for two and three minutes with-
out pause or cessation ; and when they ceased no other note was heard,
the next cry coming from the now stirring morepork : his cry consisted of
two muffled but clear notes, the second a semitone lower than the first.

I heard more of the whirring flight of the tui {Prosthemadera novcB-
zealandice) than of his song, the commonest call I heard during the week
being a repetition of a single note, from four to eight times, the most
frequent number being five, as shown in (1) following :

,, . SfCL ^,

Si'a.

(1) r ^ r * -^ - — ■ f.-; >^ L ' ■ (3)

-Jjl'ITrf

zsx

hree A/ctu^' hruri: 'Hrurr T

It was especially noticeable of the pitch of this note that it never varied :
every time I tried it it was h. Fenwick, travelling in the southern part of
this island, recorded the note as /, and said that it varied in different locali-
ties. The five notes were generally, though not always, followed by the
three gutturals hree, hraw, hrurr. These gutturals have no definitive pitch ;
each has its distinct vowel sound, however, and they can be imitated by
breathing the words rather than articulating them ; the r carries the Ger-
man sound, produced by slight vibration of the uvula. The five notes are
ventriloquous — that is, they appear to come from a distance away from the
bird ; and I, having been told the notes were those of a bell-bird, thought
the tui I was w^atching answered them with the gutturals : I soon saw,
however, that the same bird produced both. The notes have a clear, mellow
tone, and when uttering them the bird sits motionless, with outstretched
neck, in some high tree — usually, when I saw him, in a totara or black-pine.
The last of the gutturals, hrurr, was at times used as the initial for the slur
shown in (2). This high slurred note was very sweet and plaintive — one
of the sweetest of all I heard. I heard these calls of the tui much more
often than his song. This song (3) is an instance of seeming imitation :
the theme is the same as in the song of the bell-bird, the difference being
in the intervals and the tempo. The initial note varied almost to the same
degree as that of the bell-bird. The two distinctive final notes of the latter,
however, I did not hear imitated. In the tui song the fourth and sixth
notes, both a, were long-drawn and most melodious. I heard no other notes
from the tui : I came too late in the season to hear him at his best.

The black fantail (tiwakawaka — Rhipidura fuliginosa) had a slurred
note that was similar to the slur of the tui, but was a sixth higher.

I heard the fuller song of this bird only once. It
alit on the rough bark of a black-pine only a yard
" '" from me, and twittered a pleasant little song, of

limited range, however, and little variation. I did
not wish to interrupt it, as it was the first time of
hearing it, so did not take the pitch ; and, unfor-
tunately, I did not hear the song a second time. It hovered about the
opening-note, never more than a tone (more often a semitone) above or
below, being, indeed, hardly more than a twitter.

424

Transactions,

I saw only two parrakeets (kakariki — Cyanoramphus novcB-zealandice)
during the week, and from them obtained (1) and (2) following : —

BvcL...

(2)

rif m'r

The first notes sounded very like the words " Take me back," and were
repeated at fairly long intervals. The quality of the parrakeet's note differs
considerably from any others that I heard : it could be imitated on an
oboe or clarionet ; the tui and bell-bird might be imitated on a mellow flute,
though it would be difficult to render the high notes with sufficient softness.
The weka {Ocydromus) was fairly common, but I obtained only two
calls, as follow : —

9va^.

Hi,

(I)

i"~p'-, fTf'-, i'^r'v

(2)

i't^- jZ^

The first call was the usual one ; I heard the second only once. These I
take to be the call of the female weka ; for, according to an old Maori war-
tale, the cry of the female is 'ko-ee, ko-ee, Iv-ee, whilst that of the male is
tee-waka, tee-waka.

Of all the songs I heard, the most interesting to me was that of the grey-
warbler (riroriro — Pseudogerygone igata). In the bush, it was the least
developed of the songs that had got beyond a mere twatter, such as that
of the fantail — that is, it has not yet acquired a definite succession of
phrases, nor is the range of notes at all wide ; but, whilst it is the least
developed, it shows great possibilities for varied development. The warbler
is one of the native birds commonly found around human habitations ; it
may constantly be heard, especially in the morning ; and the peculiar thing
is that away from the bush, possibly under the influence of introduced song-
birds, the song of the warbler has acquired a certain definiteness. The melody
that may be heard almost every morning in any part of Christchurch is
shown in (1) : —

Sea.

StfOi.

(1)

r^rt

(2)

PP

The phrases always follow in this sequence when the full song is sung. It
may break off at any part, or, if continued beyond the notes written, it is
an exact repetition." There is, however, a variation that I have heard in
the song of the town bird ; the variation is irt the four concluding notes,
as shown in (2). Here an enharmonic note is introduced, adding still more
to the plaintiveness of the melody. The last note is invariably much lighter
than those preceding, and there is a distinct accent on the first note of every
phrase of five. Last year, when the variation was introduced, I did not
once hear the song continued beyond it : this year I have heard one bird con-
tinue it, repeating the variation. The song is very sweet, though so highly
pitched. On hearing the variation, one is impressed by the idea that it is
a late development, as there is a hesitation in the uttering of the enharmonic
note : the interval introduced, too, is wider than usual. Knowing this
song, it was with surprise that I heard the very different song of the bush-
warbler. The phrase of five notes, the last a semitone below the first four,

Andeksen. — New Zealand Bird-sonq.

425

evidently the basic phrase, was constant, but the combination of the
variously pitched phrases followed no sequence that I could discover. It
meandered on in the way shown below : —

Si'o

TrrrtrcrrTrtrrr^^r.rTrflTTrcrr^rrprrt

There was nothing regular nor determinate : the phrases did not always
fall in three sequences, a higher interval following as frequently as a lower :
the song, too, was prolonged indefinitely, as if the bird itself had no idea
of rounding it off. In the bush I only once had the good fortune to actually
see a warbler singing. It was perched on the topmost branchlet of a ribbon-
wood at the edge of the bush, which lay below it in a deep valley, and it sat
turned towards the trees below, facing, with outstretched neck, now this
way, now that, singing like a prima donna to a rapt audience. I have often
seen the dilating and throbbing throat of a singing-bird, but in this warbler
not only the throat but the skin completely round the neck seemed puffed
out with ruffled feathers, and throbbed as the bird sang its long, irregular,
indeterminate, minor melody. This was the most tantalizing of the songs :
I constantly heard it, faintly as if far away in the bush, and it repeatedly
distracted me into endeavouring to catch a sequence in its measures whilst
I was taking the pitch of other notes. I was unsuccessful, however, in
obtaining any definite sequence beyond the five notes of the basic phrase.
The pitch is very high, and I do not know of any instrument by which it
could be imitated.

Another very highly pitched note was that of what I assume to be a
young bush-wren or rifleman (titipounamu — Acanthidositta chloris). It
was the only bird of the kind I saw, and it sat on a vine a couple of yards
away, uttering the very faint, cheeping notes : —

2 Sua.

ggg

It was hardly louder than the chirp of a cricket, and though so high in pitch
was remarkably sweet and plaintive.

There was one bird which I was unable to identify, either on the spot
or subsequently, though now I think it may be a hedge-sparrow [Accentor
tnodularis). It was a little larger than a sparrow, dark grey, with darker
colouring along the upper parts, and tail long and narrow. I saw it singing
several times : it clung to a vine, moved its head a little from side to side
as it sang, its tail quivering as the note with the tremolo, as shown in the
melody below (1), was uttered : —

0,1 q

i.'J

1 "^ ri*rr

—

r L L.>L.J

r ,i»,""^"

As will be seen, the melody, which is very regular and distinct, is much
longer than that of any other of the bush birds ; and this led me to conjee-

426

Transactions.

ture that it was not a New-Zealander. The melody was not always sung
fully through ; more often it was broken after the first or second tremolo,
or after the theme ending on (j flat. Sometimes the two phrases enclosed
between single bars would be replaced by the phrase enclosed between
double bars ; but I repeatedly heard the full melody as above. On certain
days this bird was very plentiful ; and one day, there being but little bird-
song, I was trying Schubert's " Fisher-maiden " on my whistle, when no
less than four of them perched close beside me piping away most ener-
getically, and the louder I whistled the louder and faster they piped, as
if they thought it their duty to pipe me down. The pitch varied con-
siderably, but, as I doubted the bird's being a native, I was content to
take down the melody. A call which the bird sometimes uttered, with no
melody preceding or following, is shown in (2). Should this prove to be
the song of the Accentor, it would be interesting to know how it compares
with the song of the Home bird.

Observations will have to be much more extended before any compari-
sons can be made or remarks offered on the different songs ; and I have
offered these incomplete notes in the hope that others who are in the bush
may be induced to record notes in various parts of the Islands, so that com-
plete records may be had of the songs of all our birds, in all the months of
the year, as well as in all localities.

Additional Eecords taken in Decembeb, 1908, from Birds in the.

SAME Bush.

Bell-bird : The notes were similar to those taken last year.

Tui : The following additional notes were obtained : —

8va-

'aL

-Xjt^^tjlT^:

(4)

^ y q> Y > 1^ z^

tiu tiu aitrr tsrr

&va - T

»va

(8)

tiu till aiirr till tiu aurr

When uttering the notes a opening (4) the neck was stretched out, with
the bill half-open. The sounds represented by tiu tiu aurr were repeated
very quickly : the tiu was like the striking together of two hard stones,
the aurr being quite different — a decided guttural. The pitch was quite
distinctly e and a. These sounds took the place of the hree kraw krurr
heard last year. The tsrr was like the sound of a corkscrew being forced
through a stiff cork, and it, with the aurr preceding it, was very emphatic.
The high, sweet, slurred note following was sometimes succeeded by a very
soft, melodious, canary-like phrase, which bubbled, like honey transformed
to sound, in the throat of the bird, so softly that it could only be heard at
close quarters. I several times heard (4) sung the full length ; more often
it broke off after the tsrr, or after the slurred note.

The note in (5) was repeated alone. It is " explosive," but very clear
and bell-like. It was only sounded once — that is, it was neither preceded

Andeksen. — Neio Zealand Bird-sona.

427

nor succeeded by any other note ; and if a cork could be imagined as a
clear sound, it was as if the note popped like a cork from a bottle.

The notes of (6) were also very bell-like in tone, but were of quite a
different nature from (5). They were deliberately sounded, an average of
two seconds separating them, the variation (7) was as often heard as "(6).

The sounds of (8) are merely part of (4) repeated without any notes :
one would suppose they would rasp the bird's throat to pieces. They were
varied— /iw tiu aurr, tiu tin tin aiirr, and tiu tiu tin aurr, tiu tiu tiu aurr.

Weka : One other call was heard ; it calls for no comment : —

3va.

C^)

Ar.^/^

■ /I

i^j^^^i "-^^^

Fantail : The following notes were obtained

8va

tchi tchi twee twee

tu-ee

fchrut tchrut

twee

taee twee

The note is not clearly sounded ; it is uttered more as if forced through a
constricted passage, and it is rather a twitter than a whistle. It varies
not only in pitch, but in sound, so that it may be represented by different
letters at different times, as above. Whilst singing, the bird flits restlessly
about the bough.

Morepork (ruru ; Ninon novce-zealandicB) : —

8^•a^■

(})

JvJvJyJvJvJJ yJ^

The cry is more commonly heard without the five introductory notes. It
was muffled, as one might imagine the cry of the hokio, the ominous bird
of battle. The Maori represented the latter part of the cry as kia koa, and
the sound might well be given as koa, pronounced like caw with a slight
vibration of the uvula.

Grey-warbler : Two complete songs were obtained : —

28va

> > > > > > > > > > > >

(S>

:tr::T'^ ea'mmar/Ejg^E

Za va. -

> >

(t> ^sr"[L^m'"m'c!r'CQ'm'C£;mE£r

> > > >

> >

C£r"C£.^

It will be noticed that the phrase of five notes is this year replaced by three
triplets. The^ falling sequence in semitones is similar to that recorded
last year, and again it will be noted that there is nothing determinate in
the song. The termination of (3) is effective : I heard it only once.

428

Transactions.

Wren : The note of the wren was this year c sharp as against e last year.
The only variation, if it can be called variation, was in the suppression or
insertion of rests. The notes might be single, or broken into groups of
two, three, four, or more, or they might be uttered up to fifteen times with-
out a break in the sequence.

Kobin (toutouwai ; Miro alhifrons) : This bird's note, a sharp, clear
whistle, was of a very simple nature, being a repetition of one note, a sharp.

Sz-a,.

(I) ^ 44 ^

3

d .V «J .y Jr

=^^^

Yellow-breasted tit (ngiru-ngiru : Petroeca macroccphala) : This song is
simple, but very pretty and plaintive. It is a soft twitter, nearer a
whistle than the twitter of the fantail, and is uttered during flight as well
as when the bird is stationary ; in the latter case the throat and tail quiver
slightly.

SSt-a

(0

r^ r1 M 1^ F^

•'

Ufe^

f» —

» — ^

O —

|»77^K-1

1©-

MB~\

®-

B 1

»—

^

B

lt

—ft

—

f,

•.

-f

ff

y

/

^s^^

^t>.

tiu tiu tiveet

ti-

J— e

't

ti

u — / — w — /

tweet tweeu'eeweewee weet

Blight-bird, silver-eye, or wax-eye (tauhou : Zosterops ccerulescens) :
Setting aside the rambling melody of the grey-warbler, the blight-bird
has the longest definite song of the native birds — so long, indeed, that the
name of " tauhou " (the stranger) is justified ; for the songs of the true
natives are all short. I heard the song of one bird only, but as it sang
away, with slight intervals, for from five to ten minutes, I was able to take-
down the various phrases which it employed : —

(O

The bird was very obliging : whilst it paused it allowed me to take the
pitch and intervals of the various notes of the phrases in (1). Whilst it
sang it sat quite still, holding its bill in the air ; its throat throbbed, espe-
cially when sounding the notes represented by tiu. As in the case of the
fantail, most of the notes could be represented by letters. The song was
very quiet and sweet, somewhat like that of a canary, but not nearly so
shrill nor vigorous. The songster was quite alone : I heard no other
blight-birds near at the time. The phrases were employed in all sorts of
sequences : there may have been others which I did not catch, for at first
I was content to sit still and listen : other individuals, too, may have
different phrases. The following combination is an approximate represent-
ation of the song ; but, as stated, the combination constantly varied : —

■^St^d-

(3)

tin tin tiu ti-

-/■ — M — f tweet twee wee wee wee weet tin tiu

fe=E

S

I

ti — u — eet twee wee wee weeweet

tiu tiu tweet

Hill. — The Great Wairarapa : A Lost River.

429

Art. XLIV. — The Great Wairarapa : A Lost River.
By H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S.

[Read before the Hawkers Bay Philosophical Society, July, 1908.]

Some time ago, when dealing with the artesian beds forming the Heretaunga
Plain, passing reference was made to a large river that at one time flowed
through what is now a portion of the ocean, and known as Hawke's Bay.
At that time the extent of the river towards the north and west had not been
determined, but, as further information has now been obtained, a descrip-
tion of the river and the physical changes throughout the district that have
taken place since then are here summarised.

ooimicc &
tianitc-peat areas

20 30 mite^

39 S. Lat.

Fi(i. 1. — East Coast between 38° and 40^ S. before Subsidence.

The description will be Umited to the upper portion of the river, from its
source as far as the northern end of what is known as the Forty-mile Bush,
some miles to the south of the parallel of 40° south latitude.

The east coast of this Island from East Cape to Castle Point presents
features that imply important physical changes at no distant date. Hawke's
Bay water-area is a deep bight, with Portland Island and the Mahia Peninsula
at the northern entrance, and Cape Kidnappers at the southern. The bay

430

Transactions.

itself, in reality, is a j^ortion of the more inland plain-area tliat has been
filled in by the material brought down by rivers such as the present Tuki-
tuki, Maraetotara, Ngaruroro, Tutaekuri, and Esk, all of which now flow
from the westward, some as far back as the Ruahine Mountains and the
Kaweka. The plain known as the Heretaunga Plain is a late formation ;
in fact, the process of growth is still going on, and the action of floods on the
waters of the bay is such as to bring about a slow sedimentation of the area
that was at one time a land-area connected in structure and formation with
the hills forming Scinde Island, Napier, and the rocks exposed along the
northern and southern ends of the bay. What is here said of the growth
and changes connected with Hawke's Bay can also be said of the plain-area

hu

Wa/'paos. r/yer bas/'n

39° S

OJd remains cf shintj/e-

?0 30 miles

Fig. 2. — East Coast after Subsidence ; New River-basins.

between the mouth of the Wairoa River and Te Kapu or Frasertown, some
ten miles inland. So, too, the Poverty Bay plain forms a part of the water-
area, and both of them occupy the place once occupied by hills that united
Young Nick's Head with the hills that now bound the coast along what is
known as the Kaiti side of Poverty Bay.

The east coast between East Cape and Cape Turnagain at one time
extended much farther seaward. The map marked fig. 1 shows some of

Hill. — The Great Watrarapa : A Lost River.

431

the extension. At the time when this condition existed the general slope
and river system of the Island were very different from what is now the
case. The slope was generally to the east by south, and the Ruahine, Ka-
weka, and Titioktira Ranges had not then reached their present elevation.
The volcanic district was directly associated in slope and drainage with the
east side, and numerous tributary streams carried their burdens of shingle,
pumice, and vegetable material from the back inland country, and spread
them broadcast over basin-like areas in a river-valley of great length that
was in process of making by the slow elevation of what now constitutes
the chief axial structure of the Island.

Fig. 3. — East Coast, showixg Plain-growth since Subsidence. Shading shows Plain-
growth — the Plains filled and fokjied since Subsidence shown on Fig. 2.

In order to obtain a clear idea as to the surface features of the country
at the time under notice, map fig. 1 should be studied. It shows the probable
extension of the coast eastward beyond what can be seen in the dotted
lines of the present coast, and the various streams that now constitute
different river systems are seen to form one river that had its head-waters
in the back country to the westward of Poverty Bay. Out in the ocean
to the south-east of Poverty Bay the river made a bend to the south by
west, and proceeded past the Mahia, through Hawke Bay, and south-
west into the valley now known as the Heretaunga Plain, and thence west
by south onward to the Wairarapa. On its course it received from the back

432

Transactions.

country a large number of tributary streams, most of them being heavv
shingle and pumice carriers. By means of the network of tributaries from
the west, the country was bared of a large part of the limestone that covered
it at the close of the Pliocene period, being replaced by heavy deposits of
shingle and pumice of great thickness, and of a kind that is now character-
istic of the country between the Kaimanawa Mountains and Tauranga-
Taupo.

Towards the close of the Pliocene and the opening of the Pleistocene
periods great and important changes took place. Great volcanic activity
was experienced in the interior of this Island, and the east coast was shaken
to its foundations. It was during this period of activity that a large portion

Fig. 4. — East Coast, showing River Systems as at Present.

of the coast disappeared and sank beneath the ocean. Hawke Bay, Here-
taunga Gulf, Wairoa Gulf, Poverty Bay, and Turanganui Gulf were formed
at this time.

The Great Wairarapa disappeared as a river, and the entire aspect of
the water drainage was modiiied. A reference to map fig. 2 shows the
condition of the coast and the physical features of the land following the
subsidence and the disappearance of the Great Wairarapa river-basin.

What had formerly been tributaries of a great river now began to form
separate basins of their own, and we have the interesting fact that by ordi-
nary earth-movements new rivers and river systems may be brought into
existence and the facies of a country completely changed.

Hill. — TJic Great Wairarapa : A Lost River.

433

An inspection of the areas that now form the river-basins shown in
map fig. 2 will supply the fullest evidence of a contemporaneous past in the
shingle, pumice, sand, and vegetable deposits that are found wdthin them.
In Poverty Bay, the Kaiti Hills, the lower hills on the Whataupoko, the
hills near Ormond, Te Karaka, and numerous others abound with facts
to show the state of the country before the present plain and river-valley
were in existence. Similar evidence is forthcoming in the case of the Wairoa,
Mohaka, and the other river-basins of Hawke Bay. At the entrance to
the Wairoa and Mohaka Rivers, and on the hills towards Frasertown and the
Wairoa Hospital, shingle and pumiceous deposits occur, and in the inner
portion of Cape Kidnappers, extending from the Black Reef, sections 200 ft.
in vertical height display the same characteristic beds such as are met with,

ct^^

Fig. 5. — TunAX(iANUi Gulf, after SrBsiDiiNXE.

though less developed, in Poverty Bay. To the north-west and south-
west of the Kidnappers, through Maraekakaho, and thence past the Gwavas
Station on to the Ruataniwha Plains, the hills both to the right and left
are made up solely of the Kidnapper and Poverty Bay shingle series, and
these continue through Takapau, Ormondville, Matamau, and Dannevirke
in varying thickness and extent.

All the deposits within the limits of the areas named bear witness to the
iact that the supply of materials was from the westward. There was

434

Transactions.

a general similarity in tlie physical conditions of the whole district at the
time, and the flora and fauna were much like those of to-day. Over the
whole area there are usually traces of lignite-beds of varying thickness.
These occur along with what appears a pumice-mud deposit. In these
beds fossil specimens of leaves occur of many kinds. I have collected more
than a hundred kinds in a state of perfect preservation. In the same beds
are specimens of fossil fish vertebrates, insects, flowers, and ferns, and a
single specimen of a fossil feather.

The beds have not been by any means carefully explored, and a rare
garnering awaits the young geologist who is anxious to make a collection
representing the animal and vegetable life of an interesting period in the
geological history of this country. Kidnappers, Whataupoko, and Ormond
are the best collecting-grounds at the present time.

An inspection of map fig. 2 will show that the rivers which were
suddenly brought into independent being had to carve out a destiny for
themselves. The country was high, and covered wdth deposits of shingle,
limestone, and in some places blue-clay marls. Each river-mouth was
miles from where it is now to be found. Denudation was great, and loose
material was easily removed seaward, and deposited in the small gulfs and

f

Ji'i'j'^' ^^"f^'^'^L.

Fig. 6. — Cross-section showing Filling-in of Beds.

bays along the coast. The Tukituki had to carve out a way for itself, but
this took a long while to accomplish, for, with the Makaretu and Waipawa
Rivers as helpers, a place had to be worn through the Kmestones at the
spots known as the Waipawa Gorge and the Waipukurau Gorge respectively.
Lakelets were formed, to be broken through from time to time as the river
kept finding its course to the sea. The Ngaruroro and Tukaekuri Rivers
began to pour their waters into the area now occupied by the important
Heretaunga Plain, which grew at a rapid rate, as soon as the Tukituki began
to poiu' its burden of shingle into the bay in the vicinity of the gorge behind
Havelock.

Map fig. 3 shows the work that has been done by the several rivers
since they came into existence, following the great subsidence along the
coast. Ruataniwha, Heretaunga, Wairoa, and Poverty Bay Plains have all
been formed by means of the materials that the several rivers have carried
down in time of flood. Slowly the mouths of the rivers have extended

Hill. — TJie Great Wairarapa : A Lost River.

435

seawards as the deltoid areas have grown year by year, and rich lands have
taken the place of the once water-area, and the same process of growth
is going on to-day. The rivers are still carrying down their treasures of
material to the lowlands, and these latter are being aided by man's in-
telligence and industry. Since the formation of new drainage-areas and river

Tofd! deprh

MAKAURI, POVERTY BAY,
3'bore,
3'}7'deep

37'

82'

37'

Abundijnce j
ot (fas I

>/67'

Y^oterwith \
Jiftle gos ( '^'

217 \
Water to tcp\ZI8'
e ■ \ 22J '

of pipe \224-J

Thickness *. characfer of beds
/2'j-e//on /cam

26'b/ue sandy c/av

4-5' blue f,pcnqy cloy

JS ' blue ^andy c/ay

70' blue tcugh spongy
Cloj>.

30' dork pipeclay

20 ' dork gre^cn clay

^1' white pumice.

3 'sand & &ma/l gravel

3' bculdcn i, sandstone

•^9' /lord roc A.

Fig. 7. — Aktesian-well Section, showing Details of Bedding.

systems, as shown in map fig. 2, the " made land " along the coast, as won
from the sea, must amount to over 150,000 acres, and carries a population of
about forty thousand persons. It would be interesting to know the annual
value of the products of the land that has been made by deposition from
flooded rivers, but the facts are not available.

436

Transactions.

Map fig. 4 sliows the east coast as it is to-day, with the several rivers
running into Poverty Bay and Hawke Bay respectively. The plains are
not to be distinguished from the other portions of the land-area, for nature
heals wounds, and only leaves remnants of a past, after the manner of a
camping-ground in the case of Natives or a party of picknickers.

In a former paper on " Artesian-water Basins of Heretaunga Plain "
(Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xxxvii, p. 432), sections are shown to illustrate the
growth of the plain, and reference is made to the Great Wairarapa that flowed
over the area long before the plain was formed. At that time my inquiries
had not extended to Poverty Bay, but the sections (figs. -5, 6, 7, and 8) give
in regular sequence the geological events and proofs such as are given in the
above paper with respect to the Heretaunga Plain.

\T£,tC

"kAAA /J/'

\HAlt€/fATAHJ S-^

Povertj^Bay

'MVJf/WA/

Young Nicks Hd

o I s 3 A 6 miles

Fig. 8. — Pkesent Plain-slope and Physical Features.

At the time of subsidence a gulf extended inland of the present Poverty
Bay even beyond Kaiteratahi, and into this gulf, which is named Tau-
ranganui, several important rivers flowed. As in the case of Heretaunga
Plain, the rivers were and are great carriers of debris, and the plain as a
deltoid changing area has grown in a manner almost identical to that of
Heretaunga, so that the work of growing is still in progress.

The cross-section (fig. 6) shows the bedding of the present plain from
the hills near the school at Te Arai, and the hills over which the road
passes to the Waimata. Along the plain is shown the location and depth
of artesian wells that have been put down from time to time, and fig. 7
shows a complete section of one such well. The present slope of the Poverty
Bay Plain is shown in fig. 8, which gives heights, and river-drainage, and
railway-line.

Hill. — Dacttjlanthus Taijlori. 437

It is not necessary here to refer in detail to the interesting questions
suggested, as my purpose is merely to show how two districts, separated so
far apart, when placed side by side illustrate identical conditions in their
changes, their growth, and structure. Nature works on similar lines, al-
though the final results may be dissimilar ; but here, over a district extending
through two degrees of latitude covered by these remarks, the geology
can be read without difficulty.

Thus the past can easily be dovetailed with the present. Construction
and destruction are ever in operation, and all the forces of nature have
one of these two ends in view. A whole district like that along the east
coast may suddenly disappear, but upon the ruins new foundations at once
begin to be built that in the end show sufficient growth as to become
suitable as man's dwelling-place. The geologist cannot say how long it
will take to fill up the waters that were once land-areas, but the process
that immediately followed the disappearance of the Great Wairarapa still
continues, and will continue unless there should come another period of
volcanic activity and earth-movements such as was experienced at the
going-out of the Pliocene and the coming-in of the Pleistocene periods in the
geological history of this country.

Art. XLV. — On Dactylanthus Taylori.
By H. Hill, B.A., F.G.S.

[Read before the Hawke's Bay Philosophical Society, \3th August, -1907.]

In vol. xxviii of the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," p. 493,
there is an article by the late T. Kirk, F.L.S., on Dactylanthus Taylori. It
contains all the information which was known up to that time concerning
the life-history of this interesting and solitary (?) New Zealand genus of
the order Balanofhorew, which includes a variety of root-parasites. Kerner
and Oliver, in their " Natural History of Plants," vol. i, p. 161, state that
" the distinctive property of true parasites resides exclusively in the with-
drawal of nutrient substances from the living vegetable or animal bodies
which they invade." Based upon this definition, parasites are classed into
three groups, the first including " generally all microscopic forms which
live in the interior of human beings and animals, chiefly in the blood " ;
the second including " fungi possessing mycelia which have the power of
withdrawing by the entire surface of their filamentous cells or by clavate
outgrowths of the same nutritive material from the tissues of the host in-
vaded by them " ; and the third comprising " flowering-plants wherein the
seedling upon emerging from the seed penetrates into the host by means
of suction roots, or some other part which subserves the function of a suction
root, so as to absorb juices from the host." It is to the latter group that
Dactylanthus Taylori belongs.

The order BalanophorecB contains about forty species, belonging to
fourteen genera. They are mostly tropical or subtropical in their distribu-
tion over the Old and New Worlds, and are usually found in the deep re-
cesses of the forest.

438 _ Transactions.

In the first edition of " New Zealand and its Inhabitants," by the Eev.
R. Taylor, published in 1855, there appears on page 430 a picture of a new-
plant, " fam. BalanophorecB,'" that is evidently intended to represent the
Dactylanfhus, but no word is mentioned in the botanical notes about the
plant. It may be that Mr. Taylor, at the time when the book was first
issued, had merely seen or been shown an imperfect specimen of the plant,
as in the second edition, which was issued in 1870, or fifteen years from the
time of the first issue. Sir Joseph Hooker's description of the Dactylanthus
is given, with several fine illustrations of the plant from specimens supplied
by Mr. Taylor.

The claim set up by the Rev. Mr. Taylor as the discoverer of the Dacty-
lanthus has been recently called in question by the son of the late Mr. Francis
Williamson, of Wanganui, who writes as follows : " Dear Sir, — The Dacty-
lanthus Taylori was first discovered by the late Francis AVilliamson, of
Wanganui, who arrived in the colony in the early forties. It was found
at the root of a Pittosporum tree, at a place called Putotara, a property
owned by him. The plant was about the size of a large pine-apple ; but,
instead of having the top as a pine has, it had five flowerlike stalks, three
of which were in bloom, and very sweet-scented. The other two were just
buds. My father, being a botanist, knew this to be a new plant, and packed
it to send home to England ; however, as he heard the Rev. R. Taylor
was about leaving for the Old Country, he took the specimen to him, who
promised to do him the favour, and to give all particulars as to who fou.nd
it, &c., Mr. Taylor saying it appeared to be quite a new plant. The next
my father heard was that the new plant was named Dactylanthus Taylori. —
D. H. Williamson, Havelock N., 30/7/07."

In Mr. Kirk's paper it is stated that the plant was discovered by the
Rev. Richard Taylor, about 1857, growing on the roots of Pittosporum,
Fagus, and other trees, at an estimated altitude of 4,000 ft. This may be
true as far as Mr. Taylor himself was concerned, as he probably had not
seen the plant growing before 1857, although there is a picture of the Dacty-
lanthus flower in his work published in 1855.

" Pua reinga " is the name by which the plant is said to have been known
to the Natives ; but I have never heard it so called, nor do I understand why
it should be known as the leaping, or springing, or jimiping flower. When
found by me many years ago a Native was with me. The place was Mata-
rau, near to Hicks Bay, beyond the East Cape, and the Native without any
hesitation called the plant " wae-wae-atua." Since then I have found
the plant growing in many localities in the deep recesses of the bush, but
whenever seen by Natives the same name has been given, and a very old
Native of Taupo — Paul Rokino — gave me an old ivaiata referring to the flower.
The name " wae-wae-atua," or the fingers, the foot, or toes of the atua,
seems an appropriate one, for the appearance of a number of fru^iting speci-
mens, as shown in-Plate XXXI, fig. 1, as they appear above the surface of the
ground, generally on the slope of a bank in a deep gully, is curious and strange.

Mr. Kirk, in his notes, gives localities where the plant was first discovered
by various collectors. The earliest-known specimens were taken from within
the basin of the Wanganui River; but Mr. A. Hamilton, Director of the
Dominion Museum, was the first to find specimens along the east coast,
at Tarawera, and subsequently at Nuhaka. It has not been observed by
myself at the latter place, but in the vicinity of the East Cape and Hicks
Bay it is fairly common, the parasite being of very large size. At Matarau
many specimens collected were as large as a good-sized cabbage, and the

Hill. — Dactylantims Taylori. 439

smell of the flowers in bloom was very sweet. It has been found by Mr.
Frank Hutchinson at Hawkestone and Patoka, in the Puketitiri country ;
and I have found many specimens at Kunanga and Opepe, in the Taupo
plateau country.

During the past ten years the Dactylanthus has been under fairly close
observation by me, and the following notes are the result of inquiries made
with living and dead specimens. The specimens in my possession, both wet
and dry, are of various sizes. In every instance the rhizome is terminal in
respect to the particular portion of the root on which it is found (Plate XXX,
fig. 1). Panax and Pittosporum are the only two kinds of trees upon the roots
of which it can be stated with certainty that the parasites grow. The ends
of the most delicate roots are selected by the parasite. Here a swelling
appears, having the appearance of a small wart on the human hand. This
is very marked in the smaller specimens, where the host portion can be
distinguished from the growing rhizome of the parasite by a smoother surface,
a different swelling, and a difference of colour. The swelling at the end of
a root host looks as if the tissues had been disturbed and cramped during
growth, and near the place of junction the root thickens somewhat, as is
clearly shown in Plate XXX, fig. 2. In the latter figure the junction of the
rhizome with the host can be seen as flowerlike radiations on the lower part
of the rhizome, and by corresponding radiations and depressions at the end
of the host root. The latter does not cease to grow after being attacked ;
in fact, the root appears to grow stronger near the place of attachment
with the rhizome, and this becomes more pronounced in the larger and
older specimens. When a fresh rhizome is cut into halves so as to trace
the root host, the latter, in large specimens, spreads out fanlike and in
cuplike depressions, twisted on the outside, and appearing as if the ends
of the root had been subjected to great pressui'e. The depressions or cups
are filled mostly with a pithy substance, which, when dry, shrinks and
leaves several hollow spaces. On the outside of the terminal roots of the
host a similar pithy substance underlies the ordinary bark, and it appears
as if the rhizome was fed or nourished in the places indicated.

The rhizome in a growing state presents the appearance of a large potato
covered over with warts. When cut through there is a bluish-purple line
not unlike that seen in the blue potato, formerly in common use by the
Maoris along the east coast. It is not difficult to cut, and resembles a
Swedish turnip except in colour. The taste is neutral, or perhaps slightly
sweetish, and when bitten is crisp but somewhat dry, and leaves behind
a slight raspy or acrid taste. As the flesh portion of the rhizome approaches
the cortical layer it is covered over with pimple-like growths. These eventu-
ally push their way through a mass of cortical layer, and form flowering-
shoots over the entire surface of the rhizome. If the tubercular growths
which cover a rhizome-like wart be cut across, they show a distinct arrange-
ment of parts. First come the scales, then a yellowish-white band made up
of strands resembling resin. Within this, but touching the inner portion,
are ten or twelve horseshoe-like forms, some of a rich orange colour and
others a deep purple ; but they always present one or other of these charac-
teristics. If the two ends of a horseshoe were joined loosely so as to bend
inwards somewhat, the similarity would be complete. I have cut many
of the fresh growing tubercles, and have separated the scales one by one
so as to get at the central growing portion. This consists of minute growths,
not unUke in appearance one of the ripening flowers of a fig, except that each
part is made up of two lip-like growths, one being a little larger than the

440 Traiisactions.

other. It would seem that the purple tubercles give rise to the female
spadices, and the orange to the male. They certainly present similar ap-
pearances to what are seen in the complete flowers.

The female peduncle is usually shorter than the male, but each varies
in size according to conditions of growth and development. The pistillate
flowers surround each spadLx. They are very small, are less numerous
below, and increase in number upwards, although fewer seeds mature at
the top than below. The flower is of two parts, forming a closely fitting
perianth as the ends appear above the ovary, and, like the pistil, are per-
manent, and can be seen in the ripened fruit, as illustrated in Plate XXXII,
fig. 2. The lower part of the perianth is pale yellow, the upper purple,
as are likewise the style and stigma. As the seed ripens the ovary swells
somewhat, and when ripe the yellow part has changed to a bluish-green,
that passes above into a deep purple. This has reference to the perianth
only, for when the covering is removed a tiny nut of a deep-purple colour
is seen, and within this nut there occurs a white structu.reless substance
like wax.

The male or staminate flowers have a peduncle that is similar to that
of the female, except that it is larger, as are likewise the scales. As the
flower expands the scales are symmetrical, and the whole when fully de-
veloped is ringent and not unlike a small dahlia (Plate XXXII, fig. 1). The
colour of the surrounding scales varies from a straw-yellow in ths outer
whorl to a deep orange with purple stripes in the case of the petal-like scales
that surround the spadices. The latter vary in number from 16 to 28.
About each spadix staminate flowers wind from left to right. The} are
connected with the spadix by short filamentary attachments. Each stami-
nate flower is of a yellowish-grey colour, fleshy, and presenting the ap-
pearance of a tiny disc, with a deep depression running from top to bottom.
The pollen appears to be developed along the margin of the anther, and is
abundant. As soon as the spadices are fully developed the scales fall back,
and the flower eventually dies down and falls off.

The flowering takes place between February and April. Until Easter
Monday, 1907, I had not seen a male flower in full bloom. Plate XXXII,
fig. 1, shows a male flower just opening. As the development of the flower
proceeds the scales droop, and the spadices present a straggling appearance.

I have made numerous experiments both with rhizomes and seed, but
up to the present time the results have not been satisfactory.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXX-XXXII.

Plate XXX.

Fig. L Dactylanthus ; root of host, and parasites forming like small tubers.
Fig. 2. Root of host, showing mode of attachment of jiarasite.

Plate XXXI.

Fig. 1. Dactylanthus flowers growing on a bank.

Fig. 2. Flowers (female), showing attachment to root.

Plate XXXII.

Fig. 1. Male Dactylanthu-i flower unfolding.

Fig. 2. Flowers — male, female — and fruit : o, staminate spadix ; b, pistillate spadix ;
c, ripe seeds from b.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vni, XIJ.

I'L. XXX,

Fig. I.

?eai

vm

s.6ez

Fig. 2.

DACTYLANTHUS TAYLORI.- Hill.

Face p. 440.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLT.

Pl. XXXI.

Fig. I.-

* S.GBO.

Fig. 2.

DACTYLANTHUS TAYLORI.— Hill.

Trans. N.Z. Inst., Vol. XLI.

Pr.. XXXII.

^G7^

Fig. I.

-1

* *>

^ #

Fig. 2.

Z67e

DACTYLANTHUS TAYLOR!. — Hill.

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

V

i

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

ADJOURNED SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING.

The adjourned meeting was held in the Dominion Museum, Wellington,
on Thursday, 4th February, 1909, at 10.30 a.m.

Present : Mr. G. M. Thomson, President (in the chair) ; Mr. A. Hamilton,
Mr. M. Chapman, Professor Easterfield, Mr. T. H. Gill, Mr. J. W. Joynt,
Mr. W. Wilson, Mr. H. Hill, Mr. E. Tregear, Mr. John Young, Dr. L. Cockayne,
Professor W. B. Benham, Mr. R. Speight, and the Secretary (Mr. Thomas
King).

A letter, dated 29th December, 1908, was received from the Department
of Internal Afiairs, notifying the appointment (published in the New Zea-
land Gazette of the 23rd December) of Messrs. J. W. Joynt and E. Tregear
as members of the Board of Governors of the New Zealand Institute under
" The New Zealand Institute Act, 1908."

The President welcomed Mr. Speight on taking his seat on the Board
for the first time.

An apology from Mr. James Stewart for non-attendance was read.

The minutes of the last annual meeting were confirmed ; the minutes of
the Standing Committee meetings held on the 12th November, the 24th July,
the 4th December, 1908, and the 25th January, 1909, were read ; and the
minutes of the annual meeting of the 28th January last were read and con-
firmed.

The Secretary explained the circumstances connected with the telegraphic
advices of the postponement of the annual meeting. The explanation was
considered satisfactorv.

The annual report and annual statement of receipts and expenditure
were- then read. The report and statement were as follows : —

The fifth annual meeting of the Board of Governors under " The New Zealand
Institute Act, 1903," was held in the Dominion Museum, Wellington, on the 30th January,
1908, and was attended by fourteen members.

The President, 'Mw G. M. Thomson. F.L.8., F.C.S., was in the chair.

It was re^jorted that Messrs. Jolin Young and Augustus Hamilton, the two retiring
nominees of the Government, had been reappointed, and that the follomng representa-
tives had been elected by the societies affiUated to the Institute : Messrs. D. Petrie
and J. Stewart (Auckland Institute) ; Professor T. H. Easterfield and Mr. Martin Chap-
man, K.C. (Wellington Philosophical Society) ; Professor Charles Chilton and Dr. C. C.
Farr (Philosophical Institute of Canterbury) ; Professor W. B. Benham and Mr. G. M.
Thomson (Otago Institute) ; Mr. H. Hill (Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute) ; Dr. L.
Cockayne (Nelson Institute) ; Islx. T. H. Gill (Westland Institute) ; and Mr. Kenneth
Wilson (Manawatu Philosophical Society).

The following officers were elected for 1909 : President, Mr. G. M. Thomson,
F.L.S., F.C.S. ; Hon. Treasurer, Mr. Martin Chapman, K.C. ; Secretary, Mr. Thomas
King ; Hon. Editor of Transactions, Mr. G. M. Thomson ; Hon. Librarian, Mr.
Augustus Hamilton ; Publications Committee, Professor C. Chilton, Professor W. B.
Benham, Dr. C. C. Farr, and the Hon. Editor.

The honorary members elected v^ere Dr. L. Diels, of Berlin ; the Rev. T. R. R. Steb-
bing, F.R.S., of Tunbridge Wells ; and Mi'. E. Meyrick, B.A., F.R.S., of ^Marlborough
College, Wilts. There are now twenty-nine honorary members on the roU, and the
meeting will therefore be asked to elect one new member.

444 New Zealand Institute.

In accordance with resolutions passed at last annual meeting, Professor T. W. E.
David, Professor W. A. Haswell, and Mr. J. H. Maiden, all of Sydney, were asked to act
as a committee to suggest a suitable recipient of the Hutton Memorial Medal. The two
last-mentioned gentlemen have consented to act, but no reply has yet been received
from Professor David, who is absent in the far south as a member of the " Nimrod "
Antarctic Expedition. The dies for the medal, and several specimens of the medal,
have been received from England, and (by permission) have been lodged by the Secre-
tary in the Dominion Museum for safe keeping.

The Committee set up at last annual meeting " to examine the books of the library
with a view to determining their ownership" has never met, two of the members being
resident in the South Island ; consequently the position remains unaltered.

The same committee was set up to revise the exchange list ; and Professors Benham
and Chilton submitted suggestions to Mr. A. Hamilton, the Wellington member of the
committee, as to the alterations required in the list. The matter is dealt with in the
report of the Hon. Librarian, presented at this meeting.

At the last meeting a committee was set up to go into the matter of the delay in
the issue of the 39th volume of the Transactions. This committee interviewed the
Hon. J. A. Millar. Minister in charge of the Printing Department, and the Government
Printer, and obtained a promise from those gentlemen that steps would be taken to
expedite the issue of future volumes. The delay in the pe.st year was in part attributed
to the unprepared manner in which papers intended.' for publication were sent in ; and
the Government Printer undertook to supply a memorandum on the subject for the
guidance of Secretaries of affiliated societies and of authors of papers. This memorandum
was received by the Editor in February last, and copies were forwarded to the Secre-
taries of the several affiliated societies. It is, however, evident that the delay was largely
due to the block of parliamentary business ; and to obviate this in future it is advisable
that the volume should be printed as early in the year as possible.

The committee appointed to make arrangements for the preparation of an index
to the forty volumes of the Transac^tions has not been able to come to a final decision
as to the course to be pursued. The committee has obt?*ined specifications from two
persons cpialified to undertake the work, and is in communication with a third, b\it so
far is unable to report definitely.

A geographical difficulty similar to the one spoken of in the paragraph referring to
the Ownership of Books Committee has prevented the Hector Memorial Committee of
the Institute from meeting. The members of the committee live in different parts of
the Dominion, and have not found it jn-acticable to assemble in Wellington. They are,
however, co-operating with the main Hector Memorial Committee, which has the matter
in hand. That committee has been reconstituted, and is in corres])ondence with the
other bodies which are acting in the interests of the movement. The amount so far
collected by the committees is, unfortunately, too sma-U for the end in view. The main
Hector Memorial Committee, at the instance of the Standing Committee of the Board
of Governors, has therefore suggested to the Memorial Committee of the Institute, and
to the allied committees in Auckland, Wellington, C"hristchurch, and Dunedin, that a
joint circular should be issued, signed by representatives of all the committees, appeal-
ing for further subscriptions to the fund. This suggestion has been adopted. A draft
circular has been drawn up by the main Memorial Committee and submitted to the
other committees, and its terms are now being discussed. Members of the Christchurch
and Dunedin comnxittces have stipulated for one or two fundamental changes in the
wording of the circular. This has temporarily delayed matters ; but it is hoped that
agreement will shortly be arrived at upon the points at issue, and that as soon as the
circtdar is ready for distribution all the committees will make a vigorous effort to raise
a STim of money sufficient for the establishment of a worthy memorial.

The volumes of the Transactions remaining on hand are — Vol. I (second edition),
313 ; Vol. V. 30 ; Vol. VI, 21 ; Vol. VII. 143 ; Vol. IX, 214 ; Vol. X, 138 ; Vol. XI,
392 ; Vol. XII. 305 ; Vol. XIII, 142 ; Vol. XIV, 107 : Vol. XV, 280 ; Vol. XVI. 270 ;
Vol. XVII. 530 ; Vol. XVIII. 308 ; Vol. XIX, 555 ; Vol. XX, 450 ; Vol. XXI. 454 •
Vol. XXII. 560 ; Vol. XXIII, 570 ; Vol. XXIV. 670 ; Vol. XXV. 626 ; Vol. XXVI,
613 ; Vol. XXVII, 605 ; Vol. XXVIII, 688 ; Vol. XXIX. 591 ; Vol. XXX, 684 ; Vol.
XXXI, 695; Vol. XXXII 517; Vol. XXXIII. 611; Vol. XXXIV, 563; Vol. XXXV.
525 ; Vol. XXXVI, 686 ; Vol. XXXVII. 604 : Vol. XXXVIII. 750 : Vol. XXXIX,
192 ; Vol. XL, 91.

The advance copies of the new volume (XL, 1907) were not received from the printers
until the first week of September, 1908, and the main supplies were not available for
distribution until towards the end of that month. The volume contains 608 and xvi
pages, and 34 ]>lates. The contents of the last two volumes are compared as follows : —

New Zealand Institute. 445

JVIiscell.aneous

Zoology

Botany

Geology

Chemistry

Proceedings .

Ajipendix

Vol. XXXIX

Vol. XL

(1906).
Pages.
.. 76

(1907).

Pages.

185

.. 210

124

. . 189

126

. . 47

95

.. Nil

10

.. 31

44

.. 23

24

576 608

Copies of Vol. XL were presented to Parliament on the 8th September, 1908.

In accordance with resolutions passed at the last annual meeting, the volumes of
the Transactions now stored in the vault of Parliament Buildings have been insured
for the sum of £500, and the Institute's books stored in the Dominion Museum. Wel-
lington, have been insured for £2,000.

As decided at last annual meeting, the Standing Committee has given consideration
to the question of reprinting papers which have appeared in the Transactions. After
going carefully into the subject, the committee has come to the conclusion that it is not
desirable for the Board in the meantime to undertake the reprinting of papers.

A question which has engaged the attention of the Standing Committee, and which
seems deserving of consideration by the Board as a whole, is that of the constitution
of the committees which are sometimes appointed by the Board for the conduct of special
business. Several such committees were set up at last annual meeting. These were
composed of members residing in widely separated districts of the colony, but in no
instance was a convener or an executive officer a^jpointed. The result has been unsatis-
factory. Each member of a committee has been in doubt as to who was to take the
initiative, and in consequence great difficulty has been experienced by the committees
in getting to work.

The Standing Committee has found it impracticable to make the arrangements
necessary for holding, in terms of the resolution passed at the last annual meeting, a
special general meeting of the members of the Institute on the 29th January. 1909,
and, in consequence, the meeting in question must lapse.

It seems advisable that the practice of granting diplomas of membership to gentle-
men who are elected honorary members of the Institute should be revived. Such
diplomas were regularly issued under the original Act, and were appreciated by the
recipients ; but the passing of the Act of 1903 rendered the wording of the old form of
clii)loma obsolete, and no diplomas have been given during the past five years. With
a few unimportant alterations the ])hraseology of the old form could be adapted to
present-day requirements, and the siipply of amended forms coidd be printed for a
triffing sum.

On the 16th December. 1908, the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury gave notice
that Professor Charles Chilton had resigned his seat on the Board, and that Mr. R. Speight,
of Christchurch, had been elected in his place to represent the Christchurch society.

The Secretary, Mr. Thomas King, has explained to the Standing Committee that
he finds that the secretarial work takes up very much more time than he anticipated,
or than he can spare, and that he has therefore, with regi-et, decided not to seek re-elec-
tion.

The amount standing at the credit of the Carter Bequest Fund with the Public
Trustee on the 31st December, 1908, including interest accrued to the 31st December,
1908, was £2,735 16s. 5d. The Public Trustee also holds on account of the bequest
scrip in the New Zealand Loan and Mercantile Agency Company (Limited) of the total
face value of £32 5s. 5d. His certificate accompanies the present report. At the last
annual meeting it was decided that the Hon. Treasurer should be asked to endeavour
to arrange with the Public Trustee for the payment of interest on this money at 4i per
cent., instead of 4 per cent, per annum. On inquir}', however, the Treasurer ascertained
that as a matter of fact 41 per cent, was being allowed on the deposit, that being the
rate paid by the Public Trust Office on sums not exceeding £3,000. There was there-
fore no occasion for the Treasurer to take action.

A duly audited statement of the Institute's receipts and expenditure for the past
year, showing a credit balance of £392 10s. lid., is presented with this report.

Geo. M. Thomson, President.

446

New Zealand Institute.

1908.

Jan.

31

April

14

May

5

Sept.

2

1J

12

91

26

Oct.

15

Nov.

5

»»

18

»j

24

Dec.

15

1909.

Jan.

7

?9

14

??

27

1908.

Feb.

13

Mar.

14

Mar. 31.

April 29.

July 2.

,. 25.

Sept. 30.

Dec. 10.

15.

1909.
Jan. 26.

Balance in bank . .
Petty cash balance

Plus credit not \r\ bank-book

Less unpresented cheques
Balance . .

£
820
0

>Statement of Receipts and Expenditure
Receipts.
Balance brought forward . .
W. Wesley and Sons, Transactions . .
A. Bathgate, Maori Art
Champtaloux and Cooper, Transactions

., Maori Art

Friedlander and Sons, Transactions . .
Contribution by Wellington Philosophical Society
G. E. Stechert and Co., Transactions
Lieut. -Colonel Gaskell, Maori Art and posting
A. H. Turnbull, Transactions
Whitcombe and Tombs, Transactions
C4overnment gi-ant

W. Wesley and Sons, Transactions . .
Friedlander and Sons, Transactions . .

Transactions

Expenditure
Petty cash. Secretary
W. Benham, travelling-expenses
Dr. Chilton, ,,

James Stewart,
H. Hill,
K. Wilson, ,,

C. Coleridge Farr,
G. M. Tliomson,
Hotel Cecil

Whitcombe and Tombs
W. A. McKay, services

D. Petrie, travelling-expenses
Bank charge
G. M. Tliomson, petty cash

Whitcombe and Tombs

L., L., and G. Insurance Company

Miss Millais, services

Colonial Carrying Company

New Zealand Express Company

Government Printer

C. Freyberg, services

Secretary, petty cash

Bank charge

Petty cash. Secretary

Chapman and Tripp, law-costs

W. Chalmers

New Zealand Express Company

Whitcombe and Tombs

C4overnment Printer

W. A. McKay, services

T. King, Secretary

C. Freyberg, services

Balance

£ s. d.

. 361 5 11

0 16 10

4 5 0

0 16 10

3 7 0

5 17 5

ty

16 9 0

0 15 10

8 14 0

1 1 0

0 16 9

. 500 0 0

0 16 10

0 16 9

0 16 9

£906 15 11

£ s. d.

2 0 0

4 0 10

2 7 0

9 13 S

2 9 8

1 0 4

2 7 0

4 0 10

0 15 0

1 3 3

1 1 0

5 4 10

0 5 0

.

5 0 0

5 0 0

1 2 0

9 0 0

3 0 0

0 19 11

0 12 0

0 15 0

5 0 0

9 19 0

0 5 0

0 7 0

2 0 0

. .10 0

1 13 0

2 9 2

1 0 6

. 388 13 0

5 0 0

25 0 0

10 0 0

. 392 10 11

3. d. £ s. d.

6 2

1 0

820 7 2

0 16 9

£821 3 11
428 13 0

£392 10 11

£906 15 11

4"

g

d.

9

,735

16

5

32

5

5

£2.

768

1

10

New Zealand Institute. 447

Carter Bequest.

Balance, Ist February, 1908 . . . . . . . . . . 2,617 11 10

Interest accrued to 31st December, 1908 .. .. .. .. 118 4 7

Scrip, New Zealand Loan and Mercantile Agency Comimnv. 1st February.

1908 . . . . . . . . . . . . ' . . .\ 17 0 0

Scrip, ditto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 5 5

£2,768 1 10

Invested by Public Trustee, 31st December, 1908
Scrip in hands of Public Trustee

Martin Chapman. Treasurer.
Examined and found correct. — J. K. Warburton, Controller and Auditor-General.

Mr. Thomson moved, and Mr. Hamilton seconded, " That the President's
report be received." Carried.

Mr. Chapman moved, and Mr. Hamilton seconded, " That the state-
ment of receipts and expenditure be adopted." Carried.

The Public Trustee's certificate as to the state of the Carter Fund was
read.

The report of the Editor and Publications Committee was read as
follows : —

I have to report that the Publications Committee met on the 31st January, 1908, and
■considered the papers which had been handed over to them by Mr. Hamilton, late Editor.

Forty-two papers were passed for printing in Vol. XL, and these were at once for-
warded to tlie Government Printer, while seven were included in the Proceedings of the
societies which forwarded them. Seven were sent to experts to be reported on as to
their suitability for publication, and seven were held over. Of the papers sent to
experts, six were reported on favourably and sent to the Government Printer, while
one was considered unsuitable.

In this connection I would point out that the work of the Editor would be simplified
if the Council and Secretaries of the affiliated societies would only forward such papers
as are considered to be real contributions to scientific knowledge. All papers which
are only resumes or digests of already published work should not be sent forward, and the
onus of withholding tbem should rest on the society with which they originate, and should
not be placed on the Editor.

The committee received from the Government Printer on the 10th February a
number of suggestions and recommendations, including memoranda from the Super-
visor and the Chief Draughtsman. The chief of these were embodied in a memorandum
for authors of papers sent out by me to the Secretaries of the affiliated societies. It is
hoped that attention will be paid to the details therein specified, as both time and money
will be saved thereby.

In accordance with the resolution of the last annual meeting, that the 41st volume
be the first of a new series, the Publications Committee has gone carefully into the matter,
and has come to the conclusions — (1) That the new series should be issued in royal 8vo.
size ; and (2) that both Transactions and Proceedings should be of the same size. In
the case of any large monographs which it is considered desirable to issue separately,
it is recommended that they be printed of the same size as the " Bulletin of the Geo-
logical Survey.'- ^^^^ jj Thomson, Editor.

~^ Mr. Thomson moved, and Mr. Chapman seconded, " That the report of
the Editor and Publications Committee be received." Carried.

Professor Benham moved, and Mr. Speight seconded, " That in future
the volumes of the Transactions be published Ln royal 8vo. size." Carried.

448 New Zealand Institute.

The Hon. Librarian's report was then read, as follows : —

The Honorary Librarian reports that the number of pieces received during the
year as exclianges and presentations amounts to 923.

No binding has beeir done during the year, and I desire to point out tliat there is
still a large amount of binding that requires attention. As mentioned in my last report,
the present arrangement of the books is perhaps the most inconvenient that could be
suggested, and it would be a great improvement if a sum of money could be provided
for modern iron bookcases, to be arranged in bays.

I have again to report that very little use has been made of the library, the number
of entries made by those taking out books being only forty-six, the majority of these
being periodicals and magazines taken out by members of the local society ; in fact, a
large number of the books have been taken out by a person who is not a member of the
Institute, but who has permission to use the library. I think to a large extent the fact
that the library is not much used is owing to the compa,rative inaccessibility of the
books.

No progress has been made with regard to the card catalogue, as no funds are avail-
able at present for an assistant.

The stock of Transactions acciimulated during the last three years has been trans-
ferred to the cellars of the Parliamentary Library.

I have had a typewritten catalogue prepared of the books belonging to the Philo-
sophical Society. You will have before you a communication from the Mines, Depart-
ment relating to the geological works now in the collection.

A separate stamp has been prepared for the books belonging to the Dominion Museum,
and for the future a separate binding of brown buckram will be used for the Museum
books.

A set of pigeon-holes has been provided for the better keeping of the current parts
of the various works, and I also had an estimate prepared for a series of shelves and
pigeon-holes for the whole of the parts which are received from time to time. The cost,
however, was about £60. If funds can be found for this purpose, it would probably
insure the better custody of the parts which arrive from time to time.

Re exchanges : I have wi'itten to the members of the Committee of the Exchanges,,
and have communications from them on this matter. I have, however, been unable
as yet to draft a report, as a number of matters have to be gone into first, which cannot
conveniently be proceeded with until the alterations in the library now contemplated
are decided on.

I think it is desirable that a small vote should be made for the purpose of carrying
on a certain amount of card cataloguing and classification. I propose to ask tlie Stand-
ing Committee to authorise the expenditure of a small amount on further work on the
catalogue. 4 Hamilton, Librarian.

Mr. Hamilton moved, and Mr. Chapman seconded, " That the Librarian's
report be received." Carried.

Mr. A. Hamilton moved, and Professor Benham seconded, " That as soon
as possible in each year complete copies of the Transactions shall be, in
accordance with the Act, presented to Parliament, and that all other copies
shall bear that date as the date of issue, and that this date shall be the ' date
of publication for the purposes of determining priority of discovery.' "
Carried, Professor Easterfield dissenting.

Professor Benham moved, and Mr. R. Speight seconded, " That the
Editor be authorised to publish the Proceedings of the affiliated societies at
intervals throughout the year, independently of the Transactions, and
separately paged." Carried.

Professor Benham moved, and Mr, Chapman seconded, " That the
Lidex Committee be reappointed, substituting the name of Mr. E. Speight
for that of Dr. Chilton, and adding that of Mr. A. Hamilton as convener."
Carried.

Mr. R. Speight moved, and Professor Easterfield seconded, " That the
Index Committee consider the question of preparing an index to the volumes
of the new series, as issued." Carried.

New Zealand Institute. 449'

Carter Bequest.— A legal opinion (dated 7th December) from Mr. M.
Chapman, K.C., was then read.

Mr. Hill moved, and Mr. Gill seconded, " That the legal opinion of Mr.
Chapman with, reference to the expenditure of certain moneys under the
Carter bequest be forwarded to the Victoria College Council for their infor-
mation."

Diploma of Honorary Membership. — Mr. Chapman moved, and Mr.
Hamilton seconded, " That the form of diploma settled by Mr. Chapman
be adopted as the form of certificate of honorary membership." Carried.

Mr. Hamilton moved, and Mr. Chapman seconded, " That the honorary
members elected since 1903 be furnished with diplomas, and that diplomas
be sent in future to all honorary members elected." Carried.

Formation of Special Committees. — This matter was discussed by the
Board, and it was considered that in future, when Committees are set up,
proper provision should be made for the members of such Committees con-
ferring \vith one another.

Mr. Hamilton moved, and Professor Easterfield seconded, " That all
committees appointed shall furnish in a formal report to the annual meeting
an account of their year's work." Carried.

Hutton Memorial Fund. — Mr. Chapman moved, and Mr. Gill seconded,
" That the seal of the Institute be affixed to the ' Hutton Memorial
Deed of Declaration of Trust,' and that the seal be affixed by the Presi-
dent, who shall sign the deed in the presence of the Secretary as witness."
Carried.

General Correspondence. — (1.) University of Missouri, dated the 21st July,
1908, asking that volumes of the Institute on exchange account preceding
Vol. XXXVI, 1904, be sent to them.

Mr. Hill moved, and Mr. Wilson seconded, " That the application of the
Missouri University be approved." Carried (the Librarian to decide what
volumes shall be sent).

(2.) Entomological Society of Russia, dated the 5th September, 1908,
requesting that the entomological publications of the New Zealand Insti-
tute be sent in exchange for their edition of the " Revue Russe d'Entomo-
logie."

Mr. Hamilton moved, and Professor Easterfield seconded, " That, as
there are no separate copies of the entomological papers, we are unable to
grant the request of the Societe Entomologique de Russe." Carried.

(3.) Zoological Institute of the Royal University of Naples (no date),
proposing the exchange of their " Annuario del Museo Zoologico " for the
Transactions of the Institute.

Professor Benham moved, and Dr. Cockayne seconded, " That in future
the Zoological Institute of the Royal University of Naples be added to the
list of exchanges (back numbers. Vols. I and II, to be obtained, and the cor-
responding numbers of the Transactions to be forwarded)." Carried.

(4.) United States Department of Agriculture, dated the 25th Novem-
ber, 1908, asking for back volumes of the Transactions.

Professor Easterfield moved, and Mr. Gill seconded, " That the United
States Department of Agriculture library be informed that the New Zea-
land Institute will supply such of the specified volumes as are in stock for
the sum of £10 — a slight advance on the cost of publication." Carried.
15— Trans.

450 New Zealand Institute.

(5.) Bureau of Science, Manila, dated the 10th November, 1908, sug-
gesting an exchange of the Transactions.

Mr. Hamilton moved, and Mr. Chapman seconded, " That the Manila
Bureau of Science be communicated with, and arrangements made for an
exchange of publications." Carried.

(6.) Westport Free Library, Westport, dated the 13th January, 1909,
applying for free copies of the Transactions.
It was resolved that the request be granted,

(7.) Mines Department, Wellington, dated the 27tli January, 1909,
asking that the books in the Institute library relating to geology be handed
over to the Mines Department, for the purpose of being placed in the Geo-
logical Survey library.

Mr. Hill moved, and Mr. Young seconded, " That the Institute is unable
to accede to the application of the Mines Department for the transference
of the geological works in the reference library to the Geological Survey
reference library," Carried.

(8.) A letter from Mr. Thomas King, resigning the secretaryship of the
Institute, was read.

Mr. Hamilton moved, and Mr. Thomson seconded, " That the resigna-
tion of Mr. Thomas King as Secretary be accepted, and that the thanks of
the Council be given to him for his services as Secretary, and it regrets that
he cannot continue to act in that capacity." Carried.

Mr, Hamilton moved, and Professor Easterfield seconded, " That a certain
number — say, ten — of separate copies of papers be printed for the Institute,
in addition to the copies supplied to the author," Carried,

Election of Officers. — The following officers for 1909 were elected : Presi-
dent— Mr. A. Hamilton; Hon. Treasurer — Mr. Martin Chapman, K.C. ;
Secretary— Mr. B. C. Aston ; Hon. Editor— Mr. G. M. Thomson ; Hon.
Librarian — Mr. A, Hamilton ; Publications Committee^Professor Benham,
Dr. C. C. Farr, Mr, R, Speight, and Mr. Thomson (Editor).

Mr, Chapman moved, and Mr. Thomson seconded, " That the President
be ex officio a member of all committees," Carried,

Election of Honorary Member. — The meeting then proceeded to elect an
honorary member to the vacancy : Proposed by the Philosophical Institute
of Canterbury, Dr, Chree ; proposed by the WelUngton Philosophical Society,
Sir George Howard Darwin ; proposed by the Otago Institute, Sir Archibald
Geikie, Sir George Darwin was elected.

Travelling-expenses. — Mr. Chapman moved, and Mr. Hamilton seconded,
" That the travelling-expenses of members be paid as before, and that the
travelling-expenses of members attending on the 28th January be also
paid." Carried.

Mr. Hill moved, and Mr. Speight seconded, " That the Comicil of the
New Zealand Institute heartily congratulate Professor Ernest Rutherford
on his selection as one of those w^ho have been deemed worthy of receiving
the Nobel Prize, and that a copy of this resolution be forwarded to Professor
Rutherford, Manchester." Carried.

Mr. Speight moved, and Mr. Gill seconded, " That the Editor be the
convener of the Publications Committee." Carried.

Mr. Hamilton moved, and Mr. Chapman seconded, " That the annual
meeting for 1910 be fixed for Thursday, the 27th January." Carried.

New Zealand Institute. 451

Mr. Chapman moved, and Mr. Gill seconded, " That the annual meeting
for 1910 be held in Wellington." Carried. (An amendment moved by
Professor Benliam, and seconded by Dr. Cockayne, " That the next meeting
be held in Christchurch," was lost.)

Mr. Hill moved, and Mr. Young seconded, " That a hearty vote of thanks
\)Q accorded to the retiring President for the efficient manner in which he
has conducted the business of the Institute during his presidency." Carried.

Professor Benham moved, and Dr. Cockayne seconded, " That the
minutes of this annual meeting be included in the 41st volume of the Trans-
actions." Carried.

The rough minutes of this meeting were then read and confirmed, on
the understanding that the Secretary may make such verbal corrections as
may seem to him necessary.

Geo. M. Thomson, Chairman.

APPENDIX

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

HONOEARY MEMBEES.

1870.

FiNSCH, Otto, Ph.D., Leiden, Holland.

Hooker, Sir J. D., G.C.S.I., C. ., M.D.,
F.R.S., Royal Gardens, Kew.

1873.
GtJNTHER, A., M.D., M.A., Ph.D., P.R.S., Litchfield Road, Kew Gardens, Surrey.

1875.
ScLATER, Philip Lutley, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Zoological Society, London,

1876.
Berggren, Dr. S., Lund, Sweden.

1877.
Sharp, Dr. D., University Museum. Cambridge.

1885.

Sharp, Richard Bowdler, M.A., P.L.S.,
British Museum (Natural History),
London.

Wallace, A. R., F.L.S., Broadstone,
Wimborne, England.

1890.

Nordstedt, Professor Otto, Ph.D., Uni-
versity of Lund, Sweden.

Liversidge, Professor A., M.A., F.R.S.,
Sydney.

1891.
GooDALE, Professor G. L., M.D., LL.D., Harvard University, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

1894.

Dyer, Sir W. T. Thiselton, K.C.M.G., I Codrington, Rev. R. H., D.D., Wadhurst
C.I.E., LL.D., M.A., F.R.S., Royal Rectory, Sussex, England.
Gardens, Kew. |

1896.

Lydekker, Richard, B.A., F.R.S., British Museum, South Kensington.

1900.

AvEBURY, Lord, P.C, F.R.S., High Elms,
Farnborough, Kent.

Massee, George, F.L.S., F.R.M.S., Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew.

1901.

Eve, H. W., M.A., 37 Gordon Square,
London.

GoEBEL, Dr. Carl, University of Munich.

456

Appendix.

1902.
Sars, Professor G. 0., University of Christiania, Norway.

1903.
Klotz, Professor Otto J., 437 Albert Street, Ottawa, Canada.

1904.
Rutherford, Professor E. F.R.S., McGill I David, Professor T. Edgeworth, P.R.S.,

University, Canada.

Sydney University, N.S.W.

1906.

Beddard, F. E., F.R.S., Zoological

Society, London.
Milne, J., F.R.S., Isle of Wight, England.

Brady, G. S., F.R.S., University of Dur-
ham, England.

1907.

Dendy, Dr., F.R.S., University College,

London.
Diels, L., Ph.D., Berlin.

Meyrick, E., B.A., F.R.S., Marlborough
College, England.

Stebbing, Rev. T. R. R., F.R.S., Tun-
bridge Wells, England.

1909.
Darwin, Sir George, F.R.S., Cambridge.

Boll of Members.

457

ORDINARY MEMBERS.

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
[* Honorary and life members.]

Adams, C. E., B.Sc.

Adams, C. W.

Atkinson, Esmond H.

Barraud, W. F.

Beetham, W. H., Masterton

Bell, B. D. ,

Bell, H. D., K.C. .

Bell, Dr. J. M.

Blair, J. R.

Brandon, A. de B.

Campbell, J. P.

Chapman, Martin, K.C.

Christie, Mrs. Cordelia

Chudleigh, E. R., Chatham Islands

Cockayne, A. H.

Crawford, Alex. D.

Denton, George

Downes, Thomas William, Wanga-

nui
Dvmock. E. R.

Easterfield, Professor T. H., M.A.,
- Ph.D.

Ewen, Charles A.
Ferguson, W., M.Inst.C.E.
Field, H. C, Aramoho, Wanganui
FitzGerald, Gerald, A. M.Inst.C.E.
Fleming, T. R.
Fletcher, Rev. H. J., Taupo
Eraser, Hon. F. H., M.L.C.
Freeman, H. J.
Frevberg, Cuthbert
Gifford, A. C.
Gill, Thomas H., M.A.
Gray, William
Hadfield, E. F.
Hamilton, Augustus*
Hanify, H. P.
Harding, R. Coupland
Hastie, Miss J. A., London*
Hector, Charles Monro, M.D.
Hogben, G., M.A.
Holmes, R. L., F.R.Met.Soc, Bua,

Fiji*
Hudson, G. V., F.E.S.
Hunter, Thomas A.
Hurley, G. A.
Hustwick, T. H.
Izard, Dr. Arnold W.

James, Herbert L.

Johnson, Hon. G. Randall*

Joseph, Joseph

Joynt, J. W., M.A,

King, Thomas

Kiugsley, R. I., Nelson

Kirk, Professor H. B., M.A.

Kirk, Thomas W., F.L.S.

Krull, F. A., Wanganui

Lewis, John H., Broken River,
Canterbury

Liffiton, E. N., Wanganui

Litchfield, Alfred H., Blenheim

Lomax, Major H. A., Aramoho,
Wanganui

Ludford, Ernest J.

MacDougall, Alexander

Maclaurin, Dr. J. S., F.C.S.

McKay, Alexander, F.G.S.

McLeod, H. N.

Marriner, George, Wanganui

Mason, Mrs. Kate

Maxwell, J. P., M.Inst.C.E.

Mestayer, R. L., M.Inst.C.E.

Moore, George, Eparaima, Master-
ton

Moorhouse, W. H. Sefton

Morison, C. B.

Murdoch, R., Wanganui

Newman, Alfred K., M.B., M.R.C.P.

Orr, Robert

Patterson, Hugh, Horopito

Pearce, Arthur E.

Petherick, E. W.

Phillips, Coleman, Carterton

Phipson, Percy B.

Picken, Professor D. K., M.A.

Pollen, Hugh

Pomare, Dr. M.

Powles, Charles P.

Poynton, J. W.

Reid, Frank

Reid, W. S.

Richmond, Professor M. W.

Roy, R. B., Taita*

Skinner, H. D.

Stewart, John T., Wanganui

Stuckey, F. G. A., B.A.'

458

Appendix.

Sunley, E. M.
Swan, W. G. Collington
Tennant, J. S.
Thompson, John
Tripe, Joseph A.
Turnbull, Alexander H.

Turnbull, John Ure

Vickerman, Hugh

WaUis, Et. Eev. Dr. Frederic, Bishop

of Welhngton
Wilton, G. W.
Woodhouse, Alfred James, London

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.
[* Honorary and life members.]

Aickin, G.

Aldis, M.

Allsop, G. W.

Arnold, C.

Aiibin, E. D., M.B.

Bagnall, L. J.

Ball, W. T.

Bankart, A. S.

Bartley, E.

Bates, T. L., Newcastle, N.S.W.*

Batger, J.

Beere, D. M., Melbourne

Benjamin, E. E.

Best, Elsdon, Euatoki

Birks, L., C.E., Eotorua

Brett, H.

Briffault, E., M.B.

Broun, Major T.

Brown, E. C, Taumarunui

Brown, Professor F. D.

Buchanan, J.

Buddie, J. H.

Buddie, T.

Burgess, E. W.

Burnside, W.

Burton, Colonel."

Bush, W. E., C.E.

Buttle, J.

Cameron, E.

Campbell, Sir J. L., M.D.-

Carr, E. A.

Casey, M.

Cheal, P. E.

Cheeseman, T. F., F.L.S.

Ching, T.

Clark, A.

Clark, A., M.B.

Clark, H. C.

Clark, M. A.

Clarke, E., Wellington

Coates, T., Orakei

Cochrane, W. S.

Combes, F. H.

Cooper, C.

Cooper, Mr. Justice, Wellington

Cottrell, A. J.

Cousins, H. G.

Cozens, G.

Craig, J. J.

Crosher, J.

Cuff, J. C.

Darby, P.

De Clive Lowe, G. T. H., L.E.C.P.

Devereux, H. B., Waihi

Devore, A. E. T.

Douglas, W. S.

Duthie, D. W.

Earl, F.

Edson, J.

Egerton, Professor C. W.

Ewington, F. G.

Florance, E. S., Eussell

Fowlds, Hon. G., M.P.*

Fox, Eev. E. E., Norfolk Island

Garrard, C. W.

George, G.

Gibb, E.

Gilbert, T.

Girdler, Dr.

Goldie, D.

Gordon, H. A.

Gorrie, W.

Grant, Miss J.

Gray, S.

Griffin, Miss E. M.

Guinness, W., M.D.

Haines, H., F.E.C.S.

Hamer, W. H., C.E.

Hansen, P. M.

Hardie, J.

Haszard, H. D. M.

Hazard, N. H.

Heaton, F.

Herbert, T.

Holl of Members.

459

Hodgson, J.

Horton, H.

Houghton, C. V.

Howden, J.

Hutchinson, G.

Inglis, E. T., M.B.

Jarman, Professor A.

Johnson, H. D., Te Aroha

Jones, H. W., Papakura

Kenderdine, J.

Kidd, A., M.P.

Kirker, J.

Kronfeld, G.

Lamb, C. E., M.A.

Langguth, E.

Lennox, J. M.

Lennox, N. G.

Leys, T. W.

Lundon, J. E.

McDowell, W. C.

McLachlan, J. M.

McLean, M.

McMillan, C.C.

Mahoney, T.

Mair, Captain G., Eotorua

Mair, Major W. G.

Mair, S. A. E., Hunterville

Martin, J., F.G.S.

Metcalfe, H. H., M.LC.E.

Miller, E. V.

Milnes, H. A. E.

Mitchelson, Hon. E.

Moody, T. P., Hikurangi

Morgan, H. H.

Morton, H. B.

Moss, E. G. B.

Munro, G. C., Euatangata

Murdoch, D. L.

Myers, A. M.

Nathan, N. A.

Newton, G. M.

Nicholson, O.

Pabst, Dr.

Paris, Eev. P. E., Invercargill

Partridge, H. E.

Patterson, G. W. S.

Peacock, T.

Petrie, D., F.L.S.

Philcox, W.

Philson, W. W.

Pond, J. A.

Powell, F. E.

Purdv, J. S., M.D.

Pycroft, A. T.

Eangihiroa, Dr.

Eeid, J.

Eenshaw, F.

Eoberton, E., M.D.

Eobertson, W. A.

Eocbe, H., Waihi

Eolfe, W.

Seegner, C.

Segar, Professor H. W.

Shakespear, E. H., Little Barrier

Island.
Sharman, E. W., L.E.C.P.
Shaw, H.
Simson, T.
Sinclair, A.
Smeeton, H. M.
Smith, H. G. S,
Smith, S. Percy, F.E.G.S., New

Plymouth
Smith, W. H.
Somerville, J. M.
Speight, W. J.
Spencer, W. C. C.
Stewart, J., C.E.
Stopford, E., iM.D.
Streeter, S. C.
Stringer, H. G.
Thonaas, Professor A. P. W.
Tibbs, J. W.
Tinne, H., London
Upton, J. H.
Urquhart, A. T., Karaka
Vaile, E. E.
Walsh, Archdeacon P.
Waterworth, A.
Ward, P.

Webster, J., Hokianga
Webster, W. G.
Weetman, S., F.E.G.S.
Wells, T. U.
Williams, Eight Eev. W. L., Bishop

of Waiapu, Napier
Wilson, A. P.
Wilson, W. E.
Withy, B., Eotorua
Wyllie, A., C.E.
Yates, E.
Young, J. L,

460

Appendix.

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OP CANTERBURY.
[* Life members."!

Acland, Dr. H. D.

Adams, T. W.

Adamsou, Eev. H.

Allison, H.

Andersen, Johannes C.

Aschmann, C. T., B.A.

Bealey, S.

Beaven, A. W.

Bell, N. M., B.A.

Bevau-Brown, C. E., M.A.

Bernstein, Eev. I. A.

Bishop, F. C. B.

Bishop, E. C.

Blunt, Professor T. G. E., M.A.

Boag, T. D.

Booth, G. T.

Bowen, Hon. C. C, M.A., F.E.G.S.

Brauer, H,, Ph.D.

Bridges, G. G.

Brooker, F. J.

Brown, Professor Macmillan, M.A.,

LL.D.*
Bruce, H. A.
Buddo, D., M.P.
Burley, W. E., B.A.
Carlisle, W. J.

Carrington, Eev. C. W., M.A.
Chappell, Eev. A. B., M.A.
Chilton, Prof. C, M.A., D.Sc, M.B.,

F. L.S.-
Clark, S. A., B.A.
Cockavne, L., Ph.D.
Cocks," Eev. P. J., B.A.
Coles, W. E.
Cook. H. D.,M.Sc.
Craddock, A. E., B.Sc.
Crooke, Dr. L.
Cross, Miss B. D., B.A.
Cull, J. E. L.,B.E.
Cuthhert, E., C.B.
Dash, Charles
Denniston, Mr. Justice
Diamond, Dr.
Drummond, James, F.L.S.
Enghsh, E., F.C.S., M.I.M.B.
Enys, J. D. *

Evans, Prof. W. P., M.A., Ph.D.
Farr, C. Coleridge, A.M.Inst.C.E.
Farrow, F. D., B.A.
Fisher, J. Bickerton

Florance. D. C. H., M.A.

Flower, A. E., M.A., M.Sc.

Ford, C. E., F.E.G.S.

Foster, T. S., M.A.

Freeman, Miss, B.A.

Garforth, Miss

Gibson, Dr. F. G.

Grant, Miss

Gray, G., F.C.S.

Grigg, J. C. N.

Grimes, Et. Eev. Bishop, D.D.

Guthrie, Dr. J.

Hall, Mrs. J.

Hallenstein, P. L.

Hansen, B. E., M.Sc.

Hardie, C. D , B.A.

Hight, Dr. J., Litt.D. •

Hilgendorf, F. W., M.A., D.Sc.

Hill, Mrs. Carey

Hitchings, F.

Hodgson, T. V., F.L.S.

Hogg, E. G., M.A.

Howell, J. H., B.Sc.

Humphreys, G.

Hutton, Mrs.

Inghs, Dr. H. M.

Ingram, John

Iredale, T.

Irving, Dr. W.

Jackson, T. H., B.A.

Jameson, J. O.

Jamieson, J. S.

Jekyll, H. J. C.

Kaye, A.

Keir, T.

Kidson, E. E., M.Sc,

Kidson, G. E.

Kirkaldy, G. W.

Kitchingman, Miss, M.A.

Kohn, E.

Laing, E. M., M.A., B.Sc

Laurenson, G., M.P.

Lester, Dr. G.

Lewin, G. A.

Louisson, Hon. C.

Lowrie, W. M., B.A.

Macbeth, N. L.

Mayne, J. B., B.A.

Marshall, Mrs.

McCallum, P., M.Sc.

Roll of Members.

461

McKav, E. J.

Hears' H. 0. D.

Merton, Mrs. A. J.

Meredith-Kaye, E. K.

Mickle, Mrs.

Mill. Dr. Thomas

Mollett, T. A.-

Molineaux, M.

Moorhouse, Dr. B. M.

Moreland, Eev. C. H., M.A.

Moreland, Mrs.. M.B.

Mulgan, E. K., M.A.

Murray-Aynsley, H. P.

Nairn, E.

Olliver, W. E. B.

Olliver, Miss F. M., M.A., B.Sc.

Opie, C. H. A. T.

Page, S., B.Sc.

Pairraan, Dr.

Palmer, J.

Patterson, A. M., M.E.C.V.S.

Poulsen, John

Powell, P. H., M.Sc.

Purnell, C. W.

Eeeee, William

Eelph, E. W.

Eevell, P.

Ehodes, Capt. E. Heaton, M.P.

Ehodes, A. E. G.

Eitchie. T., B.A.

Eowe, T. W., M.A., LL.B.

Scott, Henry

Scott, J. L.

Scott, Professor E. J., M.Inst.C.E.

Seager, C. A.

Sheard, Miss F., M.A.

Shrimpton, E. A.
Simmers, G. A.
Sims, A., M.A.
Skey, H. F., B.Sc.
Sloman, C. J.
Smith, J. Hartley, M.A.
Snow, Colonel

Speight, E., M.A., B.Sc, F.G.S.
Spiller, J.
Stead, E. F.
Stevenson, Dr. J.
Stone, F.

Symes, Dr. W. H.-
Talbot, Dr. A. G., M.A.
Tavlor, A.
Taylor, G. J.
Terry, F. W.
Thomas, Dr. W.*
Thornton, S. W.
Tripp, C. H., M.A.-
Turner, E. PhiUips
Waite, Edgar E., F.L.S.
Waller, F. D., B.A.
Wallich, M. G.
Waymouth, F.
Wavmouth, Mrs. F.
Weston, G. T., LL.B.
Whitaker, C. Godfrey
Wigley, W. C. H., LL.B.
Wilding, Frank C.
Wilkins, C.
W^ilkinson, Miss
Williams, G. J., M.Inst.C.E.
Wilson, Miss
Wright, A. M., F.C.S.
Wright, W. S.

462

Appendix.

OTAGO INSTITUTE.
[* Life members.]

Alexander. Dr. Edward

Allan, Dr. W., Mosgiel

Allen, James, M.A., M.P.

Armstrong, F.

Barnett, L. E.,M.B., F.E.C.S.

Batchelor, F. E., M.D., M.E.C.S.

Bathgate, Alexander'''

Bell, A. D., Shag Valley

Benham, Professor W. B., D.Sc,

F.E.S.
Black, Alexander'''
Black, Professor J. G., D.Sc.
Blair, John
Bowman, John
Braithwaite, Joseph, J. P.
Brent, Daniel, M.A."'
Brown, William
Browne, Robert

Buchanan, N. L., Colli ngwood''-
Burnside, J. A.
Chamberlain, C. W.
Chapman, C. R.
Chapman, Judge F. R.
Chisholm, Robert
Clarke, E. S.
Collier, E. E.

Colquhoun, D., M.D., M.R.C.S.
De Beer, I. S.
Don, J. R., D.Sc.
Duncan, Peter
Evans, Dr. William
Eels, Willi
Fenwick, George
Fergus, Hon. Thomas
Ferguson, H. Lindo, M.D.,

F.R.C.S.I.
Fisher, Thomas R.
Fitchett, Frank, M.B.
Fulton, Robert, M.D., CM.
Fulton, S. W., Melbourne^*'
Gilkison, Robert
Gould, Ven. Archdeacon
Goyen, P.,F.L.S.
Graham, Thomas Sherlock
Grave, W. G., Oamaru
Hamilton, A., Wellington'^'
Hamilton, Harold
Hay, C. W.

Henton, James William
Herbert, E.
Hocken, T. M., M.R.C.S., F.L.S.

Hosking, J. H., K.C.
Howes, G. W., F.E.S.
James, Alfred
Jeffery, James
Johnstone, James Armour
Kempthorne, T. W.
King^ F. Truby, M.D., CM., B.Sc.
Lamb, Tompson
Lee, G.

Livingston, W.
Louden, John
Lusk, T. W.
McKellar, Dr.

McKerrow, James, F.R.A.S.
McKnight, Miss S., M.A., M.Sc.
Macleod, William
McPhee, J. H.

Malcolm, Professor John, M.D.
Marchant, Miss M. E. A., M.A.
Marshall, Professor P., D.Sc, M.A.
Mason, John Blair
Massey, Horatio, Invercargill
Matthews, H. J.
Melland, E., England*
Moore, Dr. Stuart, M.B.
Morrell, W. J., M.A.
Nevill, Most Rev. S. T., D.D.
Nisbet, Rev. Dr.
Ogston, Frank, M.D.
Oliver, F. S.
Park, Professor James
Parr, E. J., M.A., B.Sc.
Pavne, Francis William
Petrie, Donald, M.A., F.L.S. , Auck-
land"'''
Pickerill, Professor
Rawson, G. A.
Reid, Donald, jun.
Richards, Professor D. J., M.A.
Richardson, Charles R. D., M.A.
Riley, Frederick, M.B.
Ritchie, Dr. Russell
Ritchie, J. M.
Roberts, John, C.M.G.
Roberts, W. S., M.R.C.S.
Russell, George Gray
Sargood, Percy R.
Scott, Professor J. H., M.D.
Shacklock, John B.
Shand, Professor J., M.A., LL.D.
Shennan, Watson

Boll of Members.

463

Sidey, John
Sim, Judge William A.
Sise, G. L.
Skey, Henry

Smitli, Joseph Crosby, Invercargill
Statham, Fr. Hadfield, A.O.S.M.
Stewart, William Downie
Stout, Sir Eobert, K.C.M.G., Wel-
lington
Theomin, D.
Thomson, G. M., F.L.S., M.P.-

Thomson, J. C.

Thomson, Eobert G.

Trimble, W. H.

Waters, Daniel B., A.O.S.M.

White, David E., M.A.

Whitson, T. W\

Williams, Dr. Ernest

Williams, H. Bradlev.

Williams, Judge, M.A., LL.M.

Woodhouse, J. F.

Young, Dr. James, Invercargill

WESTLAND INSTITUTE.
(No list sent in.)

HAWKE'S BAY PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.
[* Life members.]

Andrews, E. W.
Antill, H. W., Kumeroa
Asher, Eev. J. A.
Bernau, Dr. H. F.
Burnett, H., Woodville
Chambers, J. B., Te Mata
Chambers, J., Mokopeka
Chambers, W. K., Waerengaahika,

Poverty Bay
Clark, Gilbert
Clark, Thomas, Eskdale
Clarkson, E. P., M.A.
Coe, J. W.
Cooper, S. E.
Craig, J. W.
Crawshaw, George
Darton, G., Gisborne
De Lisle, Dr., Hastings
Dinwiddie, P.
Dinwiddle, W.
Donnelly, G. P., Crissoge
Duncan, Eussell
Edgar, Dr. J. J.
Guthrie-Smith, H., Tutira
Hall, T.

Hamilton, A., Wellington'''
Harding, J. W., Mount Yernon
Henlev, Dr. E. A. W.
Hill, H., B.A., F.G.S.
Hislop, J.*

Holder, H. E., Woodville
Holdsworth, J., Havelock N.
Hutchinson, F., jun., Eissington
Hyde, Thomas
Kennedy, Dr., Meeanee

Kerr, W.
'Kinder, J., M.A., Gisborne

Large, J. S.*

Large, Miss

Lawry, Eev. A. C.

Leahy, Dr. J. P.

Locking, Dr. B.

Lowry, T. H., Okawa

Luff, A., Wellington

McLean, E. D. D.

Mavne, Eev. Canon

Moore, Dr. T. C.

Olsen, H., Norsewood S.

Ormond, G., Mahia

Ormond, Hon. J. D., M.L.C.

O'Eyan, W., Waipiro

Eowley, F., B.A., Gisborne

Sinclair, G. H., Clive

Sherwood, T. E., Makarika, Wai-
piro Bay

Sheath, J. H.

Smith, J. A., B.A.

Smith, J. H., Olrig*

Spencer, Miss

Tanner, T.

Tiffen, G. W., Wheturau, Gisborne

Townley, J., Gisborne

White, T., Wimbledon

Wilhams, F. W.

Williams, G. T., Matahiia, Tuparoa,
East Coast

Williams, J. N., Frimley, Hastings
Williams, Eev. H., Gisborne
Willis, H., Hopelands

464

Appendix.

NELSON PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE.
(No list sent in.)

MANAWATU PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Abraham, R. S.
Armstrong, E. J., C.E.
Bagnall, J. J.
Baldwin, P. E.
Barnicoat, J. L.
Barraud, E. N.
Batchelor, F. S.
Bendall, W. E.
Bond, F. W.

Charlesworth,

Cohen, M.
Cooke, F. H.
Davis, R.
Drake, A.
Durward, W. F.
EHott, M. A.
Fitzherbert, W. L.
Foote, F., B.Sc.
Frankland, F. W.
Gardner, R.
Gerrand, J. B.
Glendinning, A. A.
Goldingham, F. S.
Graham, A. J.
Greig, Dr.
Guy, A.
Hankins, J. H.
Harman, V.

Harper, Rev. C. C, M.A.
Hewitt, Captain, R.N.
Hoben, E. D.
Hodder, T. R.
Jackson, F. L.
Jickell, S.
Johnston, J. M.
Jolly, Rev. I.
Keehng, R. N.
Kerslake, H.

Low, D. W.
McKenzie. D. H.
Manson, Thomas
Martin, Dr. A. A.
Martin, Donald
Mellsopp, Mrs., M.A.
Mitchell, J.
Monckton, C. A. W.
Mowlem, H.
-Nash, J. A.
O'Donnell, W. J.
Park, W.
Payne, W. H.
Peach, Dr.
Preece, Captain
Putnam, Dr.
Richardson, T. F.
Russell, A. E.
Scott, J. G.
Seifert, A..
Seifert, L.
Sinclair, D.
Smith, W. W.
Stephenson, Rev. G. B.
Stevens. John
Stowe, Dr. W. R.
Strang, W.
Tatton, Dr. A.
Vernon, J. E., M.A.
Waldegrave, C. E.
Warburton, E.
Warden, C. H.
Watson, F. E.
Welch, W.. F.R.G.S.
Williams, G.
Wilson, Dr. G.
Wilson, K., M.A.
Wollerman, H.

List of Free Copies.

465

LIST OF INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH

THIS VOLUME IS PRESENTED BY THE GOVERNORS OF THE NEW

ZEALAND INSTITUTE.

Honorary Members of the New Zealand Institute, 30.

Neto Zealand.
Cabinet, The Members of, Welhngton.
Executive Library, Wellington.
Free Public Library, Auckland.

„ Christchurch.

„ Dunedin.

„ Wellington.

Government Printer and publishing staff (6 copies).
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Biological Laboratory, University College, Auckland.

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Biological Laboratory, Victoria College, Wellington.

Canterbury Museum, Christchurch.

Dunedin Athengeum.

General Assembly, Wellington.

Hawke's Bay Philosophical Institute, Napier.

Manawatu Philosophical Society, Palmerston North.

Nelson Institute, Nelson.

New Zealand Institute of Surveyors.

New Zealand Institute, Wellington.

Otago Institute, Dunedin.

Otago Museum, Dunedin.

Otago School of Mines, Dunedin.

Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, Christchurch.

Polynesian Society, New Plymouth.

Portobello Fish-hatchery, Dunedin.

Reefton School of Mines.

Thames School of Mines.

University College, Auckland.

University College, Christchurch.

University of Otago, Dunedin.

Victoria College, W^ellington.

Wanganui Museum.

Wellington Philosophical Society.

Westland Institute, Hokitika.

Great Britain.
Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, London.
British Association for the Advancement of Science, Loudon.
British Museum Library, London.

„ Natural History Department, South Kensington,

London, S.W,
16— Trans.

466 Appendix.

Colonial Office, London.
Clifton College, Bristol, England.
Entomological Society, London.
Geological Magazine, London.
Geological Society, Edinburgh.

„ London.

Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, London.
High Commissioner for New Zealand, London.
Imperial Institute, London.
Institution of Civil Engineers, London.
International Catalogue of Scientific Literature, London.
Kegan, Paul, Trench, Triibner, and Co., London (x^gents).
Leeds Geological Association, Meanwood, Leeds.
Linnsean Society, London.
Literary and Philosophical Society, Liverpool.
Liverpool Biological Society.

Marine Biological x\ssociation of the United Kingdom, Plymouth.
Natural History Society, Glasgow.

Marlborough College, England.
Nature, The Editor of, Loiidon.
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalist Society, Norwich.
North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers,

Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Patent Office Library, London.
Philosophical Society of Glasgow.
Philosophical Society of Leeds, England.
Eoyal Asiatic Society, London.
Eoyal Botanic Garden Library, Edinburgh.
Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh.

Royal Colonial Institute, London. •

Royal Geographical Society, London.
Royal Irish Academy, Dublin.
Royal Physical Society, Edinburgh.
Royal Society, Dublin.

„ Edinburgh.

„ London.

Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom, London.
Royal Statistical Society, London.
School Librtiry Committee, Eton, England.

„ Rugby, England,

University Library, Cambridge, England.
„ Edinburgh.

„ Oxford, England.

Victoria College, Manchester.
Victoria Institute, London.
Zoological Record, London.
Zoological Society, London.

British North America.
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Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, Ottawa.
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Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, Canada East.
Natural History Society of New Brunswick, St. John's.

List of Free Copies. 467

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South Africa.
Free Public Library, Cape Town.
South African Philosophical Society, Cape Town.

South African Association for the Advancement of Science, Cape Town.
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Bidia.

Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta.
Colombo Museum, Ceylon.
Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.
Natural History Society, Bombay.
Raffles Museum, Singapore.

Queensland.
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Library, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane.
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Neio South Wales.

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Library, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

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Public Library, Sydney.

Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, N.S W. Brancb, Sydney.

Royal Society of New South Wales, Sydney.

University Library, Sydney.

Victoria.

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Field Naturalists' Club, Melbourne.

Geological Survey of Victoria, Melbourne.

Gordon Technical College, Geelong.

Legislative Library, Melbourne.

Public Library, Melbourne.

Royal Society of Victoria, Melbourne.

University Library, Melbourne.

Victorian Institute of Surveyors.

Tasmania.

Public Library of Tasmania, Hobart.
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South Australia.
Royal Society of South Australia, Adelaide.
University Library, Adelaide.

468 Appendix.

Russia.
Finskoie Uchonoie Obshchestvo, Finnish Scientific Society, Helsing-

fors.
Imper. Moskofskoie Obshchestvo lestestvo - Ispytatelei, Imperial

Moscow Society of NaturaUsts.
Kiefskoie Obshchestvo lestestvo-Ispytatelei, Kief Society of Natural-
ists.

Nonvay.
Bergens Museum, Bergen.
University of Christiania.

Siveden.
Geological Survey of Sweden, Stockholm.
Koyal Academy of Science, Stockholm.

Denviark.
Natural History Society of Copenhagen.
Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Literature of Copenhagen.

Germany.

Botanischer Verein der Provinz Brandenburg, Berlin.

Konigliche Bibliothek, Berlin.

Konigliche Physikalisch-Oekonomische Gesellschaft, Konigsberg, E.

Prussia.
Konigliches Zoologisches und Anthropologisch - Ethnographisches

Museum, Dresden.
Naturhistorischer Yereiu, Bonn.
Naturhistorisches Museum, Hamburg.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Bremen.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, Frankfort-an-der-Oder.
Rautenstrauch-Joest-Museum (Stiidtisches Museum fiir Volkerkunde),

Cologne.
Redaktion des Biologischen Central-Blatts, Erlangen.
Senckenbergiscbe Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Frankfurt-am-Main.
Verein fiir Vaterlandisehe Naturkunde in Wiirttemburg, Stuttgart.

Austria.
K.K. Central- Anstalt fiir Meteorologie und Brdmagnetismus, Vienna.
K.K. Geologische Reichsanstalt, Vienna.

Belgiwn a7id the Netherlands.
Musee Teyler, Haarlem.
Academie Royal des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux- Arts de

Belgique, Brussels.
La Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique, Brussels.

Sivitzerland.

Musee d'Histoire Naturelle de Geneve.

Naturforschende Gesellschaft (Societe des Sciences Naturelles), Bern.

France.
Bibliotlieque Nationale, Paris.
Musee d'Histoire Naturelle de Bordeaux.
Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris.
Societe Entomologique de France, Paris.
Societe de Geographic, Paris.
Societe Zoologique de France, Paris.

List of Free Copies. 469

Italy.

Biblioteea ed Archivio Tecnico, Kome.

Museo di Geologia e Paleontologia del E. Instituto di Studi Superiori,

Florence.
Mvxseo di Zoologia e di Anatoniia Comparata della R. Universita,

Turin.
Orto 6 Museo Botanico (R. Instituto di Studi Superiori), Florence.
R. Accademia di Scienze, Lettre, ed Arti, Modena.
R. Accademia dei Lincei, Rome.
Stazione Zoologica di Napoli, Naples.
Societfi Africana d'ltalia, Naples.
Societa Geografica Italiana, Rome.
Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali, Pisa.

Utiited States of America.

xAcademy of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, State of New York.

„ Davenport, Iowa.

„ Library, Philadelphia.

„ San Francisco.

American Geographical Society, New York.
American Institute of Mining Engineers, Philadelphia.
American Museum of Natural History, New York.
American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia.
Boston Society of Natural History.
Connecticut Academy, New Haven.
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.
Franklin Institute, Philadelphia.
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.
Missouri Botanical Gardens, St. Louis, Mo.
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.
Natural History Museum, Central Park, New York.
New York Academy of Sciences.
Philippine Museum, Manila.
Rochester Academy of Sciences.
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Stanford University, Cahfornia.
Tufts College, Massachusetts.

United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.
University of Montana, Missoula.
Wagner Free Institute *of Science of Philadelphia.
Washington Academy of Sciences.

Brazil.

Museu Paulista, Sao Paulo.
Escola de Minas, Rio de Janeiro.

Argentine Republic.
Sociedad Cientifica Argentina, Buenos Ayres.

Uruguay.
Museo Nacional, Monte Video.

470 Appendix.

Japan.

College of Literature, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo.
College of Science, Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo.

Hawaii.

Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, Honolulu.
National Library, Honolulu.

Java.
Society of Natural Science, Batavia.

INDEX.

AUTHORS OF PAPERS.

Page

Adams. C. E. " The Wellington Tide-gauge " .. .. .. ..406

Andersen. Johannes C. " Natural Classification of English Poetry ". . .. 410

" Australian Modification of the English Ballad " . . 418

" New Zealand Bird-song " .. .. 422

Best, Elsdon. " Maori Forest Lore : Part II " .. ..231

Broun, T. " Coleoptera from the Chatham Islands " . . . . . . 145

" New Zealand Co.s.so?u(Zffi " .. .. .. .. .. 151

Cheeseman, T. F. " Description of a Species of Bztrmajmittcetc" .. .. 140

Chilton, C. "Yre3h--watev Amphipoda" .. .. .. .. ..53

" Notes on Amphipodan Genera " .. .. .. ..59

Cockayne, L. " New Plant-habitats (IV) " . . . . . . . . . . 399

" Plants from the Solanders " .. .. .. .. 404

" Aerial Rhizomes of Cord?/ Zfne " .. .. .. .. 405

Cotton, C. A. " Geology of Signal Hill, Dunedin " .. .. .. ..Ill

Donovan, W., and J. S. Maclaurin. " Estimation of Iron in Iron-ores " . . 49

Drummond, J. " Birds on Kapiti Island ". . .. .. .. ..30

Farquhar, H. " New Zealand Starfishes " .. .. .. .. .. 126

Finlayson, A. M. " Quartz Veins of Otago " . . . . . . . . 64

" Reef ton Gold-veins " . . . . . . . . . . 85

Fitchebt, F. " Physiological Action of Tutin " .. ' .. .. ..286

Gudex, M. C. " Striated Stones from the Waimakariri " . . . . . . 33

Hamilton, A. '• Le^'i'^o^Jfera from Lake Wakatipu ". . .. .. ..44

Hill, H. " The Great Wairarapa " .. .. .. ..429

•' Dactyla7ithus Tmjloi-i'^ .. .. .. .. .. .. 437

Hogg, Evelyn G. " On the Harmonic Conic of Two Given Conies " . . . . 34

" On certain Conic-loci of Isogonal Conjugates " . . . . 38

Kirkaldy, G. W. " ifenii^^iera of the Maorian Subregion " .. .. ..22

Maclaurin, J. S., and W. Donovan. " Estimation of Iron in Iron-ores" . . 49

Marshall, P. " Geology of Rarotonga and Aitutaki " .. .. ..98

" Contact Rocks from West Nelson " .. .. .. .. 101

" Crater of Ngauruhoe " .. .. .. .. ..102

„ " New Zealand Minerals " .. .. .. .. .. 105

" New Zealand Fossil Ce^'/iaioporfa " .. .. .. 143

Meyrick, E. " New Zealand LepirfojJfera .. .. .. .. .. 5

Newman, A. K. " A Rare Maori Implement " .. .. .. .. 216

Petrie, D. " New Species of Epilohium " . . . . . . . . . . 140

Segar, H. W. " The Trisection of an Angle " .. .. .. ..218

"Insanity: Comparative Statistics " .. .. .. .. 221

Skey, H. " On the Decimal Currency " .. .. .. .. ..16

Smith, S. Percy. " D'Urville's Visit to Tologa Bay " .. .. ..130

Smith, W. W. " Nesting Habits of /J/a^irf//r« /?(t6eIZi/era " .. .. .. 1

Speight, R. " Hornblende-andesite from the Solander Islands" . . . . 52

Stuckey, F. G. A. "New Zealand Actinian, Biinodes aureoradiata" .. .. 367

" Two Anemones from near Wellington " . . . . 370

" New Zealand Actiniaria " .. .. .. .. 374

Wright, A. M. " Analysis of Sliped Wool " . . . , . . . . 42

John Mackay, Government Printee, Wellington. — 1909.

V"^ TEANSACTIONS

OT THE

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE

1908

VOL. XL!

(Kbw Isbcb)

EDITED AND PUBLISHED UNDER THE 'AUTHORITY OF THE BOARD
OF GOVERNORS OF THE INSTITUTE

Issued June, 1909

WELLINGTON, N.Z.
JOHN MACKAY. GOVEBNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

KBOAN, PAUL, TBEMCH, TBCBNEB, AND CO., FATEBNOSTEB HOUSE
CHABINO OBOSS BOAD, LONDON

MBL WHOl LIBRARY

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